Insect Pests

A GUIDE TO MORE THAN 350 PESTS OF HOME, GARDEN, FIELD, AND FOREST

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GOLDEN NATURE GUIDES BIRDS

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FLOWERS

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REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS FISHES ORCHIDS

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FOSSILS

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INSECTS

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TREES

STARS

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MAMMALS

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GAMEBIRDS

ZOO ANIMALS

ROCKS AND MINERALS

SPIDERS •

SEASHORES

EXOTIC PLANTS

SEASHELLS OF THE WORLD

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BUTTERFliES AND MOTHS

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NON-FLOWERING PLANTS

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INSECT PESTS

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POND LIFE

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GOLDEN SCIENCE GUIDES ZOOLOGY FlYING

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BOTANY

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WEATHER

FAMiliES OF BIRDS

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INDIAN ARTS

LANDFORMS

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GEOLOGY

GOLDEN FIELD GUIDES BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA SEASHELLS OF NORTH AMERICA TREES OF NORTH AMERICA

GOLDEN REGIONAL GUIDES EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK MEXICO

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YOSEMITE

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WASHINGTON, D.C.

GOLDEN HANDBOOKS SAILING FISHING

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PHOTOGRAPHY

CAMPING

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GUNS

SCUBA DIVING

HENRY GASSER'S GUIDE TO PAINTING THE SKY OBSERVER'S GUIDE

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KITES

ANTIQUES

GoLDEN, GoLDEN NATURE GUIDE, a n d GOLDEN PREss® a re t rade m a rks of Western Publishi n g Compa ny, I nc.

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INsE�T PESTS by G E O RG E S . F I C H T E R M.Sc., E n tomol ogy No rth C a rolina State College Raleigh, North Carolina U nder the Edito rship of

H E RB E RT S . ZIM, Ph. D . Illustrated by N I C H O LA S S T RE K A L O V S K Y

A GOLDEN NATURE GUIDE

@ GOLDEN PRESS

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NEW YORK

Western Pu blishing Company, Inc. Racine, Wisconsin

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FO R E W O R D Despite modern tec h n o l ogy, m a n sti l l d e p e n d s wholly o n the products of n ature for s u rviva l . Hence t h e b a ttle to control i n sect pests is a n ever-e n d i n g necess ity . T h i s boo k d escribes more t h a n 3 5 0 pests t h a t a re fo u n d i n m i d d l e North America. The i l l ustrations, s k i l l fully r e n d ered by N icholas Stre k a l ovsky, wil l h e l p i d e n tify the pest, i t s l ife stages, a n d the k i n d of d a m ag e i t does. The best t i m e s a n d methods o f control are s u g gested, but as t h e s e vary local ly, g et the a dvice o f a n entomolog ist or a n agricultural agent before atte m pting ' major controls. The pest g ro u p i n g s i n this book a re based on where usual d a m ag e occurs . At times when they are a b u n d a nt, h owever, pests beco m e l ess se lective . A field p' e st then, fo r exa m p le, m ay beco me both ersome i n gardens. I n s ecticides a re the best means to get i m m ed iate results, but remem ber: i n secticides are poiso n o u s . Fol low d i rectio ns and heed a l l precautions on the l a b e l . A n u m ber of p e o p l e gave a dvice a n d assista n c e i n the preparation o f this boo k . T h e s e i n c l uded D r . J . F . Gates C l a r k e a n d h is staff at the U . S . N atio n a l Museu m . Also o f g reat h e l p were Ro bert H . Nelson a n d m e m bers of the Ento m ological Society of Am erica . Dr. J e a n L. Laffoon was es pecially h e l pfu l, as were D r . George Anastos, D r. R . M. Baranows ki, D r . Ralph C r a b i l l , Dr. Richard l. Doutt, D r . R i c h a rd C . Froesch ner, D r . Herbert W. Levi, D r . Fra n kl i n B. Lewis, a n d D r . Howard V. Wee m s . G . S . F.

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© Copyright 1966 by Western Publishing Company, Inc. All rights reserved, including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, in· eluding the making of copies by any photo process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or vis· ual reproduction or for use in any knowledge retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietor. Produced in the U.S.A. by Western Publishing Company Inc. Published by Golden Press, New York. library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 66-22595.

CONTENTS AN I NTRODUCTION TO I N SECT PESTS

4

• . • • • • •

N u m ber of i nsects, relatives, a n d deve l o p m ent.

CONTROLLING I N S ECTS

10

. . • . . . • • . • • • • . . . • • •

Natural, biological, m echa n i c a l , che m i c a l , a n d n e w m ethods .

HOUSEHOLD PESTS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . •

INSECTS THAT BITE OR STING

. . . . . . . . . . • . • .

48

. . . . . . . •

61

• . . . . . . . . • •

86

I N SECT PESTS OF VEGETABLE C ROPS

F I E LD A N D FORAGE C ROP PESTS

38

• •

PESTS OF PETS , POULTRY , AND L IVESTOC K

PESTS OF FLOWERS AND SHRUBS

24

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PESTS OF FRUITS A N D FRUIT TREES

.

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98

• . • . . . . • • •

120

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.

.

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•

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PESTS OF FOREST A N D SHADE T REES

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139

I N SECT PESTS OF STORED PRODUCTS

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146

. . • . . . . . • . . . • • • • • . . . • • • •

154

• • . . . . • • • • • • . • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

157

SCIENTIFIC NAMES

I N DEX

Insects exist in enormous nu m b ers. The averag e insect pop u l ation p e r sq uare m i l e is est i m ated to be e q u a l to the total world popul ation of peop le, a n d in s evere outbreaks a pest species far exceeds its n o r m a l n u m bers . I n one fly infestatio n, experts P.sti m ated 1 5,000 flies p e r cow. Bil lions of h u n g ry g rasshoppers m ay d a r k e n the s ky a n d devour a l l vegetation in their path . Insect destruction of crops i n the United States ranges from 4 billion to 15 b i l lion d o l l a rs a n n u a l ly. D a m ag e to cotton by o n e insect, the Bol l Weevi l , a mo u n ts t o m o r e tha n 3 00 m i l lion d o l l a rs a y e a r . Term ites c o n s u m e a bout 1 00 m i l l io n d o l l a rs' worth o f w o o d structures, whi l e forest i nsects destroy more wood tha n d o forest fires. I n sect d a m ag e cancels out the tota l year ' s efforts of a bout one m i l lion workers . 4

Fort u n ately, less t h a n one percent of the nearly o n e m i l l i o n i n sect s pecies are pests o f m a n, h i s dom estic a n i m als, and usefu l p l a nts. Of the 1 00,000 i n sect s p e cies that occur i n the U n ited States, o n ly a bout 6 0 0 a re considered serious pests. D a m a g e done by i n sect pests is easy to a p p raise. The v a l u e of benefi c i a l species is h a rder to esti m ate . Bees, wasps, flies, b utte rflies, a n d oth e r i n s ects pol l i n ate flowers t h a t p rovide us with fru its a n d vegeta b l e s . Hon ey, wax, a n d s i l k a re i m porta nt c o m m e rc i a l produ cts obta i n e d from i n sects . Some i n sect species are vital l i n k s i n the food c h a i n s of fi s h es, b i rds, and oth er a n i m a l s . Other i nsects a re parasites o r pred ators of d a m a g i n g pests o r are scave ngers of a n i m a l a n d veg etable debris. Control measu res used a g a i nst h a rmful i n sects m ust be weig h e d ca refu lly to d eterm i n e t h e u lti m ate effect o n a l l l ivi n g t h i n g s, i n c l u d i n g m a n .

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PARTS OF A TYPICAL I N SECT

INSECTS AND T H E I R C LOSE RELATIVES are a rth ro pods, or "jointe d - legged " a n i m a l s, a large group t h at i n c l udes more t h a n 85 percent of the known s pecies of a n i m a l s . About 90 percent of all the a rt h ropods are i nsects. An i nsect's body h a s th ree d isti n ct reg ions head, thorax, a n d a b d o m e n . Attac h e d to its thorax a re three pairs of legs, and in m ost species, two p airs of w i n g s . Its h e a d bears a pair of a n t e n n a e . This com bination of features d isti n g u ishes insects (class I n secta) fro m such closely related land a n i m a l s a s spiders, tic ks, m ites, centiped es, a n d m i l l ipedes. The l a rgest g roups of i nsects are called orders . S i x teen orders of i nsects that i n c l u d e i m porta nt pest s p ecies are s u m m a rized on p a g e 7, a s a re the identifyi n g c h a r acteristics of the other arth ropod classes . Orders a re d ivided i nto families a n d the fa m i lies into genera a n d species. An insect's scientific n a m e usually consists of two words, its genus a n d s pecies. The scien tific n a m es of t h e pests i n this book a re l i sted o n pages 1 54-156. The common n a m es used i n t h e text are those a p p roved by the Entomolog i c a l Society of America.

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MAJOR ORDERS OF INSECTS CLASS

< .... u

NAME OF ORDER COMMON EXAMPLES silverfish, firebrots

wingless; chewing

Collembola

springtails

wingless; chewing

Orthoptera

grasshoppers, crickets, cockroaches

2 prs. wings or wingless; chewing

Dermaptera

earwings


lsoptera

termites


Psocoptera

barklice, booklice


Mallophaga

chewing lice

wingless; chewing

Anoplura

sucki ng lice

2 prs. wings or wingless; piercing-sucking

Thysanoptera

thrips

2 prs. wings or wingless; rasping-sucking

Homoptera

aphids, leafhoppers scales, mealybugs

2 prs. wings or wingless; piercing-sucking

Hemiptera

bed bugs, stink bugs, chinch bugs

wingless; piercing-sucking

Coleoptera

beetles, weevils


Lepidoptera

moths, butterflies

2 prs. wings; chewing (larvaeL sucking, or siphoning (adults)

Hymenoptera

wasps, bees, ants sawflies


Diptera

mosquitoes, flies, gnats

1 pr. wings; chewing (larvae), piercing-sucking, or sponging (adults)

Siphonaptera

fleas

wingless; chewing (larvae), piercing-sucking (adults)

w

"'

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WINGS, MOUTHPARTS

Thysanura

CLASSES OF OTHER ARTHROPOD PESTS ARACHNIDA

spiders, ticks, mites, scorpions

4 prs. legs; 2 body regions cephalothorax and abdomen; no antennae; chewing or suck ing mouthparts

CHILOPODA

centipedes

1 pr. of legs per body segment; 1 pr. of antennae; 2 body re gions-head, trunk; body flat tened; chewing mouthparts

DIPLOPODA

millipedes

2 prs. of legs per apparent body segment; 1 pr. of anten nae; 2 body regions-head, trunk; body rounded; chewing mouthparts

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S I LVERFISH g row l a rg e r but do n ot change

in appearance or struct u re.

egg IJ

youn g

adult

I NSECT DEVELOPMENT An insect pest c a n be con tro l l e d m ost easily at a specific sta g e of its l ife h istory, someti mes n ot the one in which it d oes its g reatest d a m a g e . Destroyi n g t h e i n sect's eggs is often the m ost effective control measure. But to d o this you m u st k n ow where a n d w h e n the fem a l e l ays h e r e g g s . H e n c e l ife h i stories a re e m p h asized in this boo k . Nym phs are y o u n g insects th at, as s o o n as they hatch, rese m b l e m i n iature adults. If the adult h a s wings, wing b u d s soon appear o n the nym p h 's th orax. These g row each ti m e t h e nymph s heds, o r m o lts, a n d by the t i m e t h e i nsect is m ature, the wings are fu l ly developed . Nymphs are active. They com m o n ly l ive i n t h e s a m e p l ace a n d h ave the s a m e feed ing h a b its a s t h e a d u lts. True bugs, g rass hoppers, cockroaches, and lice are among t h e i n sects that h ave a nym p h stag e . These c h a n g e ( metamorp hose) g ra d u a l ly t h roug h th ree d e ve lopmental stages-egg, nymph, a n d a d u l t . This type of meta m o r p h osis is called s i m p l e . Prim itive i nsects, such as si lverfish and springtai ls, a lso d evel o p by a s i m p l e m eta morphosis, but there are a l m ost no c h a n ges i n t h e i r structure as they g row, only a n i n c rease i n size. Nym p h s of some aquatic insects are c a l l e d naiads; they d iffer consi d e ra b ly from a d u lts i n a p pearance a n d habits but c h a n g e from n a i a d s d i rectly i n t o a d u lts.

8

CH I N CH BUGS h ave t h ree stages, Nym p h s

rese m b l e a d u lts, but J a c k w i n g s .

egg

nymphs

adult

JAPANESE BEETLES develop t h rough four

d isti n ct stages, each differing i n a ppear This i s com p l ete metam orphosis.

More kin d s of insects develop throug h a complete meta morph osis. The insect c h a n ges in appea ra n ce a n d h a bits from o n e stage t o the next through fou r distinct stages-eg g , l a rva, pupa, a n d a d u l t . The egg hatches into a l a rva, an active, feeding stage. The mature l a rva forms a pupa; a restin g , or nonfeed ing, stag e from which the insect emerges as a n a d u lt. Caterpil l a rs a re the crawl i n g l a rvae of b utterflies a n d m oths. They h ave chewing m outhparts. Some a re major pests of pla nts and stored prod ucts. The a d u lts h ave suckin g , o r nectar feeding, m outhpa rts and never d o d a m age. M a g g ots a re the l a rvae of flies; g ru bs, the l a rvae of beetles. 9

CONT R O LL I N G I N S ECT S Insects beco me pests when they d a m age crops, d est roy products, transmit d iseases, a re annoying , or in other ways conflict with m an's needs or interests. In man's continuous battle a g a inst insect pests t h rough the cen tu ries, no insect species has ever been era d icated, though some h ave been red uced in nu m ber, at least temporari ly. At the same ti me, other pest species have actu a l ly become more a b und ant and are now a g reater problem beca use m an has provided inc reasing ly favor a ble cond itions for them . The mod ern one-c rop system of a g ricu lture often supplies food for an insect pest in l a rge q uantity over m any sq u a re m i les. As new c rop plants were introd uced from other countries, their insect pests often came with them, but not the pred atory spec ies that kept the pests under control in their h o me l and . Some va rieties of crops a re more susceptible to pests than were the ori gina l wild plants, which over the years developed a deg ree of resistance to insect attack. NATURAL CONTROLS ord ina rily keep insect popu l a

tions i n b a l ance. Weather factors, s u c h as temperature and ra infa l l , limit the d istribution of an insect species, as do such geog raph ic barriers as l a rge bodies of water, deserts, or mo untain ranges . Toads, l izards, frogs, moles, and sh rews a re a m ong the m a ny anim als that feed m a inly on insects. S o m e birds m ay eat t h e i r own wei g h t in insects every d a y . Pred atory insects usu a l ly feed o n whatever insects a re availa b le. La rvae of parasitic insects develop in the eggs, young , or a d u lts of other insects. Vi rus, fung us, and bacterial d iseases a lso help hold insect popu lations in chec k . Man h a s often upset these natu ral b a lances. 10

Beca use i n sect-eati ng birds tend to eat the most ava i l a b l e i nsects, they are espec i a l l y h e l p f u l i n control l i n g pests i n outbrea ks. ARMYWORM TACH I N I D FLY

The Tach i n i d Fly lays its e g g s on t h e A r m ywor m . Fly l a rvae eat o n d soon kill t h e worm .

Braco n i d wasps lay eggs i n a p h i d s or other i n sects. Larvae develop i n side.

These tiny rove beetles feed o n maggots. The l a rvae a l so burrow i nto pupae.

B IOLOGICAL CONTROL is

the purposeful use of natural pred ators, parasites, or diseases to kil l o r red uce the pop u lation of a pest species . This method has been effective principa lly in com bating insect pests introd uced from foreig n countries without their natural enemies . Biological controls a re not usually practica l for home g a rdens o r simil a r small a reas. They a re used most s uccessfu l ly in orchards a n d g roves or where la rge-sca le c rop pla n tings a re repeated yea r after yea r o n the same l a n d . Usua l ly the control species is at fi rst bred a rtificia l l y so that it c a n be introd uced in l a rge n u m bers . More than two dozen cases of effective l a rge-scale con trol of i nsect pests have b een achieved by this method . Damage to citrus by the Cotto ny-cushion Scale in California was virtu a l l y elimin ated by the intro d u ction, of Ved a lia , a n Austra lia n lady beetle. Later, g rove

Parasitic Braca n i d Wasp intro d uced from E n g l a n d . Wasp larvae feed i n s i d e I m ported Cabbagew o r m a n d k i l l it.

3.0

in.

Japan ese

Beetle

is

k i l led

by

Bacillus papillae, which causes

0.8

in.

m i l ky d isease. The Hornworm succu m b s to 8 . thuringiensis.

own e rs beg a n to spray their trees to k i l l a p h i d s . At the s a m e time they kil led the Ved a l i a beetles, c a u s i n g a n outb rea k o f Cottony-cush ion Sca le a g a i n . The u s e of b acteria c a u s i n g m i l ky d isease that ki lls g r u bs of t h e J a p a n ese Beetle is a noth e r exa m ple o f successfu l bio logical contro l . Ga m b usi as and other top-feed i n g m i n n ows a re effective i n t h e control o f m os q u ito l a rvae . I n teresti ng ly, the C h ryso l i n a Beetle was i ntrod uced to western U n ited States from Austra lia to halt the spread 1 of the K l a m ath weed . Biological controls do not e l i m i n ate a pest species c o m p l etely. They o n ly reduce the population a n d thus keep the d a m a g e l ow. But biological controls are u s u a l l y self-g e nerati n g , so a control species, once esta b l i s h e d , conti nues to reproduce a n d t o re m a i n effective . 13

PHYS ICAL AND MECHANICAL CONTROLS a re the si m plest, m ost obvious, and at times m ost effective: wit ness the o l d -fash ioned fly swatter. Pests of stored prod u cts a re co m m only destroyed by heat o r co l d . Few can su rvive long in a tem perature of 1 2 0 deg rees F. or h i g h er. Cold either kills or stops activity. Dra i n ing off stand ing water to e l i m inate breed ing places is a stan d a rd mosqu ito control method, while m any pl ant pests a re killed by flooding. Lig hts a re used to attract so me kinds of pests, which may then be electrocuted on charged screens. Pests that col lect in large n u m bers m ay be l u red to ba its or caught in d itches. The g a rdener who picks J a panese Beetles off his roses by h a n d uses an effective method for s m a l l areas. CULTU RAL CONTROL is an inexpensive method of check ing or p reventing d a m age by insect pests by com bining mec h anica l or physical controls with a knowled ge of the pest 's l ife h istory. C rop rotation p revents the build-up of a pest popul ation that feeds o n one k i n d of pl ant. B u rying sta l ks, weeds, and other resid ues after h a rvest destroys eggs, pupae, or hi bernating l a rvae and a d u lts. S i m i la rly, early or l ate plowing may destroy a p a rticular l ife stage of a pest. Pl anting and h a rvesting can sometimes be timed to esca pe Golden Regent, a periods of egg ·l aying or of pest resista nt variety a bund ance. Varieties of p l ants re of sweet cor n . sistant to particu l a r pests can be p l a nted . Healthy, vigorously g row ing p l ants can withstand insect at tac ks better t h a n those that ore wea k or d iseased . Likewise, ani m a ls in good hea lth a re not as g reatly d istu rbed by pests.

INSECTIC I D E S a re poisons used to kill insect pests . Their g reat advantage is speed . Biologica l control meth ods, while safer and l onger lastin g , may require severa l seasons to become effective. More t h a n 3 5 0 million pounds of insecticides are sold a nnua l ly in the United States . Their use increases a g ricultural yie l d s by an average of a bout 2 5 percent and in many cases p revents complete crop l osses . I n secticides a re hig h l y important, too, in t h e control of pests that a re a n n oying or a re disease carriers . Most insecticides a re d a ngerous to people a n d other animals as well as to pests . Rea d and fol l ow c a refu lly the instruction on labels. Consult a cou nty a g ent o r an ento m o logist o r e m p l oy the services of a p rofessiona l pest-control operator.

APP L I C AT I ONS of i n secti cides are rarely m a d e f u l l

stre n gth . Dusts a r e d ry m ixtures o f from 0. 1 percent t o 25 percent o f the poison m i x e d with fi n e p a rticles o f a n i n a ctive m ateria l, s u c h as ta l c . Wettable powders are d usts that form a suspension in water fo r sp rayi n g ; the powd er m ay consist of from 1 0 to 95 percent i n sectic i d e . Emulsifiable concentrates, the m o s t common form u l ation for a p p lying insecticid es, consist of oil or a s i m i l a r or g a n i c solvent conta i n i n g the insecticide and a n e m u l s i fi e r that a i d s the m i x i n g o f the d ropl ets of o i l a n d in secticide i n water. T h e co m ponents may sepa rate o n sta n d i n g but c a n be remixed b y s h a k i n g . Special sol vents, s u c h as kerosene, pine oil, a n d ot her l i q u i d s of org a n i c compoun ds, a re used with t h e water-i n s o l u b l e org a n i c i n secticide s . M o s t so lvents are t o x i c to p l a n ts, are infla m m a b le, a n d may d a m a g e w a l l p a pe r, tile, a n d other m ateri a l s . For a l l a p p l ications, fo l l ow printed d i rections w i t h care. SPRAYERS use a p u m p to b u i l d

u p a i r p r e s s u r e t h at forces t h e l i q u i d i n sectic i d e f r o m the noz zle. The size of t h e nozzle open i n g creates e i t h er a fog l i k e m i st or a steady strea m . DUSTERS are powered b y h a n d or by m otor a n d u s e e i t h e r a fan or com pressed o i r to force out t h e d u st i n a c l o u d .

Aerosol B o m b

AEROSOL BOMBS, t h e most com m o n household a p p l icators, c o n s i st of a n i n secti c i d e dis solved i n a l i q uefied gas under h i g h pres sure. A fi n e m i s t is pro d u ced w h e n these are a l lowed to escape from a s m a l l open i n g. Aerosols o re conve n i e n t but a re relatively expensive.

Bean beetles a n d their l a rvae (p. 76) feed an the u n derside of leaves. They can be reached with i n secticide d u sts.

STOMAC H POISONS are used principa lly to k i l l insects with chewing m outh p a rts. They m ay b e s p rayed or d usted d i rectly o n the i nsect ' s food o r may be mixed with baits to attract the pests. To be useful a stom a c h poison m u st k i l l f a i r l y q u ic kly, as the p e s t is a l ready d o i n g d a m a g e when it ta kes i n the i n s ectic i d e . Too h e avy a n appl ication of these chemicals m a y kill t h e p l a nts . T h e resid ues a re poisonous to m a n a n d d o mes tic a n i m a l s . Contact i nsecticides ( p . 1 8 ) act a s sto m a c h poisons if eate n . Arse n i c compou n d s a r e t h e m ost c o m m o n i n o rg a n i c stomach poiso n s . Paris green (ca l c i u m a cetoarsen ite) w a s the fi rst c h e m i c a l i n sectic i d e u s e d successfu l l y o n a large scal e . Lead arsenate, white arsenic ( a rsenious oxide), sodium arsenate, a n d calcium arsenate are oth e r arsenic sto m a c h poiso n s . Fluori n e compou n d s t h a t a c t a s sto m a c h poisons are sodium fluo silicate, sodium fluoride, a n d sodium fluoaluminate (cryol ite) . Thallium sulfate, h i g h ly poisonous, is m i xe d w i t h food to m a k e a n t b a its. Do not store a ny i n secti c i d e where c h i l d ren c a n r e a c h it. Ma ke certa i n the c o n tain ers are properly l a b e l ed a n d m a r k e d POISON .

I NSECT I C I D ES 1 7

CONTACT I NSECTI C I DES a re sprayed or d usted d i

rectly o n pests o r are s p read wh ere p ests w i l l p i c k t h e m u p . T h e y are es pecia l ly useful i n contro l l i n g i n sects with pierc i n g - s u c k i n g mouthparts. Al l contact poisons act as sto m a c h poisons ( p . 1 7) if eate n . Most of t h e m a re also poisonous to people and a n i m a l s and t h u s are a serious hazard if not used a s d i recte d . In excess a m ounts m a n y contact i n s ecticides a re poisonous t o p l a nts. Some a r e u s e d a s fu m i g a nts. Always r e a d th e l a b e l b efore even open i n g the i n secticide conta i n e r . When i n d o u bt obout h ow to use a n i n secticide safely a n d most effec tive ly, ask the advice of your d e a l e r or of a county or ag ricultu ra l agent. Most of the m a n y thousa n d s of tra d e n a m e d i n sec ticide for m u l ations belong i n the con tact- i n secticide group. These a re divided i nto the fol lowi n g grou ps inorganics, natural organics or plant poisons, synthetics,

a n d oils. Each of these g roups is d escri bed separately on the fo l lowi n g pages. Most of the contact i n secticides now used h ave a p p e a red since the World War I I de ve lopment of D DT, the fi rst widely used synth etic or g a n ic i nsecticide. INORGA N I C CONTACT INSEC TICI DES, consist i n g m a i n ly of sulfur dusts, m ix t u res of lime a n d sulfur, or sulfur compounds, were t h e forst contact poisons used on a large scale a n d sti l l ra n k a m o n g t h e m ost i m porta nt. Sulfur dust i s o n e of the m a i n c h e m ical controls f o r m ites, for the craw l i n g stages of scales, and for som e k i n d s of cate r p i l lars. F i n e l y g rou n d s u l f u r i s u s a b l e as a wetta b l e powder for spray a p p l ications. Lime-sulfur solution is a l i q u i d, sol u b l e i n

1 8 I NSECT I C I DES

water. L i m e- s u l f u r i s a l so d e hy d rated and sold in concentrated powd er form . I t i s used to con trol plant pests such a s scales a n d also as a dip for cattle, sheep, a n d other l ivestock. Bor deaux mixture is a co m b i nation of copper s u l fate a n d lime in water. In add ition to t h e i r use as insecticides, sulfur a n d sul f u r compou n d s are valued as f u n g i c ides. I n hot weather, heavy a p p l ications of s u l f u r w i l l b u rn fol i a g e a n d fru i t a n d so m ust be a p p l ied s p ar i n g ly.

NATURAL

O R G A N I CS were t h e earliest compounds used i n k i l l i n g i n sect pests. With t h e ex ception of n i cotine, h i g h l y toxic to man a n d other m a m m a l s, they are t h e least d a n g erous of the i n secticides to use on food p l a n ts or in t h e house.

Tobacco pla nt, sou rce of h i g h ly toxic n i coti n e

Nicotine is o bta i n e d from the waste l eaves of tobacco plants a n d waste tobacco products. It is used p r i n c i p a l ly as nicotine sulfate, with a 40-percent n i co t i n e content. The 40-percent con centrate is ord i n ar i l y d i l u ted in 800 to 1 ,000 parts of wafer (about one teaspoon to a g a l lon) a n d is a p p l ied a s a spray to k i l l a p h i d s or other soft-bod ied i n sects. N i coti n e su lfate is used a l so as a stack dip for con trol of m ites, ticks, and lice. F i n e l y g r o u n d tobacco ste m s a n d leaves are used a s a d u st or burned as a f u m i g a n t . N i cot i n e may be added to a e rosol form u l ations. Pyrethrum comes from t h e flowers of sever a l species of c h ry santh e m u m s. It is produced c o m mercia l l y from a s p e c i e s g rown i n East Africa. Fast-acti n g pyre t h r i n s ore the "'k n o c k down " agents i n m ost household sp rays, with slower-acti n g DDT or other synthetics o cl u o l l y k i l l i n g the i n sect. Allethrin, produced syn thetical ly, is much the same o s pyret h r u m i n a c t i o n . Rotenone is obta i ned f r o m t h e dried a n d g rou n d roots of t h e S o u t h A m erican c u be a n d f r o m t h e roots of two s p e c i e s of d e r ris t hat g row in t h e East I n d i es. As prepared for a n i n secticide,

rote none is relatively nontoxic t o h u mans, b u t as a n i n secti c i d e it acts both as a sto m a c h and a s a contact poison. Another use of rote none by biologists is as a poison to e l i m i n ate trash fi s h i n lakes a n d ponds. Other bota n i cals, o r natural org a n i c contact i n secti cides, i n · elude ryania, produced f r o m t h e pu lverized ste m s a n d roofs of a South American p l a n t . Rya n i a is less tox ic to m a m m a l s t h a n ro tenone and so i s reco m m ended for food p l a nts where res i d u e s m i g h t be a pro b l e m . Sabadilla, which also has low tox icity, is mode by g r i n d i n g t h e seeds of a l i ly-fa m i ly p l a n t of Venezuela.

I NSECTIC I DES 1 9

SYNTHET I C ORGA N I C CON TACT INSECT I C I DES a r e t h e

mast i m portant group o f c h e m i cal s u s e d today i n the control o f i nsect pests. T h e r e are two g roupo: c h lori nated hydrocarbons and organo-phosphates. CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS DDT is the leader i n t h e ch lo r i nated hydrocarbon group. Though fi rst synthesized i n 1 874, DDT was not recog n ized as a n i n secticide u n t i l World W a r I I , wh en its i n it i a l l a rge-sca le use h a l ted a typh u s e p i d e m i c spread by l ice in I taly. I t was later va lu a b l e during the war years i n the control of fl i es a n d mosqu itoes and came i n to wides pread use in the control of agricultura l a n d household pests a fter the war. DDT is h i g h ly effective in k i l l i n g many k i n d s of i n sects b u t i s relatively n o n t o x i c to a p h i d s , spider m ites, a n d some other species. Some cockroaches, fl i es, and oth er i n sects have devel oped resistance to D DT. When a n i n sect comes i n contact with DDT, it fi rst a p pears to lose con trol of its vol u n tary actions; later it becom e s paralyzed. Death comes slowly, somet i mes severa l days later. DDT has a rather low tox i c i ty Ia man and other verte brates but may be stored i n the fatty tissues of the body a n d cause death months later when the fat reserves are u t i l i zed. DDT i s a p p l ied as a d ust, wettable powd er, water e m u l sion, or i n a n o i l b a s e . Verte brates a bsorb the o i l -base DDT most rapidly. DDT i s i n so l u b l e i n water. I ts res i d u es may r e -

20 I NSECTI C I DES

m a i n effective outdoors for many months or even years, i n doors for even longer. Methoxychlor, related to DDT, is effective aga i n st the Mex ican Bea n Beet l e and works m o r e rapidly i n k i l l i n g t h e House Fly. TDf ( o r DOD), also a relative of D D T, i s com monly used i n m o s q u ito control be cause it is less tox i c t h a n DDT to vertebrates. TOE is a l so less poi sonous to i n sects, however. Benzene hexachloride (BHC), a l so i n the c h lori n ated- hydro carbon g roup, was d iscovered as a usef u l insecticide about the same t i m e as D DT. B H C k i l l s faster t h a n D D T a n d i s com m o n ly used in the control of crop pests. I t has a d isti n ct ive m u sty odor and sometimes taints food. BHC is usually used as a dust or a wetta ble powder. Lindane is B H C t h a t d i ffers o n l y i n the arrange ment of its atoms, but as it lacks the ob jectiona b l e h eavy odor, it is used more c o m m o n l y i n houses. Though i t s resid u a l l ife is s h orter than DDT's, l in d a n e is a b o u t twice as tox i c to m a n y i nsects a n d a p parently i s n o t stored i n the b o d y t i s s u e s . Toxa phene, i n so l u b l e i n water but sol u b l e i n m a n y org a n i c sol vents, i s a n excellent i n sect k i l le r b u t i s als o poisonous I a verte brates. Tox a p h e n e is one of the most com mon i n secticides for contro l l i n g pests of cotton . Chlordane,

dieldrin,

aldrin,

endrin, a n d heptac hlor form a n

oth e r g r o u p of � losely related chlorinated hydrocarbons. A l l a re i n sol ub le in water but are solu ble i n m a ny org a n i c solvents.

Scales may be ki lled with organa phosphate sprays (below a n d p . 86). Use these i n secticides with g reat care.

They are a lso used i n dust or pellet for m , particularly as s o i l p o i s o n s for t h e c o n t r o l o f ter m ites and a n ts. They are h i g h ly effective i nsect killers a n d are resid ual. They are also poi s o n ous to vertebrates, i n c l u d i n g man and other mam mals. ORGAN O - PHOSPHATES

The organo-phasphate g ro u p of contact i n secticides ste m s from c h e m ical research j u st be fore World War II, w h e n same of these com p o u n d s were devel oped as poisonous gases for use i n warfare. Most of t h e m are e x tre m e l y let h a l to m a n a n d a n i m a l s as we l l as to i n sects. T h ey can be t a k e n i nto t h e body thr ough the m o u t h or the s k i n or by i n h a l i n g t h e i r f u mes. Resi dues a n foods are a sou rce of danger. Because these i n secti cides are very poisonous, they m ust be h a n d led with the great est care. Parathio n, a brown i s h -yellow

l i q u i d with a garlic odor, is toq poisonous for household use or for a p p l y i n g near l ivestoc k a n d pets, but i t i s w i d e l y u sed on f r u i t a n d vegeta b l e crops. Resi dues d i sa p pear r a p i d ly. Deme ton, a bo u t as poisonous as para thion, acts a s a syste m i c p o i s o n , b e i n g a b sorbed by the tissues o f t h e plant. I t k i l l s p e s t s that feed o n t h e p l a n t ' s j u ices without af fect i n g predators a n d pol l i nators. TEPP, eve n more p o i s o n o u s t h a n para t h i o n , decom poses ra p i d ly a n d l eaves no res i d u e . It is used reg u larly o n food crops. Malathion, m a s t c o m m a n l y used organa-phosp hate, i s not h i g h ly toxic to vertebrates. Ma la t h i o n wi l l k i l l m a n y i n sect species that h ave developed a resista nce to t h e i n s ectic ides of t h e DDT and c h l o rd a n e g r o u p s . Diozinon, DDVP, ronnel, and dicopthon are ather org a n o - p h o s p h ates that are exce l l e n t i n s ect k i l lers. D D V P i s the most h i g h l y toxic o f t h ese c h e m i c a l s to man and a n i m a l s .

I N SECTI C I DES 2 1

O i l s are a p p l ied to citrus to k i l l young stages of P u r p l e Sca le ( p . I 33) a n d C i trus W h i tefly (p. 136).

OILS, p r i n c i p a l l y petro l e u m but a l s o some a n i m a l a n d vegeta ble o i l s, serve a s carriers for i n secticides or m a y b e u s e d as i n secticides t h e m selves. Dormant oils, rather h eavy a n d sem ire fi n ed, are a p p lied i n late wi nter or early s p r i n g to trees or s h rubs t h a t ore not i n foliage to k i l l scales, m i tes, e g g s , a n d some larvae. Summer oils ore l i g hter and more h i g h ly refi n e d , hence less damaging Ia pla nts; they ore used to control a ph ids, scale i n sects, a n d mealybugs. As the o i l s t h e m selves are tox i c to plants if a p p l i e d full stre n g t h , t h ey ore m i xed with water by add i n g o n e m u l sifier, s u c h as soap. Th is d i stributes t h e oil eve n l y as s m a l l droplets. Oil b a t h s may be used to k i l l such para sites as fl eas, l i ce, ticks, and m ites o n dom estic a n i m a l s and pels. Form ulations t h a t req u i re shaking w i t h a s m a l l a m o u n t of water before fi n a l m i x i n g o r e c a l l e d miscible o i l s . A n emulsible-oil form u l ation con be pou red d irectly i nto the water.

FUMIGANTS ore gases used to

k i l l i n sects in e n c losures, a s i n

2 2 I NSECTI C I DES

b u i l d i n g s or conta i n ers, i n t h e soil, or u n d e r s u c h tem porary covers as tarpa u l i n s a n d tents. Many fu m igants are i n fl a m m ab l e. Nearly all f u m i g a n ts ore m o re poisonous Ia m a n t h a n to t h e i n sects a n d s h o u l d be used o n l y by a p rofession a l pest-control operator. Their adva n tage i s their pe netration to a l l p o r t s o f b u i l d i n g s , i nto stored products or plants. T h ey leave n o res i d ue. Carbon disulfide (carbon b i s u l fi d e), h ig h ly i n fl a m m a b l e , is u sed m a i n l y as a s o i l f u m i g a n t for a n ts, ter m i tes, and g r u bs. For i n �oor use it m a y be m ixed with carbon tetra c h l o r i d e to reduce t h e d a n ger of fire o r explosion. Dichloropropene a n d dichlaro propane are a l s o u se d as soil f u m i g a n ts. Hydrogen cyanide, w h i ch h a s a d i st i n ctive n u tty odor a n d i s deadly poisonous, is used to f u m igate m i l l s a n d ware houses or fruit trees u n d er tents. Methyl bromide, a n o n i n fl a m m a b l e f u m igant, i s v a l u e d beca use of its power to p e n etrate t i ghtly packed materia l s. Paradichloro b e nze n e ( " para " crystals) a n d naphthalene (both sold as m o t h bolls) vaporize s l owly a n d a c t as a f u m i g a n t a n d a repe l l e n t.

REPELLENTS are c h e m icals that

by their odor or taste preven t i n sect attacks. T h e y a r e used m a i n l y to protect man, a n i m a l s, or stored products; less co m m o n l y , p l a n t s . S o m e repellents are poisonous if touched, eaten, or breathed. Mothballs are repel lents that protect clothes from i n sect damage. Creosote i s used as a barrier a g a i nst craw l i ng i n sects, w h i l e smoke screens ward of! fl ies a n d m o s q u itoes. A m o n g t h e m o s t successfu l of d o z e n s of repe l l e n t c h e m i ca l s ore diethyl toluamide,

dimethyl

phthalate,

a n d ethyl hexanediol. These or g a n i c c h e m icals are d i l uted with oil s a n d d i s g u i sed with per f u m es. They are sold u n d e r many tra d e n a m es. Most will repel i n '' sects f o r o n e to fi v e h o u rs.

