Journal of the Conductors Guild
Volume 22, Nos. 1 & 2 Winter/Spring - Summer/Fall S ummer/Fall 2001
621 9 N. Sheridan Rd., Chicago, IL 60660 T: (773) 764-7563; F: (773) 764-7564 E-mail:
[email protected] [email protected] Website: We bsite: www www.conduc .conduc torsgu ild.org
Table of Contents Commentary The Metronome Indications in Beethoven’s Symphonies by Max Rudolf
page 1 page 1 page 2
Officers Harlan Parker, President Emily Freeman Brown, President-elect Michael Griffith, Vice-President
Tonu Kalam, Secretary Frederick Peter Morden, Treasurer Wes W es Kenney Kenney,, Past-President
Board of Directors Virginia A. Allen Henry Bloch* Glenn Block Mark Cedel Charles P. P. Conrad* Conra d* William H. Curry Curry Sandra Dackow Allan Dennis Robert Freeman
Jonathan D. D. Green* Murray Gross Alan Harle Harlerr Thomas Joiner Anthony LaGruth Michael Luxner Kirk Muspratt Melinda O’Neal Mark Scatterday
Lawrence L. Smith Mariusz Smolij Jonathan Sternberg* Alton Thompson Diane M. Wittry Burton Zipser* * ex-officio
Advisory Council Adrian Gnam Samuel Jones Daniel Lewis Larry Newland Maurice Peress
Charles Ansbacher Michael Charry Sergiu Comissiona Harold Farberman Lukas Foss
Donald Portnoy Barbara Schubert Gunther Schuller
Theodore Thomas Award Winners Claudio Abbado Maurice Abravanel Leon Barzin Leonard Bernstein Pierre Boulez
Frederick Fennel Margaret Hillis James Levine Kurt Masur Max Rudolf
Robert Shaw Leonard Slatkin Sir Georg Solti
Thelma A. Robinson Award Winners Beatrice Jona Affron Eric Bell
Miriam Burns Laura Re Rexroth Kevin Geraldi Annunziata Tomaro
Steven Ma Martyn Zi Zike
pagee 14 pag A Pilot Pilo t Study Stud y of the t he Expr essi essive ve Gestures Used by Classical Orchestra Conductors by Thü Th üring Brä Br äm and Penny Boyes Braem Beauty’s Plea: An Introduction to the Music of William Alwyn by Brian Murphy Organizing and Conducting the College-Community Orchestra by Victor Vallo Jr.
page 45
A Stud y of Studen St uden t Communit Comm unity y Orchestras in the United States and Canada by Dr. Lynn Schenbeck and Rebecca Jones Rose
pagee 51 pag
Engaging the Head Voice: Simple Exercises for Amateur Community Choirs by Welborne E. Young
page 66 6 6
Francis Poulenc’s Gloria: Corrections to the New (1969) Full Score by Lee G. Barrow
page 71
Books in Review
page 78
Max Rudolf Award Winners Gustav Meier
Otto-Werner Mueller
Gunther Schuller
***** Journal of the Conductors Conductor s Guild Editor Edit or Founding Editor
Jon onat atha han n D. Gr Gree een n Jacques Voois
Production Staff Executive Director Publications Coordinator Administrative Assistant Production
R. Kevin Paul Sarabeth Gheith Sarabeth Gheith Quicker Printers
ctorss Guil Guild d is The publication date of the present double issue of the Jour nal of the Condu ctor July, 200 2002; 2; cons consequen equently tly the publi cati on date and the issu issuee date d ate do not coin cide cide.. Ef f ec ecti ti ve Vol Volum ume e nall of th thee Co Cond nduc uc to tors rs Gu Guilil d has been published semi-annually, the two issues 13, the Jo ur na being numbered 1 and 2; the seasonal references remain unchanged, as is its length. The
Conductors Guild reserves the right to approve and edit all material submitted for publica- tion. Publication of advertising is not necessarily an endorsement and the Conductors Guild reserves the right to refuse to print any advertisement. Libra Library ry of Cong Congress ress No. 82-644733. Copyright ©2002 by Conductors Guild, Inc. All rights reserved.ISSN: 0734-1032.
page 30 30
Craig Kirchhoff, Series Advisor, Windependence: A Repertoire Series for Wind Bands reviewed by Tom Erdmann John Canarina, Uncle Sam’s Orchestra, Memories of the Seventh Army Symphony reviewed by Henry Bloch Carl S. Leafsteadt, Inside Bluebeard’s Castle, (Music and Bart ô ô k’s Opera) Drama in Bela Bart reviewed by Henry Bloch Michael Stern (Ed.), Max Rudolf: A Musical Life, Writings and Letters reviewed by John Canarina
621 9 N. Sheridan Rd., Chicago, IL 60660 T: (773) 764-7563; F: (773) 764-7564 E-mail:
[email protected] [email protected] Website: We bsite: www www.conduc .conduc torsgu ild.org
Table of Contents Commentary The Metronome Indications in Beethoven’s Symphonies by Max Rudolf
page 1 page 1 page 2
Officers Harlan Parker, President Emily Freeman Brown, President-elect Michael Griffith, Vice-President
Tonu Kalam, Secretary Frederick Peter Morden, Treasurer Wes W es Kenney Kenney,, Past-President
Board of Directors Virginia A. Allen Henry Bloch* Glenn Block Mark Cedel Charles P. P. Conrad* Conra d* William H. Curry Curry Sandra Dackow Allan Dennis Robert Freeman
Jonathan D. D. Green* Murray Gross Alan Harle Harlerr Thomas Joiner Anthony LaGruth Michael Luxner Kirk Muspratt Melinda O’Neal Mark Scatterday
Lawrence L. Smith Mariusz Smolij Jonathan Sternberg* Alton Thompson Diane M. Wittry Burton Zipser* * ex-officio
Advisory Council Adrian Gnam Samuel Jones Daniel Lewis Larry Newland Maurice Peress
Charles Ansbacher Michael Charry Sergiu Comissiona Harold Farberman Lukas Foss
Donald Portnoy Barbara Schubert Gunther Schuller
Theodore Thomas Award Winners Claudio Abbado Maurice Abravanel Leon Barzin Leonard Bernstein Pierre Boulez
Frederick Fennel Margaret Hillis James Levine Kurt Masur Max Rudolf
Robert Shaw Leonard Slatkin Sir Georg Solti
Thelma A. Robinson Award Winners Beatrice Jona Affron Eric Bell
Miriam Burns Laura Re Rexroth Kevin Geraldi Annunziata Tomaro
Steven Ma Martyn Zi Zike
pagee 14 pag A Pilot Pilo t Study Stud y of the t he Expr essi essive ve Gestures Used by Classical Orchestra Conductors by Thü Th üring Brä Br äm and Penny Boyes Braem Beauty’s Plea: An Introduction to the Music of William Alwyn by Brian Murphy Organizing and Conducting the College-Community Orchestra by Victor Vallo Jr.
page 45
A Stud y of Studen St uden t Communit Comm unity y Orchestras in the United States and Canada by Dr. Lynn Schenbeck and Rebecca Jones Rose
pagee 51 pag
Engaging the Head Voice: Simple Exercises for Amateur Community Choirs by Welborne E. Young
page 66 6 6
Francis Poulenc’s Gloria: Corrections to the New (1969) Full Score by Lee G. Barrow
page 71
Books in Review
page 78
Max Rudolf Award Winners Gustav Meier
Otto-Werner Mueller
Gunther Schuller
***** Journal of the Conductors Conductor s Guild Editor Edit or Founding Editor
Jon onat atha han n D. Gr Gree een n Jacques Voois
Production Staff Executive Director Publications Coordinator Administrative Assistant Production
R. Kevin Paul Sarabeth Gheith Sarabeth Gheith Quicker Printers
ctorss Guil Guild d is The publication date of the present double issue of the Jour nal of the Condu ctor July, 200 2002; 2; cons consequen equently tly the publi cati on date and the issu issuee date d ate do not coin cide cide.. Ef f ec ecti ti ve Vol Volum ume e nall of th thee Co Cond nduc uc to tors rs Gu Guilil d has been published semi-annually, the two issues 13, the Jo ur na being numbered 1 and 2; the seasonal references remain unchanged, as is its length. The
Conductors Guild reserves the right to approve and edit all material submitted for publica- tion. Publication of advertising is not necessarily an endorsement and the Conductors Guild reserves the right to refuse to print any advertisement. Libra Library ry of Cong Congress ress No. 82-644733. Copyright ©2002 by Conductors Guild, Inc. All rights reserved.ISSN: 0734-1032.
page 30 30
Craig Kirchhoff, Series Advisor, Windependence: A Repertoire Series for Wind Bands reviewed by Tom Erdmann John Canarina, Uncle Sam’s Orchestra, Memories of the Seventh Army Symphony reviewed by Henry Bloch Carl S. Leafsteadt, Inside Bluebeard’s Castle, (Music and Bart ô ô k’s Opera) Drama in Bela Bart reviewed by Henry Bloch Michael Stern (Ed.), Max Rudolf: A Musical Life, Writings and Letters reviewed by John Canarina
Commentary This issue of the Journal is a departure from the norm in that a number of articles are specifically dedicated to the topic of community ensembles. This may in fact not be a departure since our goal has been bee n to meet the needs of our membership, and as that membership has grown, we have an ever-larger number of members who conduct communitybased, volunteer ensembles. Victor Vallo has prepared prepared a set of guidelines for establishing establishing and leading a collegecollege-community community orchestra. orchestra. Lyn Schenbeck and Rebecca Jones present the results of their broad-based study of such ensembles in the U.S. and Canada. The statistical anomalies are sometimes dumbfounding and sometimes encouraging. If you direct such an ensemble, you may find that the peculiar vagaries of your situation are not unique, and hopefully the integrated anecdotes will prove useful in addressing problems in your own groups. Welborne Welborne E. Young Young offers us some useful exercises to engage the head voice in amateur choirs. Thomas Erdmann reviews r eviews a new wind band series that may provide new repertoire and new editions for community band ba nd programs. Lee G. G. Barrow has prepared prepa red an errata list for the new edition of Poulenc’s Gloria, a work visited by many community choirs. You will also find provocative and nostalgic inclusions. inclus ions. John Canarina reviews the new anthology of Max Rudolf’s Rudolf ’s writings. As many of you know, Max was probably the most prolific contributor of articles to this publication. His essay on Beethoven’s metronome markings, which appeared appea red in our first issue, remains our most requested reprint. We have therefore begun this issue with a reprint of that article and we close with John’s review. Also be sure to read Henry Bloch’s review of John Canarina’s wonderful book about the Seventh Army Symphony. Our thanks go to Tonu Kalam for bringing the Bräm and Braem article to our attention. This is a fascinating study s tudy of the conductorial gestures from the perspective pers pective of gestural semiotics. You You may never look in the mirror the same way again. Brian Br ian Murphy has written a valuable va luable introduction to the music mus ic of British composer, compose r, William William Alwyn, whose works are quickly gaining long-deserved recognition. I hope that as you prepare for your coming seasons, you find some kernels of aid and encouragement in these pages.
Cheers, Jonathan Green
JCG Vol. 22, 22, Nos. 1 & 2
1
The Metronome Indications In Beethoven’s Bee thoven’s Symphonies By Max Rudolf This article first appeared in JCG Volume 1, Number 1 in 1980.
I After more than a century of unsuccessful attempts to construct an efficient tool for measuring speed spe ed in music, Maelzel’s Maelzel’s Metronome entered the market in 1816. It met with quick and enthusiastic acceptance. acceptance. Within a few years, the abbreviation M.M., followed by note symbol, equal sign, and number started to appear in printed music. Even before this became a custom, Beethoven had published a list of metronome markings for eight symphonies. Beethoven moved move d to Vienna Vienna the same year as Maelzel Ma elzel and was a frequent visitor to the inventor’s workshop. While laboring on an earlier model known as a chronometer, Maelzel consulted with the composer who is said to have voiced doubts regarding regardin g the instrument’s usefulness. Still, Beethoven’s name was listed together with other composers who, according to an official announcement in 1813, recommended the chronometer as a device to determine “the correct tempo of every movement at the first reading of a score.” The metronome, an improved version of the chronometer, had Beethoven’s full approval. In addition to a public declaration which he co-signed co- signed with Antonio Salieri, Beethoven’s letters, over a period of ten years, tell of his continued interest and satisfaction. Three months before his death, he wrote to his publisher publishe r who was then printing the first edition of the Missa solemnis solemnis: “Metronome markings will follow soon. s oon. Wait Wait for them. Certainly, Certainly, in our century they are neces necessary. sary. Also, letters from Berlin inform me that the first performance of the symphony (No. 9) took place with enthusiastic applause, which I attribute mainly to the metronome markings. We We can hardly have tempi ordinari any longer, because one must be guided by the ideas of the free genius.” In the face of
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JCG Vol. Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
ample testimony to Beethoven’s appreciation of the metronome, the one negative remark, “to the devil with all mechanisms,” does not carry weight. It was made in a moment of nervous tension (Beethoven’s nephew had just just atte attempt mpted ed suici suicide) de) and combi combined ned with with the the words words “the “the metronome markings follow.” follow.” Beethoven’s interest in this brand-new invention must be seen in the light of a development that had taken place during the second sec ond half of the 18th 18 th century. A new desire for individual expression had sprung up in the creative arts. In music, the traditional tempo categories no longer satisfied composers who regarded differentiation in pacing as an integral part of musical expression and wanted to protect the interpretation of their works against misreadings by performers. Contemporary treatises warned performers not to express their own feelings but those of the composers. Against this background we can fully understand why the metronome was hailed as the long-awaited device to provide specific information about tempo. Enthusiastic Viennese musicians predicted predicte d that in the future, performers would never again be in doubt about the pace of music of the past. It was even suggested that metronome indications indications should be added to the works of Gluck and Mozart while the true tradition was still alive. These proposals underscore the composer’s obvious distrust regarding the performer’s performer ’s ability to choose the proper tempo. Mozart, who had called tempo the most important and difficult thing in music, could be highly critical of musicians who failed to grasp the right pace. Beethoven’s attitude was not different. It is said that when friends reported on performances of his works, Beethoven’s first question was, “How were the tempos?”
transforms the movement into an easygoing Allegro ma non tanto, a tempo category that Beethoven chose for a Thanks to composers who had steadfastly believed in section in Symphony No. 9 with the marking h = 120. the metronome’s usefulness, Maelzel’s mechanism and its modern equivalents have been thriving for more than Measuring musical speed is a ticklish, often frustrating 160 years. Its function has never been better defined than venture. Technical questions, such as playability, are part by Berlioz who used it consistently and, in his essay on of the problem, but most of the time the uncertainty must “The Conductor’s Art,” presented his thoughts on the be attributed to psychological factors. A tempo may metronome clearly and strongly. He pointed to the appear perfect today, but uncomfortable when tested conductor’s plight caused by vague tempo markings; he tomorrow; after a week’s lapse a third tempo may turn wondered whether the “various degrees of slowness” out to be more satisfactory. It is not surprising, then, that within a tempo such as Largo should be determined by Beethoven, in letters to his publisher, pleaded for more the conductor’s individual feelings. His answer was: “This time to prepare metronome markings. Unfortunately, due is a question of the composer’s, not the conductor’s to procrastination some of them were never delivered. feelings. Composers must therefore not neglect metronome indications in their works and conductors are No matter how much time and care is given to obliged to study them well. To neglect this study would experimentation in the studio, the only place where the speed of orchestral music can be successfully measured be an act of dishonesty on the part of the conductor.” is in the concert hall. Even then, metronome figures ought Berlioz’s request “study them well” must not be to be tested on several occasions. Problems caused by understood in the sense of subjecting music to an inflexible untested printed metronome figures are well known to beat. In the same essay, he warned against lifeless time- conductors who have discussed tempos with composers beating. Only in rare cases does a metronome figure fit a during rehearsals or after concerts. Igor Stravinsky, a most movement “like a glove” from start to finish as, for instance, articulate composer, once remarked that he did not in the Allegretto scherzando of Beethoven’s Eighth observe to the letter all of his printed metronome Symphony. When Beethoven began using the metronome, indications when conducting his works. Apparently, some he made it clear that music in need of tempo flexibility of his ideas had changed in the course of repeated ought not to be hampered by metronome-like rigidity. In performances. It is true that metronome alterations made February, 1817, he wrote on the autograph of a song: by composers rarely exceed a few metronome degrees “100 according to Maelzel, but this applies only to the and do not affect the music’s basic conception. Yet, the first measures, since feeling (Empfindung) also has its very need for changing printed markings proves that the measure. This, however, cannot be expressed quite well originals do not necessarily provide exact information. at this rate, namely 100.” Although Beethoven referred For this reason, some composers now indicate a tempo here to a strophic song, contemporary reports on his range between two given metronome figures, or add performing habits indicate that he was not averse to tempo modifying markings during the course of a movement. modifications, if they remained within a generally steady pulse. In modern scores, metronome indications are readily Musicians may disagree on where to draw the line accepted as an essential and welcome guide to a between minor and major tempo fluctuations, yet their composer’s intentions. By contrast, they are frequently judgment is usually unanimous in cases where the choice ignored in works written in the 19th century. One must of tempo unquestionably affects the music’s fundamental assume, therefore, that performers either believe that character. If, for instance, Beethoven’s marking w = 80 metronome readings of former times are unreliable, or for the Allegro vivace in Symphony No. 4 was not prefer to choose a tempo without regard for the followed to the letter, but reduced to w = 76, the intended composer’s wishes. Beethoven’s symphonies are among liveliness and excitement would be preserved. However, the works whose metronome markings are still being given a reduction to h = 126 (suggested by Weingartner) a low credibility rating by many conductors. In fact,
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JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
3
prominentmembers of the profession have recommended that these markings be disregarded altogether. Before considering the case in detail, it seems proper to seek basic information concerning the reliability of Beethoven’s metronome indications.
and-a-half years after the work’s premiere. It is extant and available in photocopy. Though written by his nephew, it bears the composer’s signature. Furthermore, a conversation book reveals that uncle and nephew had taken pains to recheck the figures before mailing the list.
III
For the other symphonies, the sole source is the aforementioned list printed in the Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung of December, 1817; it bears the sub-heading “determined by the author himself according to Maelzel’s metronome.” In Symphony No. 3, one misprint (also found in some printed scores) is probable. The concluding Presto is marked e = 116, though there is little doubt that it should read q = 116. Whether this is the only error on the list cannot be verified. The list’s general appearance however gives the impression that it was prepared with reasonable care.
(1) Were metronome readings in Beethoven’s time significantly different from those derived from modern instruments? Some - though not all - electric
metronomes, come close to being accurate. However, the performance of spring-driven models, be it the timehonored Maelzel type or the watch-like pocket metronome, is hardly ever free of irregularities. The beat may be lopsided, the calibration inexact, or the tick may slow down as the spring unwinds. Moreover, metronomes deteriorate unless kept in perfect condition. With these and other uncertainties in mind, scholars have examined existing original models built by Maelzel and have established that their readings were not significantly at variance with those derived from modern metronomes.
Incorrect metronome markings that, due to printing errors, have been perpetuated in various editions of Beethoven’s symphonies, are not mentioned here. In this article, all figures are quoted from the original lists.
(2) Was Beethoven’s metronome faulty? Only a single (4) Was Beethoven less skillful in handling the model existed in his day. At first, it was enclosed in a metronome than later composers? First, we should
metal box, later in a wooden box, though of identical construction, with a notched pendulum calibrated from 50 to 160 (The story of two different models was one of the numerous fabrications by Anton Schindler.) Beethoven, after years of discussions with Maelzel, was certainly familiar with the metronome’s action and keenly aware of calibration problems. It can, therefore, be taken for granted that the 60-tick on his metronome corresponded exactly to one second although we have no way of knowing that he checked every notch on the scale. We know also that he cared about his metronome’s performance. In 1825, shortly after having complained that its readings were still “shaky”, he brought it to a watchmaker’s shop to have it “regain its steady pulse.” On all counts, there is no reason to suspect that Beethoven’s personal metronome was not handled with care, or that it was less reliable than other instruments of its kind.
ask by what criteria such a skill is to be judged. Playability is an important consideration; an overly fast metronome speed that prohibits clear execution of all the notes obviously calls for adjustment. Technical problems, however, seldom interfere with the application of Beethoven’s metronome markings. Their validity has been questioned mainly because conductors believe them to be incongruous with the appropriate musical expression. For an illustration, we turn to Weingartner’s much-read essay On the Performance of Beethoven’s Symphonies . In it, he defines the Trio in Symphony No. 7 as a “radiantly cheerful and movingly heartfelt song” while recommending as “the right tempo” a metronome speed of h . = 60, a rather drastic deviation from the original h . = 84. Other conductors have performed the same music at h . = 7680, a relatively insignificant reduction that leaves the basic character of the Trio unchanged.
Similar examples that demonstrate the relationship (3) Are the metronome figures in Beethoven’s between a movement’s metronome marking and its symphonies free of misprints? For Symphony No. 9, intrinsic meaning can be drawn from all nine symphonies. Beethoven prepared a list of metronome markings two- It seems, therefore, that in fairness to Beethoven, one 4
JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
should not question his results without first investigating how he arrived at a given metronome figure. While handling the metronome, he probably proceeded like any other musician, namely singing, humming, gesturing, or perhaps “thinking” the music, except when he used the piano, as he did while working on the list for Symphony No. 9. Understandably, none of those methods were foolproof. On the other hand, by the end of 1817 Beethoven had obviously gained valuable experience through having conducted, or listened to, numerous performances of his symphonies. It has been suggested that by 1817, he had lost the proper feeling for works composed between 1800 and 1812. It seems absurd that he could have misjudged his own music to the point of distorting its character. Moreover, performances of Symphonies Nos. 7 and 8 had occurred fairly recently. It appears unlikely, therefore, that Beethoven could have been significantly afield when measuring the pace for these two works. Stated differently, it would seem logical that the ten metronome figures appearing in these two scores (measured at the same time with the use of the same instrument!) were either all inaccurate or all sufficiently valid to warrant careful study. Not all conductors have shared this view. Weingartner, for one, accepted only four of the ten markings without reservation. He challenged the remaining six. For the Allegretto in Symphony No. 8, he called Beethoven’s e = 88 a “well-chosen tempo”. Yet, assuming the 88notch on the scale of Beethoven’s metronome (hardly distinguishable in performance from 84) functioned satisfactorily, how then could the 84-notch indicated for the Trio of Symphony No. 7 be completely false as Weingartner believed!
markings or at least by staying close to them. This acceptance rate may seem low, but other 19th century composers do not fare much better. Beethoven, however, for unexplained reasons has been singled out for unusually severe and persistent criticism. The following example demonstrates that this judgment is not easily supported by logic. In the Marcia funebre in Symphony No. 3, prominent conductors (as their recordings prove) accepted Beethoven’s marking e = 80 for the recapitulation at bar 105, thereby endorsing the soundness of the composer’s judgment. Yet, the same conductors rejected this marking at the start of the movement for which they chose a speed of e = 52. One cannot help wondering whether the vision of a funeral march calls for a much livelier gait a few minutes after the march has begun. Apparently, Beethoven had not visualized it this way. In any event, an interpreter’s questionable idea should not result in criticism of Beethoven’s handling of his metronome. (5) Can disregard for Beethoven’s metronome indications be related to shifting performance habits? By the middle of the 19th century, a new
approach to the interpretation of Beethoven’s music was set into motion by the “New-German” school. Wagner and Liszt were its protagonists, joined later by Hans von Bulow. In 1844, a music journal reported that under Liszt’s direction Beethoven’s symphonies were played more slowly than had been customary. Musicians supporting the new movement gave praise to Liszt, which by inference criticized Mendelssohn, who represented the older tradition. Schumann, in his reviews of the Gewandhaus Concerts, largely agreed with Mendelssohn regarding Beethoven’s tempos. On the other hand, he disliked Wagner’s treatment of the master’s music. After a performance of Fidelio, Schumann reported: “bad performance and unbelievable choice of tempo by R. Wagner.” Wagner, in turn, violently criticized Mendelssohn’s interpretations of Beethoven’s symphonies, calling them superficial and finding the tempos unduly rushed.
