GRAMMAR REVIEW
1. RULES A rule in grammar is a generalization. It is a formula that one makes to account for how a given grammatical construction usually behaves . A rule is not necessarily true in every instance. It is generally true. Don’t be concerned if you see or hear something that does not coincide with a rule in this book. In this guide : Parentheses ( indicate o!tional usage usage when used in a rule. "races # $ indicate one other other choice or the other. #has % have$ & either have or has 2. METHOD OF STUDY 'he best method of im!roving your use of nglish grammar with this guide is to study the formulas and sam!le sentences. 'hen do the !ractice e)ercise at the end of each section. After each each grou! grou! of lesson lessons* s* there there is an e)erci e)ercise se using using gramm grammati atical cal !oints !oints from from the !reced !receding ing e)!lanations. If you still make errors* the !ractice test answer keys and the inde) give you the !age number of the e)!lanation e)!lanation to study again. again. 3. NORMAL SENTENCE PATTERN IN ENGLSH
Subject John and I We
verb ate
complement
a pizza studied
modifer
last night “present perfect” last week
SUBJECT
'he sub+ect is the agent of the sentence in the active voice, it is the !erson or thing that !erforms or is res!onsible for the action of the sentence* and it normally !recedes the verb. -ote : Every sentence in English must have a subject. subject. (In the case of commands* the sub+ect you/ is understood. the sub+ect may be a single noun. 0offee is delicious. 1ilk contains calcium. 'he sub+ect may be a noun !hrase. A noun !hrase is a grou! of words ending with a noun. (It 0A--2' begin with a !re!osition. !re!osition. 'he book is on the table. 'hat new red car is 3ohn’s. )am!les of sub+ects : 4e girls are not going to that movie. 5eorge likes boats. 1ary* 3ohn* 5eorge* 5eorge* and I went to a restaurant last night. 'he weather was very bad yesterday. 'he chemistry !rofessor canceled class today.
'he bank closed at two o’clock.
It can can act as a !ronoun for a noun or can be the sub+ect of an im!ersonal verb. As the sub+ect of an im!ersonal verb* the !ronoun is not actually used in a !lace of a noun* but is !art of an idiomatic e)!ression. It rains 6uite often here in the summer. It is hard to believe that he is dead. In some sentences* the true sub+ect does not a!!ear in normal sub+ect !osition. There can act as !seudo7 sub+ect and is treated like a sub+ect when changing word order to a 6uestion. 8owever* the true sub+ect a!!ears after the verb* and the number of the true sub+ect controls the verb. 'here 4ass 4a
was
a fire
verb (s (singular
sub+ ec ec t (singula r r
there
erb
'here 'here
in that building last month.
a fire in that building last month9 sub+ect
were were
many many studen students ts in the room. room.
verb (!lural
sub+ect (!lural
4ere there many students in the room9 erb
sub+ect
VERB
'he verb follows the sub+ect in a declarative sentence, it generally shows the action of the sentence. -2' : Every sentence must have a verb . 'he verb may be a single word. 3ohn drives too fast. 'hey hate s!inach. 'he verb may be a verb !hrase. A verb !hrase consists of one or more au)iliaries and one main verb. 'he au)iliaries always !recede the main verb. 3ohn is going to 1iami tomorrow. is, main verb;; going (au)iliary;; is 3ane has been reading that book. has, been, main verb;; reading reading (au)iliaries;; has, )am!les of verbs and verb !hrases :
'he bank closed at two o’clock.
It can can act as a !ronoun for a noun or can be the sub+ect of an im!ersonal verb. As the sub+ect of an im!ersonal verb* the !ronoun is not actually used in a !lace of a noun* but is !art of an idiomatic e)!ression. It rains 6uite often here in the summer. It is hard to believe that he is dead. In some sentences* the true sub+ect does not a!!ear in normal sub+ect !osition. There can act as !seudo7 sub+ect and is treated like a sub+ect when changing word order to a 6uestion. 8owever* the true sub+ect a!!ears after the verb* and the number of the true sub+ect controls the verb. 'here 4ass 4a
was
a fire
verb (s (singular
sub+ ec ec t (singula r r
there
erb
'here 'here
in that building last month.
a fire in that building last month9 sub+ect
were were
many many studen students ts in the room. room.
verb (!lural
sub+ect (!lural
4ere there many students in the room9 erb
sub+ect
VERB
'he verb follows the sub+ect in a declarative sentence, it generally shows the action of the sentence. -2' : Every sentence must have a verb . 'he verb may be a single word. 3ohn drives too fast. 'hey hate s!inach. 'he verb may be a verb !hrase. A verb !hrase consists of one or more au)iliaries and one main verb. 'he au)iliaries always !recede the main verb. 3ohn is going to 1iami tomorrow. is, main verb;; going (au)iliary;; is 3ane has been reading that book. has, been, main verb;; reading reading (au)iliaries;; has, )am!les of verbs and verb !hrases :
It was raining at si) o’clock last night. COMPLEMENT
A com!lement com!lement com!letes the verb. It is similar similar to the sub+ect because it is usually usually a noun or noun !hrase, however* it generally follows the verb when the sentence is in the active voice. -2' : Every sentence does not require require a complement. 'he 'he com!le com!lemen mentt 0A--2' 0A--2' begin begin with with a !re!os !re!ositi ition. on. A com!lement answers the 6uestion what9 2r whom9 )am!les of com!lements : 3ohn bought a cake yesterday. 3ill was driving a new car. 8e wants to drink some water.
( What did did 3ohn buy9 ( What was 3ill driving9 ( What does he want to drink9 ( Whom did she see at the movies9 ( Whom did they call yesterday9 ( What was he smoking9 MODIFIER
A modifier tells the time* !lace* or manner of the action. ery ery often it is a !re!ositional !hrase. A !re!ositional !hrase is a grou! of words that begins with a !re!ositions and ends with a noun. -2' : a modifier of time usually comes last if more than one modifier is !resent. )am!les of !re!ositional !hrases : In the morning* at the university* on the table. A modifier can also be an adverb or an adverbial !hrase. =ast night* hurriedly* ne)t year* outdoors* yesterday. -2' : Every how9
sentence does not require a modifier. modifier. a modifier answers the 6uestion when9 4here9 2r
)am!les of modifiers : ( Where did 3ohn buy a book9
3ohn bought a book at the bookstore. Modifier of place
3ill was swimming
in the !ool
yesterday.
Modifier of place
modifier of time
8e was driving very fast.
( Where was 3ill swimming9 ( Ho was he driving9
Modifier of manner
'he milk is in the refrigerator.
( Where is the milk9
Modifier of place
(Where did she drive9
( When did we eat dinner9
4e ate dinner at seven o’clock. Modifier of time
-ote : 'he modifier normally follows the com!lement* but not always. 8owever* the modifier* es!ecially when it is a !re!ositional !hrase* usually cannot se!arate the verb and the com!lement. Incorrect
:
0orrect
:
complement
Exercise 1 : S!"ec#$ Ver!$ Ver!$ C%&'(e&e)#$ *)+ M%+i,ierM%+i,ierIdentify the sub+ect* verb* com!lement* and modifier in each of the following sentences. >emember that not every sentence has com!lement or modifier. E"amples :
3ill
% is buying % a new hat % in the store.
subject
verb phrase
complement
modifier of place
"etty % is sho!!ing % downtown. #ubject
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
verb phrase
modifier of place
5eorge is cooking dinner tonight. 8enry and 1arcia have visited the President. 4e can eat lunch in this restaurant today. Pat should have bought gasoline yesterday. yesterday. 'rees grow. It was raining at seven o’clock this morning.
4. THE NOUN PHRASE 'he noun !hrase is a grou! of words that ends with a noun. It can contain determiners ( the, a, this, etc.$* ad+ectives* adverbs* and nouns. It 0A--2' begin with a !re!osition. >emember that both sub+ects and com!lements are generally noun !hrases. COUNT AND NON.COUNT NOUNS
A count noun is one that
can be counted.
%oo& ' one book* two books* three books* ?. #tudent ' one student* two students* three students* ? (erson ' one one !erson* two !eo!le* three !eo!le* ?. A noun7count noun is one that cannot be counted. Mil& ' you cannot say : one milk* two milks* ?.
It is !ossible* however* to count some non7count nouns if the substance is !laced in a countable container.
)lass of mil& ' one glass of milk* two glasses of milk* ?.
