.....
- - ,-
/
- -
--·~~--
SOURCES AND RESOURCES
f
I
'
.
A WESTERN PSYCHIATRIST'S SEARCH FOR MEANING IN THE ANCIENT INDIAN SCRIPTURES
ERNA M. HOCH
Sources and Resources A Western psychiatrist's search for meaning in the ancient Indian scriptures
Erna M. Hoch
BOOK FAITH INDIA
Published by BOOK FAITH INDIA 416, Express Tower Azadpur Commercial Complex Delhi-110 033 (INDIA) First Indian Edition 1993 ©Publisher ISBN 81-7303-011-1 Rs. 400 Printed at Ram Printograph Delhi-110 051
EDITORIAL NOTE Note on spelling:
a) English: The question whether words like "realise", "recognize" etc. should be spelled with "s" or "z" has in general been decided according to the rules given in FOWLER "Modern English Usage": terms derived from Latin roots should be spelled with "s"; those derived from Greek, as e.g. "ch·aracterize", "emphasize", with "z". In quotations, the spelling has however been left as found in the original text. b) Sanskrit/Hindi: A uniform system of transcription for Sanskrit and Hindi terms has been used. The main differences from English spelling are as follows: Vowels: long vowels: "a" as in "far"; "u" as in "moon". nasal a, as e.g. in "plant". "r" = ri, as in "rid".
"I" as in "see"; 1
"a"
Consonants: "c" tch, as e.g. in "chit"; "Q." hard, unaspira ted d, no exact equivalent in English; ~" 11 slightly nasal n, often between two vowels; "n = slightly nasal n before g or k; "n" approaching the sound of "ny" as e.g. in "onion", usually before or after "j"; "~" = sh, as e.g. in "she"; "s" = also sh, but slightly more hissing and harder ("dental") than "s"; "t" =hard, unaspirated t, no exact equivalent in Englis.h; "~h" hard aspirated t, no exact equivalent in English. 11
Other characters and combinations of characters of which the sound does not correspond at least approximately to English spelling do not occur in the text. An exception from this spelling has been made for terms, in particular names, that have become familiar in English, e.g. "Krishna" instead of "K~~\la", "pandit" instead of "pal)gi ta", "yogi" instead of "yogin 11 • In quotations, the spelling has been left as found in the original text.
Cover illustration:
Embossed copper plate (size 13.5 x 9.5 cm) of unknown provenance, probably from the Western Him~layas. The cobra on the head of the figure and the waters of the river Ganga flowing from it point to Shaivite origin. Possibly it represents Lord Shiva himself in his aspect as "pasupati" (protector of all creatures) or some local hermit devoted to him and bearing some of his attributes.
VII
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EDITORIAL NOTE
v XI
FOREWORD PREFACE ANCIENT INDIAN PHILOSOPHY AND WESTERN PSYCHOTHERAPY Introduction Healing and salvation The teachings about the causes of emotional suffering Ways of overcoming the three evils Master and disciple Aims and effects of the Indian path Literature /
BHAYA, SOKA, MOUA 1. Choice of the subject 2. Anxiety ("bhaya") 3. Suffering or sorrow ("s~ka") 4. Delusion, ignorance ( "moha") 5. Conclusion Literature ·" .v DESAKALAJNA 1 • Prologue in the Himalaya 2. The concept of "Time" and "Kairos" in Indian literature a) The Rgveda b) The Upani~ads c) The Puranas d) The Epics e) The Bhagavad Gita f) The Krishna legend g) Parables and folklore 3. "Kairos" in clinical psychiatric experience in India 4. Conclusions Literature
DREAM - A WORLD; WORLD - A DREAM ? Introduction Dream - a world World - a dream? Literature
13 14 16 18 21 24 27 29 31 37 52 57 64 65 67 67
73 74 75 79 81 84 91 95 101 121 126
131 1 37 147 157
VII I
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE "ZUERCHER GESPRAECHE"
159
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF IMAGES IN HINDUISM
1. 2. 3. 4.
Introduction Process and aim of "creation" Name and form The process of estrangement from the origin of "creation"; yoga as the path to "re-union" 5. The role of images in meditation 6. The Indian world of images in the light of psychiatric experience 7. Conclusion Literature
163
164 169 171 173 178 182 184
COLLOQUY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
General remarks about "colloquy" and its elements Colloquy in ancient Indian scriptures Colloquy in present-day India Colloquy in my psychiatric activity in Kashmir The multiplicity of meanings of images Problems of colloquy in an international, interdisciplinary setting Literature
CRITERIA OF REALITY
185
186 193 196 203 212 223 225
ANXIETY AND SPEECH
1 • Anxiety 2. Speech 3. Anxiety and speech Literature
233
235 240 247
MESSENGER BETWEEN EAST AND WEST Introduction The messenger's errands The request The question of the "ontological difference" The question concerning "unconcealedness, concealedness, truth" Further explanations and clarifications Concluding reflections Literature
249
SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SUBJECTIVE STATES ?
295 296 297 299 303
1. Author's background and viewpoint a) Daseins-analysis b) Ancient Indian philosophy 2. Some problems of terminology 3. An attempt to answer the questions proposed to this Seminar 4. Conclusion Appendix: Associations to the dream on pp. 312/313
250 251
255 260 263 282 293
307
311 315
IX BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION: FROM COMPULSION TO FREE CHOICE L. Introduction 2. The level of sheer habit and drill 3. Compulsion versus freedom of choice 4. Spontaneous outflow from an inner core 5. Modern research on yoga Literature
319 320 325 331 338 344 352
SYNOPSIS OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS RECURRING IN SEVERAL PAPERS (marked by (S) in text)
355
XI F 0 R E W0 R D The author, great
Prof. Dr. Erna Hoch, deeply devoted to India's
religious
and
philosophical
tradition,
worked
for
32 years as a psychiatrist in various positions and places in India,
in developed and Westernized cities and institu-
tes as well as functioning as a village doctor for illiterate peasants and herdsmen of the Himalayas. Her Western sources are the European medical tradition and the existential philosophy of Martin Heidegger with which she came into contact through Medard Boss, who had introduced Heidegger 1 s thinking into his existential psychotherapy ( Daseinsanalyse). Erna Hoch was able to use the Western sources her
of
work
philosophy
as
a
doctor,
and
psychiatry
psychiatrist,
as
resources
for
psychotherapist
in
India. On the other hand, she was also guided in· this work by the fruitful contacts she found with the Indian sources. Her open-minded interest, sympathy and empathy with her patients of all social strata allowed her to adapt her psychotherapy to the level of consciousness of her clients. From Indian sources she could find resources
for
creating
the
images
to
fit
their
capacity
for
comprehension, promoting their wholesome growth and beneficial metamorphosis. Nourished
by
her
them as fruitful clients,
sources
in
Europe
and
India,
using
resources according to the needs of her
the receptivity of her audience and the openness
of her discussion partners in West and East
for colloquy
as a fruitful intersubjective exchange, she became a bearer of messages,
a hermes for both countries. Her papers thus
enrich Western self-reflection on its own culturally limited
conception
and
at
the
same
time
strengthen
India's
serious consideration of its own anthropological, religious and philosophical inheritance. The
creative
world-making
potential
of
consciousness
is one of the fundamentals of Indian philosophy. The human individual
(as every being) is an incarnation of a supra-
individual essential being:
the only real ONE. The supra-
XII conscious, Brahman),
divine is
the
or
cosmic
only
true
consciousness reality •. It
individual human consciousness all
(Maha-Xtman,
creates
in
the
the myriads of indivi-
dual forms of living and non-living "things", of phenomena which
undergo
a
permanent
metamorphosis
of
appearing,
being present for a time and vanishing into the unknowledgeable ONE, that
it
of which it cannot be said that it
"is
not".
Which
"gestalt"
on the fundamental law of Karma:
is
"is"
produced
nor
depends
the deeds done in former
incarnations determine the results in the present phenomenal world. This world of "ordinary reality" struction up
the
of
the
so-called
(Castaneda)
human mind:
human
reality
our
of
is a
consciousness
own
con-
builds
inter-subjectively
shared common world. Worldly life is imperfect, incomplete (in as far as it is separated from the source' the ONE), obscured (by the illusion about reality, produced by ignorance)
and
thus
it
is
a
life
of
suffering
Suffering calls for relief, for healing, sense
(as ·we
use
the
much deeper sense.
word
therapy
not in a curative
nowadays),
"duh-kha" makes us
of
higher
that
as
separate
our
we, true
self
ONE,
the
this
liberation
are
or
one,
is
the
the
self
at
the
i.e. This
is
end goal
not
of of
the
we
very
identical
very
in
a
salvation
From
consciousness
Brahman.
(moks'a) that
of
individuals,
(atman)
Maha-Atman
The realisation
levels
but
long for
by merging with the eternal immutable ONE. spective
( duh-kha) •
per-
realise core with
of the
suffering, our
lives.
identical with
the
individual Ego, which is a product of the ego-maker (ahamkara), but rather that it is one with the universal creative potential mediates liberation, union can be achieved by
peace and freedom.
reflection
consciousness at its various levels of
on
individual
i~luminated
This human
insight.
On the every-day level of consciousness, we take the given world as
reality.
become aware a
dream
worlds.
that
state,
In
higher
this
which
states
every-day produces
We ought to let them go,
of
consciousness,
common changing
reality
is
like
appearances
as we let dreams
we of
pass,
to come to the awakening of the ultimate imageless divine
XI II
ONE, the supreme absolute. From that perspective the world is like a dream, just as the dream is a world of its own, created by the dream-state of consciousness, itself a manifestation of the supraconscious beyond any "gestalt", free from any clouds of obscuration. The realisation of the unity of the individual self (atman) and supraindividual cosmic Maha-~tman means transcendence. It is not a union of two separ.;ite and different "beings", but the very sameness (identity) of the two. This mystical insight into oneness is the aim of Yoga (which means union), reached in the highest state of meditative consciousness (samadhi). The mythical
representation of
the
creative potential
is named Shiva; the force (energy) of the permanent metamorphosis of phenomena between birth and death is named Shakti. Man can approach the Divine according to the mental faculties given by the state of his development and by his individual characteristics. Thoughtful reflection, study of the scriptures, intellectual insight is the path of
Jnana-Yoga.
To
permanently
address
himself
in
love
to the personalised God Shiva and his consort Shakti
(or
in other religious regions to Vishnu) is the way of BhaktiYoga. Self-realisation in selfless (non-egoistic) practice of good, core of leading
helpful charitable work for all beings is the Karma-Yoga. Raja-Yoga· combines these pathways to
the
same
goal
of
stepping out of
the circle
of birth, death, rebirth (samsara). The
individual
matured
to
a
differentiated
reflecting
level of consciousness may gain the liberating insight on his very own path of spiritual development. He realises the world-making, dream-like action of the common every-day consciousness and transcends it. The less developed human consciousness will follow the traditional cultural patterns of
understanding of man,
in a
his
religious
personal
such
images
( nirva."na)
God
inheritance.
or Goddess
towards the
life, world,
aim
the is
salvation as given
Whether
or whether
man he
believes
transcends
ONE beyond
any
the
presenting
same,
single
in any
"gestalt" itself
in
XIV various
forms,
depending
on
the
developmental
state
of
consciousness. This
developmental
state
the degree to which one
of
consciousness
is bound
to
determines
illusory
images
of
reality. It also determines the level of autonomy in selfrealising one's own way ( sva-dharma) or being dependent on a tradition of belief systems, of doctrines, of various religious schools (churches in the West). India is the country with the highest individual freedom for one's very own independent, even asocial cending social boundaries and norms)
(i.e. trans-
way of self-realisa-
tion (the sannyasin). At the same time, India allows the . d'1v1dual . . a comparative1n human-being to remain embedde d in ly undeveloped common folk spirit with a group ego and a common world image rather than an 1'ndi'vidualistic unfolding of one's consciousness. In ei'th er case , it is an Indian way of being in the world. We welcome the present selection. from Erna Hoch's lectures and articles devoted to the cultural exchange between East and West. They bring us "concrete foreignness": hermeneutics of the holy scriptures as well as observations of and reflections on the concrete experience of a psychiatrist's field work. (Other articles by Erna Hoch which are
not
published
here
deal
with
specific
psychiatric
problems.) The Indian concepts of suffering, sorrow, anxiety, ignorance and the Indian way of overcoming them by a fruitful cooperation between master (guru) and disciple are compared with Western psychotherapy. The Indian concept of states of consciousness in waking and dreaming ·demonstrates to us our own restricted Western tiew of everyday wakeful consciousness as the only one. Similarly, we broaden our perspective with regard to the concepts of time and the "Kairos", the right moment, by learning what Indians reality
think about compared to
it. What are Indian ones?
Western criteria for In meditation as in
psychotherapy, how can vivid images, suited to the disciples'
and the clients'
readiness
to assimilate
them,
be
xv used for a fruitful development? We learn something about the difficult problems of translating and interpreting philosophical Sanskrit texts into European languages as a prerequisite for a serious comparis~n of Heidegger's terminology and Indian concepts. We become aware of the meaning of and conditions for an intersubjective exchange in colloquy in interdisciplinary and international discussions. Thus, the reader will finally close the volume enriched by the wealth of what Erna Hoch tells us. Zurich, August 1990 Christian Scharfetter Professor of Psychiatry Research Department University Clinic of Psychiatry
z
u r i c h
PREFACE
In this fast moving time of ours, how can one dare to publish a collection of papers written over a period of 20 years, unless of course one is so famous that every scrap of one's writing is considered worth preserving for posterity? Two, perhaps three reasons can be offered, why this present volume of lectures and articles on ancient Indian philosophy - "the sources" - and its relevance for presentday psychiatry and psychotherapy the "resources" - has some chance of not being rejected as outdated: Ancient Indian philosophy has survived, as a source of ever new insights and inspiration, for some 2500 3000
years.
Against
this,
a
a fraction of a human life, The basic
truths,
mere
span of
20
years,
just
is hardly of any significance.
pointing
to that which lies beyond all our concepts of "time", can and will stand as long as there are human beings seeking their origin and the meaning of their existence. If one belongs to those who - as most traditional Indians do! - swear by the "S'ruti". (literally "hearing, listening") to
i.e.
on
rigidly
the commentaries and
and
even
compulsively
adhering
interpretations of the scriptures
which the best-known ancient philosophers laid down hundreds or thousands of years ago, one would at any rate be justified in handing on their wisdom throughout the ages,
without
any
concern
for
however, was not my approach. Initially, when I had the ancient
Indian
scr:.ptures
the
changing
courage
on my
to
times.
search
This, in
the
own
and to find meaning in them in terms of my Western upbringing and in particular a of my psychiatric activities and not to forget! leaning towards the Daseins-analytical philosophy of M. HEIDEGCER, I found that quite a few of the scholars I tried to talk to were extremely suspicious or even scornful of
an
that;
undertaking it
means
of
this."
whenever
I
only
ask whether a
to
this they
kind.
"No.
would
It does
not
categorically
mean
claim,
dared to present to them my own views or even particular
interpretation that had
2
occurred to me would be plausible and permissible. Fortunately,
also found more liberal "pandits" !
I
remember I
met
one
him,
Shri was
Krishnamurthy
the Sanskrit
who,
I
at
professor
particularly
the
at
time
the
when
Institute
of Mental Health (now "National Institute of Mental Health and
Neuro-Sciences")
at
Bangalore
and
thus
was
working
in a setting that exposed him to the problems and insights of modern psychiatry. When I discussed my ideas with him, he listened quite patiently; then he nodded his head from side to side pensively, as if carefully weighing the matter in his mind, and finally replied: "Yes, why not?" He agreed that the ancient Sanskrit ·texts are so rich and condensed and
even
a
meanings
single word
(S)
that
pick out from with his own
can
have
anyone who
so wide
approaches
a
spectrum
them is
of
free
to
this wealth of possibilities what fits disposition and life experience. "You
in as
a psychiatrist", he said, "trained to observe and interpret human behaviour, both normal and abnormal, would naturally be able to find,
in the ancient texts,
meanings to which
people more concerned with linguistics, wo~ld
phy, perhaps cultural history, To
me,
the
criterion
for
grammar,
phi loso-
not be open."
accepting
some
sacred
text
as "inspired" has always been whether it allows for different
interpretations,
it were and one's is
find
horizon
valid
for
whether
widens an
one
new meaning, through
individual,
can
"grow
with
new revelations life also
it"
as
in it,
as
experience. applies
of
And
what
course
to
the history of mankind. Seeing the situation from this point or
view,
one can
claim that, what revealed itself to me in these scriptures 20 -
30 years ago,
is as true as what I
can see now,
and
it certainly may have a chance of appealing to those who, on _t-heir way
through
similar stage. "Alright" one as
the ancient
role. with
now
scriptures
But aren't your
may
life,
you
experience
happen
argue,
"we
hr&• e
to
link
psychiatry
arrived
admit
are ·concerned
trying in
to
that
"time"
at
as plays
a
far no
this ancient wisdom and
psychotherapy?
What about these? Haven't there been lots of changes during these 20
-
30 years,
not only in
terms of theories,
but
3
also of therapeutic practice and even of the characteristic features of symptomatology and epidemiology?" This,
of
course,
psycho-analytical
is true!
approach
On the one hand the standard
is
now
seen
with
quite
a
bit
of scepticism; on the other hand a variety of new fashions _ if not fads! py,
for
use of
- has sprung up in the field of psychothera-
individuals
as well as for groups.
The increasing
psychopharmaca has not only transformed the atmos-
phere of mental hospitals,
but has actually brought psych-
iatry out of these' "museums", as they are sometimes called, into the "c.omm®ity". And then, of course, there is "antipsychia try", according to which psychiatry has had its day and should be discarded! The diagnostic distribution within has of
the
out 30
tl:ie
sum
shifted.
of
by
the
but also
World 1)
for
however,
to
and
look
emotional
at
Classification
Health
Much the
mental
only
International
years!
all
total
One 'has
the of
Organisation
greater
concern
revisions
Diseases
during
for
disorders
two
worked
these
20
child-psychiatry,
psychiatric disorders of old age,
above
much more minute attention to the different
types of depression and a
remarkable expansion and differ-
entiation of the classification of drug-addiction or rather "drug-dependence" has
taken.
about
her
So,
clearly
why
show
read
professional
the
what
a
direction
this
shift
psychiatrist has written
experience
20,
10
or
even
only
5 years ago? To time and
counter when
I
this
started
psychiatric
been working still
am
India. 1 956,
in
mostly
India
I
bringing
experience for
referring
At the time when I
must
explain that at
together
Indian
in my writings, about to
I
the
philosophy had already
10 years. What I was and
is ·therefore
psychiatry
in
arrived in this country in April
there was hardly anything worth calling "psychiatry"
outside these
argument,
mental
"lunatic
hospitals, asylums",
and as
even
they
what
were
went
still
on
inside
called,
was
more "custodial care" than expert therapy. The introduction
---------
1) 8th Revision 1967, ICD 8; 9th Revision 10th Revision about to be introduced.
1978,
ICD
9.
4
of psychopharmaca came just at the right time to help cope with the increase in mental and emotional disorders - that emerged as a result of the rapid social and -~-u_l tural ~
~ormation
by which
India was
swept
-~long_ ~_fter
the
declaration _of ~depen~ence • In some ways, as there was not much resistance against change by an already firmly established "psychiatric system" to be overcome, one was able to jump ahead and while doing so, to skip certain developments through which the West had passed and which were later judged irrelevant or even harmful, in particular the phase of "overhospitalisation" of the mentally ill. one therefore plunged straight into "community psychiatry". This meant avoiding the construction of new mental hospitals (though the existing ones provided less than 1 bed per 30 000 of the population!) and developing instead psychiatric departments in general hospitals - in particular in teaching hospitals - and, at the same time, widening the scope of the existing psychiatric institutions by adding out-patient services or expanding and strengthening those already existing. soon it came to be realised that the usual concentration of medical services in big cities presented quite particular problems in the field of psychiatry, where early detection and treatment on the one hand and careful long-term follow-up on the other play so important a role and where, moreover, many of the morbid manifestations can only be fully understood, patient's
local
if one is thoroughly familiar with background.
One
therefore
finds
the
that,
already in the mid-sixties, i.e. before the time the first of
the
there
papers were
contained
this
even
at
about carrying psychiatry out
to
including
discussions,
in
mental
health
services
volume the the in
was
written!
government level, periphery, e.g. by district-hospitals by creating mobile
or even health centres or possibly units. Some of these facilities have since been implemented, at about the same time as or rather earlier than in Western countries where people have been thinking about offering the benefits of psychiatric services to peripheral, in particular "rural" areas "on the spot 11 and consequently
are
re-organising
their
mental
health
services
5
into a comprehensive network within small regions or sectors. This of
is,
however,
not
the
only
argument
in
support
the continuing and up-to-date relevance of what I· have
written years
about
ago.
psychiatric
What
one
experience
has
to
in
consider
India
is
gained
that
20
India has
an enormous population of which only just a thin uppermost layer
or
sector
is
initially
touched
by
any
innovation
at the time it sets in. For its diffusion and percolation down to what one often calls "the grass-roots level" many years may be needed. This of course not only applies to any chan9e......- in theories and practices ~oncerning mental
heal~~ se~vices, but also quite generally to the transformation
of
views,
beliefs,
attitudes
and
life-style
which
people in India are undergoing. In 1967, were of
when the first
writ ten,
I
experience
could
with
two papers
already
a
look
in this collection
back
very "backward",
on
5 -
6 years
largely illiterate
population of Hindu mountain peasants ir. the Kumaon Hills of
Ut tar
some these of
a
Pradesh.
idea
of
people
--
doctor.
level
and
also
----·-the
"De~ak~laj f1a
paper entitled
the At
--·---·- -- -
The
of
development
shows
what
at which
expectations
11
gives
I
found
they had
time when this collection of papers
was first thought of 15 -
20 years later, I was once again
______
amongst illiterate (S) mountajn peasants, this time Kashmiri
Muslims,
and ..
what
-
~-
I
observed .. ..... and
--"----~--·--·--.
,_-~
experienced amongst ....,_____,,.,.,....
~~---
~h~m- was~~rdly in any way different from what I had de· - ·--.... scribed in 1967 ! The stages of "change" that have been --~--
-·-..---
outlived in certain more emancipated sectors of the population
continue
only
distant
to
be
the
prospects
problem for
of
the
the
masses
day that
or
perhaps
still
have
11
to be '~bsough_s_t!P to P~_:_ • A further reason why even what · t ry psyc h ia that I am technique
1· 5
not
not
likely
concerned
within
the
to
be
with
field
of
1
I
have
written
"out-dated"
any
so
scientific
psychiatry.
soon
theory
What
-
about
I
is
tried
-~~~---
--=-~~-----
.P~9fe~_?j.,ona~--~E.~ity is a basic view of life and in particular - .......... ._ --·'-' .-, _... ...... -_-.- ... l-.. of human ..e~~~e~ . -.i··--.-c--.-=-,,....,.~
which
though
valid
• - . -•-- - -
t----~---c .....,,....._..,. ___ ..:3
in all
- ___ ....__,..._.._.....;c-....,___
-_..-...,;:a.....
-
..........
,...~-----~-:"
si tnations
-~;~--.- G•'&-·.~----..c.·-..-.:-
-
could have- it's .._.._, ...... _....,.
~-:.--
-y:- •
...,._..aur- .,..,
(;. D ,~
riv":.~\ p_ ~ ..\W
'-\JO llO r -, .ir- "r-a0 1,. 14 A. t:.i
or _k1r
to find in the ancient Indian scriptures and then to illustr ate·_ w{t)1_g~l}lP~~-s. __ fJ:o.rn_.my
~
ff"'
"t:_
6
particular significance as
a
philosophical basis for
all
psychotherapeutic activi~y, and this, obvio~_~_ly '-~-~.s __ s_o,~~ thing that can persist, even if fashions in the classification of diseases and methods of treatment change. Perhaps I may add another reason why in this case tnere is no need to fear the criticism that it is "behind the times" to publish "old articles": If one works· in a pioneering situation, as I have done during the greater part of 32 years in India, one often has to move ahead into certain areas lon' before other people reach there. Again and again I have .noted that what I had experienced and reflected on at a particular time would emerge a~ a commonly discussed concern and a focus of general interest only years later. My going to India as a psychiatrist in 1956, for instance, was still a pioneering venture which few people would have thought of and even fewer would actually have undertaken at that time. Nowadays, trips to India figure on the
list
of
every
psychiatrists,
travel
attend
agency
and
conferences,
doctors,
give
including
guest-lectures,
go on research fellowships or even complete their "interneships" in Indian cities as easily as they would have travelled to the nearest town in their own countries 30 years ago. Some of my publications (not those contained in the present volume!) to what appeare9 "Transcultural
were amongst in
the
late
Psychiatry".
the
earliest
fifties
In
under
continental
contributions the
name
Europe,
of the
wave of interest in this special field reached the psychiatric
profession
much
later
and
has
only quite
recently
started to find an echo amongst ~he general public. ~ thermore, fascination with Eastern philosophy and religion, which was one of my foremost concerns already-b;fo;~-r;;v ing for India, has nowadays become quite a fashion in ,,._ ... ~------ - - - - - - - -.. ."'---··-----··-~ • c.----=- - .,. ~---·---·-·· • -- ......-.~~rn countries. In India too, while 20 30 years ago the main ambition was to follow the West and thus, in the field of psychiatry, to bring oneself "up to par" with Western research and treatment methods, one has nowadays started to become.aware of one's own cultural heritag~
and the important role it could perhaps play in inspir-
7
ing psychiatric and in particular psychotherapeutic activity.
*
*
*
All eleven papers assembled in this book try to combine insight into the eternal Truth laid down in the ancient Indian scriptures with psychiatric experience; in terms of the title chosen: the 11 resources 11 are traced back to the "sources" and the latter again provide inspiration for a better understanding and handling of the "resources". Beyond this, however, they' have something else in common: they were all written "on request", for special occasions. On my own, just as a literary exercise or in a self-appointed
role
of
"spiritual
preceptor",
I
should never have
had the boldness to venture out with my ideas. If the urge for "self-expression" is to be harmoniously blended with the purpose of "communication 11 , one has to know for what kind. of public one is writing or to what audience one is supposed to speak! All the papers in this collection are thus specifically tuned, written in response to someone's need and interest. I have been extremely lucky in this respect: Even while I 1 i ved in remote corners of India, far away from modern civilisation, again and again requests for contributions to some conference or for some publication reached me, often in a quite surprising manner. The fact that each of these papers owes its existence to some unique circumstances and thus has its story, also made me decide against amalgamating the material contained in them into one single "treatise".
Much
of
the
aliveness
and
spontaneousness
would then have been lost. It thus seemed to be more appropriate to allow each piece to keep it~ own identity and to describe the situation in which it was written and the occasion it was meant for. Where there were significant "overlaps", they have either been eliminated in one or the other instance or summed up. A synopsis allows to compare and link up references to one and the same topic made in more than one paper. An (S) in the text indicates the terms and topics concerned.
8
One
question
was
how
to
arrange
the
sequence
of
the
papers. The most obvious method of course was to go according
to
tear
apart
At
the
first
dates
of
pieces
sight,
origin,
that
for
are
though
this
closely
instance,
it
was
related
seemed
likely
in
quite
plausible
that "Anxiety and Speech" should immediately follow S'oka,
moha",
on
which
scrutiny, however, _understood
and
preG~ding
the
gathering. they
I
first
part
is
based.
11
Bhaya,
On
close
realised that in order to be properly
appreciated, three
In fact
have
its
to
content.
it
papers
needed
written
the
"build-up"
earlier
for
the
of
same
this also applies to the other pieces:
all grown out of each other along with
my
own
process of maturation. A deviation from a ~purely chronological order has therefore only been made as far as "Indian philosophy and Western
psychotherapy"
for
an
is
concerned.
encyclopaedia,
is
of
a
This
article,
factual,
and hardly refers to personal experience. very in
adequately
concise
serve
form,
to be spread o:it
as
an
presents
of
the
in greater detail
type
It can therefore
introductory
most
wri.tten
informative summary
themes
which,
that
are
and with many variat-
ions, in the following pages.
*
*
Lastly a few words about those to whom I am most indebted for
encouraging me to formulate my views and experien-
ces, and to whom I thus wish to express my thanks: Harold Eastern in a
KELMAN
(New
thought,
making
York),
with
particular
psychotherapy
similar
during his
in
"wavelength"
a
deeply
and
his
Zen
keen
human
greatly
interest
Buddhism,
and
venture,
stimulated
in
also
was my
on
work
repeated v"isits to India and by lively corres-
pondence in between. Medard amount in
BOSS
of
1956 field
who
ultimately
responsibility
for
my
and
HEIDEGGER' s the
(Zurich),
also
for
philosophy of
my
getting
and
psychiatry
his
and
own
starting
a
great
out
to
India
acquainted
with
application
psychotherapy,
of the main sources of inspiration.
bears
has
of
Martin it
been
to one
Through him, his pupil
9
and later colleague Gion CONDRAU became aware of my special interest and thus sought my collaboration for three of. the publications he edited. Finally,
wa~
in 1978, it
again due to Medard BOSS that
the organisers of the "Zurcher Gesprache", a small intercul tural and interdisciplinary group, with a bias towards 14th/15th century Italian hum~nism, but also towards HEIDEGGER's Daseins-philosophy, thought of inviting me to one of their meetings. This was a welcome opportunity to delve again after a longish interval into the ancient Indian scriptures and bring out, in more detail than in the earlier papers, important correlations, analogies and connections, not only with my own field of work, i.e.
psychiatry,
but
also
with
other
burning
problems
of present-day life, -in particular also in the field of education. The frequent trips to Europe through the further invitations gave me of course a unique chance of "feeling the pulse" and "sniffing the atmosphere" in the West and thus enabled me to adjust my writing still more closely to the needs and interests of those for whom it was meant. I owe much to the generous sponsorship of the late Dr. h.c. and
V. . tANGEN
(Diisseldorf/Ascona)
encouragement
received
from
and to the stimulation
Prof.
E.
GRASSI
(Munich\
in ciur personal discussions and correspondence. Amongst my Indian friends I wish to mention in particular Prof. R.L. KAPUR, originally my student, later a stimulating colleague who involved me in his attempts at finding links between psychiatry and yoga at the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences and the Indian Institute of Science (Center for Theoretical-Studies), both at Bangalore, and Dr. G.C. SINGH, Professor emeritus of the Department
of
Psychology
at
Gurukula
Kangri
Vishvavidyalaya,
Hardwar, and Editor of the journal "The Vedic Path", whose main concern during the last few years has 'been to revive interest in ancient Indian psychology and philosophy amongst
teachers
and
students
of
University
Departments
of Psychology in India. The in
last
two
papers
to
their
response
seminars
they
arranged.
in
this
requests In
collection were written for
my
participation
contrast
to
the
other
in
papers
10
which
aimed
at
promoting
interest
of Indian philosophy in the West, how, I
towards the end of my
in
and
understanding
these two lectures show
long apprenticeship
in
India,
could dare to present to Indian colleagues and students
my
views
on
tradition
certain
and
at
aspects
the
same
of
their
time
own
to warn
phi losophica 1
them against
too
radical an enthusiasm for Western science and technology. Though
a
first
8),
was
shorter version of
ready
for
print
as
this
early
volume
as
(papers due
1 982,
to
various happenings which at that time appeared to be misfortunes,
it
had to be put aside.
I
hope of ever seeing it published. 198~,
to
after
meet
my
Dr.
return
Klaus
to
had almost given
Switzerland,
SEELAND,
up
It was only in November
at
that
that
time
I
a
happened
lecturer
on
the NADEL course (Postgraduate Course on Developing Countries) my
at
the
ETH
experiences
in
in
Zurich.
India
At
only
first,
seemed
his
to
interest
relate
to
in
what,
in terms of the title of this book, one might call "resources".
Soon
with I
and
I
found
about
am very
out
that he
is also deeply
concerned
"the sources" of
Indian wisdom.
Moreover,
fortunate
"resources"
with
to
have
regard
to
found books
this
I
and
him a
man of
many
their
publication.
D. KANTOWSKY, of Konstanz
To him and to his associate Dr. University,
in
owe the satisfaction and pleasure of seeing
collection
of
papers
at
last
presented
in
a
neat
volume within the framework of the series "Konkrete Fremde. Studien zur Erforschung und Vermi ttlung fremder Kul turen." Thanks
are
Research Psychiatry, word for only
also
due
Department Zurich, he
Prof. the
Ch.
SCHARFETTER
University
shares
For my
this,
of
Clinic
who kindly consented to write a
this volume.
because
to
of
the
for fore-
he
is
ideally suited not
interest
in
the
two
fields
of
study and experience which I have tried to bring together in
this
volume,
but because he has
during
his, repeated
of
activities
my
visits
and
not
to
personally witnessed,
India,
least
some of
of
all
the
scenes
because
for
the past 15 years, he has been a true friend. For the checking of the English text I am much indebted to Fiona ROSS, of
Konstanz
English language teacher at the University
(West
Germany)
and
for
the
final
typing
of
11
the
manuscript
to
Gabriella
PAPA,
student
of
psychology
at Zurich University. My
thanks
i.nterest
their
road,
of
course
Switzerland,
country, by
are
most of
all
who
and
also have
to
due
all
faithfully
concern during all
my
late
those
in my
supported years
those
me ab-
father and my two sisters, but
also many other relatives, friends and colleagues. in
Last,
but
their
role of "patients", by communicating to me their
innermost ting of my
not
thoughts
least, and
I
wish
feelings
to
thank
within
of
human
nature
and
those
who
the sheltered set-
the psychotherapeutic relationship,
experience
all
my
have enriched
insight
into
life
in India. First version May 1982.
of
"Preface":
Baba
Darya
Din,
Kashmir,
Revised: March/April 1990, Carnage and Herisau, Switzerland.
13 ANCIENT INDIAN PHILOSOPHY AND WESTERN PSYCHOTHERAPY
Writing an article for an "encyclopaedia" means above all offering a maximum of information on a minimum of pages and yet avoiding its becoming a merely enumerating catalogue. When asked, early in 1977, by Prof. G. CONDRAU (Zurich) for a contribution on "Alt-indische Philosophie, indische Religionen und Psychotherapie" for Volume XV of Kindler's "Enzyklopaedie der Psychologie des 20. Jahrhunderts" ("Encyclopaedia of the Psychology of the 20th Century") , which he was to edit under the title "Transzendenz, Imagination und Kreativitat" ("Transcendence, Imagination and Creativity"), I did my best to keep within the narrow limits prescribed. Even then, I had to consent to a few cuts of the text I submitted. This present English translation gives the full version of the original article. 1 ) It can readily serve as an introductory summary, as in its concise formulation it mentions most of the aspects and questions which the remaining papers in this collection will present in greater depth and detail.
*
*
*
Introduction
To
include
an
article
on
ancient
Indian
philosophy
and its analogies with Western psychotherapy in an Encyclopaedia of the Psychology of the 20th Century - or in this present context to publish a whole volume of papers on this subject is something no one would have thought of 20 - 25 years ago. Nowadays, however, in Western countries, one finds oneself almost flooded with Eastern teachings,
yoga
systems
and
India itself one notes,
meditatfonal
practices,
and
in
at the same time - after a phase
of blind imitation of the West!
-
some consideration for
own traditional values and serious attempts at developing forms of psychotherapy based on them, in the hope that these might be more appropriate for dealing with indigenous psychiatric disorders. (See HOCH (7c,d,e), NEKI (9a,b,c).