Various theories have been proposed to explain how and why Beethoven bungled his metronome readings. Some claim that he missed the right notch when moving the pendulum’s weight; others that he looked at the scale from a wrong angle. Aside from the fact that speculations of this sort imply a low opinion of Beethoven’s intelligence, they by no means explain how, in the same score, one figure can be judged faulty, another perfect— We do not know how fast Mendelssohn’s tempos were unless we attribute the latter to “potluck.” nor how slow were those taken by Wagner and Liszt. Of the 60 metronome indications in Beethove n’s Nonetheless we can draw conclusions from the fact that symphonies, about 20 are currently observed in most Mendelssohn, like Schumann, was a traditionalist. Even performances, either by literally heeding the original before taking charge of the Gewandhaus Concerts eight JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
5
years after Beethoven’s death, he had associated with musicians who had heard Beethoven perform his symphonies. Besides, Mendelssohn had an integrity which respected a composer’s wishes (he declined to edit a Handel score unless his additions were clearly discernable from the original version) while Wagner, a strong-willed individualist, was indifferent to stylistic considerations as demonstrated by his romanticized arrangement of Palestrina’s Stabat Mater .
marking that the music was indeed to be felt in one beat to the measure. Weingartner should not have assumed that Beethoven’s markings were always related to beating patterns. This, after all, was a strictly technical matter with which the composer was unconcerned. Actually, if this “Allegro” were to be felt in two beats “ma non tanto” would not have made sense. Through the addition of h = 66, Beethoven made it clear that the “ma non tanto” referred to a whole-bar meter. N. B. Long stretches in this movement can be directed with one leisurely beat to It must be remembered that this new approach to musical the measure; some conductors might prefer to begin the interpretation coincided with a radical change in concert movement with a slightly slower two beat in preparation programming. For the first time in music history, the for the fermata in bar four. masterworks of the past began to play a dominant role in orchestral concerts. Consequently their interpretation was Beethoven’s metronome indications can also be used to increasingly subjected to shifting performance habits. By dispel the notion that every classic symphony ought to the end of the century, the interpretive ideas of conductors include a slow movement characterized by quiet belonging to the New-German school had been widely contemplation and emotional depth. Actually, a fairly large accepted. These ideas include a proclivity for a ponderous number of classic symphonies, sonatas, and ensemble works do not contain movements of this type, as we see treatment of the slower movements in classic music. in Beethoven’s symphonies Nos. 1, 7, and 8. During the In our time, the interpretation of Beethoven’s symphonies 18th and into the 19th century, composers used the still shows the influence of these late-romantic ideas, a designation Adagio for movements whose expression practice that would undoubtedly lose ground if the warranted a really slow pace. This did not apply to music composer’s metronome indications were taken seriously. marked Andante or even Larghetto, especially when written in 3/8 time. Beethoven documented this by his choice of metronome speeds for the so-called slow IV movements in symphonies Nos. 2 and 5. Musicians who denounce the validity of Beethoven’s metronome indications argue that many of them contradict Some conductors maintain that all slow introductions must his own Italian tempo markings and that the resulting be in a mathematical ratio to the adjoining fast sections of tempos are often incompatible with the musical context. a symphony. To apply this theory to the five examples in Those taking an opposite view believe that Beethoven’s Beethoven’s symphonies would be contrary to his dislike for the traditional tempo designations was justified intentions. The metronome markings clearly show that and that his metronome markings are safer in preventing he preferred the element of surprise to that of predictability. misunderstandings. In reference to the Allegro ma non tanto that opens Symphony No. 6, Weingartner declared categorically, “The metronome indication ( h = 66) is too fast and also gives the erroneous impression that this movement is to be conducted with one beat to the bar. I suggest about q = 108.” Weingartner apparently ignores the fact that Beethoven could have written q = 132 (as he did in the same symphony for an Allegro that requires a duple meter) but rather wanted to indicate by his metronome
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JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
V The following list of Beethoven’s metronome figures corresponds to the authentic sources. The comments that are added to the listing for each symphony are not meant to infringe upon the conductor’s prerogative to interpret music as he deems best. After all, his decisions regarding the choice of tempo should be influenced by a variety of factors including such practical considerations as the
players’ ability and the hall’s acoustics. The three abbreviations are: ML (refers to Beethoven’s metronome list of 1817); L (refers to the letter concerning Symphony No. 9); and ? (refers to textual problems).
SYMPHONY NO. 1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Adagio molto Allegro con brio Andante cantabile con moto Menuetto. Allegro molto e vivace Adagio Allegro molto e vivace
4/4 C
3/8 3/4 2/4 2/4
e = 88 h = 112 e = 120 h . = 108 e = 63 h = 88
1. The designation “Adagio molto” could be misunderstood without the metronome marking. For the “Molto
Adagio” 4/4 in the String Quartet Op. 59, II, Beethoven indicated an even faster pace, q = 60. 3. Because of the triplets and dotted rhythms that occur in this movement, conductors are inclined to reduce
the speed by 6-8 metronome degrees, even though the music suggests a lyric scherzando, not a slow movement. 6. This extreme metronome speed tells the conductor to play the movement at the maximum pace his players
can master.
SYMPHONY NO. 2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Adagio molto Allegro con brio Larghetto Scherzo. Allegro Allegro molto
3/4 4/4 3/8 3/4 C
e = 84 h = 100 e = 92 h . = 100 h = 84
1. ML: “Adagio” (without “molto”), also in the first printed edition of the score. The autographs for symphonies
Nos. 1, 2, and 3 unfortunately are lost. This void causes numerous uncertainties. 2. This metronome marking gives the impression of a “keyboard tempo.” An ever-so-slight reduction from 100
to 98 creates an “orchestra tempo.” 3. Here, the metronome speed seems to have been chosen to apply to the entire movement. If we are to
believe Anton Schindler, the composer wanted the passage beginning at measure 75 to be treated as an “Allegretto.” Most conductors begin the movement slightly slower than e = 92. However, it must be remembered that “Larghetto” belonged traditionally to the Andante group and that Beethoven, in his arrangement of the symphony for piano trio, changed the marking to “Larghetto quasi Andante.” 5. A very minor adjustment from 152 to 146 establishes a tempo with which the players can feel more comfortable.
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SYMPHONY NO. 3 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Allegro con brio Marcia funebre. Adagio assai Scherzo. Allegro vivace Alla breve Finale. Allegro molto Poco Andante Presto
3/4 2/4 3/4 C
2/4 2/4 2/4
h. e h. w h e e
= 60 = 80 = 116 = 116 = 76 = 108 = 116
1. The metronome marking is appropriate for an “Allegro con brio”, though it is unlikely that Beethoven intended,
the beat to be relentlessly maintained throughout the movement. 2. See Chapter III, 4. 5. It must be assumed that the metronome speed refers to the first eleven bars. It does not indicate the movement’s
main tempo. The finale of Beethoven’s Prometheus ballet, which utilizes the same thematic material, is marked “Allegretto.” The absence of an applicable tempo marking for this movement is only one of the textual problems in the Eroica score caused by the lack of reliable sources (see comment 1, Symphony No. 2). 6. At present, conductors perform this passage at about e = 88, a metronome speed which Beethoven selected for
a “Poco Adagio” (String Quartet Op. 18, V). Obviously, by choosing “poco”Andante” for this music, he was thinking of a more flowing pace. We have here yet another instance in which a noticeable deviation from the metronome marking affects the musical expression in a manner not intended by the composer. 7. The designation “Presto” as well as the musical context (including the measured 32nd-notes in the strings) support
the assumption of a misprint: it should read q =116.
SYMPHONY NO. 4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Adagio Allegro vivace Adagio Allegro vivace Trio. Un poco meno Allegro Allegro ma non troppo
C C
3/4 3/4 3/4 2/4
q = 66 w = 80 e = 84 h . = 100 h . = 88 h = 80
2. See comment 2, Symphony No. 2. 6. See the paragraph discussing the first movement of Symphony No. 6 in Chapter IV. Here again, “ma non troppo”
would not make sense unless applied to the meter of a whole bar. Still, a reduction to h = 76-74 will be appreciated
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by the solo bassoon. Regardless of the tempo, a 2-beat is needed for the start, even though a 1-beat is appropriate for certain passages SYMPHONY NO. 5 2/4 h = 108 1. Allegro can brio 3/8 e = 92 2. Andante con moto 3/8 e = 116 3. Più moto 3/4 h . = 96 4. Allegro 4/4 h = 84 5. Allegro C w = 112 6. Presto 1. Conductors must decide for themselves whether to take Beethoven’s metronome speed literally. Such an
interpretation would mean storming through the movement with unflagging vehemence. The alternative is to treat this metronome figure as among those which are “on the fast side.” See also comment 2, Symphony No. 2. 2. Before deciding on a noticeably slower tempo than the one indicated, one ought to remember that the “Larghetto”
in Symphony No. 2 received an identical marking. Practically speaking one must be aware that while testing the speed for these two movements, the composer used the same metronome and arrived at the same pulse! 5. It is worth noting that Beethoven was not “on the fast side!” The metronome figure indicates a moderately fast
Allegro.
SYMPHONY NO. 6 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Allegro ma non troppo Andante molto moto Allegro a tempo Allegro Allegro Allegretto
2/4 12/8 3/4 2/4 4/4 6/8
h = 66 q . = 50 h . = 108 q = 132 h = 80 q . = 60
1. See comments in Chapter IV. 2. ML: “Andante con moto.” 3. ML: “Allegretto.” 6. Conductors who like to increase the speed in the course of the movement may feel encouraged by reports that
Beethoven took liberties when performing his piano music.
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SYMPHONY NO. 7 5. See comment in Chapter III, 4. 6. ML: “Allegro.” In this movement, we cannot tell whether “con brio” was omitted by the printer or missing in the
copy prepared by the composer. If we compare this metronome figure with h = 108 chosen by Beethoven for the “Allegro con brio” in Symphony No. 5 (also written in 2/4 time), we would discover thathis distrust of Italian tempo markings appears to be justified.
SYMPHONY NO. 8 1. ML: “Allegro vivace.” see comment 2, Symphony No. 2. 3. This metronome figure has been disputed although the pace is typical of a “Tempo di Menuetto” [compare q =
120 in the Septet Op. 20, and the “Menuetto (Grazioso)” in the String Quartet Op. 59, III marked q = 116]. For the Trio, however, this tempo does seem rushed. Interpretively, conductors have three choices: 1) to apply Beethoven’s marking literally (causing the Trio to sound rough and hectic); 2) to reduce the speed slightly for the entire movement; or 3) to reduce tempo only in the Trio. 4. This movement has been performed by virtuoso orchestras at w = 80-82 which is quite close to Beethoven’s
optimistic marking. Any good professional group should be able to play the movement at w = 76.
SYMPHONY NO. 9 The handwritten list (see Chapter III, 3) was sent to Beethoven’s publisher, B. Schott in Mainz, on October 13, 1826. It was accompanied by a letter which read; “I am using the remaining part of the summer for recreation in the country, because it was impossible for me to leave Vienna this summer. During this time I have prepared metronome indications for the entire symphony and enclose the tempos herewith.” The list is clearly written and constitutes the only original source for Beethoven’s metronome figures. Dots, missing after some half-notes in 3/4 time have been added here. Had Beethoven doubted the validity of the list, he would not have spoken of its good effects on the Berlin performance. Despite these favorable circumstances, some of the metronome indications for this symphony are problematic, in fact more so than the markings in other symphonies. 1. L: “Allo ma non troppo.” The writing in the autograph seems to indicate that Beethoven wrote the tempo designation
in three stages: Allo / ma non troppo / e un poco maestoso. Also, on the right upper corner of the autograph is a penciled note “108 or 120 Maelzel.” Scholars have tried to explain this cryptic note. However, unless further research can shed light on the circumstances under which this entry occurred, we have to content ourselves with the marking q = 88, even though this speed is not convincing and seems to fit only certain passages which occur later in the movement. 3. This marking has been disputed. Beethoven’s list leaves no doubt about the half-note! To assume that his nephew
mistakenly wrote it in place of a whole note would be absurd. Nonetheless, h = 116 gives the impression of a tempo “on the slow side.” Interestingly, the autograph reveals that the Trio was originally written in 2/4-time. Beethoven then erased some of his writing and changed the time-signature to C, combining two 2/4-bars into one alla breve bar. “Presto” had been the marking for the 2/4-time and, indeed, within this meter h = 116 is a reasonable speed for a “Presto.” Nevertheless, this still does not solve the problem of how to handle the preceding stringendo which is supposed to lead into the tempo of the Trio. Conductors have little choice but to continue grappling with this puzzling situation (unless of course they believe they have found the “only right” solution). Certainly the orchestral texture and the pastoral nature of the Trio are well served by an unhurried pace. 10
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SYMPHONY NO. 7 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Poco sostenuto Vivace Allegretto Presto Assai meno presto Allegro con brio
q = 69 q . = 104 q = 76 h . = 132 h . = 84 h = 72
4/4 6/8 2/4 3/4 3/4 2/4
SYMPHONY NO. 8 1. 2. 3. 4.
Allegro vivace e con brio Allegretto scherzando Tempo di Menuetto Allegro vivace
3/4 2/4 3/4 C
h. e q w
= 69 = 88 = 126 = 84
SYMPHONY NO. 9 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
Allegro, ma non troppo, un poco maestoso Molto vivace Adagio molto e cantabile Presto Andante moderato Presto Allegro ma non troppo Allegro assai Allegro assai vivace. Alla Marcia Andante maestoso Adagio, ma non troppo, ma divoto Allegro energico, sempre ben marcato Allegro ma non tanto Prestissimo Maestoso
2/4 3/4 C
4/4 3/4 3/4 2/4 4/4 6/8 3/2 3/2 6/4 C C
3/4
q = 88 h . = 116 h = 116 q = 60 q = 63 h . = 66 q = 88 h = 80 q . = 84 h = 72 h = 60 h . = 84 h = 120 h = 132 q = 60
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4. “E cantabile” is a later addition in the autograph. Making a melody singable does not call for slowing the pace.
When considered in the light of the style change that Beethoven underwent in his later years, this metronome marking does not appear excessively fast. 5. Beethoven was surely aware of the very minor difference between 60 and 63 on the metronome scale! 8. L: this tempo is listed only once whereas it appears twice in the printed score. In bar 77, the autograph has
“Allegro” only. 9. This metronome speed has stirred up much controversy. It seems to be slow. Perhaps Beethoven intended it to be
a warning of “not too fast, please” in order to create an atmosphere of tension at the beginning of the “Turkish” march. Here again, conductors will have to accept the fact that we all must “live with doubt”! 14. “Prestissimo” is crossed out in the autograph and replaced by “presto.” Another entry, apparently made at the
same time, reads “Maelzel 132.” Aside from this and the metronome marking mentioned in No. 1, no other such indications are found in the autograph.
CONCLUDING REMARKS My comments in the last chapter of this article leave no doubt that I am partial to the kind of interpretation that grants the composer first rights. Some people call this, wrongly I believe, a literal approach. No one would seriously suggest that performances of the past can be duplicated. Yet, a difference exists between using a score simply as a blueprint for an interpreter’s “creation” (as proposed by Ernest Ansermet), and trying to utilize all available evidence to ascertain a composer’s intentions. In the first instance, we rely mainly on our intuition, in the latter we make a genuine effort to stay within the framework of the composer’s ideas. Ours is the first century that has searched for historically-correct practices of former performance styles. It was during my student years that musicologists formed collegia musica at German universities to promote a re-examination of baroque musical performance practices. I remember the indignation of the performing community, accustomed to make Bach and other baroque masters more palatable to the modern listener by infusing romantic devices into their works. Today, sixty years later, concert attendance and record sales prove that “the modern listener” enjoys baroque music even more when it is presented with the stylistic requirements of its time. At present, we are witnessing another attempt which, if continued, will surely intrude into other established performance standards. I am referring to the work of those solo artists and chamber music players who are developing an approach to the early Viennese classics that utilizes performance customs of the late 18th century. To date, few conductors have shown a similar interest. However, having observed how slowly and reluctantly most musicians parted with their cherished baroque performance habits, I am inclined to believe that in the course of time the lateromantic concepts of the Viennese classics will give way to an approach that is germane to the spirit of the classical era. Admittedly, the choice of tempo is only one part of the interpretive process. However, it is of predominant importance in the case of Beethoven’s symphonies since, as I have tried to show, the music’s meaning can undergo a drastic change by shifting from one speed range to another. In other words, this article was not written to dictate how Beethoven’s music ought to be performed, but rather to suggest to my younger colleagues that the instructions of a great master deserve, at least, the benefit of the doubt. Recent performance traditions must not prevent us from investigating such pertinent information as Beethoven’s metronome indications. By accepting them as a guide to his intentions we might discover a new identification with his music.
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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Beethoven, Sämtliche Briefe, 5 volumes (F. Prelinger) Leipzig, 1907-11 (English translation: Anderson, Beethoven’s Letters). Beethoven, Symphony No. 9, Facsimile Edition Leipzig, 1924. Beethoven, Das Problem der Interpretation in Musik-Konzepte No. 8 München, 1979 (valuable information on Beethoven’s use of the metronome). Berlioz, Le Chef d’Orchestre, Théorie de son Art in Traité d’ Instrumentation. Harding (Rosamund E.M.), The Metronome and its Precursors in Origins of Musical Time and Expression London, 1938. Nottebohm (Gustav), Beethoveniana, Vol. I, Leipzig, 1872. Schünemann (Georg), Geschichte des Dirigierens , Leipzig, 1913. Thayer, Life of Beethoven, New Edition by E. Forbes, Princeton, 1967. Weingartner, Ratschläge für Auffführungen von Beethoven’s Symphonien Leipzig, 1928 (English edition: Dover paperback).
JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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A Pilot Study of the Expressive Gestures Used by Classical Orchestra Conductors By Thüring Bräm & Penny Boyes Braem
ABSTRACT Traditional studies of orchestral conductors’ gestures have been limited to the gestures of the dominant hand, which is used to indicate the beat and other structural aspects of the music. The gestures of the non-dominant hand have been typically simply described as being ‘expressive’ and ‘idiosyncratic’. In this pilot project, we (a sign language researcher and an orchestral conductor) have focused on these ‘expressive gestures’, specifically looking at the formational sub-components of the gestures: handshape, hand orientation, location and movement. In our detailed analyses of videotapes of the conducting of two conductors with very different conducting styles (Bernstein and Celibidache), we have found a shared and limited set of gestures which reflect categories also found in ‘classifying handshapes’ of polymorphemic verbs in Deaf sign languages. These gestural components are then analyzed as being surface representations of metaphors or metonyms similar to those which have been found to underlie many spoken language forms for cognitive and emotional concepts, the signs of Deaf sign languages as well as gestures which hearing persons use to accompany speech.
INTRODUCTION The purpose of this study is to extend the traditional analysis of the gestures which the orchestral conductor makes with the dominant hand, to those ‘expressive’ gestures which are usually made with the non-dominant hand. It is clear that, in addition to manual gestures, facial and body expressions as well as eye gaze are very important in the conductor’s communication. This pilot study will, however, concentrate on the manual gestures, with the acknowledgement that the other factors mentioned above deserve studies of their own. Our 14
JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
research questions are the following: Is there a repertoire of ‘expressive’ gestures? If so, how do they compare with the hand gestures, which accompany speech, and with the more highly coded sign language of the deaf? Are conducting gestures systematized in any way beyond the organizing, structuring patterns of the classical orchestral conductor? The music historian, Harvey Sachs (1993), in his “Reflections on Toscanini” gives an anecdote which directly concerns these topics. The incident occurred during a performance of Pictures at an Exhibition by the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra in Budapest. Toscanini, who always conducted from memory, began to conduct the wrong episode. The principal bassoonist of the orchestra recounted the following: Not one musician started to play! It was ghost-like, a little like a nightmare: Toscanini conducted in the air, and not one sound occurred! Toscanini, for a tenth of a second, was flabbergasted and stony-faced: how come nobody plays? But in another tenth of a second he realized that instead of Tuileries he had conducted the beginning of Bydlo, which was very different in dynamic character. And with an almost indiscernible nod, he gave the right dynamic sign for the beginning of Tuileries, and then the orchestra, most harmoniously, as if nothing had happened, started to play. Afterwards he said: ‘This is the greatest compliment an orchestra can pay me: I make a mistake, and the orchestra at once realizes I am wrong.’ Why? Because his Zeichengebung, his gesture for communication and conducting, is so unmistakable in its one possible meaning that you cannot take it as meaning anything else... (quoted in Sachs, 1993, p. 148)
There are two relevant observations in this incident: First, there was a gestural communication from the conductor that was so clear that a hundred players reacted ‘correctly’. Second, there is something in addition to the organizational signs which operate as a communicative
entity, whether it be an ‘indiscernible nod’ or the ‘stony- dependent on a thorough knowledge of the piece’s face’, that in a tenth of a second can give an unambiguous structure and musical intent. Given that the conductor signal. has this background knowledge, the dominant hand gestures are generally used to ‘direct the musical traffic’. The conductor George Szell describes Toscanini’s Examples for this ‘directing’ function of the right hand technique as ‘deceptively simple’: are shown in the fundamental beating patterns represented in Figure 1. Toscanini...made a distinction between the responsibilities of the right and left arms. His right arm generally moved in broad, clear, compelling strokes, not merely beating time but drawing the musicians into the music and helping them to progress through it, persuading them to bring it to life; it activated and shaped the music. His left hand was responsible for the finetuning: from a position directly in front of him, where it was invisible for much of the audience, it cautioned and exhorted. (Sachs, 1993, p. 150)
The Traditional Description of the Conducting Gestures of the Dominant Hand
Equally important to what is shown by the conductor, is what is not shown. The conductor does not indicate all the important elements of the music, which can be found in the printed score: the pitches and the rhythmic values. The dominant hand indicates the organization (the beginnings and ends), the tempo, and the rhythmic raster, or tact. The non-dominant hand shows special dynamics, sound colors, uniquely occurring events, entrances and articulation. Naturally, all of these parameters influence each other and whether they are signaled by the dominant or the non-dominant hand is more of a general tendency than a firm rule. However, most books on conducting describe a general division of labor between the hands, an asymmetry of movements and functions which is one of the difficult techniques which students of conducting must master.
Fig. 1: Dominant hand (from the conductor’s perspective): (a) traditional division of the conducting space, showing the temporal organization of the music (b) 2 beats; (c) 3 beats; (d) 4 beats.
In books on conducting and in conducting courses, the use of the non-dominant hand has usually been mentioned in a more general way, giving the impression that it is up to the individual conductor to develop gestures which will show other aspects of the music such as sound texture, foregrounding of instrumental voices, ‘density’, ‘atmosphere’, and ‘expression’. Exactly how the nondominant hand (together with the facial and body expression and eye gaze) actually manage to communicate all these aspects of the conductor’s message have never, This view is also found in one of the most authoritative to our knowledge, been studied in detail. treatments of conducting, “The Grammar of Conducting” by Max Rudolf (1994). A conductor himself, Rudolf was ANALYSES OF THE CONDUCTING GESTURES also the musical director of the Metropolitan Opera in OF THE NON-DOMINANT HAND New York in the 1940s and thus was in constant contact with other conductors such as Toscanini, Walter and Szell. Rudolf treats the basic patterns of the right hand (the Theoretical Bases neutral pattern, the staccato and the legato beats) and the organizational ‘details’ shown by the left hand. The In this pilot study of the gestures of the non-dominant musically most impressive interpretations are, of course, hand of the conductor, the theoretical starting point is not not solely due to these learnable techniques, but are historical or technical but is based rather on the JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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componential analysis of the signs of deaf sign languages as well as of gestures hearing people use to accompany speech. These gestural components are then considered from the point of view of cognitive linguistic theories, which postulate the metaphoric underpinnings of much of human conceptualization.