4I'8 -2-702@-' -2@-< 'he* some* any
this* that* these* those
'his* that
none* one* two* three* ?
none
many
much (usually in negatives or 6uestions
a lot of
a lot of
a #(large % great$ number of
a large amount of
a few
a little
fewer ? than
less ? than
more ? than
more ? than
It is very im!ortant to know if a noun is count or non7count. "e sure that you know the !lurals of irregular count nouns. 'he following list contains some irregular count nouns that you should know. Person7!eo!le oot7feet 4oman7women
child7children mouse7mice
tooth7teeth man7men
'he following list some contains some non7count nouns that you should know.
soa! mum!s information economics
!hysics air meat advertisingB
mathematics !olitics homework money
-ote : Although advertising is a non7count noun* advertisement is a count noun. If you wish to s!eak of one !articular advertisement* you must use this word. 'here are too many advertisements during television shows. shows. 'here are too much advertising during television shows. shows.
'his is one of the foods that my doctor has forbidden me to eat. (indicates a !articular ty!e of food 8e studies meats. (for e)am!le* beef* !ork* lamb* etc. 'he word time can be either countable or non7countable de!ending on the conte)t. 4hen it means an occasion* it is countable. 4hen it means a number of hours* days* years* etc.* it is non7 countable. 4e have s!ent too much time on this homework. (non7count emember that* while some of the nouns in the list of non7count nouns a!!ear to be !lural because they end in Es* they are actually not !lural. Exercise / : C%)# *)+ N%).C%)# N%)s Identify the following nouns as count nouns or non7count nouns according to their usual meaning.
'elevision 0ar -ews 5eogra!hy
atmos!here !erson water !encil
food tooth soa! sou!
cu! money hydrogen minute
Exercise 0 : De#er&i)ers0hoose the correct determiners in the following sentences.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
8e doesn’t have (many%much money. I would like (a few%a little salt on my vegetables.
'hat door is new. 'hose doors are new. 'hat girl is arrogant. 'hose girls are arrogant. 'his !en is e)!ensive. 'hese !ens are e)!ensive. 'his boy is smart at nglish. 'hese boys are smart?.. A few students are ?.. fewer A little water is ??. =ess
"ig E bigger E biggest
A AND AN A or an can !recede only singular count nouns, they mean one. 'hey can be used in a general statement or to introduce a sub+ect which has not been !reviously mentioned.
A baseball is round. I saw a boy in the street.
(general E means all baseballs (we don’t know which boy
+n is used before words that begin with a vowel sound. + is used before words that begin with a consonant sound. A book
an a!!le
eulogy home university
eu!hemism heavy universal
'he following words begin with a vowel sound and thus must 8our @ncle
heir umbrella
herbal unnatural
alays be !receded by a. eucaly!tus half union
alays be !receded by an. honor understanding
'he initial sound of the word that immediately follows the indefinite article will determine whether it should be a or an.
An umbrella An hour
a white umbrella a whole hour
THE The is used to indicate something that we already know about or something that is common knowledge.
'he boy in the corner is my friend. 'he earth is round. 4ith non7count nouns* one uses the article in general.
('he s!eaker and the listener know which boy ('here is only one earth
the if s!eaking in s!ecific terms* but uses no article if s!eaking
the.
(all oranges (all athletes
-ormally a !ro!er noun is not !receded by an article unless there are several !eo!le or things with the same name and the s!eaker is s!ecifying one of them. 'here are three
dinner, school, church, home, college, and or& do not use any
4e ate breakfast at eight o’clock this morning. 4e went to school yesterday. @se the following generalizations as a guide for the use of the article
@< THE 4I'8
ceans, rivers, seas, gulfs, plural la&es
the.
THE 4I'8 #ingular la&es
D2-’' @<
'he >ed
Mountains
Mounts
'he >ocky 1ountains* the Andes
1ounts esuvius* 1ount 1cFinley
Earth, moon
(lanets, constellations
'he earth* the moon
enus* 1ars* arth* 2rion
#chool, colleges, universities hen the phrase begins #chool, colleges, universities hen the phrase begins ith school, etc. ith a proper noun 'he @niversity of lorida* the 0ollege of Arts and
rdinal numbers before nouns
ardinal numbers after nouns
'he irst 4orld 4ar* the third cha!ter
4orld 4ar 2ne* cha!ter three
Wars -e"cept orld ars$
ountries preceded by /e or an adjective such as a direction
'he 0rimean 4ar* the Forean 4ar
-ew Gealand*
ertain countries or groups of countries ith more than one ord -e"cept )reat %ritain$ ountries ith only one ord 'he @nited e!ublic.
ontinents uro!e* Africa*
#tates lorida* 2hio* 0alifornia
Historical documents 'he 0onstitution* the 1agna 0harta
#ports Ethnic groups
"aseball* basketball
'he Indians* the Aztecs
+bstract nouns reedom* ha!!iness
)eneral areas of subject matter 1athematics* sociology
Holidays 0hristmas* 'hanksgiving Exercise : Ar#ic(esIn the following sentences su!!ly the articles ( a, necessary* leave the s!ace blank.
an, or the$ if they are necessary. If no article is
1. 3ason’s father bought him ;;;;; bicycle that he had wanted for his birthday. 2. ;;;;; ita is studying ;;;;; nglish and ;;;;; math this semester.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
;;;;; +udge asked ;;;;; witness to tell ;;;;; truth. Please give me ;;;;; cu! of ;;;;; coffee with ;;;;; cream and ;;;;; sugar. ;;;;; big books on ;;;;; table are for my history class. -o one in ;;;;; ushmore is the site of ;;;;; magnificent tribute to ;;;;; four 5reat American Presidents. 15. 4hat did you eat for ;;;;; breakfast this morning9 16. =ouie !layed ;;;;; basketball and ;;;;; baseball at ;;;;; "oy’s club this year. 17. >ita !lays ;;;;; violin and her sister !lays ;;;;; guitar. 18. 4hile we were in ;;;;; Alaska* we saw ;;;;; skimo illage. 19. Phil can’t go to ;;;;; movies tonight because he has to write ;;;;; essay. 20. David attended ;;;;; Princeton @niversity. 21. 8arry has been admitted to ;;;;;
OTHER
'he use of the word other is often a cause of confusion for foreign students.
4I'8 -2-702@-' -2@-<
Another !encil & one more !encil.
The other 0 singular noun (last of the set 'he other !encil & the last !encil !resent
ther 0 plural noun (more of the set
ther 0 non1count nouns (more of the set
2ther !encils & some more !encils
2ther water & some more water
The other 0 plural noun (the rest of the set
The other 0 non1count nouns (all the rest
'he other !encils & all remaining !encils.
'he other water & the remaining water
-ote : +nother and other are non s!ecific while the other is s!ecific. If the sub+ect is understood* one can omit the noun and kee! the determiner and other so that other function as a !ronoun. If it is a !lural count noun that s omitted* other become others. 'he word other can never be !lural if it is followed by a noun. I don’t want this book. Please give me another. (another 2 any other book E not s!ecific I don’t want this book. Please give me the other. (the other 2 the other book E s!ecific 'his chemical is !oisonous. 2thers are !oisonous too. (others 2 other chemicals E not s!ecific I don’t want these books. Please give me the others. (the others 2 the other books E s!ecific -2' : Another way of substituting for the noun is to use
other 0 one or ones.
I don’t want this book. Please give me another one. I don’t want this book. Please give me the other one. 'his chemical is !oisonous. 2ther ones are !oisonous too. I don’t want these books. Please give me the other ones. Exercise 2 : O#3erill in the blanks with the a!!ro!riate form of
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
other.
'his !en isn’t working. Please give me ;;;;;;;; (singular If you’re still thirsty* I’ll make ;;;;;;;; !ot of coffee. 'his dictionary has a !age missing. Please give me ;;;;;;;; (the last one 8e does not need those books. 8e needs ;;;;;;;; (all the remaining 'here are thirty !eo!le in the room. 'wenty are from =atin America and ;;;;;;;; are from ;;;;;;;; countries.
6.
Si&'(e 'rese)# E 8e walks to school every day. 7 8e walked to school yesterday Si&'(e '*s# Prese)# 'r%4ressi5e (continuous E 8e is walking to school now P*s# 'r%4ressi5e (continuous 7 8e was walking to school when he saw 3ane. Prese)# 'er,ec# 7 8e has walked to school several times. P*s# 'er,ec# . 8e had walked to school before he hurt his foot.
