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PFB1004: FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION Sheet Music
TOPIC 1: THE PROMISES AND LIMITS OF EDUCATION: TOWARDS TOWARDS REFLECTIVE PRACTITIONERS
1.1 The Promises of Education. •
Educat Education ion can be defin defined ed as “the “the growth growth proces process s of the indiv individu iduals als an soci societ ety” y”.. “The “The prom promis ises es of educ educat atio ion” n” mean means s what what educ educat atio ion n can can do individuals of all ages, from children to adults to senior citizens, in a particular country. The growth of individuals can be divided into four basic domains: (1) cognitiv cognitive e domain domain (knowled (knowledge), ge), (2) psychomoto psychomotorr domain domain (skills), (skills), (3) affec domain (attitudes), and (4) social domain (social interactions).
•
Other domains of growth include: (5) productive domain (knowledge and skills for for job, job, home home,, citi citize zen n and and memb member er of soci societ ety) y),, (6) (6) phys physic ical al doma doma (development & maintenance of strong & healthy body), (7) aesthetic domain (values and appreciation of the arts), (8) moral domain (values & behaviours) and (9) spirit spiritual ual domain domain (recogni (recognitio tion n & belie belieff in the divine divine & the view view transcendence).
•
Education helps young citizens so that they can function more effectively in their current and future times. These functions are determined by the aims o education. The aims of education are the general statements of the functions to t be transferred to the learners through education, or simply the general purpose of education.
•
Ralph Tyler summarized the aims of American education as: (1) developing self-realization, (2) making individuals literate, (3) encouraging social mobility (4) (4) prov provid idin ing g the the skil skills ls and and unde unders rsta tand ndin ing g nece necess ssar ary y for for prod produc uc empl employ oyme ment nt,, (5) (5) furn furnis ishi hing ng tool tools s requ requis isit ite e for for maki making ng effe effecti ctive ve choi choi regarding material and nonmaterial things and services, and (6) furnishing the tools necessary for continued/life-long continued/life-long learning.
1.2 The Limits Limits of Education Education
Master your semester with Scribd “The limits of education” means the factors that to Read Free Forhindrance/obstacle 30this Days Signbecome up to vote on title educat education ion.. As we are all all aware aware,, educa educatio tion n needs needs infra infrastru structu ctures res such such & The New York Times Useful Not useful building buildings, s, classroo classrooms, ms, laborato laboratories ries,, librarie libraries; s; others others than the human human capi •
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faci facili liti ties es requ requir ire e fina financ ncia iall supp suppor ort, t, whic which h ma
beco become me the the limi limita tati tion on
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learning aids, for example, the Braille materials for blind students, and sign language for deaf and dumb dumb students. All these become limits limits of education.
Sheet Music •
There is a large amount of knowledge and skills that students need to learn With With the limite limited d time time and and resour resources ces avail availabl able e to stude students nts and teache teache teachers face the problem of selecting what subjects the students should take to equip them for their future life. There are at least nine domains of growth tha are important to students. Can they learn all of them? Hence, time can be another limit of education.
1.3 Towards Reflective Practitioners •
Reflective practitioners mean those who look back at what they are doing makin making g evalu evaluati ation on as to the quality quality of the processe processes s and think think of how how improve those processes. With the above promises and limits of education teache teachers rs as practi practitio tioner ners s in educat educatio ion, n, should should be more more refle reflecti ctive ve in the profession. That is, for example, they should look back at how they teach evaluate the effectiveness of the teaching process, and think of how to improve this process.
•
As an exam exampl ple e teac teachi hing ng proc proces ess, s, assu assume me that that you you are are a teac teache herr in secondary school, and you are given a class with mixed abilities students to teach, i.e. some of them are very bright, some are moderate, and the rest are weak students. What would you do to make sure each one of your students in your your class class under understa stand nd what what is taught taught to them, them, thoug though h they they have have differ differ academic abilities, background, interest, and motivation?
•
Would you have all of them in the same class, and give more attention to the weak students? Or, would you divide them into three groups according to thei abilities and teach them differently? Or, would you use the cooperative-learning cooperative-learning strategy such that the good students will teach the moderate students in groups of five, while you teach the weak students?
•
Or, would you separate your students into three classes, i.e. Class A for good students, Class B for moderate students, and Class C for weak students, and teach them different syllabus using different approach? Can you reflect back as a student, by recalling what your teacher did to you when you were a student in school? Let us share these experiences and do Read Free For 30some Days Sign up to vote on this titlereflection on them, and suggest the better teaching approachUseful for these students. Not useful
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(5) EVALUA EVALUATE TE (Asse (Assess ss the conseq conseque uence nces s of decis decisio ions ns and outco outcomes mes actions).
Sheet Music •
Reflect teaching and learning when you were a student in school. Identify one issue, problem, dilemma, or opportunity in the teaching and learning process Explain what you would do in the remaining four steps of the model in order to improve improve the teaching teaching and learning learning process. process. Form groups groups of five students. students. representa representative tive from each group group should should present present the answers answers during during tutor session next week.
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TOPIC 2: UNDERSTANDING UNDERSTANDING EDUCATION: THE FOUNDATIONS PERSPECTIVE; MULTIDISCIPLINARY MULTIDISCIPLINAR Y AND INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH
Sheet Music
2.1
Introduction
This topic will discuss the understanding of education through foundations of education pe topics covered in the foundations of educations course (see Study Guide) are the purpos philosophy of education, sociology of education, history of education, politics of education, pedagog pedagogy, y, transmis transmission sion of knowledg knowledge, e, schools schools as organiza organization tion,, teacher teacher professio professionali nali opportunity, educational outcomes, educational inequalities, educational reforms, school current issues and trends in education, and the future of education. Which of these topics d multidisciplinary, and which of them are interdisciplinary? 2.2 2.2
The The Multi Multidi disc scip ipli lina nary ry Appro Approac ach h
“Multidisciplinary approach in understanding of education” means “understanding of edu many separate disciplines of knowledge”. For example, the sociological foundations of e teacher professionalism. These two disciplines of knowledge are different, with little or n conten contents. ts. The theori theories es and/or and/or princi principl ples es that that made made up the two disci discipl pline ines s come come fro disciplines disciplines of knowledge knowledge (sociological foundations of education & teacher professionalism). (a) The Social Social Foundati Foundations ons of Education Education •
•
•
“Sociology” is defined as “the branch of knowledge that deals with the origin, developmen and functioning of human society”. Education develops within, not a part from, social con influence the cultures of the people that the schools serve. Likewise, the surrounding cult schools and their curricula.
Other than the dynamic nature of our local cultures, we have the technology (such as inte elect electron ronic ic techno technolo logie gies) s) that that expose exposes s globa globall cultur cultures es to our commu communit nity. y. Can Can we education to cater for these dynamic cultures? This is actually part of the social foundation We have to study the present and perhaps future cultures to determine the direction education.
In trying to understand education, we need to understand the sociology of a particular co try to relate the life and cultures of this country to its education system, particularly to t aims, goals and objectives of education. Since we can study sociology of a country discipline, discipline, we can study social foundations of education through a multidisciplinary multidisciplinaryapproa Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title
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“Profe “Professi ssion onali alism” sm” is defin defined ed as “profe “professi ssiona onall charac character ter
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spirit spirit
or metho methods ds of
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In trying to understand education of a particular country, we need to understand, partly, th learning process and teacher professionalism that are being practiced in the country. We c the character, spirit, or methods of other professionals; and compare them with those fo Since we can study teacher professionalism as a separate discipline, therefore it can be s a multidisciplinary multidisciplinary approach.
2.3
The Interdisciplinary Approach
“Inter “Interdis discip ciplin linary ary appro approach ach in under understa standi nding ng of educa educatio tion n throu through gh found foundati ations ons persp persp “understanding of education through related disciplines of knowledge”. For example, the foundations of education and the historical foundations of education are interdisciplinary k use the theories and principles from other disciplines (philosophy & history) and create principles principles for the “Philosophical Foundations of Education” and the “Historical Foundations o (a) The Philosophical Foundations of Education •
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“Philosophy” is a combination of two Greek words, the “phil’s” which means “love”, and means “wisdom”. Hence, the word “philosophy” means “love of wisdom”, i.e. we need wisdom”. It involves searching for defensible values, clarifying our perceptions, beliefs formulating principles principles for f or making decisions; and finally implementing these decisions.
Philosophy Philosophy of education focuses on the values, beliefs and attitudes related to education, of growth of individuals and society. These values, beliefs and attitudes determine the d education, particularly the aims, goals, objectives, contents, delivery and assessment of look at our life and problems in full perspective in deciding on our philosophy of education.
For example, the philosophy of “perennialism”, the oldest and most conservative philosop “realism”. Realist views the world in terms of objects and matter. People come to know a through senses and reason. Everything is derived from nature and is subjected to its l education, up to the late nineteenth century, was dominated by perennialist thinking.