In other combinations of the parameters, the handshapes shown above can convey other, non-grasping, meanings. The fist handshape in illustration 2a, for example, when combined with a repeated linear movement can mean ‘pounding’ or ‘beating’. The ‘pincer’ handshape in illustration 2b if combined with repeated short, sharp downward movements could mean ‘pecking’. In other words, the handshapes themselves are not tied to any The Componential Analysis of Hearing Gestures one meaning, but are polysemous, capable of conveying and Deaf Signs several meanings, depending on the context of the other Linguists who have studied the visual-corporal sign parameters. languages used by deaf persons have found that the signs in these language are not global, non-analyzable units but Calbris (1990) has found this same polysemy in her study are instead composed of several distinct parameters, some of the gestures which hearing French people use with of which are manual and others of which are nonmanual. speech, as has Boyes Braem (1998) for the interpretation (Cf. for example Stokoe et. al. 1965, Klima and Bellugi, of signs from Italian Sign Language by non-signing hearing 1979, Boyes Braem, 1995). The manual parameters, persons from several European countries. which have been found to be important for this form of language, include the location of the hand, its handshape The Metaphoric Basis of Conceptual Thinking and orientation as well as its movement. The significant nonmanual parameters include the facial expression, While speech-accompanying gestures are polysemous, position and movements of the head and trunk and this does not mean that any one handshape can be direction of eye gaze. Within these parameters, there are substituted for another. One would not use a ‘fist’ limited sets of sub-components used in the individual sign handshape, for example, to accompany a meaning that languages. For example, of the many handshapes, which had to do with ‘small, fine detail’, ‘precision’, and so the human is physically capable of making, only a limited forth. number are used linguistically in any one sign language. Polysemous gestures are thus constrained by a more basic In a subset of signs (‘productive’ or ‘polymorphemic’ system which, we propose, is the same which several verbs with classifier handshapes) the handshapes can cognitive linguists have argued structures most of our convey distinct meanings, depending on how they are conceptual thinking and spoken language. (Johnson, combined with the other parameters and the context of 1987; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Lakoff & Turner, 1989; the message. For example, the concept of ‘grasping an Sweetser, 1990). object’ can be denoted by some of these verbs, in which the category of object being grasped is indicated by a According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), much if not all specific handshape (cf. Fig. 2). thinking and communication about abstract concepts is made possible through the use of metonymic and metaphoric structures. Of particular relevance to this study of conducting gestures are their comments on the concepts humans have of ‘object’, ‘substance’ and ‘container’: We experience ourselves as entities, separate from the rest of the world - as containers with an inside and an outside. We also experience things external to us Fig. 2: ‘Grasp’ handshapes for different kinds of objects (a) for as entities- often also as containers with insides and heavy objects, e.g. a suitcase; (b) for small, light, thin object (a outsides. We experience ourselves as being made up thread); (c) for fairly large, roundish objects (a ball, a pipe) of substances - e.g., flesh and bone - and external
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objects as being made of various kinds of substances - wood, stone, metal, etc. We experience many things, through sight and touch, as having distinct boundaries, and, when things have no distinct boundaries, we often project boundaries upon them - conceptualizing them as entities and often as containers (for example, forests, clearings, clouds, etc.). (p. 58)
Several researchers have proposed that this kind of metaphoric-metonymic thinking not only underlies spoken language but also Deaf signed languages and speechaccompanying gestures used by hearing persons (cf. e.g., Boyes Braem, 1981; Brennan, 1990; Taub, 1997; Wilcox, 1993. Here, we will argue that this kind of basic metaphoric thinking is also the basis for the communicative gestures which conductors make with their non-dominant hand. The gestural space of the conductor is like a small stage, on which the actors are the conductor ’s hands, body, face and eye gaze, all of which play out specific aspects of the musical score through the indication of basic metaphors. The size of this stage is about the same as that of the ‘signing space’ of deaf sign language, ranging vertically from the top of the head to the waist, horizontally, an arm length to either side and to the front. The effective conductor typically does not move his whole body much, as this would make it difficult for the musicians who are also concentrating on their scores to quickly focus on the conductor standing in front of them. The conductor’s stage is often a metaphorical container in which there are objects which one can manipulate: e.g. hold (‘tenuto’), ‘pick-up’, ‘drop’, ‘push-away’, ‘pull towards oneself’, ‘touch’, ‘stroke’, ‘scratch’, etc. The orchestra is the primary public for this gestural theater. It understands the gestural message and translates the underlying metaphors into sounds for the audience, a process of translating a theater for the eye (Greek ‘theaomai’ = to see) into one for the ear.1 Essential for this transfer of the musical message from the printed score to the musicians’ musical thinking is a conceptual system of essentially body-based metaphors.
The examples given here will be primarily from two conductors who have very different performing styles: the American, Leonard Bernstein and the Rumanian, Sergiu Celibidache.2 The non-dominant hand gestures used by these conductors were notated according to their subcomponents as well as their musical meaning. The compositional analyses of the gestures was done by the co-author, who is a sign language researcher (P. Boyes Braem); the interpretation of the musical intent of the gesture was made by the co-author Bräm, who is a classical orchestra conductor and a teacher of conducting. For the illustrations, Bräm has also reproduced examples of all the gestures discussed. Compared to the relatively large number of different handshapes, which are phonological components of sign languages, the number of handshapes regularly used by conductors seems to be quite limited (cf. Fig. 3). In this respect, conducting gestures are similar to gestures used to accompany speech. The limited set of handshapes includes those, which are found in most sign languages of the world, and those, which are used first by young deaf children learning sign languages. It is quite probably the fact that this is a basic, limited set of handshapes which makes the conducting gestures so easily interpretable by musicians in orchestras around the world, even when they are confronted by a conductor that has never directed them before and might be from a different culture. Most of these handshapes are also sufficiently different from each other, that they can be easily distinguished. This is important, as in large orchestra formations, many musicians are seated at some distance from the conducting podium. As the dominant hand of most conductors of classical music is usually grasping a baton and beating the musical structure, most of the gestures for indicating ‘expression’ are one-handed.
METHODOLOGY AND GENERAL FINDINGS The data for this study are based on transcripts of the videotaped gestures of a variety of different conductors.
Fig. 3: The limited set of handshapes used by the conductor in non-dominant hand gestures.
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A REPERTOIRE OF NON-DOMINANT HAND GESTURES The gestures which were used repeatedly by the conductors in this data seem to be based on the kinds of metaphoric association which have been found in studies of the lexicon of sign languages and in speechaccompanying gestures used by hearing persons. They can be grouped into the following categories, according to the source domain of the metaphor upon which they are based: (a) Manipulating objects (b) Showing the path or form of an object (c) Indicating direction (d) Portraying an object (e) Indicating a body part (f) Holophrastic interjections (a) Manipulating Objects = Sound Quality, Structure, Articulation, Musical Development, Psychological Motivation
A great many conducting gestures fall in the category of manipulation of objects. These are gestures which represent a grasping of an object, a touching, holding or letting go of an object, hitting or chopping, painting, playing something.
(a)
‘Pulling out an object’
In this gesture, a rounded ‘pincer’ handshape moves in a straight line from a musician towards the conductor, who is metaphorically pulling a sound, like a thread, from the musicians’ mouth (Fig. 4a). The pincer handshape indicates that a thin sound is desired and is typically used for flute sounds and vocalists. For the drawing out of a ‘fuller’ sound (for example, from a brass instrument), all the components of the gesture remain the same (location, movement, orientation of the hand), but a full ‘cupped’ grasp handshape would be used instead of the pincer handshape (Fig. 4b). ‘Taking out of view’
Another common left hand gesture used by many conductors is based on the metaphor of ‘taking something away from the visual field’ (see Fig. 5). In this case, what is being metaphorically taken away is all the sound. The gesture is used at the end of the piece or of sections to indicate ‘stop the production of sound’. For this purpose, an open hand closes to a closed grasp hand and can be combined with a movement towards the conductor or with a movement to ‘off-stage’, which can be in a direction out of the conducting space (i.e. below the waist, to the side, even to
(b)
Fig. 4: ‘pulling out an object’ (a) thin sound and (b) a full sound
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behind the back). Which of these movements are used seems to be up to the personal preference of the individual conductor, many of whom seem to have their trademark ‘taking out of view’ gesture. The manner of the closing of the hand into the grasp handshape can indicate more precisely how the music should end: an abrupt cut-off with a fast movement; a slowly dying sound if the fingers close successively while the hand moves out of sight. Several other types gestures have been observed in the data that involve the handling of an object are described briefly next.
Fig. 5: ‘taking out of view” = stop playing!
Fig. 7: ‘supporting an object’ = sustained sound
Fig. 6: ‘gathering objects’ = homogenous sound quality
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(b)
(a)
Fig. 8: ‘hitting an object’ = (a) hard; (b) hacking sound quality
Fig. 9: ‘pushing an object’ = point and strength of attack
Fig. 10: ‘touching a surface’ = sound quality (e.g. homogeneous sound quality)
Fig. 11: ‘feeling a substance’ = sound quality (e.g. thick, dense)
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‘Gathering objects’, i.e. individual sounds, in order to elicit an homogenous sound quality or an increasingly focused one; (Fig. 6) ‘Supporting an object’ to sustain a solid sound quality; (Fig. 7) ‘Hitting a hard object’ which, depending on the type of movement with which it is combined, is used for a hard/precise or heavy sound quality (Fig. 8a). If the orientation of the hand is turned, the association becomes more specifically one of ‘hacking, as in hacking wood’ and is used for different grades of staccato. (Fig. 8b) If a less hard attack is desired, the handshape component of this gesture can be changed to that of a open flat hand, palm oriented downward. ‘Pushing an object’ which pushes the sound away (out in front, upwards or downwards) to where in the beat the point of playing, the attack, begins, as well as how strong the attack should be. (Fig. 9) ‘Touching a surface’ which, depending on the type of movement and the handshape can indicate, for example, a smooth, homogenous sound with the full flat handshape (Fig. 10), or a scratchy sound (claw handshape). ‘Feeling a substance’ such as moving the hand through flour, honey, kneading bread dough, squeezing clay, etc. to elicit specific sound qualities as ‘feather light’, ‘sticky’, ‘thick’, etc. (Fig. 11) ‘Playing an instrument’ mimics the hand and body motions as well as facial expressions typically used by players of particular instruments (bowing for strings, beating for timpani, showing an embouchure for winds, strumming strings for harp, rippling a keyboard, etc.) to encourage the musicians to thoroughly savor and ‘play out’ this passage on their instrument; (Fig. 12) ‘Drawing or painting’ in which an open flat hand is held downwards and moves like a brush between two locations to ‘smooth together the surfaces’ (Fig. 13a); a pincer handshape, as if
holding a small brush or pen, when combined with repeated, short jabbing movements, marks important points in the musical passage, which often are turning points in the musical development (Fig. 13b). (b) Showing the Path or Form of an Object = Structure
Some gestures are indicators of musical paths in that they show where a musical development begins and in which direction it develops. These paths can be the development of the content or motive of the music, or be a purely ‘geographical’ indication of the movement of the playing of the motive first by one musical group, then another. The significant components here are the locations where the gesture begins (for ‘geographical’ indications, the group of musicians who play the beginning of the development) and the location where it ends (the group which continues the development). The handshape can be a traditional deictic index finger or a flat whole hand handshape with digits together or separated, or even a lightly cupped handshape. The manner of movement as the hand moves from group to group can be varied to indicate more details of the development (slow, brisk, abrupt change, etc.) (Fig. 14) The general structure of a musical ‘form’ is indicated either by an index finger alone to stress the sound ‘line’, or by a full flat hand in an arcing movement to indicate a fuller structure, usually a combination of harmony and ‘grain’. (Fig. 15) (c) Vertical Direction = Dynamics
Vertical levels within the conducting space can indicate the dynamics of the music: high level = more = louder; low level = less = softer. These levels are indicated by a gesture with an open flat hand, moving upwards or downwards, palm held horizontally. (Fig. 16a, b) An accompanying lateral spreading or closing of the digits can augment the ‘louder’ or ‘softer’ effect. (An analogous ‘opening = louder’ and ‘closing = softer’ metaphor can
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(a) (b)
Fig. 12: ‘playing an instrument’ = play out your instrument (a) strings; (b) brass
Fig. 13: ‘drawing, painting’ = (a) connected musical sequence; (b) important points, pivots in musical passage
Fig. 14: ‘path’ = movement of musical material between instruments
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Fig. 15: ‘form’ = harmony and ‘grain’ of a musical motive
(a)
(b)
Fig. 16: (a) upwards = louder; (b) downwards = softer
be indicated by the arms moving horizontally apart or together.)
(e) Indicating a Body Part = Intensity, Focusing, Intonation
(d) Portraying an Object = Sound Quality
Gestures, which involve pointing to particular parts of the body, can metonymically refer to functions of that body part or, in further derivation to metaphoric meanings associated with it in particular cultures. Heart /Solar plexus: In pointing to these parts of the
Fig. 17: ‘rays’ = sound quality (radiating, bright timbre)
A gesture in which a closed hand, palm oriented up, opens into a spread-5 handshape is used for a particular timber of the sound, a light, radiating quality. (Fig. 17) In many sign languages, this opening gesture is the metaphoric base of signs associated with ‘radiating’ objects (streams of water, rays of light, etc.). In the conducting gesture, the metaphor is ‘radiating sound’. If the movement component of the hand is changed, from moving upward to moving out towards the orchestra, and is combined with a sharp, emphatic opening of the digits, the gesture means, ‘louder and more brilliant’.
body, the conductor is indicating that at this passage of the music, there should be an emotional intensity, or (in the case of the solar plexus), that a ‘concentrated / centered’ quality of playing is desired. (Fig. 18a) Ear: When a conductor points to, touches or grabs his ear, he is making an association with the ear’s biological function, which is hearing, and thereby indicating to the musicians, ‘Listen!’. Specifically, this gesture is used when the conductor wants the musicians to pay closer attention to or correct their intonation (Fig. 18b). Lips: The indication of the lips can have at least two different meanings: - The widely conventionalized meaning of ‘shh, keep quiet’ is used by the conductor to indicate ‘play softer!’ (Fig. 18c). -If a ‘pursed’ (as in Fig.18d) or ‘grasping’ handshape is used and the hand is brought close to the lips, the association is that of something which tastes good. The gesture is used by the conductor when a ‘sensuous’ sound quality is wished. Nose: The indication of the nose by conductors is interesting, in that - unlike the largely negative associations JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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which the nose has in gestures used by speakers kind of gesture in the conducting data: (‘stinks’, ‘odious’, ‘snotty’, ‘snobby’ etc.), the association for an orchestra is generally that of a A gesture meaning ‘keep moving!’ in which the most importantcomponent is a repeated forward circling positive sensuous quality. A pursed or grasping movement of the hand. If tempo of repetitions handshape is used, often together with a slight intake is increased, it means ‘move faster’. (Fig. 19) of breath, to indicate that a lightly ‘perfumed’ sound is The vertically extended index finger, which in many cultures desired (Fig. 18d). means ‘pay attention!’ is usually used by the conductor as a preparation for something new or (f) Holophrastic ‘Interjections’ = Tempo, important which is coming up in the music. (Fig. 20) Structure, Motivation The ‘offering’ gesture seems to have a psychological function of encouraging the musicians to whom it Another kind of category of conducting gestures is is directed to ‘take this passage’, in the sense, based on more culturally encoded gestures used by ‘it’s your turn, carry it on’. (Fig. 21). The form speakers for ‘holophrastic interjections’, such as of this gesture is the flat hand held with palm exhortations to the addressee to ‘go on, continue’, facing upward, the fingertips pointed or‘be careful’.3 The following are examples of this of
(b)
(a)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 18: body parts = sound quality (a) heart / solar plexus = play with emotion / concentrated (b) ear = correct intonation; (c) lips = softer or more sensuously; (d) nose = light ‘perfumed’ sound.
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forward,sometimes simply held or combined with slight movement towards the orchestra. Important to this gesture are the simultaneous eye contact, raised eyebrows and positive facial expression. This ‘offering’ gesture is similar to one of the first gestures which young children use in their prelinguistic communications. Adam Kendon (personal communication, Berlin, April 1998) has suggested that in its derived sense (‘it’s your turn’), it is used by speakers as a kind of conversational regulator, which is also how it seems to function in the context of the orchestra. The ‘pursed’ handshape, with palm oriented upward, (Fig. 22) is, according to Kendon (1995) used in some European cultures by speakers to focus upon some aspect of the accompanying speech. Some conductors use this gesture in an analogous way to indicate a focus upon some aspect of a musical passage.
Fig. 19: ‘keep moving!’ = continue playing as you are
Fig. 20: ‘pay attention’ = important change is coming up
Fig. 21: ‘offering’ = take it, it’s your turn
Fig. 22: ‘pursed’ handshape = focused element
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Another more culturally encoded gesture used by some conductors is similar to the ‘cut-off’, or ‘finish’ gesture used by umpires in sport matches. This is a two-handed gesture, in which the open flat hands, palm down are initially crossed over each other in front of the torso, then the arms move rapidly out to the side. The conductor uses this gesture for indicating abrupt endings to musical passages. Most of these gestures can be produced successively to make gesture strings; for example, a ‘moving through a thick substance’ gesture followed by a ‘radiating burst’ gesture, finishing with a ‘supporting / sustaining’ gesture.
DISCUSSION The gestures described above are a representative, but certainly not exhaustive list of the repertoire of gestures used by conductors. Further analyses from a wider variety of conductors would undoubtedly add gestures to the list. However, the added gestures would probably involve one of the limited set of handshapes. Furthermore, they would probably fall into one of the major categories discussed in the previous section. This is because most conducting gestures are based on metaphoric/metonymic connections between aspects of the music and physical experiences which human beings have with objects in everyday life. Some of these experiences have to do with handling objects (grasping, letting go, supporting, touching, etc.) while others have to do with biological functions of the body (smelling, hearing), and still others have to do with describing visible forms (drawing lines, painting surfaces). Or, the conducting gesture would be borrowed from a culturally encoded gesture used by speakers as a ‘holophrastic interjection’. Factors Influencing Range and Choice of Gestures Used
Perhaps because many of the expressive gestures of conductors have so much in common with other aspects of human experience and communication, they can function effectively - with no accompanying verbal explanation - with musicians from a wide variety of cultures. There very probably are, however, some differences between cultures as to which gestures from the repertoire are preferred. European-trained conductors seem to use 26
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many of the ‘handling’ gestures in which aspects of the music are metaphorically conceptualized as concrete objects or and lines to represent musical paths and turning points. Instead of the line, some Japanese-trained conductors prefer gestures, which indicate the turning points as dots in a pattern. (Seiji Osawa, for example, is known among conducting students as having a ‘painterly’ style.) Even for conductors from the same culture, there are clearly different styles of conducting, a different selection of the gestures in the repertoire described above, and a difference in the frequency of use of non-dominant hand gestures. These stylistic differences are influenced by several different factors in the communication situation: the musical setting, the nature of the audiences, the style of the work and the personality of the conductor. The Musical Setting. The conducting style can
vary, depending on whether the situation is a concert, rehearsal, radio or TV recording. For example, the gesture of grasping the ear to indicate that intonation should be corrected is used during a rehearsal but usually not during a concert. The acoustic environment is also influential - different styles of conducting will be used depending on the room size, its resonance, if the concert is outdoors, etc. The Style of the Work. Very important is the
style of the music; the works of Bach, Mozart, Bruckner, Johann Strauss, Webern, Berlioz or Lutoslawski all require a selection of different gestures from the repertoire. The Audiences. A conductor has two audiences:
the orchestra and the listening public. For the orchestra, not only are the size and nature of the musical ensemble important, but also how well the conductor and the orchestra know each other. If the two know each other very well, the conductor can be much more economical with gestures than would be the case with doing a first concert with an orchestra. In the older films of the first generation of European conductors (for example, Richard Strauss), a more limited set of gestures seem to be used as compared to many modern conductors. Although there could be many reasons for this, one certainly is that in that time, a conductor did not jet around the world, conducting a different orchestra every week, but stayed in one place and gave regular weekly concerts with one
orchestra. The musicians of these orchestras perhaps did not need additional indications through gestures, as they knew their permanent and long-time chief conductor and his styles of interpretation very well. Another audience factor is whether the ensemble is professional or amateur. When conducting an amateur chorus, many more creative, ‘improvised’ gestures are needed than when standing in front of a professional chorus, with whom the same effect can be elicited with a small smile.
How effectively the individual conductor uses the nondominant hand gestures described here depends also on how well he has, somehow, learned them. The more control which the conductor has over this repertoire of gestures for specific musical purposes, the more likely the gestures will be used spontaneously and appropriately to model the sound and bring out its many meanings. The effective use of these gestures for conducting does seem to be something that has to be learned, as indicated by the sometimes awkward, often inappropriate and distracting gestures of young conducting students. Perhaps the ‘repertoire’ of nondominant hand gestures, with their underlying metaphoric associations between experiences in the physical and in the musical worlds, could be dealt with more systematically in the curriculum of conducting courses.
The public as audience is a factor, depending upon the personality of conductor. The early conductors did not constantly conduct in front of film and television cameras and so perhaps did not feel the temptation to conduct for the audience as well as for the musicians. CONCLUDING REMARKS Some conductors seem to conduct more for the public than for the orchestra, using gestures, which are The expressive hand gestures of orchestral conductors, correspondingly dramatic when viewed from behind. like signs of deaf sign languages and speech-accompanying gestures, seem to be composed of a limited set of subThe Personality and Culture of the components which can be associated with several Conductor. This brings us to another important factor, different kinds of meanings. I. Poggi (personal the personality and cultural background of the communication, Berlin, April 1998) has suggested that conductor. Conductors have different images of these conducting gestures might be best classified as themselves and of their functions as a conductor. The ‘descriptives, which are used as directives’. different personality types we have observed include the following: Organizer, Interpreter of the Score, Unlike sign language, the conducting gestures are Animator, Hypnotizer, Trainer, Buddy, Self-Realizer polysemous entities whose exact meaning is only clear and Showman. The strong contrast between the styles when set in a specific context. At one level, the meanings of Bernstein and Celibidache, for example, is probably of these gestures are accessible through metaphoric/ due in large part to their basically different personality metonymic association with actions, which the body can types. The New Yorker–Bernstein–is a ‘showman’ make, or with body parts, or like conventionalized gestures type, using many expressive gestures in his conducting, (‘emblems’) have more specifically encoded cultural which are similar in quantity and quality to those he meanings. At this level of interpretation, these gestures uses to accompany his speech. (A good comparison might be termed ‘iconic’, in the sense that a broad range of this use of gestures in the two communicative of persons would be able to associate an appropriate situations can be found in the videotape of his general meaning to them (e.g. ‘grasping something’, rehearsals of Romeo and Juliet with a student ‘raising something up’, etc.). However, the special derived orchestra, during which he often stops the music to meaning of these gestures (‘tenuto’, ‘staccato’, explain some aspect of the story to the musicians.) ‘marcatissimo’, ‘stress the sound line’) is only interpretable The Rumanian–Celibidache– on the other hand, was to persons who know the second target domain of these more of a Hypnotist type, who relied more on the gestural metaphors, the playing of classical orchestral music. power of his eye gaze than on his gestures. The gestures he did use, both in his conducting and in Grosjean (1998) has made a comparison between videotaped conversations, although quantitatively improvisation in music with the creative production of fewer, do fall within the categories proposed here. new sentences in everyday language use. In contrast, JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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the performance of classical orchestral music is to a large Winterthur, Switzerland: Amadeus. (192-219). extent bound to the interpretation of works that have been notated in a fixed written form. In this context, the Bräm, Th. & Boyes Braem, P. (1998). Der Versuch einer expressive gestures of the conductor become even more Klassifizierung der Ausdrucksgesten des Dirigenten. important, as they allow the addition of individual [An attempt to classify the expressive gestures of interpretation and spontaneous, even surprising elements orchestral conductors] In W. Fähndrich (Ed.), to the pre-programmed structure of the musical work. Improvisation III . Winterthur, Switzerland: Amadeus. (220-248). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Brennan, M. (1990). Word Formation in British Sign Language. Stockholm: University of Stockholm. This article has previously appeared in K. Emmorey & H. Lane (eds.). 2000. The Signs of Language Revisited: An Anthology to Honor Ursula Bellugi and Calbris, G. (1990). The Semiotics of French Gestures . Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Edward Klima. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (p. 143 -167). We wish to thank the editors Emmorey, K. & Lane, H. (eds.). (2000). The Signs of for permission to reprint this article here. Language Revisited: An Anthology to Honor Ursula Bellugi and Edward Klima . Mahwah, NJ:
The authors are also grateful for helpful comments on Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (p. 143 -167). this study given by orchestral musicians at a workshop on conducting gestures held at the 3. International Congress for Improvisation in Lucerne (October 1996) Grosjean, F. (1998). Language: From set patterns to free patterning. In W. Fähndrich (Ed.), Improvisation as well as by participants at the International Symposium III . Winterthur, Switzerland: Amadeus. (71-84). ‘The Semantics and Pragmatics of Everyday Gestures’ in Berlin, April 1998. An earlier form of this paper has been published in German. (Bräm & Boyes Braem, Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1998). All illustrations of conducting gestures were drawn by Katja Tissi, based on videotaped demonstrations done Kendon, A. (1995). Gestures as illocutionary and discourse by T. Bräm. structure markers in Southern Italian conversation. Journal of Pragmatics, 23, 247-279. REFERENCES
Boyes Braem, P. (1981). Significant features of the Klima, E. & Bellugi, U. (1979). The signs of language. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. handshape in American Sign Language . Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live California, Berkeley. By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Boyes Braem, P. (1995). Eine Einführung in die Gebärdensprache und ihre Erforschung (3.Ed.) Lakoff, G. & Turner, M. (1989). More than Cool Reason. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [An Introduction to Sign Language and Its Research]. Hamburg: Signum. Poggi, I. (Ed.) (1987). Le parole nella testa. Guida a un’ educazione linguistica cognitivista . [The Boyes Braem, P. (1998). Kulturell bestimmte oder freie words in the head. Guide to a cognitive linguistic Gesten ? Die Wahrnehmung von Gesten durch education]. Bologna: Il Mulino. Mitglieder unterschiedlicher (hörender und gehörloser) Kulturen. [The interpretation of gestures by hearing and deaf members of different European Poggi, I. The Italian Gestionary. Lexical gestures of Italian hearing people . Presentation at the cultures.] In W. Fähndrich (Ed.), Improvisation III : 28
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Symposium, ‘The Semantics and Pragmatics of Everyday Gestures’, Technical University of Berlin and Free University of Berlin, Berlin, April 23-26, 1998. Rozik, E. (1992). Metaphorical Handshapes in the Theater . Tel Aviv: Assoph. Rudolf, M. (1994). The Grammar of Conducting: A Comprehensive Guide to Baton Technique and Interpretation (3. Ed.). New York: Schirmer. Sachs, H. (1993). Reflections on Toscanini. Rocklin, Ca: Prima Publishing. Stokoe, W., Casterline, D. & Croneberg, C. (1965). A Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles. Washington, DC: Gallaudet College Press. Sweetser, E. (1990). From etymology to pragmatics . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Taub, S. (1997). Language in the body: Iconicity and metaphor in American Sign Language . Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley. Wilcox, P. (1993) Metaphorical Mapping Metaphors in American Sign Language. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
ENDNOTES 1 For the use of metaphors in theater, cf. Rozik (1992). 2 These observations are from the following videotapes: Bernstein–“Taktschlagen kann jeder” (Rehearsals and performance of Berlioz’s ‘Romeo and Juliet’, SchleswigHolstein Music Festival): and Celibidache conducts Bruckner (Symphony No. 6 in AMajor), Munich Philharmonic. Recorded at the Müncher Philharmonie am Gasteig, November 26-30, 1991. Sony Classical Production, 1992. 3 We are grateful to Isabelle Poggi (personal communication) for her suggestion of the term ‘interjections’ for this category of conducting gestures. She defines interjections as the only case in spoken language of a ‘holophrastic signal’. A holophrastic signal ”cannot be separated into sub-signals without completely losing its meaning— [it] conveys all the meaning of a Communicative Act, i.e. both its performative and its propositional content.” (Poggi, 1998, p. 8-9). An example of a holophrastic gesture in the Italian culture is one which has an open flat handshape, palm down, fingers forwards, combined with an up and down movement. The meaning of this gestures is ‘come here’, and includes the predicate (to come), the arguments (hearer should come to speaker) and the performative (a command). (cf. also Poggi, 1987.) ***** The Swiss conductor and composer, Thüring Bräm, also heads the conducting program at the Musikhochschule in Lucerne (Switzerland), where he tries to continue the work he started with Max Rudolf during his conducting studies at the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia in 1970-1972. Penny Boyes Braem received her PhD in pycholinguistics from the University of California at Berkeley and for the past 20 years has been the director of the Research Center for Sign Language in Basel. She is the author of numerous publications in English and German about sign languages of the deaf. JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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Beauty’s Plea: An Introduction to the Music of William Alwyn By Brian Murphy
Since brass, nor stone, nor earth, nor boundless sea, But sad mortality o’ersways their power, How with this rage shall Beauty hold a plea, Whose strength is no greater than a flower?