5iven here is a list of some of the common irregular verbs in nglish. It is very im!ortant that you know whether a verb is regular or irregular. Qou will notice that regular verbs are the same in the !ast tense and !ast !artici!le, however* irregular verbs are very often different in these forms. <-' '-< "eat "egin "ind "ite "low "reak "ring "uild "uy 0atch
'I0IP= P><-' PA>'I0IP= "eat "egan "ound "it "lew "roke "rought "uilt "ought 0aught
"eaten "egun "ound "itten "lown "roken "rought "uilt "ought 0aught
"eating "eginning "inding "iting "lowing "reaking "ringing "uilding "uying 0atching
0hoose Do Drink Drive at all eel ind ly orget 5et 5ive 8ear 8ide Fee! Fnow =ead =eave =ose 1ake 1eet Pay >ide >un
0hose Did Drank Drove Ate ell elt ound lew orgot 5ot 5ave 8eard 8id Fe!t Fnew =ed =eft =ost 1ade 1et Paid >ode >an
0hosen Done Drunk Driven aten allen elt ound lown orgotten 5otten 5iven 8eard 8idden Fe!t Fnown =ed =eft =ost 1ade 1et Paid >idden >un
0hoosing Doing Drinking Driving ating alling eeling inding lying orgetting 5etting 5iving 8earing 8iding Fee!ing Fnowing =eading =eaving =osing 1aking 1eeting Paying >iding >unning
Qou should know that there is no change in the following verbs to indicate the different tenses. <-' '-<
'I0IP= P><-' PA>'I0IP=
"et "id 0ost 0ut it 8it Put Huit >ead
"et "id 0ost 0ut it 8it Put Huit >ead
"et "id 0ost 0ut it 8it Put Huit >ead
"etting "idding 0osting 0utting itting 8itting Putting Huitting >eading
B 4ead is !ronounced differently in the !ast tense and !artici!le but is s!elled the same. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
'his tense is usually not used to indicate !resent time. 8owever* it is used to indicate !resent time (now with the following stative verbs. Fnow @nderstand 8ave
believe hate need
hear love a!!ear
see like seem
smell want taste
wish sound own
-2' : 'he verbs listed above are almost never used in the !resent or !ast !rogressive (continuous* although it is !ossible in some cases.
(stative verb (habitual action (stative verb (stative verb (habitual action (stative verb
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE 6CONTINUOUS7
@se the following rule to form the !resent !rogressive.
0 verb R ing / ?
'he !resent !rogressive is used to indicate !resent time (now with all but the stative verbs listed !reviously.
3ohn is eating dinner now. It is also used to indicate future time. 4e are leaving for the theater at seven o’clock. )am!les of !resent !rogressive : 'he committee members are e)amining the material now. 5eorge is leaving for rance tomorrow. 8enry is walking to school tomorrow. 'he !resident is trying to contact his advisors now. 'he secretary is ty!ing the letter now. 4e are flying to enezuela ne)t month.
(!resent time (future time (future time (!resent time (!resent time (future time
Exercise 8 : Si&'(e Prese)# *)+ Prese)# Pr%4ressi5e0hoose either the sim!le !resent or !resent !rogressive in the following sentences.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
SIMPLE PAST TENSE
'he sim!le !ast is used for a com!leted action that ha!!ened at one specific time in the !ast. 'he italicized words in the !revious sentence are im!ortant because they show that sim!le !ast is not the same as !ast !rogressive or !resent !erfect. 3ohn went to
@se the following rule to form the !ast !rogressive.
'he !ast !rogressive is used to indicate : •
An action which was occurring in the !ast and was interru!ted by another action. In this case* the general rule is :
When 0 sub+ect R sim!le !ast tense R sub+ect S R !ast !rogressive ? 2>
hen 0 sub+ect S R sim!le !ast tense ?
4hen 1ark came home* 1artha was watching television. 2> 1artha was watching television* 4hen 1ark came home. •
'wo actions occurring at the same time in the !ast. In this case* the following rules usually a!!ly.
hile 0 sub+ect S R !ast !rogressive ? 2>
While 0 sub+ect R !ast !rogressive R sub+ect S R !ast !rogressive ? 1artha was watching television while 3ohn was reading a book. while 3ohn was reading a book* 1artha was watching television. -2' : the following construction is also !ossible* but it is not as common as the !receding two.
While 0 sub+ect R !ast !rogressive R sub+ect S R sim!le !ast ? 4hile 1artha was watching television* 3ohn read a book. •
An action which was occurring at some s!ecific time in the !ast.
1artha was watching television at seven o’clock last night. 4hat were you doing at one o’clock this afternoon9 )am!les of !ast !rogressive : 3ohn was walking to class when he lost his !en. 'he student was reading while the !rofessor was s!eaking. 5eorge was watching television when his brother called. 8enry was eating a snack at midnight last night. 4hen 1ary came home* her husband was cooking dinner. 1ark was driving on 1ain
Exercise 9 : Si&'(e P*s# Te)se *)+ P*s# Pr%4ressi5e@se either the sim!le !ast tense or the !ast !rogressive in the following sentences as a!!ro!riate.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
5ene ;;;;;;;; (eat dinner when his friend called. 4hile 1aria was cleaning the a!artment* her husband ;;;;;;;; (slee!ing At three o’clock this morning* leanor ;;;;;;;; (studying 4hen 1ark arrived* the 3ohnsons ;;;;;;;; (have dinner* but they sto! in order to talk to him. 3ohn ;;;;;;;; (go to rance last year. 4hen the teacher ;;;;;;;; (enter the room* the students were talking. 4hile 3oan was writing the re!ort* 8enry ;;;;;;;; (look for more information. 4e ;;;;;;;; (see this movie last night. At on time* 1r. >oberts ;;;;;;;; (own this building. 3ose ;;;;;;;; (write a letter to his family when his !encil ;;;;;;;; (break.
PRESENT PERFECT
@se the following rule to form the !resent !erfect.
'he !resent !erfect is used to indicate : •
•
•
An action that ha!!ened at an indefinite time in the !ast. 3ohn has traveled around the world. (4e don’t know when An action that ha!!ened more than once in the !ast. 5eorge has seen this movie three times. An action that began in the !ast and is still occurring in the !resent. 3ohn has lived in the same house for twenty years. (8e still lives there 2>
3ohn has lived in the same house since LJO. (8e still lives there if it is now LLO. FOR / SINCE
@se for 0 duration of time : for five hours, for thirty beginning time : since 789:, since five o;cloc&, since
years, for ten minutes. @se since 0
YET / ALREADY
'he adverbs yet and already are used to indicate that something has ha!!ened (or hasn’t ha!!ened at an uns!ecified time in the !ast. 'hese adverbs are often used with the !resent !erfect.
+lready E affirmative sentences =et E negative sentences and 6uestions
-2' : +lready usually a!!ears between the au)iliary and the main verb, however* it can a!!ear at the beginning or end of the sentence. =et a!!ears at the end of the sentence.
or an action that began in the !ast and is still occurring in the !resent (!resent !erfect rules* third time* it is also !ossible to use the !resent !erfect !rogressive (continuous. @se the following rule to form this as!ect.
(indefinite time (more than once (indefinite time (not yet com!leted
4e haven’t gone to the store yet. 3ohn has worked in 4ashington for three years. 2> 3ohn has been working in 4ashington for three years.
(indefinite time
(not yet com!leted
Exercise : Prese)# Per,ec# *)+ Si&'(e P*s# @se either the !resent !erfect or the sim!le !ast in the following sentences.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
3ohn ;;;;;;;; (write his re!ort last night. "ob ;;;;;;;; (see this movie before. 3orge ;;;;;;;; (read the news!a!er already. 1r. 3ohnson ;;;;;;;; (work in the same !lace for thirty7five years* and he is not !lanning to retire yet. 4e ;;;;;;;; (begin, negative to study for test yet. 5eorge ;;;;;;;; (go to the store at ten o’clock this morning. 3oan ;;;;;;;; (travel around the world. "etty ;;;;;;;; (write a letter last night. 5uillermo ;;;;;;;; (call his em!loyer yesterday. 4e ;;;;;;;; (see, negative this movie yet.
PAST PERFECT
@se the following rule to form the !ast !erfect.
had R been R verb in !ast !artici!le / ?
'he !ast !erfect is used to indicate : •
An action that ha!!ened before another action in the !ast, there usually are two actions in the sentence. 3ohn had gone to the store before he went home. 3ack told us yesterday that he had visited ngland in LJM. >nd action 7 st action
Past !erfect st action
'he !ast !erfect is usually used with
before, after, or hen.
before 0 sub+ect R sim!le !ast tense
3ohn had gone to the store before he went home.
now
after 0 sub+ect R !ast !erfect
3ohn went home after he had gone to the store.
%efore R sub+ect R sim!le !ast tense R sub+ect R !ast !erfect
"efore 3ohn went home* he had gone to the store.
+fter 0 sub+ect R !ast !erfect R sub+ect R sim!le !ast tense After 3ohn had gone to the store* he went home. -ote : 'he adverb hen can be used in !lace of before or after in any of these four formulas without change in meaning. 4e still know which action ha!!ened first because of the use of !ast !erfect. •
A state which continued for a time in the !ast* but sto!!ed before now. -ote that there is no connection with the !resent. Abdu had lived in -ew Qork for ten years before he moved to 0alifornia.