Hence Hence,, in order order for us to under understa stand nd the philo philosop sophy hy of educat education ion,, we need need to kno philosophies philosophies first, and then relate them to the aims of education of a country. That is, we h the knowledge about “philosophy” and the knowledge about the “education” to form the the “Philosophi “Philosophical cal Foundati Foundations ons of Educatio Education” n” of a particula particularr country, country, which can be interdisciplinary approach.
Master semester with Scribd (b) your The Historical Foundations of Education Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title & The New York Times Useful Not useful with past events”. History invo “History” is defined as “the branch of knowledge that deals •
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the field of education, occur within time and context. The events that took place during a p
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countr country. y. That That is, is, we have have to combi combine ne the knowl knowled edge ge about about “histo “history ry”” and the knowl knowl “education” to form the knowledge knowledge about the t he “Historical Foundations of Education” of a which can be regarded as an interdisciplinary interdisciplinary approach. 2.4
Tutorial Activity
Read the subtopic of: “How Can Schools Reduce Risks That Threaten Children’s Health a pages pages 43-53 43-53 of the textbo textbook. ok. Rela Relate te the socia sociall phenom phenomena ena in the USA (the (the socia socia education) to the roles of schools (what schools can do to educate young children to reduc threaten their health and safety).
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TOPIC 3: THE PURPOSE OF SCHOOLING 3.1 Introduction
Why did we go to school? Why do children go to school? The answer to these questions help us to understand the purpose of schooling. What would have happen to us if we school? What was the purpose of schooling 300 years ago? What is the purpose of schoolin lecture will relate the philosophy, aims, goals and objectives of education to the purpose of s 3.2 3.2
The The Phil Philos osop ophy hy,, Aims Aims,, Goal Goals s and and Obje Object ctiv ives es of of Educ Educat atio ion n •
To understand the process of education, we need to understand curriculum developm developm development, ent, content content delivery, delivery, and assessment assessment of content content learning. learning. The curric development includes determining the philosophy, the aims, the goals and the objectives as shown the figure below. The content development, delivery, and assessment will not b here.
Philosophy •
•
•
Aims
Goals
Objectiv
Philosophy of education, as we know, focuses on the values, beliefs and attitudes in r growth process of individuals and society. These values, beliefs and attitudes determine th our education, particularly the aims, goals, objectives, contents, delivery and assessment Some of the educational philosophies will be discussed in Topic 4. As an example, we pragmatism as a philosophy of education.
Prag Pragma mati tism sm defi define nes s the the trut truth h and and mean meanin ing g of idea ideas s (kno (knowl wled edge ge)) acco accord rdin ing g to consequences and practical values (p. 154). It views the world as not fixed, but constan and views knowledge as process. It suggests education should focus on experiencing the example, learning occurs as pupil engages in problem solving. Knowing is considered a between the learner and environment, of which both are undergoing constant changes.
Aim of education (What education expects students will achieve) can be defined as “gene of the functions to be transferred to learners through education, or simply the purpose o The earli earlier er aims aims of Americ American an educa educatio tion n were were to “ascer “ascertai tain n the contin continua uatio tion n and and democratic ideals, and to save the souls” (p. 94). These aims had been associated with th of pragmatism, which many people claimed to be the unofficial American philosophy (p. 15
Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30 Days Signeducation) up to vote this title Goal of education (What students can do after completing can be defined as specificYork purpose with some outcomes in mind”. The aimUseful gives theNot purpose & The New Times useful of educa •
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YearYear-1 1 pupil pupils s should should be able able to read read and write simpl simple e senten sentences ces in Engli English” sh”.. Hence Hence
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There are many classifications of the purposes/aims of schooling, for example those g Educational Policies Policies Commission (USA) and those given by the Cardinal Principles of Seco Education. The Educational Policies Commission listed four purposes of American schoo realization, realization, (2) human relationships, (3) economic efficiency, and (4) civic responsibility. •
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•
•
•
The purpose of self-realization is to encourage inquiry, mental capabilities, speech, rea numbers, numbers, sight sight and hearing hearing,, health health knowledg knowledge, e, health health habits, habits, public public health, health, recreatio recreatio interests, and character formation.
The purpose of human relationships includes humanity, friendship, cooperation with othe appreciation appreciation of the home, conservation of the home, homemaking, and democracy in the h The purpose purpose of economic economic efficien efficiency cy include includes s work, work, occupati occupational onal apprecia appreciation, tion, pers consumer judgment, efficiency in buying, and consumer protection.
The purpose of civic responsibility includes social justice, social activity, social understa judgeme judgement, nt, tolerance tolerance,, observan observance, ce, conservi conserving ng of resources resources,, social social applicati application on of citizenship, citizenship, economic literacy, political citizenship, and devotion to democracy.
The Cardinal Cardinal Principl Principles es of Secondar Secondary y School School Education Education listed seven major major areas areas secondary schooling: schooling: (1) health, (2) command of fundamental processes processes (living skills), skills), (3) membership, (4) vocational education, (5) civic education, (6) worthy used of leisure, an character.
3.3 Tutorial Activity •
Read Chapter 10 of the textbook about the Backward Design of Curriculum (p. 284). Expla curriculum design”. Give one example of the design based on an educational objective. (1949) described the design as follows:
“Educati “Educational onal objectives objectives become become the criteria criteria by which which material materials s are selected, selected, conten instructional procedures are developed, and test and examination are prepared… The statement of objectives is to indicate the kinds of changes in the student to be brought abo instructional activities can be planned and developed in a way likely to attain these objectiv Sample Answer
Master your semester with Scribd Backward Backward curriculum curriculum design desi gn starts with the learning learning objectives objecti ves (backwar (bac kward) d)to deri Read Free Foron 30 Days Sign up to vote this title edu curriculu curriculum m (i.e. (i.e. prepare prepare lesson lesson content, content, select select material materials, s, develop develop teaching teaching procedu proc & The New York Times Useful Not useful below: exercises, and prepare test/examination). A simple example is given •
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At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to find the
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Exerci Exercises ses:: Studen Students ts are asked asked to draw draw rightright-an angle gle trian triangle gles s of variou various s sizes sizes and compute the areas.
Assessment: Students are given a few figures of right-angle triangles and are asked to areas.
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TOPIC 4: THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR TEACHERS 4.1 Introduction
The philosophy of education will be discussed first, since we need to understand the ph education, before we can discuss about its significance for teachers. The lecture will c philosophies of education (idealism, realism, pragmatism, existentialism, essentialism, pro and social reconstructionism); followed by the significance of four of these philosophies (p existentialism, existentialism, essentialism, and social reconstructionism) for teachers. 4.2
The Ph Philosophy of of Ed Educatio tion
Philosophy of education, as we know, focuses on the values, beliefs and attitudes in rela process of growth of individuals and society. These values, beliefs and attitudes determine t of our our educa educatio tion, n, partic particula ularly rly the aims, aims, goals, goals, objec objectiv tives, es, conten contents, ts, deliv delivery ery and ass education. Now, we will look some educational educational philosophies which will help us to understan goals of education. •
•
Ideal Idealism ism:: “Ideal “Ideal”” means means “a concep conceptio tion n of objec objects ts as someth somethin ing g that that are are perfec perfect, t, character, visionary, and existing only in imagination”. Idealism views that education shou moral, spiritual and mental aspects of human being; and that the truth and values ar timeless, and universal. Education should concern with ideas and concepts and their re with the final outcomes of education are the most general and abstract subjects. Mat important to develop abstract thinking; while history and literature are important to develop culture.
Real Realism ism:: “Real” “Real” means means “a concep conceptio tion n of objec objects ts as somet somethin hing g that that are actual actual,, exi authe authenti ntic, c, rather rather than than imagi imaginar nary”. y”. Real Realism ism views views the world world in terms terms of objec objects ts and everything is derived from nature and is subjected to its laws. Realism suggests that educa focus on objects and matter; and views that people can learn about the world through th and reasons. However, just like idealist, realist views that the ultimate goals of education a gener general al and abstra abstract ct subjec subjects. ts. Reali Realist st stress stresses es that that the subjec subjects ts such such as ethic ethical, al, econom economics ics are import important ant in life; life; whil while e readin reading, g, writin writing g and and arith arithmet metic ic are neces necessar sar education. Pragmati Pragmatism: sm: “Pragmati “Pragmatic” c” means “a concepti conception on of objects objects as somethin something g that are real,
Mastercauseyour semester cau se-eff effect ect relati relations onshi hip p with and and practi praScribd ctical cal value values”. s”. Pragma Pragmatis tism m views views the world worldas no Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title constantly changing; and views knowledge as process and not as product. Education & The New York Times Useful Not useful as pupil engages should focus on experiencing the process, for example, learning occurs •
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constant changes). Teaching is not focused on “what to think”, but on “how to think crit
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Essentialism: “Essential” means “a conception of objects as something that are neces necessar sary, y, indi indispe spensa nsabl ble, e, or vital” vital”.. Essent Essential ialis ism m views views that that educat educatio ion n shoul should d foc fund fundam amen enta tall and and esse essent ntia iall subj subjec ects ts,, such such as the the 3 R’s R’s (read (readin ing, g, writ writin ing, g, arit arithm hm fundamental subjects at primary school level; and five academic subjects at secondary s (English, mathematics, science, history & foreign language). Essentialism rejects the su as arts, music, physical physical education, education, homemaki homemaking ng and vocationa vocationall educatio education. n. The ulti education is the acquisition of culture and mastery of essential skills, facts, concepts, a skills.