—Shakespeare (first quatrain of Sonnet 65)
Bernard Shaw was always fond of quoting Wagner’s dictum that the conductor’s primary job was to give the right tempo to the orchestra (or “the right time to the band” as Shaw even more plainly said it). But, actually and in usual practice, the conductor has a crucial job, which comes even before this putatively primary one: pick the work to be played! To those conductors who look, occasionally, for something freshly distinctive, and truly beautiful, to play: consider the works of William Alwyn (born, Northampton, England, 1905; died, near his home in Blythburgh, Suffolk, 1985).
saying “The history of music is the history of its composition.” In the 20th century, obviously the age of the interpretive performing artist, there was always something a little truculently desperate about Thomson’s statement. Thomas Beecham once “essayed,” as he put it, a definition of “great music”: great music, he said, is “music which enters the ear with facility and quits the mind with difficulty.” Leonard Bernstein’s method of evaluating a new piece of music was even simpler: will it, he asked, give me an orgasm?
By either standard of judgment, Alwyn’s is great music. This is music which should not be allowed to slip through the cracks of history—for the sake of people who need music which is inherently interesting, ravishingly beautiful, and which, in quitting the mind only with difficulty, leaves Alwyn, incidentally, was one of the apparently quite few behind a lingering trace of spiritual affirmation. composers who did not feel that conductors are overpaid stars (“mere executants,” as Virgil Thomson regarded the Alwyn’s kind of beauty—like all beauty, probably—is likes of Toscanini) who play the same audience-pleasing very difficult to account for. (Didn’t Mahler say that works over and over. Alwyn regarded conductors as “interesting” was easy, but “beautiful” was difficult?). the cream of the great musicians, second only to the great Alwyn’s compositional method seems almost without composers in the history and understanding of music. method at all. He believed in catching and then pursuing “the first fine careless rapture” rather than anything like Conductors are perhaps even more than the “cream” of formal development. Influenced, he said, by Liszt, his is the great musicians: since they choose what works will a rather free-form developmental method; but, so careful be heard (with the intuited hope that there will be someone is his avoidance of obvious repetition in favor of the to listen), they have a pretty decisive vote in electing which development of mono-thematic variations, as well as the composers will have the opportunity to sell, to become subtlest of foreshadowing, that his listener nearly always box office—ultimately, which ones become the great has that paradoxical sense of discovering something new composers of their age, which ones, in fact, become which also seems strangely familiar: as if you found History. This is an important—if, to some, rather yourself in a dramatically new emotional landscape— maddening—qualifier to Virgil Thomson’s oft-repeated which yet also makes you feel that you have dreamed 30
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this, or been here, before. He said that he wanted his music to sound logical but not at all constructed . His language is traditional and tonal. Alwyn always felt that finding originality in a traditional, even a familiar, language was both more challenging and communicative than in creating a new one. And he was interested primarily in absolute clarity of effect. Alwyn was a truly—an almost allegorically—Romantic man. In his youth, he was deeply affected by Bertrand Russell’s book The Conquest of Happiness and even more profoundly influenced by Nietzsche’s work, especially Also Sprach Zarathustra; and his life became a serious search for beauty. Like Tosca herself, he “lived for love, he lived for art.” Although he was a thoroughgoing musical pro (tell him what you want, when you wanted it, and there it would be: obviously, no one could write 200 documentary and feature film scores without that kind of professionalism), yet, all his life, he loved music like a besotted amateur. Actually, he loved love—that is, he loved loving—people as well as works of art. For example, it seemed to him a perfectly natural way, one year, to celebrate Robert Schumann’s birthday by playing through the Dichterliebe of “my adored Schumann.” My adored Schumann! What a way to talk! He loved loving and even adoring works of art— but not in the manner of a solipsistic egomaniac: rather, in the way of one who knew his own talents and, intuiting something of what he had to offer, wanted to find his place in this great tradition and living culture of art and music. Of course, he wanted people to admire his talent and love his music. His was a fairly straightforward ambition—in his lifetime, more obviously realized in the cinema than the concert hall. Although temperamentally somewhat nervous, he was not really a complicated man, certainly neither a neurotic nor a tragic one. This rare phenomenon of personal clarity and simplicity shows all through his journal, which is an exhilarating and cheering portrait of a life in the service and pursuit of beauty and art. What manner of man was he? Well, here are three consecutive entries, chosen almost at random, from that journal: [1] November 6th, 1955 Today’s newspapers explain the phenomena in last night’s sky—a thunderstorm over south Bucks,
exceptionally violent for this time of year. Sunday always seems a blank day; a day of unsettled routine when I feel incapable of relaxing and am conscious of unease and maladjustment. The evening, however, was made memorable by listening to my new records of Pelleas et Melisande. Surely nothing more beautiful has ever been composed; it is the magical creation of a super-sensitive genius. This music glows like moonlight made tangible; its pathos is infinitely tender, a nightingale with a thorn at its breast. Monday, November 7th My fiftieth birthday! Li st en ed to a broa dc as t of my Fe st iv al Ma rch, introduced by Lord Harewood to mark the occasion. November 8th Feeling a little jaded after last night’s celebrations. The happiest moment of the day was listening yet again to the recording of the scene where Melisande lets fall her hair in a cascade of exquisite sounds. This whole scene is masterly; it trembles on the very fringes of pas sion but never does it overste p and for sake its magic otherworldliness. Ma de a fa ir co py of th e ha rp pi ec e an d am no w searching for a title —perhaps ‘The Snows of Yesteryear’. [2]
Small wonder that William Mann, the great London Times music critic, described Alwyn as a Romantic composer who pursued a very lonely path. [3] All this love of the “sensitive” and the “exquisite” seemed out of place in the dreadful Fifties, the very period in which he composed his most wonderful scores. Here, for example, is the cultural atmosphere of the Fifties: Randall Jarrell, a most characteristic American poet of the age, complained about an English poet, “who insists on giving you a pound of his heart’s blood with every random ounce of sense.” Alwyn’s certainly was a “lonely path.” Like an Andrew Wyeth going on with his own (more) brooding Romantic vision through the triumphs of Abstract Expressionism, Alwyn, through the assumed Historical Inevitability of atonalism, serialism, etc., always stayed true to his Romantic faith and language.[4] He was equally out of step in the other arts as well: Alwyn collected Pre-Raphaelite paintings long before the current JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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revival (when, in fact, he could afford them; indeed, the sale of his collection, in the later 1960s became something of an event in the history of taste). He particularly loved Rossetti—again, long before the current revival of interest in Rossetti’s poetry and painting. (In conversation, in 1984, he remarked that it has only been since the Sixties that the Pre-Raphaelites have come to be regarded as worthwhile painters; before that, his love for them was thought to be the very essence of Bad Taste.) He described a restless evening: “Moved the Burne-Jones Angels with Trumpets to my bedroom and placed the Rossetti drawing of Three Sang of Love Together (a design for his sister Christina’s sonnet) over the studio mantelpiece where the light flatters the delicate pencilling.”
to the film in his mind, he never thought of his film music as having an independent, concert-hall life; therefore, he was never interested in creating a suite from any of his film scores. However and happily, after his death, a wonderful recording by Richard Hickox and the LSO was released, the actual scores having been scrapped by the studio but reconstructed by Christopher Palmer. To understand Alwyn’s sensibility, one should, as well as listening to this superb Hickox recording, see the film (easily available these days on video and, even more usefully, especially for purposes of studying the music, on DVD): the whole 1940s look and even the ethic of the film are mirrored in the music. In his entertaining book on music, The Brandy of the Damned, novelist Colin Wilson said that the way Alwyn’s music “simply takes over” in the last third of Odd Man Out was, for his His was the true passion. generation, the “royal road” to classical music. [5] In fact, nearly the whole of the second half of the film follows November 22nd. James Mason, as a wounded Irish revolutionary, A sentimental journey by car to Kent to search for the wandering the foggy, surreal, and dangerous streets of churchyard at Birchington where Rossetti was buried. Belfast. The music, with its tread-like bass and mournful The grave was overgrown and neglected; the poet-artist horns, takes us not only into the Belfast streets, but also fo rgo tten . I boug ht a smal l bu nc h of go ld en into the mind of the doomed man as he tries to find his chrysanthemums and laid them on the grave—a shaft of way home. There is even a sort of Liebestod at the very sunlight on a drab November day. end, which is intensely moving to anyone who gets on the wave length, who can love the slow pace, of this very And, rather late in his life, he taught himself French well English, very “Forties” film. enough that he ended up as the translator of a major book of modern—but, again, rather Romantic—French verse. [For a more in depth presentation of Alwyn’s He particularly loved—and caught in his translations— dramatic and romantic inclinations, look for an the straightforward simplicity he found in the Prayers and addendum to this article on the Guild’s website: Elegies of Francis Jammes, a kindred spirit. www.conductorsguild.org.] In addition, he was a very talented amateur painter. (His painting masterpiece, The Gold Bar of Heaven, adorns the Chandos cover of his musical masterpiece, the Lyra Angelica.) Withal, he spent the whole of his relatively long life (1905-85) “burning always,” as Walter Pater had advised, “with this hard gem-like flame.” The burning, the belief in love, the ceaseless searching for new shapes of, and routes to, beauty, all show in his music. No doubt the most dramatic entrée to Alwyn’s mind and music is through the most famous of his film scores—for Odd Man Out. His film music always aimed at giving the emotional effect of a scene rather than a pictorial rendering of the action in sound. So inextricably tied was the music 32
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And, in any case, freed from the constraints of dramatic expression, Alwyn’s symphonies, vocal and chamber music are quite free to go about their blissful, lovely, Romantic business. When Debussy was freeing himself from the Wagnerian past, he said that he had to think about music differently: first, he complained that the chief Wagnerian invention—fusing symphonic development with opera—was the very thing he had to learn to forego and undo. Now, although his symphonies are certainly “absolute” music, Alwyn’s chief invention is bringing a sort of operatic development to purely orchestral music—his last four symphonies and his harp concerto especially. Alwyn once said (in conversation with the author) that he regarded the symphony as an essentially dramatic form.
Alwyn often said that his three favorite 20th century composers were Debussy, Puccini, and Berg. Berg’s influence can be heard in the subtlety of Alwyn’s harmonic structures. (William Mann’s notes to the Second and, especially, the Third symphonies offer fascinating harmonic analyses.) Perhaps the most efficient way for a contemporary musician to get inside Alwyn’s music is to listen to his Sinfonietta for Strings (1970, 26’). There are two recordings of this—Alwyn’s own on Lyrita, and Hickox’s on Chandos. This is his most “Modern” score: it begins restlessly alternating between 2/4 and 3/8 with dissonances about as prickly as he ever produced. In the second movement, at bar 55 (5’08” in Alwyn’s recording), there is a quotation from Berg’s Lulu. It has been very subtly foreshadowed by the last two bars of Example 1 in the leap from B-flat to the high A, which becomes a motif used throughout the Sinfonietta . What is most startling about the quotation (the only such quote in all Alwyn’s music) is the way it sounds, naturally, like Berg, but also sounds so like Alwyn: the slightly weird leap from G-flat to E-flat is surely reminiscent of the famous opening phrase in Wagner’s Tristan. Berg uses this motif at three most intensely, but ironically, “romantic” moments in the opera: first, it occurs when Lulu (in “Meines mannes,” Act I, scene 2, bar 615) declares her “love” for Dr. Schoen; it occurs secondly at the very end of the first act (bar 1356) when this “love” makes Schoen feel the axe falling and thus foreshadows his death at Lulu’s hands; third, it occurs in the final scene of the opera when, before he kills Lulu, Jack the Ripper sees the lesbian Countess Geshwitz’s obsessive and hopeless “love” for Lulu, and he pets her like a dog, saying “Armes Tier”— “Poor old beast.” Surely Berg meant this motif (it also occurs in the dramatic last movement of the Lulu-Suite) to represent a sort of dark underside to Wagner’s lofty love-yearning. Alwyn, in effect, turns the phrase over again and finds in it something almost tender, or even compassionate—poor old humans! It leads into of one of Alwyn’s characteristically melodically molded conclusions. It is an extraordinary moment. The Puccini influence is most obvious in Alwyn’s love of melody—but also learned, he often said, from Irish folk music. In addition to his beautiful and effective film scores, of his major works (an opera, five symphonies, three
concerti grossi, the Sinfonietta for Strings , two song cycles, and three string quartets) three works in particular abound in great melodies—and would serve as a happy introduction for anyone new to Alwyn’s art— (1) Second Symphony in two parts (1953, 30’); (2) Autumn Legend , a one-movement piece for English horn and string orchestra (1954, 12’) (3) Lyra Angelica, a concerto for harp and string orchestra in four movements (1953-1954, 31’) All three of these wonderworks have been recorded twice. At the beginning of the new century, Alwyn’s available recorded legacy [see Appendix II] consists of 4 Lyrita CDs (re-issues of Alwyn’s own 1970s recordings) plus the two-CD set of Miss Julie, conducted by Vilelm Tausky; and the beautifully and prodigiously produced Chandos series of 18 CDs—all the symphonies, much vocal, and chamber music, including the invaluable CD of his film music. In all of his music, he aimed always, he said, for clarity of effect and simplicity of means. However, an important distinction must be made about Alwyn’s kind of compositional simplicity. His own description (in conversation) of the great Second Symphony makes it sound as if anybody could do it: as an example of how he wanted his music to sound “logical without sounding constructed,” he said, “So, take the Second Symphony, for instance: I get that little tune [going] at the beginning, and it goes on building all the way through the work until it finally reaches its apotheosis in the long coda, the summing up of the whole work; after that silence, then comes that wonderful D major chord on the brass, then everybody plays the tune that began it.” This sounds baby simple—as if it possesses the true, surface simplicity of a Hikare Oe—until you realize that this logical but apparently not constructed work actually is firmly built. It achieves the often-sought but only occasionally realized late 19th century amalgamation of sonata-movement form with the multi-movement sonata cycle. Its most illustrious predecessors are the Liszt BMinor Sonata and the Saint-Saens Symphony No. 3 (which was dedicated to Liszt, another of the subtlerthan-he-seems masters from whom Alwyn learned so JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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Example 1:
Sinfonietta for Strings ,first 13 bars, p. 1
Reproduced by permission of copyright holder Alf red Lengnick & Co. [a division of Complete Music Ltd.] Hire from Chester Music: Tel 1 284 705 705; Emai l adam .har vey @mus ics ale s.c o.uk .
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JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
much). Both Alwyn’s Second and Saint-Saens’s Third He said this the whole of his Second Symphony have exactly the same design: they are in two parts but a developed from the single phrase—a simple, but not 4-movement symphonic design can be discerned: “uncatchy” melody—heard at the beginning. A bassoon starts things off in a simple and straightforward but clearly Part I: very assured and original way. Introduction Dramatic first mvt. (Rehearsal Letter D) The second bar, in particular, suggests an immediate Adagio (Q) sound, which is as distinctively and uniquely Alwyn’s as is a thumbprint. The violins answer at once, then modify Part II: and subtly reshape the opening theme. Scherzo (triple meter) Finale (after AA) Of course, this is a musical drama. The second part Coda (GG) begins Allegro Molto—Molto Impetuoso and builds to an exciting finale—but this kind of excitement is rarely Because Alwyn gives occasional “Mahlerian advisories,” (though occasionally) what Alwyn drives at. To get right (sempre vibrante, for example), it is clear that the to Leonard Bernstein’s memorable criterion, at Letter GG, conductor has both leeway and responsibility for after a long, slow-breathing Allargando is a daring, interpreting and shaping —precisely because the music, breathless silence and then comes the climax of the whole in so skillfully burying its scaffolding, is so subtly, but work, in a beautiful, passionate sense of release (that urgently, expressive. “wonderful D-major chord on the brass”) after which
Example 2:
Sinfonietta for Strings ,bar 55 to conclusion of second movement
Reproduced by permission of copyright holder Al fred Lengnick & Co. [a division of Complete Music Ltd.] Hire from Chester Music: Tel 1 284 705 705; Emai l adam .har vey @mus ics ale s.c o.uk .
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2 . p , 2 . o N y n o h p m y S f o g n i n e p o : 3 e l p m a x E
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. k u . o c . s e l a s c i s u m @ y e v r a h . m a d a l i a m E ; 5 0 7 5 0 7 4 8 2 1 l e T : c i s u M r e t s e h C m o r f e r i H ] . d t L c i s u M e t e l p m o C f o n o i s i v i d a [ . o C & k c i n g n e L d e r f l A r e d l o h t h g i r y p o c f o n o i s s i m r e p y b d e c u d o r p e R
the original little tune (Example 3) is played tutti and a long undulating coda follows. This is the Alwynian kind of climax: it continues to develop both subtly and powerfully until the conclusion, when winds at KK, then brass at LL, play this wonderful tune again, until the timpanist, now supported quietly by the strings, has the gentle last word. Berg, Puccini and Debussy: these three, but the Debussy influence is everywhere. Although there is less mist in Alwyn’s music, both composers favor delicacy and quiet loveliness. Many of Debussy’s works—not just the Prelude à “L’apres-midi d’un Faune” —seem like ballets, or works describing a drama. Alwyn’s works have a sort of mistiness within: his music makes you feel quite sure that there is a drama going on, but you cannot quite see it; it is a kind of dream-drama: as with the two lovers whom he silhouetted in the moonlight at the end of the first act of his opera, Miss Julie, the drama is in their minds; it is in their spirits melting together—rather like the heavenly vision of passionate love in Rossetti’s great poem and painting The Blessed Damozel (which Alwyn called “the picture of my dreams”).
had the uncanny feeling that Rossetti was in the room with him. Having it both ways? Clearly, there is an widearmed, Walt Whitman-esque willingness to be contradictory on this important subject: “Very well, I contradict myself; I contain multitudes.” In his Treatise on Instrumentation , Berlioz describes the English horn this way: “Its tone, less piercing, more veiled and heavy than that of the oboe, does not lend itself so well to the gaiety of rustic melodies. Nor can it express passionate laments; tones of keen grief are scarcely within its range. Its tones are melancholy, dreamy, noble, somewhat veiled—as if played in the distance. It has no equal among the instruments for reviving images and sentiments of the past if the composer intends to touch the hidden chords of tender memories.” [7]
This is also a perfect description of Autumn Legend — and a perfect description of much of Alwyn’s music generally. In “The Blessed Damozel,”—both the poem and the painting—there is pictured a heaven where lovers are rapturously re-united; the damozel of the title leans her warm bosom on “the gold bar of heaven” and yearns for her lover, still on earth, and still thinking of her. Here Rossetti’s poem, also called “The Blessed Damozel,” is are Rossetti’s haunting lines from the poem—lines, which the basis of Autumn Legend , Alwyn’s miniature Alwyn placed at the head of the score—and serving, masterpiece, and, with this work, he joined a long line of perhaps, as something more than an ordinary epigraph: composers who created music for it, beginning with Debussy himself and including many British composers. Surely she leaned o’er me—her hair What makes Alwyn’s version so unusual is that it is not Fell all about my face . . . vocal: it is a work for Cor anglais ( Alwyn preferred this Nothing: the Autumn fall of leaves. locution to “English horn”) and string orchestra. “The The whole year sets apace. music,” wrote the composer, about the time of its premiere in 1955, “needs no formal analysis; it is a free After these mysterious lines comes music which certainly improvisation arising spontaneously from the poet’s sounds like Berlioz’s “hidden chords of tender memories.” words. Unashamedly romantic, Autumn Legend is my The Debussy influence certainly lingers; one passage (bar own very personal tribute to the memory of Dante Gabriel 57, 5 bars after letter E) insinuatingly recalls “Nuages.” Rossetti, the poet who inspired Debussy, the painter extolled by Delacroix.” [6] To some listeners it may appear that Alwyn has loaded his great Harp Concerto, Lyra Angelica, with too many However, in the manner of Debussy, who gave titles to literary associations (beginning with the very title). If so, his piano pieces well after he composed them, Alwyn these references can be ignored. [8] Others may find them insisted that his first impulse was to write music for Cor somewhat helpful as a guide to the general spirit of the Anglais and string orchestra: the Rossetti came after—as four movements: a help to the listener as to the general mood and feel of the piece. His music was, he insisted, always about music. 1. “I looke for angels’ songs, and heare Him crie.” Yet he also said that in composing Autumn Legend, he 2. “Ah! Who was He such pretious perils found?” JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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3. “And yet, how can I leave Thee singing goe, when great tune—surely Puccinian, perhaps even specifically reminiscent of “E lucevan le stele” and the death-march men incense’d with hate Thy death foreset?” 4. “How can such joy as this want words to speake?” from the last act of Tosca. The final three pages are particularly wonderful as we go into a typically Alwynian These lines are taken from Christ’s Victorie and Triumph, conclusion— ppp, dim. a niente. The final movement is (1610) by Giles Fletcher. This is a work known almost structured somewhat like the third: the opening, Allegro exclusively to literary scholars as one of the models for jubiloso, offers eight truly jubilant bars to the harpist Milton’s Paradise Lost. The line for the 4th movement (Example4). may aptly sum up most of Alwyn’s music, and the 3rd may hint at the truth in the great lines of Shakespeare used as After a brief scherzo-like passage, there comes an the epigraph to this essay: “with all this rage, how beauty extended and reflective coda, and—very dramatically— can hold a plea” is a question that, to a born-again Romantic, a return of the lovely melody from the first movement, in answers itself. Yet many may simply find all this far too a different key and played a little faster. This material “pretious.” It certainly reveals Alwyn’s genuine and very works its way through the now-familiar series of molto diminuendi and molto tranquilli to a somewhat deep love for 17th century literature. [9] surprisingly decisive, rather than dreamy, conclusion Only the final movement of Lyra Angelica ends fortissimo; (Example 5). all the other movements end very quietly. Although there is a great rush in the strings at the beginning of the third What makes Alwyn’s masterpiece remarkable is its movement, the general feeling of this work is, almost combination of the slow enchantments of the music coupled with a rhythmic tautness and his equally entirely, quietly ecstatic. characteristic drive toward a crisp clarity of texture and Alwyn’s most characteristic and most beautiful melodies a succinct simplicity. In fact, his entire oeuvre has a are in this work. After a slow Adagio introduction and a movement toward concision—from the full “grand swirling cadenza-like introduction of the harp, the first manner” (as he called it) of his First Symphony to the movement offers this lovely melody—which has, in fact, mere 15 minutes of his final, Fifth, symphony. Here is an been foreshadowed by the harp introduction—to the first apt passage from his Journal: violins and the violas. The first movement is full of lovely turns and apparent wanderings—such as a charming I onc e sai d in a lec ture that the ult imate aim of a siciliano (at Letter K, near the end). The second movement, composer is the expression of the world in a single note. possibly the most beautiful of the four movements, has a This has been quoted against me. But it is true. Bach moment, at Letter C, that will help anyone decide if this and Beethoven achieved it—I mean this nth degree of music is one’s own cup of tea: this section may well be simplification, which can endow even an innocent scale with infinite meaning. Puccini actually did it with a single described as “like movie music.” One admits: yes, this note: the single fortissimo staccato ‘A’ as the consul sounds somewhat “like movie music,” but for those to finishes reading Pinkerton’s letter to Madame Butterfly. whom this is not A Bad Thing, the climax of the movement All other composers at a similar situation would have will sound like the realization of a great inner drama. After resorted to a dramatic orchestral climax, but Puccini this, the movement ends quietly. here conveys a world of drama in a shock and a silence, which makes the heart stand still.