1) "Enzyklopaedie der Psychologie des 20. Jahrhunderts". Vol. XV. p. 214 - 222, Verlag Kindler, Zurich 1979.
14
one of area
to
the first contributions in the German speaking· point
ancient
to
Indian
discovers
India"
is
the
by Medard BOSS
in German already eines
psychotherapeutically
philosophy in
Psychia ters") ,
but
( 3a)
(under
1959·
which
useful
book
"A
ideas
which was
the
has
title
only
in
Psychiatrist published
"Indienfahrt
recently
become
really popular. The author, who in 1956 and 1958 had spent a
few months
orientation
in
India,
was
thanks
particularly
to
his
open
to
Daseins-analytical the
ancient
teachings which in many ways come quite close
to
Indian HEIDEG-
GER' s Daseins-philosophy (S). As one of the next landmarks, one can name the conference of the "stuttgarter Gemeinschaft Arzt und seelsorger" (Stuttgart pastoral with
association care)
the
held
theme:
of in
practitioners summer
"Western
1967
therapy
in
at
and
medicine
and
Elmau
(Bavaria)
Eastern
wisdom"·
Apart from representatives of Zen Buddhism and other Far. Eastern teachings which - earlier than their more original Indian in
sources
Europe
had
gained
( DUERCKHEIM
influence
{ 4a, b, c) )
and
on
psychotherapy
u. S. A.
the
{KELMAN
(8a,bc,d)), Western psychiatrists, philosophers and theologians who had gathered valuable experience figured
amongst
the volume now, to
the
issued
on
speakers the
during
basis
this
of
it.
in
India
meeting
(BITTER
also
and
in
(2)).
If
some 15 - 20 years later, one were to make reference
the
literature
in
this
m·arginal
field
of
psychology,
one would have to quote a sizable list of publications.
Healing and salvation If the
an
attempt
ancient
is
Indian
now
to
be
traditions
made that
to are
present
some
compatible
of
with
modern psychotherapeutic concepts and that also lend themselves
to
integration
into
psychotherdpeutic
practice,
one has to state right at the ·beginning that provided one translates "psychotherapy" in its most orig ina 1 sense as "care of the soul", all Indian philosophy and religion can Of
actually course,
cared
for
in and
be
considered
this served
case, is
as the
not
meaning "psyche"
just
a
"psychotherapy". which
system
of
has
to
be
machinery
15
for smooth adjustment to the environment, but the "immortal soul", the spark of the eternal light of the all-pervading, all-producing creative power that dwells in each human being even in his separate existence on this earth.
What
is primary, is the Universal, the Unseparated, the Imperishable,
the
Undifferentiated
All,
into
which
ultimately
all that has become will return again. While thus, in the West, "psychotherapy" in general aims at strengthening man in his individual worldly existence and in his coming to terms with his environment, "care of the soul" according to the Indian tradition implies that individual differences and life conflicts, being mere deceptive illusions, should be relegated to the background.
What
is to be sought is a
with the Eternal, of
the
split
return to being "one"
the Universal, an overcoming of duality,
into
subject
and
object.
The
appropriate
method for this - in contrast to Western psychology, where measuring, calculating and perhaps even experimental observation of manifest behaviour of an object are customary is turning one's sight inward (S), a discovering of the great silence, the awakening of forces that lead beyond attachment
to
worldly
possessions,
beyond
all
passions,
into a sphere of widened and deepened consciousness. Thus, exploration
of
the
individual
life-history,
a
tracing
and working through of traumatic experiences and complexes, skilful management of phenomena of transference and resistance
or
even
behaviour
modification
through
of conditioning, play no part at all. Of course the Indian teachings about emotional
suffering,
the
the
drill
causes
of
the ways of overcoming them and the
relation between master and disciple also contain elements that
are
comparable with
Western psychotherapy and that,
to a
certain extent, can be usefully integra.ted into psy-
choth8rapeutic practice; still, one always has to remember that
they
are
not
meant
to
bring
healing
to
sick minds
and to achieve more effective coping with the environment but
to
help
considered philosophy,
a
as
person who heal thy,
by
Western
but who,
seen
standards would in terms of
be
Indian
is suffering from his isolation as a separate
human being and from his attachment to the world,
to find
16 salvation for his soul by transcending this very environment.
The teachings about the causes of emotional suffering Similar see
the
to
origin
particularly for
FREUD,
FREUD
of
in
Indian 1
h uman
suff erii:ig
separation-anxiety
the
primary
mother's
body,
in
teachers,
anxiety
that
too,
and
While,
(S).·
experience
is man's physical birth, the
philosophical
more
however,
generates
anxiety
the separation of the child from
the
Indian
philosopher
perceives
and
understands "separation" as the condition of each creature of being cut-off from the original "One". Again and again the ancient scriptures point out that the slightest distance
and
differentiation
regard
to his
origin
of
in
the
the
individual
"All"
leads
creature to
with
duality
and
thus to anxiety or fear "of the other" (e.g. TAITTIRIYOPANISAD
2, 7
( 11
c)) .
In
this
anxiety
from
which
there
is no escape within this ph€nomenal world, as one's remaining within
this
"play
of
Maya",
i.e.
"of
that
which
is
made", is unavoidably linked with the experience of duality man,
in
his
experience
of
isolati·on,
again
seeks
for
some kind of one-ness; some relationship that might· provide a
feeling
of
being
take into account, to build up,
are
securely .sheltered. is that all these
quite
does
securities he
not
tries
impermanent, destructible and that thus,
not only one's clinging to that which pleasant
What he
immediately
brings
is harmful and un-
suffering,
also the dwindling away or the sudden
but
loss of
that
apparently
valuable, enjoyable possessions or relationships ultimately causes pain.
If, now, man is so blind~d that he considers
this earthly existence with its attachment to possessions, human
relations,
only
reality,
for,
he
passions,
ideas
and
aspirations
the only thing worth desiring
falls
prey
to an
additional
evil,
and by
as
the
striving
which
the
classical triad "anxiety, suffering and confusion" becomes complete. (See HOCH (7a). These three evils are to be overcome by one's recognising
them
world
and
as by
the
temptations
striving
for
of that
an
"unreal",
which
is
illu.sionary
more
permanent
17
and
more
his
concept
Indian 4,2
"real" of
2).
Again
the
"pleasure
writings b))
is
one
finds i.e.
a
reminded
of
principle",
particular
"preyas",
(11
called
(in
one
if
FREUD and in
ancient
UPANI~AD,
KATHA
and
2,1
differentiation bet\ieen the so-
the
pleasant,
that
which
brings /
satisfaction to the senses, and on the other hand "sreyas", the
"really
good",
Children and good"
is
having
sought
turned
"insight"
that
f cols
after
their
into
which
is
reach out for
worth
the
by those who,
sight
their
inward
own
as a
and
impermanence,
"reality course of
thus
cannot
principle" of
human
the
maturing
in
with
principle"
person,
society,
themselves,
even
be
"culture
development,
"pleasure
the
or
simply
in this
recognised
equated
with
FREUD's in the
principle" which,
and
to
take
which
interest
necessarily
if
gained
s"reyas" in Indian
gradually
the
"really
having
have 11
pursued.
the
consequence of
thus
the futility of all that is earthly. The scriptures
being
former;
should
of
have be
the
the
place
child
their
and
fitting
subordinate
to
possible only at the
/
cost of some hard compromises. "Sreyas", the "really good", is
that
"V?hich
and monitor, its
the
the
constant
innermost
conscience,
"atman"
connection
thanks with
the
the
inner
ruler
to its origin in and
highest
power-of-being
- recognises as "good" and as "lasting in all eternity". It in
looks
life
as
there
if are
the ancient moments
of
Indian wise men knew that conflict
in which
man
has
to decide between heeding the warning of this inner voice and,
on
the
other
possessions,
fame,
warning
call,
he
hand,
following
love,
security etc.
may
possibly
his
have
immature wish for If he follows
to
suffer
the
anxiety,
insecurity, loneliness and contempt. If, however, he allows himself world, of
2)
the
to
be
carried
away
by
the
allurements
he will be committing "atmahatya" soul 11 •
This
(S),
of
this
the "slaying
same term is nowadays used quite con-
What is to be understood by "real" in terms of Indian philosophy in contrast to our Western concepts, will be presented in detail later, in particular in the paper "Criteria of Reality", pp. 225 ff ( S).
18
cretely
in
the
sense
of
"suicide".
It
looks
as
if
the
development of language has made the same misinterpretation which
BOSS
( 3b)
poj nts
out
when
he
designates
suicide
and self-mutilating tendenci·es in his patients as a "bearing out in the wrong medium". Psychotherapy devoid of moral values would at any rate be
quite
unthinkable
course one has
to
according
to
Indian
tradition.
see these "moral values"
not
in
Of
terms
of ttie ethics of a Western society which, as a consequence of
the
continuously
shifting
currents
of
fashion
and again have to be questioned and revised;
again
nor do they
correspond to a libertinistic "open morality" with perhaps a
negative
much
existentialist
rather
a
fundamental
is eternal and
in
the
colouring.
of
is
implied
distinction between
deepest
sense
other hand, that'which is transient, ionary;
What
"real"
is
that which
and·,
on
the
perishable and illus-
between that which brings oneness with the origin
"all-that-is"
and
thus
also
unites
one
in
love
with
all other creatu~es and, on the other hand, all that d~vid es
and
creates
permitted to
to
discord
use
3),
some of
"Seirisverlassenhei t"
that
which,
HEIDEGGER' s and
we
may
( 6)
be
leads
"Seinsvergessenhei t"
i.e. a condition of having abandoned, been abandoned by!
if
terms
( S)
- or possibly having
or of having forgotten the ultimate
power of Being. Ways of overcoming the three evils The point in his life at which man perceives the warning call
of
his
"atman"
can
lie
at
There are human beings who right
a skin, who
a~parently
hav~
quite
different
stages.
from birth have so thin
never -~?i~_lly
carried
out
3) In contrast to these originally Latin terms that have to be used in English, German has its own, indigenous words that bring out the essential contrast between the "one" and the "two", the duality, i.e. "entzweien" "to divide into two" and "Zwist" (= "quarrel, discord"), both obviously derived from "zwei" ( = "two), just as in Sanskrit the two terms "dvaita" (= "c;:luality") and "dve~a" (= "hate, aversion") or "dvi~" (= "enmity, quarrel) also directly stem from "dva", i.e. "two".
~ir
separation from the "All",
they feel attracted by that to shy away from the world.
~ the
( s).
( 1 0) )
way
approximately "brahmacarya"
or
a
time
a
the
a
to
towards
turn
in then
worth
the
having
in
his
the eternal,
having
after
youth in
learned
so-cal led
the
worldly
as
a
citizen.
of l.ife.
period
duties
involutional entangled
G.
of
as
a
in busi-
'JJ ,.,OJ,... pf>'...., ,.
This more or less
t,..A/Z 5 some[;£~$ fPM~ i remain jf M ''fUJil<; _ ·1
JUNG has postulated
Some hear "the call'_' at period;
others again
world~. concerns right~
in
A premature breaking open
--~-~·
person should seek
however,
father or mother of a family,
ha~f
blind,
death.
eternal and tend (PATANJALI 4 t 1 and 1 I 1 9 in
to what in the _west C.
betore
is
decade,
and
his
i.e.
the _second
~e~_!_,.~z;d to
phase
profession and
corresponds
f~r
--
sixth
abstention
proved
householder, ness
his
in
and
"g:hast:ha"
inward,
leads
that
continence
Normally,
that already in childhood
which
"¥jR r
forces,~/
to spiritual
r:-oflii
ulf' 1
/\~ / ~f}(,r- .St:
'f/A ,.
perhaps under the influence of drugs, perhaps due to loss of a protective relationship, may in certain cases bring (JJ
cf. (cX1
,-s/J
I
'
{)
1 lb"" \~ ' about a mental disorder; on the other hand, however, this ll~~6ll' qP - .
f T'JO 7.;.f ~ J>(Jd f-' ~ ( becomes iJC 1lif 0ftJ5 \
may also happen if a person refuses to follow the challenge at the time he perceives it. .The moment at
possible,
the
supposed
to
which this opening up of oneself
degree be
the
incarnations.
Certain
"being
the
thus",
present
existence,
particular his
path
falling
unifying
he
prey
links
to
which
. f ruit
one
of
efforts
differences
personality
decisive
has
to
to
with
the
world
his
origin.
a
human the
in
the
being
in
his
of
the
to
to
reach
(The
earlier
choice
order
and
are
it,
constitute
for in
in
made
which
of
are
take
succeeds
escape
from
again
original
the
meaning
of "yoga" is "link, connection, union"!) Accordingly, not only in the most ancient Indian scriptures, of
but even more in later commentaries, a great variety
methods
are
recommended
by
which
man,
according
to
his nature and his level of self-realisation, can approach, ~eady
in
this
life,
the
aim
of
becoming
one
with
the
Ultimate. One finds, all
in
however,
for instance, in the BHAGAVAD GITA (1)
Chapter unlike
14) the
a
sketching out of customary
a
typologies
(above
typology which, in
the
West,
~.!:~13 ~ c'll
/vt~f.J
20
does not only take into account certain physical and mental criteria, of
but has
the elements
which
as
that
Ayurveda
also
its
foundation
are
basic
builds
up
the
varying
for
all
its
medical
mixture
creation
and
system.
on One
has to be careful . not to misunderstand the term "element "gu~a")
(= /
Jlj.S
1
1~
"#76V ~
~
j,/J-,,114::_)
,;J jt.{l)/>
(:1~..i:Jl.AyP, f!l-ii
c.
<;,cJ
II
(S)
ciple".
"tamas"
material
sense
as
a
"substance"
the
heavy,
grossly
material,
or
"prin-
earth-bound
element stands in contrast to "sattva", the light, subtle, spiritual principle that aims upward. The force that ties and holds these two together, but is also responsible for their transformation, is "rajas", the fiery, dynamic Principle.
..jp~)
in a
• c h emical element"·, what is implied is much rather a
11
of
In
modern
"matter",
terminology,
"energy"
and
the
one
might
forces
that
thus
keep
speak
the
two
in equilibrium, but also in constant transformation. Accord.ing to the prevalence of one or the other of these ments",
the
person
concerned
is
characterized by
"ele-
certain
Physical and mental qualities. Accordingly, he has a predilection for
a
for
certain
types
of
certain style of life.
food
and,
quite
generally,
More than others,
he
risks
falling prey to certain weaknesses and vices, but also to certain illnesses; on the other hand, corresponding to this very particular make-up of his nature, appropriate ways
and
practices
are
open
to
him
for
living
in
this
World so that he can come closer to the eternal.
,-:-f~N7£~
{jp,
IJY ~ S
/."
fJ-?Of::f'~ b
yo {.
5G~7..J
f!7JG.
0
The
People
C:f
~ferent of
life,
a
parti cplar
are
probably
in the West.
~
branches
on
the
serve
or
(ha ~ha
body a
that
and
at
sufficiently
broad
following approaches: that
type
yoga
are
a
suitable
particular
known
for
stage
nowadays
even
In the Indian scriptures one finds different
classifications. over
of
lines,
one can distinguish
the
systems that aim at perfect mastery yoga
deepening
the development of
of
and
also
the
inner
refined and
pra~a
yoga> ,
view
others
( dhyana
sharpened
yoga)
intellectual
capacities (jnana yoga). On the other hand there are paths on
which
one-ness
with
the
Ultimate
is
to
be
reached
through loving worship of a deity (bhakti yoga) or selfless action
in
disciplines almost
this
world
(karma
bring about
imperceptibly,
a
yoga).
While
transformation
others
are
some very
of
these
gradually,
characterized
by
the
21
activation of slumbering forces that can take a quite drama tic course (e.g. 11 kui:<;IalinI yoga", see GOPI KRISHNA (5)). Not all Indian paths of sal~ation require a complete turning away f~om the world. There are teachings that see the best chance for a profound transformation and a most thorough purification in the very situation of remaining in the world and actively resisting its temptations or even in deliberate skilful use of worldly enjoyments, so as final~y to transcend beyo~d them. Unfortunatel_y, 'this last-mentioned possibility as 11 11 pre~ibed by Tantric Yoga - is often misuse~ nowadays, as it is understood merely as an encouragement to engage in unbridled licentiousness. The achievements which a yogi may gain on· his way,
as
"side-effects" as it were,
as e.g. robust health, physical resistance and agility, but also the capacity for deepened intuition or even for extra-sensory perception and the development of supernatural forces may also freq~ently meet with misunderstanding and misuse. The one who remains faithful to the ancient Indian scriptures, will know that all these results of a yogic discipline can and should not be an aim in themselves,
but
that,
dissipations
and
if at all, others.
used
on
the
contrary,
they are regarded as
temptations that are to be overcome or, only
by
way
of
charitable
service
to
Master and disciple
What
all
ancient
rather claim as
an
of
and
purification
guidance
by
an
scriptures
not
only
recommend,
indispensable condition for of
expert
becoming ·one with master,
the
"guru".
the If,
but
any path "All", in
is this
present context, we take a look at ancient Indian philosophy within a psychological-psychotherapeutic framework, a comparison between the relationship of this teacher to his disciple and that of a psychotherapist to his patient or his training candidate suggests itself. In India, this The
comparison has recently been made by NEKI subject
is
already
touched on by BOSS
( 9a, b, c) •
( 3a), and the
present author too has pointed to it in a few publications (HOCH ( 7 a, b , d ) )
( S) •
22
If, as
in
it
certain
were
father,
texts,
one
reads
"everything"
for
his
mother,
brother,
that
friend,
at
child,
but eventually also his protector, one
at
first
sight
think
"guru"
which
times
deity,
might
the
disciple,
perhaps
even
his world, of
is
means his
phenomena
of
"transference" (S) in the sense of Western psychoanalysis. The Indian "guru's 11 concern, however,
is not in the least
to be on the look-out for such transferences and gradually to point them out to his disciple, while he himself remains inwardly at a cautious distance. under or
certain
the
circumstances,
other
of
these
The
enter
roles,
"guru" will completely
allowing
the
rather,
into
one
aspirant
to
see and use him, the "guru", exactly in the way that corresponds to his immature needs. The exercises and disciplines imposed on the aspirant, which·according to his parti----·-·-----··· -- ··cular nature may be of a quite different type and which at times may appear t;-;_mply quite brutal_f_r~~trati~~
--:--___
or even rejection, will, ~i thout any need -i'or--an "iriEe_r_~~;= tation" of the "transference" bring about a gradual __ di~so-= lution of ship,
these
immature
which also has
attachments.
The
to be overcome on
last
relation-
the path
towards
non-duality, is purely that of a teacher who imparts wisdom and his ·disciple who is out to find spiritual illumination. The are
term
"guru" -
frequent
in
"the one who very
leads
beautiful
"guru".
in one of
Sanskrit
the plays on words
is
from
sometimes
darkness
characterization
Nevertheless,
what
may
to
of be
light". the
just
which
int::_::-.I?:::ted This
is
function as
as
of
important
a a
for
him is to protect, with great wisdom, his pupil from premature
irruption of
unaccustomed light, on
his
spiritual
exposure
to
and to allow him, path
only
to
"guru" which the
has the
best
intuitive aspirant
way
that
she1 ter
overwhelming
extent this
arrived lead
he
can
him
concerning in
his
onward
him
and
from
blinding to advance
reasonably
is of course
knowledge
has can
to
at any given moment,
the
with. A prerequisite for
an
forces,
cope
that the true the
point
development from
it,
and
at and at
the same time also adequate insight into whether he himself can be the appropriate guide on this path. While,
for the Western psychotherapist,
it is a
matter
23 to be pay
taken for granted that his student or patient will
him
lo es
often
not
accept
him
to
other
the
very
grant
person
principle
high
anything
certain services
quest some
a
demand
the genuine "guru"
himself.
He
may
from his disciple,
assistance
in
"The
fee!
for
need.
"guru"
to
What
a is
of
course
or he may re-
fellow-aspirant valid,
or
however,
is
should
never demand anything from his disciple; the disciple on the other hand, should be willing to give him everything." Above all, if the disciple takes the relationship seriously, he owes absolu te obedience to his "guru". 1
Sometimes one actually comes across the formulation 11 that the "guru imposes his own mind onto his disciple or
that
ce". an
"he becomes
In
the disciple's inner ruling conscien-
modern terminology,
instance
of
one would probably call this
"imprinting"
or
identification,
though
this implies a much more superficial process. At any rate, the
influence
does
not
the
fit
avoidance
of
"guru" exerts on his disciple certai:ily
in with
the
keeping
of
cool
authoritarian directi veness,
distance, as
the
the
Western
analyst practices it in his relationship with his analysand.
The
Eastern
an authority,
"guru"
can
permit
himself
to appear as
as he neither figures as the representative
of some "school" established __t:L hu~~n___!?_~in_~_s, n_.9! _.?':~_: ----·-------. he wish to enforce upon the pupil his own personality, ------·-- ---- ---- --- --~----··-------·--·--but he acts as the mediator of the Ultimate One, in which ----·---~ .. -------·~· -- ~ his disciple also has his roots and his home even if, ~t_;-tha.t point, h·~--h~""s--~~~thaa-·th~ necessar;-~~d';;-;t-~nd:...
--------,
...
--·
ing
----
.
and a-c:c-e-5~---t~--·this~th.~-Th"i~.. -~~~~--tt;at--by-"hfs
tor
so-to-speak ·11penetratTng--Tnto___the wi 11
not
awaken
in
in
any
him
way
that
violate
which
is
or
disciple", suppress
already
the
~im,
present
in
"guru"
but
only
him,
as
it were, in slumbering condition. Anyone kno.ws only
from give
teaching, forces or, as
a
forces
who
has
his
ever
own
had
exper~ence
instructions
about
contact with a '"guru",
that
the
exercises
latter and
but also offers the disciple a expressed
i~
other words,
connecting channel, to
close
flow
towards
does
impart
not wise
gift of his own
that he lends himself
through which he allows eternal the disciple
in
a
form and at a
24
rate that is conducive to his spiritual growth. That the genuine "guru" has to be a perfect human being himself, to his
that, own
in
his
"guru"
turn,
and a
he
whole
owes
his
lineage
transformation
of
teachers,
and
also that he is expected to demonstrate in actual practice all he teaches, are matters that can be taken for granted. Some texts actually prescribe,
not only for the spir i tua 1
preceptor, but also for the physician, ions his
and
abilities
physical
that
heal:\th,
make
high
including
certain qualificat-
demands
not
absence of all
ions, and on his personal hygiene,
only
on
malformat-
but also on his charac-
ter, which must be blameless in all situations 0£ life. With
regard
to
the
latter
postulates,
one
gains
the
impression· that many of the Indian "gurus" who have gained popularity in the West no longer respect the ancient
pre-
cepts. While formerly the achieving of "occult powers" ("siddhi") often became a temptation that led astray from
t~a~- towards true salvation, it appears nowadays tha~ pride of having become a teacher well-known and -~J>prec~-~ted __ in the West,
ha~~_._!;2ecome
the comfortable style of life, on the way ~lead
or:~J-ea=?!...
and the corresponding affluence towards
fuller
gI_eat_o.bs.ta.cj..es
dev_~~-oEmemt. _.?.r.!9.. ~~y
spiritual
to "back-sliding" on th_e p~th. Aims and effects of the Indian path
This
kind
of
aberration,
'~gurus"
of the modern
which
one
can
note
in
some
or rather "pseudo-gurus", certainly
tends to confirm a prejudice raised against Indian philosophy and religion in Western quarters much earlier, that is
in
own an
the aim of meditation and all fact
always
salvation and argument
only to the to
the
the
he
life of the
of
to
promote
this
view,
a
re-incarnation
( S),
directed true
on
of coming close
the
him or
conditions rather
of
"saints",
which
but
according
to his his he
to
so
As not
also which
instance
is
that
he
salvation
if
life has
one's
point
fate within certain limits,
chance
at
al truism.
critics
human being in any particular
accepts
imposed
selfish,. only
"escapism" 0f many Indian
by his
best
humbly
been
favour
theory of
laid down has
in
very
unlikely
namely
religious disciplines
that
have
deserved
by
25
his
previous
the
way
really
have
burden
of
hand,
incarnations,
prescribed the
his
for
and
him.
possibility
fate
by
thus
patiently
Accordingly,
of
relieving
no
follows
one would
someone of
some act of charity.
the
On the other
if the theory of re-incarnation is not misunderstood
simply in terms of passive fatalism, one's
means
to
exert
a
favourable
it lies within everyinfluence
on his
own
future, right into the shaping of his further incarnations. Thus,
any
"good
deed"
would
simply
stand in the service
of one's own perfection and salvation. One actually finds texts (e.g. B~HADARA~YAKA UPANI~AD 2, 4 verse 5 ff ( 11 a) ) which quite plainly point out that all relations of man, all his
thinking and doing,
more
less
no
or
affect
Wf!Y
his
in
dream,
the
the
but
same
real
much
only serve his own Self ( s),
way in which a
fate
rather
of
the
simply
dreamer can in
figures
involved
~hem
uses
as
in
actors
that present his own inner drama. These teachings, however, certainly from
do
good
not
deeds
stimulate
in
he
One
a
does.
him
a
will
magnanimous
will,
have or
the
purpose
of
self less-action, humble thus
dispenser
attitude
not of
on the contrary,
man
back
merely wish
to
with respect to what
imagine
gifts
keeping
but
oneself
and
proudly
charities,
as
but
one
realise that one's own thanks are
due to the needy for giving one an opportunity for perfecting one's own capacity for self-sacrifice. For the average human being, an aim well worth striving for is the challenge of the BHAGAVAD GITA ((1 ), in particular Chapter 12)
that one should reach the stage at which
one exper~ences suffering and joy of other beings as one's own.
It
comes
love
for
quite
one's
close
fellow
them
to
do
unto
the
Christian
command
of
human beings and also to the more
pragmatic Western precept: wish
to
"Do unto others wh.a t
you".
you would
The postulate for developing
the necessary sensitive openness and perhaps even vulnerability which this
implies actually goes even beyond these
Western ideals. The of his
human ~
tically, or
being,
however,
who
through
"taking
care
soul" has become one with the "All", quite automa:... ----~---··
without
remaining
··---
·----------=-----·~--.._.__,__
having
conscious
to strive much 6f
sµch
- ,. ,. __
--~-"'
,. . ,_, _ .~-c;c.oc
--""-
-=---~
in this direction
endeavours,
attains
the
26
capacity
of
for them. respect
taking
care
of
others
and
What is perhaps best known
is
the
of
"being
there"
in the West in this
Buddhist characterization
of
the
"bodhi-
sattva", the saint or wise man who renounces his own sal vation, to
though it lies within easy reach,
help
other
be.inqs
who
are
still
so as to be able
wanderinq
about
to
find the right way. Already in the ancient Indian scriptures,
however
on
which
based
to a great extent -
cealed
and
scriptions
ultimately ~ne
Buddhist
finds,
hardly
mentioned
by
of the
perfected
human
wisdom
is
though rather con-
later
commentators,
being
as
a
"man
defor
the others". The terms used will be presented and commented upon in some of the papers that follow (S). Even
if
this
brief
sketching
out
uf
ancient
Indian
philosophy in its correlations with Western psychotherapy can hardly do justice to the whole wealth of Indian scriptures i_!_
and
m~y
the
living
tradition
aerived
from
them,
have shown that the two areas have numerous points
~!_C:_
still
they
In the future perhaps, may
lead
to
greater
more
than
reflection
is the case
about
ancient
Indian teachings and thus to a deepening of psychotherapy that _"'.'ill make i t more genuinely "care of the soul".
27
LITERATURE (.1 ) BHAGAVAD GITA:
Edition used: "s~rmad Bhagavad Gl.ta", Sanskrit-English parallel text, ed. by Swami Vireswarananda. Shri Ramakrishna Math, Mylapore, Madras; and: "The Song of God", translated by Swami Prabhavananda & Christopher Isherwood, London, Phoenix House, 1947.
(2) BITTER, WILHELM (Ed. ) :
"Abendlandische Therapie und ostliche Weisheit". Stuttgart, Ernst Klett, 1968.
(3) BOSS, MEDARD:
a) "Indienfahrt eines Psychiaters". Pfullingen, Verlag Neske, 1959.-English translation: "A Psychiatrist discovers India." Oswald Wolff, London, 1965. b) "Psychoanalysis and Daseinsanalysis". New York/London, Basic Books Inc., 1963.
(4) DUERCKHEIM, KARLFRIED, GRAF VON:
a) "Im Zeichen der grossen Erfahrung". Miinchen-Planegg, Otto Barth, 1951. b) "Hara, die.Erdmitte des Menschen". Miinchen-Planegg, Otto Barth, 1956. c) "Psychotherapie, Initiation, Glaube - Ost und West in uns." In BITTER, 1968, (see above (2)).
(5) GOPI KRISHNA, PANDIT:
"Science and Kundalini". In "Seminar on Yoga, Science and Man", New Delhi, Central Council for Research in Indian Medicine and Homeopathy, 1976.
(6) HEIDEGGER, MARTIN:
"Ueber den Humanismus ' 1 • Frankfurt a/M., Vittorio Klostermann, 1947.
( 7 ) HOCH, E. M. :
a) "Bhaya, Shoka, Maha", in BITTER (see above (2)), 1968. English translation in this volume, pp. 29 ff. b) "Der Traum: eine Welt - Die Welt: ein Traum?" in CONDRAU GION (Editor): "Medard Boss zum siebzigsten Geburtstag", Bern, Verlag Hans Huber, 1973. English translation in this volume, pp. 131 ~f. c) "Pir, Faqir and Psychotherapist". In "the human context", Vol. VI, 1974, No.3, pp. 668-677. d) "Process'in Instant Cure". In: "Psychotherapeutic Processes". Proceedings of Seminar held at
28 i'----...").(7) HOCH, E.M. (contd.):
NIMHANS; Bangalore, Oct. 1978. Published at National Institute of Mental Health & Neuro-Sciences, Bangalore. (Editors: M. KAPUR, V.N. MURTHY, K. SATHYAVATHI, R. L. KAPUR) , 1979. e) "Psychotherapy for the Illiterate". In "New Dimensions in Psychiatry". Vol. II, ed. by ARIETI SILVANO and CHRZANOWKSI, GERARD. New York, John Wiley, 1977, p. 75-92.
r --:::::i
(8)
KELMAN, HAROLD:
a) "Psychotherapy in the Far East". In MASSERMAN J. and MORENO, J.C.: "Progress in Psychotherapy", New York, Grune and Stratton,1959. b) "Psychoanalytic Thought and Eastern Wisdom" in MASSERMANN, J.: "Science and Psychoanalysis", Vol. III, 1960, New York, Grune and Stratton, 1960. c) "Oriental Psychological Processes and Creativity". "American Journal of Psychoanalysis", Vol. 23, 1963, pp. 68-84. New York. d) "Helping People. Karen Horney' s psychoanalytical approach." New York, Science House, 1971.
(9)
NEKI J.S.:
a) "Guru-chela relationship: the possibility of a therapeutic paradigm." American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol. 43, 1973, pp • 7 5 5 - 7 6 6 • b) "A re-examination of the guruchela relationship as a therapeutic paradigm." Int. Ment. Heal th Res. Newsl~tter, Vol. 16, 1974, pp. 2-8. c) "An examination of the cultural relativism of dependence as a dynamic of social and therapeutic relationships." Br. J. Med. Psychology, Vol. 49, 1976.
- ~ ( 1 0 ) TA I MN I , I • K• :
(11) UPANISADS:
-·"The Science of Yoga". Commentary on the "Yoga-Sutras" of PATANJALI in the Light of Modern Thought". Madras, 1961, Theosophical Publishing House. Edition used: Sanskrit-English parallel texts with commentaries of Shri Ramakrishna Math, Mylapore, Madras. a) BRHADARANYAKA UPANISAD: 1951. b) KATHOPANISAD: 1956 •• c) TAITTIRIYOPANI~AD: 1958.
29 BHA YA,
SOK.A, MOHA
Anxiety, sorrow and delusion in the ancient Indian scriptures and their significance for the origin of illness This paper is closely associated with the next one, i.e. "Desakalajna". The first drafts of both were worked out during 2 3 weeks of winter vacation in December 1966/January 1967, spent at Almora, where ever since 1962 I had occupied a smal 1 cottage up in the forests, first continuously for about 1 1/2 years, later only durirr'g holidays or in between different assignments. It was there, facing the Himalayan snows, that I first studied the Upani~ads and other ancient Indian scriptures with persistent effort. The notes which I had compiled during these studies, eventually a whole system of index-cards, came in very handy for the task I was facing, namely to prepare a lecture based on the ancient Indian scriptures for a 'meeting of the "Stuttgarter Gemeinschaft Arzt und Seelsorger" with the theme: "Western Therapy and Eastern Wisdom" and, at the same time, to write a contribution for a volume on "kairos" which Prof. Harold KELMAN (New York) was planning. In ancient Indian tradition it is said that one has no right to teach or proclaim what one is not implementing in one's own life. With regard to this, I was put to a strange test just after working intensively on these two papers: At the end of my vacation I travelled back to New Delhi, where at that time I was working as Visiting Professor of Psychiatry and Head of a newly established "Department of Psychiatry" at Lady Hardinge Medical College. On reaching the small town after about an hour's walk I had to settle some matters with my landlord. Meanwhile my servant kept my seat in the bus occupied and also placed my luggage on its roof. He assured me that he had found a safe place for it and that it would be well covered against the threatening snowfall or rain. After the bus had rattled down the steep mountain road for a few kilometers, a change in the purring of the engine indicated some trouble, and soon it. came to a complete standstill. Fortunately, as we were close to a major bus-stop, a substitute vehicle could be provided without too much delay, and the passengers were asked to board it. An icy wind was blowing, and one was eager to settle down in the second bus as quickly as possible. Still, I remembered to check whether my luggage was also being duly shifted, and saw a coolie lifting my "holdall" (a big canvas wrapper used to hold the "bedding", which at that time was still a "must" for travellers on Indian railways, at least in the cold season!) onto the roof of the substitute bus. As the roof of the stranded vehicle appeared to be empty, I concluded that my second piece of luqgage, a fairly big sui tease, had already been transferred. All the same, an awkward doubt and restlessness kept bothering me during the 4 5 hours' journey down the rocky slopes and round the sharp hair-pin bends. As we were of course late, there was no time to waste at the railway station down in the plains. The little
30
metre.,.gauge train was already impatiently puffing and whistling. To my horror, I noted that my sui tease. was not amongst the pieces of luggage which were unceremoniously thrown down from the roof of the bus! I reported the loss to the manager of the bus-service and suggested that he should ring up his counterpart in Almora. The telephone was "out of order"! .Snowstorm? Strike? Who knows! At any rate, nothing to be done. Breathlessly I rushed into the first-class compartment where I had booked a seat just as the train started to p~ll out of the station. Opposite me, a middle-aged gentlemarr, obviously a senior government official "on tour", had already occupied his seat. Of course, as usually happens in Indian trains, we soon got involved in a conversation and I had occasion to explain to him why I had entered the compartment in such haste and exhaustion. Fortunately he was very sympathetic and even offered to ~elp me by trying to ring up the Almora bus station on his arrival in the. district town and railway-junction for which we were heading. I wrote down the message I wanted to convey, including the number of the stranded bus and the name and address of a neighbour who was likely to come down to New Delhi in his jeep within a few days. Though this opened up only a very remote chance of getting back my suitcase, which contained not only my typewriter, an expensive camera, my cheque book and other valuables, but - , most precious of all! the two manuscripts I had completed during my vacation anc all the books and notes that had supplied material for them, I was able to calm down, so that, after ·changing trains and bidding farewell to my kind companion at the junction, I even managed to find as much sleep as one can hope to get on a· night 1 s journey in an Indian train. After all, I told myself, what is the u~e of writing about detachment from worldly possessions, about renouncing ambitions and fame, if one cannot get over the loss of a suitcase? If, what I have. tried to express in these two manuscripts is really meant to reach the public, they will not remain lost. ·If I cannot get them back, along with my other belongings, I will have to take it as a sign that the time was not ripe yet - and perhaps I myself not mature - for formulating my interpretations of ancient Indian wisdom. I arrived in New Delhi next morning with only eight rupees in my pocket. There was time to go to the bank· as there was still. one day of my vacation left. With the help of a "loose cheque", I managed to get some money and to make the necessary purchases to get the household going. The day after, I had to start my work at the hos pi ta.l again. I must say that I managed to put some good concentration and concern into it. When I came back to my quarters for lunc.h, I found a telegramme waiting for me. It read: "Found your sui tease; coming to Delhi tomorrow" and was signed by the neighbour whose name I had indicated to my kind fellow-traveller. In the evening, the sui tease actually was brought and, though it had not even been locked, none of its contents were missing. It had remained concealed under the tarpaulin cover on the roof of the bus, where my servant had tucked it so carefully into a safe corner, and obviously it had not been touched until, 24 hours later, my neighbour, informed
31
by the bus-station manager on the strength of the telephone from the district-town in the plains, had lifted it off on his way down in the jeep. Joy and relief were of course great, and also the certainty that, in view of this, what I had written deserved to be heard or read. About four months later, while I was in Europe to attend the Conference at Which "Bhaya 1 SOka 1 moha 11 WaS to be presented, all my "valuables", including the ones that had been in the "lost" suitcase, were stolen from my quarters in New Delhi! But what was "really valuable", had been saved and can now be offered to a wider circle of readers.