•
Progressivism: “Progressive” means “a conception of objects as something that are mov toward specific goal, further stage, or cumulative improvement”. Progressivism views tha should promote democratic society in which students could learn and practice the skill necessary for democratic living; which include problem-solving methods and scientific i learning experiences that include cooperative behaviors and self-discipline; which are im democratic living. Since reality constantly keeps changing (similar to pragmatism), pro believes that there is little need to focus on fixed body of knowledge. knowledge.
•
Social Reconstructionism: Reconstructionism: “Social reconstruction” means “a conception that the social prob as poverty and lack of educational and employment opportunities; can be solved through Social reconstructionism believes that “people are responsible for creating social condition they are good or bad”. It views that education should prepare people to create new go society and to bring the have-nots into a better society. Other than those who are fortun out out those those who who are unfor unfortun tunate ate,, educa educatio tion n can play play its role role by prepar preparin ing g stude students nts intellectual, intellectual, emotional, personal, and social needs, t o solve their social problems.
4.3 Significance Significance of Philosophy of Education Education for Teachers Teachers
The significance of the philosophy of education for teachers can be discussed by looking a of education, role of students, role of teachers and teaching methods for various philo education (Figure 6.3, p 151). We are going to look at four philosophies of education as i.e. the Existentialism, Existentialism, Pragmatism, Essentialism, and Social Reconstructionism. Reconstructionism. •
Pragmati Pragmatism: sm: The goal of educatio education n under under this philosophy philosophy is “develop “developing ing and app knowledge and skills for life in a progressive democratic society”. The role of students “active learning and participation”. Hence, teachers need to plan teaching and learning ac encourage students students to actively participate in learning. learning. The role of teachers is to “teach in deductive reasoning, scientific method, and the power of observation and practice”, wh achieved through the teaching methods of “hands-on curricula, group and experimen Read Free Forwork, 30 Days
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exercise freedom of choice and take responsibility for their actions”. The role of stu “develop independence, self-discipline, set challenges, and solve problems”. Teachers s
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curriculum is history. A teacher can prepare the content of a lesson and delivers the cont direct instruction.
Sheet Music •
Social Reconstructionism: The goal of education under this philosophy is “solving socia and create a better world”. The role of students is to “inquire, apply critical thinking skill action”. The role of teachers under this philosophy is to “ask questions, present social problem solving challenges, and serve as organizer and information resource”, which ca through the teaching methods of “stimulating divergent thinking and group discussion” should give emphasis on social studies, social problems, global education, and environme
4.4 Tutorial Activity •
Read Read Chap Chapte terr 6 of the the text textbo book ok from from page page 152 152 to 156. 156. Expl Explai ain n in your your own own wo understan understandin ding g about about the philosop philosophies hies of Marxism, Marxism, Behavior Behaviorism, ism, Cogniti Cognitivism, vism, Pere Essentialism.
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TOPIC 5: THE SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION 5.1 Introduction •
•
In Topic 1, we defined “education” as “the growth process of the individuals and society”; and in Topic 2, we defined “sociology” as “the branch of knowledge that deals with the origin, development, organization and functioning of human society”. Since, sociology of education is a branch of sociology that focuses on educatio education, n, it can be defined defined as “the origin, origin, developm development, ent, organizatio organization n an functioning of human society that are associated with the growth process of the individuals individuals and society”.
Some argued that education is a valued-based activity in which individuals experiencing and accepting what is valued by our society. Few argued tha education is the transmission of culture. As we all know, a society is made up people with different customs, beliefs, values, languages, religions and socia institutions. Beside all these “local” cultures, our society is exposed to “global cultures brought to us by foreign visitors and various technologies, such as internet, CD’s, magazines, films, etc. Ask ourselves, “Which of these cultures should we transfer to children/youths?”
5.2 Social Foundations Foundations of Education Education •
Transm Transmitt ittin ing g and and Improv Improving ing Socie Society: ty: John John Dewe Dewey y (an Americ American an educat educat believed that aims of education were of both transmitting and improving society To do this, educators must be very selective in determining and organizing the experi experien ences ces for the child children ren and societ society. y. Hence Hence,, educa educator tors, s, togeth together er wi others in the society, are responsible in determining the content and activities (experiences) that can help individuals to grow and finally to improve thei society. The aims of transmitting and improving society were carried out by the schools which educate and socialize the younger members of t he society.
Modal Personality comprises of a set of characteristics characteristics that differentiate citizen of one one countr country y to those those of other other countr countrie ies s (“mod” (“mod” means means “disti “distingu nguish ish attributes”). For example, there are certain behaviours, attitudes and feelings that distinguish the Americans from Europeans, which are believed to be the outcomes of schooling. American schools, among other things, focus on the Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title national civic culture to inculcate modal personality. How do Malaysians diffe Useful Not useful (formal education from citizens of other countries? Is it due to their schooling Cancel anytime. or $4.99/month. othe otherr inst instit itut utio ions ns,, such such as home homes s or reli religi giou ous s insti institu tuti tion ons s (inf (infor orma ma Special offer for students: Only education)? •
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points of likeness, such as language, diet, hygiene, dress, basic skills, land use community settlement and recreation. They are closer together in their mora outlook, political beliefs and social attitudes; compared to other nationals. Do we have any points of likeness in Malaysia? What are they? Most of these points of likeness are society behaviours, which are actually the sociology of a community. This is in fact an example of the social foundations foundations of education. Belief in the possible is perhaps another point of likeness that the Americans have, i.e. belief that “anything is possible”. Slogans such as “Work hard and you will succeed”, “Just do it”, “Anyone can grow up to be president” and “Wha counts is not where you came from but what you do” are just some examples o this belief. US schools are promoting this message throughout the country What What can these these sloga slogans ns promo promote te for the Americ American an peopl people? e? Perha Perhaps ps rig atti attitu tude des s and and the the beli belief ef that that “The “The meas measur ure e of a pers person on is his his or achievements”.
Belie Belieff in moral moral bases bases for right right actio action n is anothe anotherr point point of likene likeness ss for the Americans. When American educators discuss about the rights of individuals individuals to an educ educat atio ion, n, they they beli belief ef that that peop people le have have a mora morall righ rightt to furt furthe herr th humanness (to be good people). The belief also will guide the Americans in their individual and collective (group) conduct (behaviour). The slogan such as “Just say no” to either sex or drugs indicates the influence of this belief. This is another social phenomenon that influences education.
5.3 A Dynamic, Dynamic, Changing Changing Society Society •
The social foundations become very important in education because of the rapid rapid change change in our society. society. The appropri appropriate ate educatio education n for various various grou cannot cannot be deter determin mined ed accura accuratel tely, y, since since the group groups s are changi changing, ng, eth demand demands s are emerg emergin ing, g, inform informati ation on is explo explodin ding, g, behav behavio iours urs are are bei modified, and values are being altered. What are the changes that we see in Malaysia? May be food preferences, entertainments, etc. How do these affec education? Thus, we have difficulty to set education for the present, and even more complex for the future.
As the society changes rapidly, the education should also change accordingly For example, as most mothers are now working, they have problems taking care of their young children. In response to this change, the schools now have the provisions of taking children as young as four years old. Parents can send Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title their younger children to nurseries either at private place or at place ofwork Useful and usefulbut must be Not The idea of literacy is no longer confined to reading writing, Cancel anytime. expand exp$4.99/month. anded ed to cultur cultural, al, scien scientifi tific, c, comput computer, er, techno technolog logica ical, l, elect electron ronic ic an Special offer for students: Only research literacy. •
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National Philosophy of Malaysian Education (NPME): “Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards further developing the potential of individuals in a holi holist stic ic and and inte integr grat ated ed mann manner er so as to prod produc uce e indi indivi vidu dual als s who who intellec intellectuall tually, y, spiritua spiritually, lly, emotional emotionally ly and physical physically ly balanced balanced and harmonic harmonic based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an effort is designed to produ produce ce Malays Malaysia ian n citiz citizens ens who who are knowle knowledge dgeabl able e and and compet competen ent, t, wh poss posses ess s high high mora morall stan standa dard rds s and and who who are are resp respon onsi sibl ble e and and capa capabl ble e achieving high level of personal well-being well-being as well as being able to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, society and nation at large” (CDC MOE, 1988).
Discuss the Malaysian philosophy of education from the perspectives of the philosophy of education and the sociology of education. Which philosophy(s matches the NPME? What are the social aspects of human relations that are covered by NPME?