Each of the two inner movements contains a great melody. After the wispy ppp conclusion of the second movement, the beginning of the third movement offers a striking contrast with a great up rush in the strings followed by three almost Beethovenian hammer strokes; however, these are immediately softened (and, later, they become a shaping influence through to the end of the movement). And, then, a mere 11 bars into the movement comes a 38
JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
Of all the orchestral works in the standard repertoire, Alwyn’s orchestral and chamber music, aspire, it might be said, to the condition of Wagner’s Siegfried Idyll. They share with Wagner (at their very best of course) the combination of the personal, the deeply felt, the free form yet formally interesting, the variety, the climactic lift and the settling into the languorous ache, the hypnotic, the
5 4 . p , s r a b 8 t s r i f , t n e m e v o m h t 4 , a c i l e g n A a r y L
: 4 e l p m a x E
0 6 . p , s r a b 6 g n i d u l c n o c ,
a c i l e g n A a r y L
: 5 e l p m a x E
. k u . o c . s e l a s c i s u m @ y e v r a h . m a d a l i a m E ; 5 0 7 5 0 7 4 8 2 1 l e T : c i s u M r e t s e h C m o r f e r i H ] . d t L c i s u M e t e l p m o C f o n o i s i v i d a [ . o C & k c i n g n e L d e r f l A r e d l o h t h g i r y p o c f o n o i s s i m r e p y b d e c u d o r p e
R
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expression of the inner world of spirit and love. All this— Modernism had become sterile: composers were and concision too! supposed to “create a hypothesis and realise it musically, like a research paper. I thought this was ridiculous.” William Alwyn’s very distinct musical world is an [Notes to CD Affairs of the Heart, 2000, CBC Records invaluable contribution, both personal and civilized, to SMCD 5200.] Alwyn had been expressing, and acting (in Virgil Thomson’s wonderful phrase) that “secret on, these very sentiments in the dry 1950s. Incidentally, civilization” which is music. one of Mozetich’s most beautiful works, The Passion of Angels, a Concerto for Two Harps and Orchestra (1995) is very like Alwyn’s Lyra Angelica in feel and mood. ENDNOTES Quotations are from Alwyn’s journal, titled “Ariel to 5 On a syllabus for a film course about Movies & Music, Miranda,” published in Adam International Review, ed. I called the first half of the course (I hoped provocatively) “How The Movies Saved Classical Music.” (The second Miron Grindea, Nos. 316-17-18, London, 1967. half was called “Pop Goes the Movies.”) 2 The title he finally settled on was “Crepuscule”—a little, 3’, work, now available in a recording by Ieuan Jones 6 Reprinted in Alwyn’s recording, Lyrita SRCD.230. made in 1994 (Chandos 9197). 7 Berlioz-Strauss, Treatise on Instrumentation, trans. 3 William Mann’s superb notes for the Lyrita recordings T. Front (New York: Kalmus, 1948), p 184. of the Second and Third Symphonies have been slightly abridged for the CD reissues, but they remain essential 8 Evidently, all the literary associations and references reading for any lover of this music. It is worth noting that were of some assistance to figure skater Michelle Kwan, William Mann’s name is probably most famous for a who used this music in her free-style competition in the controversial review he wrote of one of The Beatles’ early 1998 Olympics; to her, as she explained in a TV releases. His discovery of something important, interview, it was enough that the music made her think something of great interest and beauty in mere pop music, she was not skating but “playing with angels.”) I have and in appearing in a forum no less august than The always regretted that it was Prokofiev who came upon a Times, started, according to John Lennon, “the whole title, which would have suited many of Alwyn’s works intellectual bit about The Beatles.” In some ways, given beautifully—Fugitive Visions. the intellectual climate, Mann’s championing of Alwyn’s symphonies was a parallel act of independence of thought 9 For example, Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682), and of critical courage. physician and author—best known for his Religio Medici— was one his great heroes, whose words, from 4 Since Alwyn’s death, minimalism and neo-Romanticism Urn-Burial, provide the epigraphs to Alwyn’s final, Fifth, have triumphed in what one can describe only as an Symphony (1970, 15’), itself a four-movement miracle Alwynian way. For instance, Canadian composer Marjan of concision. Mozetich (b. 1948) abandoned the orthodoxies of his teachers (early, approved Modernist works of his had NOTE: The delightful phrase “Mahlerian advisories” is a instructions in his scores for “the banging of chairs”) when debt among many I owe to my friend and colleague David he “suddenly embraced Romanticism.” He was, he said, Daniels, who has conducted Lyra Angelica, and who has “pounced on” for daring to say “that music is emotion, also contributed generously to this whole essay—advice that it is a medium in which to express feelings.” technical as well as suggestions rhetorical—all of great value. 1
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APPENDIX I WILLIAM ALWYN: FIRST PERFORMANCES OF MAJOR WORKS Symphony No. 1 Halle Orchestra, Sir John Barbirolli, Cheltenham; July 6, 1950 Symphony No. 2 Halle Orchestra, Sir John Barbirolli, Manchester; October 14, 1953 Symphony No. 3 BBC Symphony Orchestra, Sir Thomas Beecham; October 10, 1956 Symphony No. 4 Halle Orchestra, Sir John Barbirolli, London (Proms Concert); August 26, 1959 Symphony No. 5 Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, William Alwyn, Norwich; October 27, 1973 Lyra Angelica Sidonie Goosens (harp), BBC Symphony Orchestra, Sir Malcolm Sargent, London (Proms Concert); July 24, 1954 Autumn Legend Roger Winfield (English horn), Halle Orchestra, Sir John Barbirolli, London (Proms Concert); September 2, 1955 Sinfonietta for Strings Hurwitz Chamber Orchestra, Adrian Sunshine, Cheltenham; July 4, 1970
PUBLICATION DATES OF PRINCIPAL ORCHESTRAL WORKS Symphony No. 1 (41’), 1949 Symphony No. 2 (30’), 1953 Symphony No. 3 (32’), 1957 Symphony No. 4 (35’), 1960 Symphony No. 5 “Hydriotaphia” (15’), 1973 Festival March (8’), 1951 Concerto for Oboe, Harp & String Orchestra 20’), 1951 Concerto Grosso No. 1 in B-flat (11’), 1952 Symphonic Prelude—The Magic Island (10’), 1953 Lyra Angelica—Concerto for Harp and String Orchestra (31’), 1955 Autumn Legend—for Cor Anglais and String Orchestra (12’), 1956 Elizabethan Dances (18’), 1958 Overture—“Derby Day,” (7’) 1962 Sinfonietta for Strings (26’), 1974 All scores are published by Alfred Lengnick & Co., Ltd., Purley Oaks Studios, 421a Brighton Road, South Croydon, Surrey, England. U.S. Agent: Theodore Presser Other addresses: http://www.musicweb.uk.net/Alwyn The William Alwyn Society, Andrew Palmer, Secretary 122 Vernon Avenue, Old BasfordNottingham WG6 OAL, England Tel: +44 (0)115 978 0863 Fax: +44(0)115 913 0865 Email at
[email protected] JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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APPENDIX II WILLIAM ALWYN: A CHRONOLOGY-DISCOGRAPHY* 1930
Piano Concerto No. 1 [15’] (Howard Shelley, LSO, Richard Hickox, 1993)
1934
Sonata for Oboe and Piano [16’] (Nicholas Daniel, Julius Drake, 1994)
1935
Green Hills, solo piano [2’57”] (Julian Milford, 2000)
1936
Tragic Interlude, for 2 Horns, Timpani, and String Orchestra [8’] (City of London Sinfonia, Richard Hickox, 1992)
1939-39 Violin Concerto [40’] (Lydia Mordkovitch, LSO, Hickox, 1993) 1938
Rhapsody for Piano Quintet [10’] (David Willison, Quartet of London, 1985)
1939
Night Thoughts [solo piano, 5’] (Julian Milford, 2000) Divertimento for Solo Flute, (Christopher Hyde-Smith, Lyrita, 1972; Kate Hill, 1994) Pastoral Fantasia for Viola and String Orchestra [13’] (Stephen Tees, City of London Sinfonia, Hickox)
1940
Overture to a Masque [9’] (LSO, Hickox, 1992)
1943
Concerto Grosso No. 1 in B-flat major for Chamber Orchestra [12’] (City of London Sinfonia, Hickox, 1992)
1944-45 Concerto for Oboe, String Orchestra and Harp [20’] (Nicholas Daniel, City of London Sinfonia,
Hickox, 1992) 1945
Calypso from “The Rake’s Progress,” [4’] (arr. Christopher Palmer, LSO, Hickox, 1993) Suite for Oboe and Harp [6’] (Nicholas Daniel, Ieuan Jones, 1993)
1945-46 Sonata alla Toccata [solo piano, 10’] (Sheila Randell, Lyrita, 1960; Julian Milford, 2000) 1946
“Odd Man Out” Suite [arr. Christopher Palmer, 27’] (LSO, Hickox, 1993)
1948
Fanfare for a Joyful Occasion for Brass and Percussion [4’] (LSO, Hickox, 1992) “The Fallen Idol” Suite [arr. Christopher Palmer, 21’] (LSO, Hickox, 1993) Concerto No. 2 in G Major for String Orchestra [14’] (LPO, Alwyn, Lyrita, 1979; City of London
Sinfonia, Hickox, 1992) Sonata for Flute and Piano [8’] (Kate Hill, Julius Drake, 1994) 1949 42
“The History of Mr. Polly” Suite [arr. Christopher Palmer, 21’] (LSO, Hickox) JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
Symphony No. 1 [41] (LPO, William Alwyn, Lyrita, 1977; LSO, Hickox, 1993) 1950
Music for Three Players [16’] (Haffner Wind Ensemble, 1993) Festival March [8’] (LPO, Alwyn, Lyrita, 1985; LSO, Hickox, 1992)
1951
Trio for Flute, Cello, and Piano [14’] (Haffner Wind Ensemble, 1993)
1952
Symphonic Prelude—“The Magic Island” [11’] (LPO, Alwyn, Lyrita, 1972; LSO, Hickox, 1992)
1953
Symphony No. 2 [31’] (LPO, Alwyn, Lyrita, 1975; LSO, Hickox, 1992)
1954
Lyra Angelica—Concerto for Harp and String Orchestra [30’] (Osian Ellis, LPO, Alwyn, Lyrita,
1979; Rachel Masters, City of London Sinfonia, Hickox, 1992) 1955
‘Crepuscule’ for Solo Harp [3’] (Ieuan Jones, 1994) String Quartet No. 1 in D Minor [23’] (The Gabrielli Quartet, Unicorn Records, 1971; The Quartet of
London, 1982) Autumn Legend for Cor Anglais and String Orchestra [12’] (Geoffrey Browne, LPO, Alwyn, Lyrita,
1979; Nicholas Daniel, City of London Sinfonia, Hickox, 1992) 1956
Symphony No. 3 [34’] (LPO, Alwyn, Lyrita, 1972; LSO, Hickox, 1993) Fantasy-Waltzes [solo piano, 35’] (Sheila Randell, Lyrita, 1960; John Ogden, 1985; Julian Milford, 2000) Overture: The Moor of Venice [arr. Frank Wright, for brass band, 9’] (The Williams Fairey Band,
Bryan Hurdley—Brass from the Masters, Vol. I—1997) 1957
Elizabethan Dances [18’] (Nos. 1,2,5,4, LPO, Alwyn, Lyrita, 1979; complete, LSO, Hickox, 1992)
1959
Twelve Preludes [solo piano, 26’] (John Ogden, 1985) Symphony No. 4 [37’] (LPO, Alwyn, Lyrita, 1975; LSO, Hickox, 1992)
1960
Overture “Derby Day,” [6’] (LPO, Alwyn, Lyrita, 1979; LPO, Hickox, 1992) Piano Concerto No. 2 [32’] (Howard Shelley, LSO, Hickox, 1993)
1961
Movements for Piano [16’] (Julian Milford, 2000)
1962
String Trio [16’] (The Quartet of London, 1985) Sonata for Clarinet and Piano [12’] (Joy Farrall, Julius Drake, 1994)
1964
Concerto Grosso No. 3 for Woodwind, Brass, and Strings [15’] (City of London Sinfonia,
Hickox, 1992) JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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1970
Sinfonietta for Strings [25’] (LPO, Alwyn, Lyrita, 1972; LSO, Hickox, 1993) Mirages, A Song Cycle for Baritone and Piano [words by Alwyn, 26’] (Benjamin Luxon, David
Willison, Lyita LP, 1972) 1971
Naides: Fantasy-Sonata for Flute and Harp [12’] (Christopher Hyde-Smith, Mariso Robles, Lyrita,
1972; Kate Hill, Ieuan Jones, 1993) 1972
Symphony No. 5 “Hydriotaphia” [16’] (LPO, Alwyn, Lyrita, 1975; LSO, Hickox, 1993)
1975
String Quartet No. 2 “Spring Waters” [21’] (The Quartet of London, 1982) A Leave-Taking, for Tenor and Piano [25’] (Anthony Rolfe-Johnson, Graham Johnson, 1984)
1976
Invocations, for Soprano and Piano [20’] (Jill Gomez, John Constable, 1983) Miss Julie, an opera in two acts [118’] (Jill Gomez, Benjamin Luxon, Della Jones, John Mitchinson,
The Philharmonia Orchestra, Vilem Tausky, Lyrita, 1977) 1980
Concerto for Flute and Eight Wind Instruments [18’] (The Haffner Wind Ensemble of London,
Nicholas Daniel, 1993) 1984
String Quartet No. 3 [23’] (The Quartet of London, 1985)
NOTE: * This list was compiled in July 2000. (In 2001, a second volume of film music was released by Chandos— CHAN 9959.) All recordings are on the Chandos label unless otherwise indicated; LPO=The London Philharmonic Orchestra; LSO=The London Symphony Orchestra.
***** Brian Murphy was born in 1939 in Detroit and educated at the University of Detroit, Harvard, and the University of London. He has taught English at Oakland University since 1969 and became Director of the University’s Honors College in 1985. He is the author of two books, a study of CS Lewis and a novel, The
Enigma Variations.
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JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
Organizing and Conducting the College-Community Orchestra By Victor Vallo Jr.
The college-community orchestra is a musical phenomenon that has continued to grow in interest and participation throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It involves “town-and-gown” musicians combining their creative energies to make music together. Fred Petty, in his article “College-Community Orchestra,” describes the college-community orchestra as “an ever growing body of instrumentalists open to college students, faculty, and community musicians, performing a rich variety of music from Vivaldi to Ives.”1 With this kind of ensemble comes opportunities for life-long learning for conductors and musicians of all ages. To understand a college-community orchestra, one must first understand what a community orchestra is. It can be considered a group of amateur musicians from the local community who voluntarily come together to enjoy performing music as an ensemble. As the Latin word amare (to love) implies, amateurs do what they do out of a love for that activity. This does not necessarily imply a lack of professional standards in amateurs. Douglas Sanford mentions that it is not surprising that a great artistic growth in so-called amateur organizations, combined with a seriously troubled situation among many professional ensembles, has resulted in an environment in which a few community orchestras are now challenging professional orchestras for a share of the audience market.2
experience for college students that they might otherwise not have. Values such as these make college-community orchestras a valuable part of the cultural climate of any college and community.
GETTING STARTED If no orchestra exists at the local college, university, or in the community, the situation may be ripe for starting one. In organizing a college-community orchestra, there are a few things to consider. Representatives from the college, preferably the president and the continuing-education division, should be contacted to determine whether the college would be willing and able to support such an ensemble. Once an agreement has been reached between the college and community representatives to jointly organize such an orchestra, there are at least seven areas that need to be addressed: membership, logistics, funding, publicity, patrons, programming, and a board of directors. 1. Membership: Securing membership is the first thing
to consider in starting a college-community orchestra. Whether one is planning on a string orchestra or a full symphony orchestra, much depends on what the initial interest level is. A survey of the community and the college should be done to see if there will be adequate numbers and kinds of instrumentalists for the various sections of the orchestra. As is generally the case, there will probably be a shortage of string players compared to a plethora of College-community orchestras are an extension of wind and percussion players. community orchestras in that they involve members of both the college or university and the local community. Next comes the challenge of trying to achieve a balance The value of these orchestras is that they bring together of instrumentation. This can be done through auditions the talents of both, thereby fostering a healthy rapport and by establishing a waiting list. For example, what do between the local and the educational communities. you do if six clarinets are interested but you can only College-community orchestras also provide an orchestral accept two? JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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If you do not have enough string players, a possible solution could be to ask if anyone in the orchestra plays a secondary string instrument to fill in the missing parts. The college should concurrently be contacted to see what instruments are represented by its interested faculty, staff, and students. If the college agrees to sponsor this new ensemble, it could look at the student records to see who has an orchestral background. These students could then be directly contacted to invite their participation. 2. Logistics: Good logistics becomes the next important
step, especially in locating a suitable space to rehearse on a regular basis. The college should have at least one adequately sized rehearsal space that can accommodate a group of 25 to 50 musicians. A flat space is preferable, one that is well-lighted, temperature-controlled, and has good acoustics. The stage of an auditorium can be excellent, providing the college would allow its use on a regular basis. Accessibility for larger instruments such as double basses and percussion (i.e. timpani) is important, especially since the players need to have easy access to and from the rehearsal area.
e. Sponsorship of particular concerts by businesses f. Paid promotional advertisements in the concert programs g. Grants from arts agencies and foundations 4. Publicity: Good publicity and public relations are
vital to the orchestra’s success and positive image in the community. Concerts with effective publicity will help attract an audience, which in turn will bring in future patrons of the orchestra. Effective publicity can be best achieved by organizing a publicity committee from the members of the orchestra who can place ads in the newspaper, conduct a phone marketing campaign, and contact the local radio stations. There may be a member of the orchestra who has media connections. Flyers can be designed and distributed to each member of the orchestra for posting in the community and around the college.
The sponsoring college can help by publicizing the orchestra in its campus newspaper, newsletter, web pages, and campus-wide e-mail. The Chamber of Commerce may be interested in adding information about the orchestra in their newsletter and calendar of events. The availability of an adequate number of chairs is another If the college-community orchestra is offered for consideration. The need for music stands can be resolved academic credit, the course listing should also be by the players bringing a folding music stand if the college published by the college and the Chamber of Commerce. does not have any or enough. 5. Patrons: Orchestra patrons can be a vital source of Concerning music, the orchestra has the option of community contacts, funding, and overall support on a borrowing music from a local public or private school stable and continuing basis. Once a patron list is orchestra, college, or another community orchestra. established, a mailing list of their names and addresses Renting or purchasing the music is another option, which can be created. The names of patrons can be listed in the depends upon funding, the next topic. program, which may encourage other people to become patrons of the orchestra. 3. Funding: Adequate funding is the next vital area of concern in organizing a new college-community orchestra. 6. Programming : Well-chosen literature will have a Sponsorship by the college does not necessarily mean very significant effect on the morale and success of the that the college will fund the orchestra, especially if it is orchestra. It is crucial that the music not only be within providing a rehearsal space. Because the orchestra the capability of the general level of the group, but that it cannot rely entirely on volunteer conductors and borrowing simply be fun to play and listen to! If the music is too all of its music, it becomes necessary to find adequate difficult or the music is not fun to play, the morale and and consistent sources of funding: eventually the attendance at rehearsals may be diminished. a. Dues from orchestra members It would be helpful to ask members of the orchestra what b. Fund-raising activities pieces they would like to perform. This could only c. Admission fees at concerts enhance the morale of the group by allowing them input d. Donations at concerts into the programming for the orchestra. 46
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A variety of music needs to be selected in programming for a college-community orchestra (a recommended list of repertoire is at the end of this article). Whereas audience appeal should be considered when choosing music, it is also important that the orchestra as a whole be considered. An audience will hear the piece only once, but the orchestra will hear the work many times in rehearsal. A survey conducted by James Van Horn found that “in music of America as well as with Europe, conductors seem to try to program things that have familiarity for their audiences.”3 This “familiarity factor,” as he calls it, has become vital for both audience and orchestra appeal.
CONDUCTING REHEARSALS It is up to the conductor to ensure that all rehearsals are well planned before each rehearsal. As a conducting teacher once told this author, every rehearsal should be treated as a performance. Each rehearsal must be a focused and combined effort by all to achieve the maximum musical results in the limited time available. In order to do this, there are a number of areas that are suggested for the conductor: 1. Rehearsal Schedule : Once a suitable rehearsal
schedule is established (at least once each week), the day and time of rehearsal needs to be consistent throughout the season. This will allow the members to schedule around a set time frame for maximum and timely attendance at all rehearsals. Publishing a detailed schedule for each rehearsal can also facilitate good attendance and morale. It is important to coordinate all rehearsals and concerts with the academic calendar first to avoid any schedule conflicts.
Another aspect in choosing literature is whether to borrow, rent, or purchase the music. Budgetary considerations need to be taken into account in this matter. Borrowing music is successful as long as you are known by the lender, and he or she is not wary of lending music for free. Renting music is another possibility, but sometimes this can be rather costly, especially if not all the parts are returned in time or are not in their original condition. Renting also puts a time 2. Rehearsal Climate : The members need to feel constraint on the orchestra because it has to have the welcome and not pressured to perform perfectly at all music ready for performance in a limited amount of time. rehearsals. No one should ever be embarrassed at anytime in a rehearsal. It’s good for the conductor to Finally, purchasing the music is also a possibility and is have high expectations of the members and to ask for sometimes preferable because it allows the orchestra their best efforts, but he or she should never let those to be able to rehearse it longer and mark it as needed. expectations get in the way of treating the members with It also enables the orchestra to build its own music kindness and understanding. library. Purchasing is often only slightly more expensive than renting. 3. Musical Objectives : Each rehearsal needs to have its own attainable musical objectives. To do this, the 7. Board of Directors: One of the most important conductor should have clear and predetermined goals organizational steps is to form a Board of Directors to for each rehearsal. If possible, after handing out all of the attend to the business and legal matters of the orchestra.4 music, publish in the rehearsal schedule which pieces or It should consist of select members of the orchestra, sections of pieces are going to be rehearsed each week community members, and members from the college/ so that the members know ahead of time what is going to university. Ideally, representation should also be from be focused on and practice beforehand. Such a schedule the local schools, media, churches, professional would also help the woodwind, brass, and percussion community, and a lawyer to handle any of the legal players know when to be present, especially if they are matters. The board should take the leadership role in not called for in certain works. handling most, if not all, managerial duties (i.e. setting up by-laws) so that the conductor may focus his or her Another musical objective is to help the orchestra better energies on the musical growth and direction of the understand the music they are rehearsing and will orchestra. The conductor should be ex officio on the eventually perform. To do this, the conductor must board. assume the role of teacher. The enjoyment of the music JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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by the orchestra members will hopefully increase as their understanding of the music increases. Malcolm Holmes said it well when he remarked: “To develop a good amateur orchestra, the conductor must have had sufficient training and experience in the mechanics of his art to enable him to teach his players, collectively and individually...(he) must be a teacher in the finest sense of the word.”5 4. Rehearsal Breaks : Knowing when to schedule
to perform a concert at that event for both the college and the local community. 3. Attire: It is important that the orchestra look as
uniform and as professional as possible. Concert black should be the acceptable attire, which means a tuxedo for the male members and black dress or pants suit for the female members. If new tuxedos pose a financial burden, used tuxedos or black suits should be considered. Looking professional will help to enhance the orchestra’s perception of itself as well as the audience’s perception of the orchestra.
breaks is another important aspect of rehearsals. If rehearsals are more than two hours, a break should be scheduled soon after the first hour. In addition, collegecommunity orchestras tend to have a number of older musicians who may appreciate breaks more than their 4. Recording: A good audio and/or video recording of younger counterparts. selected concerts is an excellent way to preserve the musical efforts of the orchestra. With today’s audio and 5. Open Rehearsals : Since a part of the orchestra’s video advancements, a respectable digital recording can success depends on the support of the college and the be made very economically. community, open rehearsals can help to enhance that support. There may be members of the community (i.e. A compact disc would be a great way to archive the parents) as well as students who wish to attend a rehearsal concerts and let the members either have or purchase just to see how their children, friends, and colleagues are their own CD. Selling or giving away these CDs to doing. Whether the open rehearsals are attended or not, patrons at future concerts can also help promote an invitation should still be offered. community support.