'en years
moved
now
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE 6CONTINUOUS7
'his !ast !erfect conce!t can also be conveyed by the !ast !erfect !rogressive (continuous. ico* he went to 5eorge had been working at the university for fort y7five years before he retired. After the committee members had considered the conse6uences* they voted on the !ro!osal. 'he doctor had e)amined the !atient thoroughly before he !rescribed the medication. Exercise ; : P*s# Per,ec# *)+ Si&'(e P*s#
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
'he !oliceman read the sus!ect his rights after he ;;;;;;;; (arrest him. After 3ohn ;;;;;;;; (wash his clothes* he began to study. 5eorge ;;;;;;;; (wait for one hour before the bus came. 1aria ;;;;;;;; (enter the university after she had graduated from the community college. 3eannette ;;;;;;;;; (wash the !i!ettes after she had com!leted the e)!eriment. 3ane sent a letter to her university after she ;;;;;;;; (receive her scholarshi! check.
7. 8. 9. 10.
After the stewardesses had served lunch to the !assengers* they ;;;;;;;; (sit down. 'he car ;;;;;;;; (fli! ten times before it landed on its roof. 4e corrected our !a!ers after we ;;;;;;;; (take the 6uiz. 3ohn ;;;;;;;; (live in 1iami for one year when his !arents came to visit.
6. SUBJECT.VERB AGREEMENT >emember that the sub+ect and verb in a sentence must agree in !erson and number. 'he elevator works very well. 'he elevators work very well. #ingular
singular
plural
plural
SUBJECT SEPARATED FROM THE VERB
4hen taking the '2=* you must always check the sub+ect and verb to be sure they agree. 8owever* sometimes it is difficult to decide e)actly what the sub+ect is if the sub+ect and verb are se!arated. 'he boys in the room are studying.
(lural
plural
ery often* if the sub+ect and verb are se!arated* they will be se!arated by a !re!ositional !hrase. 'he !re!ositional !hrase has no effect on the verb.
'he study
of language
#ingular subject
is
very interesting.
singular verb
'he view
plural verb
of these disci!lines varies from time to time.
#ingular subject
singular verb
'he danger of forest fires
is
#ingular subject
'he effects of that crime are (lural subject
'he fear
not to be taken lightly.
singular verb
likely to be devastating. plural verb
of ra!e and robbery has caused many !eo!le to flee the cities.
#ingular subject
singular verb
'he following e)!ressions also have no effect on the verb. 'ogether with Accom!anied by
along with as well as
'he actress* along with her manager and some friends* is going to a !arty tonight. #ingular subject
singular verb
1r. >obins* accom!anied by his wife and children* is arriving tonight. #ingular subject
singular verb
-2' : If the con+unction
and is used instead of one of these !hrases* the verb would then be !lural.
'he actress and her manager are going to a !arty tonight. (lural subject
(lural verb
Exercise 1< : S!"ec#.Ver! A4ree&e)# 0hoose the correct form of the verb in !arentheses in the following sentences.
1. 2. 3. 4.
3ohn* along with twenty friends* (is%are !lanning a !arty 'he !icture of the soldiers (bring%brings back many memories. 'he 6uality of these recordings (is%are not very good. If the duties of these officers (isn’t%aren’t reduced* there will not be enough time to finish the !ro+ect. 5. 'he effects of cigarettes smoking (have%has been !roven to be e)tremely harmful. 6. 'he use of credit cards in !lace of cash (have%has increased ra!idly in recent years. 7. Advertisements on television (is%are becoming more com!etitive than ever before. 8. =iving e)!enses in this country* as well as many others* (is%are at an all7time high. 9. 1r. 3ones* accom!anied by several members of the committee* (have%has !ro!osed some changes of the rules. 10. 'he levels of into)ication (vary%varies from sub+ect to sub+ect. WORDS THAT ALWAYS TA=E SINGULAR VERBS AND PRONOUNS
Any R
no R
some R singular noun
nobody no one nothing
singular noun somebody someone something each R singular noun eitherB neitherB
?Either and /either are singular if they are not used with or and nor. verybody who has not !urchased a ticket should be in this line.
NONE / NO
/one can take either a singular or !lural verb* de!ending on the noun which follows it. -one R of the 0 non7count noun R singular verb -one of the counterfeit money has been found. -one R of the 0 !lural count noun R !lural verb -one of the students have finished the e)am yet.
/o can take either a singular or !lural verb de!ending on the noun which follows it. /o 0 # singular noun % non7count noun $ R singular verb -o e)am!le is relevant to this case.
EITHER / NEITHER
4hen either and neither are followed by or and nor, the verb may be singular or !lural* Either neither 0 # nor5or6 Ror !lural !lural verb nor isRsingular de!ending on 5whether thenoun nounR following and noun or !lural. If or or nor a!!ears alone* the same rule a!!lies.
plural verb
ither 3ohn or his friends are going to the beach today. (lural noun
plural verb
Either 5 neither 0 noun R #nor5or6 R singular noun R singular verb -either 3ohn nor
"ill #ingular noun
ither 3ohn or
"ill #ingular subject
is going to the beach today. singular verb
is going to the beach today. singular verb
)am!les : -either 3ohn nor 3ane is going to class today. #ingular singular
-either 1aria nor her friends are going to class today. (lural
plural
3ohn or 5eorge is bringing the car. #ingular
singular
-either the "oys nor 0armen has seen this movie before. #ingular
singular
-either the director nor the secretary wants to leave yet. #ingular
singular
GERUNDS AS SUBJECTS
If a sentence begins with verb R
ing / (gerund* the verb must also be singular.
Fnowing her has made him what he is. Dieting is very !o!ular today. -ot studying has caused him many !roblems. 4ashing with a s!ecial cream is recommended for scal! infections. "eing cordial is one of his greatest assets. 4riting many letters makes her ha!!y. COLLECTIVE NOUNS
Also many words indicating a number of !eo!le or animals are singular. 'he following nouns are usually singular. In some cases they are !lural if the sentence indicates that the individual members are acting se!arately. 0ongress 2rganization 5overnment
family team +ury
grou! army ma+orityB
committee club minority
class crowd !ublic
B Majority can be singular or !lural. If it is alone it is usually singular, if it is followed by a !lural noun* it is usually !lural. 'he ma+ority believes that we are in no danger. 'he ma+ority of students believe him to be innocent. )am!les of collective nouns : 'he committee has met* and it has re+ected the !ro!osal. 'he family was elated by the news. 'he crowd was wild with e)citement. 0ongress has initiated a new !lan to combat inflation. 'he organization has lost many members this year. 2ur team is going to win the game. 'he following nouns are used to indicate grou!s of certain animals. It is not necessary to learn the nouns, however* they mean the same as group and thus are considered singular. 'wenty7five dollars is too much to !ay for that shirt. ifty minutes isn’t enough time to finish this test.
'wenty dollars is all I can afford to !ay for that recorder. 'wo miles is too much to run in one day. A NUMBER OF / THE NUMBER OF
+ number of 0 !lural noun R !lural verb ? The number of 0 !lural noun R singular verb ? A number of students are going to the class !icnic. ( a number of 2 many 'he number of days in a week is seven. A number of the a!!licants have already been interviewed. 'he number of residents who have been 6uestioned on this matter is 6uite small. NOUNS THAT ARE ALWAYS PLURAL
'he following nouns are always considered !lural. 'hey cannot be singular. In order to s!eak of them as singular* one must say Ca !air of ;;;;;;;
shorts eyeglasses
!ants !liers
+eans tweezers
tongs
'he !ants are in the drawer. A !air of !ants is in the drawer. 'he !liers were on the table. 'he !air of !liers was on the table. 'hese scissors are dull. 'he !air of scissors is dull. THERE IS / THERE ARE
>emember that with sentences beginning with the e)istential the verb.
There is There as There has been
0 singular sub+ect ?
There are There ere There have been
0 !lural sub+ect ?
'here is a storm a!!roaching. #ingular singular
there, the sub+ect is actually after
(or non7count
'here have been a number of tele!hone calls today. (lural
plural
'here was an accident last night. #ingular
#ingular
'here were too many !eo!le at the !arty.
(lural
(lural
'here has been an increase in the im!ortation of foreign cars. #ingular
#ingular
'here was water on the floor where he fall. #ingular non1count
Exercise 11 : S!"ec#.Ver! A4ree&e)# 0hoose the correct form of the verb in the following sentences.
1. -either "ill nor 1ary (is%are going to the !lay tonight. 2. Anything (is%are better than going to another movie tonight. 3.