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TOPIC 6: HISTORY OF EDUCATION Sheet Music
6.1 History of Education: Introduction •
•
6.2
History, in Topic 2 is defined as: “the branch of knowledge that deals with past events”. history of education can be defined as: “the branch of knowledge that deals with past ev were related to education”. The events that took place during a particular period of country had influenced the education of that country, that is, the history of particula becomes the foundations of education of that country. Think of Malaysia, can you recall that had changed our goals of education?
Curricula are prepared or created within political, social, economic and cultural cont people who created the curricula have firm belief in appropriate social action, views of kn acceptance of political ideologies, allegiances to class value systems, incorporation of motive motives, s, and even even adhere adherence nce to relig religiou ious s convi convicti ction ons. s. These These value values s are are someti someti challenged by various sectors of community. Can you think of one curriculum that wa accepted in Malaysia? We are going to look at American history of education as an exam
The The Col Colo onial nial Peri eriod: 1642-17 2-177 76 •
•
In the northe northern rn (New (New Engla England) nd) coloni colonies, es, the histo history ry of Americ American an educa educatio tion n starte starte education in the earliest colony of Massachusetts, a settlement of the Puritans (members of Protes Protestan tantt from from Engla England nd)) who who hold hold strict strictly ly to relig religiou ious s disci discipl pline ine.. The earli earlier er Massachu Massachusetts setts were concerne concerned d with the doctrines doctrines of Puritan Puritan church. church. The major major schooling was to teach children to read scriptures (passages) from the Bible and the n civil affairs department. The major goal of education then was to enable children to understand the principles of religion and the laws of the Commonwealth. The basic ed Massachusetts at that time was reading and writing; and Latin in addition was taught prepare students to go to Harvard College.
In the middle colonies, unlike in Massachusetts (everyone used English language), there common language or religion existed. Due to the differences in the language used and believes, no single school system could be established in the middle colonies. These di motivated the settlers of different ethnic and religious groups to established parochial (p local) and independent schools, rather than the central or district-wide school system a England. The present concept of cultural pluralism in fact already existed 200 years a middle colonies. Think of Malaysia, are there similarities to what had happened in America with respect to school system or cultural pluralism? Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title
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Special offer foreducation students: Only $4.99/month. here and the focus of education was only on vocational skills. Why vocation
The legislative legislative provision provision was instituted instituted only to the guardia guardians ns of poor children, children, orph
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authority, knowledge for the sake of knowledge, rote learning and memorization. Th various types of schools existed during this period, such as the town schools (one-room schools), private schools (established by missionary, ethnic and religious groups), Latin schools (for sons of upper class), academy (secondary school) and college (Harvard or Y
Sheet Music
6.3
The The Nat Natiiona onal Pe Perio riod: 17 1776-1 76-185 850 0 •
•
•
School curricula during Colonial Period were mostly based on religious needs. Howeve the National Period, secular forces had changed American education from religious base and secondary education to more function based education. The secular forces argued time spent on studying the two dead languages (Latin & Greek), for example, should used to study science, to help the new America to explore and develop its natural resou secular forces also had influenced the development of democracy, strong federal govern emerging emerging cultural cultural nationali nationalism, sm, the idea idea of religiou religious s freedom, freedom, and new discoveri discoveries es sciences. As a result of this movement, the federal government became more com education and had allocated 154 million acres of land for schools. The government even to give free primary, primary, secondary, college college and university university education,
The school curriculum during the National Period (Rush’s curriculum) curriculum) stressed on readin arithmetic and history in elementary school; English, German, the arts and especially sc secon secondar dary y schoo schooll and and colle college ge level level;; and good good manne manners rs and and moral moral princi principl ples es for Education was seen more for the development of natural resources, and to promote de During this period also, grammar schools were built for gifted students and scholarsh given to gifted students who could not pay tuition fees. Half of the scholarship students w assigned positions as primary school teachers. Educational policy makers (e.g. Rush, J Frankl Franklin) in) were were all concer concerned ned with with equal equality ity of educat educatio ional nal oppor opportun tunity ity;; and had nationwide education for all children and youth. Students of superior ability were iden given free secondary and college education.
During this period also, the Americans were thinking of having their own national cul example having a national language and literature, which should be different from th language and literature used in Britain. This language (spelling, pronunciation & readin be taught deliberately and systematically to the children and youth in the nation’s sch selection of literature was focused on portraying patriotism, heroism, hard work, dilige virtuous living; with the tone of moral, religion, capitalistic, and pro-American. Other cultures, the Americans also aspired to expand the moral and political ideas as their con to humankind. For example, they had shown to Europe the proof that institutions fo equa equali lity ty and and repr repres esen enta tati tion on prin princi cipl ples es (dem (democ ocra racy cy)) were were capa capabl ble e of main ma ta inta Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title governments.
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TOPIC 7: POLITICS OF EDUCATION 7.1 POLITICS OF EDUCATION •
•
•
•
Politics can be defined as: “the use of strategy to gain any position of power or control” Hence, politics of education can be defined as: “the use of strategy to gain any position of power or control through education”. education”. We once taught that education education was value neutra and apoli apolitic tical al (not (not politi political cal), ), howeve however, r, curric curricul ular ar theori theorists sts argue argued d that that educat education ion political political,, since since curricul curriculum um has been used as an instrumen instrumentt for advancin advancing g particula particula political political ideolog ideologies ies and agendas. agendas. The curricul curricular ar critics critics are usually usually using using oppositio oppositio politics to voice their dissatisfactions about education.
The American Americans s are are expose exposed d to three three poli politic tical al ideas ideas,, that that is, the democr democracy acy of collective, the democracy of free-market capitalism, and the neo-Marxist socialism. The politics of education are not going to focus on these ideas, but rather on the ideas and values of various groups within American society. Multicultural education indeed is very politi political cal,, i.e. i.e. the pressu pressure re from from variou various s group groups s on the rulin ruling g politi political cal-pa -party rty of government. As there are more individuals and groups/ organizations influencing the govern governmen mentt in shapin shaping g public public educa educatio tion, n, more more of their their views views will will influe influence nce sch curricula.
The formal sources of power in shaping public education are school governance governance leaders The informal sources are the elected lawmakers who have to listen to public opinions on schoo schooll educat education ion.. Other Other than than these, these, citize citizen n group groups s are also also worki working ng togeth together er wi schools schools to create create changes changes in schools schools based on their their politica politicall beliefs. beliefs. Since 1960 African Americans, Native Americans, Hispanic (Spanish-speaking peoples) Americans and Americans with disabilities (pp. 206-07) had demanded that schools to respond to their their needs. needs. Since Since they they are voters voters,, their their deman demand/ d/ pressu pressure re on educa educatio tion n can be considered political.
Other pressure groups on education are special-interest groups such as National Parent Teacher Association Association (NPTA) and The American Civil Liberties Liberties Union (ACLU). NPTA, the largest volunteer educational group in USA, was very successful in shaping education policy pertaining to curricula, instruction and governance in public schools at local, state and national levels. ACLU is a legal organization that defends US citizens against the attacks on their civil liberties (freedom). For example, Tennessee Law during 1925 (p 207) forbade public school teachers from teaching any theory that denied the theory o Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title creation described in the Bible. ACLU helped teachers to fight against this law and won Useful Not useful the case. Cancel anytime.
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7.2 TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES Sheet Music •
Read about the groups that influence education in USA (pp. 205 – 211). Describe Describ how each of these groups influences influences education education in USA: (a) political political influences influences,, special-interest groups, (c) mass media, (d) federal government, (e) national goals, and (f) state government.
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TOPICS 8: CURRICULUM, PEDAGOGY AND THE TRANSMISSION OF KNOWLEDGE Sheet Music
8.1 INTRODUCTION •
Generally, we think of curriculum as what to be taught in schools, pedagogy as the method of delivering them, and the transmission of knowledge as transfer of knowledge skills and attitudes to learners. This topic will give you the definition of curriculum and explain explain the foundati foundations ons of curricul curriculum, um, curricul curriculum um developm development, ent, pedagog pedagogy, y, and transformation of knowledge; and the relationships between them. We will also look back at the aims, goals, and objectives of education.
8.2 CURRICU CURRICULUM LUM •
•
•
Curriculum definition. There are many definitions of curriculum. For this course, we can simply define curriculum as “the knowledge, skills and attitudes to be transferred to learners and the strategies strategies to achieve them”. Generally, the strategies would would include the plan for the learners to go through some specific experiences that can help them to achieve these goals of education. For example, if the goal is for students to maste science-experiment science-experiment skills, they should experience doing science experiments.
Foundati Foundations ons of curricul curriculum. um. The major major foundatio foundations ns of educatio education n are the philosop philosop history, psychology, sociology and politics. As we translate education into curriculum, the foundatio foundations ns of educatio education n become become the foundatio foundations ns of curricul curriculum. um. The philosop philosophy hy educat education ion explai explains ns the aims aims of educa educatio tion n of a partic particula ularr countr country. y. For exampl example, e, education in Malaysia is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeabl and competent, and possess high moral standards”.