1. Choice of the subject
For this contribution, which is devoted to an encounter between East and West 1 ) , I have chosen a subject which, at
first
sorrow
sight,
or
may
appear
suffering,
to
be very trivial.
delusion
are
after
all
Anxiety,
problems
of
human life with which Western man is sufficiently acquainted,
so
that,
in
order
to
explore
and
explain
them,
he
will hardly need the help of the ancient Indian scriptures. Against
this,
one
might
argue
that
an
"encounter",
even if it is to serve the purpose of pointing out differences, c~2f11.Y_ .take-· p_l~~~-- ~n ~a_ ___ ~mo~_._gro_~nd. Thus, i f we find something that, irrespective of the coordinates of
time
and
space,
is common to all mankind,
this would
perhaps be the subject most suited to bring to light certain fundamental features of human existence.
---
____
To me at any rate, on the basis of my study of ancient .. ---- . _____ .. Indian scriptures as well as my clinical experience as a---psychiatri"st - i~-~--India, it seems th~t---g;i;g~kt:7 ·----~--~--~----
.-~------_,
~nci~nt Inai;;;:~ -t-e~cli.i~g~-~an only be helpful in recognising ~~;y- ~es-s-entiai" ---;~a--~-;·iginal f eatu;~s whi-ch-~---t~e West I during-- the- last
__
··rew·· yea-rs7'
___...--.-~-----
in __ Iiarti£lJ.-lar, as a cc.~-~quence
~f --1~~-- -i:);;~i;5::~naTyti~~i-· (s)
view
of -
m~~;have
again
~-;:n ~~dis·c~v-~red- -f-r~~- ~;;;;;~;a-th-. th-~ -crust of customary
1) The
paper was written for the meeting of the "Stuttgarter Gemeinschaft Arzt und seelsorger" in summer 1967 at Schloss Elmau Bavaria with the theme "Western therapy and Easte;n wisdom". Published in "Abendlandische Therapie und ostliche Weisheit", ed. by W. BITTER, Klett, Stuttgart 1968, pp. 234 - 160.
32 ~~inking ahd the average experien~e of every-day life. Unfortunateix, these are -A~--~t~~~-_:;~~~~e time truths that nowad_~Y,-~_,}.!L}.E~_lts~_~f, ~z:id~r the pressure of increasing
~t;~F_l}is,~~!._cz.!}_, ~_:r:~_jr;i C!.'!!~5f.~1:".~.<:)_f becoming obliterated.
My main concern was, through the study of some original Sanskrit. texts,
to
follow
up
the
image
of
man
in
the
ancient scriptures free of the many distortions introduced by
later tradition
in this pro_cess, by
which
for
(and even more by translations! )
to devote special attention to the evils
mankind
avoiding
and,
is
a.nd
troubled
overcoming
and
the
them.
means
It was
recommended
my
hope
that, -~-~
while
doing
so,
I
c:::o_f!!~- -~-~
might
t~~t -;f'~~t_ h~4>-~~E.,_:-;~~-i~~---~t
a
some
....
;
formulations
philosophical
foundation
~5'E~~P~Y~shg_~h-~£~P~.µJ:.ic ~underst§lr:td_ing ~n9ian
and practice amongst patients and perhaps even for people in the West.
--~~--_::---.:;,,,_-_,
Futhermore,
I
..~•-,
c_•-•::•::
•
hoped
.-·-
_--~
that
-•
I
might
be
able
to
hand
back
to my colleagues and students in India part of their own heritage, after its having regained its value by appreciation from
the West,
as a
token of gra ti tu de for
al 1
that
I myself have received·during many years in India. Within the framework
of
this paper,
will only be able
.I
to share a small part· of all the wealth I have discovered, and even the little I
can present,
will necessarily only
be the somewhat clumsy sketch of an amateur philosopher.
*
*
*
Eveu those from the West who have been acquainted only very and
briefly religion
and
superficially
will
know
that,
with
in
Eastern
stark
philosophy
contrast
to
the
ambitious and demanding claims of Western man tq enjoyment, achievement
and
recognition
in
this
material
world,
one
of their essential features is renunciation of the pleasures of life, of pride in action and of attachment to worldly possessions, fame and success. One of the formulations best known in the West is per-
~ I) I
fi' ..-(
h~p;-that
in
whi;h-L~~a--13~~~-C:!.-;hi·i~--preac:h_i_~g- h~_s--tir:t
sermon, anno.unces "the noble truth of suffering, the origin
JfJ~p;zt:~S ~ ! su ff e_r ~fl~,_ {J that lea~s __to
JG
iJf
is
suffering;
the.. the old
cess~Uon ·-;,f- s;; ff;,: i ng .
ces~a 1:!:_()~~-9.i_. ~s':_f~~ring :•• age
is
suffering;
-Pal:.ti
anq _ the
( 1 3) • "Birth disease and death
33
are suffering; contact with unpleasant things means suffering; separation from what is pleasant also brings suffering i failure to obtain what one wishes and aspires for is suffering; the
bod~
A
is suffering, emotions mean suffer-
~
ing; in short, all the five types of perception (of grasp~~ ~i° ing) bring suffering. II - The cause of all suffering ·or c~v l ..\~ sorrow, according to Lord Buddha, lies in "craving for eftpJ sensory excitement, the tendency to re-incarnation, andJ these again are c~nne_cted~ith_eajoym~, E__~ssi~---~nd the search for pleasure. 11 - The truth with regard to the Ee~-~~ti~~---o-f ~~h-;~ffuring lies~· in the total, traceless e~~~_i_n~~-=!:.-~1:!.! _
§_penci~g,
.... relinquishi1:.~,
leaving
behind
and refus_ing o~_.!h.e __ 9.~l?!.!:e_t.h?._L§t~i_y~3__ !_or re-bi rt_~ and Al_(?'~ ~ / all types of enJ oyment." _ _ } r:_ A similarly apt summary can be found in the BHAGAVAD GITA fl_ J.il' ,1-V
Jf'I
11.°"'
"Man, eagerly pursuing the objects of the senses, c?' ~~+> gets attached to them. Out of this attachment arises crav-p~~~ 1 · · ing; craving genera t es anger (annoyance ) ; annoyance and 6' anger bring along deception (delusion); delusion leads to confusion of memory; from this confusion of memory ( 1 0):
follows the loss of reason;
and once reason has been de-
stroyed, the whole man will perish. That man, on the other hand, whose senses are well controlled, moves about amongst the objects of this world free from attraction and repulsion and, being master of himself, reaches inner peace. In this inner peace, he experiences the extinction of all
suffering,
establish
as
he,
equilibrium
whose within
heart
is
calm, can (Chapter himself."
easily 2,
v.
-~
/>J/~
62 - 65. )
One
may
late texts
~.Y.~e
have
noticed
that,
in
these
two
(between 600 - 200 B.C.), the main accent liesP
_:"~~f e~E_9_~E- sor.~o~
,!__~s-~':.":_d
l
tjV~ _ f~ -~\"
r1(g\j
re la ti vely
~. p.i ~ ;:/'~~ ~ ft} . tjl'- _-.)
on th" of _t_h!' __ hY__pass ion, craving for enj 9yr_ner?-_!:.,_ ~~ger_ -~nc;l__ gr~e_e_d, wh~~e "anxi-
t' · A~ f-J ,t·tr ety 11 which in the ti_tl~ ~f this co_nt_r,:_i'b __ ~_~()? __ :'~~u_p.:__:_~ , ici-li"" 1 first place, is not mentioned. One can of course, in the -~~r.,
BHAGAVAD G-ITA as well as in the teachings of Lord Buddha,
rt
find anxiety and fear mentioned occasionally. It is however mainly uprising
characterised of
passions
as
the
and
consequence
uncontrolled
of
the
greed.
violent The
fact
.-~~-
--
that in these scriptures an elementary, primaeval anxiety
....
34
hardly stands in the foreground any longer, could perhaps ind_icate that the way of life during that epoch had already concealed fundamental
traits of
human existence,
so that
Po~ly the secondary consequences of this concealment could
~), ~~~
,
~~\~
~t
be recognised. any rate it seems meaningful to me that 1 l"\]> \n the Upanisadic texts which are estimated to be consider-
L\~ f.c..~ -~~bly ~~1} ~~~
older,
dated between 1500 and 500 B.C., 9ne can find
many more references t;.o an original, or one might perhaps
~Y~~{l'
say, existential type of anxiety. One has to point out, however, that mention of this Qarticular type of anxiety can also be found in the Buddhist Scriptures. though in a somewhat discrete manner,
~~(9-~~\..-
~OA)~\ tt-1
more ~
by
way
of
personal
In
one
of
teaching.
experience
his
sermons,
than
Lord
philosophical
Buddha
gives
an
account of the first nights he spent alone in the, forest
..
'~ "~~
after heir
having in
r}JIJ.t\(,'.J,k 309/.310):
J'J> ~
relinquished
his
due
place
of
prince
and
ro~al palace. (Quoted according to ( 8) , PP· "How hard to live the life of the lonely forest-
the
f,lt,dwell er • • • to 'rej oice in solitude. Ver i 1 y , the s i 1 en t groves must bear heavy upon the monk who has not yet won
~. 8~
I 1) ~ 'J::I fi>
to fixity of mind! He is seized with mortal fear and ..• " to overcome which he would" go forth to
~S.L- ~terror N rl(\~ 'V the lonely ii}\. o~~ abide the
tombs
night
-OrJS
in
the woods,
through
in
out
those
under
the
places
Of
trees
and
horror
and
~lJ·faffright • • • And as I tarried there, a deer came by, a \ ~ ~~\'~ bird caused a twig to fall, and the wind set all the leaves ~\) · ~-(0 whispering; and I thought: "Now it is coming - that fear (c. ~S',p
lay down until, pacing fear and terror." The BHAGAVAD GITA other hand,
to
( ( 1 0),
starts with
a
and
fro,
I
Chapter 1 ,
had v.
mastered 28-30) ,
that
on
the
scene in which the hero Arj un
describes to his charioteer, Shri Krishna, in.a very drastic manner all
the
somatic
signs
of anxiety:
( S)
"Seeing
1 these kinsmen, O Krishna, arrayed with a view to fighting, '•
7
my ~ fail and my mouth is parched up. My body quivers, and
there
is
horripilation;
the
Gandiva
(his
bow)
slips
from my hands, and my skin burns. I am not able to stand, my mind were, and I see adverse omens
..." .
""""""-=-~=
(
·,
"'t
35
If
now we
also
add this anxiety,
c.ss~
one sees that these
$-.j~fl-if9 _
•
three main evils: anxiety, sorrow, delusion, which I have sEl,J, "(. ~ chosen for the titl~ .of my contribution, can be related, ~I ft1'ltp.~ in the sequence mentioned, to different levels of that .,tDrv' f.A'_tcf"J>. which, in modern Daseins-analytical language, we might 0 ~s._~~ perhaps
''.S_~vergesSenheit"
term
(S l,
i.e..
a
condition
in which man has forgotten the roots of existence. Anxiety ( s) , ~ is, as we shall see in more detail later, the direct consequence or perhaps rather the condition of having fallen out of the original oneness of "allthat-is", in other words, in the most genuine and deepest • t y 11 • Grippe · d b y t h'is anxiety, · sense a 11 separation anxie One attempts to cling to something, to feel at one again with it
something
to
e ven
some to
or
human
other. can
resulting
attachment,
evidently
never
be a
of
~eptive
is
misconstrued
as
"reality",
man
thus
. II moves away f rom t rue "B ei.ng by a further step and falls
reY to that wfirch··-tn~ --ancient scriptures designate 11 moha", p ---· .... ---·--- ----7.°'bhranti" or "avidya", ~ deception or delusion, confusion, mental blindness, ignorance.
---rt one
cares to correlate these three levels with modern
~~~~~~~~gical
"bhaya",
categories,
one
might
roughly
say
that
i.e. anxiety, pertains to the sphere of emotions,
,;£~-k~< --~~f' f~~l~g~-or a;-·-------·••r---
---·~--
sorrow, has its origin in frustration .. ~--·---~L--·..=
... . .,. ._-__.._,__-.. _,-•_ ._. ., _ . _______ :. , _,.~
of conative tendencies, while "moha", delusion or ignoran------
-
-----
•4_- · - -
---
·--~--,.
-~-··-
I-',·--
--
.•
--·'!
---
------.
- - . : .. ,
~
·..-~---
-------..._
ce, ref_ers more to the cogni t i v~- ~~~-c.~~-?.~s •. If, on the other hand, one looks for classification the
three
in
levels
p S '-£1~ t-lii'~ ~~
>
Indian more
or
terminology, less
•-_.- ... _ _ ,.. _ _ _ _
some
analogous
one might say that
correspond
to
the
three
.n~ "14".
(
/.it~ fiV ~G,S
~~s"'~
~S
:3:P ,.._
attaching oneself to the temptations of this
world
:lJ £,7~
lasting and
'
_
~ t\ /l f'}{l
be~
fully satisfying one. It leads to disappointment, pain, greed, hatred and a whole host of human passions. If now, beyond this stage, this precarious and limited emergency solution
:S -{~ '- ~
to some pos_sessions or power or c)
being,
knowledge,
The
j)~ ~-ti 1
ID
~I
€
f
A.,/ fD
I
~
if
...
/
36
"gunas" (S), the basic elements of all creation 2): "moha",
kee~ing man back in the sphere of "tamas", i.e. lethargy, undifferentiated darkness~
like__::_~
"soka" which,
term_s
f.or "suffering" and "sorrow", i~_<:_ate:__~n. inner .~urning, being consumed by . a fire, would have to--be · assigned to the
sphere
!;.YI?~- of
of
a~d
"raj as",
person
who
of "sattva". one may now
mostly
characte.~~:!__ by
is
object,
strict avoidance
"~haya"
as
in
fact
is
befalls
pr~~o_minance
a
c
the
often
done,
that
of all evils connected with worldly
tachments would lead to a
turning away
from
life
at-
hostile
to all creative development.
Misunderstandings and misuses
of
to
this
'only·
type
in
of
course
certain
are
traditional
be
found
Indian
frequently,
writings,
in the everyday life of contemporary Hindus. hand,
however,
but
not also
On the other
there are numerous proofs that the conden-
sation, or as one might say more aptly, the crystallisation of
the
originally
One
Power-of-Being
into
the
multiple
forms and possibilities of this concrete world is definitely wanted accept
by
the
the
"creator" and
illusion
of
a
that one
material,
is
supposed
dualistic
to
reality,
brought forth by the play of "Maya", as a necessary state of
transition
and
on
the
self-awareness,
way
not
towards
only
for
higher· consciousness
the
eternal,
universal
"Self", i.e. "brahrnan", but also for the individual ".atman" (S)
incorporated
in
a
human
pulling
oneself
being a
separate individual,
and
hardened
enables
man
together,
existence.
bearing a
out
Only the
discipline,
condition
process of being
through the fire of suffering and to
become
one
with
the
universal
of
purified passions,
Self
once
again, but on a conscious level. I and
hope
to
syllables
least as
far
be of as
able the
to
show
terms
"bhaya"
and
later
for
the
that evils
the
root words
mentioned,
"S'oka" are concerned,
at
apart
37
from the sense of dangerous cemptation and the possibility of
going
astray,
also
(S),
they
hold
c.
possibilities. Like indicate
in
themselves
quite
positive
G. JUNG's symbols of transformation
that
any
crisis,
perishing,
beside germ
a
the
risk
growth
for
of and
also bears in itself unfolding, and that i t is only immature sta1nation and attachment that give them the appearance of evils.
--
2. Anxiety ("bhaya")
Let us now first turn our attention to "anxiety", which not only the study of Upani~adic texts, but also the observation of numerous Indian psychiatric patients shows as one of the most fundamental problems of human existence. As
already
mentioned,
in
ancient
Indian
scriptures
"bhaya" is frequently to be found in connection with .references
to
duality,
from
the
to
original
man's
oneness
is often stressed that fear is a
"second",
RA~YAKA
condition
of
with
Universal
the
being
separated Self.
It
is only possible where there
"an other". Thus, for instance, in BRHAD~
UPANU~AD
(1 ,
4,
v.
ff.
( 1 2b) )
it
is
reported
how, before the creation 3) of this concrete world, "atman" or
"puru~"
existed
alone.
This
primaeval
"person"
was
frightened. It is aaded: " ••• therefore one is i~ightened, when one is alone". Subsequently we get a description of how this primaeval "person" reflected: "Since there is nothing besides myself, what am I afraid of?" From that alone, his fear departed; for what should he be afraid of? Fear comes only from a second entity." (S) All
the same,
this creature,
less existence alone, any
enjoyment
through
in its condition of fear-
which of course also had to exclude something
else
(a
"second") ,
did
3) One has to be careful not to misunderstand the term "creation" in the customary sense of a "creatio ex 11 I h an_s d 11 nihilo", which implies the work of ~he cr~a t ors on some material that lies outside him. The Indian idea is different! About this, see more later (S).
38
not
feel
UP.
1,
happy.
4,
v.
He desired
"Therefore",
3),
that
"one
does
there
so continues not
feel
the
( B~H •
text
happy when alone."
should be an other
(i.e.
a
second
similar creature).
We then find a description of how this
creature
itself
united Out
inflated
couple,
of
this
told,
and
came
"this
man
body
to
then
is
double
divided
and one
wife. half
its
this
size,
that
product
"Therefore",
of
himself,
of
into so
we
like
a
two. are
half
of
a two-celled seed. Hence this void is filled by the wife." From further union with this second creature, human beings originated along with
all
other creatures
that
propagate
by pairing themselves off. In
this
myth
of
"creation"
(see
footnote
3)
on
the
preceding page), which at least in certain respects reminds one of the account in the Old Testament ( ( 1 > Genesis 2 ' it is not
II
18-25), in which it is also stated that: good that the man should be alone "
it
is
rather
( "atman" or "puru~")
strange that this primaeval creature
first experiences anxiety, as it is alone; then, in second line,
it
reassures
and
consoles
itself
by
arguing
that
there is nothing to be afraid of as long as outside itself there
is
no
"second";
nevertheless,
at
a
third
stage,
it proceeds to create a world in which this very duality, the encounter with an "other", We
find
One
no
detailed
possibly
at
the
has
whole
to assume
problem
of
that
being
which again and again one has of
all
and
attachments
deserted,
a
is the fundamental element.
explanation
and
to
situation
for
this
contradiction.
this myth already hints attracted
to realise
experience which
by the
a
world
oneself
again
in
nothingness as
triggers
alone
off
the
search for becoming one with "an other" and thus perpetuates
the
finding and
to
vicious
circle.
The
only
final
solution
lies
in
I
the way back to being one with tne original "All" merge with it,
though now on a
higher,
more
con.-
oneself
one
with
scious level. This the
security
"All"
condition also
has of
extends
( 1 2 e)
provided
its
validity
by
knowing
not
not being separated to
repeatedly
the
dimension
stresses
that
only
in
the
in space, of it
time. is
the
sense
of
a
but obviously KATHA Lord
UPANI~AD
of
past
39
and to
future, become
Again
of
one,
one in
that
Jesus
the
to-morrow,
with
whom
one
has
so that there will be no fear any more. easily find an analogy in the Bible ( 1),
can
where
to-.day. and
New
Testament
Christ
is
"
( Hebr. the
1 3,
8)
we are assured
same yesterday and to-day
and for ever." It
is
not
only
the
creature who,
by
knowing
one with the Creator, has no cause for fear, of
All
to
as
himself,
'
the
"brahman"
one who
does
or
"Isa",
dep~nd
not
is
on
himself
but the Lord
often
referred
anything,
is
not
1
attached to anything and who is fearless. in
This is expressed in a particularly TAITTIRIYA UPANI~AD ( 2, 7 ( 1 2 i)):
disfi.nct manner "The individual
soul becomes fearless only when it obtains firm and peaceful ground in that invisible, portless assumes
Reality. the
Whenever
selfless, unutterable, sup-
it
(i.e.
the individual self)
smallest interval in that state of identity,
then it has fear.
That is why even ·a wise man has fear,
when he is not reflective." In
a
similar
manner
Yama,
the
UPANI~AD
to his pupil Naciketas
(KATHA
that
difference,
he
who
himself other
and
sees
any
"brahman 11
the
creatures,
is
God of Death,
or
even
condemned
4,
any
to
1 0 ff.
( 12 e))
duality,
between
between meet
explains
himself
death
again
and and
again in innumerable rebirths.
*
* After in
having
read
"bhaya 11 ,
which
a
i.e.
*
good
number
fear
or
of
impressive
anxiety,
is
texts
considered
as a consequence or rather the direct expression of separation
and
of
being
split
(rom
off
the
divine
origin,
I
was very much astonished to hit upon the following rather mysterious fear
lines
in
of
Him
"prAr:ia",
the
breath
shines
the
of
Him
KA'fHA
(brahman, of
sun;
in
UPANI~AD
this
life), for
case
the
fear
( 6,
of
3
( 12
e)):
characterised
fire Him,
burns;
"For as
for
fear
do Indra,
Vayu
and Death, the fifth, proceed (with their respective functions)." In those of
the ancient Indian scriptures which repre-
sent a world of personified Gods, having many quite human
40
traits, one often finds references to the frightening aspects of such figures. Lord Shiva for instance, who in one form is the withdrawn ascetic steeped in deep meditation, then again the gracious Lord of all creatures, can, in his rage, be the dreaded destroye".:" ("Bhairava" derived from the same root as "bhaya" ! ) who topples whole worlds. Above all it is Indra, the Lord of clouds and thunder who, from his throne in the sky, and with his thunderbolt, exercises a rule of stern judgement and strict punishment. It is of his thunderbolt that the verse just preceding the paragraph quoted above (i.e. KATH. UP. 6, 2) reminds one. It can be translated more or less as follows: "This whole uni verse comes out of Him (prai:ia, the breath of life) and vibrates within Him. He is a great terror, like the raised thunderbolt. Those who know this' become immortal." According to ~gveda, "vaj ra", the thunderbolt, was used by the King of the Gods, Indra to dissipate the primaeval mists and thus release, in a stream of lifegiving water, humidity which previously had been kept imprisoned by v:tra, the demon of dryness. "vaj ra", however, also signifies the hardness of the diamond, which is capable of cutting through everything. Is one, perhaps, in view of this text, justified in assuming that the original meaning of anxiety and fear is actually not different at all from separation and being split off? - Other texts, which at present I cannot deal with in detail, also point to a very close connection between anxiety and separation (S).
If
one
searches
in
the
Sanskrit
Dictionary
(7),
4)
4) In Sanskrit one gets the impression that at the origin of language, there were certain sounds and syllables that ·simply characterised a "mood" or a "theme" in very general and vague manner and that it was only at a later stage that definite and clear-cut concepts, both concrete and abstract , were separated out from this original "matrix". Thus, words that are phonetically similar still often point to a common root in which their many meanings and shadings were sti 11 contained so-to-speak "in statu nascendi", integrated in the basic "mood" or "theme" (S).
41
one
actually
anxiety,
and
finds
that
"bhid"
for
the ~o
two
roots
split,
"bhI"
for
fear,
to tear apart,
to de-
stroy, are very close to each other phonetically and possibly
may
belong
to
one and the same primaeval complex of
language. It might just
thus be possible,
mentioned,
to
translate
but with
"separati·on" and
of
world
this
is
in the rather "bhaya"
not
thus to assume
only
possible,
strange text with
that:.
because
"fear",
the course
the
eternally
one Self has
released it out of itself, has made it come
forth,
separate
as
a
entity with
creatures
that
amongst
themselves are also separate.
* It
now
appears
~pirit
this world in a it
ed, in
is
the
extremely
ancient
*
*
to me that if the
risk of escape from
hostile to all life is to be avoidimportant
scriptures
in
to
point
which
out
this
those
texts
separation
and
the anxiety associated with it is presented as deliberately included for
in
its purpose.
easily be Self, and
and
necessary
and
meaningful
Without stressing this aspect, one might
removes
the
and
condition
mistake
as
creation
left with the impression that as all dualistic
separation a
this
estranges
of
being
one
split
from
off
the
might
simply
or an undesirable side-effect of this
that,
as
possible.
splitting
such,
it
ought
Many texts,
up
into
to
however,
individual
be
overcome
eternal be
creation
as
quickly
make it· clear that the
creatures
is
a
necessary
and deliberately planned element in the process of becoming conscious. "brahman" which is
is
for
inside
and
big,
eternal,
tain
texts
8, 4, v .1
instance,
often described outside, unborn,
(e.g.
the as
smaller
unlimited,
B~H.UP.
highest
level of oneness,
that which at the same time
4,4 v.
than
small,
bigger
without form, 22
than
is in cer-
(12 b) and CHAND.
UP.
( 12c)) also characterized as a "demarcating bank",
to
an embankment for the safety of the world", meant protect these worlds and creatures from being mixed
up
and
"a dyke,
the
safe
confused limits
amongst of
this
themselves. at
the
It same
is
only
time
within
limitless!
42
-
Self
that all that i,s can grow,
act and move. /
in other Upani~ads.
references can be found
UP. ( 1 2 h) 6, 11 ; KA!HA UP.
_,,Similar
(SVETASVATARA
( 1 2 e) 5, 9 ff. and 5, 1 3. )
How then is one to find one's -way in this dilemma between, on the one hand the necessity of bearing or "standing out"
5)
(in
a
literal
translation
of
"existing"!)
this
human existence as a separate creature threatened by anxiety
and,
on
beyond
this
oneself
to
to state (16,33
the
other hand,
sep\ration, merge, with
the
paradox
(1)):
"In
the
to
perceive,
the eternal Oneness and it'?
Well,
along with
the
challenge
world
one the
ye
is
Gospel
shall
to allow
almost of
have
tempted St.
John
tribulation;
but be of .good cheer; I have overcome the world. 6) This
type
of
statement
about
fundamental conditions of man,
anxiety
as
one
of
the
yet at the same time linked
to a hint at an eternal almighty presence in view of which all fear dwindles away is to be found f ~equently not only in
Upani~ads,
the
out
to meet and
and
hesitant
a
symbolic
(Chapter
but help
hero
the in
Arjun
28-30).
and
unimportant
much
stressed,
nature the
of
hero
who,
of
Though
GITA
on on
one
is
the
after
all,
is
only
man
as
such
hand
worldly the
( 10)
anxiety
anxiety-ridden
all is
BRAGAVAD
very
(S)
representative
1,
whole
this
the
transitory
concerns
other
doubting
hand
is
very
strongly
admonished to attend to his duties within this very world of
illusion
acceptance of world
gives
ancient
and
deceptive
the the
need GITA
scriptures
and
for its
appearances. action within special
renders
it
This
stress
the
position
on
phenomenal
amongst
particularly
apt
the to
5) The use of "existence", derived from the Latin word "existere", in English, where it is glibly used to designate "life" in general, does not convey forcefully enough the fact that it means "standing out" in one's lonely individuality into a world into which we have been thrown without our consent. 6) The Greek "thlipsis" which in English is rendered with "tribulation", is translated much more forcefully in German with "Angst", i.e. "anxiety". About the further implications of the original Greek term, see later on page 48.
43
serve as a source of consolation and advice for the daily meditation of millions of despairing men even in our times. So the
far
I
Sanskrit
present-day
have
translated
term
"bhaya",
Hindi
texts,
however,
which
in
by
are
one
Western
"fear"
or
by
of
still
finds
which
in
some
current
is
but
at
or
"fear"
7)
deri va ti ves
in
use.
another word:
languages
"anxiety",
"anxiety"
translated times,
In
various
"vij ugupsa"
( s) ,
occasionally
when this appears
to fit in better with the context, is rendered as "hatred", "criticism",
"defence".
of
"vij ugupsa"
the
one
word
finds
means
that
"to
hide".
it
watch
For
If
is
in
follows
the
to
from
take
one
up
Sanskrit
derived
over,
"jugupsa",
one
care
finds:
a
the
Dictionary
root of,
"a
etymology
"gup",
to
( 7) , which
protect,
condition
of
to
being
on one's guard, of avoiding", but also "despising, rejecting"
and "reproachfully criticizing".
usually
points
something
to
something
pertaining
to
As the prefix "vi-"
separate,
individual
in
particular
existence,
one
to can
assume that the composite word "vij ugupsa" means something like
an
oneself shell. in
attitude in,
I
of
keeping
anxiously oneself
diffidently in
one's
walling
individual
think we are justified in translating "vijugupsa"
modern
psychological
often morbid warding off, perhaps
sometimes of
and
apart
shrinking
into
even a
terms
as
"e"°go
defence",
i.e.
an
a rigid neurotic coat-of-armour, a
psychotic-autistic
protective
capsule
in
condition
extreme
with-
drawal. Where
anxiety,
which,
after
all,
not
only
according
to the Gospel of St. John or the ancient Indian scriptures, but
also
philosophy,
according is
a
to
modern
fundamental
teachings human
of
condition,
existential cannot
be
7) In present-day psychiatric terminology, "fear'' is usually meant to indicate a feeling that is rational and is caused by a well-defined object, while "anxiety" is used more in the sense of an irrational, all pervasive and objectless apprehension and uneasiness. In every day language the German "Angst", derived from the same Latin root as "anxiety", can be used in both senses. "bhaya", the way it is used in ancient Indian texts, can also stand for both "anxiety" and "fear".
44 "borne out" openly, man attempts either to patch together for himself a protective shell or to build up the illusion of being at one world. the
This
next
through attachment
second
solution
chapter,
i.e.
is
the
to something
what
takes
discussion
sorrow, pain or suffering. Before that, however, I want
us
of
to dwell
in
this
along
";oka",
a
little
to i.e.
longer
upon the subject of anxiety and fear and to show how they present themselves nowadays in Indian life. In my psychiatric activity in India it
struck me
much
sees
more
patients anxiety ious",
frequently states
Europe
elementary,
and one does
is one of
in
the most
not
i.e.
know what
frequent
one
undisguised
"Oil gabhrah raha",
(S).
-
of
than
in
that these
f ree-f loa ting
"the heart it all
is
is
anx-
about!
complaints brought
not
only
before the psychiatrist, but also the general practitioner. Sometimes, what is meant by this expression is exclusively the
fact
of
pal pi ta tions;
at least implicitly,
but
it
is
usually
that this heart,
of sinking o~ its nervous fluttering,
understood'
through a
sensation
indicates an anxious
feeling that involves and penetrates the whole person. If
now
one
examines
the
circumstances
in
which
this
type of anxiety is likely to announce itself with particular of
intensity, being
already
one
alone; have
finds
fear
of
indicated
three
by
"fear" instead of anxiety, these manifestations
as
basic
darkness; using
situations:
fear
the
of
more
death.
fear As
definite
I
term
most of my colleagues consider
"phobias",
as
secondary
products
of an already concealed and transformed anxiety. I myself, however, am of the opinion that these three main situations of
being
in an anxious mood come so immediately and ob-
viously close to a.quite elementary, free-floating anxiety that they do not deserve to be characterized as concealing and
limiting
phobias
but
should
actually
be
understood
simply as slight variations of the original state of being separated and isolated. To
show
in
detail
which anxiety can in this context.
the
suddenly
different
life
break out
would
situations lead
too
in far
Convincing examples could however easily
be quoted from the rich case material I have
collected~
45
What is interesting, is that simple people with little education are often those who are most capable of understanding this anxiety as a quite elementary separation anxiety. The reason for this is probably that people of this kind were until recently sheltered and protected, though not in philosophical consciousness of being one with the All! - but at least,in a realm of very complete human oneness within the symbiotic-empath1c atmosphere of the joint family, so that often they had hardly become aware of their individual existence. (See HOCH ( 5 f).) Sudden awakening into consciousness of one's separate existence can shake a person almost at any stage of life. Often it is triggered off by a situation of being left alone, as
but also events
sticking
perhaps
the
out,
as
in which one experiences oneself
different
necessity of
from
the environment,
assuming for
or
the first time in
life individual responsibility for some decision and thus feeling exposed to criticism as an individual. In other cases someone discovers, in the calm and darkness of night, his own heartbeat or becomes aware of himself as the only consciousness
awake,
the
only
one
who
sees
and
hears,
without being seen or heard by anyone else. Often, however, knowledge and,
about
taking
care · of
experiencing loved
the
limitations
along with that, this
of
realm of one's
someone else's death,
relative.
In cases
heard formulations,
one's
own
existence
about one's own responsibility for
of
this
own,
comes about by
perhaps that of a bekind,
I
have sometimes
- often from quite simple rural people
- that reminded me of HEIDEGGER's writings which, in "Sein und Zeit" ((4 a) pp. 237 ff.) show the importance of experiencing
the death
of
another
person
for
recognising
the
nothingness of one's own existence. Nowadays crises of this k~nd risk taking a pathological turn particularly often, as in the course of the precipitated social and cultural change, an unusually high number of people, often immature, are torn out very abruptly, without preparation and without the possibility of quickly finding new protection and support, from their traditional sheltered situation in joint family, caste, village community, hereditary occupation and even out of their undoubting
46
belief
in
ancient
religious
teachings.