NEW METHODS

of combating i n sect pests are b e i n g developed every year. Some are usef u l o n l y

i n large-sca l e control progra m s , others i n h o m e a n d gard e n . A m o n g t h e m ost pro m i s i n g a r e sterilants t h at render i n s ects i n c a p a b l e o f reprod u c i n g . T h i s m ethod w a s fi rst u s e d with suc cess to control t h e Screw-worm . Mi l l ions of m a les, steril ized by rad iation, were released in areas of i n festation to male with fe· males, w h i c h then prod uced i n fert i l e eggs. Hormones a r e used to cause a n i n sect to pass from one stage of its d evelo p m e n t to t h e next irrespective of season. Thus, pupae c a n be made to transform i n to a d u lts i n m i d w i n ter or larvae may be m a d e t o p u pate before t h e y are f u l l g rown. I n sect hormones a r e a p · parently h a r m l ess t o other l iv i n g t h i n g s . Also s a f e a r e such non· toxic insecticides as fi nely g rou n d s i l ica, w h i c h a b rades t h e outer covering from a n i n sect a n d causes it t o d r y up, or desiccate, as its body fl u i d s escape.

The soil in seed beds can be f u m i gated by relea s i n g m ethyl-bro m i d e g a s u n d e r p lastic cover.

I NSECTIC I DES 2 3

A RGENT I N E ANTS a re c o m m o n

widespread in U.S., g ive off a sweet odor w h e n crushed. Travel d efi n i te tra i l s ta fond food .

HOU

i n southern U . S . ; worst a n t pests i n ho u ses. Prefer sweets b u t eat oil foods. Bile, d o not sti n g .

EHOLD P

I n sect pests may d est roy the t i m b e rs of a house, t u n n e l i nto furniture a n d fa b rics, or r a i d t h e contents o f t h e kitc h e n , fro m the s p i c e c a b i n et to the g a r b a g e pail. Some k i n d s bite, sti n g , or tra n s m it diseases. Others a re s i m p ly a n noyi ng, u n i nvited g u ests . The basic step in control l i n g household p ests is to keep t h e m out. Screen windows a n d doors, seal crac ks, a n d remove d e b ris in which pests can h i d e or m u ltiply. If pest" i nfestations a re h eavy, persistent, or u n explain able, services of a professi o n a l pest-co ntrol operator may be necess a ry. Make certa i n the man e m p l oyed represents a licensed, bonded org a n i zatio n . Many pests c a n b e recog nized a n d contro l led with out expert help. Since i n secticides are poisonous a n d w i l l be u s e d wh ere there a r e people, pets, a n d food, fol l ow ca refu l l y the d i rectio n s g iven o n t h e l a b e l . THIEF ANTS often l ive i n other

o n l n ests and feed o n l a rvae. T h ey prefer c h eese, m eals, or other g reasy food .

PHARAOH

ANTS a l so l i ke meal. May nest i n w a l l s a n d t h e n i nvade all p a r t s of h o u s e . Poison baits are best contro l m et h o d .

CRAZY ANTS , native to I nd i a but now w i d espread, r u n 11Craz. i ly" on t h e i r l o n g legs. They eat m eat, g reasy foods, and sweets.

CORNFIELD ANTS are the c o m

m o n " red a n t s " of northern states. Nest mounds ofte n nu merous o n lawns. I nvade houses.

ANTS live in colon ies in the g ro u n d , in the fou n d ations

or walls of b u i l d i ngs, beneath b a r k or stones. A colony conta i n s n u m erous workers (sterile fe m a les), o n e to sev eral q u e e n s, a n d a few m a les d u ring p a rt of the year. Workers d o not h ave wings, but m a les and fe m a l e s a r e winged at swa r m i n g ti m e . Males d i e after mati n g , a n d the q ueens d rop their wings a n d fl n d a place to sta rt a colony. After mati n g , queens re m a i n ferti le, livi n g a s l o n g a s 2 5 yea rs. Queens a re u s u a l l y several times l a rg e r t h a n workers, w h i c h atte n d their every need . Ants b e l o n g to s a m e i n sect order as bees a n d wasps. They h ave el bowed antennae a n d a t h i n wai st, d i sti n g u i s h i n g t h e m from te rm ites ( p . 2 6 ) . The most effective control is t o d estroy t h e n est i f it c a n b e fou n d . C h emical ba rriers, u s i n g a res i d u a l contact i n secti cide, c a n be placed arou n d fou n d ations of b u i l d i n g s . Workers will ca rry poisoned ba its to the colony and t h u s k i l l even the q u e e n . SOUTHERN FIRE ANTS occur i n warm parts o f U.S. Often nest n e a r b u i l d i n gs. I nvade houses. Stings are p a i n f u l .

B LACK C A RPENTER ANTS exca vate g a l l eries and nest i n wood. They enter houses to get sweets. Bite but d o not sti n g .

TERMI TES a re p r i m itive social i nsects, more closely re

lated to cockroaches (p. 28) t h a n to a nts (p. 2 5 ) . A colony cons ists of n u m erous whitish, w i n g less, b l i n d workers; a lesser n u m be r o f soldiers, with l a rge brow n ish h e a d s eq uipped w i t h powerful j a w s or w i t h a bellows sha ped snout t h at expels a sticky or odorous fl u i d ; a n d reproductives, t h e k i n g a n d q u e e n . Ad d itio n a l w i n g e d m a les a n d fe m a les are produced f o r swa r m i n g , which ta kes p l ace i n spring or afte r r a i n s i n warm weather. After a s h o rt flight they brea k off their w i n g s and mate. Each m ated p a i r t h e n crawls off i n search of a s u i ta b l e p l a ce t o esta b l is h a n e w colony. More than 5 0 species of term ites occur i n t h e U . S . Th eir s p read as fa r north as Mi n n esota i n rece n t years is attributed to i n c reased use of central heating in b u i l d i n g s , e n a b l i n g them t o s u rvive winters . Nea rly a l l U . S . species l ive i n th e soi l ; m a ny o f the m ore t h a n 2,000 species of the tropics build aboveg ro u n d n ests . Te rm ites eat wood but can not absorb it u n t i l the cel lu lose is converted i nto s o l u b l e s u bstances by p roto zoans that l ive in the termite ' s dig estive tract. Neither animal is a b l e to s u rvive a l o n e . d a m aged woad

S U B T ER R A N EA N

T E R M I T ES

l ive i n col o n i es i n soil, a n d workers travel through t u n n e l s or m u d t u b e s to t h e wood a bove. F u n g i that g row i n m o i st, dark tunnels ore eaten by t e r m i tes, s u p p l y i n g prote i n and vita m i ns . Swa r m i n g fl i g hts or m u d tubes up a foundation ore evidence of a t e r m i te i n festation. I n late stages, floors sag as eaten-out bea m s cru m b l e . To contro l , n o wood of a b u i l d i n g s h o u l d t o u c h soi l . Preventive m e a s u res s h o u l d be to ken a s a b u i l d i n g is b e i n g constructed. Place m etal s h i e l d s between the fou ndation and sills a n d al low air to c i r c u l ate u nd e r b u i l d i ngs_ Beca use of t h e special e q u i p m e n t needed, use a professional pest-control op e rator, especially i n trea t i n g a b u i l d i n g a l ready erected . H e w i l l force penetrat i n g i n secti c i d e i nto t h e wood or fo u n d ation , Treat the soil be neath b u i l d i ng s , or use a f u m i g a n t . I n spect regularly to detect ren ewed activity.

worker 0.2 i n .

reproductive in_

0.5

DRYWOOD TERMITES o re prev

alent i n the southwestern U.S. No contact with soil i s n ecessary. Often they i nvade a house at roof l evel and may i nfest furn i t u r e or boo ks. Piles of brown ish, see d l i ke excre m e n t pel lets p u s h e d from tunnels ore s i g n s of t h e i r prese nce. Preventing e n t r y is n o t econ o m i c a l . Contro l , w h i c h s h o u l d be d o n e o n l y b y experts, consists of forc i n g i n secticide i nto t u n nels. Poison i s spread as workers g room each other. House o r i nfested object moy be f u m i gated, but this does not p reve nt rei n festoti o n .

EASTERN SUBTERRANEAN TERMITE

GERMAN COCKROACHU

0.5

in.

COC KROAC HES feed on a g reat variety of foods m e a ts, c heeses, sweets, and starches, i n c l u d i n g t h e sta rch i n c loth i n g or i n t h e g l u e of book b i n d i n g s a n d stam ps: W h e n very a b u n d a n t, they m ay a lso eat h u m a n h a i r, s k i n , a n d n a i l s . Cockroaches secrete a stic ky, odorous fl u i d that may be l eft on foods or m ate ria ls. Fortu n ately, cockroaches appear to be o n ly incidental ca rriers of d iseases. Most of t h e more than 3,000 species of coc kroaches l ive i n t h e tropics or subtropics. About 5 5, occur i n the U . S . ; o n l y four species are common household pests . Norm a l ly coc k roaches are active o n ly at n i g ht. They d evelop by a g ra d u a l meta morphosis-eg g , n y m p h , a n d a d u lt. Egg c a s e s conta i n two rows of e g g s , a n d the nym p h s e s c a p e t h rough a seam a l o n g t h e side. Nym phs l o o k l i k e a d u lts but l a c k wings a n d may be a l i g h t e r color. After a period of g rowth a n d several m o lts they become adults. The time required for them to m ature varies with the species a n d a lso with the season and the region . Temperature a n d moisture as well as food are i m porta nt factors i n their d evel o p m e n t . The b e s t permanent control f o r coc kroaches is e l i m i n ati n g accessibility of foods which th ey e a t .

2 8 HOUSEHOLD PESTS

GERMAN COCKROACHES, or Croton Bugs, ore c o m m o n i n U.S., especially i n northern stoles. D o r k stri pes o n s h i e l d b e h i n d h e o d o re d i sti n g u i s h i n g . Both s e x e s wi nged o n d active. German Coc kroaches com m o n· ly e n ter houses in bags or boxes from g rocery stores. They tend to c l u ster i n warm, moist places, os arou nd hot-water p i pes, and stay hidden w h e n not feed i n g . F e m a l e s carry the egg c a p s u l e, conta i n i n g 24 t o 4 8 eggs, until h a tc h i n g time. N y m p h s may e m erge while the capsu l e i s sti l l attached to t h e female. I n most areas German Cock· roaches ore resista n t to D DT, ch lordane, ond other ch lori nated hyd roca rbons. They can be con tro l l e d w i t h organo- p h o s p h ates, such os m a la t h i o n . B R OW N - B A N D E D COCK ROACH h a s two l i g h t b o n d s

a c r o s s t h e bose of its w i n g s . U n l i ke other cockroaches, it i s as co m m o n i n t h e bedroom a s in t h e k i t che n , req u i r i n g warmth but not a s m u c h m o i sture. Control i s d i ffi c u l t because these cock roaches are found so widely through the house. The m ost effective woy to reach them is with f u m iga nts, k e e p i n g room or house closed for several h o u rs.

O R I EN T A L

C O C K R O A C H ES,

a l s o c a l l e d Block Beetles o r Wa ter Bugs, are most s l u g g i s h of do mestic cockroaches. F e m a l e s have s hort useless w i n g s a n d are s l i g htly larger than m a les. Cam manly i n fest damp base m e n ts. Contact-insecticide barrier arou n d a foundation b l o c k s e n t r y of these cockroaches a n d o t h e r crawl i n g pests. AMERICAN

C O CK R O A C H ES

are t h e largest cockroa c h e s i n t h e U.S. Bot h sexes a r e w i n g ed , t h e i r fl ig h t g l i d i ng a n d fl uttery. The f e m a l e d e posits h e r e g g capsule soon a f t e r it f o r m s , someti m e s g l u i n g i t to a s u rface. In t h e South these cockroaches ore co m m o n outdoors, w h ere they l ive u n d e r bark or i n vege tat i o n . They can be control led wi t h contact i n sect i ci d e s o r l u re d to p o i s o n b a i t s .

CLOTH ES MOTH l a rvae fee d on woo len fabrics, feath

ers, fur, mohair, and other animal products s u c h as d ried m i l k a n d m e a l s . The a d u l t moths, com m o n ly c a l l e d " m i l l e rs, " d o not e at, a n d u n l ike m o s t o t h e r m o t h s , a re not attracted to lig hts . Materi a l l i kely to be attac ked should be c l e a n e d a n d exposed freq uently t o l i g h t . Brush i n g clothes d i s lo d g es the eggs a n d l a rvae. Stora g e of furs at a tem perature of 45 d e g rees or cooler prevents d evelopment of moths or will k i l l t h e m if t h e temperatu re is raised a n d l owered seve ral ti m es d u r i n g the storage period . Items can be sp rayed with resi d u a l contact i n sectici d es or wa s h a b les rinsed i n an i nsecticide sol utio n . Th ese treatme nts k i l l the i n sects as they fee d . Mild fu m i g a nts such as para d i c h l orobe n z e n e crysta ls or n a p h t h a l e n e fla kes d iscour age moth atta cks. These insecticides wi l l also k i l l moths a l ready i n the fabrics but a re effective o n l y when used i n tig ht conta i n ers or closets . An i nfestation may persist and spread from l a rvae that feed and deve lop on lint i n cracks i n the floor, beneath baseboards, or in vents. In h eavy i nfestations a n entire house may be f u m i g ated . This s h o u l d be d o n e only by a p rofessional exte r m i n ator. DERMESTI D BEETLES a re pests of fabrics and

u p holstered furniture a n d also infest cured m eats, meals, ch eeses, h i des, h a i r, flour or other grain p rod ucts, a n d spices . Th ey a r e serious pests i n m u s e u m s . Outdo ors t h ey are va l u a b l e as scave n g ers . La rvae of derm estid beetles are more a ctive than the l a rvae of clothes moth s . Ad u lts fly i n dayti m e . Th ey co m m only feed on the p o l l e n of flowers a n d a lso breed outd oors . Trea tments effective for clothes moths also control carpet beetl es. In both cases, good housekeeping to e l i m i n ate breed i n g pl aces is the most i m portant preve ntive . 30 HOUSEHOLD PESTS

WEBB I N G

CLOTHES

MOTHS

are com m o n fabric pests that oc c u r throug hou t t h e worl d . Fe males lay eggs about 0.02 of an inch l o n g (barely v i s i b le), either singly or i n s m a l l groups, stick i n g t h e m to t h e th rea d s of fab rics. Eggs hatch i n a few days to several weeks, d e p e n d i n g on tem perature and h u m i d i ty. The larvae are so t i n y they can crawl betwee n the woven t h reads of fabrics. They s p i n a s i l ky web bing o r t u n n e l a s they feed, someti m e s moving to a nother spot i f their food r u n s short. D a m a g e is m ost c o m m o n u n d e r col lars, i n cuffs, or i n o t h e r dark a r e a s o f g a r m ents. F u l l g rown l arvae s p i n a s i l ke n co coon from w h i c h t h ey e m erge as a d u lts in t h ree to s i x wee ks.

w i n g s p read

eggs, l a rvae ana cocoon s o n fabric. CASEMA K I N G CLOTHES MOTH

CASEMAKING CLOTHES MOTH

larvae s p i n a case of si l k a n d fabric, carry i n g it with t h e m a s t h e y f e e d . T h e c a s e s p l its a n d t h e " V " of t h e s p l i t i s fi l led i n as t h e l a rva g rows. C o m m o n i n northern states. Plaster Bag worm s o f southern slates b u i l d a porta b l e c a s e of bits of plaster or fabric woven i nto t h e s i l k of the case. CARPET

BEETLES, a l so called Buffalo Beetles, are derm estids that i nfest woo l e n fabrics, feath ers, a n d other a n i m a l prod u cts. Related pests i n c l u d e the larger Hide Beet le and t h e larder Bee tle. H i d e s and s k i n s a re treated with arse n i c powders or s i m i l a r sto m a c h poisons. C h eese, cured meats, a n d other fatty foods s h o u l d be kept in t i g h t con tainers ar u n d e r refrigeration.

1. LARDER BEETLE, 0.3 in.; 2. CARPET BEETLE, 0.2 i n . ; 3. H I D E BEETLE, 0.3 i n .

House Fly can eat o n l y l iq u i d s. It sal ivates o n s o l i d s to d i ssolve them, then sponges u p l i q u i d .

pu pariu m

3-10 days

HOUSE FLIES are bothersome, d a n g e rous pests, trans

m itti n g d iseases a n d parasites from the filth i n which they breed to the foo ds m a n eats. Females m a y lay h a lf a d oz e n or m ore c l usters of 1 00 to 1 5 0 eggs in a sea son. In favo r a b l e cond itions a l ife cycl e is c o m p leted in a bout two weeks but m ay take m a ny months i n cold weather. Wi nter is ord i n a rily passed i n the l a rva or p u pa stage, but a d u lts may ove rwi nter in warm n i c hes. Dis pos a l of g a rbage, m a n ure, sewage, a n d s i m i l a r d ecay ing o r fermenting wastes i n which the fl i es breed a n d the m a g gots develop is m o s t i m porta nt. Win d ows a n d doors s h o u l d be fitted with t i g h t scree n s . F l ies t h at enter c a n be k i l l e d with aerosol sprays . Wa l l s, sil ls, a n d screens c a n b e treated with resid ual s u rface s p rays. As flies in most areas a re resistant to D DT, oth e r contact i n secticides m ust be s u b stitute d . Poison baits ( m i xtu res of syrup- or s u g a r-water with a n i n secticide) are effec tive in p l aces t h a t c a n not be scree ned or w h e re s p rays c a n not be used because of d a n g e r of conta m i natio n . 3 2 HOUSEHOLD PESTS

LITTLE HOUSE FLIES are s m a l l e r a n d m o re s l e n d e r t h a n the Hause Fly. They h over or fly back and forth without sett l i n g o n food. The s i m i lar, closely related La trine Fly breeds i n h u m a n ex cre m e n t . Maggots of both have a flattened, s p i n y body. BLOW

FLIES are large and n o i sy. Most species are meta l l i c b l u e or green, l i ke t h e Green Bottle a n d B l u e Bottle flies shown here. The g ray C l u ster Fly, s i m i l a r i n a p peara n ce t o House Fly, is a blow fly com m o n in houses. Blow fly mag gots develop i n garbage or carrion . BLU E B OTTLE F L Y MOTH

0.5 in.

FLIES, t h e i r w i n g s a n d

body covered w i t h h a i r, often a p pe a r i n s i n k o r bathtub drai n s . The m aggots develop i n t h e g e l a t i n o u s s l u d g e i n the b e n d s of p i p e s . S o m e t i m e s large n u m bers i nvade from outdoors, where t h ey deve l o p i n garbage or sewage. They are so t i n y they can crawl t h ro u g h scree n s . F RU I T F L I E S c a n e nter houses through ord i n a ry scree n s . They are attracted to rott i n g or fer m e n t i n g fruits or l i q u i d s . A co m p lete l ife cycle req u i res less t h a n two weeks. Other co m m o n n a m e s f o r t h e m a r e V i negar F l i e s or P o m a c e F l i e s . DROSOPH I L A FRU I T

CLUSTER F L Y

0.3 in.

GNAT i s a name used for m a n y

k i n d s o f s m a l l fl i es, m o st of w h i c h are o n l y n u i s a n ces. The Eye Gnat, attracted to eye secre tions, tra n s m its p i n keye. These persistent tor m e n tors are most active i n early morn i n g or eve ning hours. EYE G N AT

MANY OTH ER KINDS of insects, as well as s p i d ers,

and their kin e nter h ouses, where they a re either n u i sa nces or pote ntia l ly d a n gerous pests . Some of these a re d iscussed i n the section o n i nsects that b ite o r sting ( p . 3 8 ), others i n the section o n stored prod u cts ( p . 1 4 6 ) . Often a n i nvasion o f i nsects is o n ly tempora ry, as when they a re a ttracted to lights. When a lawn is m owed, a vaca n t lot is cleaned up, or a crop is h a rvested n e a rby, i n sects disturbed from their normal livi n g p l aces m ay be temporary pests . Oth e rs are reg u l a r visitors a n d com panions i n dwe l l i n g s . S I LVERFISH are scaly, w i n g l es s

i n sects t h a t p refer foods with a h i g h starch or sugar content. They eat the glue i n book b i n d i n g s or f r o m wa l l paper a n d often d a m ag e pai n t i n g s or paper. S i l verfi s h prefer c o o l , d a m p places; t h e closely related F i rebrat l ives in wa r m , d r i e r spots. Res i d u a l sprays ar d u sts are effective i n kee p i n g down i n festations. E A R W I G S are

e a s i l y recog n i zed b y forceps ot e n d o f a b d o m e n . Someti m e s occur i n large n u m bers i n hou ses. They can b i te a n d also p i n c h , but seldom brea k t h e s k i n . T h ey hide d u r i n g t h e d a y , feed at n ig h t. Use resi d u a l s prays o r d u sts. HOUSE CRICKETS sing o n the hearth or wh erever they can fi n d warm t h . When cold, t h ey a r e s l u g g i s h a n d q u iet. F i e l d Crickets a l so enter houses i n a u tu m n . As house pests, cric kets eat o variety of food s a n d may be destructive to clothes. H o u s e h o l d s p rays, d u sts, and poison baits are u s u a l l y effective.

34 HOUSEHOLD PESTS

SOUTHERN LYCTUS BEETLE WOOD-BORING BEETLES of o

n u m ber of species may i n fest wood used in houses or furni ture. larvae of t h e Southern lyctus Beet l e reduce wood to a fi n e powd er, w h i c h is pushed outside throu g h s m a l l holes. D ro p p i n g s o f t h e F u r n i t u r e Beetle a n d others a r e round pel lets. As so me kinds feed, a tick i n g noise i n the wood can be heard. F u m i gation by a q u a l ified pest-control operator i s t h e best contro l . BOOKLICE, or Psoci d s , some times beca m e abundant i n stored furn iture, books, or papers, par ticularly if d a m p . They feed m a i n l y o n m o l d s but also eat cereal s . Boo k l i c e are so s m a l l t h a t it is d i ffi c u l t to k e e p t h e m o u t af a h o u s e . Use contact sprays or d u sts. BOXELDER BUGS d o not b ite, sti n g , o r carry d i s eases, but ore a n noyances when large n u m bers occur near or in h o u ses. Can be k i l l e d with household s p rays. CRANE

FLIES look l i k e Iorge mosqu itoes but are h a r m less. Their l arvae, or m a g gots, some t i m es c a l l e d leatherjac kets, de velop i n damp vegetation o r in the soil. A d u l ts com m o n l y are attracted to t h e l i g hts i n houses. They can be k i l l ed with h ouse hold fly sprays. SPRINGTA I L$ often cong regate

i n cellars o r i n bathroom s or k i t c h e n s , w h e r e v e r t h e re is d a m pness. They are h a r m less a n d can be k i l led with household sprays or d u sts.

0.1

HOUSEHOLD PESTS 35

HOUSE CENTIPEDE

1 .0-1 .5 i n .

CENTIPEDES a r e flat-bodied, with long antennae a n d one p a i r of legs a n nearly every tru n k seg m ent. The House Cen t i pede feeds o n ants, fl ies, cock roaches, and other pests, hence i s beneficial. I t s b i te, though rare, i s painful. Use residual con loci i n sect icides or treat joists, s u bflaors, a n d cracks with creo sote o r ather repe l l e n ts.

MILLIPEDES

are a l m ost cyl i n drical, w i t h two p a i r s o f s h ort legs per a p p arent body seg ment, a n d s hort a n t e n n a e. They move s l owly. These features d i s t i n g u i s h t h e m f r o m swift-crawl ing centipedes. N o r m a l l y m i l l i pedes a r e fou n d o n l y o utdoors, feed i n g o n d ecayi n g vegetation , but t h ey m ay i n vade houses after ra i n s or to escape cold in fal l . P I L LBUGS

AND

S OW BUGS

are land-dwe l l i ng crustacea ns. They can s u rvive o n l y in d a m p places, a s i n leaf m o l d or i n base ments. They f e e d m a i n ly on decayi ng vegetat ion but a l so eat tender roots of plants. Con tro l s : clea n u p of debris i n w h i ch they th rive; contact i n secticides; poison baits i n h eavy i n festa tions, as i n g reenhouses. SCORPI ONS

are spider rela tives found o n ly i n warm c l i m a t e s . Two s p e c i e s i n south western U.S. a re h i g h ly poison ous. Scorpions are nocturnal a n d f e e d m a i n ly o n i nsects, w h i c h t h e y catch i n t h e i r p i ncers, t h e n paralyze or k i l l with t h e i r s t i n g . E l i m i nate d e b r i s close to b u i l d i n g s a n d use contact i n secticides that have res i d u a l action.

H O U S E SPIDER

0.3 i n .

body 0.2 i n . 2-3 i n . across l e g s DADDYLONGLEGS, or Harvest

men, rese m b l e spiders but hove a d i st i n ctly s e g m ented a b d o m e n a n d sti n k g l a n d s . They l a c k s i l k g la n d s . T h e i r l o n g s t i l t l i k e l e g s are easily s h e d w h e n t h e a n i m a l i s touched. Daddylonglegs a r e h a r m l ess, fee d i n g m a i n l y o n dead in sects. They w i l l k i l l a n d e a t s m a l l i nsects, h owever, a n d m a y feed o n fru its or vegeta b l e s . J U M P I N G S P I D E R S of severa l

species often enter houses. They d o not make webs. I n stead they hunt actively for prey, search· i n g over cei l i n gs, w a l l s , sills, and fl oors. They can jump q u i c kly, and freq u e n t l y use their s i l k as a payout l i n e to let t h e m selves down from h i g h leve l s . These lines may be a n u i sa n ce, but t h e s p iders are h e l p f u l . B LA C K W I DOW S P I D E R S a r e

w i d e l y d i stributed a n d rath e r abundant. Their bites are pain f u l a n d may cause d e a t h . A doc tor should be called i m med iately to g i ve treat ment. Fortu nately, Black Widows are shy and d o not bite without g reat p rovoca tion. They usually build t h e i r w e b s i n o r b e n e a t h o bjects close Ia t h e grou n d .

HOUSE S P I D E R S bother h o u s e w i v e s becau s e o f t h e i r webs. T h e i r bites m ay be very poison ous. House S p i d ers p rey o n the House Fly a n d other i n sects. Their webs are u s u a l l y built in corners, w h e re they col l ect d u s t a s w e l l a s prey. T h e s e a n d other spiders can be k i l led with c o n t a c t s p rays o r d usts ; res i d u a l i n secticides preve n t r e i n festa t i o n .

I N SECTS TH

B

E 0

5

NG

Biting fl ies fee d on the blood of their victi m s . Th ey cut or sta b throu g h the skin with their k n ife-s h a rp pierc i n g mouthparts, t h e n l a p u p blood that flows from the wou n d . Th ey m ay a lso b e carriers of diseases. I n sects that sting u s u a l ly do so as a d efense when d isturbed o r a n noye d . Sti ngs of bees o r wasps m a y be extre mely pai nful and also d a n gerous. I n the U n ited States more deaths result from insect sti n g s than from the bites of poisonous s n a kes. Med ical k n owledge about the effect of i nsect venoms and h ow to treat sti n g s is sti l l l i m ited . U s u a l ly there is swe l l i n g a n d i n m a ny cases a throbbing a c h e that m ay last for several d ays . Sti n g s vary i n severity with the species o f i n sect a n d also with the a m o u n t of poison i n jected . A sting i n an a rm o r a leg is less d a n g erous t h a n a sti ng i n th e neck, where the poison may pa ralyze the vocal cords or h a m per breath i n g . The effect of a sti ng also varies with i n d ividuals a n d with their p h ysiological cond itio n . Beekeepers com monly build u p a n i m m u n ity to sti ngs. HORSE FLIES, active o n l y i n the dayt i m e, are m a i n ly pests of l i vesto c k (p. 56) but may a lso b i te people. The bite, only from fema les, i s very p a i n f u l . Females lay egg masses o n leaves, stems, o r rocks . . O n hatc h i ng, l a rvae

d r o p to g r o u n d and c o m p l ete develop ment in d a m p soi l o r i n water. Maggots m a y overwi nter i n mud, pu pate i n early spring, a n d e m erge as a d u l ts a few weeks later. E q u a l l y pestering are closely related Deer F l ies.

BLACK HORSE

0.8-1 .0 i n .

DEER

0.4 in.

38

FL

SAND FLY

BLACK FLI ES, a l s o c a l l e d Buf falo G nats, are most a b u n da n t in late spring and s u m m e r i n wooded reg i o n s of Canada a n d the U.S. These h u m p backed blood suckers (on l y t h e females bite, c a u s i n g a persistent irrita tion) crawl a n n oy i n g l y i nto the eyes, ears, a n d nostr i l s . Females fasten t h e i r egg masses Ia rocks o r vegetation i n strea m s , in which t h e l arvae devel o p and spin cocoons. A l i fe cycl e i s com p leted i n about six weeks. Re pell ents are effective.

FLIES, o r No-See- U m s, are tiny blood s u c k i n g fl ies, so s m a l l they ca n go throu g h or d i nory screens. T h ey are most a c t i v e in e v e n i n g or e a r l y m o r n i n g hours, a n d t h e i r bites are extre mely p a i n f u l . Screens a n d areas a rou n d l i ghts can be sprayed or p a i nted with a n o i l e m u l s i o n contact i n sect i c i d e . Re pelle nts will keep t h e flies off i n dayti m e . T h e m ag g ots develop i n m oi st vegetat ion or i n pools (so m e species i n soli water, others in fresh).

STABLE FLIES, l i k e Horse F l i es,

House Fly abdomen

are p r i n c i p a l l y pests af l i vestock but may at times bother people. They occur most a b u n d a ntly i n lowl a n d s a n d seashore areas, beco m i n g especi a l l y aggressive when the barometer is f a l l i n g . Both s e x e s b i t e . T h e i r mouth parts are sharp a n d stiletto- l i ke rather t h a n spong i n g , as i n H o u s e F l ies. I n c o o l areas, they overwinter a s larvae or pu pae; i n war m e r c l i m ates, active the year a ro u n d . In h ouses, can be k i l led with s p rays. E l i m i nate breed i n g p laces ( m a n ure or de cayi ng orga n i c m atter).

SAND

39

MOSQUITOES total more t h a n 2 , 5 0 0 species. Many

a re carriers of d iseases ( m a la ria, yellow fever, d e n g ue, and fi l ariasis). Others, a s a n noyances, cause costly l osses of m a n -hours to outdoor workers or reduce the p leasure of b e i n g outdoors. Adult fe m a les lay their eggs on or near the s u rface of perm a n e n t pools or in moist or te m porarily flooded locatio n s . Some species lay their eggs s i n g ly; others deposit them i n " rafts" of as many as several h u n d re d . I n m ost species the fem a l e m ust h ave a m e a l o f b l ood before s h e c a n p rod uce eggs. Males are nectar feed e r s a n d do n ot b i t e . The l a rvae, a l so c a l l e d "wigg l ers, " swi m or rest j ust beneath the surface. They feed o n m i c roscopic org a n i c m atte r. Development may be c o m pl eted i n as s h ort a time as five d ays o r m ay req uire seve ral months; the average is a week to 1 0 d ays. Then the l a rvae tra n sform into pu pae, also k n own as " t u m blers" because they conti n u e to be active. The a d u l ts emerge i n from two d ays to two weeks or l o n ger, d e p e n d i n g o n the species a n d the water cond itio n s . Adu lts l ive f o r a few d ays t o seve ral months, a n d most species do n ot travel more than a m i l e . Some h i b e r n ate in t h e a d u l t sta g e . Large-sc a l e mosq uito control consists o f e l i m i n ating b ree d i n g a reas by d ra i nage, sprea d i n g oil films over the surface of the water, using i nsecticides to destroy the la rvae or pupae, or sp rayi n g with contact i n sec ticides to k i l l th e a d u lts. All of these controls m ay a lso d estroy h a b itats or k i l l fi s h , bi rds, or other va l u a b l e wild l ife a n d s h o u l d be u n d e rtaken only after ca reful study by p rofess io n a l ly trained peop l e . Aro u n d h ouses, get rid of b reed i n g p l a ces, such as ditches, l ow s p ots where water sta n d s i n lawns, or conta i n ers . Scree n i n g wi l l k e e p a d u lts o u t o f houses. 40 BITING OR STI NG I NG PESTS

eggs l a i d s i n g l y

C O M M O N M A LA R I A M O S QU ITO a n d the Western M a

eggs laid s i n g l y

Y E LLOW - F E V E R

M O S Q U I TO,

laria Mosq u ito, k nown to m i g rate 25 m i l e s in s p r i n g fl i g hts, trans mit malaria i n N.A.

found m a i n ly in port a reas i n South, i s recog n ized b y s i lvery stripes. U n l i ke most m o s q u i toes, it bites during d ay.

SALT- M A R S H

MOSQ U I T O E S

HOUSE MOSQU ITO, worldwide

breed i n large n u m bers a l o n g A t l a n t i c a n d G u l f coasts. A re l ated black species occurs i n South, others i n West.

i n d istri bution, beco m e s active a n d b i tes at night. Mem bers of t h i s g e n u s carry t h e v i r u s caus i n g encep h a l itis.

SALT-MARSH MOSQUITO

HOUSE MOSQUITO

BITING O R STI N G I N G PESTS 4 l

BED BUGS feed on the blood of b i rd s a n d m a m m a ls,

i n c l u d i n g m a n . Both ma les a n d fe m a les bite, and a s a rule, a re a ctive only at n i g h t . They pierce t h e s k i n a n d i n ject s a l iva th at later causes the b ite to i t c h o r swell, the deg ree of i rritatio n va ryi n g with th e s e n sitivity of the i n d ivid u a l . After becom i n g engorged, i n five m i n utes or less, the b u g s c rawl away to h i d e . Bed B u g s breed the year a rou n d . Each fe m a l e l ays fou r to five eggs a d ay over a pe riod of a bout two mo nths, g l u i n g t h e m to rugs, furn iture, or wa l l s or layi n g t h e m in cracks or crevices. The n y m p h s rese m b le the adu lts but a re pale. After fee d i n g a n d s h e d d i n g (five molts), t h ey become a d u lts, living as long as a year. Bed Bugs are trans ported i n bed d i n g , furnitu re, or cloth i n g . Heavy i n fes tations can b e d etected by the odorous secretio n s g iven off by the b u g s . Rel ated species such as the Bat Bug, C h i m n ey-swift Bug · a n d Swa l low Bug m ay also become pests i n houses at times. To e l i m i n a te, s p ray floors, fur n iture, and walls with a resid ual contact i n secticide i n oil or water e m u l s i o n . Fum igation, necessary i f i nfesta tions a re s p rea d i n g from c h i m n eys or s i m i l a r locations, should be done b y a p rofessi o n a l . 4 2 B I T I N G OR ST I NGING PESTS

L I C E a re w i n g less i n s ects parasitic on a variety of h ost a n i m a ls . Those i nfesti n g pets, poultry, a n d l ivestoc k are described o n pages 5 2-5 3 . Th ree types may occur on h u m a n s . The Head louse co nfines itself a l m ost excl u sively to the h a i r o f the h e a d , t o which it g l ues i t s e g g s o r nits. T h e Body louse, s i m i l a r t o t h e H e a d louse i n a p pearan ce, h i d e s i n cl oth i n g w h e n n o t feed i n g . It lays its eggs i n the cloth es, especia l ly i n t h e s e a m s . The Cra b louse, n e a rly as broad as it is l o n g , lives a m o n g t h e coarse h a i rs o f t h e body. T h e stout, c u rved cl aws o n its fi rst pair of legs do not form a l o c k i n g d evice, as d o those o f t h e Head louse a n d t h e Body louse. A l l th ree types are bloodsuckers that may beco m e a b u n d a n t i n u n s a n itary con d itions. Their bite is not felt i m m ed i ately but l ater beco m es a n itchy swe l l i n g . lice a re carri e rs of typ h u s fever a n d oth e r d iseases, tra n s m itted t h roug h their bites. You ng lice rese m b l e t h e a d u lts both i n a p pearance a n d h a b its. C o m p l ete d eve lopment, fro m egg to mature a d u lt, takes about a m o n t h . lice c a n b e k i l l e d b y d usti n g t h e cloth i n g a n d body with a contact i nsecticide, such as D DT. C loth i n g c a n a l s o be washed i n a n i n sectici d e sol utio n . livi n g qua rters s h o u l d b e f u m i g ated o r s u b j ected to a heat o f 1 60 deg rees F . , ste a m or d ry, f o r six h o u r s or l o n g e r to d estroy eg g s . H E A D LOUSE

BODY LOUSE

CRAB LOUSE

ASSASS I N BUGS a l so go by the n a m e of C o n e n oses

because their head and mouth p a rts form a con e l i k e bea k . T h e s e i n sects b i t e q u i c k ly when d isturbed . They s h o u l d be brushed off swiftly but gently, a n d no atte m pt s h o u l d be m a d e to p i c k t h e m u p . They are b l oodsuc kers, th rusting their beaks forward to pierce the skin of their victi m . Th e bite of some s pecies is pain less; the b ite of others is extre mely painful, the effects of the ve n o m often l asti ng f o r months. S o m e a r e carriers o f d i seases, such a s the very d a n g e rous Chagas' d isease of the America n tropics. Some l ive i n the nests of bats, rats, and oth e r m a m m a l s . Wh ere conenoses are a b u n d a nt, s prayi ng around doorways a n d l i g hts with a resid u a l contact in secticide will h e l p t o control t h e m . M A S K E D H U NT E R S p rey o n

BLOODSUCK I N G CONEN OSES,

Bed B u g s a n d ather i nsects, from which they suck blood. The n y m p h s are covered with a sticky secretion to w h i c h l i n t and other camoufl a g i n g debris ad heres to " m a s k " t h e m . Also k n own as K i s s i n g Bugs, the a d u l t s f e e d o n war m blooded a n i m a l s a n d m ay bite m a n . Occurs i n eastern a n d m idwestern U.S.

of southern and southwestern Un ited States and Mexico, are k n own in so m e areas a s Mexican Bed Bugs. At times they become locally a b u n d a n t a n d m ay enter houses. They feed at n i g ht. Out doors the eggs a re laid o n p l a n ts; i n doors, i n dark, d u sty cracks or corners. The n y m p h s t a g e m ay l a s t a y e a r or long .

BLOODSUCKING CONENOSE

0.5-1 .0 i n .