Curriculum development. As we learned earlier, a curriculum is developed based on political, social, economic and cultural contexts of a country. The curriculum developers should decide what kind of knowledge, skills and attitudes to be transferred. They need to consider personal needs, community values, social issues, economic motives, future needs, and knowledge continuity, before a curriculum can be developed, whether it is a general curriculum, or a specific subject-matter curriculum.
The flow from the philosophy, aims, goals, and objectives of education is shown in the following diagram. The philosophy will determine the aims, the aims will determine the goals, the goals will determine the objectives, and finally the objectives will determine the Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title curricula curricula at the subject-ma subject-matter tter (content, (content, pedagogy pedagogy & assessme assessment) nt) and schoolleve Useful direct Not usefulto curriculum (primary, secondary & tertiary). All these elements have relationship Cancel anytime. Special offer fordevelopment. students: Only $4.99/month. •
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8.3 THE MALAYSIAN MALAYSIAN CURRICULA CURRICULA •
Malays Malaysia ian n school school curri curricul cula a are develo developed ped centra centralllly y by the Centr Centre e for Curri Curricul cul Developm Development ent (CDC), (CDC), Ministry Ministry of Educatio Education n (MOE) (MOE) Malaysia Malaysia,, based based on the followin followin National Philosophy of Malaysian Education (NPME) (CDC, 1988). “Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards further developing the potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce individuals who are intellec intellectuall tually, y, spiritual spiritually, ly, emotional emotionally ly and physical physically ly balanced balanced and harmonic harmonic,, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral standards and who are responsible and capable of achieving high level of personal well-being as well as being able to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, society and nation at large”.
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The philosophical foundations of Malaysian curricula. Some keywords in the NPME wil help help us match match our our phil philos osop ophy hy of educ educat atio ion n to the the type type of gene genera rall phil philos osop ophy hy education. Some of these keywords are: “holistic”, “intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physical physically ly balanced balanced”, ”, “knowle “knowledgea dgeable ble and competent competent,, who possess possess high mora standards”, and “responsible and capable of achieving high level of personal well-being as well as being able to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, society and nation at large”.
Based on these keywords, we probably can match NPME to the general educationa philo philosop sophy hy of Progre Progressi ssivis vism, m, which which stress stresses es that that “schoo “schooll should should be a minia miniatur ture e democr democrati atic c socie society ty in which which studen students ts could could learn learn and and practi practice ce the skills skills and too necessary for democratic living; which include problem-solving methods and scientific inquiry; and learning experiences that include cooperative behaviors and self-discipline which are important ffor or democratic living”.
The aims aims and politi political cal founda foundatio tions ns of Malays Malaysia ian n curric curricula ula.. The aims aims of Malay Malaysia sia education are “to produce individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced balanced and harmonic, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God; so tha they become Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, possess high moral standards and are responsible and capable of achieving high level of persona well-being as well as being able to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, society and nation”. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title
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prop propos osed ed byCancel The Thanytime. e Educ Educat atio iona nall Poli Polici ci Special offer forCommissi students: Only $4.99/month. Commission on (USA)?, (USA)?, that is, (1) self-real self-realizati ization on (inquiry (inquiry,, mental mental capabili capabilities, ties, spee reading, writing, numbers, sight and hearing, health knowledge, health habits, public •
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The social social found foundati ations ons of Malays Malaysian ian curri curricul cula a deal deal with with “the “the origi origin, n, devel developm opment ent organization and functioning of human society that are related to the growth process o the individu individuals als and society”. society”. These These foundatio foundations ns become become very important important in Malaysi Malaysi because because of the rapid rapid change in our society. The aims “to produce produce Malaysian Malaysian citizen who possess high moral standards and being able to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family and society” have certain sociological elements in them, such as ethnic integration.
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The psycho psycholog logica icall founda foundatio tions ns of Malays Malaysian ian curric curricul ula a deal deal with with the psycho psycholog log eleme elements nts of human human being being that that are used to determ determine ine the aims aims of educat educatio ion n an pedagogy. Some keywords in the NPME are related to psychology, for example, “an effort towards further developing the potential of individuals” and “to produce individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally”, which indicated that people have differen abilities (mental & physical) and multiple intelligences; and education should develop these potentials to the maximum.
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The historical foundations of Malaysian curricula deal with the past events of a particula country that had influenced the education of that country. These historical elements are used to determine the aims of education. The keywords like: “on-going effort”, “in a holistic and integrated manner”, and “intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonic” may suggest that our past education did not address these issues, i.e. the importance of life-long learning, and well-rounded-person well-rounded-person education. 8.4 PEDAGO PEDAGOGY GY
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Pedagogy can be defined as “method of teaching”. Shulman (1986) had introduced the concept concept of “pedagog “pedagogical ical content content knowledg knowledge”, e”, which which combine combines s the knowled knowledge ge abou conten content, t, learne learner, r, and pedago pedagogy gy to come come up with with a suitab suitable le teachi teaching ng method method for particula particularr content content and learner(s). learner(s). Therefore, Therefore, a teacher teacher needs needs to master master the conten knowledge, knowledge, the general pedagogy, pedagogy, and also the characteristics of the learners to be able to design an effective teaching and learning activities so that the delivery of content to a specific group of learners is effective.
Examples of content and pedagogy are given in Figure 10.5 (p 283). The process starts from the aim of education to curriculum orientation, roles of students and teachers curriculum content and instructional/ pedagogical approach (we have teaching methods for a particular teaching approach, and teaching techniques for a particular teaching method). For example, in direct instruction approach, we “lecture” Read Free Foron 30this Days Signcan up tohave vote title as teaching method, and “explaining lecture notes and ask students to apply the concept taught” as Useful Not useful Cancel anytime. techniques.
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Take for example, the aim of education education to “teach students how to learn” with curricul
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different subjects, contents or objectives to different types of learners (such as low moderate or high abilities).
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8.4.1 Behavioral-Systems-Family Behavioral-Systems-Family Model •
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Three approaches in this model are: (1) Mastery Learning, (2) Direct Instruction, and (3 Computer-Assisted-Instruction. Mastery learning is based on the idea that the quantity learned depends on student’s aptitude, motivation, and quantity and quality of teaching The aptitude is defined as the amount of time (not natural ability) a student requires to master an objective. Mastery is defined as the performance at 80% of the objective.
Master Mastery y learn learnin ing g belie believes ves that that any any studen studentt can master master any object objective ive provid provided ed tha he/she is given enough time, is motivated to learn, and the teaching is appropriate fo their needs. Think about blind students. What are their needs? How to best teach them? How long do they need? Teacher’s role in mastery learning is to break the content into small small manag manageab eable le objec objectiv tives, es, determ determine ine studen students’ ts’ needs needs with with respe respect ct to learn learn materials, teach in the ways that meet their needs, and evaluate their progress regularly (p 286).
Direct instruction: Like mastery learning, direct instruction is very structured (with a list o objective objectives s to achieve) achieve) and teacherteacher-cente centered red (content(content-cent centered ered). ). The methods methods an techni technique ques s of teachi teaching ng heavi heavily ly based based on behavi behaviora orall princi principle ples, s, such such as model model (students (students watch watch actors), actors), feedback feedback (rewards (rewards & punishme punishments), nts), reinforce reinforcement ment (drill (drill practice, revision, memorization) to teach basic skills (reading, writing, mathematics) This approach seemed effective (minimum efforts, maximum outcomes) and becomes quite popular.
Computer-aided instruction: CAI uses the capabilities of computers to facilitate teaching and learning. Specials software can give tutorials to students on new contents, just like a teacher facilitates direct instruction or mastery learning. Some software can be used fo drill drill and practice practice or to review review previou previous s conten contents, ts, or to give give tests, tests, test test marks marks,, an feedbacks to students. Computer-managed instruction (CMI) is another form of CAI tha has the ability to record student progress, in addition to tutorial features.
8.4.2 Social-Family Model
Four approaches in this model are: (1) Cooperative Learning, (2) Peer Tutoring, (3
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understands the contents and masters the related skills properly before he/she is able to teach/tutor other students. The teaching/tutoring is done in small groups, which requires the group tutors to cooperate with each other in preparing tutorial contents, skills, and materials.
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Project-based learning: This is another form of group learning, whereby students are given a project(s) to do and report back to the groups/class. The project problem(s) can come from students, teachers, teachers, or schools. Students will carry out out the project by “aski and refining questions, debating ideas, making predictions predictions (hypotheses), designing plans and/or experiments, collecting and analyzing data, drawing conclusions, communicating ideas and findings to others, asking new questions, and creating artifacts” (p 289).
Recip Reciproc rocal al teachi teaching ng:: This This approa approach ch teache teaches s studen students ts four four strateg strategie ies s in readi readi compre comprehen hensio sion, n, namel namely, y, (1) summar summarizi izing ng the conten contentt of a passa passage, ge, (2) asking asking question about the central point, (3) clarifying the difficult parts of the material, and (4 predicting what will come next. Research has shown that the reciprocal teaching some successful results for students with far below average in reading comprehension. Afte 20 hours of practice, the students in the bottom quarter had move up to second and some to third quarter in the class.