It
may
be
that
the reason why the number of patients who simply experience free-floating situations
anxiety
in which
is
so
high,
anxiety
is
is
that
likely
many
of
to break out
the into
the open are so new and unaccustomed and come upon people so
suddenly,
that
up
to now no
readymade
least socially tolerated escapes and available,
such
that
one
might
symptoms
or
at
sick-roles have been
successfully
a protective shell, a "vij ugupsa" ( S)
use
them
as
(see HOCH ( 5 g)) •
On the other hand, of course, the process of Westernisation also
brings with
voice of germinating framework
of
it
behaviour:
(5
e)),
new
can
tolerated
patterns
club-life,
possibilities
anxiety
socially
of
new
of
be
silenced
or
even
social
noisy pleasures,
to add
sexual
the
TV-screen also!),
inhibitions,
social
and
the
within
respected
drinking
the
forms
(see
HOCH
for many the transis-
tor-radio as an inseparable companion
have
by which
(nowadays one would
gradual
slackening
professional
of
ambitions,
craving for power, readiness to join in any demonstration, riot,
even
it may
be,
any of
which self.
nowadays
One has
without -
knowing
or
caring
these are only a
all
what
few of
stand invitingly open for
escape
aim
routes
from
the
to mention a further way out which some people
seek in their anxiety and which can be made plausible
the
the
by
taking
recourse
to
the
particularly
formulations
of
the
"a
se-
ancient scriptures, as already presented: If anx~ety is only possible, cond"
is perceived,
where
"an other",
one might escape from it by inflating
one's own ego in a kind of solipsism exaggerated to maniform
dimensions.
classified finds
as
amongst
This
is a
"manif orm young
pathological
reaction
hebephrenia"
Indians
who
are
the
-
best
which one first in
often their
families to reach a higher level of education. They inflate themselves ledge
and
traditional
in what wisdom form
they
and of
consider their outstanding
are no behaviour
longer held nor
respect
together for
knowby
the
any
elder
generation. In
a
slightly
less
obvious
manner,
a
perhaps
similar
escape is sought by schizophrenics of the catatonic group:
47 one
·common world
that
offers so much resistance and one wraps oneself up -
like
a
simply
denies
caterpillar
one's own. describe one
is
enjoy
in
it
so
existence
its
Within it,
cocoon -
as
of
a
in
an
autistic
the ancient
aptly with
regard
to
world
of
Indian scriptures
the
dream-world!
one's own lord' and master who can dispose of and everything
Some
the
other
according
aspects
of
to
this
his
own
latter
will
and
situation
desire.
will
have
to be taken up once more later, when we discuss the significance of "S"oka". The
paranoid
patient,
on
the
other
hand,
cannot
find
shelter from discovering his being different and separate. It
i"s
him.
this
very
"other"
and
"the others"
that overwhelm
He may also try to protect himself within the coat-
of-armour
of
his
own
autistic
world;
but
somehow
that
which belongs to him as an essential feature of his existence, his
namely
his
"being-in-the-world"
"being-with",
more
he
wishes
raises
to
seek
its
voice
distance
and
all
from
in
the it.
particular louder,
Medard
the
BOSS,
the best known representative of HEIDEGGER's Daseins-analysis
in the field of psychiatry, has pointed out (2)
in
the
schizophrenic,
in
particular
the
that,
paranoid,
the
capacity to create a world actively, by and in his perception,
in
particular
his
seeing,
right
from birth or has atrophied
is
either
insufficient
in the course of life.
Instead of seeing or hearing by actively giving "Gestalt", i.e.
creating
a
meaningful
pattern,
he
is
"made
to
see
or hear" as a passive victim. 8) The
necessity
"being from
shown i.e.
ripening
something"
depending
others,
of or1
mere
"reflected
and
from a
condition of passively
being
illuminated by others,
appearance
and
appraisal",
on
into
recognition a
mature
by
human
being who can give their due place to fellow-men and creatures
in
his
actively
shaped
( "gestaltet")
view
of
the
8) In German: "es wird mir zu sehen gegeben", literally "it is given to me for seeing" or "it gives itself to me for being seen", a formulation, by the way, which is quite current in ordinary language ~n Hindi!
48 world,
inside
whom · his
for
illumination
out
by
and
texts
an
in
self
has
become
independent
the
ancient
the
witness,
source
is
borne
scriptures.
(See
HOCH
(5 c) and (5 h).) At the same time these texts
(e.g.
BRH.
UP.
many
own
(12 b) 4,3, v.1-7) open up understanding for the fact
that Hinduism does not - as is often maintained erroneously in the West - simply challenge one into proud self-perfection,
but
bending down to
which
knows
the
before
an
all
5, 1 5
eternal,
worldly
is only a poor, e)
concept
of
grace
almighty
and
(See
(12
g)
35,2
ff.;
humble
compared
and
knowing
KA'fHA UP.
SVETASVATAROPANI~AD
2, 23;
of
light,
illumination,· seeing
secondary reflection.
MAHANARAYANA UP.
and
(12
KENOPANISAD
(12
h)
6, 1 4 i
(1~
f)
3,
1-12.) One might now object that, for the Sanskrit and Hindi term 11 bhaya 11 (S) and perhaps even for "gabhrahat" (Urdu) (S) which is probably derived from the root "gabh" (abyss, steep slope, canyon) and thus indicates a situation of
~tanding at the rim of an abyss or having
way on a
steep
slope
or
being
stuck
in a
lost
narrow
one's canyon
- one can prove an original connection with the situation of
being
"Angst" the
separated
(German)
Latin
and
and
isolated,
other
root "ang"
but
Western
that
terms
(Greek -"agch"
that
"anxiety"' stem
from
and possibly Sanskrit
"ama") do not bear in themselves any such meaning. I would however doubt it: the narrowness, the "tight spot" indicated
by
"angustus"
condition
of
though up
to now
in
being I
Latin
can
j arnrned
in
have
not
also
be
between been
understood "two".
able to
as
a
Possibly,
find
definite
proof, there may be some connection between the root "ang" and
"ambo"
dual,
in Latin
double.
word "ama" fright, Can one
(What
(Greek I
in Sanskrit,
derived from a perhaps
"amphi")
have found
which
signifies
in the meantime
which means "pressure,
the
is
the
vehemence,
root "am" signifying "to advance".
assume
that
this
is
the
origin
also
of
is
one
"angustus" and "Angst"?) The of
feeling
the
this
most
of
typical
connection
"thlipsis",
being
which
it in
jammed
sensations is the
and
accompanying
interesting already
narrowed that
quoted
the
in
anxiety. Greek
passage
( p.
In
word 42)
49
from
the
Gospel of St.
pressive
manner
"tribulation"
as
John
"Angst"
seems
to
(1 ) in
water
is translated in an im-
German the
(while
whole
the
thing
English
down
some-
what!) can be found shortly before the quoted verse, namely in St. and
John 1 6,
v.
21 ,
9) , in a context in which anxiety
suffering are compared to the labour pains of a woman
giving
birth,
and
where
this
metaphor
is
utilised
for
pointing to the creative aspects of anxiety and suffering. In its
fact
certain
further
having being them
got
stuck
unable
to
lies,
patients
who
transformations, in
the
move
like
a
suffer
give
one
narrowness
either
forward
"paradise
lost",
from
the
anxiety
or
impression
of
of
a
or
backward.
the
birth-channel, Behind
mother-world
of
being safely embedded in the empathic oneness of the traditional
constellations of
family and
society,
from which
they have been torn out prematurely and without due preparation. Once
There
the
the
in
a
up
to a
of
giving
manner
the
a
healthy
original
nourishing
one's
of
lies
one 1 s
away
of
in a
back
without
causing
in
own
mother
self,
as
to
instead
11
a
is
immaturity and
lonely,
being able
"oneness"
open
oneself
gesture of giving, of sharing,
"oneness
development
damage.
individual separation has been
common world in a
of by
going
only hope of building up another
heal thy
in
no
consciousness
awakened,
case
is
of
-
as was
the
hanging at the breasts
receiving however
letha.rgy.
child.
This
rendered
type
impossible
One then remains stuck
uncanny sphere where one can no longer feel
united with the
lost world through receiving nor, as yet,
with a new one through the giving of love. Occasionally
one
can
observe
way,
a brave step forward,
lity
and
a
sudden
care and
for
others,
dramatic
that
at
least
in
a
minor
through taking over responsibican
manner.
relieve anxiety, A child
who
:i:s
often in afraid
of
darkness ventures out into the night if one still smaller and helpless has
to be protected; a woman feels sheltered
9) The passage in St. John 1 6, v. 21 appears to take up a similar one of earlier date, namely Isaiah 26, v. 17-18 in the Old Testament.
50
when she has to look after a baby; someone else may suddenly, though perhaps only temporarily, grow beyond his childish selfishness and anxiety, has to be nursed. ~he fact that which is
can
also
also
take
indicated
(to separate, related
anxiety
to
a
by
when a severely ill re la ti ve
and
turn the
for
the
derived
mark
good
etymology
to cut asunder,
"bhaya"
separation of
a
and
the
crisis
positive,
root
"bhid"
- which is probably closely from
the
root
"bh'i").
Apart
from the already mentioned meaning of "splitting, separating", of
it also implies "the opening up of a bud;
loosening up apd of transformation"
and
a
process
finally
"wise
discrimination". One hardly need point out that the situation of remaining stuck in anxiety, as described above, comes very close to what HEIDEGGER ( 4 a) presents in moving manner as
"the
condition
left
of
being
deserted"
in
which
"Dasein
is
alone with itself" and in which "Dasein" has been radically robbed
"
of
the
possibility
of
misunderstanding
and
misrecognising itself through something else or from elsewhere" ("Sein und Zeit", p. 277). For HEIDEGGER, salvation from anxiety and estrangement lies in the possibility that in this extreme situation the voice of "Dasein", its conscience, or,
as
makes
HEIDEGGER
Humanism"
( 4 b),
itself heard as
formulates
it
later
challenges
man
into
"keeping watch over the truth of
the call in
his
facing
Being
11
of
as
"care"
essay
his the
"On
task
of
"shepherd
of Being" (S). Though HEIDEGGER, self,
had
no
scriptures,
as
I was able to ascertain from him-
detailed
these
knowledge
formulations
of
of
the
his
ancient
come
very
Indian close
to what we can also find in certain texts of the Upani~ads: The his
person
who
has
individual
fought
self
with
his way the
through
universal,
to oneness eternal
becomes for other beings not only "nourishment" "a dwelling place" ("ayatana"), or even "a world" but
also
a
"guardian"
( "bhutapala")
or
"one
(''lokapakti")
(see
or who
B~H.
UP.
"shepherd"
of
brings
world
(12
the b)
4,4
v.
"all to 22
16 and AITAREYA UPANISAD (12 a), commentary to).
of
Self,
( "anna"), ("loka"), creatures" ripening"
and
1,4
v.
51
The condition of one who opens himself up in a gesture of giving, does not need a defensive attitude and protective
manoeuvres
from
him
any
that
longer,
he
would
as · nothing
not
be
can be taken away
willingly
ready
to
part
with. Thus "vijugupsa·' as well as "bhaya" fall off. Already
ISJ\VJ\SYOPANI~AD
in
according not as
to
which
distinct the
((12
from
self
of
d)
man
"perceives
own
self
at
no hatred
(v.
7)
then
adds:
for
the
wise
man
this
all
is
Chapter
6,
v.
Krishna
as
an
everywhere of
Me,
and
all
that
"What
beings
as
all
(S).
the
his own
beings
as
therefore he needs
delusion,
sees
statement
and his own self
("vijugupsa") who
a
The following
what
unity
sorrow
of
self?"
is
existence
In a
similar
later formulated in the BHAGAVAD GITA {10) 30
ff.):
"He
"avatara" of
and
nor
himself
finds
wise
verse
perceives
one
a
there and
6),
his
every being"
no defence and
manner
v.
who the
sees
Me
(i.e.
ultimate,
the
Lord
universal Self)
sees all things in Me, does not lose sight
do
I
of
looks upon
him"
or
"He
who
by
comparison with
the pleasure and pain in all creatures
as similar, that Yogi is considered the best." Phenomena modern
which
cannot
psychodynamic
be
grasped
theories,
as
and
they
explained lie
with
beyond
all
defensive manoeuvres and mental mechanisms, are also pointed
to by
recent
PATANJALI
times,
genuine
by
and
ultimate
acts
on
oneness
all
of
and,
in more
(3).
For
both
of
a
realm
in
which
to
them, man
knowledge about his
creation
and without need
coat-of-armour of
a
or
if
by
is
also
prefer, stated
pertains
(9)
and even with
the
being no longer walled in by his individ-
limitations, we
GANDHI
the ground of his
with
Creator Himself,
"Yoga-Sutras"
Mahatma
non-violence
thinks
ual
in his
in
"vijugupsa". perfect
the
New
to seek
the protective
By oneness of this kind,
love
of
Testament
this
kind,
( (1 )
I.
as
John
this 4,
v•
18), "fear is cast out" not only from the person who practices
this
attitude,
but
also
from
all
in the proximity of the one thus purified.
those
who
remain
52 . / ka ") 3. Suffering or sorrow ( "so By now it is hardly necessary
some
thought
later, on
of
to
anxiety
them.
the evils
confusion
Above
we
all,
sorrow,
ignorance,
already
have
of
and
any
already
to
devote
of attachment and, as
anticipated
have
longer our
reflections aspects of
various
seen
man
that
in
anxiety, caused by experien·cing himself as separate, around
for
some
support
and
then
attaches
his
looks
himself
whatever he finds readily available and what fits
to
in with
his temperament and his level of maturity. In extreme cases, verted
sense
of
we find a development into an extra-
power or,
as
one
occasionally
may
call
it "flight into reality", as is typical of manic or hypomanic patients. One perhaps has to stress that of
attachment
possessions, but
for
with
can
have
one's
instance
some
as
its
relation also
activity
or
object
to
one's role
a
not
beloved
exaggerated or
even
this
only
type
worldly
human
being,
identification
one's
self-centred
boasting with knowledge. The
depressive
himself
robbed of
"cathexis" (see
HOCH
all
having
confronted of
patient,
with
the
( 5 a)).
on
the
illusory lost
his
other
hand,
one-ness
the
substitutive
experience
of
who
his
so-called
support,
utter
in other words:
is
isolation
At the same time he becomes
his debt to life -
sees
conscious
he realises
that,
due to his one-sided attachment to som~ external security or
comfort,
he
has
deprived
himself
of
the
real"! sa ti on
of all other possibilities of his existence and remained behind his dues. The is
Daseins-analytical way of
not
thus
seeing things
to be found in exactly the same terms
of
has
course
in ancient
Indian scriptures; nevertheless, one can point out formulations in them that come very close to these modern Western philosophical ideas. As and
was
stressed
suffering
"duh-kha")
(in
in particular Buddhist
texts
by
Lord
Buddha,
usually
the unpleasant
brings
sorrow;
with the pleasant makes one apprehensive of also
designated
as
is the consequence of all worldly attachments.
Connection with thus
sorrow
causes
suffering
once
the
connection
its
attachment
loss has
and to
53 be
given
makes and
up.
one
to
any
Furthermore,
come
up
overcome
these
craving
for
resistances
against
human
all
possessions
and
frustrations
passions such as anger,
rage, aggression, greed, sexual desire, ambition for power, arise
violently.
this
suffering
further
Thus,
in
its
deceptive
attachment
creates
turn
urges
again
securities
and
suffering,
man
to
positions
of
and
seek
for
power
and
for sensuous pleasures that can satisfy at least for short moments. Leaving to
aside
worldly
the
ancient
which
that
scriptures
literally means
modern Hindi texts,
which is
concerns,
as
in
it obviously
the
self
inner guide and ruler.
its
embryos as
quite
"performing
,
"murdering
the
of
a
in
term,
is used in
self",
Upani~adic
meaning
of
killing
the conscie.nce, 11
bhri1Qaha-
in some of the prayers of the
(12 g) and which usually is translat-
interpreted 11
has
prey
This
It is probable that
term which we find
and
the
( S)
role of an inner voice,
MAHANARAYA~A UPANI~AD
ed
of
falling
characterised
in the sense of "suicide". In the
however,
a
essential,
"atmaha tya".
"slaying
the
tya",
is
occasionally
inadequately
abortions"
Brahmin",
or
has
by
"murdering
even
the
less
same
of
plausibly
sign.ificance.
The germs of the "sask~ra", i.e. the "hereditary" potential that or
has
been
that
(S), life, this
at
to the
process,
habits makes
has
ought
to
the
himself
given been be
to
a
human
acquired brought
proper by
time for
guilty
hi~
in and
earlier
from
birth
incarnations
occasion.
He
stagnation
in
continuous
not
right
to maturation in the course of
preferring
need
being
only
of
growing
who
resists
comfortable
and
becoming,
stifling the growth of
these "germs", but also of slaying the "atman", the conscience that challenges him into this process of ripening. In
a
similar
Daseins-analytical suicide
as
manner,
BOSS
understanding
"carrying
out
some
( 2)
on
the
of
man,
urge
on
basis
has the
of
his
interpreted wrong
level
11
54
10). The need for opening oneself up to new possibilities, for
laying
removing
aside
stood and, symptoms, of
something
something
that
that
puts
has
been
outlived,
up resistance,
is
for
misunder-
as this is generally the case in psychosomatic borne
out
being accepted
on
as
the
a
somatic
concern
of
level
only,
total human
instead
existence
in all its horizons of understanding and all its possibilities of being put into action. This tendency of man to misunderstand central concerns of his existence in terms of the narrow horizon of concrete,
and
everyday matters
far
behind
see
footnote
the
the ancient 5-8), the
the
(in
aim
is
below) Indian
wise
solitude
a
who has
his
"Verily",
dear
(to
(S)
the wife)
and
again
for
UP.
to
kurz
was
before
his
thus
"zu
that B~H.
In
Yaj navalkya,
hermit
wife Mai treyT, life.
German
something
thinkers.
man
of
activities,
greifen",
also ( (12
remain
known b)
2, 4
withdrawing
old
age,
to v.
into
teaches
his
faithfully accompanied him through so he
not for
explains,
"the husband
the sake of
the husband,
is but
it is for her own sake that he is dear. The wife is dear (to
the
husband)
not
for
the
sake
of
the
wife,
but
it
is for his own sake that she is dear." In similar manner he continues,
giving the examples of
the
of
to
of
belonging
a
respected
caste,
and of the Gods and all creatures. this
enumeration,
but it
is
for
"all
one's
is
own
that
the
of
weal th,
whole
world
"Verily", he concludes
dear not for sake
son,
all
the is
sake of dear
all, the
Self should verily be realised, should be heard of, reflected on and meditated upon. By the realisation of the Self, by hearing, also. mana,
11
reflecting and meditating,
a 11
this
is
known
In the following paragraph it is added: "This Brahthis
K!?atriya
(warrior),
these worlds,
these
Gods,
these beings, and this all, are only the Self." (S)
1 0) The German 11 Zukurzgrei fen 11 which BOSS uses in similar German texts, cannot be adequately translated into English without losing some of its connotations. What is meant is that something that lies at some distance or. depth cannot be properly grasped, as the movement reaching out for it does not carry far enough.
55
What
is
becoming of
c.
important
the
G.
Self
in
-
this
which
process
reminds
of
discovering
one
of
certain
and
ideas
JUNG concerning the seeking of the "self" through
withdrawing
psychic
energy
from
the
projections!
is
not only that all the relationships and attitudes mentioned do
not
stand
in
fact the
exist
for
the
that
their
service
of
own
sake,
and
that
they
the
Self,
but
perhaps
always
also
the
it is through this very process of dealing with
things of
this world and their different aspects that
the "Self" is to b~ recognised and found. Ul timateLy, from
all
_however,
material
the
objects,
senses from
are
all
to
be
clinging
withdrawn worldly
t.o
matters and to be directed towards the One that is entirely free as
from
suffering
and
fear
nothing and no ·one else
and
can!
-
thus
also
can
give
release from suffering
to the human heart. In an other
text,
plained that, holes
of
in KA'fHA UP.
through a
man's
((12 e)
4,1)
mistaken move . of
senses
were, opened
it is ex-
the Creator the
towards
the
outside.
A wise man who went deep into contemplation about immortality was
needed
senses
inward
per-mi t
one
to correct (S),
to
this mistake and
where
hear
the
to direct the
silence and perfect equilibrium VO ice
Of
the
II
atman II
hidden
in
the innermost folds of the heart. He,
however,
necessity of
this
to
who
tries
to
recognise himself
world
-· as
is
often
escape
from
this
primary
in contact with the things the
case
in
schizophrenics
- through his attempts at preserving himself and his potential
unused,
robs
and maturing, phy.
and
Relating
himself
( 1 0)
serve
the
engaged one
selfish
expressly
world,
( 12 d),
the
ephemeral
world,
and
it
that
is
all
but, doing,
thinking of to which
all this
in
is necessary.
wonderful
according
possibility
dwe}ling
purposes,
states:
in without
reads
the
of
growth
thus falls prey to stagnation and atro-
to
concrete worldly action, not
of
its
initial
the
all
of
fruit verse is
renunciation
GITA
BHAGAVAD
action (S). of
should If
- ,,_ -
changeful
UP.
in the
the
that will
be
finally
ISAVASYA
that must be enveloped by very
sphere
It should, however,
as
"whatever
the
Lord"
provide
strength, support and comfort, one immediately feels remin-
56
ded
of
the
"Commit
psalmist's
formulation
thy way unto the .Lord,
it to pass" or of a
Romans
v.
14):
"Put
Psalm
trust also
shall bring (13,
( (1 )
ye
very
on
v•
5)
in him
and
he
passage
in
similar
the
and make not provision for the flesh,
37,
Lord
Jesus
to fulfil
Christ,
the lusts
thereof." If we now take a brief look at the etymology of and
11
duh-kha 11 ,
11
s'oka
11
we see that both these terms for suffering
or sorrow stem from word-families that originally designate "burning, glowing, heat, fever". This fact is of particular importance for the inhabitants of a hot country. A sensation of heat, something
in particular in the head,
very
is to any Indiar.
undesirable and even dreaded.
In
the
case
of people with little education many unpleasant sensations, often of
also
the
repressed
fever.
vegetative
anger,
"Heating"
are
types
strictly avoided,
accompaniments referred
to
food,
drink
of
these
as
anxiety
and
"bukhar",
and
i.e.
medicine
are
except during the colder winter months.
A doctor trained in the West can forgetting
of
facts,
he
lose his repu ta ti on if,
prescribes
for
an
orthodox
Hindu some medicine which, through vasodilatation, produces a sensation of heat, consider
the
prescribed,
or even if he does not sufficiently
patient's again
in
looks and longs for
request
terms
of
to
have
"hot"
is coolness,
or
a
suitable
"cold".
diet
What
extinction of
the
burning. Nowadays, of course, Westernised Indians,
one
inner
accord-
ing to English usage, also talk in terms of giving a "warm welcome"
to
or
recommendations".
"warm
even
in
someone or
his
human
send
each
The
other
simple
relationships,
"warm
greetings"
villager,
seeks
for
however,
someone
who
can give him "coolness". (See HOCH (5 d).) This in
equation of
itself
the
suffering
possibility
with inner burning
for development
implies
into something
positive. Fire tempers and purifies the one who can resist its
power.
exercises, mental a
hardships
process
heat or
The expression
"tapasya"
often combined· with of
that are difficult
"heating
up",
for
yogic medi ta ti on
self-imposed to
"hatching
physical
bear, out"
also in
"suffering". At the start of creation,
and
means
brooding according
to certain accounts, the primaeval being has to heat itself
57 in
order
to
hatch
out
the
world,
which
is
occasionally
represented as an egg. Thus
the fire
of suffering and passions is again some-
thing that will deter and throw inLo pain and discomfort only
the
immature
and
persistently keeps
hesitant.
He who
courageously and
in view the aim of reaching the Self,
will be purified by this fire. We of Old
can
also
this kind, Testament
gends,
find. descriptions
of
paths
of
suffering
similar to those in the Book of Job in the (1 ) ,
in
the world of
Indian myths and le-
in particular the figure of King Hari~andra (11),
who has to lose all that he once called his own and finally hi~self
has to humiliate despised the
occupation
banks
of
a
of
river
by taking upon himself the lowly, one
in
who
burns
order
the dead bodies on
to· keep
a
promise which
he had once made to a powerful Saint.
4. Delusion, ignorance ("moha") While as
presenting
"bhaya"
if anxiety were the first
sorrow
the
second,
so
"~ka",
and
that
have proceeded
stage of man's miseries and now,
with
be reaching the third and last stage. rect,
I
"moha",
we
would
This order is cor-
if we read the sequence from the point of greatest
closeness to "Being" (in German "Seinsnahe") in the direction of greatest "Seinsvergessenheit" (S),
i.e. the condit-
ion in which man has most completely forgotten the roots of his being. In fact, however, if one looks at the average human being, and particularly while dealing with illiterate or poorly educated Indians from low social strata, ignorance,
helplessness
usual
and
most
rather
than
gained
the
a
and common
mental
secondary
impression,
darkness
condition or
not
even only
also amongst healthy villagers, in
India
an
emotional
their
are
not
yet
stirring,
or
capa~le
but
appear
at
least
tertiary amongst
to a
stage.
my
be
the
primary, I
have
patients
but
that many of these'people of experiencing anxiety as
that
to
any
disturbance
of
inner equilibrium they merely respond with physical
manifestations.
It
often
even
seems
that,
clinging
to
possessions or other worldly securities is of little impor-
58
tance
for
they
them.
are
still
Though caught
confidently
(SI,
already up
in
economically
the
expecting
mentality
that
the table will be laid for
"sedentary", of
somewhere
them,_ even
the
and
nomad
somehow
if they themselves
never bother about getting it ready. Above all, such people always the
dwell
only
consequences
save
for
in of
later,
present
one's
quite
comprehensive
survey
wholeness
pa'st,
of
the
own
moment.
action,
generally:
of
one's
present
a
own
and
Foresight
of
the
capacity
to
total
image
existence
future,
and
in
appears
its
to
be
lacking in them. Therefore also, namely because they cannot recollect
anything,
assimilate. it
11 )
their experience
i.e. and
inwardly
thus
do
hold
not
it
t--0gether
learn
about the likely course of
from
things,
they
lapse into the same errors again and again and, to
Indian
teachings
and again more
fall
detailed
about
prey
to death
description
the next paper: "oes'akalaj It
now
re-incarnation
seems
that
and
of
na
one
II o
( S),
renewed
gain
a
comprehensive
again (For
attitude
a
see
)
aspect
of
"moha"
this being caught up in the present moment, to
according also
birth.
this . mental
and
anything
survey
of
the
is
precisely
the inability
world
and
one's
place in it. The Sanskrit word "moha", which one can best translate with "loss of consciousness, stupefaction, confusion,
deception,
gone a
mentally 11
root
group
of
( "rnuhu
11
77 i. of
words without
Possibly
words
condition
astray",
muh 11 • ·This "muhur",
,
suddenly,
a
the
(derived
is
same
that
of
derived
root
"muhurta") root from
and
and
"muh" the
been
blinded
etymologically
serves
designate
warning
having
the
as
anything
preparation "murkh")
occurs also
to a
that
a
moment
that (see
is· also related root
from
the origin of
transitory
or
p.
group
indicate
a condition of having become rigid and solid, in particular also a
loss of consciousness suggesting death.
In
modern
11 ) The German word "erinnern", which was used in the original version for "recollecting" relates more deliberately to "inner assimilation" than "recollecting", which renders more the sense of "holding together".
59 Hindi, in
a
this
"murkh" family
is
of
a
stupid,
dull
words with
person!
We
thus
find
its many branches all
that
is contrary to living growth and becoming, not only physically, but also with regard to mental and spiritual mobility and development. A condition in
certain
result
of
this
residual
of
a
kind,
cases
as we find
of
degenerative
it for
schizophrenia,
disintegration
instance
can
and
be
the
a trophy,
at
the beginning of which anxiety may have played its part. Lack
of
and
differentiation,
in
fact
often
clumsy
does!
-
heaviness,
exist
right
however, from
can
the start
and under certain circumstances can make a whole primitive human
existence
drag
itself
along
in
utter
lethargy
and
mental darkness. For
me
it
was
Sanskrit
root
against,
to
very
"lI",
stick
enlightening
whi.ch
to,
to
has
dissolved,
to
merge",
"pralaya",
the end of the world,
annihilation
ancient "he
Indian
who
of
rests"
becoming
completely
he
has
might
say,
for
a
long
thus all
will
where
habitual"
sense of
myths.
not
with is
down,
dissolved
the
to
lean
to,
to become
the
root
for
the universal dissolution is,, as
only
that
to be sheltered",
providing
seems
settled down all
cling
"to disappear,
also
that
It
"to
settle
simultaneously
and
the
means
to discover
that "rust"
and
it
figures
in
in
Indian
thought
12)
but
even
the risk
111erging with the place
too comfortably or,
as one
the "habitual", keeping in mind that "the
actually
time 13).
that It
which
has
been
"inhabited"
is as if in its primaeval wisdom
had already known that all too comfortable, easy and problemfree a condition of being
this
language,
i.e.
Sanskrit,
12)
The German proverb says: "He who rests, will gather rust" analogous to the English "A rolling stone gathers no moss" which, however, stresses the opposite aspect!
13)
In German "wohnen", i.e. "to dwell", has the same root as "das Gewohnte", i.e. the habitual, usual, again indicating that this is what has been inhabited for a long time. There is a similar relationship between the English (i.e. originally Latin) "inhabiting, habitation" and "habit, habituation" (S).
60 sheltered - for instance also in a psychotherapeutic relationship! lazy,
bears
in
itself
of giving up all
HEIDEGGER' s having
formulation
fallen
the
risk
striving, in
of
man's
and even of
"Sein und Zei t"
prey to the anonymous mass
is one of these conditions of delusion,
becoming
regression·
( 4 a) the
of
of man's
"everyone",
going
astray,
which nowadays one could probably call "moha". However,
for the ancient Indian and to a certain extent
even for contemporary Hindus,
"moha",
"bhranti" and "avi-
dya" are to be seen rather in a mental condition in which the play of "Maya" i.e.
artificial),
(meaning actually "that which is made" conjuring
up
an
illusory
reality,
is
mistaken for the truly real and in which one remains satisfied
with
this superficial display of
a
dualistic
In this way one misses the possibility of knowledge All,
of
the
self
and
of
in which alone peace,
one-ness
calm and
world.
attaining
with
freedom
true
the
eternal
from
anxiety
and sorrow can be found. Incidentally,
one
gets
into
embarrassing
difficulties
as soon as one attempts to render Indian ideas in a Western language
by
in German
means
of
concepts
"Wirklichkeit".
This
such
as
problem
"reality" will
be
(S)
or
taken
up
in detail on pp. 225 ff of this collection. In this present context, it can only be summed up briefly. The
German
concept
"Wirklich.kei t"
obviously
refers
to a sphere in which human action· ( Wirken) becomes percei vable and effective for others. with which one can deal, actively.
"Reali tat",
It is something "manifest"
work and as
"reality"
or
it were "manoeuvre" in
French
"realite"
belong to a different sphere. Derived from the Latin "res", i.e.
thing,
connected
object,
with
the
"real"
at
objects,
first
the
world.
But if one explores further,
itself
originally did
not
mean
sight appears
things so
of
the
one finds much a
to
be
concrete
that
"res"
concrete
thing
in its actual appearance, but much rather its inner essence.
Ultimately,
"rasa",
this
"res" has its origin in the Sanskrit
which means the sap,
of this sap and finally, qualities
and
their
the essence,
then
the
taste
quite generally, various sensory
perception.
"Reality'' therefore
is
basically the world in which sensory stimuli can be experi-
61
enced. 1 4) If now one turns to the concept of "reality" in Sanskrit and Hindi,
one finds that "sat" or "satya" or even "asli"
a derivation from the same nowadays for "real, genuine",
root
"as",
still
simply mean
current
"to be"
as
such. Through come
upon
this
short ling·u is tic exploration we have thus
three quite different worlds:
perceivable
and
binding
action
and
that of commonly
handling
of "doing"; that of sensory experience, of "feeling", but also of "having", and as such".
the
i.e. that
world
the world of "being
One may now doubt, which one amongst these three spheres of
reality
deserves
clear knowledge, belong
to
ancient
to
be assigned
to
and which one or ones,
"vidya",
sphere of "avidya 1 ~ or "moha".
the
scriptures
(e.g.
v. 69) point out that, to the unknowing is for
BHAGAVAD
GITA
what appears
i.e.
to
on the contrary, ( 1 0)
like
In fact the Chapter
darkest
2,
night
the wise man brightest daylight,
waking time, and vice versa. The
discoveries
insight
into
re la ti vi ty
the
of
of
modern Western
precarious
science with
structure of
matter
knowledge have perhaps brought us a
their
and
the
little
closer to the realisation that, what we commonly consider as manifest and perceivable reality and therefore as that which is truest,
most solid and most worthy of being ex-
plored and known, may not after all be the ultimate ground of
truth and knowledge.
very
point
of
puzzled
It is quite possible that at this embarrassment and helplessness the
more comprehensive concept of reality or rather of "Being" of ancient
Indian scriptures might have a special message
to tell us. For the moment,
however,
our investigation of the var-
ious concepts of "reality" has probably thrown us straight into
what
was
in
fact
to
be
discussed,
namely
"moha
11 ,
1 4) Plausible as this may sound, one also has to consider an other etymological view-point which links up Latin "res" with Sanskrit "di", = to give, grant!
62 confusion, a condition in which all that we had considered up to now as our obvious foundations suddenly appears as
unreliable,
fruitful
type
doubtful of
thinking. Generally,
and
deceptive.
confusion
however,
that
the
might
ancient
This
could
lead
into
Indian
be
a
deeper
writings
mean
by "moha" or "avidya" a dull state of ignorance that does not even allow of any doubt,
considering as
true and re-
maining satisfied with or even actively striving for whatever promises momentary enjoyment to the greedy senses. One might now assume that in this case "vidya", knowledge or mental clarity,
::;hould consist in one's
turning
one's back on and opting out of this whole deceptive world which the
is only due
solution
to the mirror-tricks of Maya.
which
certain
schizophrenics
seek
This by
is
their
catatonic condition of wrapping themselves up in the cocoon of their autistic world.
As already mentioned,
drawal leads to stagnation, regression,
this with-
loss of all possi-
bilities for maturing. It
is
often
difficult
to
decide,
which
amongst
the
many Sadhus and Faqirs who even nowadays roam about homeless
on
Indian
roads
or
seek
retreat
in
hermitages
or
ashrams on the banks of sacred rivers or in the Himalayan forests,
are
crippled
minus-variants
of
human
life
of
the type just mentioned, i.e. the result of dull withdrawal and atrophy, and which amongst them, on the contrary, have really attained a mature stage of detachment from worldly.
concerns,
a
condition
but not of the world". written,
this
of
"being
in
the
world,
(In the years since this was first
distinction
has
become even more
difficult
if one considers that the number of these roaming "saints" has been greatly increased by all the escapists and strange characters from the West!) PATANJALI the
highest
Self in
that
four
( ( 9),
4, 1 )
condition
can
be
obtained
different ways:
discipline;
points of
out
being in
by
through "mantra",
that
one
this
life,
"tapasya", i.e.
drugs
gained
from
herbs,
the can
i.e.
i.e.
Universal be
reached
strict
yogic
the reci.tal of a sacred
formula imparted by a spiritual master; i.e.
"samadhi",
with
and
through
finally
"au~adhi",
also
on
the
63 basis or
of
of
a
congenital condition of
"being
merged"
( "videha"
"being without shell"
or
"prak;tilaya").