7. PRONOUNS
'here are five forms of !ronouns in nglish : sub+ect !ronouns* com!lement !ronouns (ob+ect !ronouns* !ossessive !ronouns* !ossessive ad+ectives* and refle)ive !ronouns. I Qou 8e
we you they
-ote : also use the sub+ect !ronoun after
than, as, and that.
I
am going to the store.
subject
4e have lived here for twenty years. subject
It was she who called you. (after the verb
be
subject
5eorge and I would like to leave now. subject
4e students are going to have a !arty. subject
-ote : We, you, and us can be followed directly by a noun. In the above sentence more clear e)actly who e refers to.
e students makes it
COMPLEMENT PRONOUNS
0om!lement !ronouns occur in com!lement !osition* whether they com!lement a verb or !re!osition.
1e Qou 8im 8er It
us you
-ote : =ou and it are the same for sub+ect or com!lement !osition. 'he others are different.
them
'hey called
us
on the tele!hone.
omplement
'he teacher gave
him
a bad grade.
omplement
3ohn told
her
a story.
omplement
'he !oliceman was looking for
him
.
+fter preposition
'o
us
* it seems like a good bargain.
+fter preposition
1arry is going to class with
me
.
+fter preposition
8owever* remember that many !re!ositions can also function as other !arts of s!eech* like adverbs or con+unctions. 'herefore* you must determine the !art of s!eech of the word from conte)t and not sim!ly rely on your normal understanding of the word. 3anet will make her !resentation
after
him
.
(reposition complement pronoun
3anet will make her !resentation
after
he
finishes his s!eech.
onjunction
subject pronoun lause
(A clause contains a sub+ect and a verb. In the clause above*
he is the sub+ect and finishes is the verb
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
Possessive ad+ectives are not the same as !ossessive !ronouns. 'hese sim!ly modify* rather than re!lace* nouns, !ossessive !ronouns re!lace nouns. Possessive forms indicate ownershi!.
'hese !ronouns cannot !recede a noun. 'hey are !ronouns and thus re!lace the noun. 'he noun is understood from the conte)t and is not re!eated.
1ine Qours 8is 8ers Its
mine Qours 8ers
& my R noun, for e)am!le* my boo& & your 0 noun, for e)am!le* your pen & her 0 noun, for e)am!le* her dress
ours yours theirs
-ote : His and Its are the same whether they !recede a noun or not.
)am!les of !ossessive !ronouns : 'his is my book. Qour teacher is the same as his teacher. 8er dress is green and my dress is red. 2ur books are heavy. 'heir coats are too small. I forgot my homework.
'his is mine. Qours is the same as his. 8ers is green and mine is red. 2urs are heavy. 'heirs are too small. I forgot mine.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
'hese !ronouns usually follow the verb and indicate that the sub+ect is both giving and receiving the action.
ourselves yourselves themselves
-ote : In the !lural* the self changes to selves. -ote : 1ost forms are made by adding the suffi) to the !ossessive ad+ective, however* himself * itself * and themselves are made by adding the suffi) to the com!lement form* the forms hisself and theirselves are A=4AQ< I-02>>0'.
-ote : 3ohn bought him a new car. (him 2 another !erson 3ohn bought himself a new car. ( himself 2 3ohn )am!les of refle)ive !ronouns : I washed myself. 8e sent the letter to himself. efle)ive !ronouns can also be used for e m!hasis. 'his means that the sub+ect did the action alone. In this case* it normally follows the sub+ect. I myself believe that the !ro!osal is good. 8e himself set out to break the long distance flying record.
Qou yourself must do this homework. 3ohn himself bought these gifts. -ote : by 0 refle)ive !ronoun can also mean alone. 3ohn washes the dishes by himself & 3ohn washed the dishes
alone.
Exercise 1/ : Pr%)%)s 0ircle the correct form of the !ronoun or !ossessive ad+ective in the following sentences.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
I go to school with (he%him every day. I see (she%her%herself at the @nion every da y.
8. VERBS AS COMPLEMENTS VERBS THAT ARE ALWAYS FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE
attem!t e)!ect intend !re!are
claim fail learn !retend
3ohn e)!ects to begin studying law ne)t semester. 1ary learned to swim when she was very young.
decide forget need refuse
demand hesitate offer seem
'he budget committee decided to !ost!one this meeting. 'he !resident will attem!t to reduce inflation in the ne)t four years. 'he soldiers are !re!aring to attack the village. 0ynthia has agreed to act as a liaison between the two countries. VERBS THAT ARE ALWAYS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND
2ther verbs must always be followed by the gerund. 'hese verbs include : Admit Delay 1iss >e!ort suggest
a!!reciate deny !ost!one resent
avoid en+oy !ractice resist
can’t hel! finish 6uit resume
consider mind recall risk
3ohn admitted stealing the +ewels. 4e en+oyed seeing them again after so many years. Qou shouldn’t risk entering that building in its !resent condition. 1ichael was considering buying a new car until the !rices went u!. 'he coast guard has re!orted seeing another shi! in the lorida
not before the infinitive or
3ohn decided not to buy the car. 4e regretted not going to the !arty last night. 'he following verbs can be followed by either the infinitive or the gerund with no change in meaning. "egin 8ate >egret
can’t stand like start
continue love try
dread !refer
8e started to study after dinner. 2> 8e started studying after dinner. 3oan hates to ride her bicycle to school. 2> 3oan hates riding her bicycle to school. VERBS > PREPOSITIONS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND
If a verb R !re!osition* ad+ective R !re!osition* noun R !re!osition* or !re!osition alone is followed directly by a verb* the verb will always be in the gerund form. 'he following list consists of verbs R !re!ositions. A!!rove of 5ive u! >ely on 4orry about
be better off insist on succeed in
count on kee! on think about
de!end on !ut off think of
'he following e)!ression contain the !re!osition to. 'he word to in these e)!ressions must not be confused with the to in the infinitive. 'hese verb R !re!osition e)!ression must also be followed by the gerund. 2b+ect to
look forward to
confess to
3ohn gave u! smoking because of his doctor’s advice. 1ary insisted on taking the bus instead of the !lane. red confessed to stealing the +ewels. 4e are not looking forward to going back to school. 8enry is thinking of going to rance in August. Qou would be better off leaving now instead of tomorrow. ADJECTIVES > PREPOSITIONS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND
'he following ad+ectives R !re!ositions are also followed by the gerund. Accustomed to Intent on
afraid of interested in
ca!able of successful in
fond of tired of
1itch is afraid of getting married now. 4e are accustomed to slee!ing late on weekends. 3ean is not ca!able of understanding the !redicament. Alvaro is intent on finishing school ne)t year. 0raig is fond of dancing. 4e are interested in seeing this film. NOUNS > PREPOSITIONS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND
'he following nouns R !re!ositions are also followed by the gerund. 0hoice of Possibility of
e)cuse for
intention of reason for
method for (method of
5eorge has no e)cuse for dro!!ing out of school. 'here is a !ossibility of ac6uiring this !ro!erty at a good !rice. 'here is no reason for leaving this early. 0onnie has develo!ed a method for evaluating this !roblem. Anytime a !re!osition is followed directly by a verb* the verb will be in the gerund form. After leaving the !arty* Ali drove home. 8e should have stayed in -ew Qork instead of moving to 1aine.
ADJECTIVES FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE
'he following ad+ectives are always followed by the infinitive form of the verb and never by the gerund. An)ious ager Pleased @sual
boring easy !re!ared common
dangerous good ready difficult
hard strange ableB
BAble means the same as capable in many instances* but the grammar is very different. 4hile followed by the infinitive* capable is followed by of 0 verb R ing /. 'hese students are not yet able to handle such difficult !roblems. 'hese students are not yet ca!able of handling such difficult !roblems. )am!les of ad+ectives followed by infinitives : 1ohammad is eager to see his family. It is dangerous to drive in this weather. 4e are ready to leave now. It is difficult to !ass this test. It is uncommon to find such good cro!s in this section of the country. >itsuko was !leased to be admitted to the college.
remember
3ohn sto!!ed studying. 3ohn sto!!ed to study.
forget (3ohn is not going to study anymore (3ohn sto!!ed doing something in order to study
Exercise 10 : Ver! *s C%&'(e&e)#s0hoose the correct form of the verb in !arentheses in the following sentences.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
'he teacher decided (acce!ting%to acce!t the !a!er. 'hey a!!reciate (to have%having this information. 8is father doesn’t a!!rove of his (going%to go to uro!e. 4e found it very difficult (reaching%to reach a decision. Donna is interested in (to o!en%o!ening a bar. 5eorge has no intention of (to leave%leaving the city now. 4e are eager (to return%returning to school in the fall. Qou would be better off (to buy%buying this car.
able is
15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
4e are not ready (to sto!%sto!!ing this research at this time. 8enry shouldn’t risk (to drive%driving so fast. 8e demands (to know%knowing what is going on.