CHI GGERS, a l so called J i g g ers or Red Bugs, a re p a r asitic m ites, m ore closely rel ated to ticks a n d s p i d e rs t h a n to i nsects. Some of the m a n y species of m ites are p ests of pou ltry, pets, and l ivestoc k ( p . 5 4 ) . The tiny red d i s h a d u l t c h i g g ers, j ust visible to t h e n a ked eye, may be s e e n scu rryi ng a bout in litte r o r in s o i l . T h e s m a l l e r l arval s t a g e that attacks m a n i s t h e fi rst o f two stages before the m ites become a d ults. The l a rvae wait o n g rass, leaves, or i n l itter for a vict i m . Th ey us u a lly crawl u n t i l they reach a belt line, a n a r m pit, o r s i m i l a r obstructi o n , a n d there stop t o feed by i n se rti n g t h e i r mouthparts i n to t h e s k i n t o d raw o u t fl u i d s . W h e n fu l l , they d rop o ff . A s t h ey feed, they release i nto t h e bite a d i g estive fluid conta i n i n g a toxin t h a t l i q uefies the cells and tissues and later causes swe l l i n g and intense itc h i n g . Dusting the c l oth i n g , parti c u l a rly t h e cuffs, s l eeves, and n e c k l i n e a reas, with s u lfur h e l p s to d i s c o u r a g e c h i g g ers, as d o i n sect re pellents. O r , before g o i n g i nto g rassy or brushy a reas, cove r your a r m s a n d l e g s with a soapy lather a n d a l low it t o d ry . Treat lawns i n fested with c h i g g ers with a res i d u a l contact i n secticide, and e l i m i n ate such breed i n g s p ots as weedy patches o r plant d e b ri s . The c h i g g e r bites c a n o n l y b e soothed with ointments. ITCH MITES s p e n d t h e i r e n t i re

l ife on t h e i r h ost. Females b u r row i nto t h e s k i n , so m et i m e s making a tunnel an inch long, i n w h i c h they lay a s m a n y a s t w o d o z e n eggs. B o t h t h e t u n n e l i n g a n d t h e feed i n g cause t h e itch i n g , or scabies, a n d the bite spot com m o n l y beco m es i n fected. O i n t m ents prescribed by a doc tor w i l l get rid of the m ites a n d re l i eve t h e i tc h i n g . Cloth i n g a n d bed d i n g s h o u l d be steri l ized.

TICKS of seve ra l s pecies a re bloo d s u c k i n g pests of m a n

a n d h i s pets a n d livestoc k ( p . 4 8 ) . They are m ore closely related to s p i d ers t h a n to insects. Some ticks tra n s m it d iseases, t h e m ost da ngerous of which is spotted fever. Bites of s o m e ticks cause pa ralys i s . W h e n a t i c k is attac h e d , do not try to p u l l it off, as t h e h e a d and mout h p a rts usually brea k off a n d a re left i n t h e wou n d . Alcohol or a m monia appl ied t o a tic k ' s posterior will cause m ost ticks to release. Wait for 1 5-20 m i n utes before tryi ng to rem ove t i c k . Engorged fe m a les d rop from t h e i r host a n d l ay their eggs on t h e ground o r in debris. The l a rvae of most species feed o n s m a l l a n i m als, then become dormant until the fol low i n g s p r i n g . They feed a g a i n a n d in a bout two months become a d ults, which i n tem perate c l i m ates d o not feed u n t i l the next spri n g . It is at this stage that ticks feed also on m a n . I nsect rep e l l e nts w i l l h e l p t o k e e p t i c ks off outd oors . After an outing i n a tick-i nfested area, cloth i n g should be rem oved a n d wa s h e d . lawns or g a r d e n s c a n be sprayed with a contact i n sectici d e .

46

MOUNTA I N WOOD TICK

DOG T I C K

STI N G I N G CATE R P I LLARS h ave h o l l ow h a i r s (setae)

conn ected a t their base to cells that sec rete a poison . They m ay be in tufts or scattered ove r t h e body. W h e n one o f t h e s e s p i n e l i k e h a i rs contacts the s k i n , the poison goes i n to the wou n d and causes either a n itc h i n g or a painful swe l l i n g . Le a r n to recog nize cater p i l l a rs t h a t h ave sti n g i n g h a i rs a n d a v o i d to u c h i n g t h e m . WASPS AND BEES h ave a sti n g e r at t h e end of t h e i r

a b d o m e n . It is connected t o a poison g l a n d . These i n sects do not sting u n less molested a n d a r e m o s t tro u ble some when t h ey nest in p l a ces where d i sturbing them is u n avo i d a b l e . The occa s i o n a l wasp o r bee that g ets i n d oors can be let out or k i l l ed . Sprayi n g the nest with a resid u a l contact ins ecticide, either as a d ust or in a n o i l or water e m u lsion, w i l l get rid o f those few t h a t b e c o m e problems outdoors . It is best t o sp ray a t n i g ht, when the nest is fully occupied and the i n sects a re n ot active. Sti n g s can be soothed with ice packs or with a bicarbon ate-of-sod a paste . If the effects of a sti n g a r e severe, a d octor s h o u l d b e consu lted pro m ptly.

P E S T S 0 F P E T S , P O U LT R Y , A N D L I V E S TOC K I n sect pests of pets a n d dom estic a n i m a l s m ay be c a r riers of d e a d ly d i seases or of pa rasites that weaken the a n i m a ls. Some of the diseases may be tra n s m itted to m a n . Even pests that o n ly bite or cause itc h i n g may reduce a n a n i m a l ' s productive ness. Al so, the a n i m a l ' s resista nce t o d i seases m a y be lowered . TICKS are more closely rel ated to spid ers t h a n to i n

sects. I n a d d ition to being a n noya nces or in extre me infestations causi n g a n e mia, these blood s u c k e rs ca rry such d iseases as s potted fever and tu l a re m i a . The com plex l ife cycle of ticks m ay req u i re three years or longer. F e m a l es, afte r a b lood meal, l ay as many as 6,000 eggs, which hatch i nto tiny six-legged la rvae, or seed ticks. Nym p h s feed on mice or other s m a l l a n i m a ls, and i n m ost species o n ly the a d u lts a tta c k such large a n i m a ls as dogs, cats, horses, cattle, or man. Other s pecies are d i scussed on p . 46. AMERICAN D O G TICK

Allf:;:-

seed ti c k in.

"(9'\ 0.1

AMERICAN

DOG

T I CK,

common wood t i c k east M i s s i s s i p p i , i s espec i a l l y dant i n moist brushlands. are active from early t h r o u g h l a t e s u m mer.

most of t h e abun Ad u l ts spring

CATTLE TICKS of southern U.S., Centra l a n d South A m erica, Africa, a n d parts of Europe tra n s m it tick fever (Texas fever or collie fever). The d i sease, spread only by l i c ks, may be fatal in a h i g h percentage of cases. Tiny o n e-celled a n i m a l s passed i n fo t h e host's blood strea m by t h e t i c k destroy red blood corpuscles. Sheep, horses, m u les, goals, d e e r, and other large a n i m a l s are also suscep t i bl e . Callie licks wi nter i n pas lures i n the egg stage or as seed t i c ks, or t h ey m a y spend the winter as nym p h s or a d u l ts on host a n i m a l s . A rotation use of pasture may starve seed licks, t h o u g h t h ey c a n l i ve for months without feed i n g . Callie i n tick . i n fested areas are quarantined, and a re d i p ped (usually forced to swim t h r o u g h vats of i n secti c i d e solution) to kill ticks. EAR T I C K S , of s o u t h w e s t e r n U .S., a r e p a r a s ites only a s n y m p h s, w h i c h crawl i nto t h e outer ear of sheep, horses, collie, o r other a n i m al s to gorge on blood. When f u l l , they drop off a n d shed to beco m e a d u lts, w h i c h d o not feed. Heavy i n fes tations may c a u se deafness. Ear Ticks are k i l l e d with i n secticides a p p l ied to t h e ear or head. F O W L TICKS feed o n l y at n i g h t,

aflac h i n g to t h e bare s k i n u n d e r w i n g s or arou n d h e a d . D u r i n g t h e day they h i d e i n c r a c k s or crevi ces near roost. Worl dwide i n d i stribution i n w a r m , dry c l i m a tes, they tra n s m it pou ltry d iseases. Roosts are sprayed with a res i d u a l contact i n secticide.

female l a y i n g e g g s

CAT FLEAS a n d Dog Fleas are s i m i la r i n a p pearance and hab its. Nei t her i s restri cted to the a n i m a l for which it is n a m e d , a n d b o t h w i l l b i te h u m a n s .

H U M A N F L E A S are p e s t s of m a n

but a l s o o c c u r on rats, dogs, cats, and other a n i m a ls. l i k e the Oriental Rat Flea, t h ey m a y be carriers of b u b o n i c plague.

FLEAS a re wing less, bloodsucking paras ites of pets,

l ivestock, and m a n . A fl e a ' s body is co m p ressed or flat tened from s i d e to side, e n a b l i n g th e i n sect to m ove with ease between the h a i rs on an a n i m a l 's body. Its stiff h a i rs and s p i nes (setae) project b a c kward . W h e n off i t s h ost, a flea trave ls r a p i d l y by j u m p i n g . An a d u l t fe m a le fl e a l ays s m a l l , wh itish e g g s o n h e r h ost' s body or i n the host's d e n or nest. The e g g s d rop from the hair a s the a n i m a l moves a bout o r s h a kes itself and a re com monly a b u n d a n t w h e re the a n i m a l sleeps. I n a bout two weeks t h e e g g s h atch i n to ti ny, eyeless, wor m l i k e l a rvae that feed on the d ro p p i n g s of a d u l t fleas or other org a n ic matter i n an a n i m a l ' s bed ding, i n d ust or l i nt, or i n carpeti n g . Depe n d i n g o n the s pecies, weath e r, a n d ava i l a b i l ity of food , t h e l a rvae co m p lete their g rowth i n a few d ays to six m o n t h s or longer. W h e n full g rown, each s p i n s a silken cocoon in w h i c h it p u pates for a few days to several m o n t h s before 5 0 PETS AND LIVESTOCK

STICKTIGHT FLEAS, of southern

CHIGOES ore tro p i c a l fl eas, n o t

U.S., ore flat-bodied a n d c l i n g l i ke ticks. T h e y c l u ster o n com bs or bore s k i n of poultry, also o n dogs, cots, a n d m a n .

related to c h i g gers (p. 4 5 ) , fou n d rarely i n southern U . S . F e m a l e s bu rrow u n d e r t h e s k i n to l o y their eggs.

e m e rg i n g a s a n a d u lt. Ad u lts c a n live for long periods without food, especi a l ly in cold weather. In warm weather fleas m ay b reed outdoors i n d ry places. Fleas h a ve pierci n g - s u c k i n g mouth p a rts. T h e p a i nful bites may become swo l l e n or infla med . Some people or animals are more sensitive to the bites than others a r e . Before it beg i n s t o f e e d , a flea u s u a l ly s p its out a s pot of pa rtly d i g ested b lood n e a r t h e bite. It may also leave wastes. These, with wh ateve r d isease o rg a n i s m s t h ey conta i n , m a y spread i nto the bite. Control of fleas consists of g etti n g the a d u lts off t h e i n fested a n i m a l b y bath i n g it or d usting it w i t h a c o n t a c t i nsectic i d e . E q u a l l y i m portant, the e g g s , l a rvae, and pupae m ust be d estroyed and t h e p l aces where they deve l o p cleaned a n d treated with a res i d u a l c o n t a c t i n sectici d e . C a t s , b e c a u s e t h ey l i c k t h e m selves reg u l a rly, a re especially s uscepti b l e to i n secti c i d e poi son i n g . Re a d labels. Consult a vete r i n a r i a n if i n d o u b t . PETS A N D liVESTOCK 5 1

LICE, of w h i c h there a re several thousand s pecies, a re

divided i nto two g roups-biti n g or c h ewi n g lice, prin cipally p ests of poultry a n d other birds; a n d sucking lice, paras ites on m a m mals. S u c k i n g lice feed o n l y o n b l o o d , h e n c e may be carriers o f d isease. B o t h ki n d s a re wi n g l ess a n d h ave poorly d eveloped or no eyes. A louse ' s body is flat, a n d its c l aws are developed for c l i n g i n g . At h atch ing, you n g l ice look like the a d u lts, but a re s m a l l er. Before beco m i n g a d ults, t h ey molt several t i m es, the n u m be r varyi n g with t h e species. Most l ice are confi ned to a s i n g l e or to closely related host species. S o m e occur o n ly o n a partic u l a r body a rea. Lice m ove to a new a n i m a l if the h ost d ies, if th ey become too n u m erous, or by contact. Those that i nfest h u m a n s a re sucking lice ( p . 4 3 ) . POULTRY LICE feed b y c h ewi ng o n feathers o r d ried s k i n , caus i n g d i s c o m fo r t or i r r i t a t i o n m ostly as a resu lt o f their crawl ing. Louse- i n fested pou ltry are poor egg l ayers and are sus cepti b l e to d i seases. Their wings d roop, a n d they beco m e drowsy. Y o u n g b i r d s may d ie. The C h icken Head Louse occurs m a i n l y o n t h e head a n d neck areas, C h icken Body Lice o n b o d y feath ers. The l ice a r e spread f r o m o n e b i rd t o a nother

52 PETS AND LIVESTOCK

either by d irect c o n t a c t or i n h eavy i n festat i o n s by swa r m i n g over t h e roast. F e m a l e li ce at tach eggs ( n its) to down feath ers with a g l uey secreti o n . The eggs hatch i n about 10 days, a n d t h e yo u n g beco m e a d u lts about 10 d ays l ater. Poultry l ice can be k i l led by d us t i n g or sprayi n g with a contact i nsecti cide while birds are o n roost. Birds can be treated i n d i v i d u a l l y by d i p p i n g i n a n i n secti c i d e so lution or by d u s t i n g .

SHEEP BITING LOUSE

SHEEP-BITING LICE i nfest both

sheep and goats. I nfested a n i m a l s scratch a n d rub t h e m selves, often ca u s i n g sores. The wool on sheep beco m es t a n g l e d . Contact i n secticides a p p l ied a s wettable powders or d i ps ore t h e best m e a n s of control.

HOG L I C E , related to s u c k i n g l ice that i nfest cattle, co m m o n l y collect about t h e e a r s or i n f o l d s of s k i n . T h e y never l e a v e t h e i r h o s t except t o crawl o n to another hog. Control with res i d u a l con tact i n secti cides a p p l ied as wet ta b l e powd ers or as d i ps.

HORSE-BITING LICE c h ew o n s k i n , d r i e d excretions, or h a i r, cau s i n g an a n i m a l g reat discom fort. Lice are m ost com m o n l y s p r e a d b y contact w i t h o t h e r i n fested a n i m a l s . T h e y a r e u s u a l l y m o s t a b u n d a n t i n wi nter, w h e n a n a n i m a l 's h a i r i s t h i c kest. Treat m e n t in the fall therefore is both a c u re and a preventive. An i m a l s should be i n s pected reg ularly in winter m o n t h s a n d t r e a t e d a g a i n i f n e c e s s a ry . D usts, s p rays, o r d i p s a re effec tive, the best m ethod depend i n g on t h e n u m ber of a n i m a l s t o b e treated. A related species occurs on cattle. Check with veteri nar ian about best treatment.

are b lood s u c kers, a n d heavily i n fested a n i m a ls may be wea k ened f r o m l o s s of b l ood. Dairy cattle do not prod uce as m u c h m i l k ; beef cattle do n o t put on as m u c h wei g ht. Controls are the same as far Horse-biting Lice, but i nsecticides that may conta m i n ate milk can not be used near d a i ry cattle. Burlap bags treated with a n i n sect i c i d e m a y be wrapped a ro u n d a c a b l e a n d stretched between two posts t o g ive cattle a p l a c e to r u b t h e m selves a n d at t h e sa m e t i m e g i v e t h e m s e l ves a trea t m e n t. C h e c k w i t h a veteri naria n . A closely related species i n fests horses.

SHORT- NOSED CATTLE L I C E

IJI�-.,s •tollT- NOSED CATTLE LOUSE

PETS AND LIVESTOCK 5 3

M ITES, i n c l u d i n g ticks, are more closely related to

spid ers t h a n to i n sects . Many s pecies a re barely visible to t h e n a ked eye . Some mites a re free- livi n g , others are pests of p l a n ts, and some are para sites of a n i mals, i n c l u d i n g man ( p . 4 5 ) . Itch m ites i n sert their p i e rci n g mout h p a rts i n to the s kin t o d raw o u t b l ood or lym p h . As the m ites m u ltip ly, the feed i n g areas become l a rger. Scabs form, a n d h a i r or feathers d rop out. As they feed, m ites a l so sec rete a poison that causes a n intense itc h i n g . I n m ost species the fe m a les burrow i n to the s k i n , making a t u n n e l up to a n i n c h l o n g , i n w h i c h they Jay their eggs and then die. The nym p h s s h ed a n d become a d u lts i n a bout two wee ks. Most m ites never l eave t h e i r host except to crawl onto another a n i m a l . I nfested a n i m a l s m u s t be q u a ra ntined u n t i l cured, a n d t h e i r l i v i n g q u a rters m u s t be th oroug h ly d is i nfected, as mites a re h i g h ly contag ious a n d difficult to control . It is best to consult a veteri n a ri a n . ITCH MITES cause a n i n fl a m e d , s c a b b y s k i n ( m a nge) an dag s, horses, hogs, cattle, a n d other a n i m a l s. T h e hair d rops out a s an a n i m a l scratches o r rubs itself for relief from the itch i n g . I n · festations u s u a l l y start where t h e s k i n is tender a n d h a i r i s t h i n . Scab M i t e s c a u s e so-co i led "wet mange" (psoroptic scabies) of s h ee p , cattle, horses, a n d

o t h e r a n i m a l s . T h ey f e e d o n t h e s u rface, not bu rrowi n g u n d er t h e s k i n a s I t c h M i t e s do. Ear Ma n g e Mites l ive inside the ears of dogs, cats, a n d w i l d a n i m a l s, feed i n g on t h e s a l t s k i n near the eardru m . T h e irritation causes the a n i m a l to r u n about w i l d ly, s h a k i n g its head. Con· trolled by swa b b i n g t h e ears with sweet o i l ar g lyceri n .

CHICKEN MITE O.Q l i n .

CHICKEN MITES feed o n t h e b l o o d of c h i c k e n s or o t h e r p o u l t r y a t n ight, h id i n g a b o u t the roost during t h e day. I nfested birds beco m e l istless and are poor egg layers. Some fowl, par ticularly the you n g , are k i l led. C h i c ke n Mites ore most active i n s p r i n g t h ro u g h s u m m er. Fe m a l e m ites lay their eggs i n debris near t h e roost; n y m p h s reach the adult stage in about 10 d a y s . C h i c k e n M i t e s ore c o n tro l l ed by treat i n g t h e poultry house rather t h e n the b i rds. Clean i t thoro u g h ly, then d u s l , spray, or p o i n t w i t h a residual contact i nsecti c i d e .

SCALY-LEG M I T E S s t a y o n t h e

body of t h e i r host, l i ke t i c k s o r itch m ites, tu n n e l i n g u n d e r t h e scales of t h e le g s o r i n to t h e s k i n of t h e co m b . The sca l e s s t a n d u p, a n d s e e p i n g scabs form. I n time t h e i nfected b i r d becom e s u n a b le to wa l k . T h e t i n y m ites con be k i l led by soak i n g the host's legs i n soapy water to loosen t h e scales, t h e n greas ing t h e m with o i l conta i n i n g 1 5 percent s u l f u r . T h e Depl u m i n g Mite, a related a n d s m a l l e r spe cies, b urrows i nto the skin· at the bose of t h e to i l feathers. T h e i n fected b i rd p u l l s o u t its t o i l feathers. Use a s u l f u r d i p .

FOLLICLE MITES c a u s e m a n g e of c o t s , d o g s , hogs, cattle, a n d other a n i m a l s . The l o n g , w o r m l i ke m ites bur row deep i nto h a i r follicles or into o i l g l a n ds, c o m m o n ly around t h e eyes. R e d , p u s fi l l ed p i m ples o r nodules f o r m , often beco m i n g i n fected. T o pre vent s p read o f m ites i n l ive stock, i n fected a n i m a l s ore fat tened for m a r ket a n d k i l led. Pens ore d i s i n fected t h oroug h ly. Red m a n ge, a serious d i sease of dogs, is caused by a f o l l i c l e m i te. Con s u l t a veteri n a r i a n .

PETS AND LIVESTOCK 55

FLIES of some species bite pai nfully i n g etti n g t h e i r

m e a l o f b lood . Those that do not b i t e worry o r a n n oy a n i m als by g etti n g i nto their eyes or crawl i n g ove r t h e i r b o d y . Some flies tra nsmit d i seases. Many s p e c i e s , i n c l u d i n g mosq uitoes, to rment b o t h m a n a n d h is a n i m a l s ( p p . 3 2 , 39, 4 0 ) . HORSE FLIES bite viciously a n d m a y alsa tra n s m it s u c h diseases as anthrax and tularemia. There are more than 1 00 species in the u.s. (p. 38). FACE FLI E S look like House Fl ies but are s l i g htly larger. They feed on m u cous secretions around the eyes and nostrils of l ivestock. I n s o m e areas they are pests in houses. They Jay their eggs in fresh man ure, i n which the mag· gots develop and then pu pote i n the soil nearby. Adults com monly h i bernate i n the walls of buildings. There is no com pletely effective control for these pests, w h i c h h ave spread widely throughout t h e U.S. from Canada since the early 1 950's.

Face Flies h i ber nating i n wall

5 6 PETS A N D LIVESTOCK

HORSE BOT FLIES glue their eggs Ia the hair af the h.i nd legs ar belly of horses or m u les, rare ly to smal ler a n i m als. Each fe male may Jay 500 or more eggs, which hatch in about two weeks, but only if their tem perature rises to 1 00 deg rees F. or high er. This will happen if the ani mal touches them with its langue. Newly hatched larvae tunnel i m med iately i nto mem branes af the hast 's mouth. I n about a month they malt and are swallowed. They feed on m ucous secretions from the irritated stomach l i n ing I a which they fasten t h e m selves. I n about 1 0 m o n t h s the maggots are full grown and are discharged i n wastes. They pu pate in the soil and em erge as adu lts i n about three weeks. The Throat Bot Fly Jays its eggs an hairs of the neck. The maggots em erge without special sti m u la tion. They crawl to the mouth, often attaching Ia the pharynx and making it difficult for a n i mal t o swal low. Later they enter d i g estive tract. Eggs of Nose Bot Fly are laid near the lips and will hatch only if kept moist. Lip and throat g uards he lp prevent bat fly i n festations. Maggots in digestive tract can be ki lled with fum igants or with syste m i c i n sec ticides g iven by a veterinarian.

SHEEP BOT FLIES occur wher ever sheep are ra ised and moy also i nfest goats or deer. Adult female fl ies dart rapidly about !he sheep, someti mes hoveri ng n ear the nostri ls. Pestered sheep shake !heir heads, stam p their feel, or run to escape. The fe male deposits already hatched larvae, or maggots (not eggs), near !he sheep's nostrils. She lays only a few al a lime but several h u nd red i n her l ifetime. Maggots crawl i n fo outer nasal passages, where they feed on m u cus. Aller about two wee ks !hey shed, beco m i n g a size larger, and m ove deeper info n a s a l p a s s a g e s . I r r i t a t i o n af mem branes by !he crawl ing of spi ny-bodied m a ggots causes a

greater flow of m ucus, which h i nders breathing and may cause death i n older ar wea kened a n i m a l s . Full-grown maggots ( 1 i n .) crawl out of nasal passage a n d b u rrow i n fo s o i l t o p u p a t e , emerging as adults i n about a month. I n cold climates the small larvae become dormant i n outer nasal passages i n winter. Control of Sheep Bot Flies is difficult, especially since if is harmful Ia kill the grubs i n the nasal passages, where their de cay will cause an abscess. Small grubs can be killed i n the outer passages by i rrigation with a J percenl- lysol solution. Pine far appl ied to !he sheep's snout discourages female II ies from depositing m a ggots.

CATTLE

or O x Warbles, are maggots of bot fl ies. I nfes tations lower m i l k production of dairy cattle. The maggots cause a loss of meat i n beef cattle, be cause the flesh m ust be tri m med around the grubs. Gru b holes also reduce value of h ides for leather. The Com mon Cattle Grub (also cal led Heel Fly) occurs throughout the U.S., the North· ern Cattle Grub i n Canada a n d a l l b u t southernmost U . S . Female Northern Cattle Grubs a pproach noisily and lay eggs, one at a time, on the hair of belly or legs. The cattle often stam pede to es· cape bomber-like attacks, though the fl ies neither bite nor sting. The female Com mon Cattle Grub, in contrast, a pproaches victims stealthily, landing on ground n e a r b y a n d b a c k i n g up u n · noticed to lay her eggs o n the CAnLE GRUBS,

5 8 PETS AND LIVESTOCK

heel, or if the a n imal i s lyi ng down, on hair near the g round. She lays many eggs at one visit to her vict i m . O n hatch i n g , the maggots (wolves) of both burr<;>w i olto the skin and, over months, m igrate t h r o u g h t h e t i s s u e s to t h e ani mal's back, where knotl ike warbles form. The maggots de velop i n these cysts during the wi nter. The swellings are forst noticeable i n late fall or early winter, beco m i ng large and pus filled by spring. The spiny mag gots feed on m ucus that forms in the cysts, and they breathe through a small hole cut i n the h ide. I n spring the maggots squeeze out throu g h the hole a n d drop t o t h e grou nd, where they pupate, emerg i n g as adults in two weeks to two months. Control is most effective if all

NORTHERN CAnLE GRUB

cattle owners in an area partic ipate in an eradication pro gram, as adult g rubs can travel several m i les to find vict i m s and start re i n festa t i a n s . For m e r l y, cattle grubs cou l d be controlled only i n the warble stage, after they had done their dam age. This was a safeg uard against an increased i n festation the next year, h o w ev e r . A 5 p e r c e n t rotenone dust, sprayed o r ap plied by hand, was used to kill the maggots. The best t i m e for these applications varies with the loca l ity and con be learned by consulting a local agricultural agent. Better controls a re pos sible today with system ic i n sec ticides g iven orally or applied to the skin. They k i l l the maggots as soon as they begi n to feed on their victim and before they can do damage.

HORN FLI�S

are common, per sistent s u m mertime pests of cat tle. Horn Fly bites are painful, as the fly sucks out its meal of blood. Each cow may harbor several thousand fl ies, which stay with the cow constantly and torment it. Tormented beef cattle lose valuable market weig ht; dairy cattle give less m i lk. Horn Flies lay reddish -brawn eggs in fresh m a n ure, on which maggots feed. They pupate in or beneath the dung, a life cycle requiring a bout 10 days in warm months. In hot weather the Horn Flies usually rest on an a n i m a l 's belly or on its s h aded side. In cooler weather the fl ies ride on its back or sometimes on its horns. Horn Flies can be killed by sprayi ng, dusting, or dipping cattle with a residual contact i n secticide. Consult a veteri narian or local agricultural agent before apply ing any insecticide. Avoid espe cially the use of chlorinated hy drocarbons aroun d dairy cattle, as m i l k may be conta m i nated.

PETS AND liVESTOCK 59

SCREW-WORMS occur in worm climates, from southern U n ited States southward through the tropics. They i nfest cattle, swine, sheep, goats, and deer. Females lay clusters of eggs in fresh wounds-such as the bites of the Horn Fly or s cratches from thorns or wi re-or in the navel of newborn a n i m als. The mag· gots eat into the flesh, creating a foul-smelling larger wou nd that attracts Screw-worms or blow fl ies to lay more eggs in the rolling flesh. If untreated, infested animals will die. Full grown maggots, with ridges of spines circling the body seg m ents, d rop to ground to pupate, completing a life cycle in about 30 days in warm weather. Con trol of these fl ies has been suc cessful in Florida ond on Cura �ao, W.l., by release of m i l l ions of steril ized males (p. 23). In other a reas a n i m als are treated with an ointment, such a s EQ 355, to kill maggots and al low wound to heal.

60 PETS AND LIVESTOCK

BLOODS U C K I N G

FLIES of a n u m ber of species pester l ive stock. I ncluded are the Black Blow Fly a n d the Secondary Screw-worm, which deposit mag gots in open wounds. I n festa t i o n s m a y b e co m e i n f e c t e d . Sprays are effective b u t u s e only if prescribed by veterinarian. SHEEP KEDS

are wingless fl ies commonly thought to be ticks. Adu lts pierce the s k i n of their host and suck blood, irritating the a n i m a l so that it ru bs, bites, or scratches itself and ruins the wool. Sheep Keds spend their entire life o n their host. Fe males g ive birth to fully devel oped maggots, gluing them to hair. With in a few hours the lar va forms a redd ish pupari u m . Adults emerge i n about three weeks. Sheep Keds are found most abundantly on the neck or bel ly. I n fested sheep are sprayed, di pped, or dusted with residual contact insecticides, usually after they have been sheared.

INS E C T P E STS O F BL VEG N o vegeta b l e c ro p i s e n ti rely safe from i n s ect pests . Some pest species feed on o n ly o n e kind o f p l a nt; others are g e n e r a l feeders. Some s u c k t h e j u ices from pla nts; others c h ew o n t h e roots, leaves, ste m s , fl owers, buds, o r fruit. Often a c rop is attac ked by seve ral pest species at the same ti m e, and i n some cases m ore t h a n o n e stage i n t h e l ife cyc l e o f a n i n sect pest is d a m ag i n g t o t h e s a m e crop. Some i n s ect pests of vegeta ble crops c a n b e con trolled without the use of c h e m i c a l s . C rops can be ro tated so that pests d e p e n d i n g o n o n ly o n e plant species do not b u i l d u p a l a rge popul atio n . Weeds, crop sta l ks, and oth e r d e bris i n which pests may breed or h i bernate c a n b e p l owed u n d er . D i s k i n g or s h a l low plowi n g i n winter exposes h i bernating stages t o freezing te m pera tures. S o m e pests can b e picked off by hand, o r you n g p l a nts c a n be covered u ntil large e n o u g h t o with sta n d attac k s . I n m a ny cases c rop p l a n t i n g c a n be t i m e d to m iss h e avy i nfestati o n s . Despite these preca uti o n s , c h e m i c a l controls are often the o n ly w a y n ow ava i l a b l e t o protect a crop. C h e m icals m ust be u s e d w i t h g reat c a re, for t h ey are d a n g e rous to the person who a p p l i e s t h e m a n d a l s o may be a bsorbed by t h e vegeta b l e o r re m a i n a s a poisonous res i d u e . MOLE CRI C KETS,

abundant i n warm cli mates, use t h e i r stout padd lelike front legs for b u r rowing. They d isturb the roots of youn g plants and also feed on them. Mole Crickets can be k i l led with contact insecticides or poison baits applied to the soil before planting.

FLEA BEETLE

STRIPED BEETLE

FLEA

0.1 i n .

F L E A BEETLES c h ew s m a l l, rou n d holes i n le aves, g iving

a plant t h e a p pearance of being peppered with shot. Grubs ( l arva e) of some species feed on leaves or stems, others on the roots . The m a ny s pecies of flea beetles (so c a l l e d because of their e n l a rged h ind legs for j u m p i n g ) feed on a va ri ety o f pla nts, b u t m a ny, as i n d icated by the s pecific n a mes, occur on only one k i n d or on closely related p l a n t s . Most species overwinter as a d u lts beneath d e bris a n d t h u s g et an early sta rt in spri n g . Flea beetles a r e espec i a l l y d a m a g i n g t o seed l i n gs, a n d the h o les t h e y e a t in th e fol iag e a re e n try ave n u es for d iseases. U s u a l ly there are two gene ratio n s a year. E l i m i n ate p l a ces where the beetles can h i bernate by plowing u n d e r weeds or p l a n t sta l k s . Infested p l a nts can be d u sted or sprayed with contact or sto m a c h - poison ins ecticides to kill adult or i m m ature stages. Do not use i n secticides i m m ed i ately before a n edible crop is ready for h a rvest because of poisonous res i d u e s . Fol low d i rectio n s ca refu l ly.

W I REWORMS a re t h e g r u bs, or l a rvae, of c l i c k beet l e s . T h o s e o f p est s pecies f e e d on the u n d erg rou n d stems, roots, or tu bers of such pla nts as ca rrots, beets, pota toes, o n i o n s, turni ps, beans, and co r n . Wi rewo rms may be especia l ly a b u n d a n t in l a n d recently i n g rass, t h o u g h some s p e c i e s l ive exc lus ively i n cu ltivated l a n d . A d u l t fema le beetles lay their eggs in the soil, a n d t h e l a rvae (wi reworms) mi g rate vertically i n t h e soil, stayi n g at t h e l e v e l where the tempe ratu re a n d mo isture a re most com forta b l e for them. Some species become f u l l g rown i n two years; others do n o t mature fo r as l o n g a s six years. They c h a n g e into pupae i n the soi l . A few wee ks later they become ad ults but d o not eme rge until fo l l ow i n g spri n g . C u ltivation from mids umme r until freez i n g weather d estroys m a n y l a rvae a n d p u p a e . Infested s o i l c a n be fumi g ated, w h i c h kills the worms but g ives n o lasti n g protection, or treated w i t h a contact i n secti c i d e . Insecticides a bsorbed b y root c r o p s m a y cause o b j e c tio n a b l e odors or leave poisonous resi d ues. C h e c k fo r best method i n your EASTERN F I E L D

63

CUTWORMS are the fat larvae of a large fa m i ly of

d u l l-colored, m e d i u m -sized mot h s . More t h a n two dozen species are pests of fleld a n d g a rd e n crops. C ut worms a re c l assified by their method of feed i n g whether u n d ergro u n d , at the s u rface, or a bove the g rou n d . The most damaging to vegeta b l e c rops are · s pecies that cut off pla nts at the s u rface. C utworms feed m a i n ly at night. During the day they rest i n the soil, coiled i n a b a l l . W h e n full g rown , they b u rrow deeper to p upate. They m ay e m e rge as a d u lts i n a few weeks or m ay ove rwinter as pupae. I n warm c l i m ates c utworms h ave severa l g e n erations a yea r . Col l a rs of tin c a n s w i t h the e n d s rem oved or o f s t i ff c a r d b o a r d i n s e rted a t l east a n i nc h i nto the soi l a n d sti c k i n g a bove t h e s u rface a bout two i n ches will p rotect you ng p l a nts. Deep p low i n g or s p a d i n g in late s u m m e r or f a l l d estroys e g g s a n d a l s o exposes the pupae. Poison ba its u s e d for g rass hoppers (p. 99) a re a l so useful . The soil ca n b e treated with con tact i n secticides such as c h l o r d a n e or D DT, but use p recauti ons as n oted for Flea Beetles and Wire wor m s (pp. 6 2-6 3 ) when a p p lying to e d i b l e c rops . 64 VEGETABLE CROPS

WHITE GRUBS, the larvae of several s pec i es of beetles

k n ow n a s May Beetles or J u n e Bugs, a re widely d i s tributed i n the U .S. but are m ost a b u n d a n t i n the Mid west a n d South . Ad u l t beetles feed o n the fol i a g e of trees a n d are commonly attracted to lig hts. F e m a l es lay their eggs on the g ro u n d , com m o n ly i n g rassy areas. The g rubs feed on roots, burrowi n g deeper into t h e soil i n winte r a n d rem a i n i n g dormant until s p ri n g . Depe n d i n g on t h e species, a second, t h i r d , o r eve n a fou rth s u m m er may be spent as grubs before they pupate. They transform i nto a d u lts i n th e fa l l but d o not e m erg e u ntil spri n g . Soil i nfested with wh ite g ru b s c a n b e treated w i t h a contact i n secticide b efore a c r o p is p l a nted. I n l ate s u m m e r or fa l l , soil c a n be turned to expose g r u b s and pupae to weather a n d ASIATIC

GARDEN

B E ET L E S

a r e introduced pests t h a t feed on a great variety of plants, i n c l u d i n g many garden vegeta bles. First found i n 1 92 2 i n New Jersey, they have since spread north i n coastal slates as far as Massachusetts and south to the Carol inas. A p parently they sur vive only w here there is heavy s u m mer rai nfall. Asiatic Garden Beetles winter as grubs i n the soil, burrowing 8 to 10 inches deep. In spring they move back to the surface to feed on roots, then pupate in late spring or s u m m er. Adults, which look l i ke small, hairy May Beetles, appear i n m id s u mm er and feed on fo liage until frost. Females usually Jay their eggs i n grassy or weedy soi l . Soil or plants infested with adu lts or grubs can be treated with a contact i n secticide. Adults are attracted to light traps.

ASIATIC GARDEN BEETLE .-.-.••

0.4 i n .

larva to 0.8 in.