(S)
One can probably assign positive,
constructive value only
to
that of ascetic effort,
the first of these paths,
perhaps
dlso
to
The
third
path
one
which
is
with
LSD
West
the to
second
i.e. one,
obtaining
sought and
by
form
of
Cannabis
and
other
pursued.
knowledge
is
the
"psychedelics"
in
the
intoxicants,
been used by Indian aspirants for as one can see,
faithfully
revealing
nowadays
other
if
and· which has also
spiritual
herbal
truth in the
extracts,
with doubtful success.
and
as
far
(See also HOFMANN
(6)). The last mentioned path, or rather condition, appears to be the one that characterizes certain schizophrenics, but also people with There
is
hardly
exclusively
with
"psychic" or mediumistic capacities,
any
doubt
the
help
that of
"one-ness"
drugs
or
on
experienced the
basis
of
a particular congenital disposition cannot lead to illuminating knowledge without any further effort, but that these two paths may perhaps have to be classified as pertaining to the sphere of "moha '', of stupefaction and going astray. At any rate, it is clear from the ancient Indian scriptures
that neither exclusively losing oneself to the mani-
fest
common world and
hand, one
withdrawal
to avoid
its attractions,
nor,
on the other
into an own autistic world which permits
the hard resistance of
concrete reality can
be the proper way for true spiritual maturing. The dialogue 15) with the world, it may be, ary left
friction against solid resistances is a necess-
prerequisite aside
no matter how deceptive and transitory
for
finding
the
"self"
without one's suffering
possibilities
for
being
side and, as KA!HA UP.
deceived
and
cannot
loss and trouble.
lie
be The
therefore on either
((12 e) 3,14) expresses it so drast-
15) The German "Auseinandersetzung", which will also be referred to repeatedly later, cannot be adequately translated into English. "Dialogue" is too mild and smooth. ''Auseinandersetzung", literally "to set oneself apart", is a much more forceful term, implying an almost physical struggle or at least "friction". In some instances, it can best be rendered by "coming to terms with". (S)
64 ically,
the path,
hard to go on,
is like a l.azor' s
edge·
What shows the right way to the wanderer himself and what makes others judge him, is probably the fruit of his behaviour. A human being with genuine knowledge of the Ultimate One,
spreads
an
clarity
around
becomes
a
unmistakable
himself.
"guru"
searching
for
who
it,
radiance
Without
can
and
much
show,
a
beneficial
special
also
to
effort,
others
the way that leads from
he
who
are
the untrue
to
true being, from darkness to light and from the tr&nsitory to the eternal.
5. Conclusion
The picture I scriptures
and
have sketched out of perhaps
also
that
of
the ancient
Indian
contemporary
Indian
people may appear strange and unusual. The details, times
even
the
basic
features
which
I
have
some-
picked
out,
are often not those that have been particularly stressed and further developed in the mainstream of Hindu tradition. What I of
have deliberately tried to work out are the
thought
that
approach
with
insights
in
might
save
lend
more
the
themselves
recent
West
India
aptly
philosophical
and
from
most
also
certain
those
and
that,
mistakes
to
mutual
psychiatric if
of
lines
a
followed,
the
West
and
at the same time might help, not only to preserve original Indian
wisdom,
but
to
restore
its
value
in
this
phase
of turbulent cultural change. the
If
criterion
pres en ta ti on and
tried
active i.e.
lies
out
on
feeling
the
the
all
three
involvement
of
for
in in
on
work,
and
validity
fact
in
that
levels of that one's
of own
and
it
truth
has
of
been
"reality": sensory body,
any
gained that
of
perception, and
finally,
at least by way of a serious attempt to expl·ore the ground of
all
drawn of
my
that of
is and that carries all,
anxiety,
experience
suffering in
India,
too one-sided and defective.
the picture
and
confusion,
is
perhaps,
on
after
I
the all,
have basis not
65 LITERATURE (1) BIBLE, THE HOLY:
King James Version (Old and New Testament).
(2) BOSS, MEDARD:
"Psychoanalysis and Daseinsanalysis". Basic Books Inc., New York, 1963.
(3) ERIKSON, E.H.:
"Problems of Identity, Hatred and Non-Violence", Journal of the American Psychiatric Association, May 1965. Also an unpublished commentary of the author on a correspondence between E.H. Erikson and Shri Pyare Lal Nayar, biographer and former secretary of Mahatma Gandhi.
(4) HEIDEGGER, MARTIN:
a) "Sein und Zeit", Max Niemeyer, Tiibingen, 8th edition, 1957. b) "Ueber den Humanismus", V. Klostermann, Frankfurt a/M., 1947.
(5) HOCH, E.M.
a) "Contents of Depressive Ideas in Indian Patients." Indian Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. III, 1/2, 1961, pp. 28-30 and 120-129. b) "Autistische Entwicklung indischer Kinder". Unpublished manuscript, 1963. c) "Negative Existenz". Unpublished manuscript, 1964. (Also translated into English.) d) "From Green Pastures to Grey Prisons". Journal of Social Research, Vol. VIII, 1, March 1965. Dept. of Anthropology, Ranchi University, Bihar. e) "Some Notes on Problems of Alcoholism in India". Indian Temperance News and Clip Sheet. Vol. VI, 2, 1966. f) "Family Mental Health Risks". Chapter in "The Changing Pattern of Family in India." 2nd Edition, ed. by R.W. Taylor et·al. Lucknow Publishing House, 1967. g) "Why the Body as a Scapegoat for Psychiatric Symptoms?" Proceedings of the First Orientation Course in Psychiatry for General Practitioners, Indian Medical Association, New Delhi, 1967.
66 h) "Der Traum: eine Welt - Die Welt: ein Traum?" In G. Condrau: "Medard Boss zum Siebzigsten Geburtstag", Hans Huber, Bern, Stuttgart, wi~n, 1973. pp. 35-62. English translation contained in this volume, pp. 131 ff. (6) HOFMANN, ALBERT:
"LSD, mein Sorgenkind 11 , Klettcotta, Stuttgart, 1979.
(7) MACDONELL A.A.:
"A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary". Oxford University Press, 1929 (reprinted 1954-1958).
(8) MUKERJI R.K.:
"Hindu Civilisation", Vol. I ! , Bharatya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay,
1957. ,...,
(9) PATANJALI:
(10) StlRJMAD BHAGAVAD GITA:
"Yoga-Stitras 11 , Sanskrit-English parallel edition with commentary by I.K. TAIMNI, Madras 1961, The Theosophical Publishing House. Sanskrit-English parallel edition of Shri Ramakrishna Math, Madras, 1 948.
(11) UPAKHYANAMALA:
(12)
UPANI~ADS:
G.A. Natesan, Madras 1942 (originally contained in Markandeya Purana, Chapter 7-8). used Sanskrit-English parallel texts with commentaries, published by Shri Ramakrishna Math, Madras. In detail: a) AITAREYOPANI~AD", 1 955. b) "B~HAD~RA~YAKA UPANI~AD", 1 948. c) CH~NDOGYA UPANISAD", 1 956. d) 11 ISAVASYOPANISAD 1i, 1 958. e) 11 KATHOPANISAD 11 , 1 952. f) 11 KENOPANI~AD 11 , 1 960. g) "MAH~NAR:KYANA UPANISAD 11 , 1957. 11 h) SVETASVATARA UPANISAD"' 1 957. 11 i) TAITTIRIYOPANI~AD"; 1958. 11
11
( 1 3) WISDOM OF THE EAST: "The Quest of Enlightenment 11 , London, 1950, ed. by E.J. Thomas. Publishers: John Murray.
67
-
/
DESAKALAJNA
An Indian contribution to the discussion on "Kairos" At about the same time as Wilhelm BITTER' s request for the contribution to the meeting of the "Stuttgarter Gemeinschaft Arzt und Seelsorger" had reached me, Prof. Harold KELMAN, Dean of the American Institute of Psychoanalysis in New York, whom I had first_ met in India in 1 958, and with whom a regular corr~spondence had lipked me ever since, had asked me for a chapter for a volume on "Kairos, an Existential Concept", in which he planned to assemble articles by authors from all over the world and from different fields of science. Unfortunately, he could not complete it before his death in March 1977. My own paper has therefore remained unpublished up to now. As this paper was to appear in KELMAN' s volume a long with his own quite extensive introduction to the subject of "Kairos", of which. a manuscript had been put at my disposition, I have of course repeatedly referred to it. As this has been done by quoting the relevant . passages from KELMAN's work, there should be no difficulty in understanding these references, even if, in this present context, the full text from which they were taken is not available.
1. Prologue in the Himalaya The and
scene of the incident by which I want to introduce
illustrate
a
few
of
the problems
to be discussed in
this Indian contribution to a book on "Kairos", is a small house
on
top of a
wooded ridge in the Kumaon Hills,
the
part of the indian Him~laya tucked into the corner between Tibet
and
altitude
the of
Western
almost
border
6000
of
feet
Nepa·l.
and
one
the little district town of Almora, a
magnificent
view
of
the
snowy
Situated hour's
at
walk
an
from
this quiet spot offers
Himalayan
peaks,
framed
by tall pine and cedar trees. A
peasant
woman
from
one
of
which cling precariously to the
the
few
steep,
small
villages,
terraced hillside,
had come to consult the foreign doctor about some ailment. Com11mnication
was
rather
a
problem,
as
the
polite
brand
of Hindustani, which I had picked up in the refined Moghul city of Lucknow in the North Indian plains, was as baffling to me.
her,
as
Somehow
her I
rough, had
guttural
learned
to
mountain manage
the
dialect
was
to
essentials
of
a medical consultation amongst these illiterate hill-people who had claimed me as their doctor. But on that occasion,
68 for
some
reason,
I
was
the past history of
interested
in knowing
more
about
the complaint. Such endeavour itself,
apart from the problem of verbal communication, is puzzling to these peasants. their
trouble
They still expect
from
a
mere
glance
the healer
or
perhaps
to
a
guess
touch
of
the pulse, without any need for questioning. In this particular
instance,
my efforts at eliciting
from
the
middle-
aged woman some estimate about the duration of the illness seemed
to
be
doomed
to
complete
failure.
I
offered
a11·
the various words in my Hindi vocabulary that could signify time,
period, duration,
"vaKt",
number of years,
"kitene din",
"sal",
"baras",
such as "samaya"'
but
just could
not
succeed in making the patient understand, what I was after. Finally, never my
in
despair,
heard
studies
in of
I
blurted
conversation, ancient
out
but
Sanskrit
a
word
which
I
texts:
which had
I
had
noted
in
"samvatsara".
A5
if by a magic formula, the woman's face suddenly brightened up, be
and the
with
an
"aha!"
of
recognition,
same all over the world,
which
she gave me
seems
the
to
desired
information, tP.ough only vaguely. Why
the
rather
unusual
and
complicated
Sanskrit
term
had opened up understanding where all the simpler current expressions
for
"time"
had
failed,
found
its
explanation
when I consulted the sanskri t dictionary ( 27): "samva tsar a" is
derived
from
the
word
"vatsa",
which
means
"small child". The syllable "sam" signifies, things,
"together",
I
suddenly
I
used
days' in
the
live
as
quite
a
past:
a
that
the
"King"
Swiss
voluntary
amongst other
"This
was
when
peasants
helper
similar way of
during
with my
dating events
Peter
in the family) was small"; or: when
or
"at the same time as". On seeing this,
remembered
to had
"calf"
(one
of
the
whom
student that
lay
children
"This happened in the year
(one of the cows) was a
tiny calf!" was often
the most accurate timing of a past event one could obtain. So
"samv?tsara",
though
all
the
learned
consulted are silent on this point, to
a
time
nature its
which
is
marked
such as birth and death.
at which a in
scale
domestic animal
infancy,
or
or a
possibly
it
dictionaries
I
presumably also refers by
the great events
Either
of
it means the time
human being was born and may
refer
to
the
period
69 during which a cow or a buffalo is with calf, though this, according months. In
to my
local
same
region
the
informants, and
is only 1 O or 11
from
these
mostly
lunar
illiterate
Himalayan peasants, I was to learn still more about "time". Aqain a
and
again
man or a
boy;
time at all!
-
it
happened
that
one
of
them
always
women did not seem to be concerned about stopped me on the way to ask for the time
on my wrist-watch. This was invariably done with the formula: "'!'a-im kya hai?", i.e. "What is the time?", the English "time" being pronounced in an Indianised way. Once, instead of just giving the desired inf orma ti on, I challenged a young
lad:
careless the
"What
shrug
matter
do
of
was
you
his
of
have
to
shoulders
no
day".
But
I
the
seemed
to
consequence
question had only served as a of
know
continued
my
and
time
indicate
that
means of
for?"
in
A
that
fact
his
"wishing the time
questioning:
"How would you
know the time if you could not ask someone with a watch?" The answer was: for to
"With my heart.
something.or other: go
how
to
sleep,
would
you
he· pointed course
to
know
towards
towards
do
to feed the cows,
some work in the fields.
this?" the
the
Because it would be time
to have a meal, With
sun,
West,
a
gesture
which
was
lengthening
of
on
the
11
his
its
"And
-
head,
downward
shadows
of
the
tall pine trees. When I tried to reflect on how the boy could have avoided
borrowing
was,
I
the
English
word
pressions for
"time" would fit
gaya?",
"What
hours of a
in
asking what
i.e.
has
it
in.
gong or the clanging of a eyelid)
original
Sanskrit do
not
time
"time"
One
can
"Kya baj
talk
about
in terms of "ghata", again referring to the beating
an
the
One can ask:
struck?". bell,
English "minute" or even the Hindi of
the
came to the conclusion that none of the Hindi ex-
ones lend
which
is
for
Hindi
designating terms
from
for
which
themselves stretched
to
smaller
time
they
and
are
measuring
out as
or one can use the
"nimi~a"
(the twinkling
time
units.
even more
derived, and
But
so
the
definitely
dividing
up
a
an abstract dimension or
which is available as an expendable commodity. It
is
Western
man
who
has
imported
this
concept
of
70 a
"time"
use,
which
spend,
which,
on
can
waste, the
or which,
one
have
give
may
which one
can
which can slip away or fulfil~
one can fill
"passing time".
have,
or
lie heavily on one's hands' Nowadays
the
' t 'im e" in terms of " cut t.i.ng
Westernised Indian even speaks instead of
not
or -take,
contrary,
at best,
or
But for
the
illiterate people
of the villages time is something that cannot be abstracted and It
imagined as is
always
separate
"time
for
from
that
which happens
something".
Above
in
all,
it·
what
is
not "aj", to-day, now, is simply "kal", and this may equally well mean yesterday, tomorrow,
the day after or never.
What counts, even within the "to-day",
is only the present
moment. The dim light of a consciousness not highly developed does of
the
quite
not penetrate beyond the most
here-and-now.
Everything
extraordinary
event
immediate
else
that,
unless
like. a
tall
scene
it
is
a
landmark,
sticks out ·of the haze of forgetting - lapses into a realm of uniformly dim indifference. When my neighbours from the hillside villages taking
advantage
soon found acute
out
illness
of
my
that, that
medical
if
knowledge
it was'not
alarmed
them,
a
and
started
skill,
re.ally severe
few
of
them
I and
actually
set out from home with the well planned intention of seeing the doctor. Much more frequently it happened - and actually
is
happening
at
the
moment
lines in this very same setting~
that -
I
am
writing
these
that a man on his way
to the market or to his work as a road-maker or wood-cutter, a woman gathering leaves or grass for the goats, a small group of boys on their way to school, by chance discovered the foreign doctor sitting in f ro.nt of her house and . then suddenly remembered that at one moment or other there had been some pain or some other ailment· That time",
"their"
time
might
never· occurred
not
to
necessaril~ also match· "my
them.
I
still
suspect
that
my
occasional attempts at preaching the need for punctuality and consideration must be striking these people as merely another one of the crazy whims of these foreigners,
which
one just has to tolerate with a pitying smile. After all, "samaya",
"time",
means
place" .~ "juncture",
an
a
"coming
together",
"opportunity".
so.
a
what
"meeting else
is
71
required
to
make
it
"tne proper time" when one has come
together with a person whose help one needs? Gradually, also
amongst
b~gan
I
quite
to
lies
lower
realise
outside
a
be
what
one
future
most
give
the
Himalayan
of
the
forests
city
but
population,
of these illiterate people
a
thought
concern
to
of
anything"
their
that
daily
lives
therefore always coincides with what
happening
separate,
in
strata
immediate
"Time"
imagined
juggle and
up
that
"never
the
actually
cannot as
only
the
generally
and pursuits. is
not
or
as
about
a
independent
manipulate.
to
happen,
dimension concept,
What
may
possibly,
for
"durande;i",
that
sticks
though
and
can
which out
thus
be
it
isolated
one
can
then
from the past or
rarely,
visualise
"foresight",
is
a
in
word
the
which
according to many people ought not
to exist in the Hindi
dictionary!
time,
point
at
is
which
not
a
some
stretch of
event
took
place
but an isolated
or
is
expected
to·
take place in its due course. "Existential time" this l.s called nowadays in the erudite West; under
something that had to be newly discovered again
a
crust
of
habit th.at had turned
time merely into
an abstract scale of measurable units or into a negotiable commodity! No doubt so with does
this
all
not
respect for
always
"qualitative". "qualitative something" as
which
But,
if we may say
the possibility that "primitive"
inferior!
-
deserves
to
be
called
coming to. our main concern, does this
aspect
make
is
is
the
of
it a
time",
which
"kairos"? No,
is
always
"time
certainly not!
for
"Time"
which
The
seasons
longer,
limitless
expanse
of
the
nomad's
world,
synonymous with space and with the few landmarks
for
or
mean
time
it is experienced, or rather not experienced, by these
people,
a
primitive view of
he
may and
some
be
watching
out during his wanderings·
the
sequence
of
shorter,
some
days
brighter,
and
nights,
some darker,
some impose
certain rhythm, and, as the sun moves towards the South the
North
in
its
birds
seek
distant
these
regularities
yearly lands,
of
course, one may
nature.
To
or
as
adjust make
the
migrating
one's
quite
path
sure
to
that
the powers behind these recurring phenomena will not sud-
72 denly and capriciously alt~r their course, one propitiates tnem by
invocations,
one goes, laid
for
both
man
in
long
or
of
and
out
that
where
rather
the
green
limits
co-existence have offered.
"opportune
are
who
relapsed
settled
one
snatch
Consequently, and
time
But
fixed wrong in
its it the
socia 1
has
to
rules
look out wherever with
for they into
fragmented
occasions"
of
empty'
qualitative
It can be seen as the moment from which one e:;. ·-
pects some advantage, -
in far
where
anonymous stretches 6f nothingness in between. Time then appears to have two kinds of aspects:
be
continuous'
and
becomes
to
overcome
longer
advantages
"unique
planning
West,
it!
no
property
imposed,
and
moments"
into
table
still
completely
is
wherever the
for
emancipated
not
pastures
been
golden opportunities are
the
has
indi vidua 1
Of
need
(S)
people
even
has
of
without
attitude
in
But,
green pastures,
perhaps one would not be
exploitation,
perhaps
expanse
beasts
even
ago,
pointing
spirit
and sacrifices. find
nomadic
in abundance
abodes
to
and
and cultivating. Traces of this found
gifts
one expects
that "brings something towards one"
the original meaning of "opportunity"!
-
or which "lets
something fall into one's lap", a "windfall", an ."occasion" in
the
most
literal
sense.
But
time
in
its
qualitative
aspect of a unique moment can also, on the contrary, demand something from us: the giving of our concern, our thought, our effort,
perhaps
even our own
selves.
Or
it
may
ask
us to give up our clinging to that which has proved itself safe and reliable, to what we are habituated; it may challenge
us
into
relinquishing
that
which
we
have
merely
assumed, put on, for the sake of convenience. If "kairos", as
KIELHOLZ
stems
from
( 26) ', a
(quoted
Greek word
by
KELMAN
that means
( 25
c))
"cu.t,
maintains,
incision",
it
is obvious that it must point to this second quc;'li tati ve aspect of time which, haps
or per-
like the scalpel of ·the surgeon, opens up our being,
discards be
like a sharp pruning knife,
wha.t
barren,
has
and
become
rele~ses
redundant, or
what
strengthens
has that
proved which
to has
the power to grow and mature. My
staying
up here,
in
the
solitude of
the Himilayan
73
jungles
first
continuously
for
about
1 /2
years,
now
only for short holiday periods :-- no doubt provides "opportune
moments",
ants.
For
"brings
myself,
something
however,
it
in"
is
for
the
local
peas-
closely associated with
what one can probably rightly consider as two major "kairoi":
the
first
to India, perhaps of and A
brought me from Switzerland
while the second one, and
up
thinking,
the
in the beginning of 1962,
third
into
as
a
whom
moment,
"kairos"
I
serve
like
some
not
at
professional activities,
me ·into
temporarily
professional and
something
propitious
regarded
challenged
securities of
venturing
these
in 1956,
an even more decisive breach with accustomed ways
living
giving
one,
hermit's
time
only
the
a
social
by
in
1 963,
myself
moment
which
is
also
by
me. back
to
but
brought
life
existence.
richer and more varied than those
which I had given up. The combination between the insights gained in solitude in
the classical
refuge of
on
the one hand,
and the transcultural psychiatric exper-
ience
gathered
in
the ancient
various
clinical
sages and hermits
settings
in
India
on
the other, are the sources from which the following observations and reflections have been drawn.
2. The concept of "Time" and "Kairos" in Indian literature Let me state right at the beginning that I cannot claim to have a Indian a to
thorough and systematic knowledge of the Ancient
Scriptures.
rather
haphazard
guide
me
I
have
been
manner,
except
a
and
sincere
browsing with wish
through
them
practically to
in
nothing
penetrate
to
the
original sources, aided by Sanskrit-English parallel texts and a of
everyday
much I
reliable Sanskrit Dictionary ( 27), and my knowledge that
have,
weal th could
While
already
I
been
on the other hand,
unbiased human
Hindi. has
approach,
nature of
the
possibly
closely
which
not
had
doing and
justice
to
pu,blished,
the advantage of a fresh,
related
Scriptures
and
be
investigated
psychiatric
Ancient study
may
present
to
the
insights
into
practice
affords.
The
is in
far
greater
this context.
only give a few hints, illustrated by some examples.
than I
I
can
74 ~gveda (32) In these earliest formulations in India, estimated to date back
a) The
of the Aryan spirit to about 2500 B.C. we find evidence B. C.
according to others only 1500 of man's intimate contact with and dependence on the majestic,
often
overpowering
forces
of
nature.
Some
of
the
periodically recurring or, on the contrary, incalculable phenomena, which at that time went beyond all human comprehension, had bee~ personified into anthropomorphic figu~es of benevolent and .scornful Gods. But in the hymns of praise and prayer of the ~gveda, the lyrical note of sheer awe and wonder predominates over any attempt to establish a
systematic
that
the
mythology.
Gods
are
We
"later
are
even
told
than
this
world
quite
plainly
production"'
and in the later hymns obvious doubt about the power and actual existence of these Gods creeps in. As far as I was able to make out ~rom my sketchy reading, this period knew no specific God of Time. The temporal coordinate appears to have practically coincided with the spatial one. Vishnu has measured the universe by his three giant steps; Us'°as, the Goddess of Dawn, stands at the juncture of darkness and light and again and again she arises "as the last of the countless mornings that h ave vanished and the first of
II
the bright morns to come ' thus marking the eternal transition from past into future through a fleeting present moment. But whenever one finds an~ indication of a time concept it is always closely allied with the laying out in space
of
the event
referred
to:
the daily
from East to West and through night, its half-yearly course
journey
of
the
sun
the unfathomable realm of southward from summer to
winter solstice and its more auspicious northward course, they all primarily provide an orientation in space("orientation" in its most original sense, as all our spatial directions ultimately take their bearings from the rising, 11 the "oriri of the sun! ) , mapping out the wide expanse of earth and sky into the four quarters and their subdivisions. Time appears to be conceived of either as a movement in space or as a momentary threshold which such movement is about to cross.
75 One
feels
allow on
for
the
intuitively
many
level
from
an
his
own
separate
general
background
storms,
flashes
of
Gods,
to
events
individual
a
the
this ·world
extraordinary
of
experiencing
that
man,
who
are
at was
as
humanity.
lightning,
which
yet,
being
existence
of
view
the
did
not
least
not
capable
of
standing out
Floods,
drought,
varying
moods
of
still unaware of his own powers
of rational grasping and calculating engineering of nature, is
helplessly
exposed
with
no
other
resources
of prayer and propitiating sacrifice. Yet,
but
those
one feels that
the ability to formulate this attitude in these magnificent hymns
is
itself
a
already
sign
of
doubt
the old vision and of the dawn of a
with
regard
new in which
to
intro-
spection and reflective control become more and more prominent.
Upani~adic
In the rich is
estimated
age a
(33 a - g)
Upani~ads
b) The
to
to
about
fairly
lie
500
literature,
right
B.C.,
from
we
the period of which
the
find
end
of
passages
the
that
~gvedic
refer
to
systematic mythology and in particular a variety
of myths of creation, as they also figure in the so-called PuraIJ.as, with only. the
some
of
which
the Brahmarias, Emphasis,
however,
awe-inspiring
of
the
now, at
find
times
estimated
has
of
the
individual
distinctly
to
be
the Upani~ads shifted
macrocosmos
microcosmos
we
are
of which
of
portrayed
considerably
nature
human
human
contemporary form one part
to
mind.
beings
the
Quite
frequently
taking
characters,
from
intimacy the
some
lead,
of
them
even historically verified figures. In the
spite
of
this,
background
to
a
the
coordinate
quite
of
remarkable
time
remains
Of ten
degree.
in
some
concept of time is merely to be inferred ~rom the different gra~matical
forms of the verb,
in which of course Sanskrit
is quite rich. took
I
texts
(three
CHANDOGYA ones,
e)
the ( 33
such
with
a
of
trouble of
the
b),
as view
-
/..,
scanning a
major
-.
KATHA
ISAVASYA towards
( 33
ones: d),
few of
B~HADARA~YAKA
and
few of
a
/
( 33
c),
finding
the Upani~ad
PRASNA
(33
passages
g),
( 33 a), the minor KENA
containing
(33 some
76
harvest was conspicuously poor. The only concern appears to be the distinction between "being and non-being"; the concrete, manifest and the f orrnless,
notion of
time.
The
unmanifest, unborn;
the perishable and the indestructible;
the
the
momentary
and
eternal,
within the realm of the consequence. We find bed
as
place or,
and
who
more
is
temporal,
i£a,
the one who
the
is
What
happens
obviously of
little
the Lord of the Universe, descri-
holds
literally
timeless.
all
days
ruler of
"of
all
and
the
that
seasons
past
has
and
been,
in
the is
their future
and
will
be". Such marked periods of time as the dark and the bright half of the moon, of
the
to
their
~nd
sun,
the southward and
however,
the
northward
are mentioned mainly with
auspiciousness
for
certain
ritual
course
reference
undertakings
in particular, in a more spatial than temporal connota-
tion, to
to designate the pa th which the departed soul
reach,
from
respectively,
re-birth
and
the wheel of birth-and-death
doom
or
takes
liberation
through merging
in
the
Universal Self. Occasionally,
we
find
such
terms
as
"kala",
which
later periods signifies something like ''kairos", moment
of
ultimate
decision.
But,
opportunity,
in the combination "the last moment". We
are
respected human
plainly
as
the of
taught
such
as
it of
"antakala",
position or a
being,
yet,
moment
denotes death, "the
that. nothing,
mainly
extreme whether
son,
the
particularly time", wealth,
close relationship with a
husband, · wife,
in
a unique
has
fellow
its
value
for the sake of the object, but that all this only exists for
the
sake
of
the
Self
(S).
(B~H.UP.
(33
a),
2,4,
v.
5-6). The Self must be sought and recognised through continuous meditation and a towards Self,
the
COre
resides,
Of
turning
the
smaller
heart I
than
inward of the Where
small,
the
II
greater
senses atman II than
( s) the
I
great,
unborn, undying, formless, fearless, eternal. Worldly pursuits and attachments are described as ephemeral,
as only lasting till to-morrow. Death is also occa-
sionally called "Diir",
the one who carries
away"
the
to
the
ends
of
quarters
of
the
the soul earth,
"far or
as
77
"hunger, a
penury",
similar
40,
who
manner
6-7),
where
eats
as we
in
up
the
what
Old
he
produces.
Testament
((1)
are taught that "All flesh
1)
In
Isaiah,
is grass,
and all the goodness thereof is as the flower of the field; the
grass
wi thereth,
the KATHA UP.
the
( ( 33 d)
I,
fact
a
world
of
one
feels
system
with space,
6) :
••• 11
fadeth
,
we hear in
"A mortal ripens like corn;
aga~n."
like corn he springs up In
flower
that
time
as a . separate coordinate
is of no consequence at all.
Together
it forms the one deceptive dimension or realm
that is only conjured up as an illusion before the ~ust
through the magic play of Maya, and which as
11
the
true
asat 11
and
the
,
eternal.
opportunity", breaking"
false,
in 11
The word
favour
ks'ana",
of
ignor~nt
be.discarded
the
"sat",
the
which means "moment,
has also the meaning , of "hurting, wounding,
and
stems
from
"decay,
destruction'-'.
"moment,
instant",
the
The
same
term
root as
''muhu",
,,
.
"ksaya",
i.e.
"muhurta",
for
is closely related to tl_le word "moha",
which designates ''illusion, confusion, stupefaction", the ignorance which mistakes the illusionary play of May~ for the true·world. I
have
detail ( S)
-
pointed out
later
that
in
earlier
and
shall show in greater
ancient Indian philosophy "reality"
in contrast to our Western concepts -· refers quite
simply
to
"that-which-is"
Being.
It
is
against
"that-which-is"
in
this
and which
terms
of
ultimate in
ultimate,
"r.eality"
of
eternal "sat",
its potential includes both
being and non-being, that we have to contemplate the insignificance of time as a mere illusion. however, its
also
raises
al terna ti on
of
time with all its fleeting moments,
day
and
night,
dark and bright fort-
nights of the moon,
seasons and years,
of
opportunity
an
which
eyer-present alone
This very insightt
is eternal,
for
'into the position
turning
imperishable,
free
towards
that
from fear and
1 ) Reference to this will be made in greater detail later on pp. 238 ff where there is also mention of an element of "time" in the form of the year!
78 suffering. the
As
nothing
but
Universal
Brahman
pervades
introspection all
is
needed,
beings
and
as
resides
equally inside the heart and outside it, no special opportunities
are
moment,
in any
contemplated
needed.
The
"kairos"
situation,
if
immortality,
only,
we
hit
is
available
as
the
on
the openings of the senses inward.
the
wise
idea
(KATHA UP.
of
at
any
man
who
turning
( 33 d) 4 '1 ) •
(S)
What may, unity one,
however,
into a
also turn this ever-present opport-
unique,
outstanding,
is the encounter with the
personally
"guru",
challenging
the wise
teacher,
the sage (S). Sometimes in a flash of intuitive understanding, and
sometimes
only
even physical
painful opens
apparent
the
after
imposing
discipline, neglect,
eyes of
he
the prescribed tasks, it
strenuous
times
grants
after his
rules
for
self-mastery
require
in hand, (CHAND.
humble,
and
This moment of
purity
the
in
master
all
and
one's
dogged
faithfulness
for
worldly
but also by earnest seeking and inquiry.
may
of
not only through following
approaching
and
spiritual periods
blessings
the aspirant to Truth.
"kairos" may need preparation, attaining
at
At
to
times
the
task
as for instance in the story of Satyakama Jab~l~ UP.
(33 b) 4, 4-9) who, on applying for disciple-
ship with one of the famous sages, was sent to look after a
herd
and
of
supreme 4,
the
lean
tending
the
cows,
instruction
10-~5).
By
teacher 1 s
enlightenment
or
Upakqsala,
master 1 s
the
from
the
fire.
through
frustrating
the
tasks
to
with so much devotion and patience. faithful
into
fulfilling
the of
path
of
other
teacher
times,
resembles
into the dark".
This
nowadays
we
b) to
found
attended
perhaps what
"karma-yoga",
determination
(33
they
they
is
the
they bent
worldly duties without
this what
UP.
command, which
fas ting
received
(CHAND.
any gain: action without fruit of action. At
while
very humility with which
apparently
later developed
who,
sacrificial fires,
i.e.
the
regard
for
(S) to
would
In one of the most moving
find call
the
true
"the
leap
Upani~ad
texts,
the KATHA UPANI~AD,
(33 d), the boy Naciketas, challenging
the
insincerity
his
his
ill-tempered
of
curses
boastful
father
literally,
by taking one of
proceeds to the
abode
79
of
Yamraj
or
Mrtyu,
by
his
tenacious
of
all
worldly
the God of Death.
insistence advantages
holds out to him,
The wisdom,
and- through
and
he finally
the
allurements
which
sacrifice
which
Death
forces· this supreme teacher
to impart to him, is amongst the deepest and most beautiful texts
in ancient Indian li tera tu re.
(For further details,
see later, page 192.) c) The Pura9as The PuraI}as,
which
have
already
been
mentioned as
at
least partly contemporary with the Brahmanas, and therefore also
with
Indian
the
Upani~ads,
mythology.
They
and
tales
about
one
could
point out
concept of
the
"kairos"
are one of the main sources of
contain various myths of creation
various
Gods
heroes.
~nalogies
numerous in all
and
with
No
the
doubt
Western
these often very detailed and
drastic accounts. I am, however, not sufficiently acquainted with them limited frame
in of
their original form; furthermore, the the present context is hardly suited
to hold all the wealth .of information that might be found, if one were to dig into this goldmine •. To one of the most significant
myths
in
this
we shall come back later.
context,
the
Krishna
legend,
(See section 2 f) of this paper.)
May it suffice to point out that one of the most important contributions of
Indian mythology is perhaps the view
of a supreme Trinity,
incorporating Creation, Preservation
and
three
Destruction,
and p.
beneficial 2-04.)
fested the he
again
the
"lingam", the
the
separate
preserver, is
for
lonely
but
equally
of
and
source this
Shiva,
presents of
Brahma,
the from
important
life.