PRONOUNS BEFORE THE GERUND OR INFINITIVE
In cases where the infinitive is used as a com!lement* any noun or !ronoun directly !receding it will be in the complement form. emind
ask order urge
beg !ermit want
convince !ersuade
e)!ect !re!are
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
>ichard is e)!ecting (us%our to go to class tomorrow. Qou shouldn’t rely on (him%his calling you in the morning. 'hey don’t a!!rove of (us%our leaving early. 5eorge asked (me%my to call him last night. 4e understand (him%his having to leave early. 3ohn resented (5eorge%5eorge’s losing the !a!er.
ing / ?
instruct !romise
7. 8. 9. 10.
4e ob+ect to (the defense attorney%the defense attorney’s calling the e)tra witness. 4e are e)!ecting (8enry%8enry’s to call us. 'hey are looking forward to (us%our visiting them.
9. THE VERB NEED 'he verb need is followed by the infinitive only if an animate being is the sub+ect. If an inanimate ob+ect is the sub+ect of this verb* the verb is followed by a gerund or the verb be !lus the !ast !artici!le. Animate being as sub+ect R verb infinitive/ ?
3ohn and his brother need to !aint the house. 1y friend needs to learn
ing 5 to be 0 verb in !ast !artici!le/ ?
'he grass needs cutting. 2> the grass needs to be cut. 'he television needs re!airing. 2> 'he television needs to be re!aired. 'he com!osition needs rewriting. 2> 'he com!osition needs to be rewritten. IN NEED OF
It is also !ossible to use the e)!ression in need of in some cases instead of using need as a verb. "ecause need is not a verb in this case* it must be !receded by the verb be.
be 0 in need of 0 noun ?
3ill is need of money. (3ill needs money. 'he roof is in need of re!air. ('he roof needs to be re!aired. 'he organization was in need of volunteers. ('he organization needed volunteers. Exercise 12 : Nee+
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
need in each of the following sentences.
It’s too hot and my hair needs ;;;;; (cut 'he flowers need to be ;;;;; (water 3ames needs ;;;;; (see a doctor soon. 1ary will need ;;;;; (make a new dress for the !arty. 8is !iano needs ;;;;; (tune Qou will need ;;;;; (be here at eight. 'he s6ueaky door needs to be ;;;;; (oil I need ;;;;; (go sho!!ing this afternoon. 'hey need ;;;;; (study harder for that test. 'he house needs to be ;;;;; (!aint soon.
10. @UESTIONS >emember that* when forming a 6uestion* one must !lace the au)iliary or the verb be before the sub+ect. If there is no au)iliary or be* one must use the correct form of do, does, or did. After do, does, or did, the sim!le form of the verb must be used. 'he tense and !erson are shown only by this au)iliary* not by the main verb. YESNO @UESTIONS
'hese are 6uestions for which the answer is yes or no. Au)iliary %
be % do, does, did 0 sub+ect R verb ?
Is 1ary going to school today9 4as 1ary sick yesterday9 8ave you seen this movie before9 4ill the committee decide on the !ro!osal today9 Do you want to use the tele!hone9 Does 5eorge like !eanut butter9 Did you go to class yesterday9 INFORMATION @UESTIONS
'hese are for which the answer is more than yes or answer. 'here are three different rules in this !art: •
no, there must be some information in the
Who or hat in sub+ect 6uestions: A sub+ect 6uestion is one in which the subject is un&non. Who 5 hat 0 verb R (com!lement R (modifier 4ho o!ened the door9 ( #omeone o!ened the door. 4hat ha!!ened last night9 ( #omething ha!!ened last night. -2' : It is not correct to
•
4ho did o!en the door9 4hat did ha!!en last night9
Whom and hat in com!lement 6uestions : A com!lement 6uestion is one in which the complement is un&non. Whom 5 hat 0 au)iliary % do, does, did R sub+ect R verb R (modifier
-ote: Although in s!eech* most !eo!le use ho rather than hom in these 6uestions* in correct written nglish* you should use hom to indicate that the 6uestion word comes from the com!lement !osition.
4hom does Ahmad know from enezuela9 4hat did 5eorge buy at the store9 •
(Ahmad knows someone from enezuela (5eorge bought something at the store
When, here, ho, and hy 6uestions: 'hese 6uestions are formed the same as com!lement 6uestions.
When 5 here 5 ho 5 hy 0 au)iliary % be % do, does, did R sub+ect R (verb R (com!lement R (modifier ? 4hen did 3ohn move to 3acksonville9 4here does 1ohammad live9 4hy did 5eorge leave so early9 8ow did 1aria get to school today9 4here has 8enry gone9 EMBEDDED @UESTIONS
An embedded 6uestion is one which is included in a sentence or another 6uestion. 'he word order is not that of ty!ical 6uestions* e)ce!t for sub+ect 6uestions.
must not be an au)iliary between the 6uestion word and the sub+ect in an embedded : :
4here will the meeting take !lace9 4e haven’t ascertained where the meeting will take !lace. A ord
Huestion mbedded 6uestion
: :
subject
verb phrase
4hy did the !lane land at the wrong air!ort9 'he authorities cannot figure out why the !lane landed at the wrong A ord
subject
verb
air!ort. 'he following rules a!!lies if the embedded 6uestion is embedded in another 6uestion. Au)iliary R sub+ect R verb R 6uestion word R sub+ect R verb Do you know where he went9 0ould you tell me what time it is9 -ote : Huestion word can be single words or !hrases. Phrases include: much, ho long, ho often, hat time, and hat &ind.
hose 0 noun* ho many, ho
'he !rofessor didn’t know how many students would be in her afternoon class. I have no idea how long the interview will take. Do they know how often the bus runs at night9 0an you tell me how far the museum is from the college9 I’ll tell you what kind of ice cream tastes best.
'he teacher asked us whose book was on his desk. -ote : 'here is no change in the order of sub+ect !osition 6uestions because the 6uestion word is functioning as the sub+ect. 4ho will !aint that !icture9 'hey can’t decide who will !aint that !icture9 4hose car is !arked in the lot9 'he !olice can’t determine whose car is !arked in the lot. Exercise 18 : E&!e++e+ @es#i%)s0om!lete the following sentences making embedded 6uestions from the 6uestions given before each one. )am!le: 4here did he go9 I know where he went.
1. 4ho will be elected !resident9 I’m not sure. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 2. 4hose book is it9 'hey haven’t discovered. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 3. 8ow much it will cost to re!air the car9 'he mechanic told me. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 4. 8ow was the murder committed9 'he !olice are still tr ying to decide. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 5. 8ow tall is 3ohn9 Do you know ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 9 6. 8ow well does she !lay the guitar9 Qou can’t imagine. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 7. 4hen will the ne)t e)am take !lace9 Do you know ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 9 8. 4here did they s!end their vacation9 Angela told me ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 9. 4hy are they buying a new house9 I don’t know. 10. 8ow long does the class last9 'he catalog doesn’t say ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
TAG @UESTIONS
In a tag 6uestion* the s!eaker makes a statement* but is not com!letely certain of the truth* so he or she uses a tag 6uestion to verify the !revious statement.
did. 2. If the main clause is negative* the tag is affirmative, if the main clause is affirmative* the tag is negative. 3. Don’t change the tense. 4. @se the same sub+ect in the main clause and the tag. 'he tag must always contain the sub+ect form of the !ronoun. 5. -egative forms are usually contracted ( n;t . (If they are not* they follow the order au)iliary R sub+ect R not : 8e saw this yesterday* did he not9 6. There is, there are and it is forms contain a !seudo7sub+ect so the tag will also contain there or it as if it were a sub+ect !ronoun. 7. the verb have may be used as a main verb (I have a new car or it may be used as an au)iliary (3ohn has gone to class already. 4hen it functions as a main verb in American nglish* the au)iliary forms do, does or did must be used in the tag.
'here are only twenty7eight days in ebruary* aren’t there9 It’s raining now* isn’t it9 It is not raining now* is it9 'he boys don’t have class tomorrow. Do they9 Qou and I talked with the !rofessor yesterday* didn’t we9 Qou won’t be leaving for another hour* will you9 3ill and 3oe have been to 1e)ico* haven’t they9 Qou have two children* don’t you9 In %ritish English, you would be correct to say: Qou have two children* haven’t you9 2n '2=* which tests standard +merican English, you must use a form of the sentence.
do if have is the main verb in
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Qou are going to school tomorrow* ;;;;;;;;;; 9 5ary signed the !etition* ;;;;;;;;;; 9 'here is an e)am tomorrow* ;;;;;;;;;; 9 "everly will be attending the university in
11. AFFIRMATIVE AGREEMENT
4hen indicating that one !erson or thing does something and then adding that another does the same* use the word so or too. 'o avoid needles re!etition of words from the affirmative statement* use the con+unction and, followed by a sim!le statement using so or too. 'he order of this statement will de!end on whether so or too is used.