VEGETABLE CROPS 65

APHI DS, OR PLANT LICE, are s m a l l (average 0 . 2 i n . ),

soft-bodied i n sects that feed on p l a n ts by s u c k i n g their fluids or s a p . They pierce ste ms, leaves, buds, roots, a n d fruit with the s l i m , needle-sharp stylets in t h e i r beak. In a b u n d a n ce, a p h i d s may cause leaves to cu rl o r may stunt a plant's g rowth a n d stall its prod uction of flowers or fruit. Eve ntually the p l a n t may d i e . Aphids a l so i n tro d uce fung us, bacterial, a n d virus diseases that c a n be as d a m a g i n g as the a p h i d s . A p h i d s e x p e l fro m the e n d o f their a b d o m e n a stic ky, sweet su bsta nce called honeydew, a favorite food of s o m e species of ants. These a n ts m ove the aphids to productive p l a n ts a n d take t h e m into their nests below g round to p rotect them at n i g ht or when the weath e r is bad ( p . 1 00) . B l a c k molds g row o n h o n eydew that d rops t o the g ro u n d beneath plants where a p h ids a re feed i n g . I n t h e typic a l life cycle o f a p h i d s t h a t l ive i n tem per ate c l i m ates, winter is passed i n the egg stage, g l u ed to the stem or to oth e r parts of plants. N y m p h s that hatch from the eggs t h e fo l l owi n g spring g row r a p i d ly to be come wing less a d u lts, called stem mothers. Stem m others g ive birth to their yo u n g , h o l d i n g the eggs inside their body until they hatc h . Wit h i n a bout a week these a p h i d s p rod uce you n g i n a s i m i l a r m a n n e r . M o r e t h a n a dozen generations appear i n a short time, for m i n g a feed i n g cl uster o n th e p l a n t . A t inte rva ls s o m e or a l l o f t h e you n g develop w i n g s a n d m i g rate t o other pla nts, starti n g new co lonies. I n some species t h e winged stages settle o n p l a n ts o f the sa me k i n d ; i n oth e rs t h e y a lways settle o n d ifferent k i n d s o f pla nts. I n autu m n ma les a n d fe m a l e s a re produced, a n d the fe m a l es lay ferti lized eggs t h a t ove rwinter. I n w a r m c l i m ates reproduction is conti n uous. Aphids a re eaten by b i rds, preyed o n by various lady 66 VEGETABLE CROPS

beetles, a n d parasitized by wasps. C h e m i c a l controls may be necessary, h owever, to p rotect crops w h e n a p h i d s are a b u n d ant. Co ntact i n secti c i d e s a p p l i e d a s d usts o r sp rays a re effective . Precautio n s reg a r d i n g t h e use o f t h e s e poisons s h o u l d be fo llowe d , a s noted o n l a b e l s or a dvised b y ag ricu ltura l a g e n t s . VEGETABLE C R O P S 67

LEAFHOPPERS a re s m a l l , active i nsects that d a m age

pl ants by sucking s a p from their leaves . Th e l eaves curl, d u e either to the loss of sap o r poss ibly to a toxin i ntroduced by the leafhoppers as they fee d . Some l eafho p pers a lso s p read virus d iseases. W h e n d i sturbed, adult leafhoppers hop into the a i r and fly away, their wi n g s appearing wh ite i n flight. The w i n g l ess n y m p h s run sid eways to d o d g e out o f sight on the o p posite side of a leaf. Like a p h i d s, leafh oppers excrete from the e n d of t h e i r abdomen a stic ky, sweet s u bsta nce c a l led h o n eydew. A pop u l ation of several m i l l ion leafhoppers may b u i l d up on p l a nts on an acre of l a n d in favora ble cond ition s . Contact i nsecticides s prayed o r d u sted on the p l a nts will kill the leafhoppers, but the i n sectici d e m ust r e a c h i n sects feed i n g o n t h e u n derside o f t h e l eaves. Do n o t use i nsecticides after e d i b l e parts of p l a n t h ave fo rmed, because poiso nous res idues may rem a i n . loc a l county agent can g ive i nformation on best t i m es a n d the proper dosages of i nsecti c i d e s . To g u a rd a g a i nst the s p read of a virus d isease by these pests, it may be necessary to control the leafhop pers on t h e i r winteri n g pla nts. BEET

LEAFHOPPERS are pests i n western U.S., ran g i ng east to I l l i nois. They transmit the virus causing curly top, a d isease of sugar beets, beans, spi nach, peppers, squash, and other veg etables. Adults winter on wild p lants, and in early spring fe males lay eggs in stems or on the leaves. This generation feeds and m atures on wild plants. The second generation i nvades culti vated crops. As many as five generations may be prod uced in a season.

POTATO LEAFHOPPERS a r e

d a m a g i n g pests o f potatoes east of t h e Rocky Mou ntains. They winter in southern states, m i g ra t i n g as f a r northward a s Canada i n s p r i n g a n d s u m m er. Potato leafhoppers com manly at tack you n g bean plants before appearing o n potatoes, because you n g bean plants a pparently contai n a g reater amount of sug a r t h a n do t h e you n g potato p l a n ts. F e m a l e s lay their eggs i n the stem s of l eaves, depositing twa to three e g g s a day over three to four weeks. The nymphs hatch i n 10 days a n d are f u l l g rawn i n a bout two w e e k s . Tip burn, or hopperburn, is caused by the feed i n g of Potato leaf hoppers. F i rst a tri a n g u l a r brown spot a p pears on a leaf tip; then s i m i l a r spots s h ow elsewhere, a l ways a t end of veins. Even tually en tire leaf turns b rown and curls. S I X - S POTT E D

potato leaf with tipburn

LEAFHOPPERS

tra n s m i t t h e virus d i sease cal l ed aster yellows. In d iseased p l ants, t h e you n g .leaves turn yellow, and o l d e r leaves become curled a n d redd i s h . lettuce, celery, to m a toes, on ions, and carrots are c o m m o n vegeta b l e crops i n j u red by aster yellows. The Six-spotted leafhopper w i n ters o n weeds or flowers, s p read i n g i n spri n g . SOUTHERN GARDEN HOPPERS, s i m i l a r a n d

LEAF

0.1

in.

SOUTHERN GARDEN LEAFHOPPER

sweet potato leaf

closely related to t h e Potato leafhop per, range a s far north as New York, though they are most a b u n d a n t i n southern states. T h e y i n fest ornamentals as well as vege ta b l e crops.

69

HARLEQU I N BUGS are pests of cabbage, t u r n i ps, rad ishes, a n d related p l a nts. They h a v e s p read from Mexico through most of the U.S. F e m a l e s lay barrel · s h a p e d eggs o n t h e u n d erside

of early p l a nted crops. Nym p h s , w h i c h h a t c h i n a b o u t a week, m ay kill you n g plants by s u c k i n g aut sap . I n t h e S o u t h t h e y breed year a ro u n d ; i n t h e North a d u l ts h i bern ate u n d e r vegetation .

do d a m a ge, both as a d u lts a n d as nym phs, by sucking s a p fro m p l a nts a n d causing them to wilt. Peas, beans, or fruit on which sti n k b u g s h ave fed become pim pled or m a lformed . The b u g s also give off a strong odor that may be detected on e d i b l e parts of p l a nts ove r w h i c h they h ave crawl ed . The wing less nym p h s generally rese m b l e the a d u lts, thoug h i n some spec ies they d iffer i n color. I n both, th e tria n g u l a r a rea, or scute l l u m , is l a rg e a n d conspicuous. I nfested p l a n ts c a n be s p rayed with contact i n sectic i d es, but t h is s h o u l d not be d o n e after e d i b l e parts are form e d . T h e bugs a re l a r g e e n o u g h t o b e pic ked off by h a n d . STI N K BUGS

GREEN STINK BUGS com m o n ly

feed on beans, c a u s i n g pods to f a l l before they are f u l ly for m e d . I n t h e South t h ey a re a l s a pests of cotton.

SOUTHERN GREEN STI N K BUGS are most a b u n d a n t i n

southeastern U.S. They feed o n most leg u m e crops a n d o n m a n y garden vegeta bles.

STINK BUG

nymph SOUTHERN GREEN STI N K B U G

TAR N ISHED PLANT BUGS feed o n m ore t h a n 50 species of culti vated p l a nts, i n c l u d i n g b eets, e ry, a n d oth er g a rden ven Ptn t\ I P•v A toxin i n jected i nto t h e p l a n t the bug s u c ks out i t s s a p d eforms the leaves, ste m s , or fruit. Both ad u lts and nym p h s can b e k i l led with contact-insecticide s p rays or d usts, but d o not use poisonous i n secticides after t h e plant b e g i n s to form e d i b l e parts. In te m p e rate cli mates, where the a d u lts h i b ern ate i n winter, weeds or s i m i l a r h i d i n pla ces s h o u l d be destroye d .

SQUASH B U G S i n j u re p u m pkins,

c u c u m bers, s q u a s h , and re l ated p l a n ts, flrst causing the l eaves to wilt a n d t h e n the vine to turn b l a c k . C r u s h �d Sq uash Bugs g ive off a n o d o r s i m i l a r t o a stin k b u g ' s . Squash Bugs a re d iffi c u lt to control, as squash p l a nts a re burned by many contact i n secticides . Adu lts can be picked off p l a nts by hand. leaves that s h ow e g g - layi n g scars s h o u l d also be remove d . Adu lts m a y c o n g regate u n d e r b o a r d s placed be tween crop rows . In the fa ll, get rid of all d e bris u n d e r which a d u lts may h i bernate.

0.1

in.

E B U G S h ave a b road thorax and transparent wings with a n at urnrt•v<> lacelike pattern . lace B u g s re known t o ca rry a v i r u s d isease of sugar beets, and their fee d i n g in l a r g e n u m bers stunts a p l a n t ' s g rowt h . Co ntact insecticides a re a n effective contro l .

THRIPS a re s l e n d e r insects with stout, cone-sh a ped

mouth p a rts. They rasp or scrape th e stem o r leaf of a p l a nt, t h e n s u c k out the sap that flows into the wou n d . I f a n i nfestation is heavy a plant's g rowth is slowe d ; e d i b l e p a rts o f vegeta bles are poorly form e d . T h rips a re k nown a l so to tra n s m it a virus causing wilt. Most th rips ' legs end in a b l a d d er-like swe l l i n g that h e l p s t h e m i n c rawl i n g over s m ooth surfaces. Most species o f t h rips h ave narrow, bristle-like fri n g e d w i n g s . Nym p h s a re wing less. O f the severa l thousa n d s pecies, o n ly a few are pests of specific pla nts. ONION THRIPS

0.04

in.

O N I O N THRIPS are especially

i n j u rious to onions but feed also o n ca rrots, bea ns, peas, and other vegeta ble crops. In winter t h ey h ibernate but beg i n feed i n g o n you n g plants i n early spring, produ c i n g a n ew g e n er ation a pprox i mately every two weeks i n warm weather. O n i o n leaves turn pale to w h ite, a con d ition k nown a s s i lver top. Well c u ltivated crops m a y g row faster than t h e thrips c a n d o d a m a g e . I n t h e fal l , b u r y d e b r i s u n d e r which thrips m i g h t h i bernate. Contact i nsecticides wi l l k i l l th rips, but t h e y crawl d e e p i nto l eaves and are hard to reac h .

TORTO I S E BEETLES often go by the n a m e of Gold

Bugs because of their m eta l l ic colors. Adult beetles h i bern ate under leaves or other d e b ris o n the g ro u n d . They e m erge i n late s p r i n g , a n d the fem a les lay e g g s o n the ste m s or u n derside o f l eaves o f sweet potatoes and other p l a nts of the m o r n i n g - g lory fa m i ly. The l a r vae are s p i n y a n d cove red with a d i rty-looking mass consisti n g of their shed skins m ixed with silk and excre ment. They feed on the u n d erside of leaves and d o t h e g reatest i n j u ry to you n g p l a nts. When fu l l g rown t h e l a rvae (someti mes c a l l e d p e d d l ers) for m s p i ny p u p a e attached to the u n d erside of a leaf. T h e a d u lt beetle e m erges i n a bout a wee k . Both a d u lts and l a rvae c a n be kil led w i t h either sto m a c h - poison or contact i nsec ticides a p p l i e d as d usts o r sprays. C l ea n i n g u p vines i n the fa l l d estroys the h i bernating place of t h e a d ults. VEGETABLE CROPS 73

COLORADO POTATO BEETLES are pests principally

of potatoes but also attack tom atoes, peppers, a n d oth e r g a rd e n veg eta bles. Th ey occ u r t h roug hout t h e U n ited States a n d i n Europe, havi n g spread i n t h e 1 8 0 0 ' s from a l i m ited ra n g e o n t h e l ower slopes o f the Roc kies . There they fed o n the buffalo or sand b u r, a p l a n t related to the potato . Adu lts emerge from h i ber nation i n early spring and beg i n feed i n g o n you n g plants. T h e fe m a les lay their eggs on t h e lower s u rface of t h e leaves. The l a rvae feed on fol i a g e for two to three weeks, then pu pate i n soil. Adults e m erge in about two weeks a n d start cycle again. Two g e n e rations in a season are u s u a l ; sometimes there a re th ree. Both a d u lts and larvae (grubs or s l u g s ) can be pic ked off by h a n d , or p l a n ts can be sprayed o r d u sted with a contact or stom a c h - poison i n secticide. Start treat m e n t as soon a s beetles a p pear. BLISTER BEETLES, o r O l d -fa s h io n e d Potato Bugs, eat the fol i a g e of potatoes, beans, peas, and oth e r veg eta b l e s . O n ly t h e a d u lts are d a m a g i n g . F e m a les l ay their eggs i n t h e soil, a n d t h e bu rrowing l a rvae feed o n g rasshopper e g g s . With e a c h o f its fou r m o lts t h e larva ' s l e g s a n d mouthparts become s m a l le r com pared to t h e rem a i n d e r o f its body. Winter is passed i n a n i n active pseudopupa sta ge. Most s pecies molt the fo l l owi n g spring, a n d the larva becomes a ctive for a s h ort t i m e before entering the t r u e pupa stag e . Ad u lts e m erge i n m i d s u m mer. Bl ister beetles c a n be brus h e d i n to p a n s of keros e n e . Do not touch the beetles with b a re h a n d s, as they g ive off a b l isteri n g secreti o n . T h e beetles can also be herded along crop rows a n d trapped i n steep s i d ed d itches. Can be killed with sto m a c h -poison or contact i nsecticides (except a rs e n i c com pou n d s ) .

7 4 VEGETABlE CROPS

COLORADO BEETLE

VEGETABLE CROPS 75

MEXICAN BEAN BEETLES a n d their l a rvae feed o n

the fol iage o f bea n p l a n ts, eating away t h e lower s u rface and leaving only a skeleton of a leaf. W h e n t h e beetles a re a b u n d a nt, t h e y f e e d a lso on bean pods a n d ste m s . N ative to southwestern U.S. and Mexico, t h e beetle has sp read th roug hout the U . S . , except a l o n g P a c i fi c coast. Ad ult beetles h i b ernate be n eath veg etation a n d beg i n feed i n g in early sprin g . The eggs, l a i d o n the u n derside of bean leaves, hatch i n about two wee ks. When fu ll g rown, a bout a month later, the l a rvae fasten themselves to t h e u n derside of a l eaf, s h e d , a n d become pupae. A d u lts e m e r g e i n a bout two weeks a n d start a secon d cyc l e . Th ree o r fou r generations a re com mon i n w a r m c l i m ates. I n secticide sp rays or d usts such as rote none are a p p l i e d to u n der side of leaves where i n sects feed . After bea n s are h a rvested, pla nts should be buried o r burned .

BEAN LEAF BEETLES are most a b u n d a n t in southeastern U.S. but occur also i n m i dwestern and eastern states. Ad u l ts c h ew holes i n bea n - p l a n t leaves; the larvae feed u ndergro u n d on the roots or on the ste m s at the soil l i ne. Bean Leaf Beetl es c a n be con t rolled by t h e methods used far the Mexican Bea n Beetle.

damaged leaf SPOnED BEETLE

0.2 in.

CUCUMBER BEETLES, both Spotted and Striped, a re

g e n eral fee d e rs as a d u lts. They c h ew holes i n the foliage a n d eat o n the ste m s . Adult beetles come out of h i ber n ation i n e a rly spring, and fe males lay their eggs in t h e soil at t h e base of p l a nts. These h atch i nto t h e worm l i ke larvae which bore into the roots, where they feed and beco m e mature by m i d s u m mer. Spotted C u c u m ber Beetles are a lso known as South ern Corn Rootwo rms, a s the l a rvae b o r e out yo u n g c o r n pla nts, a n d cause t h e m t o break off. La rvae o f the Striped C u c u m b e r Beetle feed only o n the roots of pla nts i n the c u c u m ber or melon fa m i ly . Adu lts of both species tra n s m it virus a n d bacterial diseases. T o prevent d a m ag e to corn, s p r i n g plowi n g a n d l a t e planting a r e reco m m e n d e d , o r treat soil with i n s ecticides before p l a n t i n g . Adu lts can be k i l led by methods used for Mexica n Bean Beetl e . Do not use sulfur compounds o n cucumber o r melon v i n e s . VEGETABLE C ROPS 77

WEEVILS are a large fa mily of beetles with l o n g ,

u s u a l l y d own-curved s nouts that may i n s o m e s p ecies be as long as the beetl e ' s body. The s n out, a n e l o n g a t i o n o f t h e head, has the beetl e ' s s m a l l c h ewing mouth p a rts at its tip; the a nte n n a e a re located a l o n g its sides. The s nout is used to p u n cture leaves, stems, o r fru it, for feed i n g beneath the surface, a n d also to m a ke holes i n w h i c h the eggs a re laid . VEGETABLE WEEVILS are dar

mont i n s u m m e r but beca m e ac tive i n f a l l . Grubs feed a t n i g h t on m a n y vegeta bles. Do not spray veg eta bles to be eaten. PEPPER WEEV I LS, from Mexico,

feed i n s i d e the buds or i n the pep pers, causi n g them to drop off. Several g e n e rations m ay be p rod uced every year. WEEVI LS are pests only i n t h e Gulf states. Adults lay their eggs singly in holes on t h e ste m s or i n the sweet potatoes, and for 2 or 3 weeks the grubs feed a n d grow either i n t h e vines or in t h e potatoes. They beco m e pupae i n the cavity h o l l owed by t h e i r feed i n g o n d e m erge a s adu lts i n a bout a week. T h e a d u lts a l so feed on t h e l eaves a n d ste m s of the sweet potato vine. Pu l l i n g d i rt h i g h arou nd v i n e s h e l ps to prevent weev i l s from rea c h i n g the potatoes. P l a n t s can b e treated w i t h a contact i n sectic id e before p l a n ti n g . Af t e r a n i nfes tatio n, burn vines and destroy a l l i nfested sweet potatoes. Do not replant sweet potatoes i n s a m e fi e l d or with i n one m i l e of infestation for a year.

SWEETPOTATO

WHITE-FRINGED BEETLES, from

South A m erica, are g e n eral gar den pests of southeastern U.S. Adults appear from May t h rough August and feed s p a r i n g ly. The f em al es reproduce without mat i ng a n d lay t h e i r eggs in sticky masses of 50 or more on rocks, sticks, ar ste m s . The l a rvae bur row i n to the soil, where they feed on roots or u n d e rground ste m s . They wi nter as grubs, for m i n g p u p a e i n t h e spring. Adults can not fl y (hard outer wings are fused) a n d can be trapped i n sleep-s ided d itches. Treat soil with a contact i n secti cide to k i l l g r u bs or a d u lts as they e m erge. CARROT WEEVILS d a m a g e car

rots, celery, p a rs n i ps, and re lated p l a n ts. The grubs cut ir reg u l a r f urrows i n t h e roots or may t u n n e l i n s i d e the roots or ste m s . In winter adults h i bernate beneath debris and lay their eggs i n early s p r i n g . Two and som e t i m e s three g e n erations are prod uced every season. Early s p rayi n g of p l a nts with i n secti cide will k i l l a d u lts. Because they feed i n s i d e roots or stems, grubs are difficult to k i l l . STRAWBERRY ROOT WEEVILS

are widely d istributed in the U.S. a n d E u rope. I n the g r u b stage they f e e d o n t h e roots a n d crown of strawberry p l a nts, w h i c h beco m e stunted or d i e. A d u l t weev i l s o f t e n h i bernate i n the crown of t h e p l a n t ; the l a rvae burrow deep i n to the soi l . Ro tate p l a nts to new beds reg ular ly to prevent pest b u i l d u p .

C ATERPILLARS, the l a rvae of butte rflies a n d moths, feed o n leaves, ste ms, flowers, o r fruit. Som e species tunnel inside, but m ost species eat fro m t h e outsid e . Larg e caterp i l l a rs can be picked b y h a n d a n d d estroyed . Fal l clea n u p of d e b ris a n d turn i n g t h e soil to expose wi n teri n g stages are effective . Among natural controls a re wasps that l ay eggs o n the caterpi l l a rs, which become food for wasp l a rvae. Both sto m ach-poison and contact i n secticides are effective controls. IMPORTED

CABBAGEWORMS

are pri m a r i ly pests of cabbage fa m i ly p l a n ts but m a y a t times feed on other garden vegeta bles, c h ewi n g holes i n leaves. They h i bernate a s pupae a n d em erge as t h e fa m i l i a r White C a b b a g e B u t t e r fl i e s . S e v e r a l broads a year i n warm c l i m ates. 1 .5 i n .

CABBAGE LOOPERS, com m on t h roug h o u t t h e U.S., feed on th e u n d erside of the l eaves of cabbage and related p l a nts. They crawl with a d isti nctive l o o p i n g , o r m e a s u r i n g - wo r m , m o ve m e n t. C a b b a g e Loo p e r s wi nter a s p u p a e attached t o the u n derside of a leaf a n d e m erge i n spring as b rown moths. U s u a l l y there a r e two or m o r e g e n e ra tions a year. MOTH cater p i l l a rs eat s m a l l holes i n the l eaves of cabbage and related p l a nts. T h o u g h seldom a b u nda nt, there m ay b e local outbreaks. When d i sturbed, t h e wor m s wrig g l e rapidly a n d d ro p from the p l a n t, h a n g i n g by a s i l ken thread. A d u l t moths w i nter on t h e leaves of p l a n ts or i n debris. D I AMONDBACK

8 0 VEGETABLE CROPS

SQUASH V I N E BORERS eat out

the center of t h e ste m s of squash v i n es, cau s i n g t h e m to wilt. They also attock p u m p k i n s and, less com m on ly, c u c u m bers and m u s k m e l o n s . Squash V i n e Bor ers wi nter i n the soi l i n s i l k e n cocoon s . The moths, active d u r i n g the day, l o y t h e i r eggs a t the b o s e o f p l ants, a n d the lar vae burrow i nto t h e ste m s . Like other borers, these wor m s o re hard to con trol because they work i n s i d e stems. Presence con be detected by the excre m e n t (fross) pushed f r o m hole i n v i n e . Wor m s s h o u l d be cut out b y a l e n g thwise s l i t . After crop har vest, t u r n s o i l to expose the cocoons. PIC KLEWORMS bore i n to squash, m u s k m e lons, a n d cu c u m bers, c a u s i n g t h e m to rot. F u l l g rown after about two weeks of feed i n g , t h e wor m s rol l the edge of a leaf over them selves and s p i n a t h i n Ioyer of s i l k to form a p u pa . Some cocoon s re m a i n attached to the plant; others drop to the g ro u n d . Adults e m erge i n about 10 days. Pickleworm s reac h a popu lation peak late in t h e season ; there fore, crops p l a nted early ore d a m aged l east. T h ree or four g enerations ore prod u ced in a season. T h e related Melonworm feeds mostly o n fol iage. Both species ore a b u n d a n t pests i n southern slates, a n d t h e P i c k le worm ranges as f o r north a s C a n a d a . To p r o t e ct m e l o n s , squash o r e p l a n ted between t h e rows t o collect t h e worms, which prefer t h e s q u a s h to the melons.

pupa 1 .0 i n .

POTATO T U BERWORM

BEET WEBWORM

TUBERWORMS that hatch early i n t h e season feed a n leaves and stems af t h e pa lata plant. When full grawn , i n twa I a t h ree weeks, e a c h s p i n s a s i l ke n cacaan i n w h i c h i t p u p a t e s a n t h e g ro u n d . A d u l t s e m erge i n about 1 0 d ays. W a r m s that h a t c h l a t e r i n s e a s o n t u n n e l i n to palalaes. S i x generations m ay be produced i n a year. P u l l s a i l h i g h aro u n d p l a n t s , a s warm s w i l l n a t bu rrow deep. Cut, b u r n i n fested v i nes. Stare p a l a t a e s w h e r e n i g h t - fl y i n g moths canna! lay eggs a n t h e m . F u m i g ate i n fested palalae s. POTATO

WEBWORMS a f several species are g e n eral feeders a n garden vegeta b les. I n large i n festati o n s t h e wor m s m i g rate f r o m o n e food p l a n t to a n other. Web worms w i n ter a s larvae in s i l k l i n ed tu bes a n d e n t e r t h e p u p a stage i n t h e spri n g . A d u lts of th e fi rst g e n eration e m erge from March t h ro u g h J u ne. The feed ing worm s p i n s a s i l ke n web that p u l l s together the edges of a leaf a n d a n chors it to t h e g ro u n d . The w o r m h i des i n d i rt at bottom of f u n n e l . C a n be k i l led with sto m a c h -poison o r contact i n s ecticides. TOMATO HORNWORMS, also

pests of tobacco, potatoes, and ather related p lants, pass t h e w i n ter a s h a r d -s h e l l ed p u pae. The a d u lts are large hawk moths that feed harm l essly o n t h e nec tar of d eep-throated fl ower s s u c h as petu n ia s . F e m a l e moths lay t h e i r eggs a n leaves of to malo p l a nts, and the l a rvae feed rave nou sly, beco m i n g f u l l g rown i n about a m o n t h . T h ey b u rrow i n to the s o i l to p u pate. Two g e n erat i o n s may be produced i n a year in warm c l i mates. The Corn Earworm (p. 1 09) and a n u m ber of c u twor m s (p. 64) b u rrow i n to tomatoes a n d feed i n side.

CELERY LEAF TIERS i n fest cel

ery, spi noch, beets, a n d re lated p l a n ts, feed i n g on the leaves a n d lender grow i n g ports a n d cover i n g t h e m with webs. When f u l l g rown, t h e worm p u l l s tog ether the e d g e s of a l e a f a n d fastens t h e m w i t h s i l k . I I p u pates i n o s i l k e n cocoon i n side t h i s rol l . A com p l ete l i f e cyc l e t o k e s a b o u t a m o n t h a n d a half, a n d i n worm c l i m ates there may be severa l broods a year. Cel ery Leaf Tiers con be contro l l e d w i t h stom ach -poison or contact i n secticides, w h i c h s h o u l d not be u sed o n e d i b l e po rts of plants. WOOLLY B E A R S ore orange- or y e l l ow - a n d - b l o c k caterp i l lars t h a t feed on a l l k i n d s of garden veg eta bles. They m a y prod uce two broods p e r year. None of the several species are serious pests of parti c u l a r plants. Some species h i bernate a s l a rvae, others i n a cocoon mode portly from their body ha irs. They con be hand picked or k i l l ed with either contact or stomach-poison i n s ecticides. T h e cater p i l lars rol l i n to a b o l l w h e n distu rbed. I n f o l k l ore t h e width of t h e b o n d s on the caterp i l l a r ' s b o d y i s said to forecast the w i n t e r-the more block, the colder t h e wi nter.

feed on t h e leaves of c e l e ry, pars n i p s , car rots, parsley, and related p l a nts. When d isturbed, t h e caterp i l lars protrude two ora n g e horns n e a r t h e i r h e a d . T h e horns ore soft and harm less, but at the so m e t i m e the warm g ives o ff a sweet i s h odor that a p parently d i s courages predators. T h e butter flies (Block Swa l l owta i l s) over w i nter i n southern slates. In t h e North the w o r m s e n ter t h e p u p a stage i n winter. Celerywor m s are seldom serious pests, and as they ore I o rge, they c o n b e picked o ff t h e p l a n ts by h a n d . C E LE RYWORMS

I s a b e l l a Moth 1 .5 i n .

BANDED WOOLLYBE A R

83

MAGGOTS ( l a rvae) of some fl ies bore into ste m s

or

roots . Oth ers, c a l l ed leaf m i n e rs, feed o n the tissues of leaves. The larvae pu pate i ',l the soil, and t h e a d u lts . lay their eggs o n ste ms or leaves. Use contact i n secti cides to k i l l the a d u lts, a n d sto m a c h -poison i nsectic i d es for t h e m a g gots. Do n ot a p p ly poiso nous i n secticides to pla nt parts that a re to be eate n . CABBAGE MAGGOTS ore pests

CARROT RUST FLIES loy their

in northern U.S., where they feed on the roots of ca bbage, t u r n i ps, radishes, brocco l i , and s i m i l a r vegeta b les. I n fested p l a n ts w i l t a n d m a y d ie. Several g e n era tions ore prod uced in a year.

eggs at t h e bose of p l a n ts, a n d the m a g gots work i nto the soil to feed on roots. Entire root sys te m s of carrots, celery, pars n i ps, a n d related p l a n t s may b e de stroyed by these m a ggots.

SPINACH LEAF MINERS i n fest

O N I O N MAGGOTS, espec i a l l y

beets, s p i n ach , and other l eafy vegeta bles, c a u s i n g yel lowi sh c h a n n e l s i n leaves.

bod pests i n wet years, t u n n e l i n to o n i o n b u l bs. T h e y are most a b u n d a n t i n northern states.

MITES, more closely related to spid ers a n d ticks t h a n t o i nsects, are major pests o f plants a n d a lso of m a n ( p . 4 5 ) a n d h i s pets a n d domestic a n i m a l s ( p p . 54-5 5 ) . P l a n t feed ers s u c k t h e s a p from leaves o r te n d e r parts of stems, c a u s i n g them to become d iscolore d . The i n j u ry wea kens a n d m ay k i l l you n g pla nts. Many s pecies s p i n , on the u n d ersurface o f leaves, a fi n e w e b conta i n i n g t h e i r e g g s a n d s h e d s k i n s . Mites a r e m o s t d a m a g i n g i n h ot, d ry weather, w h e n a l ife cycle may be completed i n as short a time as one wee k . Mites can be reduced i n n u m bers by g etting rid of weed s or oth e r d e b ri s in which they pass the winter a s a d u lts or i n the egg sta g e . Infested p l a n ts can be sp rayed with a contact i nsecti cide. Special miticides a re a l so available. Consult a loca l a g ricultural a g e nt.

SLUGS A N D S N A I LS are m o l l u s ks that sometimes feed

o n the fol i a g e of veg eta bles. The d a m a g e m ay be m is taken for t h e fee d i n g of i n s ect pests . S l u g s lack s h e l l s . Both s l u g s a n d s n a i l s l eave a slimy tra i l . They u s u a l l y f e e d at n i g h t a n d h i d e u n d e r debris d u ri n g the d a y . Spread p o i s o n b a i t s of calcium a rsen ate o r metaldehyd e m i xed with b ra n , mol asses, a n d wate r . BROWN GARDEN SNAIL

SPOnED GARDEN SLUG

P ST

O F F L O W E R S AN

SHRU BS

Some i n sect pests of fl owers a n d s h rubs feed o n a wide variety of p l a nts, i n c l u d i n g vegeta b l e a n d fi e l d crops. Oth ers atta c k o n ly one kind of pla nt. A g reater ra n g e of c h e m icals c a n be u s e d t o k i l l in sect pests on flowers a n d s h ru bs t h a n c a n be risked on food p l a nts, but fo l low c a refu lly the di rectio ns for a pplying insecticides. N e a rly all of these poisons a re d a n g e rous to people, p ets, and d o m estic a n i m a l s as we l l as to i n sects. SCALES AND MEALYBUGS are a m o n g the m ost d a m

a g i n g o f all i n sect pests o f flowers a n d s h r u b s . Males of both m ea lybugs a n d scales can fly; fe m a les a re win g less. F e m a l e m ealybugs h ave legs a n d crawl slowly over ste m s a n d leaves as they feed . Soft s c a l es, t h o u g h leg less, c a n m ove sluggishly b ut seldom d o . F e m a l e a r m o red scales, covered with a tou g h scale of wax m ixed with s h e d s ki n s of the nym p h stages, fasten them selves perm a n e ntly to a p l a nt. A mealy b u g ' s body i s covered with a cotto ny m a ss of wax that fo rms thread l i k e extensions. Scales a n d mealybugs s u c k the sap from leaves or stems, sometimes c a u s i n g p l a n ts to wilt. If i nfestations g o unchecked, a p l a n t m ay d i e . Both mealybugs a n d scales prod uce large a m o u nts of h o n ey d ew . The sweet excretion attracts a nts, a n d patches of sooty mold g row where the h o neydew d rops b e n eath the i n fested p l a nts. Mealybugs and scales can be k i l l e d w i t h th iocy a n ate or n icoti n e-su lfate s p rays, u s u a lly applied i n w h ite-oil e m u l s i o n . Parathion and m a lathion are a lso exce l l e n t controls but m u st b e used with extra ord i n a ry caution. Rinse p l a nts with a stro n g s p ray of water a bout an hour after a p p l i c ation to prevent d a m a g e to the p l a n t by c h e m i c a l 86 FLOWERS AND SHRUBS

winged male 0.3 in. LONG-TA ILED

have l o n g fi l a m ents at t h e t i p of t h e body. F e m a l e s g ive birth to nym phs. T h e Mex ican Mealy bug lays eggs. M E A L Y B U G S are c o m m o n pests i n g reenhouses a n d i n warm c l i m ates attac k p l a nts outdoors. H o l lyhocks, ger a n i u m s , a n d c h rysa nthem u m s are freq uen t vi eli m s.

M EX I C A N

FERN SCALES are pests of ba

na nas, orchids, citrus, a n d other p l a nts outdoors i n wa rm c l i mates. In cool c l i m a tes they occ u r i n doors o n f e r n s a n d o t h e r plants. C A C T U S S C A L E S are a b u n dant,

armored scales, fou n d outdoors i n southwestern U.S. or indoors o n plants i n g r e e n houses and homes. HEMISPHERICAL SCALES are pests i n warm c l i m a tes or o n in door plants. Ova l scales beco m e stro n g l y c o n ve x . F l a t you n g scales are notched a t rear. BROWN SOFT SCALES, flat a n d c l o s e t o t h e c o l o r of t h e i r host, are pests i n greenh ouses; o u t doors on g a r d e n ias and olean ders i n warm c l i m ates. GREENHOUSE ORTHEZI AS, re l ated to sca l e s and m ealybugs, are pests i n g re e n h o uses and outdoors, atta c k i n g more than 1 00 species o f p l a nts.

with c

FLOWERS AND S H R U BS 87

WHITEFLIES i n large n u m bers may feed u n noticed o n

t h e u n derside o f leaves until the wh ite-wi n g e d a d u lts are d isturbed and take fl i g h t . Both the a d u lts a n d n y m p h s s u c k sap from stems a n d leaves, c a u s i n g a n i nfested p l a n t t o w i l t . I n w a r m c l i m ates w h itefl ies a re pests outd oors the year a rou n d ; i n cool c l i m ates they are p r i n c i p a l l y pfi!sts in g reenh ouses or on p l a nts kept i n t h e home. Some species, such as the co m m o n Gree n h o u s e Wh itefly, spread outdoors d u r i n g t h e warm months. L i k e a p h ids, wh iteflies excrete h o n eydew. T h ese pests c a n be k i l l ed with oil sprays and a lso with the org a no-phosphate i n secticides. APHIDS are pests of flowers a n d s h ru b s . A l l a p h i d s

h ave s i m i l a r life h i stories a n d h a bits . A few species feed on t h e roots of p l a nts, but most k i n d s suck sap from leaves or ste m s . Control of aphids o n o r n a m entals is the s a m e as for vegeta bles ( p . 66) . CORN R O OT A P H I D

0.2 in.

w i n g less nymph

CHRYSANTHEMUM A P H I D

BANDED THRIPS

THRI PS, pests of a vari ety of p l a n ts, are m u c h a l i k e

i n appearance a n d l ife h istory ( p . 72 ) . Most thrips atta c k s h ru b s and flowers, parti c u l a rly i n warm c l i m ates, and they are especia l ly d a m a g i n g i n g reen houses. T h e Green house T h r i p s is fou n d throughout t h e wor l d . T h e B a n ded Gree n h ouse Thrips is a preva l e n t p e s t i n west ern U . S ., w h i l e the Gladiolus Thrips is d istrib uted t h roughout t h e U . S . o n g l adioli, i rises, and l i l ies. The l eaves of i n fested p l a nts turn wh ite or s i lvery and t h e n b rown d u e to the l o s s o f sap d rawn out by t h e feed i n g thrips. Thrips c a n be killed with contact i n secticides, a n d b u l b s can be d usted with i n secticid e w h e n stored . TREEHOPPERS, related to leafh oppers ( p . 6 8 ), lay

eggs i n crescent-s h a ped s l its cut i n twi g s . F u n g i d evelop i n the s l its, and t h e sca rred twi gs d o not g row wel l . Nym p h s o f treehoppers s u c k t h e j u i ces from g rasses, l i lies, and other plants. S p ray with contact i n secti c i d e . e g g scars

on

rase s t em

LACE BU GS, both the h a n dsome a d u lts a n d t h e s p i n y

nymphs, s u c k j u ices f r o m l eaves or ste m s . They d a m ag e o r n a m e ntals a n d also vegeta ble p l a nts ( p . 73 ) . Leaves of i n fested p l a nts a re s potted with d a rk, s h i n y excre ment. Lace bugs overwinter as eggs atta c h e d to leaves a n d in warm weather produce two or more broods in a seaso n . Contact i n secticides s h o u l d be used to k i l l a d u lts or nym p h s as s o o n as t h ey a ppear. M I T E S d a m a g e p l a nts i n green h ouses and attac k a

g reat m a ny k i n d s of p l a nts outd oors i n w a rm weather. They are pests a lso of veg eta bles ( p . 85), man ( p . 45), and d o m estic a n i m a ls ( p . 54-5 5 ) . CYCLAMEN

MITES atto c k cy c l a m ens, d e l p h i n i u m s, marigolds, other g a r d e n fl owers, a n d a l so strawberries. They feed on ten d e r leaves i n t h e p l a n t ' s crown and a l so overw i n ter there. Fo l ia g e turns block. I m m erse s u s pected seed l i n g s i n w a t e r at 1 1 0 degrees F. for a bout 20 m i n utes before sett i n g them out.

CYCLAMEN MITE

BULB MITES atto c k roots, corms,

a n d bulbs of s u c h p l a n ts o s l i l ies, crocuses, hyaci nths, g la d i o l i , a n d t u l ips. I n fested b u l b s t u r n soft, and the stem of the p l a n t breaks over. Destroy i n fested b u l bs by b u r n i n g or b u ryi n g t h e m d e ep ly. O r i m m erse b u l bs in water a t 1 1 0 to 1 1 5 d e g rees F. for a n hour and a half.