(See
the
unmistakable
ascetic
destroyer.
himself
creative
who,
the creator,
in
these
energy,
also
phallic
sitting
in
of
illustration to
Shiva
himself,
three
aspects:
symbol;
he
can
be
the snowy regions of
meditates and condenses his creative
protector time
Vishnu,
represented by the
in the brooding heat of "tapasya";
benevolent (see
as
continuation
deities:
the Himalayan peaks, forces
counted
Often the three aspects are represented as mani-
in
however,
all
time
all
on he
the
creatures, cover
bursts
out
of
he the this
into
a
is also the "pa£upati" book) wild
(S); dance
80 of destruction, has
outlived
causing
its
the
dissolution
creativeness
and
of
gone
a
world
stale
and
that
rigid'
thus preparing the scene for a new world cycle. His female counterpart name of
in
this
appearance
this
destructive
black,
who
the
eats
up
her
expressions
own
one
of
has
already
its
connotation of "antakala",
been
aspect
is
Kali.
blood-thirsty Goddess of for
children
"time",
repeatedly
one
i.e.
mentioned,
In
recognises
"kala",
which
particularly
the time of death.
is seen as· the great destroyer,
the
frightening
in
"Time"
the black one, who devours
whatever it brings forth. The
importance
again
and
to the
again
light
of
of
change,
creating
that which
avoiding
chances,
new
become
has
stagnation,
of
bringing
forgotten
and
of
back
fallen
into neglect, is also implied in the succession of "avataras",
in
which
world
in
the
Vishnu
course of
"incarnations" take, of
biological
of
a
fish,
by
earth a
ages.
first
saves
The
in
this
farms
mortal
which
these
the
he
appears
primaeval
in
father
the
form
Manu
from
the second "avatara" is the tortoise, on whose
back the world rests; the
the
himself
indicate at the same time some notion
evolution:
which
the floods;
manifests
from
demon;
an
then
then comes the boar,
abyss the
into
which
"narasimha",
it a
wh.ich
has
rescues
been
creature
hurled
which
is
half lion, half man, kills the demon Hira~yaka(yapa. Finally,
first as the dwarf Vamana,
who nevertheless
in
three
strides covers and wins the whole universe, then the terribl I / e Parasu Rama who slays the all too powerful Ksatrya (warrior
caste),
and
Rama
Krishna
he
and
scriptures, One
further
the
then takes
Buddha
incarnation
is is
in
the
human also
well form.
an
still
known
"avatara" being
figures
According
to
of
of
some
Vishnu.
expected
in
the
form of Kalki, the Judge of the World. On the other hand, we get a pessimistic view of a deteriorating world
order
in
the myth of the Yugas,
ages through which the world has been passing:
the
four
the first,
the Kfta Yuga, was the Golden Age, in which v~rtue, truth, fear of God, In
the
contentment and happiness reigned the world.
fallowing
Treta Yuga,
and
the third one,
ovapara
Yuga, virtue successively loses one of its quarters, until
81 during
Kali
Yuga
(which
"time"
or
"black",
but
has
nothing
signifies
to
the
"kala 11 ,
do with
side
of
the>
dice
with only one dot!) it stands on its last leg. This degenerated
age
of
cunning deceit,
unscrupulous vice,
ruthless
exploitation, iron harshness and quite generally, a decline of
all
virtues
living
and wisdom,
nowadays.
"pralaya",
a
When
it
universal
be followed by one of
is
has
the
one
come
to
dissolution
in which we are its
of
completion,
the
world,
a
will
the long "nights of Brahma" before
a new Golden Age" can arise. This ancient Indian time scale, nights of
of
human
human
Brahma are years
years!)
creation.
all
equivalent
(one day has In
or
been the
astronomical
figures
night equal to 4, 320, 000, 000
laid
face
in which the days arid· to
down
of
from
its
the
beginning
staggering
of
dimf"nsions,
human
reckoning of time loses its significance. all Furthermore, where everything is converging towards a periodical universal formation human
and
beings
"kairos",
renewal, appear
the
a
supreme moment of trans-
small
negligible.
"kairoi" (For
of
individual
details
concerning
this section see for instance GLASENAPP (6).)
d) The Epics If
we
are
creatures and
of
interested flesh
aspirations,
Epics,
the
these
and
in
the
blood,
small
with
world of
their
in
passions
we
had
better
Ramaya~a
(39)
and the Mahabharata (28). Though
monumental
might perhaps
tales
of
turn
human
men,
adventure
to the great Indian and
war,
which
liken to the Greek Odyssey and Iliad,
one
refer
to happenings that are tentatively dated somewhere between the. 14th and 10th centuries B.C., current more 6th
nowadays
or and
less 2nd
are
supposed
historical centuries
the epic versions still
to
have
been
composed
figures
some
tim~
between
B.C.,
the
R~m~yana
being
by the
somewhat
older than the Mahabharata. In
the
Ramaya~a
we
hear the tale of Rama,
the Prince
of Ayodhya (a still existing small town in the North Indian province
of
Uttar
Pradesh),
an
incarnation
of
Vishnu.
Due to the wicked intrigue of one of his father's wives, he
has
to
leave the kingdom which,
by right of birth
is
82
due
to
hiin,
and
spend
1 4 years
as
a
roaming
hermit
in
the jungle.· His faithful wife, Sita, who accompanies him, is abducted oy Ravana the
present-day Sri
the
powerful
Lanka.
demon king of
With the help of
the
Lanka, king
of
the monkey tribe and the valiant and sincere monkey general Hanuman,
son of
captivity which
in
the
the
perhaps,
wind-god
city of
apart
to
it,
formulates. the
the
hero,
to
the
in
morals
is
and
lustful
many
as
reader
the
Sita
is
rescued
demon.
This
other
meanings
from tale,
ascribed
venture of individual emancipation
taken
fascinated
the
from
of
Vayu,
an
opportunity
or
listener
proprieties
of
for
imparting
numerous
worldly
lessons
conduct.
This
naturally also implies the pointing out of "right moments" and
fitting
occasions.
It
is
in
the term "de{akalajna", which I
this
text
that
have chosen as
we
the
find title
of this contribution. It means the man who knows the right place and the right time for taking action and for deciding on a course fitting
to the occasion.
. .
/
Sometimes
one
finds
the variation "desak~lanuvrtti", which could be translated as
"conforming
Usually
it
to
is
the pa th of
the. opportunities
only
the
of
superman,
the
personal . emancipation
who
place
and
hero,
engaged
merits
time''•
these
on
epi-
thets. We find plenty of scenes in which not only delicate ladies and
but also men,
warriors,
swoon
common "-like
an axe"· when they find
people
mighty
and even great trees
themselves
in a
being
kings
felled
by
crisis, while the
hero remains master of himself and the situation. It would be
an
attractive
undertaking
to
study
all
the
passages
in which weak human beings escape into a state of temporary "non-being" of
a
or
at
least
shocking experience,
character
of
a
11
kairos"
"non-knowing"
under
the
impact
which presumably ·often has that
is
premature
and
the
therefore
miscarries. This inquiry would be all the more meritorious as
amongst
finds
a
which
was
present-day
great
number
fashionable
psychiatric of
patients
"hysterical
in Europe during
fits"
in
India
one
of
the
type
the Victorian
age
and at the time of FREUD's first psychiatric experiences. It would be instructive to compare the situations against which human beings had to close themselves up by shrinking into
lifeless
rigidity
and
senselessness
two
thousand
83
years
in
B.C.
ancient
India
and
1900 years after Christ
in Europe and, a little later still, in present-day India! One
feature
counters in
of
is
particularly
the Ramayana,
recognising
rig~t
the
interesting
in
these
during whi.:h the hero, time and place"
en-
"expert
( "des'akalajna")
often conquers a threatening demon who has been terrifying the inhabitants of a region for a long time. Occasionally we find that the monster, before giving up its black ghost, turns
to its slayer
thanking
him
in a
gesture of reverent
submission,
for having brought release from the bondage
of a divine curse or penance. Usually the demon or monster, at this extreme moment, his "antakala" sees, as in a flash of
illumination
the
incarnation
of
God
in
his
victor,
and both together the slayer and the slain in all humility and
awe,
bend before
is
revealed
or
can
we
by
this
perhaps
the uni versa! di vine presence which "coming
call
it
together",
a
this
"samaya"
"kairos"?
of two beings who were meant for the fulfilment of each other's destiny and who, ultimately, are both one. Here to -
I may perhaps add briefly - as I am not competent
report
on
the
that Ayurveda,
Indian
systems
of
medicine
in
detail
the science and art of medicine derived
from the Ancient Scriptures, dating back in its systematicto about 600 B. c., also knows the term "kalaj na I I .
al form
One of the elements which a good physician has to recognise and control When
the
in treating a
signs
constitution point
at
is
which
are poor,
patient,
is
unfavourable, the
the
"proper time".
whether
the
patient's
illness has not ripened to the
intervention
can
be
successful,
or
death
is already written on the sick person's face, the physician will its
refuse more
to
the
or
postpone
general
proper
his
services.
therapeutic
time
for
significance
applying
taking certain articles of food, ion,
sleep
and
other
vital
"Kala"
also
with
has
regard
certain medicines,
for
for attending to excret-
functions.
Even
nowadays,
we
find many Hindus religiously or even compulsively following such instructions. To come back to the Epics, ous
one,
the
Mahabharata,
the second and more volumin-
( 28),
is
the
tale
of
a
feud
between two branches of a noble family, the Pandava princes
84 and
their
Kaurava
main na.rrati ve,
cousins.
which
Into
culminates
the in
framework
the
great
of
Kuruk;etra ·c near Pa~ipat in present-day Punjab), dozens
of
traditional · tales,
again
this
battle
of
are woven
illustrating
all
the
virtues to which the common man should aspire in his daily life. While-, might
in
these
discover
stories,
many
an
instances
interested of
investigator
"kairos "',
"kairos"
missed and "kairos" rendered fruitful! - this Epic contains what
the major and most essen~ial
is one of
Hindu
religion,
millions
of
Krishna
which
people
in
the
still
day
supreme
exercises
by
day:
Song
of
the God,
its
"kairoi"
in
influence
on
reyela ti on
of
the
BHAGAVAD
famous
Shr i
GITA (2), which deserves a special section in this Chapter.
Gita
e) The Bha9avad
(2)
I f we compare the spirit of
obviously
refer::;
to
impression that,
that of
the time to which the Gita
the
more and more,
Upani7ads,
one gets
the
the illusory play of Maya
has been accepted as a reality in which one can make oneself
comfortably
beyond.
But
at
earlier
than
was written,
at the
the
home same
without time,
available
thinking
perhaps
version
a
of
of
anything
few
the
centuries
Mahabharata
the Buddha had already formulated his teach-
ings of
the· universality of suffering and of
the way
end
At
recognising
it.
least
some of
the wise
men
were
to
that the pursuit of worldly pleasure and interests invariably
ends
drawn
in
from
pain,
this
only way was and
to escape
involvement
reducing this
in
-
fact
compulsively
to
escapism
or
a
religious
and as we still find
Hinduism
of
individual
narrow
compulsive
might call it, and
conclusion
Some
had
that
the
either through avoiding action
strictly prescribed
collective
suffering.
the
in worldly matters completely or
action
perfect4.on
disappointment,
inevitable
it
religious
through
sphere ritual.
neurosis, in many
of From
as
one
forms
practice
of
even
nowadays, man had to be challenged into committing himself again
to a
fellow-world,
to
care
and concern for
without thought of the result he might reap for Such
commitment
and
encounter with
the
others
himself.
fellow-world,
of
course, more
bears
in
obviously
it
the
than
the
possibility detached
for
ascetic
"kairos"
much
attitude which
the Upanisads often appear to convey. The
scene
which
immediately
precedes
the famous
"Song
of God" itself is undoubtedly one if not the major "ka.iros" in
the
life
Pa:r:<;l.ava
of
Arjun
princes,
(S), is
one of
to
into a
decisive masterly
description
signs
the
somatic
he experiences in this crisis:
enter
the five
We are given a
all
about
warrior,
battle with his Kaurava cousins. of
who
the
of
anxiety
which
"My limbs fail and my mouth
parched up; my body trembles and my hair is standing my bow is slipping from my hand and my skin is burning and tingling all over; I can no longer stand and is
end;
on
reeling;
my mind is ter. II ( ( 2) his
can only see forebodings of disas-
I
Chapter
I, 28-30)' thus Arjun complains to unknown to him, is the great Krishna,
charioteer who,
the avatara of the God Vishnu. The moment of acute crisis, the hesi ta ti on, the anxiety, the temptation to turn back, to
escape
into
rational
excuses and defensive arguments,
the final breakthrough of a flash of overpowering illumination, in
in which the whole universe is seen simultaneously
all
its
glory,
but
also
its
terror
-
all
this under
the wise guidance of one who recognises "the right moment", and
who
knows,
the
one
who
how
to
appeals
use
for
it in the way best suited to
help
is
perhaps
one
of
the
oldest and most brilliant example's of a psychotherapeutic intervention aimed at rendering a "kairos" fruitful. To expand at length on the teachings of the Gita would go I
beyond may
that
the
be
scope
allowed
have
a
of
to
the
pick
particular
present context. out
bearing
a
few
on
But perhaps
significant
the
verses
question of
time
and "kairos". As more Again,
to or
the less
various the
however,
time-scale
designations
same
vocabulary
there
within
seems
which
the
to
for as
"time",
in
the
we
find
Upani~ads.
be
little
concern
daily
course
of
human
for
a
life
organises itself. We are led to view time in a much greater perspective, which dwarves all human notions: "Those in
who
duration,
know and
the
the
day
of
Brahma,
a
thousand
ages
night
of
Brahma,
a
thousand
ages
86
ending,
they
know day
and night"
(Cha.pt.
8,
v.
and night, in this cosmic view of the world, to
the daily
revolutions
and decline of ages. beings
stream forth
of
the
earth,
17).
Day
do not refer
but
to
the
dawn
"From the Unrnanifest all manifested at
the corning of day;
at
the
coming
of night, they dissolve even in That called the Unmanifest" (Chapt. a
8,
small
v.
18).
section,
timeless
That
even
perhaps
expanse,
is
a
this
cosmic
momentary
indicated
by
Time
glimpse
the
is
only
a
vast
of
following
verse:
"Beings are unmanifest in their origin, manifest in their midmost state; unmanifest likewise they are in dissolution. What need then for grief and sorrow?" ( Chapt. 2, v. 28). Krishna, revealing himself as the Lord of the Universe, calls himself "the everlasting, imperishable Time" 10, v.
33). On a more concrete level,
(Cha pt.
"amongst all those
-
/ who calculate" he is Time; amongst months he is Margasir~a
(November or winter
December,
solstice),
more
and
of
or
the
less
at
seasons
the
he
time
is
of
the
spring,
the
time of blossoms (Chapter 10, verses 30 and 35). Simultaneously,
however,
he
is
"Time"
which
destroys
and
lays
waste the worlds" (Chapt. 11, v. 3'2). There
is
"no time,
when He was
time at which men were not, hereafter" in
( Chapt.
the hearts
middle
and
of
also
20).
"He knows
that
will
be;
2,
v.
all the
the
not,
nor
1 2).
He
is
the
beings.
He
is
"the
end of all creation beings
is
there
nor will anyone cease
that
have
but no one knows Him"
"at.man"
any
to be
present
beginning, (Cha pt.
11
been,
that
the
1 O, are
(Chapter 7,
v.
v. and
26).
"There is nothing whatsoever beyond Me; all this is threaded on Me, as beads on a string." (Chapt. 7, v.7). We find mention once of the different childhood, just as one
youth
each
death
of
also
and
the
sun's
course
age,
but
only
phases to
these periods passes m~er simply
another body, just (Chapt. 2, v. 13). Day and night,
old
as
signifies one
the
would
into
passing
change
of
one's
the
that
the
next
over
into
clothes.
bright and dark fortnights of the moon, towards
the
North
and
the
Sou th,
again only mentioned as the stations on the path, toward
life:
explain
eternal,
from
which
there
is
no
are
either
return,
or
87 towards
the
one
to come back into the round of birth and death.
has
dark
(Chapt.
8,
world's
eternal
not;
by
v.
regi9ns
23-25).
the
which,
again
"Light and darkness,
paths;
other
from
by
the
the
one
one
who
he
and
these are the
goes
returns
again,
who
returns
again."
(Cha pt.
8, v. 26). From
the
modern,
as
following
"field theory" these
(S),
that
strikes
one
it might be assumed that,
all-importajt
darkness,
concept:
as
very
it practically contains the essentials of the
w4.thin
spiritual
tne
dimensions
concrete
world,
apart from
of
light
spatial
and
orientation
was still far more relevant. than any notion of-time. All creation
is
together
of
perceives is
a
or
view
texts.
supposed the
It
to
"field",
knows
which
the
we
be
the
the
"ksetra",
"field":
find
presupposes
result /
in
the
-
the
coming one who
/ "ksetrajna".
the
already
of and
the
older
This
Upani;;ad
that the Universal Absolute allows
itself to be split into this dualistic world of the known and the knower, the object and the subject. The ultimate truth
would
recognise to
merge
be,
the
again to see the oneness of the two,
one
into
"atman"
oneness,
be.tween· the knower, We of
find
(S)
in
in which
all
beings,
or
to
rather
there is no distinction
the known and the process of knowing.
passages
that
announce
the uni versa 1 "kairos"
the mainfestation of the Lord such as:
is decay of righteousness and there
"Whenever there
is exal ta ti on of un-
righteousness, then I myself come forth. For the protection of
the
sake
good,
for
of
finally
from age
to age"
any
mention
be
designated
it
seems
point
to
become
to
of me
it
(Chapt. a
4,
that
many
to
righteousness,
v. on
of
the
necessary
the
challenge
in
I
oneself
moments
am
which
the personal
is
fruitful
for
the born
7-8). But there is hardly
unique
"kairos"
which
receptive
rendering
establishing particular
as
that
the destruction of evil doers,
teachings to
prepare
of
a
and
in
level. of
the
could Yet,
GI ta
oneself
to
"kairos" and for those
entrusted
to one: In contrast to the practice of Christian denominations, which expects every one to follow the same way to salvation,
the
Grt~,
as
earlier
Scriptures,
shows
remarkable
88 psychological approaches make-up.
insight
suited· to
distinguishing
-people
of
path
of
the
path
good
path of devotion scriptures
and
of
mixture
works and
or
action
universal
later
of
the
person to
but
deal
to
even
with
and
( bhaktimarga).
di~tinguish
the
Other
even
more
According to the prevailing ( S) ,
the
the basic qualities
elements of all
choose
not
only
worldly
different
possessions
of
creation,
to take to different types
his
different manner. on
fact,
is· likely
of worship,
"gu~a"
in
( vijnanamarga),
( karmamarga)
love
commentators
three
human nature and
and
constitutional
contemplation
differe~t "margas" or "yogas".
a
varying
different
There is the path of discrimination or knowledge
( jnanamarga), the
by
and
forms
of
food
duties
in
Aldous HUXLEY in his well-known Chapter
"Religion and Temperament"
( 20) ,
to which KELMAN also refers in his contribution ( ( 25 c), p. 34) has pointed out how relevant this ancient Indian view is for the understan~ing of the psychology of religion. We have to assume be
that
open,
the
will
type of
"kairos"
also vary with
psychotherapist who wants
to
to which a
his
person will
constitution;
and
gain increased control
the over
such moments that contain the potential 6f transformation would
be
wise
expectations of
the
to
not
to
all
his
particular
apply
the
patients,
approach
that
same but
is
most
to
measure take
likely
and
account to
make
a fruitful impact on a patient of a given type. Quite generally, the different paths or "yoga" advocated and
explained by
the Gita appear to have the purpose of
imposing a certain self-discipline, which alone can create the solid vessel that ultimately has to contain the great revealing
experience.
putting together" Universal Self, ing and
merging
-,
"Samadhi" the final
literally
a
"joining,
state of oneness with
the
is not just a passive process of dissolvthe
individual
self,
as
for
instance we
find to an extreme pathological degree in certain schizophrenics. It presupposes a· capacity for intense concentration,
condensation
which
can
only
be
and
containing
reached
of
through
creative rigorous
of the body and mind. In juNGian words (S) the
energies,
disciplines
(see e.g.
(23)),
process. of transformation can only take place within
89
a firm "vas hermeticum". be
the
function
"gu~as",
three
of
In Indian terminology, this would
the
"raj as",
the middle
one of
the
which represents the fire of the passions,
but at the same time the capacity to generate and contain the intense heat necessary for all transformation. At
the
same
time,
this
process
of
"toughening
up",
as we would call it nowadays, has to be balanced by allowing in oneself the growth of an ever increasing sensitivity,
not only to the joys and pains of one's fellow human
beings, but also to one's own shine through all the external we
could
call
it
true nature, which must layers of habit and, as
"ego-defences",
in greater
and
greater
transparence. This subtle sensitivity would correspond to the "sattva" the subtle or the absolutely good and true
"gu~as".
amongst the three
stimuli for the senses,
Abstention from strong
from idle talk and trivial worldly
associations, can sharpen this subtlety and the "one-pointedness" of the mind.
of
the
senses
A high degree of detachment from all worldly matters has to be cultivated quite generally. Only sovereign free-
dom
from
all
one-sided
or
amb~tion,
preference
leanings in
towards
particular
one
particular
freedom
from
all
attachment to the pleasures of the senses and all creaturely
comforts,
and
utter
disregard
for
the fruit of one's
·actions, can guarantee that during the moment of decision, the
"kairos",
inherent
the
choice will
ultimate
considerations
truth,
of
and
material
be not
made in
according
to
the
dependence
on
or
prestige
expediency
social
some
or the pull of momentary passions. Perhaps are
to
"He
who
we
be
can
attained
beareth
compassionate,
best
no
ill-will
without
in pleasure and pain, self-controlled, to
Me,
he,
My
sum up
all
these
qualities
that
by the following verses of the Gita: to
attachment
forgiving,
resolute, devotee,
any
being, .friendly and
and
egoism,
balanced
ever content, harmonious,
with mind and reason dedicated
is dear to Me.
He from whom the
world does not shrink away (or who sees no split, no duality,
no
from
the
hatred world,
in
the world),
free
from
the
who
does
anxieties
not of
shrink
away
joy,
anger
and fear, he is dear to Me." (Chapter 12, v. 13-15).
90 At
times,
scriptures for
a
this state of equanimity which
nowadays
"upeks~"
call
bland, we
careless would
(Pali:
"upekkha")
indifference,
call
11
a
the Buddhist is
perhaps
mistaken even
what
couldn' t-care-less-attitude" •
/II the true II upeksa can be d escri b e d full state of "couldn't-care-more", 0
Far from this, however, as
a
very
dynamic
of potential for true choice, provided we understand by "care" not narrow self-interest, concerned only with personal satisfaction preferences and ambitions, but "care" in the sense in which Martin HEIDEGGER (9) has introduced it
into
Western
responsible world,
"being
the
decision,
philosophy
free,
"Sein
und
Zeit":
there" ·for the creatures of
capacity to a
in his
make,
in
a
moment
of
loving choice instead of
a
the
fellow-
crisis
falling
and prey
to considerations of petty self-interest and to "ins ti tutionalised" notions of social security and prestige. All
these
steps
towards
firmness
of
resolve,
freedom
of choice,
sensi ti vi ty and transparence to one's own true
being
at
and
the
same
time
to
one's
essential
oneness
with all that exists, are aims towards which the teachings of the Gita show the way in a masterful manner, to th4?
aspirant
for
his own salvation,
not only
but also for
the
one who has to guide others. KELMAN that
the
patient
(25 c),
in his contribution on "kairos",
good psychotherapist, eff ici~ntly
through
if
the
he
the in
ability action".
of
seeing
This
Gita, where we find sees
inaction
"action
very
in
ideal
in
is
and
"kairoi"
that
should have developed inaction
taken
in Chapter ~,
action
wants to guide his
various
may offer themselves during therapy,
states
and
inaction.
straight
from
verse 18 that:
action
the
"He who
:.n inaction,
he
is
the wise among men, he is harmonious, even while performing all action", or in Chapter 3, verse 4: "Man wins not freedom from action by abstaining from activity'· renunciation
does
he
rise
to
perfection."
nor ( S)
by mere The
need
for a "witness consciousness", which enables the therapist to remain aware simultaneously of his own innermost core and that of the patient, also postulates in
Chapter
6,
it, verse
is
in a perhaps
29:
"The
kind of empathy, what self,
the
Gita
harmonised
as KELMAN formulates by
yoga,
91
sees
the
Self
abiding
in
all
beings,
all
beings
in
the
Self; everywhere h~ sees the same."
f) The Krishna legend This adult be
short summing up of some of
Shri
Krishna,
complete,
ros",
if
story
we
of
did
insist
not
on
contained
turn
parallels
Christ's
something
while
as
the teachings of the
in
the
Gita would
particulary in the present context of
of his birth. The amazing are
(3)
the
of
birth
of
an
back for a the
have
often
uniqueness
of
the
"kai-
moment to the time
Krishna
embarrassment
not
Legend
with
the
been pointed out and to
those
coming
of
who
want
the
to
Messiah,
those who wish to stress the one-ness of all relig-
ions welcome this similarity triumphantly. In
short,
for
the
legend
and
oppressive
goes
those as
who
follows:
tyranny,
are
not
during
Vishnu
acquainted a
who,
with
it,
period of darkness as
already
quoted,
comes forth " ••• whenever there is decay of righteousness and exal ta ti on of unrighteousness" ( ( 2) Chapter 4, v. 7) , chose to manifest himself in human.form. His mother, Devaki,
was
the
who reigned Pradesh. of
his
the
sister
the
powerful,
cruel
King
Kamsa,
in the present-day region of Mathura in Uttar
Through a sister
eighth
of
prophecy,
to
child
Vasudeva, of
announced during the wedding Kamsa
had been informed that
this couple would be his
slayer.
In
order to prevent this threatening disaster, Kamsa, according
to
right born
some after
to
Devaki
versions, their
them;
imprisoned the prospective parents
marriage
according
to
and
killed
other
all
versions,
the
children
he only kept
and Vasudeva confined in a dungeon, when the birth
of the eighth child, who was to be his slayer, approached. At
any
rate,
when
the ~hild was born,
t~rough
the grace
of the Almighty the guards fell asleep, the shackles dropped from Vasudeva's hands and feet, the prison walls opened before him, and even the wildly swollen river Yamuna divided
its
floods
before
him,
so
that
he
was
able
to
take
the newborn child safely across
to the other bank of the
river.
boy
a
There,
he
exchanged
peasant woman born at the
the same
for
time.
the
daughter
of
The tyrant Kamsa,
92 rushed as soon as he heard about the birth of the child, to kill him. To his surprise, he found a baby girl. When, in his wrath, he tried to smash her against the wall, she slipped from his hands _and rose up into the sk~, warning him that ,the one who was to kill him was
safe.
like
birth,
King
Herod
in the
accounts
of
Christ's
Just the
evil king then serit his soldiers to kill all the newborn miraculously, Somehow, children in the neighbourhood. the baby Krishna escaped and grew up with his peasant foster-parents amongst the cow-boys and dairy-maids of Vrindaban, into a young man whose life was full of miracles that gave proof of his divine nature. It would be idle in this context the
traditional
story
of
Christ's
to
birth,
discuss as
we
how find
far it
in the Gospels (1) may have been influenced by this earlier legend of Krishna through some assimila_tions of Eastern wisdom that may have reached the Mediterranean coast· The similarities are obvious. It may be more fruitful to assume the point of view which JUNG annd KERENYI ( 22) have presented in their book "Das gottliche Kind" ("The Divine Child"). They show how the "archetype" of the birth of the hero and saviour under poor, inconspicuous circumstances, under threat of immediate destruction by some cruel ruler, merely symbolizes a process of renewal, of rebirth, which can be observed in the human psyche again and again. This, presumably, is what is meant by "kairos": the silent preparation of something that grows in the innermost self and that, one day, when the time has come, emerges into the light of consciousness,
often in an un-
seemly form that provokes aversion and disgust or, at best, mere indifference rather than joyful acceptance; the immediate counter-attack of all the. dark forces, which may be those of stagnancy, lethargy, unwillingess to face change and insecurity, or those of attachment to comfort, prestige, conformity, wanting to remain "with the crowd", or those of pride of one's convictions or the respectability of one's scientific knowledge; the moment of despair in which one is in danger of being engulfed by all these opposing dark forces; the need for a bold decision, often for venturing into a new path on blind faith, perhaps
93
for
"casting
facing
bread
on
the
water"
or
at
least
for
oneself as one who is different from what one had
believed last
one's
all
minute
hitherto
along:
the often miraculous arrival of some
help,
either
unknown
inner
through
resources
the or,
mobilisation
at
times,
of
through
the timely presence and wise guidance of a "guru". This every
whole
few
drama
hundred
is
or
not
something
thousand
years.
that
only
recurs
It is 'the struggle
between darkness and light that goes on in the human soul all
the
time,
at
times
sometimes erupting into a dramatic climax,
almost
imperceptibly.
St.
John
knew. about
it
and formulated it in his magnificent, timeless introduction to his Gospel (St. John, 1 ,1 ff) which is, however, thought by
some Christian theologians to be too cryptic, smacking
too much of abstract phil,osophy, authentic. to
this
But
we
coming
already
of
the
to be accepted as really
find
light
many
into
a
passages
that
refer
darkness
that
"knew
it not" in the books of the prophets of the Old Testament, particularly those of Isaiah, and then again in the epistles of St. Paul.
In some of these reference~ to the coming
of
word
Christ,
strangely concerning of
a
in
the
in
"kairos" the
is
texts
actually of
the
the birth of Christ itself,
"time"
occurs but
the
however, that
them,
has
come
"kairos''
ordinary
"chronos"
or
is
that
not
used.
Rather
various
Gospels
though the concept
has
used
or "hemei:-ai"
been in
fulfilled,
this
context,
("the days"). 2)
In later Christian tradition, Meister ECKHART formulated this
insight in his famous
"God must be brought to birth
in the soul again and again." Some of the later Christian mystics and spiritual directors comment.ea on what DE CAUSSADE
( 5)
and
CHAPMAN
( 4)
called
"the
sacrament
of
the
present moment", sacrament also implying a moment of transf orma ti on self,
and
that the
requires
sacrifice,
acceptance
of
the
the giving up of onefact
that
this
giving
2) The theological dictionaries, e.g. that of KITTEL, give interesting collections of references to the use of "kairos" in the Bible. See e.g. DELLING' s article on "kairos" in KITTELS' s "Theologisches Worterbuch zum Neuen Testament", Vol. II, pp. 456 ff.
94 of
oneself
only
may
occasion,
not
but
be
in
demanded
the
of every-day life. The Buddhist teachings to discuss at GOVINDA
( 7)
on
small
a
spectacular
trials
- which I
and
once-
tribulations
do not feel
competent
length (but see for instance LAMA ANAGARIKA
and
( 8))
in
this
yield interesting aspects of
context
though
"kairos" -
they
would
with their stress
on t~e constant involvement in suffering through the wheel of
birth and
and in
death" human
death,
also
cannot
life,
the
ar~ses,
death,
just
but
contain be
that
regarded
every
"cutting' off"
the wisdom as
fleeting
of what
is
that
"birth
one-time
events
moment
past,
as
and the birth of a new aggregate.
marks soon
fer:
even-mindedness welcomed most on
in
in
revolving
creates
and
becomes
true
the
to a never
"upeks'a",
whatever
comes
with
capacity
of
see depicted in stone on drals,
the
the
one's
In this perspective,
wheel
it
or as KELMAN would no doubt pre-
which
humility
loving choice.
the
-
that
"eventing"!
as
It is this very
openness to constant change and transformation, ending flux of events,
the
fate,
the
moment
which
way,
is
make
the
the lowest point at
f a<;:ades of
of
to
an
times
we
mediaeval
greatest
promise.
also
ca the"Kala",
the time, which we have seen as the black one who devours whatever it produces, also becomes the indispensable background
for
moment"
the
full
appearing
of
of
potential,
the
chances for renewal and rebirth. the shortest day of
light,
offering
the year
-
the
ever
"opportune
and
ever
new
In this perspective also, two days before Christmas
- becomes what Hindi calls the "big" or "great" day. This
reversal
coming big, ((1) e.g. dust
of all
hills being
Isaiah 26,5;
being
accustomed values,
35,6;
transformed
the
small
be-
levelled and valleys being filled 40,4;
into
gold,
42,15; 49,11 ), ordinary the
stone
which
the
builders had rejected becoming the corner stone ((1) Matth. 21,42; Mark 12,10; the one who the
broken
3),
is
reed,
typical
transformation of
the
Isaiah 28,16;
Psalm 118,22; Acts 4,11),
is unseemly, without beauty,
quest
becoming
of and
of
the
Saviour
what JUNG describes what
he
has
the Alchemists
shown
despised by all, ( (1 )
as
to be
(JUNG C.G.
Isaiah
the
the ( 23
53, 2-
process real and
of .aim
24)).
95
The all can of but but
powerful symbols that often stand at the turning point, have a strange quality of ambiguousness: the snake strike with deadly poison, but it is also the guardian secret treasures; the fire can scorch and destroy, it can also purify; a magic wand can throw a curse, can also release,• and so forth. We have already seen
that some of the Hindu deities also have this doubleor even triple-faced aspect. Some of the other symbols of transformation mentioned by JUNG are also to be found in Indian mythology and folklore. (S) g) Parables and folklore
As we have just seen, it seems that the language of symbols and parables is most suited to express the ineffable mystery which always remains at the core of an experience that truly deserves the name of "kairos". Similarly, while we human beings live in the flesh, truth can reveal itself only by remaining at the same time partly concealed. Much of ancient Indian literature actually makes ampleuse of this cryptic .possibility of expression. As the B~HADARA~YAKA UPANI§AD
"the
Gods
love
what
((33 a) 4,2 v. 2) points out, even is
mysterious
and
dislike
what
is
evidePt". Christ,
when
challenged
by
his
disciples
about
his
habit of speaking in parables, gives the answer ((1) Matth. 13,1 3 and 1 5) : "Therefore I speak to them in parables, because they, seeing, see not, and hearing, they hear not;
neither
do
they
understand
For
this
people's
heart is waxed gross, and their ears are dull of hearing, and
their
should
eyes
see with
they have
closed;
lest
at
any
time
they
their eyes and hear with their ears and
should understand with their heart and should be converted and I should heal them" already contained in the
(The passage takes up a Old Testament in Isaiah
(See also pp. 180, 199.) The parable is perhaps presenting which
a
contact
a
truth,
person between
at
the the
master
the
seed time, ~nd
most
for
appropriate
a future or
way
"kairos",
when circumstances pupil,
theme 6, 9).
possibly
of for
al low a between
healer and patient, is not yet ready. Inside the apparently
96
insignificant shell,
which merely appears
pleasant
entertainment,
a
least
the
favourable,
if
ground
is
seed
is
to provide some
contained will
which,
sprout one
at day.
Meanwhile, no harm is done by exposing a truth prematurely a
faulty
procedure
which
Indian
Scriptures
equivalent to telling a lie! The Greek word "parabole"
actually
means
that which
one.
can
that,
is
and
"thrown beside"
it
will
simply
remain
One
a
regard
as
literally
leave
it
at
nice
story. But one can also accept and treasure it, as this is said of Mary, the mother of Christ, who "kept all these things (namely the message of the angels during the night of Christ's birth) and pondered them in her heart". ( 1) The original Greek text of St. Luke 2,19 uses for "pondered" the expres11
sion the
very
which be
I symbal lousa
verb
"symbol"
found
11
in
en
I kardia
te
"symb~llein", is
derived
parabol~"
"to
and
in
au tes",
a
i.e.
throw
of
the
of
farm
together",
which
different
a
root
from is
combination.
"parabole", thus received and carefully kept,
to The
then becomes
I
a
"symbolon",
something that "falls together",
is closely
associated with an inner meaning and becomes
part
of
the
person
But one
can
in whose heart
also reject, beside or
before
one
not
would
devil,
the
it is thus
treasured.
throw aside completely, what has been placed one.
be
It
far
then
wrong
"dia"bolos",
who,
becomes a
in in
"dia'bolon",
associating the
it
parable of
with the
and the
sower
and his seed (though there he appears under the name "pone-
' ros", 13,
the "troublesome" or the "evil" one!
4-9 and 19-23)
steals
the grain and
See
( 1)
Mat th.
prevents it from
germinating. Indian
literature
is
full
of
parables:
the
twelve
volumes of the Jataka (21 ), containing the stories related by
the
human
Buddha and
animal
about
animal;
fables;
many
great Epics and the In last
more
recent
century,
Vivekananda,
Shri
his
the
previous
births
Pancatantra
of
the
( 29),
stories
in a
many
forms,
collection
contained
in
the
second
who
became
of
the
two
half
of
the
the
guru
Pur~~as.
times,
during
Ramakrishna,
the reviver of Vedanta,
short and pithy parable.