•
4hen a form of the verb be is used in the main clause* the same tense of the verb the sim!le statement that follows.
be is used in
Affirmative statement ( be R and R # sub+ect R verb ( be R too % so 0 verb (be R sub+ect I am ha!!y* and you are too. I am ha!!y* and so are you. •
4hen a com!ound verb (au)iliary R verb* for e)am!le* ill go * should do, has done, have ritten, must e"amine, etc., occurs in the main clause* the au)iliary of the main verb is used in the sim!le statement* and the sub+ect and verb must agree.
Affirmative statement R
and R # sub+ect R au)iliary only R too % so 0 au)iliary only R sub+ect$
'hey will work in the lab tomorrow* and you will too. 'hey will work in the lab tomorrow* and so will you. •
4hen any verb acce!t be a!!ears without any au)iliaries in the main clause* the au)iliary do, does, or did is used in the sim!le statement. 'he sub+ect and verb must agree and the tense must be the same.
Affirmative statement R
and R # sub+ect R do, does, or did R too % so 0 do, does, or did R sub+ect$
3ane goes to that school* and my sister does too. 3ane goes to that school* and so does my sister. Additional e)am!les : 3ohn went to the mountains on his vacation* and we did too. 3ohn went to the mountains on his vacation* and so did we. I will be in -ew 1e)ico in August* and they will too. I will be in -ew 1e)ico in August* and so will they. 8e has seen her !lays* and the girls have too. 8e has seen her !lays* and so have the girls. 4e are going to the movies tonight* and ubens was too. elaz6uez was a famous !ainter* and so was >ubens.
Exercise 1 : A,,ir&*#i5e A4ree&e)#
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
>ose likes to fly* and her brother ;;;;;;;; too. 'hey will leave at noon* and I ;;;;;;;; too. 8e has an early a!!ointment* and so ;;;;;;;; I.
12. NEGATIVE AGREEMENT
Either and neither function in sim!le statements much like so and too in affirmative sentences. 8owever* either and neither are used to indicate negative agreement. 'he same rules for au)iliaries* be and do, does, or did a!!ly. -egative statement R or be R sub+ect$
and R # sub+ect R negative au)iliary or be R either % neither 0 !ositive au)iliary
I didn’t see 1ary this morning. 3ohn didn’t see 1ar y this morning. I didn’t see 1ary this morning* and 3ohn didn’t either. I didn’t see 1ary this morning* and neither did 3ohn.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
either or neither.
'he children shouldn’t take that medicine* and ;;;;;;;; should she. 4e don’t !lan to attend the concert* and ;;;;;;;; do they. I don’t like tennis* and he doesn’t ;;;;;;;;
7. 8. 9. 10.
I’m not interested in reading that book* and ;;;;;;;; is she. 'hey won’t have to work on weekends* and we won’t ;;;;;;;; I can’t stand listening to that music* and she can’t ;;;;;;;; 1ichael doesn’t s!eak nglish* and his family doesn’t ;;;;;;;;
Exercise /< : Ne4*#i5e A4ree&e)#-
In the following sentences* su!!ly the correct form of the missing verb. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
'he scientist isn’t too ha!!y with the !ro+ect* and neither ;;;;;;;; her su!ervisors. 4e can’t study in the library* and they ;;;;;;;; either. I haven’t worked there long* and neither ;;;;;;;; you. Qou didn’t !ay the rent* and she ;;;;;;;; either. 'hey didn’t want anything to drink* and neither ;;;;;;;; we. 3ohn shouldn’t run so fast* and neither ;;;;;;;; you. 'he students won’t acce!t the dean’s decision* and the faculty ;;;;;;;; either. Qour class hasn’t begun yet* and neither ;;;;;;;; mine.
13. NEGATION 'o make a sentence negative* add the negative !article not after the au)iliary or verb be. If there is no au)iliary or be* add the a!!ro!riate form of do, does, or did and !lace the word not after that. 3ohn is rich.
3ohn is not rich.
'he following e)am!les contain no au)iliary* and thus use 1arvin likes s!inach. Isaac went to class. 'hey want to leave now.
do, does, or did.
1arvin does not like s!inach. Isaac did not go to class. 'hey do not want to leave now.
SOME / ANY
If there is a noun in the com!lement of a negative sentence* one should add the !article before the noun. -ote : the following rule a!!lies to the use of some and any.
#ome ' affirmative sentences +ny ' negative sentences and 6uestions 3ohn has some money.
3ohn doesn’t have any money.
any
It is also !ossible to make sentences such as this negative by adding the negative !article noun. In this case* the verb 0A--2' be negative.
no before the
3ohn has no money. HARDLY, BARELY, RARELY, SELDOM, ETC.
>emember that in an nglish sentence it is usually incorrect to have two negatives together. 'his is called a double negative and is not acce!table in standard nglish. 'he following words have a negative meaning and* thus* must be used ith a positive verb.
Hardly %arely #carcely
almost nothing mean
or
almost not at all
3ohn rarely comes to class on time. 3erry hardly studied last night.
rarely seldom hardly ever
mean almost never
(3ohn usually does not come to class on time. (3erry studied very little last night. (
14. COMMANDS
A command is an im!erative statement. 2ne !erson orders another to do something. It can be !receded by please. 'he understood sub+ect is you. @se the sim!le form of the verb. 0lose the door. Please turn off the light. 2!en the window.
=eave the room. Pay your rent. "e 6uiet. NEGATIVE COMMANDS
A negative command is formed by adding the word
don;t before the verb.
Don’t close the door. Please don’t turn off the light. Don’t o!en the window. INDIRECT COMMANDS
@sually the verbs order, as&, followed by the infinitive to 0 verb/.
tell, or say are used to indicate an indirect command. 'hey are
3ohn told 1ary to close the door. 3ack asked 3ill to turn off the light. 'he teacher told 0hristo!her to o!en the window. Please tell 3aime to leave the room. 3ohn ordered "ill to close his book. 'he !oliceman ordered the sus!ect to be 6uiet. NEGATIVE INDIRECT COMMANDS
'o make an indirect command negative* add the !article
not before the infinitive.
not 0 verb in infinitive/
3ohn told 1ary not to close the door. 3ack asked 3ill not to turn off the light. 'he teacher told 0hristo!her not to o!en the window. Please tell 3aime not to leave the room. 3ohn ordered "ill not to close his book. MINI.TEST 1 : GRAMMAR ITEMS 0 THROUGH 1
ollowing is a mini7test containing 6uestions on all the material u! to this !oint in 0'I2-< ach 6uestion on this mini7test consists of a sentence in which four words or !hrases are underlined. 'he four underlined !arts of the sentence are marked* A* "* 0* D. Qou are to identify the one underlined word or !hrase that ould not be acceptable in standard ritten English. 0ircle the letter of the underlined !ortion which is not correct. E"ampleB 'he study of these animals are truly fascinating* and A " 1any books have been written about them. 0 D In this sentence* the verb are in answer " is incorrect because the sub+ect is study, which is singular. 'hus " is the correct answer. >emember that if a !re!ositional !hrase se!arates a sub+ect and verb* it has no effect on the verb. 'he study of these animals/ #ingular subject
is
?
singular verb
1. "uying clothes are often a very time7consuming !ractice because those clothes that a !erson likes A " 0
are rarely the ones that fit him or her. D 2. "ecause they had s!ent too many time considering the new contract* the students A " 0 lost the o!!ortunity to lease the a!artment. 0 3. 'hese televisions are all too e)!ensive for we to buy at this time* but !erha!s we will return later. A " 0 D T. After she had bought himself a new automobile* she sold her bicycle. A " 0 D O. 'he ne)t im!ortant 6uestion we have to decide is when do we have to submit the !ro!osal. A " 0 D K. 5eorge has not com!leted the assignment yet* and 1aria hasn’t neither. A " 0 D J. 3ohn decided to buy in the morning a new car* but in the afternoon he changed his mind. A " D N. ita en+oyed to be able to meet several members of 0ongress during her vacation.