BULB FLIES att a c k b u l b s of l i l ies, n a rcissuses, 1 nses,

hya c i nths, and such root .c rops as onions, c a r rots, a n d potatoes . T h e m a g g ots feed i n s i d e t h e b u l bs, ope n i n g t h e m to fu n g i . They p u p ate i n the b u l b or i n t h e s oi l . T h e Lesser B u l b F l y prod u ces two broods a yea r, t h e N a rcissus B u l b Fly o n e . Maggots o f the Lesser B u l b F l y u s u a l l y i nfest a l ready weakened o r i n j u red b u l bs, a n d m a n y m a g g ots m a y o c c u r i n one b u l b . O n ly o n e m ag g ot of the N a rcissus B u l b Fly is ord i n a ri ly fo u n d i n a b u l b . I n early spri n g , w h e n t h e a d ult flies l a y t h e i r eggs, cove r p l a nts with c h eesecloth . At h a rvest, d estroy b u l b s t h a t f e e l soft a n d a re p r o b a b l y i nfested . T r e a t t h e oth e rs i n hot water, a s f o r B u l b Mites ( p . 9 0 ) . M I DGES a r e s m a l l flies. S o m e species, s u c h as l a rvae

of t h e C h rys a n t h e m u m Ga l l Midge, form g a l l s o n ste m s or l eaves . Mag gots o f t h e Rose Mi d g e feed on b u d s a n d new s h oots, defo r m i n g a n d c a u s i n g t h e m t o d i e . F u l l g rown m a g g ots b u rrow i n to t h e soil t o p u pate. Remove and d estroy i nfested p a rts of p l a n ts . Treat soil with a contact i n sectici d e ; spray p l a n t to k i l l l a rvae.

LEAF M I N ERS, t h e

l a rvae of certain m oths, flies, beetles, or sawflies, feed between the epidermal layers of a l eaf, causing bl isters, blotches, or t u n n e l s . I n time the l e aves turn brown a n d d rop off. 0.5 in.

AZALEA LEAF MINERS, the cat

erpil lars of a s m a l l moth, feed in the leaf tissues u n t i l a bout half g rown, then e m erge and feed at the t i p ar margin. The caterpi l lar rol l s or fold s the l eaf over itself and feeds i n s i d e t h i s cover, i n w h i c h it also p u pates. Leaf rol ls can b e p u l l e d off and destroyed. Dust p l a n ts with a stomach-poison i n secticide to k i l l larvae feed i n g o n s urface. ARBORVITAE LEAF MINERS eat out t h e inside of needles at the b r a n c h t i p s . The c a te r p i l l a r s overw in ter i n t h e b ra n c h e s a n d e m erge i n late s p r i n g or early s u m m er. Females lay eggs o n the foliage. Cut and d estroy i nfested tips. Adults and newly hatched l a rvae should be k i l led with a contact i n secticide. COLUMB I N E L E A F M I N E RS, a l so

pests on asters, are fly larvae. As m a ny a s a dozen l a rvae at tack one leaf. I n fested leaves should be burned o r buried. Spray p l a n ts with a contact in secticide. LARKSPUR LEAF MINERS m i n e

i n l e a f tissues o f d e l p h i n i u m s. Ad u l t fl ies p u n cture t h e u n d e r· s u rface of l eaves, tu r n i n g t h e m brow n . Destroy i n fested leaves. Spray or dust p l a n t s with a con tact i nsecticide. C u ltivate soil Ia k i l l pu pae.

BORERS feed inside stems, leaves, fruit, or roots . They are d iffi c u l t to reach with sprays o r d usts. An i nfected p l a n t wi lts a n d in time d i es or breaks off. Bacteria a n d fu n g i e n te r t h e p l a nts through t h e holes m a d e by borers . COLUMBINE BORERS lay eggs

LILAC BORER caterp i l l a rs w i n

on the g rou n d or i n debris near p l a n ts. A fall clea n u p of debris destroys m a n y eggs. Contact i n secti cides i n s o i l at base o f pla nts k i l l caterp i l lars.

ter i n side the ste m . Cut off a n d b u r n i nfested ste m s . O r k i l l borers i n s ide holes i n ste m s with a wire probe or s q u i rt i n a few d rops of carbon b i s u l fi d e .

LI LAC BORER

LEAF ROLLERS twist or roll a portion of a leaf over t h e m s e lves a n d fa sten it togeth er with s i l k . They feed o n the s u rface or at the edge of the leaf, and when f u l l g rown, p u p a t e i n s i d e the rol l . T h e two m ost co m m o n species o f l e a f rol lers, atta c k i n g a wid e variety of flowers a n d s h r u bs, are t h e Ob l i q ue-b a n d e d a n d t h e Red-ba n d e d . B o t h stomach -poison a n d contact i n s ecti cides are effective contro l s and should b e a p p l i e d as soon as d a m ag e is d iscovered . OBLIQUE-BANDED LEAF ROUER

RED-BAN D E D LEAF ROLLER

LEAF C UTTERS a re bees, cater p i l l a rs, a nts, or oth e r i n sects t h a t c u t l a rg e pieces from leaves . Leaf-cutter a n ts, fo u n d i n Lou isiana, Texas, and southwa rd, t a k e t h e p ieces o f leaves to their n est a n d c h ew t h e m u p t o m a ke a m u l c h o n which fungus g rows . Leaf- cutti n g b e e s roll the p i e c e o f l eaf i n to a thi m b le s h a p e to l i n e the s t e m cavity i n which the l a rva is feed i n g . The Morn i n g Glory Leaf Cutter cuts off the leaves of morn i n g g lories, z i n n i as, d a h l i as, a n d oth er flowe rs . T h e caterp i l l a rs feed at n i g h t a n d h i d e d u ri n g the day i n the wilted leaves. Use sto m a c h poisons as d usts or s p rays .

m ove a bout in a bag of tou g h s i l k, covered with need les or twi g s . Especi a l ly d a m a g i n g t o con ifers. I n l ate s u m m er the caterpi l l a rs form p u pae i n s i d e the b a g s . W i n g e d m a les e m e rg e i n t h e fa l l a n d m ate with t h e w i n g l es s fe m a les, which lay their eggs i n s i d e the b a g a n d n e v e r e m e r g e . Bags c a n be picked by hand, or p l a nts s prayed with a sto m ach - poison in secticide wh i l e l a rvae a r e feed i n g . BAGWORMS

SAWFLIES belong to the same order of i n sects as bees

and was p s . I n stead of sti ngers, the fe m a les h ave a s aw tooth-ed g ed ovipos itor with which t h ey cut s l its in l eaves or bore h oles i nto ste m s to lay eggs. The l a rvae of saw flies rese m b l e cate r p i l l a r s of moths a n d b utterfl ies a n d , V I OLET SAWFLY l i k e t h e m , feed o n fol i a g e . V I O LE T S A W F L I E S , p e s t s o f b o t h violets a n d p a n s i es, feed at n ig ht. They first eat out t h e un derside of t h e leaf a n d s keleton ize it. Then they eat holes through t h e leaf a n d may com p l etely d ef o l i ate a plant. B l i sters are formed o n t h e l eaves where t h e females lay eggs. Spray p l a n ts with a sto m a c h - poison i n sect i c i d e . ROSE-SLUGS are t h e larvae of

s e v e r a l s p e c i e s of sawfl i e s . Bristly Rose-s l u g larvae feed first o n t h e u n d e rs u rface of t h e leaves, s keleto n i z i n g t h e m , t h e n eat h o l e s t h ro u g h the l eaves. A s m a n y a s s i x broods a r e prod uced i n a season. T h e Rose-Slug feeds o n t h e u p p e r s u rface of the leaf a n d produces o n e g e n e ration i n a season. larvae o f t h e Curled Rose Sawfl y eat t h e whole leaf, u s u a l l y feed i n g i n a curled po s i t i o n l i k e a g ru b . S l u g s can be k i l l ed with sto m a c h -poison i nsec ticides a p p l ied to leaves i n early stages of t h e feed i n g . T h e Bristly Ros e - s l u g a n d t h e Rose-S l u g p u p ate i n d e b r i s o r loose soi l ; h e n c e a fa l l c l ea n u p d estroys t h e p u p a e . T h e Curled Rose Sawfly l a rvae pupate in woody or pithy ste m s . Paint p r u n e d ends of ste m s a n d get rid of debris.

B LISTER BEETLES are pests of asters, z i n n ias, c h rys a n t h e m u m s , anemones, a n d ather flowers. They com m o n ly eat the petal s i n preference to the leaves. The Black Bl ister Beetle rese m b les t h e Striped B l i ster Beetle (p. 74) i n life h i s tory a n d h a bits a n d i s contro l l e d b y t h e sa m e m ethods. BLACK

of the many species of beetles feed on the foliage, fl owers, ste ms, roots, o r fru it of shrubs a n d flowers. Some are d a m a g i n g only i n the l a rva, o r g rub, stage; oth e rs d o their g reatest d a m a g e as a d ults. Both l a rvae and a d u lts have c h ewing mouth parts. So m e a re pests i n both stages. Ma ny beetles are g e n e ra l feeders; others att a c k o n ly one kind or related plants. ROSE LEAF BEETLES feed o n t h e

blosso m s of irises a n d peonies as well as roses. They also eat leaves, blossoms, b u d s, a n d you n g fruit o f pears, p l u m s , ap· pies, peaches, strawberries, a n d others: T h e y can be h a nd-pi cked or jarred i nto o pail of kerosene and water. They feed deep i n fl owers o r buds a n d a re h a rd to reach with i n secticides. Pyre t h r u m or other contact i n secti cides are effective.

ROSE C H A F E R S are g e n e r a l pests of flowers a n d s h rubs a n d also of m a n y fruit a n d vegetable crops. Adult beetles appear in late spring or early s u m mer, feed i n g fi rst on t h e fl owers and then on fol iage. T h e l a rvae feed o n the roots of grass ond b u r row deep i n to the soi l to h i bernate. Adu lts can be h a n d - picked, or i n fested plants can be sprayed. Rose Chafers are deadly poison ous to c h i ckens.

FULLER ROSE BE ETLES are wee vil pests (p. 78) of roses, carna t i o n s , g e ra n i u m s , g a r d e n i a s , c h rysa nthe m u m s , azaleas, a n d m a n y o t h e r s h rubs a n d flowers. Adults feed a t n i g ht, eati n g t h e m a rg i n s of t h e leaves. The g r u b s feed o n the roots, c a u s i n g t h e fol iage to t u r n yel low. T h e y c a n be controlled by th e s a m e meth ods used for t h e Rose Curcu l io. BLACK VINE WEEVILS are pests of garden ias, azaleas, begon ias, s p i re a , a r b o r v i t a e , r h o d od e n dron, a n d m a n y other flowers a n d shrubs. The l a rvae feed fi rst o n the r o o t hairs of plants a n d t h e n o n l a r g e r roots, stri p p i n g them of bark. T h e grubs h i ber nate i n wi nter, feed a g a i n on the roots in s p r i n g , then form pupae a n d e m erge a s adults i n early s u m m e r. The adult weev i l s (p. 78) are active a t n i g h t, eating foliage for a bout a month before layi n g eggs i n sai l . S pray or d ust w i t h a stom a c h-poison or a contact i n secticide. R O S E C U R C U L I O S are weev i l s

(p. 78) with espec i a l l y long snouts, o r bea k s . They eat holes i n t h e ste m s o r u nopened buds of roses. I n j u re d buds m a y not open, o r if they do, the petal s a re fi l led with holes. T h e l a rvae develop in the you n g f r u i t or h ips, and when f u l l g rown, d rop to t h e ground to p upate. Bee tles can be h a n d -p i c ked or jarred from the plant i n to a con tainer of water and kerosene. D u st p l a n t s w i t h a s t o m a c h poison o r contact i n secticide. Destroy i nfested rose h i p s.

F I E L D AN D FO

AGE CROP PESTS

A l l fi e l d crops are food for i n sects. Losses ave rage 1 0 perce n t, b u t i n e p i d e m i c outbrea ks entire crops a re l ost. GRASSHO PPERS About 600 spec ies of g rasshop pers

i n h a b it North America. N i n ety percent of t h e d a m a g e is d u e to five spec ies t h a t atta c k fi e l d crops; m ore t h a n 2 0 species are d a m a g i n g t o g rass l a n d s . The d ry g rass lands east of the Roc ky Mou ntains, where t h e a n n u a l rainfa l l is l e s s t h a n 3 0 i n c h es, period ica l ly h ave g rass hopper outbreaks i n which the crop l osses a m o u n t to m i l lions of d o l l ars. Most species of g rasshoppers are general fee d e rs, though they prefe r yo u n g , g reen p l a nts. I n epidemic outbreaks the h u n g ry hordes w i l l eat any food ava i l a b l e . They wi l l strip a tree or b u s h of its fo liage and t h e n feed on the b a r k . I n h eavy outbreaks, with 5 0 or m o re g rassh oppers to the s q u a re yard, g rass is cropped close and perm a n ently i n j u re d , expos i n g the l a n d t o w i n d a n d water erosion . Most g rasshop pers lay eggs in l ate s u m m e r or early fa l l . The fe m a l e pushes her ovi positor as d e e p as two i n c h es i n to the soil, d epositing her eggs in packets con sisting of as m a ny a s 1 00 eggs. These m asses of eggs, g l ued together with particles of soil, are cal led po d s . E a c h fe m a l e may lay a s many a s a d o z e n p o d s . Th e eggs h a t c h i n the spring, a n d the nym p h s b e g i n eati n g i m med iately. The n u m b e r of t i m e s they s h e d before beco m i n g a d u lts varies with the species but is usually five or s i x . Most species prod uce only o n e g e n e ration a year, but t h e Mig ratory Grasshopper a n d several oth e rs may produce two generations in warm c l i m ates . Plow i n g or d i s k i n g t h e l a n d i n the fa l l b u ries some of the eggs so that the nym p h s c a n not m a ke their way to t h e s u rfac e . 98 F I ELD AND FORAGE CROPS

TWO- STR I P E D GRASSHOPPER

1 .5 i n .

These five species of grass hop· pers are t h e m o s t damaging to field a n d forage crops i n t h e U n ited States. T h e ear of corn above h a s o n l y a few scattered kerne l s because g rasshoppers ate off s i l ks before pol l i na t i o n .

RED- LEGGED GRASSHOPPER

..

... ....

Bare ra n g e l a n d was scoured by fora g i n g grasshopper horde. Grass still g rows h eavy u n d e r screened plot.

Oth�rs a re exposed to the weather o r to pred ators . Poisoned b a its (sweeten e d bran contai n i n g a rs e n i c , c h l o r d a n e , or s i m i l a r p o i s o n s ) a re used effectively to k i l l a d u lts, a n d large areas i n western states are s p rayed with contact i n secticides from a i r p l a n e s . F I ElD A N D FORAGE C R O P S 99

APHIDS d a m a g e p l a n ts by s u c k i n g t h e s a p from the

ste m s, l eaves, o r roots . They stunt the p l a n t 's g rowth, o r i n heavy i nfestations cause it to d i e . A p h i d s h ave complex l ife cycles ( p . 66). GREENBUGS a r e a p h i d pests of grains. In warm c l i mates they are active throughout the year. I n cool c l i mates m a l e s and fe m a les are produced i n late s u m · m er. T h e y m a te, a n d t h e females deposit e g g s i n t h e fol d s of leaves. Green b u g s are p a rasit ized by a s m a l l wasp that Jays its eggs in the a p h i d ' s body. The wasp's larvae feed o n the aphid's internal organs. I n o cool s p r i ng, the a p h i d s b u i l d up a Iorge population before the wasps becom e active. Plow un d e r vol u n teer crops. Plant resis tant varieties. Use contact i n sec ticides to check i n festations of Green bugs.

C O R N ROOT APHIDS i n fest the

roots of corn . The corn g rows wel l u n t i l about a foot tal l a n d then becomes stunted a n d yel lowed. The a p h i d s winter i n the egg stage, stored i n t h e nests of the Cor n fi e l d A n t. As soon as they hatch in spring, the you n g are pastured fi rs t on the roots of weeds or g rasses, t h e n on corn p l a n t s . T h e a p h i d s p ro d u c e winged generations that fly to other pla nts, where they are cap lured by a n ts an d put to work. The a n t s eat the h o n eydew ex pel led by t h e a p h i d s . Ant nests should be d e stroyed by plowi n g o r by treati n g t h e s o i l with a contact i n secticide.

SPITTLEBUGS d a m a g e p l a nts as nym p h s, s u c k i n g the

j uices from ste m s o r leaves. The nym p h s surround t h e m se lves w i t h a mass o f frot h , or spittle, as t h e y feed . T h e squat, b r o a d a d u lts are sometimes c a l l e d frog h o p pers . Th e Meadow Spittlebug, a pest of a lfalfa a n d other legumes and also of m a ny o r n a m e ntals, p ro d uces o n l y one g e n eration i n a season. The nym p h s h a tch from eggs l a i d in stub b l e . Spray p l a n ts with contact i n sec ticides b efore fa l l h a rvest to kill egg-laying a d u lts o r i n e a rly spri n g to ki l l you n g nym p h s . PLANT BUGS, a lso c a l l e d leaf b u g s , are a fa m i ly of

true b u g s conta i n i n g m a ny species that d a m a g e a n d d eform p l a nts b y s u c k i n g o u t juices. S o m e feed o n o n ly one group of pla nts, such as g rasses; others, s u c h as the Tarnished P l a n t Bug ( p . 7 1 ), a re g e n eral feed ers . LEGUME BUGS ore pests of le

g u m e s and other plants. N y m p h s ore m o s t d a m a g i n g , b u t a d u lts a l so feed o n p l a nts. Both i n tro d u ce a tox i n c a u s i n g deformities. A d u l ts overwi nter, a n d f e m a l e s loy t h e i r e g g s i n p l a n t t i s s u e s i n s p r i n g , with f o u r or five genera tions produced i n a season. Use a contact i n secticide i n spring when nymphs begin to feed. Do not s p ray plants i n fl ower, t h u s k i l l i n g b e e s t h a t pol l i nate crop.

F I ELD AND FORAGE CROPS 1 0 1

C H INCH BUGS a re m a j o r pests of corn b u t also d a m

age o t h e r g r a i n s a n d g rasses . Adu lts overwinter i n d e b r i s , a n d i n the s p r i n g the fe ma les l a y e g g s at t h e base of p l a nts, on which the nymphs feed by s u c k i n g out juices. Young p l a n ts are com m o n ly k i l l e d ; older p l a nts s u rvive but may n ot produce. As food p l a n ts are exha usted i n one p lace, the nymphs m i g rate i n d roves to fi n d new food p l a n t s . C h i n c h Bugs can be k i l l e d with contact i n secticides s p rayed or d usted o n i nfested pla nts, or the i n secticides may b e used a s a c h e m ic a l barrier t o p reve nt entry o f craw l i n g nym p h s . S o m e crop varieties a re resi sta nt to Chinch Bugs. C rop rotation p revents population b u i l d u p . CEREAL L E A F BE ETLES, from Europe, w e r e fi rst fou n d

i n t h e U . S . i n 1 9 6 2 a n d a r e n ow a potenti a l m a j o r pest of g r a i n c rops i n the Mi dwest. Adults s u rvive cold wi nters by h i b ernati n g u n d e r debris. Th e l a rvae h atch from eggs laid i n early spring and feed o n the leaves of you n g pla nts. They pu pate i n J u n e, and a d u lts appear i n J u ly, fee d i n g until winter.

ROOTWORMS a re gru bs, or beet l e la rvae, that i n jure

p l a nts by fee d i n g on or i n their roots . Ofte n th e a d ults d a m a g e e n tirely d iffere n t plants. CORN NORTHERN WORMS, w h i c h feed

ROOT

only on corn, o r e pests f r o m N ew Yor k westward t o t h e Rocky Mou n ta i n s , especia l l y i n t h e northern Mississippi V a l l ey. I nfested plants g row s lowly a n d are wea k e n e d so that they top p l e i n w i n d o r heavy ra i n . T h e larvae a l so tra ns m it wi lt, a bacterial d i sease. I n m i d s u m m e r t h e larvae l eave t h e roots a n d p u pate i n t h e s o i l . The a d u lts, w h i c h f e e d on a variety of p l a n ts, d i e a fter lay i n g eggs a ro u n d roots of corn sta l k s i n t h e fall. Eggs hatch the fol lowi n g spri n g . Rota t i n g crops i s effective. C h e m i ca l contro l s i n c l u d e soi l treat m e n t with con tact i nsecticide before plowi n g , or sprays or d usts o n a d u l ts.

SOUTHERN CORN ROOT WORM d a m a g e i s s i m i l a r to

i n j u ry by the Northern Corn Rootworm, b u t wor m s a l so bore i nto sta l k s at soil l i n e . Ad u l ts are e q u a l l y d a m a g i n g . GRAPE COLASPIS g r u b s (Clover

Rootworms) feed o n t h e ste m s a n d foliage o f g rapes a n d other p l a n ts. Ad u l t beetles e m erge in m id s u m m e r and l a y their eggs arou n d roots of cover crops s u c h a s clover. T h e grubs f e e d o n t h e roots u n t i l cold wea t h e r, t h e n h i bernate u n t i l s p r i n g, when t h e y conti n u e feed i n g . I f a fi e l d i s p l owed i n s p r i n g a n d t h e n p l a nted i n corn, t h e h a l f-grown grubs feed o n roots . Fall p low ing exposes g r u b s to freez i n g .

FLEA

BEETLES, espec i a l ly a b u n d a n t i n cool, w e t seasons, attac k m a n y fl e l d a n d g a rd e n crops. I n a d d ition t o eati ng leaves a n d g e n e r a l l y wea ken i ng a p l a n t, they tra n s m it the bacteria for Stewart's d isease, a wilt. H eavy infestations somet i m es cause a com p lete loss of crops. Keep flelds free of weeds u n d er which the beetles h i bern ate in winter. For oth e r controls see p. 62.

0.7 i n .

WHEAT WIREWORM

WHITE GRUBS o f a n u m ber of

species eat the roots of l awn g rasses, corn, wheat, and forage crops. I nfested corn p l a n ts may die after g rowi n g to a height of a bout two feet. I n a d d ition to the g rubs of May and J u n e beetles, l a rvae of the Oriental Beetle a re serious pests. Control by soil fumi g ation a n d by oth e r m ethods de scribed o n p . 6 5 . WIREWORMS o f severa l species

i n j u re corn, wheat, lawn g rasses, and root crops. The P l a i n s False Wireworm, particularly d a m a g i n g t o wheat, is a d a r k l i n g beetle l a rva rath e r than a c l i c k beetle as a re true wi reworms. Controls a re g iven on p. 63.

WEEVILS, the l a rgest fa m i ly of beetles, a re easily rec

o g n ized by their long s n out, at the end of which are their chewi n g mouthparts. When d istu rbed, m a ny wee vils " play d e a d . " Some weevi ls a re pests of vegeta b l e c rops ( p . 7 8 ) , fru its ( p . 1 2 5), a n d stored p ro d u cts (p. 1 4 6) . Many are as d a m a g i n g i n the grub, or l a rva, stage as they a re as a d u lts. WEEVILS, i m porta n t pests i n western U.S., winter a s adults i n debris o n t h e g rou n d . I n spring they e m e rge a n d feed o n a l fa l fa or ather leg u m es . The f e m a l e s lay t h e i r eggs i n cavities ch ewed i n to t h e ste m s . At fi rst the grubs feed where they hatch; later they move u p Ia t h e tips. Often the p l a n t i s stunted, a n d the entire fi rst-growth crop m ay be last. W h e n f u l l grown, the l a rvae s p i n cocoons, a n d the a d u lts a p p e a r i n about ten days. Ad u lts can be k i l led with con tact i n secti cide. Co n s u l t a g r i c u l tural agent for best t i m e t o apply a n d for a d v i c e o n use o f sprayed c rop a s l ivestock feed. ALFALFA

BI LLBUG is a name used for sev eral species of snout beetles t h o ! atta c k c o r n , w h e a l , a n d o t h e r grains. A d u l t M a i z e B i l l b u g s eat holes i n the ste m s and leaves o f c o r n . The g r u b s , e v e n more d a m a g i n g , f e e d o n t h e ta proots a n d in the pith of t h e sta l ks, for m i n g p u p a e i n l a t e s u m m e r or early fall. Adults h i bernate i n winter. Crop rotation i s a n effective con trol for the Maize Billbug a nd the s i m i l a r, more southern Cur lewbug. Ma ize Billbugs can be d e s t r o y e d in h i b e r n a t i o n b y ra k i n g a fi e l d a n d burying d e b r i s . The B l u e g r a s s B i l l bug feeds on wh eal, t i m othy, a n d other g rasses i n t h e g r u b stage.

MAIZE B I LLB UG

0.6 i n .

0.3 in.

1 05

LEAF WEEVI LS, also pests of a l f a l fa , are mast d a m aging in early spring and may destroy a n e ntire crop. T h e g ru b s f e e d o n l eaves at n i g h t a n d h i d e b e n e a t h p l a n t d u r i n g t h e day. T h ey com p l ete g rowth by late spring a n d spin a cocoon i n the soil or on t h e p l a n t . Adu lts e m erg e in early s u m m e r. Afte r a b r i e f p e r i o d af feed i n g t h ey beco m e relative ly i n a c tive u n t il fa l l , then m ate a n d t h e f e m a l e s lay eggs. Larvae t h a t hatch i n t h e f a l l h i bernate u n t i l s p r i n g . Some eggs do not hatch u n t i l s p r i n g . I n w e t seasons m a n y l a r v a e are k i l led by f u n g u s d i sease. A fi e l d c a n b e p lowed and p l anted i n g rass, o r crap s prayed with a contact i n secticide.

CLOVER

grub to 0 . 5 i n .

SWEETCLOVER WEEVIL

WEEVILS and closely related C love r Root Cur c u l ios are pests of nearly a l l l eg u m es. T h e g r u b s b u r row i nto the roots, c a u s i n g p l a nts to w i l t a n d d i e . T h e s e weevi l s u s u a l l y overwi n t e r a s yo u n g l a rv a e , t h o u g h i n s o m e reg i o n s t h ey pass the w i n t e r in t h e e g g or a d u l t stage. Larvae c o m p lete t h e i r deve l o p m e n t by late spri n g , t h e n f o r m pupae a n d e m erge as a d u l ts by s u m m e r . Adu lts feed on foliage for a bout a m o n t h , a f t e r w h i c h they become l ess ac tive until f a l l , w h e n they beg i n t o feed a g a i n . A t t h i s t i m e t h ey m a te a n d f e m a les lay eg g s an food plant. Control i s d i ffi c u lt. F i e l d s ca n b e p lowed i n early spring or late fa l l o n d p l a nted i n grass or other non-leg u m e plant. Contact in secticides w i l l k i l l weev i l s b u t m a y m a k e crop u n us a b l e as a l ivestock food .

SWEETCLOVER

LESSER

CLOVER

LEAF

WEE

VILS are m ost d a m a g i n g to red

c l over b u t m ay a l so atta c k a l falfa a n d sweetclovers. T h e d a m a g e , greatest i n dry seasons, i s d o n e largely by the g r u b s , w h i c h f e e d o n t h e ste m s , leaves, a n d b u d s . A n i n fested p l a n t w i l t s a n d d i e s . No goad control m e t h ods h o v e been d iscovered. BOLL WEEV I LS are o n e of the

m o re t h a n 1 00 i n sect pests of cotto n . As m a ny a s seve n g e n erations of Bo l l Weevi l s o r e p ro d u ced in a seaso n , d a m a g i n g the p l o n t at a l l stages of i t s g rowth. E a c h g e neration com p l etes i t s deve l o p m e n t i n about t h ree wee k s i n good weather. Adu lts that e m erge from h i ber nation i n d e br i s n e a r cotton fi e l d s beg i n feed i n g on the b u d s of you n g cotto n p l a nts. The f e m a l e s l oy o n e egg i n a d e e p p u n cture i n each deve l o p i n g fl ower b u d , o r s q u o re. I f n o t e n o u g h s q uares a r e ava i la b l e , more t h a n o n e e g g m ay be l a i d i n a s q u o re. T h e l a rvae f e e d i n t h e s q u a re, c a u s i n g it t o turn yellow a n d d rop. In h eovy i nfes tat i o n s t h e bloom of a n e n t i r e c r o p i s d estroyed . W h e n b o l l s do form , t h e weevi l s f e e d i n s i d e . You n g b o l l s drop f r o m the p i o n!; o l d e r o n e s are sta i ned or decoy. Controls consist of de stroy i n g cotton sta l k s or d e b r i s i n w h i c h a d u l t s h i .bern ole, p l a n t i n g eorly m a t u r i n g v a r i e t i e s o f cotto n , a n d u s i n g co n tact i n sec ticides to kill t h e feed i n g larvae and a d u l t s . Ti m i n g i s critical i n t h e success o f these contro l s a n d varies with local conditions. Con sult reg i o n a l a g r i c u ltural agent.

C ATERPILLARS of moths ·and butterfl ies a re common

pests of fi el d a n d forage crops. Methods of com bating them are much the same as those used i n contro l l i n g caterp i l l a rs that d a m ag e vegeta b l e crops ( p . 8 0 ) . Al l h ave strong c h ewing mouth parts . LEAFWORMS crawl by l oo p i n g their body, l i ke m easur in g worm s . U n l i ke a l m ost a l l other moths, the a d u lts may be pests, using their spiny mouthparts to m a k e slits in g rapes, peaches, or other fru i t to gel the ·sweet j u ices. The l a r vae hatch from eggs laid on t h e u n d e r s i d e of co lto n l e av e s . Later t h ey pu pate i n folded l eaves. A l i fe cycle i s com p l eted i n about a m o n t h , with as m a n y a s t h r e e or four g e nerat ions a season . No sta g e s u rvives w i n t e r i n t h e U . S . , the p e s t i nvad ing each year from Centra l Ameri ca. Both sto m ac h - poison a n d contact i n secticides a re ef-

COnON

1 08

LEAFWORM

PINK BOLLWORMS feed on cotton b l o s s o m s , or s q u a re s , causing t h e m to w i l t a n d drop. Later they feed in the bolls. P i n k Bollworms w i nter i n cocoons i n t h e soil, i ns i d e bol l s, or i n t h e seed. Larvae m ay r e m a i n i n t h i s rest i n g s t a g e f o r more t h a n two years, w h i c h a ccou n ts for the world-wide spread of t h i s pest. Each g e n e ration req u i res about a m o n th, with a s many as s i x g e n erations a s e a s o n . Wor m s i n the seed a r e k i l led by h e a l ( 1 45 degrees F . ) o r by f u m iga tion. Early crops give h a rvests before the pests are n u m erous. Plow under crop res i d ues or use contact i n secticides. Cons u l t lo c a l agricultural agent for t i m i n g .

\

CORN EARWORMS, k nown as

Bol lwo r m s and Tom ato Fruit wor m s , are t h e m a jor pests of sweet corn i n t h e U.S. From 500 to more than 2 ,000 eggs are l a i d by e a c h f e m a l e . T h e l a rvae feed o n t h e un f ol d i n g l eaves, same l i m e s stu n t i n g t h e p l a n ts. Great est d a m a g e occurs w h e n t h e corn i s in the tas s e l , o r s i l k , stage, as t h e l a rvae that hatch o n the silks feed there and a l so o n the deve l o p i n g k e r n e l s . In addition to destroyi n g t h e kern e l s , the larvae o p e n ave n ues for m o l d s a n d for other i n s e c t p e s t s . T h e wor m s feed a l so o n t h e fl owers of tom atoes and eat the green fruit. T h ey feed o n t h e b u d s of

tobacco p l a n ts and i n t h e seed pods. In calion -grow i n g a reas they feed o n t h e l i p s of the plants, o n t h e b l ossom , a n d in t h e bolls. U p to seven g e nera tions ore produced each year in warm c l i mates; th ree or four in t h e Corn Bell, only o n e i n nort h e r n states. C o r n Earwo r m s over winter in the soil in a pupa case, hence p l ow i n g in late fall d e stroys m a n y o r e x p o s e s t h e m to free z i n g te m peratures. Feed i n g wor m s can be k i l led w i t h confa cf i n secficide d usts. S o m e hybrid corn varieties are resistant to Corn Earwo r m s . Early m a t u r i n g varieties c a n b e h a rvested before th e pest population b u i l d s u p .

F I ELD AND FORAGE CROPS 1 09

ARMYWORM

fu l l - g rown l a rva 1 .5 in.

A R MYWORMS

h i bernate as h a l f-g rawn caterp i l lars t h a t be gin feed i n g in s p r i n g and are f u l l g rawn by early s u m m er. T h ey b u rrow i n t o t h e soi l , pu pate, a n d e m erge a s n i g h t-flyi ng moths t h o ! are identified by the white d ot on each front w i n g . F e m a l e m o t h s , o f f e r a period of feed i n g on n e ctar or d ecay ing fruit, lay t h e i r eggs on g rass o r other plants. larvae hatch in about a week and beg i n feed i n g ravenously on t h e pla nts aro u n d t h e m . I f c o n d i t i o n s have b e e n favora ble, m a n y t h o u s a n d s of caterpi l lars are produced. W h e n t h e plants are consu m ed i n o n e area, t h e h u ng ry hordes move in " a r m i es " to find a new sup�

ply. Caterp i l lars of this second, o r s u m m er, gen eration become full g rown i n late s u m m er. They p u pate, a n d t h e a d u lts e m erge i n the fall, each female lay i n g a s m a n y a s 2,000 eggs, i n c l usters of 25 to 1 00. These hatch i n to t h e larvae t h a t overw i n ter. The s u m m e r generation does t h e greatest d a m ag e , a n d i n t h e years of severe outbreaks m a n y crops a r e attacked a n d co m p l etely destroyed. T h e caterp i l lars hide during the day and f e e d at n i g h t ; h e nce a c rop m ay be destroyed com pletely before the c a t e r p i l l a r s are n o t i c e d . Armywo r m s a r e parasitized b y a fly that lays its eg g s on t h e cat e r p i l l a r ' s bac k; the fly's l a rvae

F A LL ARMYWORM

egg c l uster o n corn leaf

1 1 0 F I ELD AND FORAGE CROPS

t h e n feed on caterp i l l a r a n d k i l l i t . A t i n y w a s p t h a t lays i t s e g g s i n s i d e t h e Armywo r m ' s e g g s i s a n e v e n m o re effective n atural control of this pest. Adva n c i n g " a r m i e s " of these caterp i l l a rs c a n be tra pped in deep f u rrows conta i n i n g kero sene or a contact i n secti cide. Poison-bran baits s u c h a s those used for g r a s s h op pers (p. 98) can be spread i n t h e path of t h e m ig r a t i n g cate r p i l lars, o r fi e l d s c a n b e s p rayed with c o n ta ct i n s e c t i c i d e s . W h e n t h e wor m s d is a p p e a r, i n d icating that they have b u rrowed i n to the g ro u n d to p u p ate, s h a l low p l ow i n g w i l l expose t h e p u p a e to predators a n d to weather.

southern species closely related to t h e A r m yworm s . Someti m es t h e moths fly i n to northern slates, a p p e a r i n g t h ere i n the fa l l . T h ey do not s u rvive northern wi nters, however. In t h e South a s m a ny as s i x g e n erations are prod uced i n o n e season. T h e caterp i l l a rs feed fi rst on grass, t h e n move to corn or other fi e l d a n d vegeta b l e crops. I n t h e S o u t h t h e cate r p i l lars go by t h e n a m e of Grass Wor m s . Fall Armywo r m s do not h i de during t h e day as do Army worm s . I n a d d i t i o n to t h e con tro l s effective a g a i n st t h e Army worm, i t i s i m porta n t to keep fields free o f g ra s s o n w h i c h the l a rvae f e e d fi rst.

F I ELD AND FORAG E CROPS

1 1 1

EUROPEAN CORN BORERS are t h e mast i n j urious pests of corn i n the U.S. From their point of i n trod uction i n t h e Boston area, j ust before 1 9 1 7, they have spread across the continent to the Rocky Mou n t a i n s . Or i g i n a l l y t h e European Corn Borer prod uced only one genera tion each season , but i n the East it now u s u a l l y p roduces two. Though corn i s preferred, the cate r p i l lars, particularly those of the second gen eration, w i l l feed on m a n y other k i n d s of plants. Europea n Corn Borers overwinter a s caterpi l lars i n t h e stem s of food plants. In the spring they p u pate i n the stem, emerg i n g as n i g h t-fl ying adult moths i n about 10 d ays. During t h e day the moths stay i n hiding u n d e r t h e c o r n l e a v e s or i n w e e d s nearby. The f e m a l e moth lays h e r eggs i n fl a t c l usters of a dozen or more on the u n d e rside of the

1 1 2 F I ELD AND FORAGE C ROPS

leaves of food p l a n ts. Each fe m a le may lay a tota l of nearly 2,000 eggs, which are at first wh ite but l ater turn yellowish. Newly hatched l a rvae are yel lowi s h . They feed fi rst a n the l eaves, t h e n bore i n to t h e ste m or the ear, w h e re they feed u n til f u l l g rown, in about a month. Where there are two generation s p e r year, t h e fi rst is co m p l eted by m id s u m m er, and the l a rvae of the second g e neration are f u l l g rown by w i nter. Often many borers attack a s i n g l e p l a nt, wea k e n i n g it a n d caus i n g i t t o fall over. Food canals in the cornsta l k are cut off so that ears of corn do not form properly. Bori n g s are a l so open i n g s for ather i nsect pests and for rot f u n g i. Ste m s a n d sta l ks in w h i c h borers m ig h t h i bernate s h o u l d b e p l owed u n der i n t h e f a l l or early spring. Resistan t varieties of

(Ire the large caterp i ll a rs of attrac tive moths. They overwi nter as a d istinctive c h rysal i s, with its tongue i n a separate h a n d l el i ke projection. The h a n d l e is l o n g e r t h a n the c l o s e l y related Tomato Hornwor m 's (p. 82). The g i a n t caterp i l l ars a r e rave nous feed ers o n the leaves of m a n y p l a n ts. T h e y can be destroyed by h a n d - p i c k i n g t h e m , o r if es pecially a b u n da n t, with i n secti cides. Fall p l owi n g to expose the pupae i s a l so effective. At rest, caterp i l lars hold front of body erect i n a st i ff s p h i n x l i ke pose. The naked p u p a has a d i s t i nctive h a n d l e in w h i c h the p ro bosci s fits. Swift-fl y i n g adults are called s p h i n x or hawkmoths.