PERFORMANCES The musical efforts of any college-community orchestra need to culminate with a successful concert. To help achieve this culmination of combined efforts, it is suggested that the conductor also consider the following: 1. Concert Schedule : Concerts should be scheduled
5. Reception: An excellent way to end a concert would
be to host a reception immediately following the concert. This allows the audience to informally meet the members of the orchestra and hopefully help personalize their experience at the concert. Informal conversations with the players and the conductor at these receptions are also, from this author’s experience, excellent opportunities to recruit prospective members for the orchestra.
with the agreement of both the college and community CODA members of the orchestra. The number of concerts should be based on the time anticipated to prepare the music. One or two concerts a semester offers the group The college-community orchestra is a unique and attainable musical goals as well as giving the orchestra wonderful kind of musical organization today. One of its ample time to prepare the music for concert performance. raisons d’être is to be a contribution to the cultural needs and desires of the academic and local communities. 2. Concert Locations : It is important that concert Another purpose of the college-community orchestra is locations be strategically selected to allow for maximum to be an opportunity to make music for itself and its audience attendance and the best acoustics possible. audiences. Gerard Wolfe says it well by commenting Churches and college auditoriums can be excellent that “performing in the (college-community) orchestra locations, especially if the acoustics are good and there gives a great many people the chance to enjoy classical is sufficient seating. If there is a special event at the music in a way formerly not available, and to perform college, what better way to say “thanks” than by offering publicly, while enhancing their own musical skills.” 6 In 48
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the long run, the orchestra, the college, and the community are the musical beneficiaries.
Gliere
RECOMMENDED REPERTOIRE FOR COLLEGE-COMMUNITY ORCHESTRAS
Grieg
Peer Gynt Suite Holberg Suite
Handel
Water Music Royal Fireworks Music Messiah
Haydn, F.J.
Symphony No. 94 (Surprise) Symphony No. 100 (Military) Symphony No. 103 (Drum Roll) Symphony No. 104 (London)
Ives
Variations on “America” The Unanswered Question
Bach, J.S.
Brandenburg Concertos Nos. 3 & 4
Beethoven
Egmont Overture Leonore Overture Symphony Nos. 1 & 2
Bernstein
Bizet
“Russian Sailor’s Dance” from The Red Poppy
Selections from West Side Story (arr. Mason) Overture to Candide A Musical Toast L’Arlesienne Suite No. 2 Symphony in C
Khachaturian Sabre Dance from Gayane Borodin Brahms
Copland
In the Steppes of Central Asia Academic Festival Overture Hungarian Dances Nos. 5 & 6 Variations on a Theme of Haydn “Hoe-Down” from Rodeo Outdoor Overture Variations on a Shaker Melody
Corelli
Concerto Grosso No. 8 (Christmas Concerto)
Dvorak
Slavonic Dances (Opus 46) Symphony No. 8
Elgar
“Nimrod” from Enigma Variations Pomp and Circumstance Marches Nos. 1-4
Gershwin
American in Paris Suite (arr. Whitney)
Porgy and Bess (selections) Gould, Morton American Salute
Mascagni
Intermezzo from Cavalleria Rusticana
Mendelssohn Hebrides Overture Symphony No. 3 (Scottish) Symphony No. 4 (Italian) Mozart
Overture to the Marriage of Figaro Overture to the Impresario Overture to the Magic Flute Overture to Cosi fan Tutte Eine Kleine Nachtmusik Symphony No. 35 (Haffner) Symphony No, 36 (Linz) Symphony No. 40
Mussorgsky
Night on Bald Mountain (arr. Simpson)
Offenbach
Overture to Orpheus in the Underworld
Prokofiev
Lieutenant Kije Suite
Ravel
Bolero JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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RimskyKorsakov
Russian Easter Overture Procession of the Nobles from Mlada
Rossini
Overture to the Barber of Seville Overture to the Thieving Magpie
Von Suppé
Light Cavalry Overture Poet and Peasant Overture
ENDNOTES Fred Petty, College-Community Orchestra , p. 1.
1
Saint-Saens
Carnival of the Animals March Militaire Francaise from Algerian Suite
Schubert
Symphony Nos. 5 and 8 Rosamunde Overture
Sousa
Stars and Stripes Forever (and all concert marches)
Douglas Sanford, The Rise of Community Orchestras , pp. 1-2. 2
James Van Horn, The Community Orchestra: A Handbook for Conductors, Managers, and Boards, p. 91.
3
4
James Van Horn, pp. 5-6.
R. Schumann
Symphony No. 1 (Spring)
Malcolm H. Holmes, Conducting an Amateur Orchestra, p. 3.
Shostakovich
Festive Overture
6
Sibelius
Finlandia The Swan of Tuonela
J. Strauss
Emperor Waltz Radetzky March Overture to Die Fledermaus Thunder and Lightning Polka
5
Stravinsky
Circus Polka
Tschaikovsky
March Slav The Nutcracker Symphony No. 2 (Little Russian)
Verdi
Triumphal March from Aida
Wagner
Prelude to Act III of Lohengrin Prelude to Die Meistersinger
Gerard Wolfe, College-CommunityOrchestras , pp. 1-2.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Holmes, Malcolm H. Conducting an Amateur Orchestra . Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951. Petty, Fred. College-Community Orchestra . Internet article, 1997. Sanford, Douglas. “The Rise of CommunitOrchestras.” The Podium, March 1997. Van Horn, James. The Community Orchestra: A Handbook for Conductors, Managers, and Boards . Westport: Greenwood Press, 1979.
Wolfe, Gerard. College-Community Orchestras . E-mail article:
[email protected], January 1998.
von Nurnberg
Procession to the Cathedral from
Lohengrin
Siegfried Idyll
50
*****
JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
Dr. Victor Vallo is an Associate Professor of Music at Anderson College (SC) where he is the Coordinator of Music Education and Director of Instrumental Activities. In 2001 Dr. Vallo was appointed as the new Music Director/Conductor of the Anderson Symphony Orchestra.
A Study of Student-Community Orchestras in the United States and Canada By Dr. Lyn Schenbeck & Rebecca Jones Rose
The student-community orchestra can be a valuable asset to many institutions of higher education. In order to create and maintain a viable organization, college and community must work together to solve problems including governance, seating, solos, number and location of performances, social interaction, patronage (i.e., financial support), and community service. This study was prepared under the Research Scholars Program at Agnes Scott College in which an undergraduate student and a faculty member may collaborate on a research project. Our project explored a number of issues that affect a student-community orchestra.
colleges and arranged each category by student population to create several tables—Comparison Data (Appendix A), Budget Figures (Appendix B), Orchestra Numbers (Appendix C), and General Information (Appendix D). Unanswered questions are blanks in the tables. The following commentary includes quotes extracted from the surveys.
METHODOLOGY
In our orchestra, the concertmaster and each section principal sit in on auditions. While we don’t actually vote on who is accepted, I always ask for input on each auditionee, and each one of the players present signs the form regardless of whether the individual is accepted or not. Often the principals know their sections better than I do and are more capable of determining whether the individual will fit in.
We used the following parameters to define the organizations: a. Orchestras had to contain both students and significant numbers of community members. b. Conductors had to be on the college or university faculty. c. Students might or might not receive college credit for participation in the orchestra. We developed a survey form which was sent to every student-community orchestra we could locate in the U. S. and Canada utilizing the index under “Director of Orchestra,” in the College Music Society’s (1999-2000) Directory of Music Facilities in Colleges and Universities, U. S. and Canada . Each school was called
to determine whether its orchestra fit our parameters. Seventy-two schools in the United States and Canada had such organizations. Forty, or 56%, of our surveys were returned. We separated schools into liberal arts and non-liberal arts
AUDITIONS According to our surveys, the conductor (and/or artistic director) usually runs the auditions.
When a community player is hesitant to play alone, I allow that individual to sit in one night and “audition” by playing in the section. As a retired music teacher, that person may have the power to bring in (or discourage) many students and former students who are quite good. Therefore, having him in the orchestra, even if his playing is not specifically on the technical level I want would be a wise political move that would gain more than it would cost in terms of personnel.
Audition repertoire varies greatly. Almost all schools allow the auditionee to choose a solo in addition to other requirements. Only about half the schools require sight reading and/or scales. Several schools indicated that the audition team selected one scale and the auditionee chose the other. Most organizations require an orchestral excerpt as part of the audition.
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MEMBERSHIP The survey did not show a correlation between total population of the institution and the size of the orchestra, nor did total population relate to the proportion of community and student members. It was evident from the surveys that no matter how many violins are in an orchestra, the number of other string instruments was rarely proportionate. These numbers varied greatly in some places from year to year. “For a couple of years I might have 8 cellos and 12 violins, and then the tables will turn and I’ll have 10 cellos and 6 violins.” All but one orchestra either had a plethora of winds or just enough, while 6% were lacking in one or more brass players, and 5% lacked percussionists. (See Appendix C.)
In several organizations seats are simply assigned by the conductor. “Community members usually sit toward the back and I try to put weaker students with community members for mentoring possibilities.” Three organizations surveyed do a combination of assignment, audition, and challenges so they can place community and faculty members “where they would help the most,” or “[in the] back of the section—to be supportive, not to replace or ‘demote’ regulars.” In one school “paid or faculty members are placed—students must audition.”
In the woodwinds and brass the problem can be even more difficult because much of the classical repertory requires only pairs of winds and brass. If the school has its own wind ensemble or band, the problem is somewhat alleviated since other opportunities for performance exist. If, however, orchestra is the only instrumental SEATING performance ensemble on campus or in the community, Some conductors allow community seats to remain the determination of who will play which parts can be constant, moving students around as needed. Other very complicated. Schools address that problem in organizations do placement auditions each year, some different ways. run jointly by the principal chair of each section with the conductor, moving everyone’s seat accordingly. One Some tell community members up front that if there are conductor said, “Ours is called ‘seating check.’All string students who can play those parts, student instrumentalists players are scored on three excerpts from the concert will have priority. Assuming this, the next question music. [They] are scored by hired players (pros), and becomes: When students get priority, what happens to are reseated for the concert based on [their] scores.” community members, particularly those who have been Another approach some schools take, more easily done with the orchestra for some time? One school solved in a small orchestra, is to allow each section to determine that problem by creating its own “internal” wind ensemble its own seats by consensus. and using one of the wind players, either student or community, to conduct it. This would be a good task for A number of ensembles rotate seats (in all instruments) a retired music teacher whose playing may no longer be with each concert. This gives the community and student on the highest level. That way, when the conductor is members an opportunity to sit in different places and hear working with the strings, the wind ensemble will be the orchestra from varied perspectives. Unfortunately, preparing its own piece(s). Another conductor said, “I many community members, especially the older players, am loyal to long-time community players for filling spots do not like that because they have become comfortable where some years there are no students. But when good in a particular place. One conductor said, “Some long- students come, the community players are always willing time community members are not rotated—this is our to give them a chance to play.” Another suggests, “Ask commitment.” community members how they feel about this issue. Don’t make any assumptions.” Seating challenges are addressed in several ways. “[Challenges are decided] on the advice of the studio Other schools audition winds and brass every year and teacher for that section.” “Music majors who play well simply use the best players. The obvious difficulty come first.” “[Challenges] are allowed only for principal indicated with this method is that when students graduate, chairs.” “[Challenges] are allowed only if it is mutually new students may not enter on those instruments, and agreeable with the person being challenged.” one must revert to the community for players. Other 52
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respondents asserted that community competition becomes more intense, and they end up with better players. Some use more than one player per part on each wind and brass part, which allows a number of players to gain experience on those parts. Several begin that way and then audition players right before the concert to determine who will play a particular concert. The rationale appears to be that rehearsals are always covered, and those players who are really interested and dedicated practice harder for the chance to play the concert.
All of them feel that having input in the form of committees and an elected Board makes the ensemble more educational and challenging.”
The issue of assigning principal chairs in the strings is more complicated. Many schools simply leave the principal player in that seat unless someone challenges. Fourteen schools said that they pay professionals to play principal even if they have capable students. Several others place faculty in those chairs. Most schools, however, audition their own orchestra members for principal chairs and leave these people in place until they either graduate or choose to leave. All orchestras that do not pay professionals said that they give students priority in principal chairs. In order to maintain sound leadership, particularly if the principal chair is an inexperienced student, a faculty member or strong community member is often placed on the inside of the first stand. This allows the student to get the experience of leading with help from another strong player. One conductor said, “I always use students as principal players, give them the responsibility of bowing the parts, leading the section, playing the solos, but the faculty member [or community person] who sits beside him or her becomes a mentor who is ultimately responsible.”
Most of the other 23% (those that do have boards) are liberal arts colleges. Few have constitutions that structure the government. All have at least a president and the conductor/music director on the board. Four have atlarge community members and no at-large students. Two schools include at-large students and no at-large community members; two other schools have both. One school has a chaplain and a student conductor on its board in addition to a full slate of officers. Some boards meet monthly, others twice each year, and still another, twice each semester. Length of meeting time ranges from one to three hours.
ORCHESTRA GOVERNANCE
They especially like the at-large members because these people
An ensemble that interacts positively will produce much better music than one pervaded by strife and negativity. The personality of the conductor and the governance of the orchestra can have an enormous effect upon members’ attitudes. “One comment on my teaching evaluations was ‘Now that we [students] have input into the orchestra I enjoy playing more because I feel like my opinions really matter.’” Another commented, “Some of my community people just want to play, while others are really interested in lending their experience and wisdom to the board. All my students, however, want a say in how the orchestra is run. They’re not interested in artistic control, but just want to help with PR and ideas for different kinds of concerts.
can share anything with them and I become aware of potential
The conductor/artistic director, alone, governs 77% of the orchestras surveyed. The only remarks made by conductors who assumed sole leadership were: “I have an instrumental handbook that I wrote,” and “as a University course, we do have a syllabus.”
The thing I like best about the board is that I don’t have to worry about whether problems exist. My board members keep me apprised of any problems so we can t ake steps to solve them before any major issues arise. Many times an orchestra does not feel comfortable talking directly with me about something of concern, but most are very comfortable with their peers. are there primarily to foster good communication. [A] member conflicts.
General tasks of the various boards include public relations, fund raising, social events, conflict resolution, music selection, and budget. Another conductor commented, “The most important aspect of my orchestra’s governing body is the communication comfort level when the members don’t have to talk to the conductor directly. They are more comfortable giving suggestions to their peers.” From these two statements, perhaps the main responsibility of the governing body is JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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to help maintain good communication between conductor inconsistency of percussion needs presents a problem. We have no solid core of regular percussionists except and members. our own timpanist. We fill the section ad hoc.” “Percussion Of the conductors surveyed, 45% ask for input regarding needs vary greatly from concert to concert. We almost repertoire, 30% allow “some” input, and the rest do not. always need a timpanist, but not all timpanists can play other instruments so I tend to shy away from music with Some comments follow: “I generally ask for input during many percussion parts. It is also difficult to know how to one year that will be used for the next academic year. I redistribute the parts if we don’t have enough players to try to vary the repertoire so that it challenges different cover all of them.” sections for each concert.” “I want them to like the repertoire, but I must choose based on its educational Lack of academic credit was another concern. Over the value as well.” “My orchestra often comes up with better past decade many schools that had never given academic suggestions than I do because many of them, especially credit for ensembles have begun to do so. Those schools the community people, have played longer than I have.” that do not yet offer credit are finding that current students It would seem that encouraging suggestions is important. may not become part of an ensemble without it. One conductor said, “When our school began to offer Many factors are involved in the choice of repertoire, academic credit six years ago, the size of our ensembles some of which, such as budget restrictions, the conductor almost doubled. I also believe that today’s society is one may not be willing to share with the group for appropriate of rewards. Students feel that if there is no external reasons. One conductor whose yearly budget for reward, the internal one is not good enough to satisfy repertoire was $500 said “I hesitate to share the amount them. It is sad.” of my budget with the orchestra or they might think we can’t afford to perform good music. They know we have Competition among colleges and lack of scholarship funds a small library.” This can be particularly true in an were two other repeated concerns among conductors. academic setting.. “One program I chose turned out to “More and more, it’s not about how good you are, but be too easy for the orchestra. They learned all the music how much money you can offer the student. Schools are so quickly that I had to add a piece or two. I asked them finding it necessary to ‘buy’ students.” In urban areas for suggestions and got several good ones. When I added where there may be as many as twenty or thirty schools, the extra piece, several community members told me that competition for talent is often fierce. Several conductors they were excited and challenged by the new pieces and in schools with populations less than 2000 indicated that were glad I had asked them for help. The same people larger schools with bigger orchestras seem to be attracting also said that they were glad all the music was not this more students, especially strings. difficult.” Schools are addressing recruitment needs in a number of RECRUITING AND RETENTION ways: Seventy-six percent of the schools indicated the constant need to recruit strings. In surveyed community colleges, the turnover of students is so great that they indicated the need to have a very strong community base, particularly in the string area. One school indicated concern over lack of quality as well as quantity among string players. “We not only have trouble getting strings, but I am concerned about the quality of the ones we do get.” Only 10% of the schools needed to recruit woodwinds, 3% needed brass, 11% needed percussion, and 10% indicated that their needs vary significantly from year to year. “The 54
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75% 65% 60% 30% 23% 3%
used word-of-mouth, contacted high school teachers, made telephone calls ran ads in community newspapers ran ads in campus newspapers did nothing
Some suggestions to enhance recruiting were: creating chamber groups within the orchestra, sending out information packets to incoming college and area high school students, having faculty and/or the orchestra itself
visit area high schools and area festivals, telephoning conductors commented on this issue with various community musicians, and creating and distributing flyers perspectives: “I come here to play. I have arthritis in the community. and I can’t practice too much. I’m willing to do what I can, but if the music’s too hard I won’t stay in [the Of recruiting quality string players, one conductor said, orchestra].” “It is often difficult to choose repertoire “We also teach pre-college students [in order] to raise that is challenging enough to keep the students happy, the standards of string playing in the area.” A number of but easy enough that the community people don’t schools are beginning preparatory programs for children. need to put in hours of practice.” “Students resent Some sponsor Suzuki programs, others have the community players that show up once in a while and neighborhood music schools, where children in urban don’t practice their parts.” Another related comment was areas can come to the college on Saturdays for “I can’t build the quality of the orchestra if the community instruction. The instructors for these lessons range players don’t practice.” from graduate and exceptional undergraduate students to adjunct and sometime even full-time How do we deal with the people in the orchestra that faculty. The experience for student instructors is don’t practice? Several conductors indicated that, for the invaluable, particularly those who want to teach after student, the grade helps that process. The community graduation. If a high school student, for example, is population must be inspired to practice. In the area of taught by a current college student and is good student resentment for community players who don’t enough to play in the orchestra, the fact that the practice and whose attendance is not good, one college student is also in the ensemble will stimulate conductor said “Therefore, students and community a child’s interest in joining the orchestra. The fees players [together] decide whether or not [the recalcitrant for these lessons are graduated according to parental players] can continue to stay with the orchestra.” Another incomes, and the schools often make special said, “I make sure to have community as well as students arrangements with a local music store to rent on the Board of Directors. These issues have been instruments. This helps both school and community addressed in our Constitution, a document that is given to make yet another connection. to each member upon entrance into the orchestra.” “I believe that repertoire can make all the difference [in the Two conductors solved the problem of scholarship retention process], so I ask for input from both community needs by establishing patron committees that created and student members.” “I have found that by making the an endowment fund. Another worked with the community people active in the organization, either by development office at his college to target specific having representatives on the Board, or by setting up donors for endowed chairs. committees in which they can participate, they come more regularly.” “We have an attendance policy for all members. Although all these issues are important in the recruitment process, it is often the personalities of There is some leeway for work, but our players all must those doing the recruiting that can make the most follow the rules or may not remain in the orchestra.” difference. “If they like and trust the conductor, recruiting is much easier. If the membership is upbeat and positive, they will attract more people.” “I find that the more accessible I am to the membership, the more they will recruit on their own for the ensemble. It is definitely word of mouth that makes the most difference.”
The subject of adjunct faculty was also a concern. “We have few full-time instrumental teachers on our faculty.”1Another pertinent comment was: “The adjunct faculty will not play in the orchestra unless they get paid. The full-time faculty members don’t have time to play in the orchestra. If we had more faculty in the orchestra, I think more of our students and community people would The level of repertoire affects retention. If the music stay.” is too easy, the membership is bored; if it is too difficult, some people become discouraged. Many Some general suggestions for retention were also made JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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“I take my orchestra on an outing each semester. When they bond with one another it’s easier to keep them year after year. Sometimes we go to a concert; other times to a local master class.” “I bring in guest conductors.” “I host workshops and master classes on my campus.” “We try to have professional meetings on campus that concern string players.” “I try to be as flexible as possible with the schedule for non-majors and community personnel.”
Many living composers are sensitive to those issues. At the recent Southeastern regional Conductors Guild meeting in Atlanta, composer James Oliverio made a point to tell conductors that he is self-published and has a sliding fee scale for all his pieces. He stressed that he will work with any school to help make it possible for them to perform his music. Other composers are also beginning to do that. With the creation of computer-notation software, it is much easier to be self-published, so parts are easier to generate and maintain. This can substantially help to reduce fees. One conductor’s comment that seems PROGRAMING vitally important was, “I used to make assumptions that Since most orchestras play a variety of music written all rental fees were outside my budgetary capability. I am often wrong and so I now don’t rule anything out until I before the twentieth century, the only style period the check it out.” survey addressed was the twentieth century. Of the schools surveyed, 58% perform twentieth-century music BUDGET on a regular basis. Conductors indicated that 15% of the rest perform it sometimes and 27% do not perform it at Total budget figures reported in the survey range from all. Sixteen schools (70%) of the fifty-eight percent that $300 to $100,000 per year. No correlation between size perform it regularly are liberal arts colleges. One of school or type of institution and the yearly budget conductor who regularly performs twentieth-century amount was evident from the numbers (Appendix A). music added, “. . . and we regularly do works by living The orchestra with the highest number of paid players composers, very important.” (54) has an annual budget of $18,000. In the case of an orchestra with a $17,000 annual budget, regular salaries The biggest stumbling block to the performance of (10 paid players) account for 60% of that ensemble’s twentieth-century music appears to be budget. A great expenses. The orchestra with the largest budget deal of that music is rental-only and the fees tend to be ($100,000) has only 7 paid players. Soloists account for high. Fees usually depend on the length of the piece, 20% of its total expenses and extra salary for the seating capacity of the venue, whether or not it is open to conductor (beyond that which the college pays) accounts the public, whether or not there is an admission charge, for 33%. Music rental and purchase combined are only and how many performances will be done. In the pop 3% of that orchestra’s budget and players’ salaries and musical theatre realm, that fee goes even higher. As account for 18%. one conductor from a small liberal arts college said, “Your library hasn’t gained anything and you must rent again to Conductors indicated that revenues were often obtained perform the piece at some future date.” An even stronger from multiple sources. Some schools got revenues from comment was also made, “Why should I have to rent a each category, while others got all revenue from one piece of music and pay extra fees when my school is category. Most obtained funds from at least two of the already licensed, as it should be, by ASCAP, BMI, and sources below: SESAC? Those blanket licenses are very reasonable and I have no problem with that, but I feel that I am being college funds: 98% charged twice for the privilege of playing music that I corporate sponsors: 28% consider important.” Another said, “If conductors don’t private donors: 28% champion and commission new works by living arts grants: 18% composers, who will? But I am disappointed to hear endowed funds: 15% about a new work, or even to commission one, and then fund raising: 10% discover that I can’t perform it, or can’t perform it again other grants: 2% without a rental fee.” member dues: 2% 56
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See Appendix B for a table showing the relationship between revenue origins and the population of the institution. Expenses included everything from players’ salaries to scholarship aid. Several conductors indicated that their funds were simply part of the general music department budget and they didn’t know exactly how much they had to spend. One conductor said, “[It is] difficult to identify as we are a university orchestra, so, for example, office supplies are supplied as needed, as are publicity, travel, house management, instrument maintenance, and recruiting activities. The only ‘budget’ item I can refer to is music purchase/rental.” “Funds are spent in [the areas of recruitment and retention, publicity, and office supplies] but they come from the General Music Department budget and not the Orchestra Budget.” Others had “separate budgets for each category.” Expenses that were listed under “other” were salaries for conductors and business managers. Music purchase and rental represents a high proportion of many budgets. It would be helpful in smaller towns if a library could be created that is central to a group of member schools and maintained by fees from each institution or orchestra from which parts could be borrowed. For those of us in areas where there is a regional or state orchestra that has a good library, perhaps arrangements could be made to pay them the fee and use their resources. The money would help with upkeep of the library, perhaps even hiring an extra librarian just to help fill the needs of the borrowers.