In reciprocal teaching, first the teacher and groups of students read a short passage silently. Then the teacher provides a model by summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting based on the reading. Next, every student reads another passage in smal group groups, s, and they take the role of the teacher teacher.. Each Each group group then then presen presents ts the fou eleme elements nts to the class, class, whil while e the teache teacherr provid provides es the feedback feedbacks. s. In the proces process s preparing the report, the teacher also provides clues, guidance, and encouragemen (what Vygotsky called scaffolding).
8.4.3 Information-Processing-Fami Information-Processing-Family ly Model •
Three approaches in this model are: (1) Concept Formation, (2) Inquiry Learning, and (3 Synect Synectics ics.. These These approa approache ches s stimul stimulate ate the develo developme pment nt of thinki thinking ng skill skills s such such observing, comparing, finding patterns, and generalization. The approaches are based on information-processing and constructivist theories that explain how information are gathered through our senses, stored and retrieved from our memory, and explain how we process the information and take action.
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the understanding of certain basic concept, followed by deeper understanding of the concep concept. t. For exampl example, e, a teache teacherr may introd introduce uce the conce concept pt of pollu pollutio tion, n, and ask students about the effect of pollution. Later, the teacher may ask students to compare the effects of chemical pollution compared to construction-waste pollution, for deepe understanding understanding about pollution.
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8.4.4 Personal-Family Model •
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Two approach approaches es in this model are: (1) Individu Individualiz alized ed Instructi Instruction, on, and (2) Nondire Nondirectiv ctive Teaching. The personal-family model encourages students to decide what they want to learn and how they want to learn. This will help students to develop/discover effective learning styles and positive self-concepts. The individualized instruction is a teaching method that is tailor-made to a particular student, depending on his/her ability, interest motivation, learning style, or achievement. achievement.
In nondirective teaching, a teacher helps a student to learn based on student’s own interest and goals. The teacher may ask a student to identify a problem, be responsible to solve it, to explore own feeling when solving personal problem, to explore his/her feeling about others when dealing with social problem, and to determine his/her own interest interest and competen competence ce when when solving solving academic academic problems problems.. Teacher Teacher would would meet a stud studen entt oneone-to to-o -one ne as to give give time time for for the the teac teache herr and and stud studen entt to have have a prop prop discussion.
8.5 TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES •
Read Read on “What “What Is Effect Effective ive Instru Instructi ction on?” ?” (p 292). 292). Descr Describ ibe e in your your own own words words:: Effective instruction, (b) understanding students, (c) communicating, communicating, (d) creating learning learnin environments, (e) adapting instruction for students with special needs, and (f) evaluating student learning.
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TOPICS 9: SCHOOL AS ORGANIZATION AND TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM PROFESSIONALISM 9.1 Introduction •
This topic will focus on school organization and teacher professionalism in USA. This topic will provide an overview of the different types of schools in USA, from Kindergarten (K) Elementary School (K/1-6 or K/1-8), Middle School (5-8), Secondary School (7-12), Post Secondary School (Community Colleges, Colleges, State Colleges, State Universities). Universities). 9.2 School as Organization Organization
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School School Districts Districts.. “A school school district district is a state-defin state-defined ed geograph geographical ical area area responsib responsible le provid providing ing public public instru instructi ction on to studen students ts living living withi within n that that area” area” (p 172). 172). Schoo Schooll distri distri provides provides effective administratio administration n and financia financiall services, services, and standard standard curriculum curriculum for schools. There were 16,850 districts in USA in 2000, with 94,090 schools, and 47.7 millions students (pre-kindergarten to grade 12). The smallest district (Nebraska) has 2 schools & 394 students, and the biggest district (New York City) has 1,207 schools and over 1 million students.
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Types of Schools. The 3 types of schools are public schools, public alternative schools, and private schools. (Figure 7.1 p 173). The public school levels are: (1) Kindergarten (K), (2) Elementary School [Primary School (K Grade 2), Intermediate School (Grades 3–6)], (3 Middle School (Grades 5-8), (4) Secondary School [Junior High School (Grades 7-8, or 7-9) High High School School (Grades 7-12, 7-12, 9-12, or 10-12], 10-12], and (5) Post-Seco Post-Secondar ndary y School School (Communi (Communi Colleges, Colleges, State Colleges, State Universities).
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Public Public Alternati Alternative ve Schools Schools include include Head Start, Start, Pre-kind Pre-kinderga ergarten rten Programs, Programs, Laborator Laborator Schools, Schools, Non-grad Non-graded ed Schools, Schools, Magnet Magnet Schools, Schools, Charter Charter Schools, Schools, Accelera Accelerated ted Scho Clust Cluster er School Schools, s, Vocat Vocatio ional nal-Te -Techn chnica icall School Schools, s, Profes Professio sional nal Devel Developm opmen entt Schoo Schoo Government-Run Schools, and Home Schooling. The Vocational-Technical Schools provide programs programs in the areas areas of cosmetol cosmetology, ogy, food preparati preparation, on, law enforceme enforcement, nt, horticul horticulture ture automotive repair, building construction, data processing, etc.
Private Private Schools Schools include include Nursery Nursery Schools Schools & Preschoo Preschools, ls, “Concept “Concept School” School” Alternati Alternati (Montessori Schools, Waldorf Schools), “Ethnic School” Alternatives (Afrocentric Schools Reservation Schools), Parochial/Religious Schools (Catholic Schools, Christian Academies Hebrew Schools, Islamic Schools), College Preparatory Read Schools, Trade Schools,Military Free For 30this Days Sign up to vote on title Academies, Academies, Junior Colleges, Colleges and Universities, and Adult Education Centers.
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9.3 Administration of Schools Sheet Music •
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Board of Education. Figure 7.2 (p 187) shows the management structure of schools in the United State. The public (people in a district) will appoint members of the District Board o Educa Educatio tion n (DBE), (DBE), and DBE DBE will will appoi appoint nt the School School Distr District ict Superi Superinte ntende ndent. nt. Board Board Education is the legislative policy-making body responsible for making sure schools are run by competent individuals. The board sets policies and hires employees to carry the policies.
School District Superintendent is the chief executive officer (CEO) of a school district. Three Assistant Assistant Superinte Superintende ndents, nts, namely, namely, Assistant Assistant Superinte Superintenden ndentt (Administ (Administratio ration), n), Assistan Assistan Superintendent (Personnel), and Assistant Superintendent (Curriculum), are appointed to assist assist School School District District Superinte Superintenden ndent. t. The school school principa principals ls are appointe appointed d to mana schools together with the instructional and support staff to deliver the curricula and manage the students.
Assistant Superintendent Superintendent (Personnel) will supervise the school principals, while the Assistan Superintendent (Curriculum) will coordinate the curricula, including special education, for al schools in the district. Assistant Superintendent Superintendent (Administration) will coordinate the business and finance, including maintenance of grounds, buildings, and buses; for all schools in the district. People in the district will meet the School District Superintendent if they are no happy with the education system in the district.
Principal. Schools are administered by School Principals who are responsible the everyday operations of the schools. Large schools have one or more Assistant Principal(s). Principals are respo responsi nsible ble for admin administ isteri ering ng disci discipl pline ine,, deal deal with with teache teachers rs and other other staff, staff, loc substitute teachers, balance school budget, and maintain building and equipment. Due to a lot of work to be done, nearly half of the principals have to work 60 hours per week, that is about 12 hours per day.
Issues that schools face include retention, that is, to retain students in a particular grade unti they have mastered the curricula for that grade. Holding students back in a particular grade does not solve the problems, because students are not motivated to learn because of the stigma attached to it. Class schedule and class size also become issues to school. Longe class period and small class size are supposed to make instruction more effective. Research indicated that small class (20 students) is more effective than bigger class.
Tracking is another issue, that is, to group students homogeneously based on their ability Master with Theyour critics semester of tracking argued that Scribd students are grouped based on unclear criteria. Fo Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title lems example,, the low-track low-track classes usually usually comprise comprised d of students students with behaviou behaviourr problems prob & Theexample New York Times Useful Not useful e they placed rather rather than than those those with with low academ academic ic achiev achieveme ement. nt. Once Onc they are placed in low-t low-trac rac •
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Good teachers are not just born with the five steps of the professional practice, but they acquire them through trainings and experiences. This is a life-long learning for the teachers since since knowl knowledg edge e and skill skills s canno cannott be master mastered ed in a short short time. time. Teache Teachers rs gain gain the knowledge from successful and unsuccessful experiences. Teachers also can anticipate al the problems students will face, and they will discuss the problems and solutions with fellow teachers, students and parents.