TOBACCO H ORNWORMS

corn s h o u l d be p l anted. Some hybrid varieties g ive a goad yield of corn even though i n fested w i t h borers. Late p l a n t i n g of a n y variety w i l l reduce the i n festation s b u t may a l so lower t h e yield of corn. Where econ o m i c a l to do so, corn m ay be rotated with l e g u m es. Of the m a n y natural e n e m ies that biola g ists h ave in tro d u ced from Eu rope, t h e most effective are three species of wasps a n d a species of fly, all of w h i c h parasitize the cater p i l lars. Contact i nsecticides c a n be a p p l ied Ia i n fested p l a n t s e i t h e r a s d u sts or s p rays, but their effectiveness d e p e n d s to a g reat d e g ree on proper t i m i n g . Genera l l y the i n secticide is a p p l i e d w h e n 70-80 p e r c e n t of the p l a n t s i n a fi e l d show s i g n s of i n fe s ta t i o n . Local a g r i c u l t u r a l a g e n ts can advise the t i m e a n d recom m e nded rates o f spray per acre for use i n a particular area.

C A R O L I N A SPHINX

4-5 in.

STALK BORERS a re m o t h s t h a t overwi nter as eggs attached to g rass or weeds. T h e e g g s hatch i n early s p r i n g , a n d t h e l a rvae bore i m m ed iately i nto the stem of a plant, u s u a l l y the one on w h i c h the e g g s were l a i d . later the caterp i l l a rs m ove to g i a n t ragweeds, corn, a n d o t h e r large plants. I n August they p u pate, either in t h e stem or i n t h e s o i l n earby, a n d e m e rge as a d u l t m o t h s i n late s u m m e r or early a u tu m n . T h e f e m a l e s lay eggs before w i n ter. Sta l ks a n d debris s h o u l d be p lowed under i n f a l l . SOUTHERN CORN STALK BOR

are pests from southern U . S . to Sou th A m erica. T h e s i m i l a r Southwestern Cornsta l k Borer occurs only i n southwestern U n it ed States and Mexico. I n fested corn i s stunted, t h e sta l k s e n larged or swo l l e n . Ears a r e poor ly formed and may drop. T h e cate r p i l lars overwinter i n t h e cornstalks, c h a n g e to p u pae i n early spri ng, a n d e m e r g e a s a d ults before s u m m er. As m a n y a s t h ree g e n erations are pro d u ced i n a season. Destroy sta l k s h arbori n g h i berna t i n g l a rvae; ro tate corn with l e g u m e s . ERS

LESSER CORNSTALK BORER

1 .0 in. w i n g spread

caterp i l l a r 0.8 i n .

1 14

LESSER

CORNSTALK

BORERS,

pests i n southern U.S., bore i nto t h e base o f corn sta l k s and a l so leg u m es, s t u n t i n g a n d deform i n g t h e plants. T h ey u s u a l l y over winter as l arvae, form i n g p u p ae in late winter a n d e m e r g i n g a s a d u l ts i n early s p r i n g . Two g e n erati o n s a r e produced i n a s e a so n . Destroy sta l ks i n w h i c h l a r v a e overwi nter.

WEB!WORMS are general feed

ers, though some species are es pecia l l y d a m a g i n g to lawns or to particular field crops. Blue grass Webwo r m s a n d related species a re lawn pests. They feed o n l y at n i g h t, c u tti n g off blades of grass and d ragg i n g them i nto t h e i r s i l k- l i n e d tun n e l s formed a l o n g the s u rface of t h e ground. The adult moths, w h i c h h ave a pro m i nent sn out, are c o m m o n l y seen flying over g rassy a reas at dusk. The Corn Root Webworm ( i l l u strated) at tacks corn, tobacco, a n d other crops as we l l a s g rasses i n which t h ey h i bernate. Plow i n g is a n effective control f o r pests o f field crops. Lawns can be treated with a contact i nsecticide. feed on a l f a l fa a n d other l e g u m es. Winter i s passed i n the p u pa stage, from w h i c h butterfl ies e m erge i n early s p r i n g . Females lay eggs on t h e leaves of p l a nts, o n which the l a rvae feed. There m a y be seven generations a year. Plants can be sprayed with a contact i nsecticide i f t h e crop i s not used for hay.

ALFALFA CATERPI LLARS

C L O V E R HEA D CATER P IUARS

feed in the c l over h ea d , pre venting flowers from ope n i n g , or o n g reen deve l o p i n g seeds. F i rst g e n er a t i o n m o t h s a p p e a r i n early s u m m e r a n d lay e g g s on c l over p l a n ts, wh ere t h e l a rvae feed and p u pate. Th ree g e n era t i o n s m ay be produced each seaso n . Early c u t t i n g of crop de stroys many l a rvae. The l a rvae are a l so parasitized by a wasp.

CLOVER HEA D CATERPILLAR

0.3 in.

FLY MAGGOTS of o n ly a few species are serious pests

of fi e l d a n d forage crops. Th ey d a m a g e p l a nts in the same ways as d o l a rval pests of vegeta b l e c rops ( p . 8 4 ) . fee d i n g i n s i d e the ste m , flowers, o r seeds. CLOVER SEED MIDGES wi nter

as larvae in a t h i n cocoon i n the soil or under debris. They enter the pupa stage i n t h e spring a n d e m erge as adult fl ies i n late spring. With i n a few days the females deposit eggs i n you n g clover h e a d s , u s i n g their l o n g ovipositor to reach deep i n side. The develo p i n g larvae feed by sucking the sap from the flower parts, th us p reve n t i n g the for mation of seed. When f u l l grown, i n a b o u t a month, t h e larvae drop t o the g rou n d to pupate. Adults of t h i s g e nera tion a ppear i n m i d s u m m e r a n d lay eggs that h a t c h i nto the over wi nteri n g larval farm s. The best m e a n s af control i s cutti n g the clover before it i s i n f u l l bloo m .

0. 1 i n . m aggot, 0. 1 in., feed i n g i n ovu le

are m i nor pests of w h eat. I n t h e fa l l they feed i n the lower stem of the plant. Their d a m a g e i s s i m i l a r Ia t h a t d a n e b y t h e Hes sian F l y (p. 1 1 7). In s u m m e r the m aggots feed near t h e wheat heads. I n fected ste m s eve n t u a l l y turn w h i te a n d d i e . O a t s , barley, rye, and other g rasses are a l so attacked. Wheat Stem Maggots overwi nter as l a rvae i n si d e the stem of t h e i r food p l a nt. They form p u p a e i n t h e spring and e m erge as a d u l t fl i e s i n early s u m m e r. A secon d g e neration starts i n s u m mer, and these lar vae overwi nter. Crop rotation and destruction of straw i n w h i c h the l a rvae are feed i n g are ef fective controls.

WHEAT STEM MAGGOTS

HESSIAN FLIES are the most d a m a g i n g pests of wheat. T h ey a l s o attack barley, rye, a n d s o m e s p ec i es of w i l d g r a s s e s . T h e feed i n g of t h e l a rvae s t u n t s the p l a n t ' s g rowth o r kills it i f the i n festation i s h e avy. Plants that survive g i ve poor y i e l d s . Secon d a ry fungus i nfections also oc c u r. The l i fe h istory of t h e Hes s i a n F l y varies with the region a n d the wheat-growi n g m ethod. In w i n te r - w h e a t p l a n t i n g s , e g g s a r e l a i d o n l eaves of wheal that co me u p i n late s u m m e r or fall, and t h e m a g gots m ove down the leaf to where it j o i n s t h e s t e m a n d beg i n s u c k i n g out the p l a n t " s j u i ces. Growth is co m p l eted in two to six weeks. The l a rvae then form p u pae i n t h e i r last larval s k i n . T h e flat p u paria l o o k l i ke flaxseeds. A d u l t fl i e s e m erge i n the spring, a n d with i n a few d ays the fe males beg i n l ayi n g eggs o n the

leaves af t h e wheat p l a n ts . A g a i n the l a rvae f e e d at t h e point o f j u n cture of t h e l e a f with t h e stem a n d form pupae before the wheat i s ready for h a rvest. Adult fl ies e m erge i n late s u m m e r and lay eggs that sta rt a second gen eration o n t h e wi nter wheat. Where s p r i n g wheat i s grown, t h e second g e n eration i s c o m p l eted e a r l i er, a n d t h e fl ies over wi nter also a s pupae. If f a l l p l a n t i n g can be d e l ayed, the fl ies are u n a b l e to lay t h e i r e g g s an the l e a v e s i n t i m e far t h e l a rvae to c o m p l ete deve l o p m e n t before cold weather. A local a gricultural agent can specify t h e p r o p e r t i m e for p l a n t i n g . Vol u n t e e r wheat s h o u l d be destroyed, a s s h o u l d t h e s t u b b l e after a h a rvest. Res i sta n t varieties of wheat have been developed, a n d crops s h o u l d be rotated w h e re possible. Syste m i c i n sect i c i d e s are now ava i l a b l e .

F I ElD AND FORAGE C ROPS 1 1 7

SAWFLIES AND CHALCIDS are a m o n g t h e few i n sect

pests of p l a nts that b e l o n g to the large order conta i n i n g b e e s , wasps, a n d a nts. S T E M SAWFLIES are d estructive to wheat a n d other s m a l l gra i n s. T h e l a rvae feed i n s i d e t h e ste m s , wor k i n g from the top of the p l a n t , where t h e eggs a r e l a i d , toward t h e bot tom. Near the g ro u n d level t h e l a rvae e a t out t h e i n si d e o f t h e stem co m p letely, caus i n g it t o brea k o ff . The l a rvae p l u g t h e open b a s e w i t h drop p i n g s a n d t h e n pass the w i n t e r i n t h i s c h a m ber. P u p a e are formed i n t h e spring , a n d a d u l t sawfl i e s e m erge i n e a r l y s u m m er. T h e b e s t control i s p lowi ng u n d e r s t u b b l e . P l a n t i n g c o r n , l e g u m es, or other crops not attac ked by the Wheat Stem Sawfly p revents buildup of pests. Resista nt va rieties of wheat are avai lable. WHEAT

WHEAT JOINTWORM d a m a g e

i s s i m i lar to t h e i n j u ry done by t h e Hessian Fly, caus i n g t h e w h e a t p l a n t s to brea k over. The brea k occurs at a g a l l - l i k e swe l l ing on the i n s i d e of w h i c h are the feed i n g m aggots. Adult fe males have a stiff ovi positor, with w h i c h they dri l l a hole i nto the stem of a wheat p l a n t j ust above a joint. I n s i d e the stem they lay from one to two dozen eggs. The feed i n g of the larvae on the tissues causes the stem to swe l l and twi st. The f u l l g rown larvae r e m a i n in t h e stem , wintering either as larvae or a s p up ae. A d u l t s emerge i n spri n g . W h e a t s t u b b l e s h o u l d be plowed u n d e r or burned.

WHEAT STRAW-WORMS have

twa generations a year. Yau n g plants a r e attacked i n t h e s p r i n g a n d s t u n ted by l a rvae that e a t i n to the stem a n d deve l o p i n g h e a d s . larvae of t h e first g e n eratio n, f u l l g rown by May, form p u pae i n the p l a n t stem a n d e m erge a s w i n g e d a d u lts b y early J u n e . T h e f e m a l e s deposit t h e i r eggs i n wheat ste m s , u s u a l l y o n l y o n e e g g p e r ste m , a n d t h e l a rvae f e e d i n s i d e t h ro u g h the s u m m er. T h ey p u pate i n t h e f a l l a n d e m er g e f r o m t h e straw or stu b b l e a s w i n g l ess a d u l ts in early s p r i n g . T h ey look m u c h l i ke a n t s . T h e f e m a l e s lay eggs o n you ng w h e a t , t h u s r e n e w i n g the cycl e . Crop rotation is effective. Stu b b l e and volu nteer wheat should be plowed u n der. S E E D CHALCIDS de stroy t h e seeds of alfalfa and c lovers. The l a rvae w i n ter i n s i d e t h e s e e d s on t h e g ro u n d , form i n g p u p a e i n early s p r i n g and e m e r g i n g a s a d u l t s in l a t e s p r i n g . T h e t i n y a d u lts l a y t h e i r egg s i n t h e for m e d b u t sti l l soft seeds, w h i c h t h e n become food for the l a rvae. Adu lts are pro d u ced from t h i s g e n eration by m i d su m m er, a n d another g e n eration i s started. I n warm c l i mates there are as m a n y as th ree g e n e rations. There is n o good control for t h i s pest. CLOVER

THIEF ANTS are not only house

h o l d pests (p. 24) b u t may also be fi e l d pests. They prefer p ro tein foods, but w i l l eat corn a n d other seeds. Best control is c u l tivation of fi e l d to brea k u p a n t nests.

P E STS OF F R U I T S A N D FRU IT TR E E S Entire fruit c rops are sometimes lost because of i n sect pests. Some s pecies atta c k through the roots, t r u n k , b r a n c h es, or leaves. O t h e r i n sects att a c k o n l y the fruit. Some d o d a m ag e i n o n ly one stag e of their l ife h istory, w h i l e others are pests both as l a rvae a n d a s a d ults . of moths a n d butte rfl ies form t h e l a rgest g roup o f i nsect pests atta c k i n g f r u i t a n d fruit trees. A few caterpil lars feed o n ly o n the fruit. Many oth e rs a re leaf feed ers .

CATE R P I LLARS

CODLING MOTHS a r e t h e most d a m a g i n g pests of apples. They a lso atta c k pears, q u i nces, a n d other f r u i t s . A d u lts a p p e a r i n t h e s p r i n g a n d are a c t i v e a t d u sk, t h e f e m a les laying t h e i r eggs o n leaves, twigs, or f r u i t s p u rs. T h e worms at fi r s t feed o n the l eaves but soon crawl to the deve l o p i n g fruit and bu rrow i n s i de, feed i n g n e a r the core and on the seeds. When t h e i r g rowth is c o m p leted, u s u a l l y i n about a m o n t h , t h e l a rvae crawl to the outside and e i t h e r drop to the ground or crawl down t h e tru n k . They s p i n a cocoon u n d e r debris or loose bark a n d pass t h e winter in f u l l -g rown larva l

stage, tra n s form i n g in spri n g i n to pupae a n d e m e rg i n g a s a d u lts i n about t w o w e e k s . I n most a r e a s t h e re are t w o g e n e r a t i o n s a year. The fi rst i s co m pl eted i n m i d s u m m er ; la rvae o f second g e neration overw i n ter. Control consists of c l ea n i n g up debris, i n c l u d i n g t h e loose bark o n trees, to e l i m i n a te places w h e r e l a rv a e s p i n c o c o o n s . Trees c a n be sprayed w i t h con tact insecticides to kill larvae before they e n ter fruit. D o not spray u n t i l petals have fa l l e n from fl owers, a s e a r l y s p ray i n g wi l l k i l l h oneybees v i s i t i n g t h e b losso m s . Do not s p ray with i n two weeks o f h a rvest.

CANKERWORMS eat leaves of trees a n d s h ru bs, often defol iat ing them. The caterp i l lars move with a l oo p i n g motion. I n c h worm s a n d Meas u r i n g Wor m s a r e o t h e r n a m e s for t h e s e cater p i l l a r s . S p r i n g C a n k e rw o r m s have th ree p a i rs o f true legs o n t h e thorax a n d two p a i rs o f pro legs o n the a b d o m e n . In crawl ing, t h e rear of t h e body is bro u g h t forward so that the h i n d legs are a g a i n st t h e front legs, t h e center of t h e a b d o m e n for m i n g a loop. Then t h e fro n t part of t h e body i s stretched for ward f u l l l e n g t h . If d i sturbed, worm d rops o n a silk t h read. Adult moths of t h e S p r i n g Can kerworm e m erge f r o m t h e pupae i n early s p r i n g . Males a r e w i n g e d , f e m a l e s w i n g less. T h e f e m a l e s lay t h e i r eggs i n clus ters o n t h e b a r k of trees. As soon as they h a t c h , t h e l a rvae m ove to the leaves, w h ich a re u s u a l l y just co m i n g out, a n d beg i n feed i n g . After about a m o n t h t h e f u l l - g rown caterp i l l a rs d r o p

to t h e g r o u n d a n d p u pate, e m e rg i n g the f o l l ow i n g s p ri n g . F a l l C a n k e rwor m s have a s i m i l a r l ife h i story, b u t t h e a d u lt moths e m erge from t h e p u p a e i n t h e fal l a n d l a y e g g s that d o n o t h a t c h u n t i l s p r i n g . T h e cater p i l l a rs h ave th ree p a i rs af pro legs a t t h e end af t h e a b d o m e n rath er t h a n t w o as i n t h e S p r i n g Can kerworm . Both pests c a n be contro l l e d by p a i n t i n g a b a n d of contact i n secticide around tru n k of tree to kill w i n g less f e m a l e s t h a t c r a w l u p t h e tru n k s to lay e g g s . Spray foliage to k i l l l a rvae. BUD MOTHS of severa l species feed a n t h e young buds af pear, a p p l e, a n d ather f r u i t trees. The caterp i l l a rs overwi nter i n s i l k e n cases attached to t w i g s a n d b e g i n feed i n g i n e a r l y s p r i n g . T h e y form p u p a e a n d e m erge as a d u lts by m i d s u m mer, starti n g a seco n d g e n erati o n . T h ey c a n be contro l l e d by s p ray i n g w i t h c o n t a c t i nsecticides.

EYE-SPOTTED B U D MOTH

are the most damaging pests of peaches. The l a rvae winter i n burrows in the tree tru n k , from a foot a bove the s u rface to j u s t beneath the soil l evel . When full g rown, the cate r p i l lars change i n to pupae, s pi n n i n g a s i l ken cocoon m ixed with t h e i r excrem e n t and g u m from t h e tree. A d u l t moths e m erge during s u m m er a n d early fall. U n l i ke m ost moths, they fly by day. T h e f e m a l es lay their eggs on the tru n k of trees, com m o n l y o n i n j u red or previously PEACH TREE BORERS

i n fested trees. The l a rvae bore i m m ed i ately into t h e bark and beg i n feed i n g . If an i nfestation is not stopped, the tree dies. Simple contro l s are effective, however. The tru n k of the tree can be sprayed with a contact i n secticide. Or c rysta l s of para d i c h lorobenzene spread in a c i r cle around the base of t h e tree tru n k and covered l ig h t l y with soil w i l l give off a gas and k i l l you n g borers i n their b u r rows. Con s u l t an agricu ltural a g e n t for the best t i m e to a p p l y controls. LESSER

PEACH TREE

BORERS

a re s i m i lar to t h e Pea c h Tree Borer in a p peara nce and in type of d a m age, though they general ly a ttack h i gher o n t h e tru n k or i n large b ranches. To control these pests, i n j u red parts of tree m u st be s prayed i n t h e fall, after the eggs have hatched. Larvae can also be dug out with a k n i fe, as can Peac h Tree Borers.

PEACH TWIG BORERS feed o n t h e n ew g rowth of peach twigs, causing them to wilt and die. I f a twig d i e s before a larva completes its g rowth, the l a rva m oves to a nother twig. W h en about h a l f a n i n c h long, t h e l a rva s p i n s a cocoon o n t h e bra n c h of a t r e e a n d transforms i n to a moth. F e m a l e s lay eggs o n twigs. As m a n y a s four genera lions a re prod uced i n a seaso n , the l a t e r g e n e rations a l so allack· i n g fruit. A p p l y a l i m e- s u l f u r or oil-em u l sion s p ray to i nfested trees to k i l l larvae i n cocoo n s . Check with you r local agricul· lural a g e n t.

ORI ENTAL FRUIT MOTHS,

c l osely related t o t h e Cod l i n g Moth , a r e pests principally o f peaches but a l s o allack a p p les, p l u m s, pears, a n d other fruits. The f u l l - g rown larvae overw i n te r i n s i l ke n cocoo ns attached to t h e b a r k of the t r e e or i n d e b r i s on the g rou n d . T h ey tra n s form i nto pupae a n d e m erge os a d u l t m o t h s i n t h e s p r i n g . I n a few days the fe m a l e s lay their eggs on leaves or twigs. The larvae of the fi rst g e neration feed on the you ng twigs, cau s i n g t h e m to die. I n a bout a month the lar vae are f u l l g rown . They s p i n cocoon s, pu pate, a n d e m e r g e a s a d u lts a bout a w e e k l ater. I n the South there are a s m a n y as seven generation s a year; i n the North, four. Later generations feed i n s i d e t h e fruit. Oriental Fruit Moth s are controlled to som e degree by a n i ntrod uced wasp that parasitizes the cater p i l lars. Many overwinteri n g lor-

vae can be k i l led by c u ltivati n g the orchard i n t h e spri n g . A p p ly contact i n secticides to t h e trees a p p rox i mately every th ree wee k s.

F R U I TWORMS The Green F r u i t worm, t h o u g h s e l d o m a b u n dant, feeds o n a p ples a n d other fruits o r on tender foliage a n d buds. The l a rvae, usually f u l l g rown by J u ne, crawl down the tree a n d transform i nto t h e p u p a l stage i n a s i l ken cocoon i n t h e soi l . T h e a d u l t moths e m erge i n late s u m m e r or fa l l and h i bernate i n winter. They d i e t h e fol lowi ng s p r i n g after m a t i n g a n d laying eggs. The worm s c a n be k i l led with co noac t i n secticides a p p l i e d FRU IT-TREE L E A F ROLLER

i n early s p r i n g before the b u d s h a v e o p e n e d . T h e G r e e n F r u i t worm occu rs in eastern U.S.; t h e Ch erry Fruitworm , si m i la r i n hab its, mainly i n t h e Northwest. Ch erry Fru itworm l a rvae feed i n s i d e cherries u nt i l f u l l grow n . T h e y h i bernate u n d e r t h e bark a n d tra n sform i n to p u pae i n t h e s p r i n g . A d u l t moths e m erge i n early s u m m er, a n d f e m a l e s lay t h e i r eggs o n deve l o p i n g fruit. Trees should be sprayed with a contact i n sect i c i d e at t h i s t i m e . L E A F ROLLERS e a t leaves, green

twigs, and buds, i n j u r i n g m a n y k i n d s of trees a n d s h ru b s (p. 93). Species that attack fruit trees feed o n t h e deve l o p i n g fru it. Fru it-tree leaf Ro l l e r caterp i l lars hatch i n the s p r i n g fro m eggs laid o n t h e b a r k a r twigs t h e prev ious fa l l . T h ey p u pate i n a ro l l of leaves h e l d together with silk. The adult moths e m erge in m i dsu m m er, and within a few days the females lay eggs. T h e most successful c o ntrol is ob tained with t h e use of a n oil spray i n sect i c i d e a p p l ied to each of t h e brow n i s h egg m asses on the bark or twigs.

WEEV I LS that d a m a g e fruit or fruit trees do so both a s a d u lt b e e t l e s a n d as l a rvae, or g r u b s . Many k i n d s of weevils are pests a l s o of vegeta bles ( p . 7 8 ) , fi e l d a n d forage c rops ( p . 1 05), a n d stored p rod u cts ( p . 1 4 6 ) . PLUM CURCULIOS a r e pests a f

a p p l es, c h e rries, peaches; p l u m s , a n d o t h e r ston e fruits. Ad u l t s h i bernate b e n e a t h tra s h u nd e r t r e e s a n d i n e a r l y s p r i n g feed o n b u d s and you n g l eaves. The f e m a l e c h ews a hole i n a de veloping fruit, then l ays a n egg i n s i d e . T h e beetle uses h e r snout to p u s h t h e e g g d e e p i n to t h e hole. F i n a l l y s h e c u t s a crescen t shaped s l i t i n t h e s k i n of t h e f r u i t b e l o w w h e r e t h e egg i s l a i d . H u n dreds of e g g s may be l a i d i n one fruit; t h e spots a n d crescents are a t e l l t a l e s i g n of an i n festa t i o n . The eggs hatch i n a b o u t a w e e k , a n d t h e grubs

bu rrow into fl e s h toward t h e stone or seeds, a r o u n d w h i c h t h e y f e e d . T h e f r u i t u s u a l l y drops before t h e l a rvae are full g rown. W h e n t h e l a rvae reach f u l l g rowth, t h e y e m erge a n d b u r row into t h e s o i l Ia p u pate. A d u l ts appear i n m id s u m m e r a n d feed o n f r u i t o n t h e g ro u n d u n t i l c o l d weather, w h e n t h ey h i bernate. Orchards s h o u l d be cleaned of tra sh under w h i c h the a d u l ts might h i bernate. Plow o r d i s k t h e orc h a r d i n e a r l y s u m m e r to k i l l t h e p u pae. D estroy any d ropped fruit. S p ray t h e trees w i t h a contact i n se c t i c i d e a f t e r they have b l o o m e d .

PLUM C U R C U L I O

0.2 i n .

FRUIT AND FRUIT TREES 1 2 5

APPLE FLEA WEEVI L

APPLE CURCULIOS are > i m i l a r t o P l u m Curculio• i n the d a m a g e t h e y do to fruit. T h e A p p l e C u r· c u l i o ha• a m uch longer •nout a n d a broader body. Female• do not make cre>cent·•haped •car> on the fruit when t h ey lay egg>, a n d the l a rvae p u pate i n s i de t h e fruit. The fruit beco me• >tunted, k notty, and m u m m ified. In h eavy infe>tati o n • fruit d rop• before ripe n i n g . A d u l l $ e m erge i n m i d · • u m m e r a n d f e e d u nt i l cold weat her, t h e n h i bernate u nder debris until >pring. Be•t control i• a thorough clea n u p of the or· chard when an i n fe>tation i • d i • · covered. C h e m ical control• are d i ffi c u lt, a • beetle• feed deep in fruit. A variety o f t h e A p p l e Curc u l i a atta c k • c herrie>.

APPLE FLEA WEEVI LS are pe>ts

m a i n l y i n t h e Midwe>t. Ad u l b feed on b ud • a n d you n g leave• i n the > p r i n g . The g r u b, ar larva, m i ne• t h roug h the leaf tiuues. At t h e edge af t h e leaf t h e larva for m • a b l i .ter· l i k e c e l l in w h i c h it transfo r m • i nto t h e p u p a . A d u l t b e e t l e > a p p e a r i n l ate May or J u n e, feed on the foliage for a few week>, a n d t h e n be· come i n a ctive t h rou g h t h e > U m · m e r. They h i bernate i n w i n ter a n d beg i n feed i n g a g a i n i n early >pri n g . Contact i n >ecticide• a p p l ied beneath t h e trees w i l l k i l l m a n y of t h e h i bernating adu ll$ i n the f a l l , a r trees can be sprayed i n early s p r i n g . Check with you r agricultural agent for t h e best time for s p ra y i n g local ly. IMBRICATED

SNOUT

BEETLES

eat bud>, you n g f r u i t, a n d leave• of a p p l e • and other fruit tree>. Adull$ appear i n June, feed for several week•, then become i n · active u nt i l s p r i n g . T h e larvae feed in rooh of l e g u me• a n d o t h e r p l a nh. Control i s b y t h e same methods u•ed far Apple Flea Weev i l .

BORERS t h a t feed on t h e i n n e r bark a n d sapwood of fruit a n d s h a d e trees ore the grubs, or l a rvae, of beetles. Usua l ly t h ey attoc k o n ly the you n g o r i n j ured a n d a l ready wea kened trees .

ROUNDHEADED

TREE

FLATHEADED APPLE TREE

b u r ro w i n t o a p p l e , pear, a n d a t h e r trees. The soft bod ied grubs h ave an e n larged, rou n d area j u st behind t h e i r head a n d m a k e round t u n n e l s . S m a l l trees a re g i rdled a n d k i l l ed. Two (so m eti m es th ree) w i n ters ar.e s p e n t as grubs. F u l l g rown g r u b s p u pate i n s p ri n g , a n d a d u lts e m er g e i n e a r l y s u m m er. T h e y f e e d o n l eaves ' a n d t w i g s but do l ittle d a m a g e . Fe males lay eggs in slits c u t in bark at base o f tru n k. You n g g r u bs u s u a l l y w o r k n e a r s o i l l i ne; older g r u b s f e e d h i gh e r, bore deeper. D i g g r u b s from bu rrows with k n i f e or wire probe or f u m igate bu rrows. Contact i n secticides k i l l a d u lts.

BORERS attack nearly a l l k i n d s of trees a n d s h r u b s . T h e g ru b s b urrow t h ro u g h the i n n e r b a r k a n d sapwood a n d are especi a l l y d a m a g i n g t o you n g trees. T h e g r u bs, w h i c h work m a i n l y o n t h e s u n n y s i d e of t h e tree, h a v e a flattened e n l a r g e m e n t j u st be hind t h e head. T h e grubs h i ber nate i n t h e i r burrows, which are fi l l ed with excrement and saw d u st. T h ey form p u p a e i n t h e s p r i n g a n d e m erge i n e a r l y s u m m er. L i k e t h e larvae, t h e a d u l t beetles congregate o n t h e s u n n y s i d e of t h e tree, t h e f e m a l es lay ing their eggs i n cracks i n the bark. The t ru n k s of you n g trees should be wra p ped i n paper o r c l o t h . Borers c a n be d u g out.

BORERS

APPLE

SHOT -HOLE BORER

SHOT-HOLE BORERS t u n n e l i n

t h e i n n e r b a r k of fruit a n d shade trees. The grub tunnels are bra n c h e s from a parent g a l l ery, a bout twa i n ches l a n g , in w h i c h the f e m a l e b e e t l e l a i d h e r e g g s . When f u l l g r o w n t h e grubs f o r m p u pae a t the e n d of t h e t u n n e l , a n d t h e a d u lts b o r e stra i g h t a u t t h ro u g h t h e bark, m a k i n g the ide ntifyi n g "s hot holes." T h e a d u l t beetles fly f r o m tree I a tree. F e m a l e s u s u a l l y l a y eggs

i n an a l ready i n j u re d tree. The leaves of a n i n fested bra n c h t u r n yel low a n d d ro p ; s m a l l trees are k i l led. I n fested t rees s h o u l d be s prayed with a contact i n secticide i n l a t e s p r i n g , w h e n the a d u l t s a re e m e r g i n g , or i n the f a l l , w h e n t h e a d u l ts are laying eggs. Healthy trees a re seldom attac k e d , as t h e f e m a l es c a n n ot fi n d places to e n ter to lay eggs. The beetles overw i n ter i n the grub stage. P E A C H B A R K B E E T L E S a re closely related to t h e Shot- h o l e Borer a n d t h e i r d a m a g e i s s i m i l a r. The parent g a l l e ry r u n s across t h e g ra i n o f t h e tru n k ; t h e Shot-hole Borer ' s g a l l e ry r u n s with the g r a i n . Peach B a r k Beetl e g ru b s t u n n e l with t h e g ra i n ; Shot- h o l e B o r e r g r u b s wor k across t h e g ra i n . Peach Bark Beetles are contro l l ed by the s a m e methods used for t h e Shot-hole Borer.

SINUATE PEAR TREE BORERS

t u n n e l t h ro u g h the i n n e r bark of pear, hawthorn, and other trees. T h e l a rvae, or gru bs, hi bernate i n t h e burrows, which cause t h e ba r k of t h e tree to s p l i t and d a r k e n . F u l l - g rown grubs p u pate i n the s p r i n g a n d e m erge i n e a r l y s u m m e r a s a d u l ts. T h e beetles f e e d on t h e

f o l i a g e but d o l i ttle d a m a g e a t t h i s stage. The fe m a l e s lay t h e i r eggs in cracks i n the bark, a n d the grubs bore i n s i d e . Two years are req u ired to com p l ete a l ife cycle. You n g trees are co m mo n l y k i l l e d . Dead o r i n fested l i m bs should be c u t off a n d destroyed. Trees s h o u l d be sprayed twice -late May and early J u n e .

JAPANESE BEETLES feed o n the fo l i a g e of m a ny k i n d s o f s h a d e a n d fruit trees a n d a lso d estroy fruit. M a n y beetles cong regate o n o n e p l a nt. The g r u b s a re m a j o r pests i n l a w n s a n d g reens, feed i n g o n g rass roots . I n most a r e a s two years are s p e n t a s g r u b s . The l a rvae t h e n pupate i n t h e soil, emerging as a d u lts i n m i d s u m m e r . A d u lts a re kil led w i t h contact- i nsecticide sp rays or l u red to traps. Grubs a re kil led by treati n g the soil with i n secticides a n d also with " m i l ky spore" ( p . 1 3 ) . JAPANESE B E ETLE

MAGGOTS, the l a rvae of fl ies, a re sometimes serious

pests of fruits . Maggots feed deep inside fruit; hence to b e effective controls m u st be appl ied w h e n t h e a d u lts are layi n g e g g s . i n fe s t pears, p l u m s, a n d other fruits a s w e l l a s ch erries. The m ag gots hatch from eggs laid i n s l its cut i n the fruit by t h e f e m a l e fl ies. They feed on t h e flesh of the fruit and cause it to be dwarfed , m isshapen, or decayed. Wh e n f u l l g rown, the worm s drop to the g ro u n d and p u pate in loose soil or u n d e r debris. Adults e m erge late the follow i n g spri n g a n d feed o n leaves or develop i n g fruit by scra p i n g s u rface a n d s u c k i n g j u ices. Stomach poison o r contact i n secticides, a p p l ied i n s p r i n g are effective. C H ERRY FRUIT FLIES

t h roug h a p ples, b l ueberries, a n d other fruits, red u c i n g t h e flesh to a brown, decayi n g p u l p . W h en f u l l g rown-a n d u s u a l l y after the fruit has d ropped-the mag gots emerge a n d pu pate i n de bris or in loose soi l . Adults appear in late June or J u ly the follow i n g s u m mer. In about ten days t h e females lay their egg1 in fr u i t, pu ncturi ng t h e skin with their sharp ovipositor. Lead ar senate or contact i n secticides are effective. A n ag ricultural agent can advise best time to s pray.

puparium

MEDITERRANEAN

F RUI T

FLY

l arvae feed on citrus fruits, peaches, p l u m s , and other fleshy fruits. This d a n gerous pest has g a i n e d e n try to continental U.S. several t i m es t h r o u g h i ntrod uc tions i n Florida, b u t each t i m e has b e e n exter m i nated. Mex i c a n Fruit Fly h a s been kept i n check by i nspection and control along Texas-Mexico border.

PEAR SLUGS are s l i my, s l u g l i k e

hatch from eggs l a i d on t h e leaves of c u rra nt or gooseberry bushes. The larvae eat from margin of leaf toward center. When full g rown, they d rop to the g ro u n d to pu pate. In war m reg ions there a r e two a n d a par tial t h i rd g e neration every year.

larvae t h a t e a t t h e f o l i a g e o f pears, p l u m s, c h erries, a n d other fruit trees. O n l y the v e i n s of the leaves re m a i n . The fu l l g rown wor m s p u pate in t h e soi l . A second g e neration a ppears i n m i d su m m er, i n heavy i n festations c o m p l etely defoliating trees.

SAWFLY LARVAE are leaf feeders ( p . 95) atta c k i n g

m a ny p l a nts. T h e y a re eas i ly k i l l e d with sto m ach-poison or contact i n secticid e s . APH I DS, o r p l a n t l ice, a re a l l s i m i l a r i n h a b its a n d

l ife h istory, which i s ofte n complex ( p . 6 6 ) . A l l a re i n j urious pests of p l a n ts, a n d s o m e species a re espe c i a l ly i n j u rious to fruits . APPLE AP H ID S se crete a woolly, w h ite wax over their body a s they feed. They overwin ter either in the egg stage in crevices o n the bark of e l m s or a s n y m p h s h i bernating o n roots of apple trees. Nym p h s that hatch f r o m t h e eggs o n e l m s feed o n t h e leaves a n d buds. I n t h e th ird generation winged form s a ppear and m ig rate to a p p l e trees, where they feed o n roots, causing g a l l s t o form . Someti mes t h ey stay on the roots for two seasons, through sever al g e nerations. They stunt the WOOLLY

tree's growth and moy k i l l it. These pests are d iffi c u l t to con trol. Sto ma ch-poison or contact i n secticides are effective i f ap pl ied heavi ly. A n i n trod uced wasp parasite i s a l so effective.

APPLE APHIDS overwinter os eggs on t h e bark of trees. N y m p h s hatch in early s p r i n g a n d f e e d first o n buds. A c o n t a c t i n secti c i d e a p p l ied at t h i s t i m e g ives g o o d control, e s pecia l ly s i n ce a l l of t h e eggs hatch at about t h e sa m e time. Trees can be sprayed a second time i n l ate summer to k i l l w i n ged a d u lts that m a y have m i g rated fro m n ea rby orchards o r from w i l d host trees.

R OSY APPLE APHIDS are pests

p r i n c i p a l l y of a p p les but may also i n fest pears, h awthorns, a n d s u c h nonwoody p l a n t s a s p l a n tains. Leaves a n d twigs of a n i n fested tree c u r l a n d t h e fru i t becom es h a r d a n d k notty. The e g g s hatch over a period of severa l wee ks in early s p r i n g about the t i m e the t r e e s beg i n t o b u d . Dorm a n t o i l s p rays ( p . 2 2 ) w i l l d estroy both t h e e g g s a n d newly hatched n y m p h s . S P I R E A A P H I D S col lect i n large

n u m bers o n t h e new g rowt h af s p i rea a n d o t h e r p l a n ts. Also k n o w n as t h e G r e e n C i t r u s A p h i d , t h i s species c o m m o n l y at tac ks citru s in Florida and Cali for n i a. I t causes leaves to curl, defo r m s fruit, and covers t h e g ro u n d with h o n eydew, o n w h i c h black sooty m o l d g rows. I t a l so t ra n s m i t s a v i r u s d i s e a s e . Winged forms, produced w h e n e v e r a c o l o n y beco m e s c rowd ed, m i g rate to other trees. Use con tact i n secticide sprays i n early spring, before t h e population of a p h i d s has b u i l t u p .