I
shall
was
a
reproduce
master
of
of the
just one,
the
97
story
of
"The
Grass
Eating
Tiger",
which
perhaps
most
aptly illustrates some of the aspects of "kairos": (30) "Once a tigress attacked a flock of goats. As she sprang on
her
prey,
she
gave
birth
grew up in the company of and
the
cub
cub
bleated
One
day
amazed the
followed too.
to
see
ea ting to
the
It
is
tiger
the
tiger
tiger
their
last
began
to
bleat.
like
Saying this,
They
grew
to
the
The cub
it, The
bleated;
be
same
tiger.
seized
water and said: just
it
attacked
grass-ea ting
at
cub and died.
example.
Gradually
another
wild
to a
the goats .. The goats ate grass a
big
Running
wild
tiger.
flock.
whereupon
It
was
after
it,
the
tiger
the
grass-
dragged
it
"Look at your face in the water.
mine.
Here
is
a
little
meat.
Eat
it."
it thrust some meat into its mouth. But the
grass-eating tiger would not swallow it and began to bleat again. and
Gradually,
came
to
however,
relish
the
it
meat.
got Then
the the
taste wild
for
blood
tiger
said:
"Now you see, there is no difference between you and me. Come along and follow me into the forest." The moral of this
story
grace
is:
"so
descends
there
on one.
can
be
He will
no
fear,
if
the guru's
let you know who you are
and what your real nature is." Similar grow
up
stories
as
the
exist
about
a
prince
who
happened
to
foster-son of some craftsman and who had
to be introduced to his real nature by a competent teacher. A famous scene, in which someone is challenged into unfolding his inherent potential, ya~a
( 31 ) •
monkey
is also contained in the Rama-
general
Hanuman,
who
is
to
cross
to Lanka to explore the situation in Rava~a' s palace
over prior on
The
to
the
carry
the
liberation of
shore out
of
the
the
task.
ocean, He
is
Sit~,
is sitting despondently
despairing then
of
reminded
being that
able
being
to the
son of Vayu the Wind God, he has hitherto unrealised powers of
locomotion.
Hanuman,
encouraged
by
this
admonition,
tries and successfully jumps across the sea to the island. Some of my psychiatric colleagues here in India have told me
that
patients
they
occasionally
use
this
story
to
encourage
to mobilise and gain confidence in their dormant
capacities. Many
of
the
folktales
still
current
in
present-day
98
India are contained in the Pura~as, the old Epics and·the collections of parables mentioned above. But there are also some that appear just to have been passed on from generation to generation by oral tradition, without certain knowledge of their source. Amongst these, one finds themes that are very simila'r to fairy tales and folklore in the West. We find, for instance the familiar plot of three or more brothers who go out into the world to achieve some given task. While all the elder ones are well equipped with knowledge and proficiency in various skills, the youngest one is often a backward child, considered to be a simple fool.
Everyone laughs at him, and he is only
just tolerated or even considered a hindrance in the great undertaking. And yet it is he,
ignorant but pure of heart,
who finally wins the princess or discovers the treasure· Is this perhaps a theme related to the fact that "Kairos" in Greek mythology, as KELMAN points out in his contribution (25 c), is the youngest son of a youngest son? One of a collection of tales which were kindly gathered and translated for me by an Indian friend,
Miss Damyanti
Singh, seems to contain so many of the elements of "kairos" that I canot refrain from reproducing it in the way in which I received it: "The tale of Lakhtakiya." "Once upon a time, there was a king who was well known for he
his was
benevolence sitting
in
and
sense
court,
a
of
justice.
strange
One day,
person
came
to
when him
in search of employment. The king asked him, what his qualifications were. He replied that he would do, what no one else in the world could do, and that he would come forward, when the courage of others failed. But as long as others were able to do something, he would do nothing. Then the king asked him about his salary. He said that he should be given one lakh of takas (one hundred thousand Indian coins) every day. The courtiers were of the opinion that he was deceiving the king. But the latter thought that one who had worth.
so much
self-confidence must have
some
So he was employed. The whole court became jealous
of him and engaged themselves in finding out an opportunity to
bring
him
down
As
he
earned
one
lakh
takas
every
99 day, he was given the name "Lakhtakiya". "As
he
himself
had
the
no
other work to do,
responsibility
of
Lakhtakiya took upon
guarding
the
palace.
The
king was being criticised by his friends and subordinates for
employing
such ·a worthless person.
He became curious
to know something about the activities of his new employee. One day he decided to watch him secretly at night. "Lakhtakiya
was
wandering
near
the
palace
gate.
At
midnight, he heard some noise in the garden and went there. He
found
weeping and
a
beautiful
bitterly.
asked
her
"I
am
is
supposed
woman lying on
He was greatly surprised at this sight
about
the
I
Goddess
-
Laksmi
to
the green grass and
be
cause
(the
very
of
her
Goddess
of
so_rrow'. good
fickle-minded).
I
peacefully.
He
is
a
good
said:
for tune, have
the company of your king for a long time and I here
She
who
enjoyed
have lived
and virtuous monarch,
but
soon he will be a victim of ill fate. You know that Lak~mi cannot live with an unlucky person. So I am leaving him with a heavy heart." ''Lakhtakiya
was
greatly
shocked
to
hear
it.
He
said:
"Is there any way to save the king from this disaster?" _ "Yes, ice, 1
there is a way. But who can make the great sacrif-
that is needed for the sake of the king?" asked Lak-
-:'
smi. "Lakhtaki¥a r1odded his head and retorted: "I can sacrifice all me
the
that right
I
have for
path.
I
the sake of tpe king.
receive
one hundred
Pray,
show
thousand coins
every day
from
the king for doing what others cannot do.
so
have
done
far
I
nothing.
But
the
time
has
come
for
me to prove my worth."
"Lak~m1 raised her head and said: to
save
the king from destruction,
that
is
situated
feet
of
the Goddess
in the north,
"If you really want
then go to the temple
sacrifice your
son at the
(Kali!) with your own hands and offer
her his blood. There is no other way." "He and what
hesitated
went had
sacrificed
home.
for He
happened. at
the
a
moment,
but soon regained courage
called his whole His altar
son of
gladly the
family and told them offered himself
Goddess.
His
wife
to be also
did not lose heart and advised him to be faithful to their
100
benefactor. His daughter embraced her brother with tearful eyes
and
agreed
with
them.
So
all
of
them
went
to
the
temple with firm determination. "Lakhtakiya
took
his
sword
into
his
hand
and
chopped
off the head of his darling son at the feet of the Goddess. The mother of the child could not bear this painful sight and so she pierced her heart with a dagger. When the little girl
saw her brother and mother
she
followed
rending
suit.
Lakhtakiya
scene any
longer.
lost
It was
not
heart as
strong as a rock.
his
Thus
whole
the
family
see
too much
who had a head.
to her in this way,
could
this
even
heart-
for
him,
He also chopped off
offered
their
blood
one
by one for the sake of the king. ".The
I (Laksmi)
Goddess
self-sacrifice
of
the
sprinkled
scene
and
that
was
greatly
faithful some
impressed
family.
blood
of
appeared
on
forefinger
on
She her
the
by
the dead bodies. All of them became alive. She told Lakhtakiya him
that a
she
boon.
was He
pleased
said
welfare of his king. the monarch would then disappeared. "Lakhtakiya the
palace.
time
and
eyes.
had
But
happened his of
he
wanted
his
long
and
family
at
followed
watched
all
his
Lakhtakiya said:
kept
"My
and
that and
back
came
to the
his
own
ignorant of what
had
with
the
secret a
the
life
secretly
employee
the
Lord,
grant
all
him
transactions
strange
to
except
prosperous
to be quite
his
wanted
nothing
home
had
and
and
gave him assurance
king
asked
absence. humility
a
pretended
and
him
he
The Goddess
live
left
The
with
that
to
woman
was
reason
for
himself
out
weeping
in
the neighbourhood. I had gone to give her consolation." "The
king
Lakhtakiya. of
human
done
was
beings.
such a
heart. done.
was
day
the
now
poeple
This
with
wonder
king
not a
at
the greatness
of
name and fame is the last weakness man had conquered
great deed and still he
He was It
struck
Desire for
it also.
He had
had no pride
in
his
prepared even to disclose what
he
had
rare
example
related
realised
the that
of
whole
self-less story
Lakhtakiya
in
service. the
really
Next
court,
and
deserved
one
devotion
and
lakh takas every day as his salary." What
stands
out
in
this
simple
tale
of
101
sacrifice is the awareness of a man of his quite individual existence;
the capacity or even duty to rise to a particu-
lar occasion in a way that is unique for him, that distinguishes
him
from
everyone
else;
furthermore
the
need
to
wait and keep ready for this uniquely revealing opportunity with never cism
failing
and
faith,
suspicions
waited-for
chance
untouched by the jealous criti-
of
in
others;
an
the
wisdom
apparently
to
trivial
see
the
occurrence
which only one who has the "compassionate heart" and utter devotion to his duty will recognise and accept; the willingness, once the "kairos" is recognised as such, to sacrifice
all
finally, heroic
one has and
the
is
modesty which
deed
loudly
and
in proving worthy of it and, refrains from advertising the
triumphantly,
as
there
is
awareness
that one has only been true to one's
self
that,
and
without
this could not have
the
be~n
help
humble
innermost
of eternal powers,
even
successful.
*
*
*
3. "Kairos" in clinical psychiatric experience in India When, in September 1961, during KELMAN's visit to India, a
seminar
of all
on
psychotherapy
psychiatrists
and
was
held
in
psychologists
a
small
except
for
circle myself
Indian and corning from diffe~ent parts of the country
and different religious backgrou11d
- ,
of
already
some
on
"kairos".
being I
acquainted
consequently
with
I had the privilege
presented
of two
KELMAN' s
work
case-histories
of Indian patients from this point of view. The was
first
an
example
c) pp. ros") be
35/36): may
it
to, may
of
their in not
a
55
wpat
year
KELMAN
old
Hindu
means,
when
businessman, he
says
( ( 25
"We must recognise that the time (for "kai-
never
prerna ture,
turned not
patient,
come,
too
late
backs fact only
that
on
or life
fruitless, fail,
but
attempts
at
disastrous.
intervention may Some
so determinedly, to
people
attempt an awakening,
cause
them
great
have
it is wiser for
unnecessary
pain and even kill them. Also there are some who genetically,
constitutionally
and
because
of
what
life
hus
done
102 to
them
and
they
have
done
to
life,
find
themselves
in
circumstances which, if this awakening is attempted, which might succeed, might cost "too high a price"." The patient (see also HOCH (12)), who had been suffering from
depression,
complaints,
anxiety,
for
the
bad
dreams,
previous
7
various
years,
was
physical
diagnosed
as
"beginning generalised' and cerebral arteriosclerosis with involutional
depression".
The
apparently
precipitating
events, which one is strongly tempted to regard as "missed kairoi", quite
were:
a
fall
miraculously,
from the roof of his
resulted
in
that,
would
within
either die
a
or
short time,
then
severe
"pa~git"
months later a prediction by a loger)
no
cause
a
house which,
injury;
a
few
(priest and astro-
at a lot
certain date, of
trouble
he
to his
family. After this, he gave up all efforts and initiative, took to dying.
moaning,
complaining
and
demonstrative
fears
of
The attempts at psychotherapy in the residential setting of a
small psychiatric centre under mission auspices con-
sisted . and To
more
in
concern a
than
certain
efforts,
building in
any
extent,
reaching
up
a
orthodox
the
the
relationship
analytical
patient
point
at
of
true
procedure·
responded
which
he
care
to
could
these
see
how
much he had missed in his life. From a pampered childhood up
to
his
Indian
old
joint
age
as
family
a
of
family-tyrant the
Baniya
in
a
traditional
(merchants')
caste,
everything had been running so smoothly that he had never had a
chance of "giving any thought
same time, with
the
back
into
to anything".
At the
one could note, how, being incapable of coping rising the
regrets
rigidity
tenacious
resistance
him with
the
pride
to of
and
of
guilt
his
all
feelings,
shrank
which,
in his
attempts,
filled
depression,
therapeutic
having,
he
if
nothing
else,
then
at
least an illness of superior and unique quality. In joint
the
second
family
chances asthenic
of
lay more
case, the
favourably.
constitution
of bones and
also
a
Hindu
Baniya caste, and
from
a
traditional
but aged only
41,
the
Though this man, of delicate with
tuberculous
affections
lungs behind him, had already been suffering
for the previous 6 years from alarming attacks of anxiety,
·103
giddiness, he
was
palpitations, digestive trouble and depression,
still
patient.
far
more alive and flexible
Furthermore,
than
the
first
looking back at his young days one
could discern signs of some adventurous spirit that longed to
break
of
his
with
the deadening monotony of smoothness and luxury
well-oiled
little
cepts only
in
setting paths
libertinism
and
entrusted of
Having
in which success
criterion, ,he
mask
li.fe.
been
brought
ui:
knowledge and appreciation of any moral pre-
a
venturesome of
business
quite
of
unscrupulously
his
crooked
money
-
in business was
own
in
the
practices,
all
under
pursued
sphere
such
as
of
the
these sexual
embezzlement
the never doubted social
the solid and respectable businessman who spends
his free time in philanthropic work. When the first violent anxiety attacks occurred, announcing
the
survived in
revolt all
terror,
of
this
the
inner
self
mishandling,
thinking that a
that
he
had
jumped
fortunately
from
his
bed
severe earthquake was shaking
his house.
It may be significant for the at least partial
success
only
of
3 months a
what
he
few
weeks
of
psychotherapy,
that
later when back home he wrote to me,
follow~ng
But,
a
report:
short
time
thought
the bed was
He
was
feeling
before,
was
one
he of
better
2
giving the
on
the
whole.
had once again experienced these
shaking. However,
anxiety
attacks;
even
having learned to look into
his own heart for the reason of these terrifying upheavals, he
told
guilt
himself
or
some
that
debt
probably . the.re
to
his
life
was
ahead
still
some
lingering
in
old him.
He went
to sleep again, determined to devote some thought
to
matter.
an
the
earthquake,
Next
morning,
the
newspapers
announced
which had actually shaken the city during
that night! Perhaps
this·
is
an
experience
of
the shifting of the
centre of gravitation from the outside world_to the inner scene even more drastic regard
to
one
In that case the
of
his
than the one KELMAN reports with patients
( ( 25
c)
pp.
55
and
59).
"while with the first vertigo he experienced
room as turning around,
this last time the room stood
still, but he felt the vertigo was inside of himself." The
patient,
whom
I
occasionally
met
during
social
104 gatherings 5 - 6 years after his short course of psychotherapy has meanwhile left the circle of the joint family and the house which again and again involved him in various temptations and embarras"sing situations. His relationship with his wife, which at the time of treatment was merely formal,
if
not
a
quite
immature
form
of
exploitation,
has greatly improved. At the age of about 45, he has taken up singing and playing the "sitar" (Indian string instrument). In addition, he now pursues the charitable activities which previously were just a matter of prestige with real concern for those who are to benefit. For these two patients, the significant "kairos" or series of minor "kairoi", had stirred them up already before they came to seek help,
and nothing very drama tic
happened during treatment. A third case history, which forms part of a paper on "Psychotic Episodes in Asthmatics" published in German (14), shows that occasionally the therapeutic situation itself can start with all the characteristics of a "kairos", and that, in order to respond to the challenge, not only the patient but also the doctor may need a good deal of courage to follow an intuitive "h unc h" even if . it appears to be risky •
. This 36 year old college lecturer from a district town in Uttar Pradesh, son of a Mohammedan landowner, had been suffering from recurring attacks of severe bronchial asthma ever since his childhood. Particularly in winter, which can be quite cold in the North Indian plains, he often had to seek refuge in a hospital. It was during one of these periods of hospitalisation that his doctors wrote to us to request for a psychiatric consultation. They informed us that the patient had been in a very critical condition and that he had been keeping strict bed-rest during the past few weeks. His weight had decreased to 30 kg (66 lbs) and, as he was still very weak, he would only be able to make the long journey if great precautions were taken. They wished him to seek psychiatric help, because during the recent prolonged status asthmaticus, as already during previous hospitalisations he had shown signs of psychotic confusion. At
the
time
for
which
we had
given
the
appointment,
105
no
one
came.
telephone
A
few
call
insisted
in
hours
from
a
a
quite
later,
lady,
we
the
aggressive
received
patient's and
a
frantic
mother,
domineering
who
manner
on our sending an ambulance to the railway station where they had just arrived, so as to take her son to his "reserved to
room" her
in
our
that
psychiatric
bringing
the
centre.
patient
We
for a
made
it
clear
consultat'ion was
not our task and that though the doctors at B. had informed us of
the patient's condition they had not mentioned any
need
either
for
an
ambulance
or
for
his
being
admitted
to the wards. When, a little later, she turned up personally,
the elderly, rather shabbily dressed lady still wanted
to exert pressure on us to get her son admitted immediately. to
According be
to
brought
on
consulting-room. bringing
the
her, a We
he could not walk and would have
stretcher even
from
remained
firm
in
to our
private
patient
the
our
car
to
request
the that
clinic would be the
concern of the family. Two more appointments were missed and some more negotiations
went
patient's
on,
partly with
the
mother,
rather
helpless
young
wife,
partly with before
the
finally,
on the fourth day after his arrival in the city, the patient
was
brought
in
a
car.
The dramatic course which the
first interview then took will best be conveyed by keeping as closely as possible to my original notes: "This private that
morning, car.
some
men
finally,
Mother
tha
directs
should .be
patient
the
called
is
brought
operations
to
take
the
and
in
a
orders
patient
out
of the car, as he cannot come out alone. Two of our attendants,
together with the accompanying servant,
then trans-
port him on a chair, on which he is crouching in embryonal position. They deposit him on the couch in the room closest to
the
entrance
hall.
Immediately
cover him up with a quilt. that
we
remains He
is
have thin,
for
him
with
his
knees
asthenic
man
with a
for
sparse a
tufts very
of
young
hair bird,
stick a
up
simile
a
drawn
like
rushes an~
long
to
remark
time.
He
up to his chin.
yellowish complexion,
sunken cheeks and burning black eyes. of
servant
I greet the patient
been waiting
crouching, a
his
On his head, a few the
which
is
fluffy
feathers
also
suggested
106
by the way he peers out anxiously from his "nest" of quilts wrapped around him. pausing
after
explains
He starts speaking in a
every
that
he
word,
is
almost
very
like
nervous,
a
not
"I feel muddled up about my memories think that perhaps I may have. been in • • • and the girl disappeared then
in
1 954 and now,
I
all
feeble voice,
dying man· He able to resist: I In 1 954
love with
this
a
girl
time since
had my worst attacks
of
This time I heard noises coming from the walls.
•••
asthma•
They sug-
gested all sorts of, things: that I should fall unconscious, that I gt:!t
into
a
me
not
told My
might go to Lucknow
mind
strange to
is
scrappy
"stronic shock"
use
this
heaving
with
attacks
I
3) I feel
word
emotions They are not
recollections.
the asthma
(our clinic) and that I
had
certain
a
I
another
shawl
whether
the
put
to
of
door
around the
the
but-then they very nervous. have
some very During
complete feeling
to get my memory straightened out." "At this point, his servant comes
I
that
want
in again and
patient.
consulting
would
room
brings now asks
He
be
could
left
tell him that, if he ~ikes to keep it open I have no objection. The servant, on going out, leaves the door half open and the pa ti-
open;
it disturbs him when it is closed.
ent appears to be satisfied. still
halting,
subdue
as
strong
if
what is vexing him: quiet
or
pluck
up
to
In an anxious, nervous voice,
struggling
emotions,
he
I
for
breath or having
then again tries
to
to
formulate
"It is very difficult for me to stay
pluck
up.
Some
Memories
part they
of
my
disturb
mind me.
refuses I
now
to
want
to get my whole illness straightened out." I remark: "That means
that
seems
to have started in childhood." -
and want
then to
stronger
we
would
continues: go
back
voice.
have "Now
right I
ask:
to I
am
now!"
go
far
back. "Yes",
becoming he
Your
he replies,
very
explains
illness
in
"Did the doctors at B.
excited. a
I
slightly tel 1
you,
3) This appears to be a neologism, condensing elements of "electronic", "histrionic", "hysterical" and perhaps even "historic".
107
what
to expect here??"
patient
now
and
me
let
quite
I
to change
he
cannot
reports ill
have
and
alarm
orders:
great
"Call
difficulty
remain passive,
It brings
walk.
told me nothing." The my in
mother
standing
not undertaking any-
situation. The patient again insists:
Call my mother and
insists that I to
I
the
"It disturbs me. that.
they
imperatively
go!
this environment." thing
"No,
back memories.
let me go!"
He argues
that he
I
is
I
cannot stand
now ask him,
why
too weak and again
should call his mother. Though the doctors'
the
one
patient's
into
physically,
my
pitiful
condition
he
is
would
indeed
tend
assuming
that
seriously
intuitive
"feel" of him tells me
that
in spite of all this he has a reserve of strength to which one can appeal without causing harm. I therefore, surprised at
my
own
boldness,
reply
calmly:
"Why
don't
you
do
it
yourself?" The patient then actually calls out his mother's name,
but
in
outside
in
that he come.
can
"Now
he
jumps up wards he
feeble his
suddenly the
door.
dared
me.
You
voice
to
mother throws
There, do,
have
I
that
it cannot be heard
once
more
himself away
couch and, turns
his
me
back
some
encourage
him
he wants her
quilts
and
to
shawls,
steps, walks to-
becoming
"Thank you,
given
if
with hasty
probably
he
calm and steady voice: for
a
waiting-hall.
call
from
the
has
so
the
and
aware
says
of
in
a
what quite
you have done something courage."
Then
he
walks
off towards the waiting-hall. I follow him and just slightly
hold his hand.
He does not seem to have any particular
trouble in breathing or in walking. When he suddenly stands before
his
mother,
she
seems quite
shocked.
She exclaims
in great puzzlement: "Is it not physical?" "The patient now walks out of the door of the building. Mother, here.
It
quite has
immediately
4)
distressed, gone!"
and
The
calls
Small conveyance man on a cycle vehicle.
argues: patient
for
a
"But
says
rickshaw.
the
he 4)
car
wants This
is to
not
leave
seems
to
for one or two people, drawn by a which forms the front part of the
108
be quite
unheard
sits
down
on
near
him,
but he
my
face
a
of.
While he waits
small
wooden
turns his
reminds him of
bench
for in
the
the
back on me.
something,
and
vehicle,
garden.
I
He explains it
is
he sit
that
too mu<;:h
to
bear to look at it. Even now he must keep his back turned on
me.
But at the very moment at which
he
is
explaining
this, he swings round towards me and stares at me intently. He again says that
I
have done
gained some courage.
something for him.
"If you will give me
He has
time to-morrow,
r will come again." I give him an appointment. "Now
the
arrives
and
enthroning posture, the
the
who
them
forcing
on
I
one
up
seat
have
of
onto
quite
taken,
the
attendants'
it quite
firmly,
appreciate
obviously
events
by
jumps
the
king.
is
turn
covered up. ping
a
called
patient
himself
like
however, by
rickshaw,
in
his
lightly,
challenging
courage.
shocked fusses
a and
that
Mother,
perplexed he
must
be
The servants bring the quilts and start wraparound
through
him.
her
Finally,
will
by
the
mother
cramming
him
succeeds
into
the
in
car'
which meanwhile has arrived. "Two days patient
has
later·,
his wife brings
written
and
reports
some
that
notes
since
the
scene took place he has been perfectly well, on his own.
which
the
dramatic
moving about
In the afternoon, at the time of the appoint-
ment, I find the patient sitting in the waitingroom, alone. He has come by himself of
forced
way
breathing.
down
the
in a
He
corridor
rickshaw. One notes no signs
walks
to
my
with
off ice
me
the
fairly
and
does
not
long
object
to my closing the door. After having settled himself comfortably
on
"ta~hat"
the
5),
he
starts
talking,
now
in
a firmer voice, but in a rather high tone and very delicately,
sometimes
lisp.
One
sensitive, be
fairly
sort
out
gets
almost the
person.
organised,
memories
a
impression
vulnerable well
like
of
real
but
child, that His he
events,
5) A raised wooden platform, for sitting cross-legged.
even he
is
thinking is
still
dreams,
padded
with
with a
a
slight
very
frail,
now at
seems a
loss
fantasies
cushions,
to to and
used
1 09
hallucinations. during
the
He
illness.
in an attempt interview, he
to
convey
First
of
to
all,
me
what
however,
was
the
pushed
apparently
he goes back to the time when his first asthma This was at
still
the age of 3 1I2 -
benefit out
outside,
of
onto
he
the
verandah. a
Looking
policeman,
During
So as to give
the pleasant winter sun,
discovered
his good friend.
4 years,
the only child of his parents.
the winter, he had a slight cold and fever. him
happened
to explain his experience during the first
attack occurred: when
tries
his bed was
out onto the road whom
he
considered
In spite of mother's strict orders
he should not leave his bed,
he
that
threw away his quilt and
ran out into the road. Of course immediately the servants and
everyone
bed.
else
were
after
him,
bringing
him
back
to
It was the same evening that he had his first asthma
attack."
Maybe
already
at
that
time
a
"missed
kairos"
that had challenged him into giving up his extreme dependence on the domineering mother! In
this
respect,
appears
to
have
the
scene
been. what
during
one
could
the
first
call
a
interview "corrective
emotional experience", contrasting with this first attempt at
escape.
other
But
memory
gradually
fragments
he
had
made been
it
clear
involved.
that Some
various of
them
gave the impression of his having gone through an experience
of
"deja-vu".
The
figure
of
the
female
psychiatrist
got confused with one of the nurses at the mission hospital who apparently also had tried to instil courage into him. At
the
same
first day,
time
the
with its
off ice
in which I
saw him on that
tall windows giving out onto.a small
courtyard, strangely reminded him of the room at the hospital
in which he used to remain connected to the suction-
pump
and
others
the
too,
oxygen
apparatus.
Al 1
these
memories,
and
appeared to combine in a kaleidoscopic manner
in his still somewhat confused mind. In other respects, however, he could report quite clearly on his past history, which he had already communicated to
us
in
the
mother. fully
partly
in
morning,
the and
written which
was
notes
brought
by
his
wife
later corroborated by his
It seems that the asthma attacks had very successtied
him down
in
helplessness
and
agony,
whenever
11 0 he tried to move away from the powerful, smothering domination of his mother. As a young intellectual at the age of 19 he got involved in a revolutionary political movement. It was at that time, when he wanted to leave home to devote himself to left-wing politics that he suffered one
of
his
first
severe asthma
attacks,
which
kept
him
bedridden for months. Two years later, after getting married, - of course an arranged marriage of his parents' choice! - he went through another phase of his illness. This time, while in hospital, he showed signs of psychotic confusion, and the doctors thought he would die. Though the patient recalled that two further critical and prolonged
attacks
of
asthma had
occurred when he was
supposed
to go abroad for further studies and later when he was about to accept a guest-lecturership in a foreign country, it did not appear to strike him even now that the basic conflict was one between his remaining attached to his overprotective mother and on the other hand his wish to go out into the world as a free, independent individual. These two opposite tendencies had obviously been condensed in a classically impressive manner at the same time imperative request: let me go!" The fact that for once re left the choice to him and.even re into the second alternative this "kairos", probably one in a challenges,
into
a
fruitful
in his anxious and "Call my mother and
a potential mother-figuencouraged him to ventuappears to have turned long series of repeated
one.
My
programme
did
not
allow me to take up the case for treatment myself. The patient, however, willingly came for his psychotherapy sessions with one of my fellow-workers and within a relatively short time was able to return to his home as a physically and emotionally stronger man.
*
*
*
Now, several years after leaving this first psychiatric setting in India, when I reflected on which of the patients I
had
seen more
recently
-
during
1I2
years
1
work at
the newly established psychiatric department of the teaching hospital of a
Medical
College
in
New
Delhi
might
111
be
included
loss.
The
in
this
patients
'the ones I some
though had
I
felt
seemed to be of a
somewhat
at
a
different kind from
had seen in the small private psychiatric centre
in Uttar Pradesh. had
contribution,
we were
consulted by people who
idea of what psychiatry
is and and who usually,
of ten
some
There,
also
complaining
awareness
that
of
they
some physical
were
symptoms,
emotionally
sick.
At
present, most of my patients are referred to our department by
the
colleagues
predominantly at
least
from other hospital
people
regard
vague hypochondriac 1 ike
asthma,
with
physical
sy~ptoms,
their
complaints,
coli tis,
sections.
They are
manifestations
or
such as hysterical
who
fits,
psychosomatic disturbances
headaches
etc.
as
purely soma tic.
Furthermore, all of the patients are either women or children under
the age of
illiterate,
1 6,
and many of
them come from the
socially, economically and educationally back-
ward population of rural areas of the neighbouring provinces or from slum areas of the city itself. With these people psychotherapy is practically impossible
with
anything other than a
supportive approach·
They
appear to be more or less on the level of the infantile or "nomadic"
(S)
sketched
expectation
out
amongst whom
as I
typical
of
"being
of
the
had been living.
fed"
which
Himalayan
I
hill
had
people
Comparing them with
some
of the patients I had been treating in the earlier setting, and
in particular with
the
first
two cases
just reported
on, one further difference struck me: Both
these
businessmen
(case
1
and
2)
had
spent
their
lives in a fairly uniform traditional setting almost undisturbed
by
the
influence of
transformation
through
"kairoi"
shook
period
that
of
past
them
history;
so closely allied with of
life
that
it
patterns 10 culminated actual
might
was
sphere of
therefore
up to
mean
country
could a
have
certain
is
passing.
happened extent
be
difficult
they
any were
as
crises if
to
find
the
these
same
The development that finally showed
a
certain
"self-contained"
life of both these patients.
that
at
The
the traditional practices and ways
repeated it
rapid social and cultural
the
20 years hence.
in
consistency:
the
which
crisis
could
not
internal
within
the
This might
occur
without
11 2
at
least
fact,
a
certain
amount
"precipitating cause" to
assume
the a
of
inner
maturity
for
it.
In
in certain cases in which all evidence of an outward that
germs
of
previous
which
it
it
seems to be lacking,
is
saskara
11
simply a 11
one is tempted
internal
growth
of
= mental impression dating from
(
incarnation) pushes
secret
that
against
one
the
day
solid
habit and "social adjustment". This, however, is not always
reaches
a
protective
the case
in
point
at
layers
of
the
patients
whom we see at psychiatric clinics in India. In the present phase
of
rapid
social
transformation
one
cases that a development, a form of life,
feels
in
many
has been thrown
off balance by some untimely clash with outward circumstances that are quite incongruous with what the person concerned
can
Such
reasonably
premature
for
which
not of
be
yet
like
irruptions
poorly
ready,
birth
for
expected
cannot
new
abortions
of
educated be
face
and
influences
and and
premature
assimilate·
and
happenings
unemancipated
regarded
potentials
or
to
as
people
"kairoi",
patterns;
moments
they
deliveries.
are
"Kala",
acts as the black destroyer and devourer,
and
are more
Time,
not as
the
auspicious promoter of growth and ripening! Particularly of
open,
for a
frequent
in
free-floating
remarkably long
them into phobias,
Indian
anxiety
patients
(S)
the
stuck
the
is
states persist
time without attempts at converting (see also p.
patient
are
often
depressions or psychosomatic
In some of these cases able
which
somehow
in
to go neither backward nor
a
49),
it
narrow
forward.
symptoms·
seems
as
if
birth-channel, Behind
him
lies
secure womb of the empathic-symbiotic climate of
the
joint family and of other close-knit groups of traditional Indian
life;
before
him
lies
the
need
a responsible individual into an open, in which
for
emerging
as
competitive society
"ascription" has been replaced by "achievement"·
Expressed
more
was
united
of
"sucking"
with
generally: a
from a
a
primary oneness
"common world"
in which
in terms of
nourishing mother,
has
one
receiving,
become
a
lost
paradise; the only hope of regaining a oneness, on a higher level,
is
of giving.
to open oneself
to a
common world in a gesture
If the maturity for this is lacking,
one risks
11 3
getting
helplessly
"birth-channel" cold, no
unhomely,
longer
and
hopelessly
between
these
de so late
one
with
the
stuck
two
no-man's world
in
worlds, land
in
the
or
in
narrow
lost
which
receiving
in
one
love
and
a is
not
yet one with the world in giving it to others. It from by
would,
however,
illiterate
and
be
wrong
to
regard
all
patients
the strata of contemporary Indian society cons ti tued doomed
overwhelming showed
and
unemancipated
victims
an
of
circumstances.
amazing
people
precipitated I
have
understanding
as
such
social
helpless
change
and
of
seen simple women who of
what
was
happening
to them and who grasped my occasional attempts at giving what
one
could
interpretation
probably
of
a
call
symptom
more
an
existentialist
quickly
and
naturally
than those already distorted by the rigid and unimaginative teaching methods of modern schools and colleges. But sharp discrimination that
am
I
certain
necessary at
criterion
"abortions" that
is
still and
announce
that
and
loss would
"premature
perhaps
for I
and
promote
so
to
far
know of allow
of
must
confess
general
to
from
creative
quite unscientific,
I any
one
deliveries"
possibilities
how far to
a
a
and
distinguish birth
growth
pangs except
intuitive "hunch" about
myself can go in attempting to open up insight growth
in
a
patient
instead
of
simply
covering up the crisis as an unfortunate mishap. As KELMAN says a
( 25 c):
"These are among
the most painful decisions
therapist must make. The stakes are high and the gamble
is great"
-
even in the case of a poor illiterate Indian
peasant woman! In his paper (25 c), KELMAN points to the growing aversion
in
the United States against granting the individual
the dignity of his uniqueness, to practice psychiatry in a many
to be helped is nothing more than a rationalisation, cover
inability to to have
to
through
the
would
up
the
take up a
face
the
that
psychiatrist's
there
are
unwillingness
so or
long and intensive commitment and
the need for
pain,
argument
He points out
in to
instances,
group setting.
that meant
many
and to the growing tendency
anguish,
"living along, despair
and
in, with and
suffering
that
he necessary for the individual to have more and
114 II
more kairoi With regard to many social phenomena much that is presenting
itself
in India nowadays may appear
very
similar
on the surface to corresponding situations in the extreme West!
If
one
examines
one realises
that
such
"similarities"
more
closely,
th,ey only represent the point of
inter-
section of two lines that move in entirely different directions.
Here in India,
millions are
cessity of .emerging for existence,
from
atmosphere
of
community
(see
an
individual
one's
own
the
a
the first
shelter
joint HOCH
of
family,
faced
the
the
who
and
( 17))
existence,
the
necessity
for
into
the for
time
past
have
this
was
often
generally
only
an
prevailing
illusion, fashion
been
as
and
masses.