Teachers as professionals differ from non-teachers at least in five aspects of teaching and learning: learning: (1) they have the content knowledge of the subject-matter they teach; (2) they have the knowledge and skills of how best to deliver/teach a particular content; (3) they can understand learners’ needs in teaching and learning; (4) they know how to handle students with with disci discipl pline ine proble problems; ms; and and (5) they they know know vario various us method methods/t s/tech echniq niques ues to evalu evalu students’ academic achievement, skill performance, attitudes and social interaction.
9.5 Tutorial Activities •
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Read about “What makes some schools more effective than others?” (pp 192-6). Describe the elements that contribute to school effectiveness.
The five steps of reflective teaching: (1) they perceive problems and opportunity (alert to what is going on around them); (2) they can articulate their values in relation to values o others others they they work work with with (other (other teache teachers) rs) and and serve serve (stude (students nts); ); (3) they they posse possess ss som specialized knowledge, for example, they know lesson content, how to communicate, and appr approp opri riat ate e peda pedago gogy gy to use; use; (4) (4) they they act act base based d on thei theirr perc percep epti tion ons, s, valu values es,, an knowledge; knowledge; and (5) they evaluate their actions and improve in future.
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TOPICS 10 & 11: EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY, EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES AND EDUCATIONAL INEQUALITIES
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10.1 Equality of Educational Educational Opportunity •
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“Opp “Oppor ortu tuni nity ty”” mean means s “a situ situat atio ion n or cond condit itio ion n favo favour urab able le for for atta attain inme ment nt of a go “Educa “Educatio tional nal opport opportun unity ity”” means means “a situa situatio tion n or condit condition ion favou favourab rable le for attai attainme nment nt educational educational goals”. “Equality of educational opportunity” means that everyone is given equa situation or condition favourable for attainment of educational goals. Do you think everyone is given equal situation or condition favourable for attainment of educational goals? Discuss this with respect to factors that can hinder/hold back the equality of educational opportunity for Malaysian children, for examples: type of school; location of school, quality of teachers or family background. Other than these factors, children themselves differ from each other in terms of general ability/intelligence, ability/intelligence, language ability, interest and attitude.
In USA, there is a legislation to ensure equal educational opportunity for all Americans. In USA, equal educational opportunity is simply defined as “equal access to schooling” (p 202) 202).. At fede federa rall leve level, l, the the focu focus s of the the legi legisl slat atio ion n is to prov provid ide e equa equall educ educat atio io oppor opportun tuniti ities es for femal female e studen students, ts, studen students ts of differ differen entt races races (Whi (White, te, Black, Black, Ind Japanese Japanese,, Chinese Chinese,, Filipino Filipino,, Hawaiia Hawaiian, n, Korean, Korean, and other other races), races), students students with limi English proficiency, students from low-income families, and students with disabilities (vision problems/blind or semi-blind, hearing problems/deaf & dumb, learning difficulties, mentally retarded, physical handicapped). In the early history of education in USA, only boys can go to grammar grammar schools. schools. To provide provide equal educatio educational nal opportun opportunity ity for girls, girls, they were late allowed to study in these schools. Equal educational opportunity should also be given to children children of different different races, students students with learnin learning g difficulti difficulties, es, students students from low incom families, students with disabilities, and students who live in different locations, for example those who live in cities, towns or farms; so that they are not deprived of education.
In USA, the main idea of providing equal educational opportunity so that every child can be develope developed d to his/her his/her maximum maximum potential. potential. It means means that public school administr administrators ators and teachers must provide education according to the needs and strengths of students, while making sure that all students acquiring minimum basic skills (reading, writing, speaking arithmetic, thinking skills, ICT literacy). Court case: In USA, 15 African-American preschoo and and elemen elementar tary y school school studen students ts living living in a low-i low-inco ncome me housin housing g proje project ct (p. 259) 259) sue Michigan Board of Education in 1978 for denying them of equal educational opportunities Their Their African African American American English English differed differed from the English English used by teachers teachers and writ materials in school, which violated Title 20 of US Code. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title
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learning. In this case, the Court acknowledged that Michigan schools had provided specia
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regardless of race, colour, or origin, can be discriminated against or denied participation in programs receiving federal assistance. The Court ordered the establishment of bilingua programs.
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Children normally have about the same ability/intelligence to help them understand lesson contents. However, some have deficiencies, such as born with mental retardation, having problems with eyesight or hearing, or physically handicapped. How can we provide equa educational educational opportunity for them? Probably we cannot provide equal education for each one of them, but we can provide education to the maximum of their potential. For example, we may use modified curricula for those who are mentally retarded or having hearing problems. 10.2 Equality of Educational Outcomes
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As for the equality of educational outcomes, schools are to make sure that all students to achieve achieve equal equal intended intended/des /desired ired educational educational outcomes outcomes for each school subject subject taken by stud studen ents ts.. The The effe effect ctiv ive e teac teachi hing ng and and lear learni ning ng will will help help stud studen ents ts to achi achiev eve e intended/desired educational outcomes. As we learn earlier, the educational outcomes can be divided into four major domains (cognitive, affective, psychomotor & social domains), and other domains (productive, physical, aesthetic, moral & spiritual domains). The educationa outco outcomes mes depend depend on the subjec subjects ts taken taken by stude students nts.. Do all studen students ts take take the sam subjects? Definitely not. Hence, we can talk about equality of educational outcomes only fo students who take the same subjects.
The effectiveness of teaching and learning, however, does not depend only on the quality o teaching/teachers, but also on the availability of teaching materials/resources, the ability o students to learn, and the quality of learning. The ability of students to learn depends on the general intelligence of students and learning materials/resources provided, while the quality of learning depends on the interest, motivation and extra learning materials available to students. Hence, quality of teaching and learning is very important to make sure simila educational outcomes can be achieved by all students, particularly for students with specia needs. Therefore, what happen in the classroom and at home are of paramount important in achieving equality of educational outcomes for all students. The cases of English language deficiency mentioned earlier earlier could be the major cause for inequality of educational educational outcomes for African and Chinese Americans.
11.1: EDUCATIONAL INEQUALITIES
Master your semester withinScribd In the earlier history of education USA, there were independent schools established by Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title different ethnic and religious groups, that is, children from different ethnic groups or differen & Thereli New York Times Useful Not useful religi giou ous s grou groups ps stud studie ied d in diffe differe rent nt type types s of scho school ols. s. Sinc Since e they they lear learne ned d diffe differe re •
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curric cur ula/co /conte ntents nts in differ differen entt types types of schoo schools, ls, theref therefore ore,, they they were were not given given equ Special offer forricula students: Only $4.99/month.
educatio education, n, and this is what we call “educati “educational onal inequali inequality”. ty”. One way to provide provide equa
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teaching and learning to all students. Other than proper pedagogy, we can also allocate longer learning time for slow learners or students with special needs. As for examination exam time should be longer for them, so that they have enough time to answer exam questions.
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Three other approaches can be used in teaching students with special needs: (1) remediate students’ learning problems (for example, if a student could not write an essay, the teache can remediate him/her by using concept-mapping technique); (2) compensate for studen deficiencies (for example, if a student has eyesight problem, the teacher can ask him/her to sit in the front row or provide vision aids); and (3) capitalize capitalize on what the student prefers to do and do it well (for example, if the student likes music, the teacher can encourage him/her to play piano; or if a student likes drawing, the teacher t eacher can encourage him/her to do drawings).
11.2 Tutorial Activities •
Read Table 10.2 (p 299) on “How teachers may treat high and low achievers differently” The table gives you 18 different treatments when dealing with low achievers/slow learners Try to understand these treatments. Which of these 18 treatments do you think are effective or not effective for teaching low achievers? Give reasons for your answers. You may also suggest other treatments for f or low achievers/slow learners.
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TOPIC 12: EDUCATIONAL EDUCATIONAL REFORMS AND SCHOOL IMPROVEMENTS 12.1 Educational Reforms and School Improvements •
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Reform means “the amendment of what is wrong, corrupt, or unsatisfactory to a bette state”. state”. Improve means means “to bring to a more desirabl desirable e or excellen excellentt conditio condition”. n”. Educatio Educatio reforms and school improvements mean “the amendment of what is wrong, corrupt, o unsatisfactory in educational practices to a better state; and to bring to a more desirable or excellent condition of the schools”. Hence, educational reforms and school improvements deal with how we can change our education system and schools to a better education system and better schools.
Durin During g the twenti twentieth eth centu century, ry, educa educatio tion n in USA USA was was critic criticize ized d by public public,, for exampl exampl teache teachers rs were were using using mechan mechanica icall teachi teaching ng and learn learnin ing g method methods, s, admin administ istrat rators ors we incompetence, incompetence, and parents were not interested in their children’s welfare (p. 116). As for t condition of classrooms, particularly in city schools, it was criticized that classrooms were no fit for human human being beings s to breath breathe e and and teache teachers rs were were badly badly treate treated. d. School Schools s were were onl interested to educate bright children and ignoring the slow or average students. Schoo children were exploited as source of cheap labour during the rapid industrial growth in USA.