SCALES A N D MEALYBUGS a re so m o d ified i n body form that they are often not recog n ized as i n s ects

(p. 8 6 ) . All of the thousa nds of species d a m a g e p l a nts by feed i n g on their j u ices, t h u s stunting their g rowth and d efo r m i n g the fruit. Scales and m e a lybugs are t h e m o s t d estructive in sect p ests o f citrus. CALIFORNIA R E D S C A L E i s t h e

most d a m a g i n g scale p e s t o f c i t r u s i n C a l i f o r n i a , occurri n g less a b u n da n tly in Texas, Arizona, a n d t h e Gulf stoles. California Red Scale is a lso a pest of many other f r u i t trees a n d orn o m e n · l o i s . I t feeds on t h e s t e m s a n d leaves a s we l l as o n t h e fruit. Nymphs crawl over t h e p l a n t for severa l hours before settl i n g to feed a n d secret i n g a waxy cov eri n g over t h e i r body. Mo les m a ture i n a bo u t t w o months and e m erge f rom scale as yel low w i n g ed a d u lts. Each i n·se m i notes o n i m m o b i l e f e m a l e , then dies. Fert i l e f e m a l es 9 ive birth to two or th ree you n g every day for several m o n t h s . Four gen erations ore produ ced every season. Trees o re f u m igated with hydrogen cya n i d e gas o r ore s prayed with a contact i n sectic i d e to kill t h e "crawler" nym p h s .

i n fested ora n g e fem a l e

SCALE

0. 1 i n . PURPLE SCALE, a w i d e l y d i s tri buted species, i s t h e m o s t d a m a g i n g citrus scale pest i n Florida. I t a l so o c c u r s i n Ca l i fornia. I n a d d ition to citrus, t h i s s c a l e i n fests avocados, pecans, a n d m a n y o r n a m e n ta l s . In Flor ida, contro l l e d by sprayi n g with oil to kill t h e you n g still crawl ing and before t h ey secrete a p rotective a r m or. Parat h i o n a n d other contact i nsecticides ore used in Ca l i fornia.

CALI FO RNI A R E D SCALE

FRUIT AND FRUIT TREES 1 3 3

SAN JOSE SCALE is d a m a g i n g to a p p l e , pear, p e a c h , c h erry, and m a n y other fruit and shade trees a n d orna m e n ta l p l a n ts. Heavy i n festations may k i l l the trees, w h i c h are fi rst wea kened a n d t h e i r fol iage yel lowed. I n fested fruit i s spotted . S a n Jose S c a l e s o v e rw i n t e r as p a r t l y g rown nym ph s, or crawlers, that cling to the bark of the tree. They beg i n to feed i n early s p r i n g , as soan a s the sap starts to flow, and are f u l l g rown by the t i m e the trees bloo m . The winged m a les i n s e m i nate the fe-

m a les, w h i c h n ever e m erge from u nder their scale. F e m a l e s g ive b i rth to as m a n y as 500 n y m p h s i n 1 '12 m o n t h s . T h e t i n y m it e l i k e crawlers m o v e aver the p l a n t f o r severa l h o u r s before sett l i n g t o f e e d , secret i n g a w a x y sca l e over t h e m s elves. I n t h e craw l i n g stage t h e y may be blown by t h e w i n d or carried by m a n or other a n i m a l s to i n fest other p l a n ts. As m a ny as six gene ratio n s are pro d u ced each year. A dor m o n t s pray in late wi nter or early s p r i n g k i l l s overwi ntering nym phs. Wasp parasites also effective. BLACK SCALE i n fests citrus, ap

ples, figs, grapes, pears, a n d m a n y orna m e n t a l s i n w a r m re gions ond is a l so a g reenhouse pest i n cold c l i m ates. I n addi tion to the damage done by s u c k i n g t h e p l a n t ' s j u ices, large a m o u n ts of honeyd ew are ex c r e t e d on w h i c h sooty m o l d g rows. C o n t ro l l e d p r i n c i p a l l y with o i l s p rays. An i n trod uced wasp parasite i s a l so effective.

C OTTON Y - C U S H I O N S C A L E S

are pests of citrus a n d many ather fruit trees a n d orn a m e n tals. The female, which has a brown ar red d i s h body, secretes a large cottony mass conta i n i n g a s m a n y a s 1 ,000 r e d e g g s . Both the you n g and the adults c a n m ove, a l t h o u g h the f e m a l e slaps moving after h e r egg sac form s. The t i n y m a les a re winged. Cottony-cush ion Scale, o n ce the most d a m a g i n g pest of c it rus i n C a l i fornia, was brou g h t u n d e r control b y Vedalia, a predatory l a d y beetle i ntroduced f ro m Austr a l i a . The use of i n secticides t o k i l l other pests h a s destroyed t h e Ved a l i a i n some areas, where i n secticides m ust be used now to control the Cot tony-cu s h i o n Scal e u n til the bee tles a re a g a i n esta b l ished. C I T R U S MEALYBUGS s u c k t h e

j u ices f r o m the leaves, ste m s, a n d fruit of citrus a n d m a n y o t h e r p l a n ts. I n w a r m c l i m ates they a re outdoor pests, some times i n fest i n g potatoes a n d veg eta b l e c rops. In cool c l i m ates they are pests of house p l a n t s a n d i n gree n houses. Citrus Mea l y b u g s expel l a rg e a m o u n t s of

hon eydew. Females are covered with wax; m a l e s are w i n g e d . On s m a l l p l a n ts they can be p i c ked oft by hand, washed oft with water, or k i l led with contact i n sectici des. I n g roves l a d y beetles a n d parasitic wasps have been e ff e c t i v e c o n t r o l s for C i t r u s a n d related Citro p h i l us, Gra pe, a n d Long-ta i l e d m ealybugs.

WHITEFL I ES a re tiny i n sects i n a fa m i l y closely related

to a p h i d s and sca le i n sects. Two dozen or so species, i n c l u d i n g the Gree nhouse Whitefly (p. 8 8 ), a re d a m a g i n g t o o r n a mentals a n d fruit trees, parti c u l a r l y c itrus and other p l a nts that g row i n warm c l i m ates. Fruit o n a n infested t r e e i s d iscolored by sooty m o l d . If a n i n festation is a l lowed t o persist, the p l a n t ' s g rowth is stunted and its yield is g reatly red uce d . A l l wh itefl ies h ave a s i m i l a r l ife h istory. The fe m a l e lays h e r eggs o n s h ort sta l ks attached t o the u n derside o f l eaves. The n y m p h s h atch i n 4- 1 2 days a n d are c a l l e d " c rawl ers " beca use they m ove about over the p l a n t . Soo n , h ow ever, they i nsert their beaks i nto a stem o r leaf a n d ; b e g i n t o feed o n the p l a nt s juices. W h e n the nym p h s s h e d , t h e y l o s e their legs a n d t h e i r a n te n n a e a re g reatly reduced in size. At this stage the nym p h s a re i m m o b i l e a n d res e m b l e scales. O n the fou rth m o l t the a d u lts e m erge. Both m a les a n d fe m a l es a re winged and are cove red with wh ite, powdery sca les. As many as t h ree o r fou r g e nerations a re p rod uced i n a season i n warm c l i m ates . I n fested p l a nts should be s p rayed i n s p r i n g a n d fa l l w i t h a n o i l e m u lsion or w i t h a c o n t a c t i n secti cide, such a s m a lathion or pa rath i o n . C o n s u l t local ag ricultura l agent for best time to spray.

1 3 6 FRUIT AND FRUIT TREES

TREE CRIC KETS lay eggs in the bra n c h es or ste m s of

trees a n d s h ru b s . The fem a l e d ri l l s a hole, l ays a n e g g , then moves forward a n d repeats the p rocess, sometimes laying several dozen eg g s i n a row. The stem beyo n d t h e p u n ctu res usua l l y d ies. Sp ray w i t h lead a rsen ate or oth e r sto m a c h poison i n s u m mer before e g g layi n g beg i n s . Remove a n d b u r n p u n ctured ste m s i n the fa l l . C ITRUS THRIPS i s a serious pest i n Ca lifo r n i a b u t d oes

not occu r in Flori d a . It feed s on buds, new g rowth a n d you n g fruit, scra p i n g away outer tissues a n d s u c k i n g u p juices. I nfested trees g row slowly a n d fruit s h ows d is ti n ct r i n g s c a r . T h rips wi nter i n the egg s t a g e on leaves and ste m s . A l ife cycle i s co m p l eted in a b o u t three weeks or less. Both stomach-poison and contact i nsec ticides are effective . deta i l of

r i n g scar o n orange

CITRUS RED MITES, called Pur

p l e Mites i n Florida, cause the leaves of i nfested trees to be speckled, fi n a l ly t u r n i ng brown and d rop p i n g . The fruit is d i s -

colored. The Citrus R e d M i t e i s an especi a l l y s e r i o u s pest i n C a l i f o r n i a . S i x-spotted M i t e s a r e more a b u n d a n t i n Florida. T h ey collect on u n d erside of l eaves.

MITES, rel atives of spid ers a n d ticks, h ave beco m e

more s e r i o u s pests i n recent years. S o m e o f the newer i n s ectic i d es kill the predators and parasites of m ites. O n ly those m ites espec i a l ly d a m a g i n g to citrus a re de scribed here. Oth e r pests i n c l u d e the Europe a n Red Mite, Pacific S p i d e r Mite, a n d Pear Leaf B l ister Mite, which i nfest pear, cherry, apple, and other fru i t trees of te m perate reg ions. Mites are also pests of m a n ( p . 45), d o m estic a n i m a ls a n d pets ( p p . 54-55), veg eta b l e crops ( p . 85), a n d flowers a n d s h r u b s ( p . 90). O i l s p rays, s u lfur d usts, a n d l i me-s u lfur s p rays a re effective controls, as are special m iticid e s . Your a g ri cultura l agent can tell you the b est c h e m i c a l and time of a p p lication i n you r area. C ITRUS BU D MITES, pests m a i n

ly i n C a l i fo r n i a , feed on b u d s a n d blossom s of l e m o n s, Jess com m o n ly o n other citrus. F r u i t l eaves" a n d t w i g s are deformed.

1 38

C ITRUS R U S T MITES, serious pests i n Florida, damage m a i n ly ora nges but a l s o i n j u re g rape fruit, l i m es, and l e m o n s . F e m a l e s lay eggs on fruit a n d l eaves.

P E S T S O F F O R E ST A N D S AD TR E E S I nsect pests d estroy more timber t h a n d o forest flres. O r d i n arily the damage is n ot conspicuous, b u t i n severe outb rea ks whole sta n d s of t i m b e r m ay b e k i l l e d in o n e seas o n . Some species s p read p l a n t d iseases. State and nati o n a l g ove r n m e n t agencies batt l e forest in sects in l a rge-sca l e control p rog ra m s . BEETLES a re d a m a g i n g to trees both as a d u lts a n d a s

larvae ( g r u b s ) . Most i n j u rious a r e t h e borers t h a t work i n the wood of the tru n k o r i n the b r a n c h e s . SMALLER EUROPEAN ELM B A R K B EETLE

grub to 0.3 i n .

E L M B A R K B E ETLES are carriers

of the deadly D utch elm d i sease, caused by a f u n g us. T h e S m a l l e r European E l m B a r k Beetle was i ntroduced to North A m e r i ca i n 1 909, t h e d i sease i n 1 930. The Native E l m Bark Beetle i s now a l so a carrier. Adults of both species appear i n l ate s p r i n g or e a r l y s u m m er a n d f e e d o n bra n c h e s or twi g s . Eggs are l a i d o n ly i n dead or dying wood. Kee p i n g trees healthy and e l i m i n a t i n g d a m aged or d i seased portions g ives partial control.

0.2

ELM LEAF BEETLES overwinter a s a d u lts a n d i n early spri n g lay c l u sters of e g g s o n u n ders i d e of e l m leaves. Grubs and a d u lts feed o n l eaves. Grubs are f u l l g rown i n about th ree weeks. T h ey pu pate in d e b r i s u n d e r tree a n d e m erge as a d u lts i n about two weeks. Three or more g e n era tions are c o m p leted in a year. S p r a y l e a v e s w i t h s to m a c h poison o r contact i n secticides Ia destroy grubs a n d a d u lts, a n d at base of i n fested tree to kill g r u b s desce n d i n g to pu pate.

BRONZE BIRCH BORER

B I R C H B O R E R S are m a i n l y i n j u r i o u s to b i rches but may al so attack w i l lows, poplars, a n d cotto nwoods. The l a rvae overw i nter i n the sapwood, for m i n g p u pae i n e a r l y s p r i n g a n d e m e r g i n g as a d u lts i n l a t e s p r i n g o r early s u m m er. F e m a l e s lay t h e i r eggs i n crevices i n t h e bark. O n hatch i n g , t h e grubs i m m e d iately b u rrow i n t o t h e wood. T h e i r t u n n els, sometimes 4 feel long, m a y c u t off t h e fl o w of sap. F irst the tips of the b ra n c h e s turn brown, t h e n t h e t r e e d i es. The Bronze Birch Borer, related to t h e Flalheaded Apple Tree Borer (p. 1 27), i s most l i kely to atta c k s i c k or i n j u red trees. Use canlact i n sectic i d e s for a d u lts.

BRONZE

BORERS w i n te r a s s m a l l l arvae i n t h e bark a n d start t h e i r t u n n e l i n g i n to t h e wood i n s p r i n g, c a u s i n g swo l l e n a reas to a p p e a r o n t h e tru n k . T h e borers c o m m o n l y k i l l t h e tree. F u l l - g rown g r u b s p u pate i n cells i n t h e wood i n m id s u m mer. A d u l t beetles appear i n late s u m m e r o r early fall. They fl y actively, feed i n g on fl owers. T h e females lay t h e i r eggs i n cracks i n bark, most often atta c k i n g s m a l l or weakened trees. Spray tru n k s with a contact i n secticide before tree starts spring growt h . LOCUST

1 4 0 FOREST AND SHADE TREES

POPLAR BORERS a r e l o n g · horned beetles. T h e g r u b s t u n n e l i n the tru n k a n d l arge l i m bs o f trees, wea k e n i n g t h e wood s o t h a t l i m bs b r e a k o ff . Eve n t u a l l y a n i n fested t r e e d ies. larva e a r e u s u a l l y f u l l grown i n t w o years b u t may lake three years to com p lete deve l o p m e n t. They p u pate i n the bu rrows and e m erge as a d u l ts i n late s u m m e r o r early f a l l . T h e fe m a l e beetle deposits eggs i n cracks in t h e bark. The newly hatched g r u bs i m m e d iate ly burrow i n s i d e . larvae c a n be k i l led with probes a r by f u m i g a t i n g t u n n e l s w i t h carbon b i s u l fr d e ( s e e Rou n d headed A p p l e T r e e Borer, p . 1 27). Badly i n fested t r e e s s h o u l d be c u t a n d b u r n e d to preve n t spread.

ENGELMANN SPRUCE BEETLES

bore through the outer bark of l i v i n g trees, cutt i n g egg g a l l eries para l l e l Ia the s u rface. Each gal lery conta i n s a bout 1 25 eggs. The grubs feed o n t h e wood near t h e c h a m ber until cold weather, rest u n t i l s p r i n g , t h e n feed a g a i n . They p u pate i n m i d s u m m e r a n d beca m e a d u l ts i n late s u m m e r or fa l l , s p e n d i n g the wi nter u n de r t h e bark of the g i rdled a n d dying or dead trees. The fallowing spring t h e b e e t l e s i nfest new t r e e s . Nor m a l ly t h e beetles a re contro l led b y n a t u r a l p r e d a tors . Foresters c h e c k constantly for i n festations. Bark of i nfested trees is peeled off a n d burned, or trees treated with a penetra t i n g i n secticide.

BARK BEETLES o f severa l spe cies d a m ag e c o n i fers, and less c o m m o n ly, d e c i d uous trees. A m o n g these a r e t h e H i c kory Bark Beetle, D o u g l a s Fir E n g rav e r, Western Pine Beetle, a n d Southern P i n e Beetle. Typ i c a l l y t h e beetles m i n e, o r t u n n e l , just beneath bark to m a k e g a l leries for eggs. More exte n s ive tu n n e l s ra m ify from g a l leries a s t h e g r u b s feed. S a p occa s i o n a l l y fl ows f r o m t u n n e l s , a n d d u s t a f bor i n g s col l ects a r o u n d base a f tree. T u n n e l s o p e n w a y far f u n g u s d i seases, a n d destruction o f c a m b i u m eve n t u a l l y k i l l s t r e e . I n street a n d y a r d p l a n t i n g s , p r u ne dead wood of trees to d estroy bree d i n g places. K i l l a d u lts with contact i n secticide.

FOREST A N D SHADE TREES 1 4 1

CATERPILLARS, the l a rvae of moths a n d b utterflies,

feed on the l eaves, buds, a n d flowers of many kinds of trees and s h ru b s . Certa i n species of moths are a m o n g the m ost d a m a g i n g pests o f forests . Control o f the most serious pests may i nvolve several states or a n entire reg ion . Such l a rg e-scale control p rog rams a re c o n d u cted by state and fed eral agencies. I nfestatio n s of s h a d e trees may b e controlled loca l ly.

SPRUCE B U DWORM

SPRUCE B U DWORMS, of t h e conifer forests of eastern U n ited Stoles and Canada, are a m o n g t h e m ost i n j urious o f a l l i n sect pests. You n g cater p i l lars over winter beneath bark and beco m e a ctive i n e a r l y spri n g , feed i n g a n b u d s a n d new g rowt h . They are full g rown by early s u lll m e r, for m i n g p u pae a n d tra n sform i n g i n to a d u l ts . Moth s lay eggs i n late s u m m er. H eavy i n festatio n s k i l l trees; l i g h t i nfestations turn n e e d l e s b row n . C o n t r o l w i t h sto m a c h -poison o r contact i n secticides. GYPSY MOTH caterpil lars feed o n l eaves of deciduous trees, con ifers, and m a n y other plants. They form pupae i n m id s u m m e r a n d e m erge a s a d u l ts i n J u ly a n d August. The Gypsy Moth overwinters in the egg stage. As the fem a l e s can not fly w e l l , the Gypsy Moth i s s pread l o n g dis tances principally by m a n--an cars, trucks, tra i n s , or other ve h icles. The caterpil lars spin s i l k en t h reads a n d may be blown by t h e wind. Egg m a sses can be destroyed or t h e tru n k s of trees treated with a contact i n secti cide to k i l l caterpi l lars.

FOREST

TENT

CATERPILLARS

at l i m e s m i g rate in arm ies of m i l l io n s, defoliating frees a n d s h r u b s i n t h e i r path . T h e y usual l y feed o n t h e l eaves of oaks, m a ples, e l m s, ash, a n d con ifers. Winter i s passed in the egg stage, a n d t h e larvae hatch in early spri n g . Adult moths ap pear i n m id s u m m er. Forest Tent Caterpi llars, despite their n a m e, do not m a k e Ients, as do the closely related Eastern Tent Cat erp i l l ars. Foliage of i n fested frees can b e sprayed with a sto m ach-poison or contact i n sec ticide to k i l l caterpi l l a rs. caterpi llars MOTH are h a i ry a n d u s u a l l y have sev eral long luffs of black hairs on the head a n d tai l . T h e caterpi l l a r s h a t c h i n l a t e s p r i n g from egg masses l a i d o n bark a n d l eaves or o n t h e cocoon case from which the nearly wing less females e m erged. They feed on the foliage of a g reat variety of trees a n d s h r u b s a n d are f u l l grown by m i d s u m m er. I n m a n y reg ions there a r e two genera lions a year. E g g m a sses ca n be painted with creosote or gath ered and burned. The l arvae can be k i l led with stomach poison or contact i nsecticides. The Wh ile-m a rked Tussock Moth is a com mo n and widespread species; others are the H i c kory Tussock Mot h , Douglas Fir Tus sock Moth, and Western Tussock Moth. T h e Gypsy Moth (p. 1 42) and the Brown-fail Moth belong to the s a m e fa m i ly. T h e Brown tail Moth, once a d a m a g i n g pest i n eastern U n ited States, is now largely u nder contro l .

TUSSOCK

b u rrow i nto t h e wood of oa ks, e l m s, m aples, a n d other deciduous trees. The holes wea ken t h e trees so that l i m bs break oft in heavy winds. The d a m aged wood is greatly reduced i n value. The f u l l -grown l a rvae p upate i n t h e wood. W h e n i t is t i m e for the a d u lts to e m erge, t h e pupae wrigg l e their way partly out of t h e tree. The adult moth leaves the shed p u p a l s k i n i n the hole. Each ge n e ration requ i res three years or longer. Best control is f u m i g ation of burrows. C A R P E N T E RW O R M S

CALIFORNIA OAKWORM

CASEBEARERS are a fa m i l y of

moths i n w h i c h the caterp i l l ars b u i l d portab l e cases carried with them as they feed. The caterpil l a rs c a n b e k i l l ed by sprayin g the fol i a g e with either stomach -poison or contact i nsec ticides. Some species are espe c i a l l y d a m a g i n g to fruit trees, others to shade or forest trees. Man y attack only one k i n d of tree. The Pecan Cigar Case bearer is a pest of peca n , h i c k ory, and walnut trees in eastern U.S., the California Casebearer d a m ages w i l lows in Ca l i fornia. OAKWORMS a re foliage feed ers. The Cal ifornia Oa kworm is a pest of l ive oaks i n Californ ia. The Orange-striped Oa kworm, of a d ifferent f a m i ly, infests oaks of eastern U.S. Both will feed on other deciduous trees. I n war m reg ions there m a y b e two g e nerations a year. Spray with stomach-poison or else with a contact i n secticide.

chrysa lid

SCALES that i n j ure forest a n d s h a d e trees are s i m i l a r

i n l ife h i story t o species d a m a g i n g flowers a n d s h r u b s (p. 8 6 ) a n d citrus ( p . 1 3 3 ) . I n heavy i nfestations t h e fol i a g e t u r n s b rown a n d d rops. You n g p l a nts m ay be kil led . Oyste rsh e l l , Pine N eed le, Cottony Maple, and European E l m sca les are common, wides p read s pecies. Scales are killed by a pplyi n g a dormant o i l spray befo re the p l a n t b u d s i n spring o r by sp rayi n g with a contact insecti c i d e when scales are i n the craw l i n g sta g e . SAWFLY l a rvae look l i k e caterp i l l ars, t h o u g h the a d u lts

belong to the s a m e order of i nsects as bees, wasps, a n d ants. T h e l a rvae feed on fol iage. Some species d a m a g e s h a d e a n d forest trees. K i l l la rvae b y s p rayi n g with eith e r sto m a ch- poison or contact i n secticides when they a re actively feed i n g .

I N S E CT P E STS O F STO R E D P R O D U CTS Pest i nfestations i n stored products are d ifficult t o d etect and contro l . The pests not only eat the g ra i n or oth e r stored p rod ucts but m ay a l s o create d a m p, warm con d itions i n which equally destructive molds c a n g row. Ch eese, c u re d m eats, furs, and woo l fa brics a re a m o n g the a n i m a l prod ucts attacked by i n sect pests. Othe r pests o f stored pro d u cts a r e d escribed i n t h e section o n Household Pests ( p . 2 4 ) . WEEVILS m a y d estroy a n entire

storag e of g ra i n . Most d a m a g i n g a n d w i d e l y d i stributed are Granary and t h e Rice wee· viis. T h e Gra n ary Weev i l does not fl y, hence does not i n fest gro i n in t h e fi e l d . I t th rives in northern c l i m ates; the Rice Wee· vii i s most a b u n d a n t i n warm c l i m ates. The Rice Weevil can fly a n d often i n fests g ra i n before storage. A d u l ts of both species will eat whole gra i n or grain products. T h e larvae can de· velop o n l y i n whole kernels, i n s i z a b l e pieces, or i n flour that

GRANARY WEEV I L

0.1 in.

has beco m e moist a n d caked. A l ife cycl e i s completed i n o n e t o t w o months, a n d the weev i l s overwinter e i t h e r a s l arvae or a s adults. E a c h f e m a l e l a y s about 400 eggs i n her l i fetime. She c h ews a hqle i n a kernel a n d then deposits o n e egg i n side. A d u l ts l ive two years or longer a n d can survive l o n g periods without food . In households, i n fested prod ucts s h o u l d be burned, a n d the storage area c l e a n e d thor o u g h ly. S i m i lar san itary m easures are ta ken i n gra naries, or the grain is f u m igated.

MEALWORMS teed on o i l types of groi n and g r a i n products, par ticularly i f stared i n dark, d a m p places. After six t a n i n e months, larvae form p u pae i n grain and tra n sform i n to a d u lts. Yel low Mealwor ms are m ore a b u ndant i n cool c l i m ates, Dark Mea lworm s i n war m e r c l i mates. I n storage bins or e levators, l arvae are kil led by su perheati n g , freezing, or f u m igation.

CADELLES are beetles that i n f e s t g rai n s a n d s e e d s i n storage. The larvae feed on the grain, but the a d u l t beetles atta c k and eat other i n escts o r their l a rvae. Both the eggs and pupae are k i l led by l ow tem peratures, but the a d u lts a n d l a rvae s u rv ive lang periods of cold. The adults a n d l a rvae t u n n e l i n to soft wood in storage areas and are most easily k i l led by f u m igation.

FL OUR BEETLES feed on grain

that the Red F l o u r Beetle's a n t e n n a e are e n larged a b ruptly, while the Confused Flour Beetl e's antennae e n large g ra d u a l l y. In the h o u s e , i n f e s t e d p ro d u c t s should b e destroyed a n d cup boards cleaned thoroug h ly. I f a product m ust be saved, l a rvae can be k i l led if kept for several hours at 40 deg rees F. or if heated to about 1 30 deg rees F. for two hours. Destroy i n g fl o u r is u s ua l ly m a s t practical.

or g r a i n products, s pices, nuts, dried fruits, chocolate, a n d other stored foods. They g ive flour a d i sag reea ble, moldy fl avor. The Red F l o u r Beetle i s most abun dant i n warm regions, the Con fused F l o u r Beetle i n cool cli mates. Both are worldwide i n d i stribution a n d are a m o n g t h e m o s t fa m i l ia r of t h e stored product pests to reach the home from the g rocery store. Note

RED FLOUR

SAW-TOOTHED GRAIN BEETLE

GRAIN BEE TLES, worldwide in d i stribution,

feed o n a wide variety of foods but especially on flour, cereals, and other grain products. The beetles a re so flat they can crawl i nto sacks or boxes that appea r Ia be tightly sealed. The fe males deposit their eggs i n the food, and when full g rawn, the w i n g s p read, 0.5 i n .

ANGOUMOIS GRAIN MOTH

Parasitic was p l a y i n g eggs i n the egg of an ngoumois Moth

1 4 8 STORED PRODUCTS

larvae form p u pae and tra n s· form i n to adu lts. A l ife cyc le usually takes a bout two m o nths, with six or seven gen erations a year. All l i fe stages are killed by coo l i n g to 0 degrees F. for one day or heat i n g to 1 25 de· g rees F. for a n h o u r. Clean starage areas. Avoid conta m i nating foods with i n secticides. ANGOUMOIS

GRAIN

MOTH

caterpi l lars atta c k grain in star· age and also in the fi e l d . They prefer tender, d a m p grain rather than gra i n that i s hard a n d d r i e d . The l a rvae t u n n e l i n to the kernels a n d seal t h e e n tra nce h o l e s with s i l k . Wh e n f u l l grown the larvae s p i n a cocoon i n the cavity. If the seed i s s m a l l , as i n sorg h u m s, several are tied together with s i l k , a n d the lar va l ives a n d feeds outside the seed i n the s i l ke n b a l l . Life cy cles are completed in a bout a month in warm weather. The l a r vae rem a i n d o r m a n t in wi nter, prolo n g i n g life cycle to six months or more. Mills, bins, or warehouses a re c leaned thor o u g h l y, then pests k i l le d by superheati n g , freez i n g , or f u m i gation. A tiny parasitic chalcid wasp is also a n effective control.

I

LESSER GRAIN BORERS, pests of stored gro i ns, particularly wheat, are d a m a g i n g both as larvae a n d as adu lts. They also feed on wood a n d paper. T h e c losely related Larger Grai n Bor er feeds m a i n ly o n corn and is a pest pri n c i p a l l y in southern U n ited States. Both cold and heat, as used for the Saw toothed Gra i n Beetle, are effec· live, as are f u m iga nts for non food su bsta nces. MEDITERRANEAN FLO U R MOTH caterp i l lars are especial

ly serious pests i n flour m i l ls. The caterpi l lars s p i n a s i l ke n t u b e i n w h i c h they l i v e as they feed, a n d the web m asses clog the m a c h i nery i n t h e m i l ls. I n the home, t h e caterpil lars a re fou n d in beans, dried fruits, a nd m any other foods as well as i n flour a n d grain products. As m a n y as six g e nerations may be com pleted in a year. Destroying the i nfested food m aterial a n d clea n i n g storag e areas a r e best home controls. In m i l ls, pests are k i l led by f u m igation.

I N D I AN-MEAL MOTH

INDIAN -MEAL MOTH caterpi l

lars feed o n a variety af stored foods, part i c u larly dried fruits a n d cereals, s p i n n i n g webs as they feed. In an a b u n d a n ce of food and with proper warm t h a n d m oisture a l i fe cycle i s com p leted i n a month, with as m a ny os six g e nerations a year. Sa n i tation a n d conti nuous checkin g to catch i n festations early are the best controls in the h o m e . Bins, elevators, ar o t h e r large storage areas are f u m igated.

larva 0.5 i n .

STORED PRODUCTS 1 49

BEAN A ND C O W P E A WEEV I LS

in.

grub in bean

eat out the center of stored beans, leav i n g only the s h e l l s . B e a n Weev i l s are fou n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e U.S., t h e Cowpea Wee vil most a b u n d a n tly in southern states. The g r u bs, o r l o rvae, hatch from eggs laid i n holes ch ewed i nto stored bea n s o r i nto pods i n the fi e l d . In h eavy i n festations there m a y be two doz e n or more tiny, n ewly h atched larvae i n o n e bean. W h e n f u l l g rown t h e larvae form p u pae i n t h e eaten-out cavity. As m a n y as six generations a r e produced i n a season. I n fested bea n s s h o u l d be d estroyed. I f t h e beans a r e t o be pla nted rath e r t h a n eate n , they s h o u l d be fu m i gated fi rst to k i l l the grubs. The larvae can a l so be k i l led by heat i n g the seeds to 1 45 degrees F. for two hours. Bury vines a n d p o d s i n the fi e l d . P E A WEEVILS i n fest o n l y pea s.

Adult beetles t h at overw in te r in the field feed o n t h e leaves a n d flowers of the p e a p l a n t s i n t h e s p r i n g . T h e f e m a l e beetles lay their eggs o n t h e pea pods, a n d t h e s p i n y l a rvae b urrow i n s i d e a n d b e g i n feed i n g an a d evelop ing seed. The entry hole m a d e b y the g r u b is seal e d with s i l k . The f u l l - g rown g r u b far m s a p up a in the seed a n d in about two weeks e m erges as a n adult. In cold c l i m ates a d ults m a y h i bernate i n stored peas a n d em erge i n t h e s p r i n g. V i n es, pods, and other debris s h o u l d be buried. Plants can be s p rayed with a contact i nsecticide w h e n i n bloom to k i l l a d u l ts, o r peas can be f u m i gated a t harvesti n g .

C I GARETTE BEETLE g r u b s feed o n stored tobacco leaves and to bacco products. A l ife cyc le is c o m p leted in about 1 V2 m o n t h s , with as m a n y a s s i x generations a year. Tobacco warehouses are cleaned a n d f u m igated, o r to bacco is exposed to a freez i n g tem perature f o r a w e e k o r longer or h eated to 1 35 degrees F. Beetles a lso feed o n books, sp ices, u p h o l stered f u r n i t u re, a n d seeds. Use f u m igants or contact i n secti cides but do not conta m i nate foods. RED-LEGGED

HAM

B E ETLES

feed o n cured m eats, fi s h , cheese, and other dried foods. Most d a m a g e i s d o n e by the l a rvae, w h i c h bore i nto m eat, partic u l a r l y the lot, a n d col lect around the bones. The a d u lts feed at the surface. A l ife cycle may be c o m p l eted i n as s hort a time as 30 d ays. In t h e home i nfested foods s h o u l d be d estroyed. Care ful c l ea n i n g to e l i m i nate bits of food that m i g h t s upport d evelop ing l a rvae is i m portant. The Larder Beetle (p. 3 1 ) i s also a pest of c u red m eats.

grub 0. 1 i n .

RED-LEGGED HAM BEETLE

0.3 i n .

TOBACCO MOTHS are

closely related to Med iterra n e a n Flour Moth a n d to the I n d i a n - meal Moth. b u t d o not i n fest groins or flour co m mo n ly. They are most damag i n g to stored tobacco, the caterpi l l ars eati n g holes through the l eaves. They ore a l s o c o m m o n pe sts of stored chocolate a n d are som eti m e s referred to a s Chocolate Mot h s . N uts a n d o t h e r dried foods m a y be i n fested too. Control by methods used for Cig arette Beetle.

STO RED PRODUCTS 1 5 1

CHEESE MITES and c l o s e l y re

l ated species feed o n c heese, cereals, fl o u r, c ured m eals, a n d other foods, giving t h e m a sweetish odor. I nfested fl o u r a p p e a r s to seethe, thou g h t h e m i les them selves are nearly m icro scopic. The s h ed s k i ns, dead bod ies, and excrem ent form a b r ow n i s h p o w d e r . " G r o c e r ' s itch " is a s k i n i rritation produced from h a n d l i n g m i te- i n fested flour. Mites do not th rive i n d ry cond itions; h e n ce do not p e r m i t stored food to gel d a m p . CHEESE SKIPPERS are so n a m e d

because t h e y som eti m es fl i p into the air to move from o n e spot to another. To do this the mag got c u rves its body and holds its ta i l with the hooks arou n d its mouth, then s u d d e n l y releases its h o l d . Nor m a l l y t h e m a g gots crawl i n a wor m l i k e m a n ne r. Cheese S k i ppers i nfest cured m eals a s com m o n ly a s t h ey do cheeses. When fu l l g rown the l a rvae leave the food a n d pu pate i n dark crevices nearby. Ad ult flies are attracted to t h e o d o r of cheese or m eal, o n

which they f e e d a n d lay t h e i r c l u sters of e g g s . A l ife c y c l e re q u ires about 2% weeks. I n fested p o r t i o n s of m e a t or c h e e s e s h o u l d be c u t o ff a n d burned. A fi n e- m e s h screen o r cloth over storeroom w i n dows and vents w i l l keep o u t the a d u l t fl ies. W h e r e i n f e s t a ti o n s h a v e o c cu rred, f u m igation m a y be neces sary. In com m ercial storage of m eals, all stages af the Cheese S k i p per can be k i l l e d by h eati n g m eats I a 1 25 d e g r e e s F. f o r a n hour or by storage o f meals a n d cheeses a t 43 F. or l ower.

DRUGSTORE BEETLE

DRIED-FRUIT BEETLE

0.1 i n .

DRUGSTORE BEETLES o r e c o m m o n house a n d storage-area p e s t s . T h e y e a t on a m a z i n g variety o f s u bsta nces- brea d , s p i ces, drugs ( i n c l u d i n g strych n i n e), a n d books. They even bore i nto lead or t i n f o i l . In cool e l i m oles there is o n e g e n e ration per year; i n warm c l i m ates, four. Burn i n fested material or expose to about 1 50 degrees F. for sev eral hours. F u m igation may be necessary in wareroom s . SPI DER BEETLES f e e d o n d r i e d

food s a n d o n feathers, h ides, books, drugs, and s p ices. Un u s u a l ly resistant to cold, they ore active at t e m p e ratures a s low as 40 d e g rees F. a n d are com m o n pests in Canada a n d north ern U n ited Stales. Many species can not s u rvive a bove 80 degrees F. Some, s u c h a s t h e Gol d e n Spider Beetle, are w i n g l ess a n d ore spread o n l y by craw l i n g or by m a n . C l e a n t h e i nfested area and spray with a res i d u a l contact i n secticide if there is no d a n g e r of food conta m i n a t i o n .

D R I E D - F R U I T B E ET L E S i n f e s t

both fresh a n d d r i e d fruits. T h ey ore espec i a l l y serious pests of dotes a n d fi g s in Cal iforn i a , tra n s m itt i n g t h e spores of f u n g i a n d bacteria t h a t cause t h e fruit to sour. Female beetles loy their eggs on r i p e fruit, i n which t h e l a rvae f e e d a n d develop. A l ife cyc l e i s com p l eted i n th ree weeks i n warm weather. Destroy fruit d ropped from trees a s i t w i l l serve as a bree d i n g a rea.