CONCLUSION We initially assumed that schools with larger student populations would have larger orchestras and budgets. We also thought that non-liberal-arts schools would most likely have larger orchestras and budgets than liberal arts colleges, particularly because many of these institutions have schools of music or conservatories from which to draw students. Yet our data revealed no differences between liberal arts and non-liberal arts schools in terms of anything surveyed; however, since our study excluded orchestras made up only of students or students and faculty, it presumably excluded many institutions in the conservatory or large school-of-music category. Such institutions may well fit our original assumptions. Issues faced by student-community orchestras are unusual in many ways. These groups can bring their communities and colleges together like no other activity. Our goal was to assess the status of these ensembles regarding specific issues, using our findings to suggest ways they could be improved. Respondents’ commentaries turned out to be more useful than the statistics, since the quantitative data we gathered yielded few significant correlations. Many anecdotes, however, contained helpful suggestions in matters such as personnel, scheduling, and repertoire.
***** Lyn Schenbeck has her doctorate in both Instrumental and Choral Conducting from the University of Colorado-Boulder. Her many accomplishments include conducting choirs and orchestras around the country, writing liner notes for 5 different record labels, and serving on the Board of Governors of the NARAS/ Atlanta. Dr. Schenbeck is currently Director of Choral and Orchestral Activities at Agnes Scott College in Decatur, Georgia, where she conducts the Orchestra, two choirs, and teaches voice and opera/musical theatre.
***** Rebecca Jones Rose is currently a Social Studies Teacher and Music Ministry Co-Moderator at St. Pius the X Catholic High School, Atlanta, GA. She also plays in the Agnes Scott College Community Orchestra. JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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ENGAGING THE HEAD VOICE: SIMPLE EXERCISES FOR AMATEUR COMMUNITY CHOIRS
By Welborne E. Young VOCAL RANGES
One of the most rewarding and challenging pursuits a conductor can undertake is directing and conducting an amateur community choir. The singing membership of these ensembles presents the conductor with an array of abilities, backgrounds, and ages as they express a love of music making that drives and enlivens their pursuit for musical excellence. Robert Shaw addressed this particular aspect of amateur music making in a letter to the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra Chorus, “I have felt for some years that the arts were too important to be left entirely to the professionals...Even with the ‘best of intentions,’ the things that people do ‘for love’ are likely to undergo modification when done only ‘for money.’”1 Aside from the challenges of governance, marketing, and fund-raising, conductors of amateur community choirs must address the problems resulting from the “blended” vocal abilities of their ensemble. Unlike most other community music organizations where private lessons or school study were necessary for members to learn to play their instruments, the membership of these ensembles is a confluence of singers who have never studied voice and singers who are well trained. Often, a common musical and vocal technical languages may not exist. The questions of whether the conductor should be teaching voice, of the effectiveness of group instruction, or even of whether choral demands on the voice versus solo demands on the voice are compatible will not be discussed in this article. The voice is, however, the 66
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instrument with which the conductor must work within an ensemble of “blended” abilities often without the benefit of a common vocabulary. Group vocal challenges are as numerous as the articles and books on vocal pedagogy. This article will address only one issue, the utilization of the head voice with the goal of correcting some vocal problems common to most amateur community choirs. Specifically these problems are: the soprano and alto voice between G4 and C5, inflexibility and pitch obscurity in the bass voice below D3, and strident singing beyond, or inability to access notes above, the upper passaggio for sopranos and tenors. Simple exercises that require little technical explanation will be suggested to correct these problems. These suggestions are not intended to be a panacea. Thomas Hemsley writes, “In practice, if singers are to develop the ability to respond with accuracy and subtlety to all shades of feeling and meaning, the head-voice or mezza voce must be an essential ingredient in all their singing.”2 It must be stated here that there are differing opinions among voice professionals on the number of vocal registers. James McKinney, and many voice-science professionals, identify three registers: modal, fry, and falsetto (for men) or whistle (for women). McKinney states further, that it is in the modal register where the majority of singing occurs. It is the non-static nature of the larynx
and the thinning or thickening of the vocal folds that allows evenness and transition of the singing voice from lowest notes to highest.3 Richard Miller, on the other hand, writes that the terminology used by “speech investigators” (McKinney may be included) is too limiting and ignores “the subtle differences in a number of register timbres recognized in traditional schools of singing.”4 He further states, there are two transition points or passaggi, the primo passaggio and the secondo passaggio , that define three registers: the chest voice, the mix or middle voice, and the head voice.5 Miller relies on historical writing, recognition of aural cues in timbre, and singer sensation and vibration to support his statement. The untrained singers especially need the timbre and sensation indicators to improve their singing. It is Miller’s vocal register terminology that will be used here. Because of their vital connection to engaging the headvoice, two topics specific to the entire ensemble need to be discussed before proceeding to the main body of the paper, 1) the steps to producing the singing voice and 2) vowel production. First, untrained singers and the ensemble in general need a systematic and consistent approach to creating sound. Appropriate space precedes an energized breath, which precedes sound or, basically: space, air, and then sound. Appropriate space includes both pharyngeal space and aperture (mouth opening) space. This brings to mind the often-used expression, “Breath in the vowel.” If the singer can re-create the sensation, then the vocal tract and the aperture will be in the correct position to produce the desired sound. While there are several differing views on breathing, James McKinney outlines the process in four steps: inhalation, suspension, exhalation (singing), and recovery.6 It is in the transition from the suspension phase to the exhalation phase that many amateur singers have trouble. The tendency is to mistakenly use too much tension in positioning the vocal folds as a valve to hold air in thus making them rigid. This rigidity affects onset and all subsequent sounds. Glottal onsets, ragged starts, and overly weighty, dull, and inflexible singing are indicators of this problem. Two exercises applied in warm-ups can assist the singers in becoming aware of the vocal mechanism without undue technical explanation from the conductor. During breathing exercises, reduce or eliminate the suspension phase by immediately and gently reversing the airflow after inhalation. This will help keep the vocal
folds open and pliable. Miller writes of an aspirate onset to help correct this problem as well.7 Have the choir perform Exercise 1. Request that the ensemble sustain an aspirate sound on the first pitch and slowly allow the vocal folds to engage until the most vibrant singing tone is achieved before completing the exercise. Begin the exercise in the key of D and ascend by half steps. Do not exceed the key of B-flat. This range of keys aids the singer in strengthening the middle voice by mixing the head voice down.
EXERCISE 1
Second, finding the correct gradation of vowel or vowel color for the pitch to be sung is frequently difficult for untrained singers. What may be the most vibrant vowel production for the alto section at a specific pitch may need to be modified by all other sections because of the pitches those sections are singing or singer ability. Miller states, “In the historical Italian School concentration is on graduated vowel modification. Flexible adjustment of the vocal tract must be permitted in order to define all vowel forms.”8 This implies that a unified ensemble vowel may require simultaneous adjustments of that vowel from section to section based on range. It is, therefore, not contrary to state that conductors must strive for vowel unification throughout the ensemble especially when that means a variety of vowel colors are necessary to unify the group vowel sound. Below, Chart 1 illustrates the continuum of vowels using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
CHART 1
Given the fluid nature of vowel color in relation to pitch, this investigation will address only the most common issue with the [a] sound. Frequently, the untrained singer cannot sense the pharyngeal space needed to correctly produce the vowels at any given pitch. A most common error occurs when the open vowel [a] becomes [^] in the JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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singer’s voice. The pharyngeal space has collapsed and the soft palate has dropped. The untrained singer needs to feel the sensation necessary to correct this problem. Ask the ensemble to repeat after you while you vary the [a] sound in brightness and pitch in rapid succession. Once the ensemble achieves the vibrancy and space you are seeking, immediately apply that sound to Exercise 1 above. If there is a particular place in the music you are working on that requires that sound apply it there as well. Many untrained singers inadvertently isolate vocal registers. One common example of this is found in the soprano and alto voice in the range G4 to C5. At one extreme there is the upper limit of the chest voice and at the other extreme there is the lower limit of the head voice. When isolated, the untrained chest voice will have strength to about G4, while the untrained head voice will have strength beginning about C5. Singing with pure head-voice below C5 produces a weak unfocused sound, while forcing the chest-voice above G4 produces a loud, raw sound. Both lack focus and pitch integrity. A mixture of these two voices must occur to create evenness and flexibility in this range. Singers should try to strengthen and integrate the head voice down. Hemsley states, “One thing is certain...the head-voice must always be part of the mixture, and should always lead.”9 To achieve this mixture in women’s voices the [u] and [o]sounds tend to provide the most pharyngeal space. These closed vowels can also aid in reducing the amount of chest voice a singer might tend to engage. In Exercise 2 below, the singers should be encouraged to create the necessary space, accelerate the air, resist getting louder as they ascend the first interval of a perfect fourth, and maintain a piano dynamic. Further, they should maintain the openness and light production they achieved as they descend. Begin the exercise in the key of D and ascend to the key of F or F-sharp. Work your way back to the key of D. Again, this range of keys develops the middle voice by integrating the head voice down.
of the vocal tract as they ascend without losing the forward focus of the [u] sound. Used in warm-ups this aids the singer in exploring the head voice. Whether it is a reflection of current cultural influences or a misunderstanding by singers that what they feel as they sing is necessarily what is heard, many amateur bass singers overly darken vowels and overly engage their chest voice. This practice renders the voice inflexible, obscures the pitch, and actually reduces the volume produced. Bass singers should not falsely add to the timbre they naturally create. Most often, the singer makes too much space too low in the vocal register and sings too loudly creating a faux bass resonance. This may cause an abundance of vibration in their heads, but the actual sound is trapped in the mouth and throat and lacks vibrancy and direction. Inability to move notes in tempo, to accurately sing correct intervals greater than a third, and to sustain pitch integrity are all symptoms of a lack of head-voice integration. To correct this, begin with a falsetto exercise that has two stages. Singers should sing a descending five-note major scale from dominant to tonic on either [u] or [o] beginning high in the falsetto. Each succession of the exercise is a half step lower. Singers should carry the falsetto as low as possible. This provides the singer with a pharyngeal sensation that they should be able to re-create in the head voice. Ask the singers to now sing the same exercise beginning on B3 utilizing the pharyngeal space and lightness of production they developed from the falsetto stage of the exercise. The head voice will probably be weak but should develop. Exercise 3 illustrates another exercise to integrate the head voice down. On the lowest note, the singer changes to the [u] sound and is encouraged to create the necessary space and accelerate the breath prior to negotiating the octave leap. Further, the pharyngeal space and light vocal production should be carried down the scale.
EXERCISE 3
EXERCISE 2
For greatest effectiveness, this exercise should be carried no higher than the key of E and no lower than the key of When done correctly, the singers will feel the lengthening A. For all sections, rapid scale and arpeggios should be 68
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scheduled regularly into the warm-ups to improve vocal the tongue is placed for the [i] sound), modify the [o] to flexibility, breath management, and integration of the head [U], and modify the [a] to [É]. voice. EXERCISE 5 Sopranos and tenors frequently encounter trouble accessing notes in the highest part of their range and making them beautiful within the context of the ensemble sound. The more extreme the note or the more demanding the tessitura, greater is the need for the singer to understand how vowel modification, integration of the head voice, and breath energy affect the voice as it This exercise, like the others, ascends by half step. The approaches the upper notes. Sudden shifts in space, both singers should become aware of the space and breath pharyngeal and aperture, or inappropriate adjustments needed to sing beautiful vowels above the staff. As has in breath energy at the apogee of the vocal line defeat been mentioned before, the use of rapid scales and beautiful singing. Above all, the conductor must help the arpeggios extends the vocal range, encourages an singer sense the subtle changes in vowel, breath energy, energized breath, requires vowel modification, and aids and pharyngeal space prior to arriving at the moment. in integrating the head voice. Exercise 4 couples an energized breath with vowel modification exercises as the singer moves from a closed Shaw has written, “It is clear to anyone who has worked bright sound [i]or closed dark sound [o]to the open [a]. with choruses of both ‘amateur’ and ‘professional’ voices, Again, it is the more closed vowels that encourage that well-taught voices can make a better choral sound utilization of the head voice. Begin the exercise with the than un-taught voices. The teaching of voice has to be [i] sound. As the singers ascend, the vowel should modify one of the most difficult and complicated of musical slightly (open) as they reach the top and sing [a]. Each endeavors. You can’t see it, you can’t touch it – and, if repetition of the exercise should be a half step higher. At you’re the one doing it, you have to depend upon someone the key of E or F change the beginning sound to [o]. This else even to hear it.”10 Developing the head voice is one change should allow for more pharyngeal and aperture element necessary for the conductor to successfully space for the higher notes. combine the “blended” abilities of an amateur community choir. It can strengthen the soprano and alto middle voice, EXERCISE 4 lighten and add vibrancy and accuracy to the bass voice, and assist the soprano and tenor voices into their highest pitches. This will in-turn improve ensemble intonation, blend, balance, vibrancy, and open avenues to more expressive, dynamic singing. The suggestions given here are by no means intended to be all encompassing. They It is important that the conductor listens for and corrects are what many amateurs need; simple and to the point, any [a] sound that is too spread or too dark as this will related to sensation, and fairly easy to execute. impede the singers’ ability to access the highest notes with any grace. A more legato exercise that focuses on One final word about amateur community choirs. When space and vowel modification to encourage the utilization the ensemble is confident of the technical work and of the head voice is below in Exercise 5. This exercise therefore free to give heart, personal experience, and spirit can be sung on [i], [o], or [a] with modification as the to their performance, the music lives in a special way. singer approaches the perfect fifth. Modify the [i] sound This type of performance transforms the individual singer, with the aid of a closed German mixed vowel, “ü” [y] the conductor, and the audience alike. Humankind is (this vowel is considered mixed because the lips, aperture, rewarded with the lofty ideas that sustain the soul. This and pharyngeal space are placed for the [u] sound but choral work is rewarding. JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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ENDNOTES Robert Shaw, Letter to the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra Chorus, November 9, 1983.
1
Thomas Hemsley, Singing and Imagination: A Human Approach to a Great Musical Tradition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 52. 3 James McKinney, The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults , p. 97. 2
Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing , p. 115
4
ibid.
5
McKinney, p. 51.
6
Miller, p. 8.
7
Miller, p. 155.
8
Hemsley, p. 54.
9
Robert Shaw, Letter to the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra Chorus, September 20, 1984.
10
WORKS CITED Hemsley, Thomas: Singing and Imagination: A Human Approach to a Great Musical Tradition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. McKinney, James C.: The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1982. Miller, Richard: The Structure of Singing. New York: Schirmer Books, 1986. Shaw, Robert: Atlanta, to the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra Chorus. (Provided through the generosity and kindness of Randy Price, University of North Carolina at Greensboro.)
***** Welborn Young, formerly the Artistic Director and Conductor for Windy City Performing Arts in Chicago, is on the choral faculty at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro and is the Director of the Choral Society of Greensboro.
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JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
FRANCIS P OULENC’S G LORIA CORRECTIONS TO NEW (1996) FULL SCORE By Lee G. Barrow
Originally published in 1960 by Editions Salabert, the first edition of Poulenc’s Gloria included a full score, a piano/ vocal score, a choral score, and orchestral parts (available on rental only).As pointed out in several earlier publications, the materials of this first printing contain several hundred errors, from missing markings to incorrect notes and rhythms.1 In addition, the three scores and the parts conflict in dozens of places. In 1996, Salabert issued a new printing of the three scores (but not the orchestral parts). The new piano/vocal and choral scores are not corrected—they are simply reprints of the earlier scores with new covers. The full score, however, is newly engraved, and many of the errors found in the first edition have been corrected. The new full score is a welcome improvement with many enhancements (such as measure numbers), but over a hundred errors and conflicts remain. The job of identifying and correcting the remaining mistakes is a long and laborious process. The first step in solving the problem of the errors in the performing materials is to assure that you receive the 1996 full score. Below is a list of the errors appearing in the new full score, along with a some clarifying discussion.
GENERAL COMMENT The Bass Clarinet always transposes a second rather than a ninth, even when written in treble clef.
ABBREVIATIONS A B BCl Bsn Cb Cl EH Fl
Alto Bass Bass Clarinet Bassoon Contrabass Clarinet English Horn Flute
Hn Hp l.h. MS Ob r.h. S Ssolo
Horn Harp left hand manuscript Oboe right hand Soprano Soprano soloist
T Tenor Tbn Trombone Timp Timpani Tpt Trumpet Vc ‘Cello Vla Viola Vln I 1st Violin Vln II 2nd Violin
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I. GLORIA MEASURE #
REHEARSAL
INSTRUMENT
CORRECTION
1 *5 *9 12 15 15 22 * 22 33 35 41 46 47-48
4 before 1 1 2 3 before 3 3 3 4th of 4 4th of 4 4 before 7 2 before 7 2 before 8 3 before 9 2-1 before 9
EH Bsns,Vc,Cb Brass All B Vln II Bsns Harp Bsns Cl,BCl Tbn 2(3) Tbn 2 Ob 2
* 55 * 61
1 before 10 1 before 11
T Fl
remove slur from 3rd to 4th notes remove slurs from 3 rd to 4 th notes ?2 remove slurs from 3 rd to 4 th notes ?2 add ’ at end of measure change dynamic to mp add unis. remove sans sourd. remove notes, insert rest3 change dynamic to p change dynamic to mp this measure is for 3 rd Tbn, not 2nd change last note from A# to B add accent on downbeat of both measures (note that in Ob 1 the first accent is placed in the staff above) raise all notes in this measure up one octave4 change measure to read: 5
* 62
11
Bsns
Add a2
3rd of 13
Vln I
be aware that the parts have:
5 before 15 5 before 15 3 before 15 4th of 15 16 18 18 3 rd of 18 3 rd of 18 19 6th of 19 6th of 19 20 1st 3 of 20
A B A, B Fls Vln I Fl 2 Vla (lower) Ob 1 A,T Bsns Obs S All S,A
add dynamic f add dynamic mf remove syllable “-a” and add tie?6 MS has no dynamic indication; could be f add div, (tutti refers to la moitié in previous measure) low C at forte is correct change last note from B to C7 change B to A?8 change word fragment from “a-mus” to “ca-mus” change dynamic from f to ff change 1. to a2 change dynamic from f to mf change time sig. to 4/4, remove Alto’s final quarter rest this line (“Gratias agimus tibi”) is for Alto, not Sopr.; extend each slur to cover all notes in its measure
II. Laudamus te
10
15 15 * 17 23 24 32 * 32 * 34 34 36 41 41 46 46-48
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(the manuscript has:)
49 50 52
21 2nd of 21 4th of 21
Vla Vln II Vla
add unis. clarification: last note of upper part is C-flat Add divisi
4 before 23
A,B
add dynamic mf
4 before 23 3-2 before 24 2 before 26 1 before 26
Cb Vla Vlns Vla
add pizz. add divisi in m. 71, unis. in m. 72 add divisi add divisi at end of measure
1 8-9 10-11 16 18 18 18-19 * 20
27 1-2 of 28 3-4 of 28 2 before 29 29 29 1-2 of 29 3 rd of 29
All strings S solo S solo T Vln I Vla S solo Bsn
add sourdines (for entire movement) add slur to “Domine” add slur to “Domine” add breath mark between “Deus” and “Pater” change dynamic to ppp (other strings retain pp) add unis. add single slur to “Pater omnipotens” change to read:
20 20-21 22 22-23 23 24-25 28 29-30 * 30 30-31 * 32 38-39
3 rd of 29 3-4 of 29 5th of 29 5-6 of 29 6th of 29 1-2 of 30 2 before 31 1 before 31 31 1-2 of 31 3rd of 31 1-2 of 32
B S solo S solo S solo S solo S solo Vln I S Vlns,Vla S solo, T Vla B
change dynamic to ppp add slur to “Domine” add dynamic mf at beginning add slur to “Domine” add dynamic f on 2nd beat remove slur from “Rex coelestis”, both measures change dynamic to p (other strings retain mf) add single slur to “Pater omnipotens” add divisi add slur to “Domine” add unis. change both measures:
41 * 42 43
1 before 33 33 2nd of 33
A Vlns,Vla Ob
change last note to 16th note followed by 16th rest add unis. change to read:
45-46 47-48 51 51-52
1-2 of 34 3-4 of 34 35 1-2 of 35
S solo S solo T S solo
add slur to “Domine” add slur to “Domine” moitié, not tous add single slur to “Deus Pater”
58 58 71-72 80 81 III. Domine Deus
JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
73
53-54
3-4 of 35
S solo
add single slur to “Pater omnipotens”
IV. Domine Fili unigenite Note: pickup is numbered as measure 1, first complete measure is numbered as measure 2.
8 13 * 14 22 * 38 39
3 before 37 3rd of 37 4th of 35 39 3-4 of 35 3-4 of 35
Trp 2-3 EH Obs Bsns Vla 1 T,B
add 2. (2nd trumpet only) dynamic f is not in MS; still fff ? add accents on beats 2 and 3 as in EH9 first and last notes are C# (add sharp) add arco on 2nd beat, as in Vln II add dynamic ff
V. Domine Deus Note: pickup is numbered as measure 1, first complete measure is numbered as measure 2. This caused the opening measures in the Oboe II part to extract incorrectly as two measures rest rather than a quarter pickup followed by one measure rest.
1 1 2
42 42 2nd of 42
All Bsns Harp
4
43
All
4 14
43 1 before 45
Fl,Picc All
15-16 21 21 22
1-2 of 45 5 before 46 5 before 46 4 before 46
S solo Cls B S solo
22-23 23 * 23 33 33 34 35 36 38 * 39 * 42 43 43 44 * 45 48-49
4-3 before 46 3 before 46 3 before 46 3rd of 47 3rd of 47 2 before 48 1 before 48 48 3rd of 48 4th of 48 1 before 49 49 49 2nd o f 49 1 before 50 3-4 of 50
S solo T Vla S solo All Vln II Vln II Vla1-2,Vc Vc Vla 1-2,Vc Vc,Cb S solo Cb S solo,S Vc,Cb S solo
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in MS, tempo indication is Très lent, not Bien lent add dynamic ff Change lower note in r.h. to A-flat to avoid G-nat.-G# (MS) has Fx-G# “sans presser” does not appear in the MS; piano/vocal MS has “plus allant”, MS has nothing add solo dynamics: NIS has f for upper woodwinds, no marking for bassoons, mf for horns, no marking for harp and strings; decrescendo begins in middle of measure for all add slur to each “Domine Deus” remove ties, last two notes (EH and BCI ties remain) raise last note (“-tis”) up one octave add dot to first note; subsequent notes in measure are misaligned add slur to each “Domine Deus” remove mf (maintain pp; mf is for T solo only) change last beat to eighth note + eighth rest add one slur to “deprecationem” (MS: S solo but not B) dynamics?10 remove arco and slur (still pizz.) add arco add solo on last note of measure change 6th note from C# to D# add solo on last note of measure raise last note of measure up one octave?11 add slur to “deprecationem” (MS: solo only, not chorus) change dynamic to ff (retain f for other strings) add slur to “nostram” (MS: both solo and S chorus) raise last note of measure up one octave?11 add slur to each “Domine Deus”
50 51 52 53
5th of 50 6th of 50 7th of 50 51
S solo Vln II Cls Strings
add slur to “Agnus”, add slur to “Dei” change last note from F-flat to E-flat note that Cl2 part is written on Cl1 staff change rhythm to read:
55 60
52 53
Tpt 1-2 Vln I
change dynamic from mf to f one too many notes - change to read:
53 1-2 of 53 3rd of 53 1-2 of 54 3-4 of 54 55 55
Vla S solo Tpt 1-2 S solo S solo Vla Vc
upper part: change 2nd & 6th notes from C to D-flat12 remove slur on “peccata mundi” add ties 13 add slur to each “Domine Deus” add slur to each “Agnus” and to each “Dei” add pizz. add pizz.