These require educational reforms and school improvements. For example, the introduction of laws on mandatory attendance of school protected the children by educating them and keeping them away from being employed as cheap labour force, while at the same time giving/securing more jobs for adults. At the same time also, there was a demand from the industry to use scientific methods to make education more effective. They suggested tha education should produce specialists rather than generalists, so that after completing the school, students can work in specific industries.
As a result, many psychological testing were developed to measure students’ ability and intelligence. The results of these tests were used to stream students to academic programs or vocational and technical programs. The behavioural theories (reward & punishment) punishment) were used in teaching and learning so as to make them more effective. Public libraries were buil to house thousands of books for teachers, students and public to use. Radio and television were also used to supplement the education provided by the schools. However, other than for teaching and learning, there were negative effects of television on students, that is, they became more violent. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title
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agencies for eradicating poverty and racial equality, that is, through education students wil
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12.2 Multicultural Education •
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Multicultural education can be defined as “an approach of educating students to understand and accept the cultural diversity of a country, and still can participate in the mainstream culture of the country”. Multicultural education is another example of educational reforms and school improvements. The multicultural education emphasizes on values and cultures o different groups of people in a particular country. The main aim of multicultural education is for students to appreciate values and cultures of groups of people based on, for example gender, class, ethnic or religion. This aim can be achieved through multicultural teaching There are five approaches to multicultural teaching.
(1) Teaching Teaching the exceptio exceptional nal and culturally culturally different different approach approach is teaching teaching students students with different backgrounds, such as students of a particular race, low-income students or specia educa educatio tion n stude students nts,, for the purpo purpose se of assimi assimilat lating ing them them into into mainst mainstrea ream m values values an cultures. Children are taught mainstream/common knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are needed for successful life in USA, which may be different from their own values and cultures This will create conflicting values for the students in relation to their t heir own values.
(2) Human relations approach is teaching students with different backgrounds to understand and accept each other on personal level. They are taught conflict mediation, which will help students to solve daily conflicts that arise, due to the differences in their backgrounds. One example of mediation program is “Teaching to Be Peacemakers”, which prepare students to apply negotiation and mediation procedures whenever a conflict arises. When students are trained to be their own peacemakers, student discipline problems problems decrease by 60%.
(3) Single Single-gr -group oup studi studies es appro approach ach is teachi teaching ng studen students ts with with differ differen entt backg backgrou rounds nds understand values and cultures of a particular group of people. The main purpose is for the students to appreciate group values and cultures by studying the group values and cultures For example, students can participate in activities that feature the food, dress, and custom o foreign countries. The major drawback of single-group studies studies is that students tend to accep diversity of values and cultures more than t han unity.
(4) Multicultural approach is teaching students with different backgrounds to understand diversity of values and cultures. The major purpose of multicultural approach is for students to appreciate other values and cultures, and mostly use the contents of the single-group studies. One example of using multicultural approach in teaching is teaching algebra to Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title African American students while listening to African drum-beats.
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Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Social Social recon rec onstru structi ction on appro approach ach is teachi teaching ng stude students nts with with diffe differen rentt backg backgrou rounds nds • (5)
understand social inequality and equality. Teachers will use students’ life experiences in
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TOPIC 13: CURRENT ISSUES AND TRENDS IN EDUCATION Sheet Music
13.1 THE CURRENT ISSUES IN EDUCATION •
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Public education system. Issues in education can be defined as “certain aspects of education that are worrying people”. For example, people are worried about public education system. Critics are worried that students are not getting the knowledge and skills that they needed, that teachers are not fully trained before entering the classroom, and that a big gap is forming between rich and poor schools (p 363). It means that students are not getting the knowledge and skills that they need for their daily life, teachers are not well trained, and there are differences in teaching and learning activities in the poor and rich schools. Do we have similar scenarios in Malaysia? Contr Control ol of curric curriculu ulum m in publi public c school schools. s. Educa Educator tors s and other other citiz citizen ens s find find difficulties in controlling curriculum in public schools. Government policy makers, parents, educators, and citizens want to decide on what is to be taught and learne learned d in schoo schools. ls. Public Public demand demands s change changes s in the curric curricul ulum, um, metho methods ds of teaching and learning, and process of assessment. The demand for changes called for teachers to change their practices. Department of Education demanded that by 2002-2003 all new teachers must be highly qualified, that means they must be licensed/certified and teaching only in the subject-matter (content) areas for which they are certified. The use of techno technolog logy y in teachi teaching ng and and learni learning ng.. The use of techno technolo logie gies, s, particularly the ICT, in teaching and learning, varies from school to school. For example, poor schools have less ICT facilities compared to rich schools. Another issue related to the use of ICT in teaching and learning is teacher knowledge knowledge and skills in using ICT. Teachers need to be trained on how to use the latest ICT hardware and software for teaching and learning, since the development in ICT is very rapid. Schools also need a lot of financial support to maintain the hardware and to purchase new PCs and software.
Teaching of Mathematics and Science. Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study in 1995 and 1999 had indicated that the mathematics and science achi achiev evem emen entt of US stude student nts s were were lowe lowerr comp compar ared ed to Asia Asian n or Euro Europe pean an stude students nts.. It was was argue argued d that that the low achiev achieveme ement nt was was due due to the focus of mathe mathema matic tics s and and scienc science e teachi teaching ng was was on drill drill-an -and-p d-prac ractic tice, e, rather rather than tha n Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title understan understanding ding the concepts concepts,, principl principles es and applicati applications, ons, as being being practice practice by Useful Not useful other other countr countries ies,, which which also also using using proje project-b ct-base ased d and andCancel solvin sol ving-r g-real eal-pr -probl oblem em anytime. Special offer for students: Onlyin $4.99/month. approach teaching mathematics and science. In term of curricula, it was found that the contents the US students studied in grade eight were given to students in •
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Understanding Global Interdependence. The September 11, 2001 events had changed the American thinking about relationships to other people in the world. Othe Otherr than than this this,, the the effe effect cts s of nati nation onal al acti activi viti ties es,, such such as econ econom omic ics, s, communications, and politics, had made the American thought that they were also just a part of the global community, with the term such as global village becomi becoming ng a model model.. The proces process s of under understa standi nding ng these these relati relation onshi ships ps now now becomes the major issue and focus in American education. American education, through through Trends in International International Mathematics Mathematics and Science Science Study, Study, had tried to make make compar compariso ison n of educa educatio tional nal achie achievem vemen entt withi within n USA USA and with with other other countries in the world, and at the t he same time tried to understand education education system of these countries.
13.2 •
Foundation of Education
TRENDS IN EDUCATION
Trends Trends toward towards s commo common n educat education ional al expect expectat ation ions. s. Imple Implemen mentin ting g commo common n educational expectations for all schools, teachers and students is one way to solve the issue of students are not getting the knowledge and skills that they need, need, teache teachers rs are not not fully fully train trained, ed, and diffe differen rences ces betwe between en rich rich and poor poor schoo schools. ls. Teache Teachers rs need need common common curric curricula ula as guide guide for their their teachi teaching ng,, and and schools schools should should have common common mechanis mechanism m to measure measure school school effective effectiveness ness.. States must make sure all students reach certain level of achievement in the examinations. Trends towards comprehensive curriculum and assessment. The pressure from public on educational standards had motivated the curriculum and assessment reforms. The trend is to integrate the contents with characteristics of students, teaching methods, and relevant thinking skills to the contents, so that schools can have comprehensive curricula. As for assessment, the trend is to have more comprehensive comprehensive assessment, not just depending depending on examination examination results, but more on project-based assessment. Trends towards the application of technologies in teaching and learning. The application of technologies, particularly those related to ICT, needs substantial investment in the hardware, software and teacher training. Allocations of fund must be made to schools, to enable them to purchase the equipments and softw softwar are. e. Teac Teache hers rs are are now now bein being g trai traine ned d and and retr retrai aine ned d on how how to appl apply y techn technolo ologi gies es in teachi teaching ng and and learni learning. ng. All these these trend trends s can be regard regarded edas Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title educational reforms, and teacher professionalism will change accordingly. accordingly.
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Special offer for•students: $4.99/month. TrendsOnly towards education for diversity. Schools were asked to make sure all
students get similar educational outcomes. However, students are different for
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to add character education in addition to the normal knowledge and skill curricula. Three approaches were suggested for character education: views, virtues, and values values.. The views views approa approach ch will will encour encourage age studen students ts to state state their their views views on certain controversial issues related to, for example, politics or religion. The virtues approa approach ch will will help help stude students nts to develo develop p good good habit habits s and virtu virtues es to become become responsi responsible ble adults. adults. The values values approach approach (most popular popular in schools) schools) will help help students to know the values that are desirable to people. The six core values are trustworthiness, respects, responsibility, fairness, caring, and citizenship.
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13.3 •
TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES
Read on “How are links to technology changing changing the foundations of education” (pp 371371-75 75). ). Brie Briefl fly y expl explai ain n how how tech techno nolo logy gy had had chan change ged d the the foun founda dati tion ons s of education.
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