SCIENTIFIC N AMES 4 Melonoplus differen tia l is 8 Lepisma socchorina 9 C h i n c h : B l issus leucopterus 1 1

12 13

15 21 24

25

27 28 29

31

32 33

34

35

Japanese: Popillia japonico f l y : Winthemio quodripustulata A r m ywo r m : Pseudaletia u n ipuncfo Broco n i d : Aph idius testaceipes Cotton A p h i d : A p h is gossypii Ca b b a g e : Hylemya brassicae Rove: A leochara bimaculoto Veda l ia : Rodolia cordinolis Cottony: lcerya purchosi Braco n i d : Apante les glomeratu5 Tobacco: Protoparce 5exta J a p . Beet l e : Pop illia japonica I m ported : Pieris ropae Tobacco: Protoparce sexta Tarn i s h e d : Lygus Uneolaris Rose Sca l e : A u locospis rosae Odoro u s : Tapinomo sessile Arg e n t i n e : lridomyrmex h u m i lis T h i ef 1 Solenopsis mo lesta P h a rao h : Monomorium pharaon is Crazy: Paratre�h ina long icornis Co r n fi e l d : Lasius a l ienus Fire: Solenop5is xyloni B l o c k : Camponofus pennsylvanicus E. S u b : Reticul itermes IJavipes W. O rywood: Kalotermes m inor B lattella german ica O r i e n ta l : Blatta orienfalis Brown : Supella supellectilium A m e r : Periplaneta am ericana W e b b i n g : Tineola b isselliella Cose m a k i n g : Tinea pellionella P l a �ter: Tinea/a walsinghami larder: Dermestes lardarius Carpet: A n threnus scrophulariae H i d e : Oermesfef maculatus Musca domestica l i t t l e : Fan n ia canicularis Green: Phoen icia s p . B l u e : C a l l iphora vomitoria C l u ster: Pollenia rudis M o t h : Psychoda a lternata F r u i t : Drosophila m e lanogaster Eye: Hippelates collusor S i l ver fi s h : Lepisma saccharina F i rebrat: Therm obia damestica EarwJ g : Forficula aur icu laria Cricket: A cheto domesticus lyct u s : lyctus planicollis F u r n i t u r e : Anobium punctatum Book: Liposcelis divinatorius Box: leptocoris triviltatus Cra n e : Tipula abdominalis S p r i n g ta i l : S i r a buski

3 6 H o u s e : Scut igera coleoptrota

37

38 39

41

42

43

44 45

46

47

48 49

50

51 52

53

54

M i l l i pede: Pora julus impressus Sow b u g : Porce llio laevis P i l l b u g : Armodillidium vulgare Scorp i o n : Cen truroides gertschi Oaddy l o n g l e g s : L io b u n u m vittotum House: A chaearaneo tepidariorum J u m p i n g : Phidippus a udox W i dow: Latrodectus moctans Horse: Tabanus otratus Deer: Chrysops vittatus B l a c k fly: Sim u lium venudum Sand: C u l i coide5 ca n ithorax Sta b l e : Stomoxys calcitrans Mo I , A n opheles quadrimacu latus Y e l l ow-fever: Aedes aegypti S a l t - m a rs h : A. sollicitans House: Culex pipiens Bed B u g : Cimex ledularius Swa l l o w : Oeciocus vicarius S w i ft : Cimexopsis n ycta l is Head: Pediculus h. capitis Body: P . h u m anus C ra b : Phth irus pubis H u nter: Reduvius personafus Conenose: Triatoma sanguisuga I t c h : Sarcoptes sca b i e i C h i g : Eutromb icula alfreddugesi Rky. M t : Dermacentor anderso n i Star: A m b lyomma a mericanum Dog : R h ipicephalus sanguineus Puss: Mego lopyge opercularis H o g : P h obetron pithecium Sadd l e bock: Sibine stimu lea Ba l d -faced: Vespula maculata Pa per-nest: Polisles s p p . M u d : Sceliphron cementarius Dermacentor voria b i l is Catt l e : Boop h i lus a n n u latus Ear: Otobius megnini Fow l : A rgas persicus Cat: Ctenocephal ides fe l is H u m a n : Pu lex irritans Rat: Xenopsylla cheopis Stick: Ech idnophaga gallinacea C h i g o e : Tunga penetrans Head: Cuclotogaster heterogrophus Body: Menacanthus stra m ineus Sheep: Bovicola ovis Horse: B . equi Hog : Haematopinus s u is Catt l e : H . e u rysternus Sca b : Psoroptes equi I t c h : Sarcoptes sca b i e i Ear Mange: Otodectes cynotis

5 5 Ch icke n : Dermanyssus gollinae

56 57

58 59 60

61 62

63

64

65 67

68 69

70

71 72 73

75

76 77

78

Sca l y : Knem idokoptes m utans Oep l u m i n g : K . ga llinoe H o g : Oem odex phyl/o ides Striped: Tabanus li neola Face: M usca autumnalis Horse: Gasterophilus intestinalis N ose Bot: G . haemorrhoidalis Sheep Bot: Oestrus avis Hypoderma lineatum N. Catt l e : Hypoderma bovis H o r n : Haematobio irritans Screw: Ca l l i troga h o m in ivorax Sheep Ked : Melophagus ovinus B l ack B l o w : Phormia regina Gryl/ota lpa hexadacty/a Potato f l e a : Epitrix cucum eris E g g p l a n t : f. fuscu/a Sweet: Chaetocnema confinis Striped: Phyl lotreta striolata Pale: Systena bla nda Strawberry: A ltica ignita S p i n a c h : D isonycha xa nthom elas G u l f : Conoderus amplicollis Pacific: L imonius co nus E. f i e l d : L agonus Variegated: Peridroma saucia B l ac k : A grotis ipsilon Spotted : A mathes c-n igrum Pa l e : Asrotis orthogonio May: Phyl lophaga rugosa Asi'ati c : A utoserica castanea Pea : A cyrthosiphon p isum Bea n : Aphis fabae C a b b a g e : Brevicoryne brassicae M e l o n : A p h is gossypii Circulifer tenellus Potato: Empoasca fabae Six: Macrosteles fascilrons S . Garde n : Empoasca solana H a r l : M urga ntia h istrionica G reen : A croster n u m h i/are S o u t h e r n : Nezara v iridula Tarn i s h e d : Lygus lineolaris Sq u a s h : A nosa tristis E g g p l a n t : Gorgap h io so/a n i Onion: Thrips tabaci A r g u s : Chelymorpha cassidea J a m a i ca : Eurypepla jomaicensis Co l : Leptinotarsa decem lineota Striped: Ep icauta vittata G ray: E . cinerea Spotte d : E. mocu loto Marg i n e d : E. pestifera Bea n : Cerotomo trifurcate Mex: Epi lochno varivestis Spotted : D iabrot ica undecimpunctoto howordi Striped: Acalymmo vittata Vegeta b l e : Listroderes costirostris o b liquus Pepper: A n t h onomus eugenii

78 ( co n t . ) Sweetpotato: Cylas form icorivs elegontulus

79 W h ite: Graphognothus

80

81

82

83

84

85

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

leucoloma Car: L istronotus oregonensis Straw. : Brachyrh inus ovotus Ca b bagewo r m : Pieris ropae C a b . looper: Trichoplusia n i Mot h : Plutello maculipennis Squas h : Melittia cucurb itae P i c k l e : D iophanio n i t idalis M e l o n wo r m : 0. hyolinata Potato: Gnorimoschema operc u l e l la Beet: Loxostege sticticalis Garde n : L. 1im ilalis To m e : Protoparce qu inquemacu lata C e l e ry l e a f : Udea r u b iga lis C e l e rywo r m : Papilio polyxenes asterius B a n ded Woo l l y : lsia isabella Ca b b a g e : Hyfemya brassicae Carrot: Ps i lo rosoe Spi n a c h : Pegomya hyoscyami O n i o n : Hylemya antiquo Tomato: Vasates lycopersici Spider: Tetranych us telarius Brown G a rden : Helix asperse Spotted : L imax maximus Lo n g : Pseudococcus adonidum Mex i ca n : Phenacoccus gossyp i i fer n : Pinnaspis aspidistrae Cactu s : D iaspis ech inocacti Hem i : Saissetia hem isphaerica B rown Soft: Coccus hesperidum Gree n house: Orthezia insignis Gree n h o use: Trioleurodes vaporariorum Cor n : A n uraphis moidiradicis C h rys: M a crosiphoniella sanborni B a n d e d : Hercinothrips femora /is Gree n h o u s e : H e l iothrips haemorrhoidalis G l a d : Taenioth rips simplex B u ff : Stictocephala b u bolus C h rys: Coryt h u cha marmorate Aza l e a : Stephon itis pyrioides Cyc: Steneotarsonemus pal lidus B u l b : R h izoglyphus echinopus Lesser: fumerus tuberculatus Narc issus: Lampetia equestris C h rys: D iorthronomyio chrysonthem i Rose: Oasyneuro rhodophoga Aza l e a : Grocilorio ozoleello A r b o r : Argyresthio t h u ie l lo Co l u m : P h ytomyzo m in uscule l a r k s p u r : P . delph inioe Col u m : Popo ipema purpurifascia l i l a c : Podosesia syringoe

1 55

93 (cont . )

94

95

96

97

99

O b l i q u e : A rch ips rosaceanus Red : Argyrotaen io velutinana Texas : A tto texano leaf: Megach ile lotimanus Morn : L.oxostege ob literalis Bag : Thyridopteryx ephem eraeformis V i o l e t : A m etasfegia pa llipes B r i s t l y : Cladius isomerus Rose: Endelomyia aeth iops C u r l e d : A l lantus c i n ctus B l a c k : fpicouta pennsylvonica Rose: Nodonoto pun cticollis Rose C h a fe r : Macrodactylus subspinosus F u l l e r : Pantomorus godm a n i B l ack: Brachyrhinus sulcatus Rose: R h ynch ites bicolor Two: M e lonoplus bivittatus D i ffe r : M . differen t i a l is C l ear-wi n g : Ca m n u / o pellucida M i g ra : M. sa nguin ipes R ed - l e g g e d : M . femurrubrum

1 1 5 Corn : Cra m b u s caliginosellus

1 16 1 17 1 18 1 19

1 20 121

1 22 1 23 1 24

1 25 1 26

1 00 Para : Lysiphlebus testaceipes Green b u g : Toxoptera grominum A p h i d : A n urap h is ma idiradicis Corn fi e l d : Losius alienus

101

Mead: P h ilaenus leucop h t h a l m u s L e g u m e : Lygus hesperus 1 02 C h i n c h : B l issus leucopterus Cerea l : Ou lema m e lanopa

1 03 S o u t h e r n Cor n : Dio brotica undecimpunctata ho wordi N. Corn : D . longicornis Grape: Maecolaspis flavido 1 04 Corn : Choetocnema pulicario Toot hed : C. denticulata Orienta l : A nomala orienta /is W h e a t : A griotes m o n cus P l a i n s : Eleodes opaco 1 0 5 A l fa l fa : Hypera postica M a i z e : Sph en ophorus mo idis B l uegrass: S . parvulus C u r l ew b u g : Calendro callosa 1 06 C l over Leaf: Hypera pun ctate Sweet: Sitona cylindrico l l is C l over Root: S. h ispidulo

1 07 lesser: Hypera n igrirostris Bo l l : A n t honomus grandis

1 08 Cotto n : A labama orgillaceo P i n k : Pect i n ophora gossypiella

1 09 Helioth is zea 1 1 0 A r m y : Pseudo letio u n ipuncto F a l l : Lophygma lrugiperdo

1 1 2 Pyrausto n u b ilalis 1 1 3 Tobacco: Protoporce sexta 1 1 4 Sta l k : Popa ipemo nebris S . Co r n : Dia troea crom b idoides lesser: Elosmopalpus lignose llus

1 56

1 27 1 28 1 29 1 30

131

1 32

1 33 1 34

A l f a l f a : Colias eurytheme Clov: Grapholitha in terstinctona C l over: Dasyneuro legu m i n icola Wheat: Meromyza americana Ph ytophoga destructor W h eat Ste m : Cep h us cinctus W . J o i n t : Hormolita tritici W h eat : Hormol ita grandis C l over: Bruchophagus g i b b us T h ief: Solenopsis m o lesta Corpocopso pomonella fa l l : A lsop h i lo pometario Spri n g : Poleacrita vernata Eye: Spitonota ocellana Peac h : Sa n n i n o iclea exitiosa lesser: Synanthedon piclipes Peac h : A narsio lineatella O r i e n ta l : Groph o l itha m o lesta Gree n : l ithophone a n tennata , Ch erry : Grapholitha pockardi Fru i t : Arch ips orgyrosp i l us Conotrachelus nen uphor A p p l e : Tachyptere llus quadrigib b us F l e a : R h ynchaenus pollicornis I m b r i e : fpicaerus im bricatus R o u n d heade d : Saperdo candida Flat: Chrysobothris femorata S h o t : Scolytus r u g u losus Pea ch : Ph loeotrib us lim inaris S i n u a t e : A grilus sinuatus Japanese: Popillia iaponico C h e rry: R h a goletis c i n g u lato A p p l e : R. pomonello Med. F r u i t : Cera t i t is copitato I m ported : Nemafus ribesii Pear- s l u g : Col iroa cerosi Woo l l y : Eriosomo lonigerum A p p l e A p h i d : A p h is pom i S p i rea : A. spiraecola Rosy: A n uroph is roseo P u r p l e : Lepidosophes beckii Ca l i f : A o n idiella aurantii San Jose: A spidiotus pern iciosus Black: Soissetio o leoe

1 3 5 Cottony: l cerya purchosi Veda l i a : Rodolio cordi n a l is C i t r u s : Pseudococcus citri C i t ro p h i l u s : P . gahani

1 3 6 Diale urodes citri 1 37 Snowy: Oeconthus niveus C i t r u s : Scirtoth rips citri

1 3 8 C i t r u s R e d : Panonych us citri C i t r u s B u d : A cerio s h e /doni R u s t : Phyl locoptruto ole ivora

1 39 E u r : Scolytus m u ltistriatus E l m leaf: Galerucello luteolo

1 40 Bronze: A grilus anxius Pop l a r : Saperda cofcarota Locust: Megacyl lene robiniae

141

E n g e l : De ndroctonus engelmanni

141

(con t . ) H i c k : Scolytus quadrispinosus

1 47 ( cont . )

1 4 2 Spruce: Ch oristoneura 1 43

1 44

1 45

1 46 1 47

lum ilerona Gypsy: Porthetria dispar Forest: Mo lacosomo disstrio Eastern : M. americo n u m W h i te : Hem erocampo leucosfigmo Brown : Nygmia phaeorrhoea Carpe n : Prionoxystus robin iae Peca n : Coleophora caryaeloliella Ca l i f: Phrygan idia colilornica Oyster: Lepidosaphes u l m i P i n e : Phenocospis pin ilol ioe E u ropea n : Gossyporio spurio Cotto n y : Pulvinario i n n u m era b i l is E l m : Cimbex a m ericana G r a n a r y : Sitop h i lus gronorius Rice: S . oryzae Dark: Tenebrio obscurus

1 48

1 49

1 50

151

1 52 1 53

Cade l l e : Tenebroides m o uriton icus Red : Triholium costoneum Confu s e d : T. conlusum Saw: Oryzaep h i l us surinamensis A n g o u m o i s : Sitotrogo cerea lella C h a l c i d : Trichogromm o m i n u t u m lesser: R h yzopertha domin ica Med : A nagasta kUhn iella I n d i a n : Plodio interpu nctella Bea n : A conthoscelides obtectus Cowpea : Cal losobruchus moculatus Pea: Bruchus pisorum C i g : Lasiodermo serricorne Red : N e crobio ru lipes Tobacco: Ephestio elutello Mite: Tyrog lyph u s longior S k i pper: Piophilo cosei D r u g store: Stego b i u m paniceum Dried: Carpophilus h e m ipterus Mezi u m : Mezium a ffi n e H u m p b a c k : G i b b i u m psylloides

I N DEX A l fa l fa Caterp i l l a r , 1 1 5 A l fa l fa Weev i l , 1 0 5 A m e r i c a n Cock roa c h , 29 A m e r i c a n Dog Tick, .48 A n g o u m o i s G ra i n Mot h , 1 48 Ants, 24-25 Aphids, 1 1 , 66-67, 8 8 , 1 00 , 1 3 1 Apple A p h i d , 1 32 A p p l e Curcu l i o , 1 26 A p p l e F l ea Weevi l , 1 2 6 A p p l e Maggot, 1 30 Arbor. leaf M i n e r , 92 Arg e n t i n e Ant, 24 Arg u s Torto ise, 73 A r m ywo r m , 1 1 , 1 1 0- 1 1 1 A s i a t . Garden Beet le, 65 Assa s s i n Bugs, 44 Azalea lace Bug, 90 Aza l ea leaf M i ner, 92 Bagworm, 94 Ban ded Green h o u se T h r i ps, 89 B a n ded Woo l l y bear, 8 3 B a r k Beet les, 1 4 1 Bean A p h i d , 67 Bean leaf Beet le, 76 Bean Weev i l , 1 50 Bed B u g s , 42 Bees, 47 Beet leafhopper, 6 8

Beet Webworm, 82 B i l l b u g , 1 05 B i o i . Contro l , 1 2-1 3 B i t i n g I n sects, 38--47 B l a c k Beetles, 29 B l a c k B l i ster Beet le, 96 B l a ck C u tworm, 64 B l a ck F l ies, 39 B l a ck H orse F l y , 38 B l a c k Sca l e , 1 34 B l o c k Swa l l owta i l , 83 B l a ck V i n e Weev i l , 97 B l oc k Widow Spider, 37 B l ister Beet les, 74, 75, 96 B l oods u c k i n g Conenose, 44 B l oods u c k i n g f l ies, 60 B l ow F l ies, 33, 60 B l u e Bott le f l y , 3 3 B l u egrass B i l l b u g , 1 0 5 Body louse, 43 B o l l Weev i l , 1 07 Book l i ce, 3 5 Borers, 9 3 , 1 27-1 2 9 Bot F l i es, 56-57 Boxe lder B u g , 3 5 Bracon ids, 1 1 , 1 3 B r i s t l y Rose- s l u g , 95 Bronze B i r c h Borer, 1 .40 Brown - b a nded Cockroa c h , 29 Brown Dog Tick, 46

B rown Soft Scale, 87 Brown-to i l Mot h , 1 .43 B u d Moths, 1 2 1 B u ff o l o Tree hopper, 8 9 B u l b F l ies, 9 1 B u l b M i te, 90 C o b b a g e Aphid, 67 Cabbage looper, 80 C a b b o g e Maggot, 1 1 , 84 Cactus Sca le, 87 Code l l e, 1 47 Ca l i f. Casebeorer, 1 44 C o l i f. Ookwor m , 1 44 Co l i f . Red Sca l e , 1 3 3 Can kerwo r m s , 1 2 1 Caro l i n a S p h i n x , 1 1 3 Carpenter A n t , 25 Carpenterworm , 1 .44 Carpet Beet les, 31 Carrot Rust Fly, 84 Carrot Weev i l , 79 Casebearers, 1 4.4 Case m a k i n g Mot h , 3 1 C o t F l e o , 50 Cott l e Gru bs, 58-59 Catt l e T i cks, 49 Celery leaf Tier, 83 C e l e rywo r m , 83 Centi pedes, 3 6 Cerea l l e a f Beetl e , 1 0 2 C h o l ci d , 1 1 8 , 1 48 C h eese Mite, 1 52

1 57

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C h eese S k i pper, 1 5 2 C h e r ry F r u i t f l y , 1 30 C h erry F r u i tw o r m , 1 24 Chi cken Body louse, 52 C h i cken Head louse, 52 C h i cken Mite, 55 Ch igger, 4 5 C h igoe, 51 C h i m ney-sw i ft B u g , 42 C h i n c h B u g , 9, 1 02 Chocolate Mot h , 1 5 1 Ch rys. A p h i d , 88 C h rys. G a l l M i d g e , 9 1 C h rys. l a c e B u g , 90 C h ryso l i n o Beet le, 1 3 Cig arette Beet l e , 1 5 1 Citroph i l u s Mea l y b u g , 1 35 Citrus B u d Mite, 1 3 8 Citrus Mea l y b u g , 1 3 5 Citrus Red Mite, 1 3 8 C i t r u s R u st Mite, 1 3 8 Citrus T h rips, 1 37 Citrus W h i tefly, 2 2 , 1 3 6 Clear-w i n ged Grassho pper, 99 Cl othes Moths, 30-3 1 Cl over Head Caterp i l lar, 115 Cl over leaf Weevj l , 1 06 Cl over Root C u rcu l i o 1 06 Cl over Seed C h a l cid, 1 1 9 Cl over Seed M i d g e , 1 1 6 Cl uster f l y, 33 Cockroa ches, 2 8-29 Cod l i n g Mot h , 1 20 Co l o . Potato Beet l e , 74, 75 Co l u m b i n e B o rer, 93 Co l u m . leaf M i ner, 92 Conenoses, 44 Confused F l o u r Beet l e , 1 47 Corn Earwo r m , 1 09 Corn fl e l d Ant, 25, 1 00 C o r n Flea Bee t l e , 1 0 4 Corn Root A p h i d , 88, 1 00 Corn Root Webworm, 1 1 5 Cotton A p h i d , 1 1 Cotton leafwo r m , 1 08 Cottony- c u s h i o n Scale, 1 2, 1 35 Cottony M a p l e S c a l e , 1 45 Cowpea Weev i l , 1 50 Cra b louse, 43 Crane F l y, 35 Crazy Ant, 2 5 Cri ckets, 34, 1 37 Croton B u g s , 29 C u cu m be r Beetles, 77 C u l tu ra l Contro l s , 1 4

C u r l ed Rose Sawfly, 9 5 C u r l ewbu g , 1 0 5 Cutworms, 64 Cyc l a m e n M i te, 90 Doddyl o n g legs, 37 D a r k Mea lworm, 1 47 Deer fly, 38 Oep l u m i n g Mite, 55 Dermestid Beet les, 30 D i a m o n d back Mot h , 80 D i ffe re n t i a l Grasshopper, 4-5, 9 9 D r i ed-fru i t Beet l e , 1 5 3 Drosoph i l a F r u i t F l y , 3 3 D r u g sJore Beet l e , 1 53 D rywood Term ites, 27 Ear Mange Mite, 54 Eor Tick, 49 Earwig, 34 E. F i e l d Wi rewo r m , 63 E. S u bterra nean Term ite, 27 E. Tent Caterp i l l a r , 1 43 E g g p l a n t Flea Beet l e , 62 E g g p l a n t loco B u g , 72 Elm Bark Beet l e , 1 3 9 E l m leaf Beet le, 1 3 9 E l m Sawfly, 1 4 5 E n ge l . Spruce Beet le, 1 41 E u r . Corn Borer, 1 1 2 , 1 13 E u r . E l m Sca le, 1 4 5 Eye Gnat, 33 Eye-spotted Bud Mot h , 121 Face f l y , 56 F a l l Armyworm, 1 1 0 , 1 1 1 Fa l l Ca n kerwor m , 1 2 1 Fern Sca l e , 87 F i e l d Wi reworm, 63 F i r e Ant, 25 F i re b rat, 34 F l a t h eaded Borer, 1 27 F l ea Beet les, 62, 1 04 f leas, 50-5 1 F l o u r Beet les, 1 47 Fo l l i c l e Mites, 5 5 forest Tent Caterp i l l . , 1 43 Fowl Tick, 49 F r u i t F l ies, 33, 1 3 0 F r u i t -tree leaf Rol ler, 1 24 fru itworms, 1 24 F u l l er Rose Beet le, 9 7 F u r n i t u re Beet l e , 35 G a m busias, 1 3 Garden Webwo r m , 82 G e r m a n Cockroa c h , 2 8 , 29

G l a d i o l u s T h rips, 8 9 G n a t s , 33 G r a n a ry Weev i l , 1 46 Grope C o l o s p i s , 1 03 Grope Mea l y b u g , 1 3 5 Grasshoppers, 4, 5, 6, 98-99 Grass Worms, 1 1 1 Gray B l ister Beet l e , 74 Green Bott l e f l y , 33 Green b u g , 1 00 Green Citrus A p h i d , 1 3 2 Green Fru itworm, 1 24 Gree n house Orthez.ia, 87 Gree n h o u s e T h r i p s , 8 9 Gree n h o u s e Wh i tefly, 8 8 Green St i n k Bug, 70 G u l f W i rew o r m , 63 Gypsy Mot h , 1 4 2 Hog Mot h , 4 7 H a r l eq u i n B u g , 70 Head l o u se , 43 H e m i s p h e r i c a l Sca l e , 8 7 Hess i o n F l y , 1 1 7 H i ck. B a r k Beet l e , 1 4 1 H i ck. Tussock Moth, 1 43 H ide Beet l e , 3 1 Hog F o l l i c l e Mite, 55 Hog l o u se, 53 Hornets, 47 Horn F l y , 5 9 Horse B i t i n g louse, 53 Horse Bot F l y , 5 6 , 57 H o rse F l ies, 3 8 , 56 House Centi pede, 3 6 H o u s e Cri cket, 3 4 House F l y , 3 2 , 39 H o u se h o l d Pests, 24-37 House Mosq u i to, 4 1 H o u s e Spiders, 3 7 House S p r i n g ta i l , 3 5 H u m a n F l e a , 50 H u m pback Beet le, 1 53 I m bri cated S n o u t Beetle, 1 2 6 I m p . Cabbageworm, 1 3 , 80 I m p . Currontwo r m , 1 3 1 I nd i a n - m e a l Mot h , 1 49 I nsect i cides, 1 5-23 aeroso l s , 1 6 a l d r i n , 20 a l l et h r i n , 1 9 a p p l i ca t i o n s , 1 6 benz.ene hexa c h loride, 20 Bordea u x m i xtu re, 1 8 carbon b i s u l flde, 22 c h l ordane, 20 c h l o ri nated hydrocarbons, 2 0

I n sect i c i des ( c o n t . ) contact i n secti cides, 18 creosote, 2 3 D l> D , 20 D DT, 2 0 DDVP, 2 1 demeto n , 2 1 diazinon, 2 1 d i ca p t h o n , 2 1 d i c h l oropropa n e , 2 2 d i c h l oropropene, 2 2 dieldr i n , 20 d i e t h y l to l u a m i d e , 2 3 d i methyl p h t h a l ate, 2 3 d u sters, 1 6 endrin, 20 ethyl hexaned i o l , 23 f u m i g a n t s , 22 hepta c h l o r , 2 0 hormones, 23 h y d r o g e n cya n i de, 2 2 i n o rga n i cs, 1 8 l ead arsenate, 1 7 l i m e· s u l fur, 1 8 l i ndane, 20 malathion, 2 1 methoxyc h l or , 20 m e t h y l bro m i de, 22 moth b a l l s , 2 2 , 2 3 naphthalene, 22 n a t u r a l o rg a n i cs, 1 9 n i co t i n e , 1 9 n i co t i n e s u l fate, 1 9 nontoxics, 2 3 o i l s, 2 2 org a n o · p h o s p hates, 2 1 para d i c h loro benzene, 22 para t h i o n , 2 1 Paris g re e n , 1 7 pyret h r u m , 1 9 repe l l ents, 2 3 ron n e l , 2 1 roten o n e , 1 9 rya n i a , 1 9 sabad i l l a , 1 9 sod i u m a rsenate, 1 7 sod i u m fl u oride, 1 7 sod i u m fl u os i l i cate, 1 7 sprayers, 1 6 steri l a nts, 2 3 stom a c h poisons, 1 7 s u l fu r , 1 8 synthetics, 20-2 1 T O E , 20 TEPP, 2 1 t h a l l i u m s u l fate, 1 7 toxa p h e n e , 2 0 w h i t e arse n i c , 1 7 I n sects, genera I benefi c i a l , 4

I n sects (con t . ) c l a s s i fi ca t i o n , 6-7 contro l s , 1 0-23 damage, 4 deve l opment, 8-9 I sa b e l l a Moth, 83 I t ch Mite, 45, 54 J a m a i ca Tortoise Beet l e , 73 Japanese Beet l e , 9 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 29 J u m p i n g Spiders, 37 J u n e 8 u g , 65 K i s s i n g B u g , 44 lace Bugs, 72, 90 larder Beet le, 3 1 l a rger G r a i n Borer, 1 49 l a r k s p u r leaf M i n e r , 92 leaf B u g s , 1 0 1 leaf·cu tter Bee, 9 4 l e a f Cutters, 9 4 leafhoppers, 6 B , 6 9 l e a f Mi ners, 9 2 l e a f Ro l l e rs, 9 3 , 1 24 leg u m e B u g , 1 0 1 lesser B u l b F l y , 9 1 lesser C l over leaf Weev i l , 1 07 lesser Cornsta l k Borer, 114 lesser G ra i n Borer, 1 49 lesser Peach Tree Borer, 1 22 l i ce, 4 3 , 5 2 l i l a c Borer, 93 l i t t l e House Fly, 3 3 locust B o r e r , 1 40 l o n e Star Tick, 46 l o n g . t o i led Mea l y b u g , 87, 1 3 5 Maggots, 84, 1 1 6, 1 1 7, 1 30 Maize B i l l b u g , 1 05 M a l a r i a Mosq u ito, 4 1 Marg i n e d B l ister Beet l e , 75 Masked H u n ter, 4 4 May Bee t l e , 65 Meadow S p i tt l e b u g , 1 0 1 Mea l wo r m s , 1 47 Mea l y b u g s , 86, 87, 1 3 31 35 Med i i . F l o u r Moth, 1 49 Medit, F r u i t F l y, 1 3 0 M e l o n A p h i d , 67 Melonworm, 8 1 Mex i c a n 'eon Beet l e , 7 6 Mexican Bed B u g , 4 4 Mex i c a n F r u i t F l y , 1 3 0 Mexican Mea l y b u g , 87

Mez i u m Spider Beet l e , 1 53 M i dges, 9 1 M i g ra t . Grassh opper, 99 M i l l i pedes, 3 6 M i tes, 54-5 5 , 8 5 , 9 0 , 1 38 M o l e Cri cket, 6 1 Morn i n g · g l o ry l e a f C u t . t o r , 94 Mosq u i toes, 40-4 1 Moth Fly, 3 3 M u d - d a u ber, 4 7 N a r c i ss u s B u l b F l y , 9 1 N a t u r a l contro l s , 1 0 N . Corn Rootwo r m , 1 03 N ose Bot F l y , 56, 57 N o · See· U m s , 39 Oakworms, 1 44 O b l i q u e - b a nded leaf R o l ler, 93 Odoro u s H o u s e Ant, 2 4 O n i o n M a g g o t , 84 O n io n Thrips, 72 Orange·striped O a k · worm, 1 44 O r i e n ta l Beet l e , 1 04 Orienta l Cockroa c h , 2 9 O r i e n ta l F r u i t Mot h , 1 2 3 O r i e n ta l Rat F l e a , 5 0 Oyster s h e l l Sca l e , 1 4 5 Poe. Coast W i rewo r m , 63 Poe. Spider Mite, 1 3 8 P a l e - stri ped F l ea Beet le, 62 P a l e West . C u tworm , 64 Paper-nest Wasp, 47 Pea A p h i d , 67 Peach Bark Beet l e , 1 2 8 Peach Tree Borer, 1 2 2 Peach Twig Borer, 1 2 3 Pear leaf B l i ster M i te , 1 38 Pear - s l u g , 1 3 1 Pea Weev i l , 1 50 Pecan Casebearer, 1 44 Pepper Weev i l , 78 P h a r a o h A n t , 24 P i c k l eworm , 8 1 P i l l bugs, 3 6 P i n e N eed l e Sca l e , 1 45 P i n k B o l l w o r m , 1 08 P l a i n s f a l s e W i reworm , 1 04 Plant Bugs, 1 0 1 P l a n t l i ce, 66-67, 1 3 1 P l aster Bagworm , 3 1 P l u m C u r c u l i o , 1 25 P o p l a r Borer, 1 40 Potato f l e a Beet le, 6 2

1 59

"' Potato leafhopper, 69 Potato Tuberworm, 8 2 P o u l try Li ce, 5 2 Psocids, 3 5 P u r p l e S c a l e , 22, 1 3 3 Puss Caterp i l l a r, 47

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Red-ban ded leaf R o l ler, 93 Red F l o u r Beet l e , 1 47 Red - l e g g ed G rasshopper, 99 Red-legged H a m Beetl e, 1 51 R i ce Weev i l , 1 4 6 Rocky M o u n t a i n Tick, 46 Rootwo r m s , 1 0 3 Rose Choler, 96 Rose C u r cu l i o , 97 "' Rose Leaf Beet l e , 96 u Rose Midge, 9 1 ! Rose Sca le, 2 1 z .. Rose- s l u g s , 9 5 Rosy A p p l e A p h i d , 1 3 2 0 .. R o u n d h eaded A p p l e Tree Borer, 1 27 "' .. Rove Beet l e, 1 1

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S a l t - m a r s h Mosq u ito, 4 1 Sand f l ies, 39 San Jose Sca l e , 1 34 Sawflies, 95, 1 1 8 , 1 3 1 , 1 45 Saw-toothed G ra i n Beet l e , 1 4 8 Scab Mite, 54 Scales, 1 2 , 86-87, 1 3 31 3 5 , 1 45 Scaly-leg Mite, 5 5 Scorp i o n s , 3 6 Screw-worm, 60 Secondary Screw-worm, 60 S h eep B i t i n g louse, 5 3 S h eep Bot F l ies, 57 Sheep Ked, 60 S h ort-n osed Cattle louse, 53 S h ot- h o l e Borer, 1 28 S i lverfi s h , 8, 34 S i n uate P e a r T r e e Borer, 1 29 S i x -spotted leafhopper, 69 S i x - spotted Mite, 1 3 8 S l u gs, 8 5

Te n t Cater p i l lars, 1 43 Term i tes, 2 6 - 2 7 T e x a s Leaf- c u tter A n t , 94 T h i e f Ant, 24, 1 1 9 T h r i p s , 72, 89 T h roat Bot Fly, 5 6 , 57 T i cks, 46, 48 Tobacco Hornwor m , 1 3 , 1 5, 1 1 3 Tobacco Moth, 1 5 1 Tomato H o r n wo rm , 8 2 , 113 Tomato R usset M i te , 85 Toot hed F l ea Beet le, 1 04 Tort o i se Beet les, 73 Tree Cri ckets, 1 37 Treeh oppers, 89 Tussock Mot h , 1 43 Two-spotted Spider Mite, 85 Two-striped Grassho pper, 99

S m a l l e r E u r . E l m Bark Beet le, 1 3 9 Snails, 85 S n owy Tree Cri cket, 1 3 7 Soft Scale, 87 S . Corn Rootwo r m , 77, 1 03 . S. Corn sta l k Borer, 1 1 4 S . G a rden Leafhopper, 69 S . G reen Stink B u g , 70 S . lyctus Beet l e , 3 5 S. P i n e Beet le, 1 4 1 Sowbugs, 36 Spider Beet les, 1 53 Spi ders, 37 S p i n a c h F l e a Beetle, 62 S p i n a c h leaf M i ner, 84 S p i rea A p h i d , 1 3 2 Spittlebugs, 1 0 1 Spot. B l ister Beet le, 75 Spot. C u c u m ber Beet l e , 77 Spotted Cutwo r m , 64 Spotted Garden S l u g , 85 S p r i n g Ca nkerwo r m , 1 2 1 S p r i n g ta i l , 3 5 Spruce Budwo r m , 1 42 Squash Bug, 7 1 S q u a s h V i n e Borer, 8 1 Sta b l e F l ies, 39 Sta l k Borer, 1 1 4 Sticktig h t Flea, 5 1 Sti n g i n g I n sects, 38-47 Sti n k B u g s, 70 Strawber. Flea Beet le, 62 Strawber. Root Weev i l , 79 Stri ped B l ist. Beet le, 7 5 Stri ped Cucu m . Beet l e , 77 Stri ped F l ea Beetle, 62 Stri ped Horse f l y , 5 6 Su bterranean Term ite, 27 Swa l l ow B u g , 4 2 Sweet Cl over Weevi l , 1 06 Sweetpotato F l e a Beet le, 62 Sweetpotato Weev i l , 7 8

Wasps a n d Bees, 4 7 Water B u g s , 2 9 W e b b i n g C l othes Moth, 31 Webworms, 8 2 , 1 1 5 Weev i l s , 78, 1 05 , 1 25, 1 26 , 1 4 6 West. Pine Beet l e , 1 4 1 West. Tussock Mot h , 1 43 Wheat Jointworm, 1 1 8 Wheat Stem Maggot, 1 1 6 Wheat Stem S a w fl y , 1 1 8 Wheat Straw-w o r m , 1 1 9 Wheat Wireworm , 1 04 W h iteflies, 8 8 , 1 36 W h i te-fri n g ed Beetles, 79 W h i t e G r u b s , 6 5 , 1 04 W h ite Marked Tussock, 1 43 W i reworms, 6 3 , 1 04 Wood - b o r i n g Beet les, 3 5 Woo l l y Apple A p h i d , 1 3 1 Woo l l ybears, 83

Ta c h i n i d Fly, 1 1 Tarnis hed P l a n t 71

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Variegated Cutwo r m , 64 Veda l ia , 1 2 , 1 3 5 Vegeta b l e Weev i l , 7 8 V i o l e t Sawfly, 9 5

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G E O R G E S . F I C H T E R re c e i v e d h i s t r a i n i n g i n e n to m o l o g y a t N o rth Caro l i n a State Co l l e g e , R a l e i g h and tau g h t z o o l o g y a t M i a m i U n i v e rs i ty i n Oxfo r d , O h i o . H e was e d i t o r of a n at i o n a l s p o rts m a g az i n e , h as w r i tt e n a rt i c l e s f o r m a n y m a g az i n e s , a n d i s a u t h o r of m o re t h a n a d o z e n b o o k s o n n atu ral h i st o ry s u bj e cts.

H E R B E R T S . Z I M , P h . D . , S c . D . , a n o r i g i n at o r and fo r m e r e d i t o r of t h e G o l d e n G u i d e S e ri e s , w a s a l s o an auth o r f o r m a n y y e ars. A u t h o r o f s o m e n i n ety b o o k s a n d e d i t o r of a b o u t as m any, h e i s n o w Adj u n ct Professo r at t h e U n i v e rs i ty of M i a m i and E d u c at i o n a l C o n s u ltant to the A m e ri c a n F r i e n d s S e rv i c e C o m m i tt e e a n d o th e r o r g a n i z at i o n s . H e w o r k s on e d u cati o n a l , p o p u l a t i o n a n d e n v i ro n m e n tal p ro b l e m s .

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E n g l a n d . Afte r wo r k i n g fo r t h e B r i t i s h M u s e u m , h e w e n t t o Egypt w h e re h e d i d i l l u strat i o n s of n atu ral h i st o ry and m e d i c al s u bj e c ts for the gov e rn m e n t . His f i rst w o r k in t h e U n ited S tates was fo r t h e A g a s s i z M u s e u m at H a rvard U n i v e rs i ty . I N S E CT P E S T S i s t h e f i rst b o o k h e h as d o n e f o r Golden Press.

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a re an introduction to the world of nature, a guide to the most common, most e a sily seen, and most in· teresting a spects of the world around us. Each guide combines the auth ority of eminent scientists and ex perts i n science education. These 1 60 p a ge hooks overflow with accurate full color illustrations and concise, double-ch ecked information which m akes identification and understanding the subject easy and e nj oy able.

Insect Pests

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