A " 0 D S. After being indicted for his !art in a bank robbery* the re!uted mobster decided find another A " 0 D attorney. SS. 8arry’s advisor !ersuaded his taking several courses which did not involve much A " 0 knowledge of mathematics. D S. 'he only teachers who were re6uired to attend the meeting were 5eorge* "etty* 3ill* and me. A " 0 D ST. 'he worked !erformed by these officers are not worth our !aying them any longer. A " 0 D SO. 'he !resident went fishing after he has finished with the conferences. A " 0 D SK. Peter and 'om !lays tennis every afternoon with 1ary and me. A " 0 D SJ. 'here were a time that I used to swim five la!s every day* but now I don’t have enough time. A " 0 D SN. 8e was drink a cu! of coffee when the tele!hone rang. A " 0 D SL. 4e called yesterday our friends in "oston to tell them about the reunion that we are !lanning. A " 0 D M. 'he children were !laying last night outdoors when it began to rain very hard. A " 0 D . 'hose homework that your teacher assigned is due on 'uesday unless you have made !rior A " 0 D arrangements to turn it in late. S. Please give me a few coffee and some donuts if you have any left. A " 0 D . 'here are ten childs !laying in the yard near her house* but your child is not among them. A " 0 D T. Peo!le res!ected 5eorge 4ashington because he was a honest man* and he turned out to be A " 0 one of our greatest military leaders. D O. 8e isn’t driving to the convention in 1arch* and neither they are. A " 0 D K. 0atherine is studying law at the university* and so does 3ohn. A " 0 D J. 'he com!any has so little money that it can’t hardly o!erate anymore. A " 0 D N. 1y cousin attends an university in the 1idwest which s!ecializes in astronomy. A " 0 D L. 'he students were interested in take a field tri! to 'he -ational 8istory 1useum* but they A " 0 were not able to raise enough money. D TM. "ecause they have moved away* they hardly never go to the beach anymore. A " 0 D
T. @s students would rather not attend night classes in the summer* but we often have to. A " 0 D TS. 'he !oliceman ordered the sus!ect to don’t remove his hands from the hood of the car. A " 0 D T. It was him who came running into the classroom with the news. A " 0 D TT. 1y brother doesn’t care how much does the car cost because he is going to buy it anyway. A " 0 D TO. 1ary and her sister studied biology last year* and so does 3ean. A " 0 D TK. Pete had already saw that musical before he read the reviews about it. A " 0 D TJ. 'here’s a new oriental restaurant in town* isn’t it9 A " 0 D TN. 'he government has decided voting on the resolution now rather than ne)t month. A " 0 D TL. 'he !rofessor is thinking to go to the conference on aerodynamics ne)t month. A " 0 D OM. 8is father does not a!!rove of him to go to the ban6uet without dressing formally. A " 0 D 17. MODAL AUILIARIES
'he modal au)iliaries have a number of different meanings. 'hey are generally used to indicate something which is !otential or uncertain. >emember that a modal is an au)iliary* and thus is -> used with do, does, or did. 'he modals include : P><-' '-< 4ill 0an 1ay
PA<' '-< 4ould (@sed to 0ould 1ight
-2': 4ords in !arentheses ( indicate semi7modals. 'hese have similar meanings to the modals* but are not grammatically the same. NEGATION OF MODALS
'o make a modal negative* add the !article not after the modal. 3ohn would like to leave. 3ohn would not like to leave. @UESTION WITH MODALS
'o make a 6uestion* !lace the modal at the beginning of the sentence.
4ould 3ohn like to leave9 -2': A modal is always directly followed by the sim!le form (verb word. 'his is the infinitive without
to. I-I-I'I 'o be 'o go 'o have
1 "e 5o 8ave
'his means that after a modal there can -> be: verb R
ing /* verb R s/* !ast tense* or infinitive.
'here are two ways that a modal can occur: (1) 1odal R sim!le form of the verb 4ould be could go will have (2) 1odal R have R verb in !ast !artici!le/ 4ould have been could have gone
will have had
-2': 'he word have, of course* must always be in the sim!le form after a modal, it can never be
has or
had. WILL
Will indicates future certainty. 3ohn will begin the +ob tomorrow. 1aria will leave in 3anuary. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
'he modals ill, ould, can, and could often a!!ear in conditional sentences. @sually conditional sentences contain the word if. 'here are two ty!es of conditionals: the real (factual and habitual and the unreal (contrary to fact or hy!othetical. 'he real* or Cfuture !ossible as it is sometimes called* is used when the s!eaker e)!resses an action or situation which usually occurs* or will occur if the circumstances in the main clause are met. 8y!othetical situation: If I am not !lanning anything for this evening* when someone asks me if I want to go to the movies* I say: If I have the time* I will go. U
Q
(I will go unless I don’t have time. (If U is true* then Q is true If my headache disa!!ears* we can !lay tennis. (I will !lay tennis unless I have a headache
8owever* the unreal condition e)!resses a situation (!ast* !resent* or future that would take !lace or would have taken !lace if the circumstances e)!ressed were or had been different now or in the !ast. 8y!othetical situation: If I don’t have time to go to the movies* but I actually want to go* I say: If I had the time* I would go. (I know I don’t have time* and therefore* I can’t go to the movies. 'his sentence is contrary to fact because I cannot go. If today were
if
If we didn’t have to study* we could go out tonight. 2> 4e could go out tonight if we didn’t have to study. ("oth sentences mean: we can’t go out tonight because we have to study. -2': 'he word if is generally not followed directly by the modal, the modal a!!ears in the other !art of the sentence unless there are two modals in one sentence.
If 0 sub+ect R con+ugated verb ? R modal ? 2> sub+ect R modal ? R
if ... R con+ugated verb ?
-ote: In the unreal condition* the !ast tense form of -> be as in correct nglish. If I were ? If you were ? If he were ? If she were ? If it were ?
be is always ere in a conditional sentence, it can If we were ? If you were ? If they were ?
@nreal conditional sentences are difficult for foreign students to understand because it seems that the truth value of a sentence is the o!!osite of the way the sentence a!!ears. If a verb in an unreal conditional sentence is negative* the meaning is actually !ositive, if a verb is !ositive* the meaning is actually negative. If I were rich* I would travel around the world.
(I am not rich. (I’m not going to travel around the world. If he were sick* he would stay home today. (8e’s not sick. (8e’s not going to stay home today. "@' If I hadn’t been in a hurry* I wouldn’t have s!illed the milk. (I as in a hurry. (I spilled the milk. If the firemen hadn’t arrived when they did* they couldn’t have saved the house. ('he firemen arrived in time. ('hey saved the house. 4e would have left yesterday if it hadn’t snowed. (4e didn;t leave yesterday. (It snoed. 'he following rules will guide you in deciding which tense to use in conditional sentences. >emember: Past !erfect & had 0 verb in !ast !artici!le/ 1odal R !erfect & modal R have 0 verb in !ast !artici!le/ >emember that the following rules can be reversed. 'he middle of the sentence.
if clause can go either at the beginning or in the
REAL CONDITIONS 6POSSIBLY TRUE7
@'@> 'I1
If 0 sub+ect R sim!le !resent tense ? R # ill, can, may, must $ R verb in sim!le form/
If I have the money* I will buy a new car. 4e will have !lenty of time to finish the !ro+ect before dinner if it is only ten o’clock now. 8A"I'@A=
If 0 sub+ect R sim!le !resent tense ? R sim!le !resent tense ? If the doctor has morning office hours* he visits his !atients in the hos!ital in the afternoon. (no modal 0211A-D
If 0 sub+ect R sim!le !resent tense ? R command formB ?
B>emember that the command form consists of the sim!le form of the verb. If you go to the Post 2ffice* !lease mail this letter for me. Please call me if you hear from 3ane.
UNREAL CONDITIONS 6NOT TRUE7
8A"I'@A=
If 0 sub+ect R sim!le !ast tense ? R # ould, could, might $ R verb in sim!le form/ If I had the time* I would go to the beach with you this weekend. (I don;t have the time. (I’m not going to the beach with you. 8e would tell you about it if he were here. (8e on;t tell you about it. (8e’s not here. If he didn’t s!eak so 6uickly* you could understand him. (8e spea&s very 6uickly. (Qou can’t understand him. PA<' 'I1
If 0 sub+ect R !ast !erfect ? R # ould, could, might $ R have 0 verb in !ast !artici!le/ If we had known that you were there* we would have written you a letter. (4e didn;t know that you were there. (4e didn;t rite you a letter.
Had 0 sub+ect R verb in !ast !artici!le/ ? 8ad we known that you were there* we would have written you a letter.
8ad she found the right buyer* she would have sold the house. 'he above rules indicate the most common methods of using tenses in conditional sentences. 8owever* if the two actions clearly ha!!ened at 6uite different times* the verbs should show that difference. =ast common:
If she had seen the movie* she would tell you. (ast
1ore common:
future
if she had seen the movie* she would have told you. (ast
past
AS IF AS THOUGH
'hese con+unctions indicate something unreal or contrary to fact and thus are very similar in form to conditional sentences. 'he verb which follows these con+unctions must be in the !ast tense or !ast !erfect. >emember that the !ast tense of be in a contrary to fact statement must be ere and never as.