4 of 57
* 60 60-61 * 62 65-66 67-68 72 * 72 VI. Qui sedes
4 11 11-12
4 of 57 4-5 of 57
Hn3-4, Tuba, remove dot from half note, add quarter rest at end Timp of measure (woodwinds and strings retain dot) Hn 3-4 change last note from written D to E T &B add octave D’s:
13 * 14 15 18 24 31-32 * 34 34 41
58 2nd of 58 3rd of 58 6th of 58 3rd of 59 1st 2 of 60 4th of 60 4th of 60 2nd of 61
All Obs,EH Vla,Vc Fl B Vla Picc Vla EH
* 46 49,51
1 before 62 3-4 of 54
Vlns,Vc,Cb Vlns,Vlas
49-51 * 52 53 57 62
3-4 of 54 1 before 63 63 1 before 64 3 before 65
Vc Strings Cb A,B Vln II,Vc
change metronome marking to q = 96 extend slurs to include one more note first 2 beats pizz., last 2 beats arco (Vlns arco all beats) change last note from G# to B change dynamic from f to ff add 16th note slash on each note (as in Vlns) add 1. (1st piccolo only) add 16th note slash on each note change 4th note from written B-flat to A (E-flat in Tenor is correct) add divisi no further divisi-upper parts play upper note only, lower parts play lower note only, remove other notes add divisi in m. 49, unis. in m. 50, divisi in m. 51 add unis. for all add sourd . add “molto” above decrescendo add natural JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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* 62 * 63 65 67 68 * 68 * 69 71-72 73
3 before 65 2 before 65 65 4 before 66 3 before 66 3 before 66 2 before 66 1-2 of 66 3rd of 66
Hp Hp Vla,Vc Vla Vla,Vc Hp Hp Vla,Vc Vla
73 75 75-77 80 86 86 88
3rd of 66 3 before 67 3-1 before 67 3rd of 67 68 68 3rd of 68
Vla,Vc Chorus Vla,Vc B Hp Vla,Vc Hp
* 88
3rd of 68
Vla solo
raise last 4 notes in l.h. up an octave14 raise last 3 notes in l.h. up an octave14 add de la pointe raise first 3 notes up an octave add natural raise last 4 notes in l.h. up an octave14 raise last 3 notes in l.h. up an octave14 add de la pointe; add tremolo slashes on each note move alto clef one measure earlier (notes in m. 73 are correct as printed once clef is moved) add natural add crescendo (appears only in Alto in MS) add de la pointe and tremolo slashes add tous Add ff at beginning of measure add natural change l.h. to read: (nothing in r.h.)
remove lower note (D)
ENDNOTES Joe Hickman and Jeffry Moyers pointed out many errors in the American Choral Foundation Research Memorandum #143, November 1986. The author identified additional errors in the Research Memorandum #146, November 1987, and discussed several problem areas in the July 1988 issue of the International Choral Bulletin. Joe Hickman published a new list of corrections in the November 1999 Choral Journal. 1
In the first measure of the work, the 3rd and 4th notes in the English Horn and the strings were originally slurred, but Poulenc crossed out the slurs. It is possible if not likely that he intended for them to be removed here as well. In the piano/vocal manuscript, the slurs do not appear in any of the three statements of this figure. 2
. In this measure Poulenc wrote repeat signs ( /. ) on all instrumental staves rather than copying out the previous measure, a practice which created some errors elsewhere. Since the Harp plays in m. 19 but not in m. 20, it follows that, for this virtually exact repeat, it should play in 21 but not 22. This is how the 1960 score reads.
3
Both manuscripts originally had the Tenors as shown in the new score, but in both, [80—] was added above all notes in the measure. This is scratched out in the piano/vocal manuscript but not the orchestral manuscript. In the composersupervised recording, the Tenors appear to be singing the upper octave. 4
In the manuscript, the English Horn and the Flute originally had only one note on the downbeat of both this measure and the previous measure. In the English Horn, the final rest was erased and the second note added in both measures. This is also the case in m. 61 of the Flute; in m. 62, the rest was erased but the second note is missing. 5
At two before 17 both manuscripts originally had “Glo-ri-a”, but in both Poulenc erased the final “-a” and added a tie between the last two notes. At 3 before 15, the last two notes of the Bass are also tied, so it is likely that the “-a” should 6
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be removed here as well. Since the word “Gloria” is not a 13Not in the manuscript, but the notes are tied in the parts part of this portion of the text, perhaps Poulenc intended and the piano/vocal manuscript has whole notes. Note this as a fragment of the word “glorificamus.” Note that that the clarinets are tied at two before 49. another fragment of this word appears just before 18. 141n the manuscript, the last group of notes in the right 7The manuscript does have a B here, but the piano/vocal hand were originally an octave lower (i.e. identical to manuscript, the Viola part, and the doubling Horn all have thefirst half of measure), and Poulenc added [80—] above. C. The C also creates a match with the other statements Its placement opens the possibility that he intended for of this figure. both hands to be raised one octave. The manuscript clearly has G for Ob 2 (which Salabert BIBLIOGRAPHY has changed to F) and B for Ob 1. The piano/vocal manuscript has F-A here but no G or B. The cluster FG-A-B (plus D-C in bass and E above) seems unlikely. Barrow, Lee G. Errata in the Scores and Parts of A more likely possibility is that the G and B were intended Francis Poulenc’s Gloria: A Second Look. for the transposing clarinets; note that this exact G-B American Choral Foundation Research figure, along with the same underlying harmony, appears Memorandum #146, November 1987 in the Clarinets at 4 before 15 and 6 after 19. ___. Francis Poulenc’s Gloria: Clearing Up 9In the manuscript, the accents are between the Oboe and Discrepancies Among the Publ ished Scores. English Horn staves and are probably intended for both. International Choral Bulletin, April 1988 8
In the manuscript, each staff was originally marked f Hickman, Joe and Jeffry Moyers. Errata in the Scores here except for the Contrabass, which had ff . These were and Parts of Francis Poulenc’s Gloria. American all changed to mf in red. In addition, large red p’s appear Choral Foundation Research Memorandum #143, in two places (above the Flute and Violin 1 staves),but November 1986.1 none of the mf markings were removed. The piano/vocal manuscript has f for the Soprano Solo and Poulenc, Francis. Ec ho and Source : Se le ct ed accompaniment, mf for the Basses. Correspondence, 1915-1963 . Translated and edited by Sidney Buckland. London: V. Gollancz, 1991. 11The word “suscipe” appears seven times in this movement, almost always the same except for pitch. In the piano/vocal 1Joe Hickman and Jeffry Moyers identified many of the manuscript, the accompanying bass line moves up one errors in the American Choral Foundation Research octave with each successive beat, each of the seven times. Memorandum #143. Additional corrections appeared In the orchestral manuscript, the final note of the ‘Cello in Research Memorandum #146, and several of the and Contrabass moves up the octave 3 times and stays problem areas were discussed in the April 1988 issue of down 4 times, one of which Poulenc corrected with [80—] the International Choral Bulletin . and one of which Salabert has raised. These corrections, along with the consistent piano/vocal manuscript, bring up ***** the possibility that all should move up. 10
The manuscript does have C’s here, but in the piano/ vocal manuscript the C’s were changed to D-flat. With this change, the measure matches all other appearances of this figure between 50 and 55. 12
Lee G. Barrow, Professor of Music and Head of Fine Arts at North Georgia College & State University in Dahl onega, has conducted college, church and community choirs and orchestras for 25 years. He has been researching Poulenc’s Gloria for two decades.
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Books in Review Craig Kirchhoff, Series Advisor, Windependence: A Repertoire Series For Wind Bands, (New York, NY: Boosey & Hawkes,2001). Reviewed by Tom Erdman
Designed as a series of accessible and serious original compositions and orchestral transcriptions for concert band, Windependence is a graduated collection of music intended for concert and festival performance. The newly composed or transcribed pieces in the series are placed into three performance levels: Apprentice, Master, and Artist. The repertoire in the apprentice level is aimed at less-experienced instrumentalists with limited technical proficiency. The master level pieces are intended to challenge high school bands as well as some collegiate ensembles. Artist level material is designed to be performed by only the best high school, university and professional ensembles. The series is overseen by Craig Kirchhoff, familiar to wind directors as Professor of Conducting and Director of Bands at the University of Minnesota and Principal Guest Conductor of the Tokyo Kosei Wind Orchestra. Previous to his appointment at Minnesota, Kirchhoff was Director of Bands at Ohio State University and is widely called upon as both clinician and guest conductor throughout the United States, Canada, Europe, and Japan. The initial nine releases in the series are by Kenneth Amis, Timothy Broege (2), Jeffrey Brooks, Alan Fletcher, Shelly Hanson, Joseph Kreines (2), and Shafer Mahoney. All are well-respected musicians who have yet to leave their mark in the field of band writing. Along with the score and parts, a companion CD containing a full-length performance of each piece by excellent semi-professional and collegiate ensembles is provided. Air from County Derry (3’20”), transcribed by Kreines, apprentice level, is a
truly excellent transcription for younger ensembles of the familiar Grainger setting. The opening woodwind passage contains cued notes for euphonium and tuba should bassoons and b-flat contrabass clarinet not be available. The work is lushly scored, mostly for full ensemble, but fair warning is given to developing ensembles where students don’t have a strong command of breath control. This is best illustrated by the first b-flat trumpets going to a” in measure 66 of this sixty-eight bar arrangement, which is the 26 th measure of a 28-bar continuous phrase. Amis’s arrangement of Dvorak’s Slavonic Dance, No. 7, Op. 72 (3’30”), is appropriately placed in the master level category, as it will challenge good high school and collegiate bands. Crisp articulation of the many varied placements and scorings of dotted-eighth – sixteenth note phrases is essential to success. Light and clean air control is required in order for the work to avoid bogging down in both tempo and clarity of line in full-ensemble passages. Mahoney’s Sparkle (4”13”), artist category, is a mildly amusing composition that opens with some extremely difficult contrasting flute and clarinet runs at a moderate tempo, later doubled by piano. The piece transitions to easy brass and saxophone lines punctuated by an easy low-brass rhythm first introduced in the lower woodwinds at the beginning of the piece. The percussion parts are full, requiring a lot of different instruments, but are not technically challenging. While this review only spotlights three works from the initial publication run, they serve to point out early trends of the series: conductors must scan the scores carefully to see if the works are truly playable by their ensemble, as the works do not neatly fit into the three listed categories; and there are some great pieces contained within, but not every work is a gem. Overall, Kirchhoff and Boosey & Hawkes are to be highly commended for making an effort into providing new literature of a serious nature for bands, when so much of what is newly composed and published for bands today is drivel.
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of an orchestra are not the same and accommodations frequently were necessary. According to Canarina, David Amram tells irreverent anecdotes related to his “unacceptable” haircuts. The logic of the Army’s way of thinking also seems to have led to a variety of amusing ways of convincing the superiors of the needs of an ***** orchestra. At one time, the orchestra had only one clarinetist, John Canarina, Uncle Sam’s Orchestra, Memories Of but most scores call for two clarinets. This did not seem too The Seventh Army Symphony , (Rochester, NY: serious to the Army. They wondered of the one clarinetist University of Rochester Press, 1998); 205pp.; ISBN: 1– could play a little louder to cover for two! Similarly, when 58046–019–4. the young Charles Rosen who was not a member of the Army, was invited to appear as guest soloist, he did not Reviewed by Henry Bloch know that customary pre-concert arrangements could not be taken for granted. Nor was it easy to convince the Army I happily welcome a book that many conductors and other that their readily available baby grand piano was inadequate musicians will enjoy. Uncle Sam’s Orchestra reads like for performances of a Brahms or Bartok piano concerto “shoptalk” among conductors and musicians who and that a suitable instrument had to be found in the participated and fondly remember an intriguing venture community in a hurry. within the U.S. Army after World War II. That the Army would recognize the public-relations potential of such a cultural endeavor and support it is indeed remarkable. John In the summer of 1959, John Canarina arrived in the Canarina, a long time active member of the Conductors Symphony as a bassist. Soon thereafter he was given Guild, affectionately compiled the story through interviews conductorial responsibilities and was introduced to the and correspondence with former members, administrators, vagaries of a musical organization in the Army. His and other involved parties. Canarina deserves additional comments on the serious aspects of the task are interesting. thanks for the splendid idea of mentioning the post-Army His comments on funny situations are entertaining. With whereabouts and careers of the erstwhile members of delightful candor, he describes the unexpected call of the the Seventh Army Symphony. The memoir would have orchestra members to a rifle range qualification exercise. been even more valuable from a historian’s point of view, Usually they were excused from such drills. They did not if the collected information had been documented by reference to the records of the U.S. Seventh Army and even have guns! The account of the drill and its ultimately successful outcome is hilarious! other relevant sources.
The reviewer, Dr. Thomas R. Erdmann, is currently Director of Bands and Associate Professor of Music and Education at Elon University, in Elon, North Carolina. He has published two books, and over 30 papers in a variety of journals.
Samuel Adler, now a well respected composer and teacher who recently retired from the Eastman School of Music in Rochester, was asked to establish the Seventh Army Symphony. In the early 1950s, he was succeeded by James Dixon who, as one of the first conductors of the orchestra, set enviable standards of performance at concerts throughout Germany. Eventually the tradition of remarkable music making was carried on by Kenneth Schermerhorn and a long line of conductors many of whom pursued careers in music after service in the army. Likewise, many of the players moved on to distinguished positions in the finest orchestras. At a time of declining morale, in 1953, Dixon invited his former teacher and mentor, Dmitri Mitropoulos, to visit the orchestra and, with his inspirational personality, help to return the orchestra to a purposeful course of action under the supervision of Seventh Army Lieutenant General Anthony McAuliffe. Still, the discipline of the Army and the discipline
On the more serious side, Canarina has helped to create an image of the Seventh Army Symphony as a humanitarian, cultural ambassador of the United States. Its success can best be measured by the response of its audiences all over occupied Europe and elsewhere. Inevitable or not, it left a lasting impression on its audiences and those who participated in its mission.
***** Carl S. Leafsteadt, Inside Bluebeard’s Castle, (Music and Drama in Bela Bartôk’s Opera); (New York,NY: Oxford University Press, 1999); 246 pp.; $45; ISBN: 019-5109 99-6. Reviewed by Henry Bloch
Bela Bartôk’s opera Bluebeard’s Castle (1911) has met with a varied fate on the stage of the important opera houses of the world. The libretto by Bela Balazs was greeted with JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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enthusiasm as a novelty in the opera house by some and was rejected for its lack of drama by others. At the same time, Bartôk’s efforts to create the first national opera in Hungary met with a mixed reception. The setting of the text in the manner of magyar folk songs, which he had recently discovered, was not recognized as such. Also, the minimal use of lyrical passages was looked upon as a weakness by an audience which was accustomed to a mixture of Italian, French, and Wagnerian repertoire. In view of many questions that might arise ari se in this context, the painstaking study of the subject by Carl S. Leafstedt is most welcome. The author examines not only the relationship and cooperation of Balazs and Bartôk in the creation of Bluebeard’ Blueb eard’ss Castle, Castl e, but he also analyzes Balazs’s unusual literary background and relationship to the symbolists including Maurice Maeterlinck. He then goes on to study the musical features - tonal and motivic - and the work’s musico-dramatic symbolism.
Romania. The vocal parts reflect a remarkable blend of the folk rhythms with speech patterns of the Hungarian language. Such a hybrid reflects Bartôk’s much admired model, Debussy’s Pelleas et Melisande. In performance, a rubato element is blended into the subtle declamation lending it considerable rhythmic elasticity. elasticity. However, the orchestra owes little to Bartôk’s French model. Rather, it underlines dramatic elements and supplies power when it is needed, a technique reminiscent of W Wagner agner and Strauss. Indeed, certain musical ideas undergo transformations to amplify the progress progress of the story story.. Chapters devoted to detailed analysis of individual scenes and to Bartôk’s revisions of the opera between 1911 and 1917 help the reader to gain a deeper understanding of the composer’s intentions. The additional fact that many of the relevant manuscript scores and first published editions are kept together in Peter Bartôk’s collection in Homossen, Florida, facilitates close examination of the sources.
According to Leafstedt, Balazs recalled his own and The limited success of Bluebeard in the opera house Bartôk’s goal to write a truly Hungarian opera but he never invites speculation . Leafstedt cites a study by the ignored Maeterlinck’s Maeterlinck’s work Balazs aimed to create a play musicologist Carl Dahlhaus who describes a musicorelated to modern symbolist symbolist style for dramatic reasons. In dramatic genre based on a play which is set to music without addition, the works of Ibsen, Strindberg, D’Annunzio, significant adaptations. He calls it literature opera and Hofmannsthal, and Maeterlinck were part of his artistic cites as outstanding examples Debussy’s Pelleas et heritage. Hence the influence of dramatic realism, Melisande , Strauss’ Salome , and Elektra .In similar psychological logic, and other contemporary trends. But fashion, Bartôk set Balazs’s Bluebeard to music without Maeterlinck’s Maeterlinck’s symbolism exerted the strongest impact on considearable changes. Dahlhaus suggests that such a Balazs’s work. work. Together, Together, Balazs Balazs and Bartôk were also drawn to influences from from Eastern European folk folk art, union of a play with music need to be studied closely to understand its potential for success as an opera. notably from that of the Magyars of Transylvania. Transylvania. Leafstedt maintains that Bluebeard was a deliberate attempt to supplant dominant Wagnerian tradition with a Hungarian style based on native folk music. Contrary to grand structures devised by Hofmannsthal for Richard Strauss in Salome and Elektra , Balazs’s Bluebeard centered around seven clearly defined “pictures,” which offered Bartôk the opportunity for smaller musical structures. His libretto represented a departure departure from the traditions of symbolist drama as, for example, exam ple, Maeterlinck’s Pelleas et Melisande . In place of the extended sequences, he supplied a series of shorter units which lent themselves to non-Wagnerian non-Wagnerian techniques of composition. Indeed, the setting of the Seven Doors, each representing one episode of the play, served Bartôk’s talent for musical imagery well. Dramatic effects were hightened by intense use of lights or the lack thereof, and in the music, different aspects of the story are centered around the tones of C and F#.
Indeed, in recent decades composers have chosen plays or novels by outstanding writers as libretti. They appear to follow the example of symbolist writers and composers to preserve the literary text as best they can. But that requires musical considerations if not concessions. Dahlhaus suggests that a successful formula formula was found by Debussy and Richard Strauss. More recently, Carlyle Floyd ( Of Mice and Men), and John Corigliano ( The Ghosts of Versailles) are among the few who achieved success. On the other hand, John Harbison’s The Great Gatsby seemed to move along very slowly despite some charged dialogues, brilliant ensemble scenes and colorful orchestrations. Similarly, William Mayer’s A Death in the the Family Family got off to a good start, but, perhaps too much respect for the beautiful lines of James Agee is responsible for some tedious moments in the dramatic progress of the action. Some other new operas were plagued with similar difficulties. difficulties.
In Bluebeard Bartôk experimented with a new vocal style derived from folk idioms found foun d in Transylvania, Transylvania, now
Leafstedt’s book is thoughtful from many points of view. It is particularly valuable to anyone wishing to perform
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Bluebeard , but it raises questions in relation to the creation of other new operas as well. Henry Bloch is a member of the Board of Directors and Archivistfor the Conductors Guild.
***** Writin gs and Letters Letter s. (Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press2001); Edited by Michael Stern, Max Rudolf: A Musical Life, Writings 530pp., $46.00 (with Guild Member Discount: $41.00); ISBN 1-577647-038-5.
Reviewed by John Canarina
Of all the major conductors active in the worlds of symphony orchestras and opera companies, Max Rudolf was the only one who took an active interest in the Conductors Guild. He was also one of the very few who could be accurately described as a scholar, even though he himself did not exactly endorse that term as applied to himself. If one requires proof of his great scholarship, it will certainly be found in this book. Long-time members of the Conductors Guild will perhaps be familiar with some of the contents, for many of the essays included originally appeared in our Journal. Thus we have his thoughts on “Authenticity in Musical Performance,” “The Metronome Indications in Beethoven’s Symphonies,” “Inner Repeats in the Da Capo of Classical C lassical Minuets and Scherzos,” and many other topics. The question of those inner repeats continues to be a controversial subject among critics, conductors, and other musicians. Max Rudolf R udolf was in favor of them, and offers convincing evidence evide nce for their observance, even though such observance can still be a matter of one’s personal feeling. Of equal importance to the articles are the many letters written to fellow conductors, such as George Szell and Erich Leinsdorf, instrumentalists such as Rudolf Serkin and Isaac Stern, and musicologists such as Bathis Churgin and Maynard Solomon. In many instances we are given all or part of the letter that prompted Rudolf’s response. The question of tempos in various Mozart arias is a frequent topic of discussion between Rudolf and Jean-Pierre Marty. Malcolm Frager is another instrumentalist with whom Rudolf had frequent correspondence, especially in the matter of the tempo for the trio of the scherzo of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, Symphony, about which Frager seemed particularly obsessed. In one instance (January 26, 1986) Rudolf finds it “a bit tedious” to reply to Frager’s comments, and later chastises him even further. (It should be mentioned, however, that Rudolf and Frager were always on the very best of terms.) As for being “a bit tedious,” one could apply those words to Rudolf’s rather lengthy essay on “Storm and Stress in Music.” This, however, is an exception to the remainder of the contents, which are absolutely fascinating to read—the workings of the mind of a great musician who cared enough about music to want desperately to perform it to the very best of his ability according accord ing to the information left by the composer. co mposer. As Max Rudolf himself sai said, d, “The great composers compos ers were giants, while we performers are dwarfs. As for myself, I am content with being a very small dwarf, since I derive all the satisfaction I need from serving the giants.” This book is highly recommended. After all, Max Rudolf, the first recipient of the Guild’s Theodore Thomas Award, was one of us. One word of caution: Since the book contains so many references to musical examples, it is helpful to have the appropriate scores at hand while reading it. John Canarina is Director of Orchestral Studies at Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa. A former Assistant Conductor of the New York Philharmonic under Leonard Bernstein’s direction, he has been a guest conductor of various orchestras orchestras in the United States States and Europe. His biography of Pierre Pierre Monteux will be published next year by Amadeus Press.
JCG Vol. 22, 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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Advertising Rates for Conductors Guild Publications: The Conductors Guild invites you to post advertisements in the following publications: Journal of the Conductors a pprove and Guild , Podium Notes, and Directory at the rates listed below. The Conductors Guild reserves the right to approve either accept or reject any material submitted for advertising. The Conductors Guild further reserves the right to control the placement of all advertising material within our publications. No further advertising will be accepted until payment for previous add space has been received. All materials must be Black & White White camera-ready prints, which may be accompanied by electronic versions of art (*.bmp or *.tif only), MS WORD 2000 files with fonts and images, or Adobe Adobe PageMaker 6.5+ files with fonts and images. Institutional members enjoy a 20% discount on all advertising rates and all advertisers receive a text link to their website on our “Links” page. Shipping Address: Address: Conductors Guild, 6219 N. Sheridan Rd., Chicago, IL 60660-1729 E-Mail address:
[email protected] Layout
Dimensions
Non-Member Fee
Inst. Member Discounted Fee (-20%)
Journal of the Conductors Guild -published semi-annually, hard copy mailed to all members -downloadable electronic version available on website to members Business Card 2 in. x 3 ½ in. $125 3 ½ in. x 4 ¾ in. $200 Quarter Page Half Page 4 ¾ in. x 7 in. $400 7 in x 9 ½ in. $800 Full Page
$100 $160 $320 $640
Podium Notes -published quarterly, electronic copy e-mailed to members, hard copy mailed to members without e-mail -downloadable electronic version available on website to members 2 in. x 3 ½ in. $83 Business Card $67 Quarter Page $107 3 ½ in. x 4 ¾ in. $133 4 ¾ in. x 7 in. $266 Half Page $213 Full Page $428 7 in x 9 ½ in. $535 Directory -published annually, hard copy mailed to all members -downloadable electronic version available on website to members Business Card 2 in. x 3 ½ in. $188 3 ½ in. x 4 ¾ in. $350 Quarter Page Half Page 4 ¾ in. x 7 in. $600 7 in x 9 ½ in. $1,200 Full Page
$151 $280 $480 $960
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JCG Vol. 22, 22, Nos. 1 & 2
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GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS The manuscript should be for readers who have expertise in diverse areas of music and conducting, and are interested in broadening their knowledge of current research and writing in the field. The manuscript must be double-spaced with 1.25" margins on top, bottom and sides, including endnotes/footnotes and references, and should follow the style recommendations as set forth in the Chicago Manual of Style or the Modern Language Association (MLA) style manual. The type size of the manuscript should be no smaller than 12 point. The entire manuscript including abstract and any pictures, graphs, or musical examples should not exceed 20 pages. Graphs, musical examples and pictures should be on separate sheets accompanied by texts and captions as they are to appear in the articles. All material submitted should be camera-ready. To preserve anonymity in the review process, the authors name must not appear anywhere on either the abstract or the article. Manuscripts submitted simultaneously to other journals will not be considered.
THE PUBLICATION PROCESS 1. Submit three copies of the manuscript and a 100-word abstract to the Publications Coordinator (PC). Manuscripts should be submitted as hard copies and may be accompanied by an ASCII text document or MS Word file on a 3.5 diskette following the guidelines listed above. 2. The PC sends copies of the manuscript and abstract to the Editor and two other members of the editorial board (based on expertise) for blind review. 3. The editorial review committee determines whether the manuscript: a) is not accepted for publication; b) is accepted for publication with suggested revisions; or c) is accepted for publication as is. 3a. Editorial Reviewers sends article back to PC with comments (from 3.) 4. If revisions are needed, the manuscript(s) will be returned to the author for corrections. The author then resubmits the manuscript to the PC with the appropriate revisions. 5. The PC will format the corrections complete with pictures, graphs, musical examples, etc., and send to the Editor for final approval. 6. The formatted proofs are sent back to the author for final approval. 7. The manuscript is then published in the Journal of the Conductors Guild. 84
JCG Vol. 22, Nos. 1 & 2