What appears
point of existing "no more", It
is
therefore
all
the
village
hazards
of
standing
on
in
an
open,
glorifying
the
(though perhaps
"individualism"
defeats
are again increasingly conglomerating strata
ne-
on the contrary,
freedom and independence of the individual a
the
living on one's own wits
some
the
collective
empathic-symbiotic
competitive society. In the extreme West, people
a
caste and
( 16)
feet and
with
time from
its
into
as
own meaning!) social
in the USA
groups,
to be
on
the
is here in India a "not yet"!
more
a
matter
certain Western types of training for
for
concern
that
Indian psychiatrists
teach in a kind of short-cut the therapeutic methods that are becoming more and more current in there
is
a
many
dS
great
people
need
as
for
the West.
approaches
possible
with
the
that
No doubt
can
least
expenditure
in man-power and material. But if at the same time, the we
psychotherapeutic cannot
contribute
methods to
to
this
very
be
benefit
taught
and
process ·of
through applied,
individual
emancipation which is the burning problem of so many Indians, of
psychiatry, Western
asking, curbing
together with many of the other blessings
.civilisation
that
whether something is a
necessary
are
often
applied
"coming or going",
development
instead
of
without
will risk
helping
it
to come to fruition. It may Indian
perhaps
colleagues,
opportunity
not as
of 'going
be few
fair of
through
to criticize or expose my them really have had the the
kind
of
training
that
11 5
would
have
prepared
them
for prolonged and deep-reaching
psychotherapeutic work with individual patients and as, furthermore, many of them have to function in crowded out-patient departments or mental hospitals where time becomes it
a
should
establish
rare be
commodity.
possible
that
Still,
to
"core
have
at
a
contact"
times
little
with
I
feel
more
the
that
courage
patient
and
to to
develop that "intuitive wisdom" which, according to KELMAN ( 25
c)
allows one to venture into what "might look fool-
hardy to another". In
the
West,
where
doctors
are
being
more
and
more
regimented into being obedient civil servants, and where, on
the
the
other hand,
treatment
number of
people claim to have a
which
"Readers'
l~terature,
they
have
read
about
right to seek in
the
latest
Digest" or some other popular medical
the freedo~ of the psychiatrist may accordingly
be limited by the constant fear of litigation for malpractice
or
Here
at
in
public
least
India,
heal th
respect
the
of embarrassing administrative measures· except
within
insurance
right
of
the
schemes,
a
framework
of
the
people in general
few
sti 11
physician to accept or to refuse
a patient and to apply the treatment which he thinks best. If
anything
blame
the
goes
wrong,
doctor,
inevitable
stroke
but of
a
take fate.
person it
will
not
necessarily
as the will of God or an
Considerations
of
being
held
responsible or possibly even prosecuted for a risky therapeutic
venture
should
therefore
play
less
of a
role than
in the insurance-ridden West. 6) Yet, I remember a meeting of psychiatrists a few years ago:
In
take
over
(HOCH
a
symposium a
depression,
short paper on
(11 )).
c0l leagues
on
got
After up
my
and
had
been
asked
to
"Psychotherapy of Depression"
presentation, said:
I
"Dr.
one
Hoch,
of
the
your are a
senior brave
6) In this respect things have changed a 1i ttle in the ' years since this f was first written. Th oug h II ma 1 practice cases" in courts are still rare, one occasionally hears of doctors who have been beaten up "on the spot" by the dissatisfied relatives of a patient whom the doctor's efforts could not save!
11 6
woman. I think none of us could sleep at night if we tried what
you
suggest."
(elec·troconvulsive in
India
and
This
confirmed
therapy)
indications
-
my
which
for
suspicion
is
which
that
extremely
go
far
still recognised as relevant in the West!
-
ECT
popular
beyond
those
is often used
to calm the therapist's anxiety and potential sleeplessness rather than for the peace of wind of the patient! Of course, tranquilizers too, often mixed' in a cocktail that leaves out no possible desired effect, are marvellous for reassuring the psychiatrist that he has most!
Under
the
heavy
load
done
his
ut-
of
these drugs, however, the and rendering experiencing patient is not only deprived of fruitful a "kairos", of which perhaps his symptoms were the labour pains, but in addition he is taught to resign himself to the convenient excuse that as he is sick enough to need all these drugs, no one will have a right to expect anything
of
against
this
repeated
him.
ECT
At times,
however,
a
secret
indignation
stifling
or
cutting
off
(through
endlessly
or
leucotomy!)
of
creative
potential
even
brews up and drives the patient into more· and more despair and
panic.
For
how
is
anyone
still
going
he has to say if the treatment forced
to
hear
what
upon him obviously
brands him as a "madman"? I have particularly noted this situation just mentioned in
adolescent
patients.
The
"puberty
crisis"
its potential for growth and maturation, it
for . a
long
time
here in India
in
the West,
(see HOCH
( 12)
is a
and
prescribed absolute obedience
to
with
all
as we have known very new phenomen
( 1 3)).
Indian
tradition
one's elders and often,
within the shelter of the joint family,
adult duties
and
responsibilities only had to be taken over at an advanced age,
when father or mother-in-law died.
adays,
increased opportunities
crumbling choice or
of
of
even
force
emancipation. their
the
joint
careers the Many
constitution
even
break
even
psychiatric
down.
in
family, a
young who or
for
into
their
the
society,
venture
unprepared, early
Unfortunately, colleagues,
(10)).
still
of
parents,
a
free
individual through
falter
teachers
little
the
challenge
either
upbringing, have
Now-
education,
the opening up of
competitive are
(HOCH
higher
or and
knowledge
11 7 of
the necessity of this rebellious phase for the process
of individual emergence. I have therefore seen young people whose them
parents, to a
alarmed
by
some
signs
psychiatrist and who were
of
rebellion,
took
then heavily drugged
or even treated with ECT, simply out of fear that a schizophrenic process might possibly be involved. One of as
these cases,
Consultant
to
seen by me recently in my activity
another
general
hospi ta!
in
New
Delhi,
with a slig.htly more emancipated "clientele", was particularly instructive: Fourth
case:
This
18
year
old
Hindu
college
student
was brought to me by his parents on the advice of a social worker
who
setting
felt
where
the patient. ous
she
who
respect,
was
the
treatment
working,
was
at
the
psychiatric
not doing
justice to
(One may perhaps note that formal and courte-
referrals
someone
that
between
is
it
often
law
of
the
the
relative
colleagues
are
rare
in
India.
accustomed to European procedures seems
as
This
is
jungle! freedom
of
if
there
the
is
nothing
reverse
of
To
in this but
the
the medal of
practice still prevailing,
which
r mentioned just a short while ago!) At
the
time when
I
first
saw the young man he had al-
ready been under heavy doses of tranquilizers for sEveral months. this
As
to
the
treatment,
become
symptoms
his
arrogant
that
parents
and
had
could
aggressive
given
only
occasion
say
towards
that
his
for
he
had
father
and
very demanding in his wishes. Once.he had attempted suicide in a rather dramatic manner. The
boy
himself,
fairly
tall
and
well
built,
looked
dull, dismayed and sullen, and there was something listless and
stiff
in
his
movements.
When
I
asked
him
about
his
complaints he said in a slightly depressed voice, a mixture of
pained
resentment
no longer laugh; and I artificial." had
undergone
between during a
smile
did
He
not
told and
himself this
and
first
and
stubborn
spitefulness:
"I
can
feel that even my smile is becoming me
briefly
about
the
treatment
he
hinted
that
there
had
been
tension
his
father.
The
fact
that
already
interview
made
me
hopeful.
have
his
history
he
once
or twice broke
into
r explained to him that as -
except
for
a
few notes
I
sent
11 8
by the social worker - I had no idea how serious the symptoms
had
drugs
been
that had led my colleague
he was
taking.
It
therefore
to
prescribe
was difficult
the
to know
what might come up once the protective cover of the tranquilizers was state of
lifted. Yet I felt that part of his present
emotional
treatment
and
not
dullness to
the
and
rigidity
original
was
due
trouble.
I
to
the
the ref ore
was prepared to face the risk of reducing the medication, provided that he would cooperate with me.
The boy agreed,
and I felt that good contact had been made. During weekly and
the
next
interviews,
nothing
few
weeks,
the
worse
along
with
medication was
came
up
than
a
once
or
gradually
slightly
twice
reduced,
rebellious,
truculent youngster who occasionally had a clash with his father.
But he was a boy who could again smile,
laugh and
feel alive! He was now able to formulate the burning anger which
had
smouldered
receiving
psychiatric
irresponsible self
no
up
or demand that
give
In
his
took
him,
when
treatment whose
had
He
realised branded at
had
state up
of
all
dull
On
the
other
affairs
striving
despair,
he
had
to
seemed
to
have
him
as
left
tried he
to
had
explain to
studies
he
admit adult.
and his
had
were
temptation
Even physically,
"broken":
an him-
he
responsibl~
his
his
as
if
also held the
become· a
had
been
hand
that
expressing
felt
against barriers whenever he
kept roaming about aimlessly. bone"
he
attempts
seriously.
something.
this
to
madman
one
running
in
to
just
"backundergo
physiothera~y for some dislocation of the lumbar vertebrae. As
the
shackles
of
the
psychopharmaca
as he began to talk more and more freely, able he
to
that
a
the wish
belonged
to
the
at
the
foot
of
first
met
with
away, at
visualise
expressed
future to
and
go
strong
a
say
few
Himalaya. opposition
what
he
some
~undred
This on
off,
and
he was now also
and cul ti va te
family, the
to
fell
kilometres
wish,
the
wanted: farm land however,
part
of
the
father, who regarded his son as entirely useless. I the
had been dealing with both parents al 1 along. mother was
indulgent
with
cooperative, regard
to
her
though eldest
perhaps son,
a the
While
little father,
too an
insignificant looking man of stunted growth, with a mis~rly
11 9 facial
expression,
sulted
him.
could not forget
The boy quite
that his son had in-
truthfully admitted that once,
in a moment of hot anger, he had called his father a "bastard". ther
It was only by and by that I was able to patch togea
far
history
as
that
historical
proved
the
boy
right,
at
least
accuracy
was
concerned,
as
if
not
from
capital of India
from
the point of view of filial piety and decorum! The one
family
of
had
migrated
the. small
to
kingdoms
the
beyond
the
Northern
border.
The patient's father. was the offspring of a powerful nobleman
and
minister
at
the
royal
one of his lesser concubines. setting, he
amongst
had
had
more
plenty
court,
It was obvious that in this placed
legitimately
to
opportunity
of
through union with halfbrothers,
cultivate
sibling
envy and inferiority feelings. At an early age married to a girl from a highly placed family. 11 So while the mother's blood was 1 00 % 11 blue , the father's rivalry,
he
was
was
only
50 % aristocratic,
sumably
had
at
least
considerably more of
his
origin
of
officialdom
75
% nobility
than his
and
father.
finding
in
the
and the boy, our patient pre-
a
in
him,
which
means
By leaving the country
post
in
Government
of
the
middle
India,
the
ranges father
was able to escape from the environment that had humiliated him in his childhood.
But as his son grew up into a sturdy
and enterprising young man, with noble features, surpassin; his
father's
the
old
mind.
stature by at least one head's length,
resentment
At
times
role of a new
life
his
own
suade
short
appeared
one felt
to
be
King Herod or King Kamsa, that
was
rising
in his
precarious self-esteem.
him
rankling again in his
that he was actually playing the
that
by
out
to cut down
son and
that
It was difficult
crediting his
son only with
th'e
threatened to per-
the worst
intentions and by constantly running down all his efforts, he
was
serving
Finally, sarcastic of
neither
however,
I
condemnation
grudging
and
the
was
boy's
able
and
sceptical
to
interests nor his own. reduce
resentment, neutrality,
his at
and
attitude
least he
to
agreed
of one to
let the boy have a chance at the farm. About
two
months
later,
the young man came
to see me
again: broad-shouldered, with a bright smile, the eagerness
120
of youthful enterprise written all over his movements. been an
task.
He
first
had
the
workmen
to ~n
to live in. There were difficulties their
and
He told me about his work at the farm.
uphill
materials; of
face
construct
inexperienced young master and
him wherever
they
could.
New
crops
It had a
place
getting the building
not r~cognise
would
his
the authority
tried
had
to
to deceive
be
tried
out
and farmhands had to be persuaded of the utility of modern methods
of
cultivation.
And
all
no support from his father who,
along
he
had
little
or
in his sceptical mistrust,
had pulled his purse-strings tight.
In spite of all this,
he had not lost courage. He had even written a few articles for the agricultural column of a newspaper and was discussing his plans with enthusiasm and quite a bit of realistic expert knowledge. At the end of
the interview,
which was
later
followed
by a few further visits that gave proof of continued progress,
he
asked
me:
"Do
you
know
It was your calling my trouble a ness! and
This made me realise I
also
knew
then
what
made
me
well?
"crisis" and not an ill-
that it could turn either way
that
it was
up
best of it." Instead of crisis, had he might perhaps have said "kairos".
to he
me
to make
known
the
the
word,
While this account of the young man's adolescent crisis was waiting
to be typed,
he once again turned up to
see
me. This time, his first encounter with death, the passing away he
of
lived
"sinking attack.
an in
uncle, the
shaken
constant
feeling" When
had might
X-ray,
fear be
the
him
and,
that his sign of
electrocardiogramme
for
a
few
days,
palpitations and a
severe
etc.
heart-
proved
to
be normal, he decided to see me. It took only one interview to
make
him
face
a "crisis" that responsibility.
this
new
announced
experience
the
growth
als·o of new
in
terms
of
insight and
1 21
4. Conclusions What,
now, has this rapid excursion into ancient Indian
literature and this sketchy view of some present-day psychiatric
problems
in
India
taught
us
about
the
nature
of "kairos" and about ways of recognising it and preparing to meet it with an open and ready mind? First of all, we have been warned that "kairos" simply
be
defined
"Time for" to
be
as
"time
in
its
qualitative
cannot aspect".
can be merely the moment at which one expects
fed,
the
harvesting
season
that should
"bring in"
something or the lucky coincidence that makes good fortune "fall into one's lap". These "opportunities" or "occasions" that fulfil solid
man's worldly desires and confirm him in the
comfort
prospects,
are
true
"kairos".
((1)
Matth.
of
his
on
accustomed
the
contrary
resources, often
defences
anJ
the enemies of the
It is with regard to them that the Gospels
16,26)
say:
"What
is
a
man
profited,
if
he
shall gain the whole world and lose his own soul? or what shall a of
man give in exchange for his soul?" and that one
the
characters
in
2,4 v.2)
questions:
belonged
to
"Kairos" "time
in
brings one
me, would
its
the
tell
me,
have
should
to
qualitative
forward
( ( 33
a)
"If this whole earth, full of wealth,
some potential
step
.
.
BRHADARANYAKA UPANISAD ,
be
I
be
defined
aspect
as
a
immortal
more
by
it?"
accurately
as
unique moment that
to ripening and takes man at least
towards achieving oneness in giving and
not in taking only." Quite apart from such distinctions within the qualitati1e
aspects of
oeen .the
periods character
time, in of
we have to recognise that there have
the
history
"time" as
of
mankind,
in
which
even
the opportunity that provides
ready pastures and welcome windfalls was so closely allied with the course of the celestial bodies and the wanderings of
nomads
in
space,
that
time
as
a
separate
coordinate
had little importance either in a quantitative or qualitative sense. Time as an abstract dimension, or even as an expendable commodity,
could
only
become
the
object of
imagination,
speculation and calculation once the human mind had developed
from
a
primary
stage of being merged in nature to
122
the level of a detached, self-reflecting subject that faces an objective world and that is out to invent means for disposing of and ruling over this realm, which he perceives as separate from himself. We further have to realise that
this
primary
stage
of remaining merged in a collective order, either that of nature or of a society which wisely keeps needs and possibilities for fulfilment balanced, is not a matter of past ages only, but that, particularly in what we call "developing countries", many people even nowadays are still far ~way.-from or only just on the point of emerging into a consciously refl~cting and discriminating relationship to their world. The point of emergence 11
can
be
marked
by
a
fruitful
11
kairos if the innate potential has been allowed to develop at its own speed and in harmony with an outward situation that still provides some care and shelter for further growth, even after the paradise of empathic-symbiotic oneness has been left behind. (HOCH (13)). In other cases in which the awarenss of a separate existence, of the need for conscious reflection and individual responsibility
is forced prematurely on an ill .a-lly weak person it may resemble delivery rather than the happy development. The anxiety aroused may then be beyond the measure contained
and ·turned
into
a
prepared or constitutionan abortion or a prematµre birth of a new phase of by the critical situation at which it can be safely
creative
stimulus.
It
may
not even be experienced as such, as no sphere of mental consciousness is developed yet, within which it could appear.
Its
manifestations
therefore
may
remain
limited
to vague, disturbing physical symptoms or at its approach - as we find so frequently~ not only amongst the characters of the ancient. Indian epics but also amongst our presentday psychiatric patients! the dim light of individual consciousness is conveniently blacked out each time by the protective curtains of a "fit". Probably there have been at all times people of different degrees of inner maturity: some, the predestined "heroes", have it in them to rise to any occasion, to steel their courage and fortitude through danger, to distil
123
wisdom from frustration, to grow through difficulties. Others form the indiscriminate background of the anonymous masses; and between these two extremes we have to imagine a whole range of intermediary developmental stages. Whether a "kairos" can occur and become fruitful probably does not depend only on the individual's inner readiness to experience it, but also on the spirit of the time in which he happens to live. As I have just mentioned, a period of all too rapid social and cultural transformation risks tearing open protective layers prematurely and is therefore likely to reveal "kala" or "ksana ·•, the Indian equivalents for "kairos" in their negative aspect, as destroyers rather than as auspicious moments for growth and renewal. On the other hand, however, all too stable or even stagnant an environment, in which smooth adaptation ana conformity is easy and profitable in terms of worldly comforts and advantages, may disturb the balance in the other direction, i.e. it may blunt human conscience to the call of "kairos", so that it cannot penetrate at all or is stifled through rational arguments and considerations of expediency as soon as it makes itself heard. For a relatively faint light to show itself, there has
to be darkness.
The caller of a new message,
if his
voice is to be heard, may have to cry in a silent wilderness first, and not amongst the loud congregations of busy men. There has to be some tension between what is and what might be, between the accepted temporal values and a longing for the eternal, between a reality recognised as illusionary and the realm of true essence •. What is customary, well settled, must, at a
few
wise ones,
same time,
be exposing
least
its threadbareness.
to
At the
messages must be available, either traditional
unes revived and re-interpreted or new ones revealed, that point to possibilities of transcending the prevailing stagnant state of affairs. Granted all these prerequisites are present in the individual and his time, cultivation of the following qualities will render a person capable of becoming "desakalaj na"'
one who
recognises
who can act accordingly:
the
right
place and time and
124
He must
be
tough
enough
to
stand
up
to a
crisis,
to
keep his wits about him during it and to contain the pressure of emotions aroused, such as fear, anger, greed, sexual lust, him
that
may
towards
developed to
try
to
obliterate
destruction.
a
capacity
perceive
the
At
for
"kairos"
the
the
issue
same
subtle even in
time,
or he
to
must· have
discrimination, the
most
pull
so
as
insignificant,
unseemly or even distasteful disguise, to remain constantly aware
of
the
ambiguousness
situations of
with
which
transformation present
all
symbols
themselves,
but
and also
of the deceptive righteousness with which the dark adversaries, the well established representatives of the accustomed, by
the King Herods and Kamsas,
their
desperate
attempts
to
often confuse the issue
stifle
the growth
of
the
new-born "Divine Child". He of
must,
his
through
past
development,
own true self. concern needs
he
of
introspection have
Furthermore,
must
have
others
to
become
in a
gained
the
and
careful
transparent
spirit of
the
ultimate
and
high
sensi ti vi ty
extent
that
he
at the same
to
his
t:rue care and
a
equally close and important as his own. of
analysis
to
regards
the
them
as
He must be aware
time primary oneness
which he and his fellow beings are enfolded.
This
in
spirit
of universal compassion and of renunciation of self-centred interest perfect may
has
to extend
to
even-mindedness
bring,
can
leave
all
with
open
worldly regard
attachments.
to
complete
what
freedom
the
for
a
Only
future choice
that even in the crisis of a sudden moment prefers ultimate truth
to
temporary
advantages.
The
mature
willingness
to give rather than to receive,
must have been developed
into
sacrifice
an
absolute
may appear as a
readiness
hindrance,
to
without even a
anything squint
that
towards
advantages one hopes "to gain from one's action. Lastly, does or
not
even
the
one must become open to the fact necessarily
in , a
discerning,
consist
only
in
"once-in-a-life-time" every
fleeting
that "kairos"
rare
opportunities
crisis,
moment
can
but become
that
to
one
of
revelation, of decision, of renewal, of birth of a hitherto dormant
potential
or
adds
the
of
to
load
insight, guilt,
of
while debt
every
moment
towards
missed
life or may
125
even mean "atmahatya" (S), spiritual suicide. I
hope
that
I
short glimpses, ros"
fruitful
con tr ibu ti on, ancient as
I
be
found
from
to which can
Indian
myself the
be
found
to show,
( 25
in
though only by
has
referred in his
way
or
as
one
might
hinted,
tradition, and
c)
some
If,
occasionally
Christian
authenticity
two sources
KELMAN
scriptures.
have
in
have been able
that all those elements for making a "kai-
they
this
validity
in
the
argue
and
are
need
of
of wisdom and revelation.
other
also
not
either
to
detract of
these
It would only point
to
the one ultimate Truth that again and again,
sometimes
in
a
but
great
frequently
"Kairos" in
a
of
silent,
universal
dimensions,
inconspicuous
hearts, has to be born again and again.
way
in
more
individual
1 26 LITERATURE (1) BIBLE, THE HOLY:
Authorized Version and "Novum Testamentum Graece" (Stuttgart, Privilegierte Wuerttembergische Bibelanstalt, 1932).
(2) BHAGAVAD GITA:
Various editions. Used: "Srimad Bhagavad Gita" with gloss of Sridhara Swami, Sanskrit-English Edition, Madras, Mylapore, Shri Ramakrishna Math, 1948.
(3) BHAGAVATAM, SRIMAD, extracts from. Mylapore, Madras, Shri Ramakrishna Math, 1947. (4) CHAPMAN, JOHN:
"The Spiritual Letters of Don John Chapman". London, Sheed and Ward, 1935.
(5) CAUSSADE,DE, PJ.P.: "Abandon a la Providence Divine." First published 1860. German edition: "Hingabe an Gottes Vorsehung." Benziger Verlag, Einsiedeln, 1952. (6) GLASENAPP, HELMUTH VON:
"Die Religionen Indiens". Taschenbuch No. 190, Stuttgart, Germany Alfred Kroener Verlag, 1943.
(7) GOVINDA, LAMA ANAGARIKA:
"Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism." First published in English: London, Rider & Co., 1959.
(8) GOVINDA, LAMA ANAGARIKA:
"The Psychological Attitude of Early Buddhist Philosophy." First published in English: London, Rider & Co., 1961.
(9) HEIDEGGER, MARTIN:
"Sein und Zeit." 8. Auflage, Tuebingen, Germany, Max Niemeyer, 1957.
( 1 0) HOCH, E. M. :
II A Pattern of Neurosis in India. II The American Journal of Psychoanalysis, Vol. XX, No. 1, pp. 18-25, 1 960.
( 1 1 ) HOCH , E. M. :
"Psychotherapy of Depressive Reactions." Indian Journal of Psychiatry, Supplement to Vol. III, pp. 25-32, 1963.
( 1 2 ) HOCH , E. M. :
"Ripe Old Age? or Senile Deterioration?" Indian Journal of Psychiatry, v. III, pp. 120-133, July 1963.
127 ( 1 3 ) HOCH, E. M. :
"From Green Pastures to Grey Prisons: A study of emotional trouble in three Santhali tribals." Journal of Social Research, Vol. VIII, No. 1, pp. 50-70, 1965. Council of Social and Cultural Research, Ranchi, Bihar, India.
( 1 4 ) HOCH , E • M. :
"Psych.otische Episoden bei Asthmatikern." Zei tschri ft .fiir Psychosomatische Medizin. Part I: Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 22-36; Part II: Vol. lI, No. 2, pp. 83-91, 1965. Goettingen, Germany.
( 1 5 ) HOCH, E. M. :
'iMental Heal th Services for Students." "Campus Health, Banaras Hindu University", Vol. II, 1965. Ed. by Prof. S.M. Marwah, Dept~ of Social and Preventive Medicine, College of Med~cal Sciences, Banaras Hindu University.
( 1 6 ) HOCH , E. M. :
"Family Mental Health Risks." Chapter 4 in "The Changing Pattern of Family in India." pp. 59-95. Ed. by; P.D. Devanandan and M.M. Thomas. Second Revised Edition: rev. by R.W. Taylor, Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society, Bangalore, 1967.
( 1 7 ) HOCH , E. M. :
"Transcultural Psychiatry." Journal of Social Research, Vol. XI, No. 1, pp. 64-87., 1968. Council of Social and Cultural Research, Ranchi, Bihar, India.
( 1 8 ) HOCH,
E. M. :
"Bhaya, Shoka, Moha. Angst, Leid und Verwirrung in den alten indischen Schriften und ihre Bedeutung fur die Entstehung von Krankheiten." pp. 134-160 in "Abendlandische Therapie und ostliche Weisheit." Ed.: Wilhelm Bitter. Stuttgart, Germany, Ernst Klett, 1968.
( 1 9 ) HOCH,
E. M. :
"The Role of Aggression and the Problem of Discipline." Contribution to Sub-Committee of Mental Health Advisory Committee, Ministry of Health and Family Planning, Govt. of India on "Mental Health of the Civilian Population in Emergency." 1966. Not published.
1 28 (20) HUXLEY, ALDOUS:
"The Perennial Philosophy." London, Chatto & Windus, 1950.
(21) JATAKA:
Various editions. Selection from the original 12 volumes: "Jataka Tales" No. J. 72, Jaico Pocket Books, Bombay, 1956.
(22) JUNG, C.G. and KERENYI, K.:
"Das gottliche Kind." Albae Vigiliae, Heft 6/7, Amsterdam 1941
(23) JUNG, C.G.:
"Psychologie und Alchemie." Zurich, Rascher, 1944.
( 2 4) JUNG, C. G. :
"Symbole der Wandlung.", Zurich, Rascher 1952.
(25) KELMAN, HAROLD:
a) "Kairos and the Therapeutic Process." Journal of Existential Psychiatry", Vol. I, No. 2, pp. 233-269, 1960. b) "Kairos, the Auspicious Moment", The American Journal of Psychoanalysis, Vol. XXIX, No. 1, pp. 59-83, 1969, New York. c) "Kairos: An Existential Concept." Unpublished manuscript. 1966.
(26) KIELHOLZ, A.:
"Von Kairos zum Problem der Kurpfuscherei." Schweiz. med. Wochenschrift, Vol. 86, No. 35, pp. 982-984, 1956. (Quoted by KELMAN in (25 c)).
(27) MACDONELL, A.A.:
"A Practical Sanskrit Dfctionary." Oxford University Press, 1929. Reprinted 1954-48.
(28) MAHABHARATA:
Various editions. Used: Condensed version in Sanskrit-English: "The Mahabharata", C.A. Natesan & Co., Madras, 1935.
(29) PANCATANTRA:
Various editions. Used: No. J 3 Jaico Pocket Books, Bombay.
(30) RAMAKRISHNA, SHRI:
"Tales and Parables." Mylapore, Madras, Shri Ramakrishna Math, Second Edition, 1947.
(31) RAMAYANA:
Various editions. Used: Condensed Version in Sanskrit-English: "Valmiki Ramaya~a", C.A. Natesan & Co., Madras, 1935.
(32) RGVEDA:
Various editions. Some instructive samples to be found in "Hindu Scriptures", Ed. b¥ Nicol Mc Nicol, Everyman s Library,
129 No. 944, London, Dent & Dutton, 1938. (33) UPANISADS:
Various editions. Used: SanskritEnglish parallel texts with comm~ntaries published by Shri Ramakrishna Math, Mylapore, Madras. In detail: a) BRHADARANYAKA UPANISAD, 1951. b) fij~N~OGYA UPANI~AD,-1956. c) ISAVASYA UPANISAD, 1958 •. d) KATHA UPANISAD: 1956. e) KENOPANI~AD; 1960. f) MAH~N~R~YA~A UPANI$AD, 195~. g) PRA§NOPANI~AD, 1959.
1 3'1
DREAM - A WORLD; WORLD - A DREAM? MEDARD BOSS, at that time Prof. of Psychotherapy at th€ University of Zurich, as already mentioned, has played an important role not only in initially promoting my going to India 1 ) , but also in opening up in me interest in and understanding for. HEIDEGGER' s existential philosophy and his own efforts at working out a Daseins-analytical foundation for his psychotherapeutic practice and teaching. During his two visits to India, in 1956 and 1958, described in his well-known book "A Psychiatrist Discovers India" ( 1 b) , I had the ·good luck to spend part of the time in his company. Out of this developed a close friendship which later, after I had shifted to Kashmir in 1969, acquired a new dimension as here I became acquainted with and was "adopted" by the "guru" 1 ) with whom BOSS had kept up faithful contact over many years. So he now became my "guru-bhai", i.e. a "brother" through being the "child" of the same spiritual "father' 1 • For my contribution to the jubilee volume which GION CONDRAU was to prepare for our teacher and friend's 70th birthday, I therefore tried to choose a subject that would not only highlight some of BOSS's psychiatric and psychotherapeutic work, but which would also give some of the deep truths which we had both learned to understand and to treasure with the help of our "guru" their due place. I may perhaps add that, when I explained to our "Master", my intention of workiflg on this subject of "Dream and World", to which he himself had also referred in his teaching, he readily gave his blessings for this undertaking. Ever since childhood I had always had a predilection, for studying outside, in close contact with nature whenever the weather would permit. Most of my essays for school were written on a quiet bench in the back-garden. Both the papers produced at Almora (No. 2 and 3 in this volume) found their origin under the pine trees, from where, during moments of reflection, my gaze would wander towards the magnificent panorama of the snowy Himalayan peaks. When it came to writing the birthday article for my friend MEDARD BOSS, I selected a "clearing" in a forest high up on the mountain ranges between Kashmir and Punjab (very appropriately in view of HEIDEGGER's description of human existence as a "clearing" (S), a "sphere of lumination", "... the realm into which particular beings may come forth into their being, shine forth and appear as the phenomena which they are ••• " (BOSS ( 1 c) p. 285)). I installed myself there in the morning, along with a few biscuits and some fruit, and did not leave the place until, late in the afternoon, the initial draft had been brought onto paper.
1) The story of this, and also of the "meeting with the guru 11 referred to below, is given in some11 detail in the author's book "Hypocrite or Heretic? Published by Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society; Bangalore, through "The Christian Literature Society", Madras, 1983.
132 It was only some time later that I discovered an article also a contribution to a "birthday volume"! - in wh~ch more than 50 years before practically the same ma~er7al from the ancient Indian scriptures ref erring to the significance of dream had been utilised: EMIL ABEGG's contribution to the "Festgabe fiir ADOLF KAEGI", published in 1 91 9 and entitled "Indische Traumtheorien." This well-known Swiss Indologist had, however, dealt with the subject in a much more factual and scholarly manner without any attempts at relating it to present-day life and psychiatric problems. Once again proof that the ancient Sanskrit te~ts permit different interpretations of their wealth of meaning and that whoever approaches them will find there what fits in with his own interests and attitudes, his own stage of development and the "spirit of the time" in which he lives. The collection of papers which G. CONDRAU was to bring out for MEDARD BOSS' s 70th birthday, was originally to have the title "Revolution der Weltanschauung", i.e. "Revolution of World Views". Eventually, however, perhaps as those asked to contribute could or would not fit in with this theme, it was published (Huber, Bern, 1973) simplf. under the title "Medard Boss zum siebzigsten Geburtstag (i.e. "To Medard Boss for his 70th birthday.") In my own article, however, keeping this original title in mind, I made reference to it in the first two paragraphs.
*
*
*
If we wish to go along with this title, we have to take two revolutionary steps, starting from the basis which FREUD created for the understanding of dreams at the beginning of this century. From FREUD's view that dreams are only a secondary product of the repressed contents of waking life which, at best, one can decipher in analytical work according to a subtle "secret code", C.G. JUNG already had moved forward considerably. For the latter, experience in dream compared with the waking state, was already no longer the product of narrowing in and distortion, but the gate to the vast and rich world of the collective unconscious, an approach to sources of creative inspiration from which we are usually cut off in every-day thinking and acting in the waking world. For the Daseins-analyst (S), however, even this view still amounts to too much of a reduction of the issue to something secondary supposed to be more original. Why should dream phenomena be understood only as copies? as derivates of original models from the arsenal of the collective
unconscious?
Are they not as original and genuine
1 33
as
experience
in
the
waking state? Is man in his dreams
not perhaps even more open, closer to his own possibilities and
therefore
himself would any
in
certain
it
therefore ~ore
rate
enforce
the
often
an
perhaps
not
liberating
be
deeply
to
and
more
correct
psychotherapeutically, a
dream
oriented
"why
inhibitions,
more
fully
in his waking life? And and
at
not
to
by reducing
life with the help of a
critically
encouraging
and
to be
interpretation of
elements of waking and
respects
than he can afford
"why?",
rationalising
but
not?",
that
questions
explore
how
the
it to
rather
with
all
obstacles
narrowing
in of our
possibilities has come about in waking life? In the closing chapter of his book "Der Traum und seine Auslegung" (original German version 1953; English translation
195 7
of
a
a) )
(1
BOSS
assigns
mode of human "Dasein"
as we call ence".
He
the waking warns
as
something
it
is
be
dreaming
the
"dignity " •••
just
state a modification of our exist-
against
to
to
in its own right",
leaving
taken
for
aside
granted
the and
waking he
state
shows
that
the careful exploration of the dreaming-state that
can offer valuable hints as to the essence of waking life, in particular as
far as the continuity of its historicity
is concerned. If we by
try to keep up with this step forward undertaken
Dase1ns-analysis,
one
which
for
the
question-mark
in
a
"revolution"
a
recognised
way of a
and time
our
not
view
perhaps being
title,
only of
the
to West or,
the
with
been
shall but
the
provided
be
sense
world
"turning around",
from East
has
we
in
also
with
a
venturing
into
breaking
down
of
at
second
the same time by
namely a revolving of the earth
if one prefers, from West to East'
in particular from Europe to India. In line with the French proverb: the of
"The
same", dreams
were
back
years we are
to
things
find
that
which
already
3000
gress,
we
more
what
to
made ago,
the by
so simply -
was
change,
these West
known
at
more
they
remain
reflections on the nature appear
ancient that
the
Indian
to
be
very
modern,
philosophers
2000
with our "revolutionary" proleast to some extent -
already
long
ago.
One
turning can
find
numerous points of contact and similarity between "Daseins-
1 34
analysis" and ancient Indian philosophy. Some will now be shown on the basis of the example
of them provided
by the understanding of dreams.
*
*
*
When a European reader sets out to learn something about Indian views on dreams and dreaming, he may perhaps assume that he will be presented with something like an "Egyptian Dream Book", a generally valid code for deciphering dream phenomena. Expectations of this kind, at least in the present context, will not be fulfilled. There are of course "dream dictionaries" or
11
almanachs
11
of this
type 2) , which even nowadays are quite popular and of ten referred to. So, for instance, I found that most of our psychiatric patients agree that it is a bad omen to dream of "the dead". By "dead", they do not only mean persons actually seen as dead, i.e. as "dead bodies" in the dream, but also people whom they see alive in the dream, but who are already dead in reality. The appearing of these figures is interpreted as signifying that they want to call the dreamer to their world of the departed. Another example of fixed dream interpretation of this kind can be seen in pregnant women who maintain that certain dream objects, in particular the shape of vegetables and fruit, allow them to forecast whether the child expected by them will be male or female. Dreams with prophetic content occasionally play a role in the ancient epics and tales. As, however, in these, Gods and human beings usually still deal and mix with each other within the same world, dreams as a means of communication can be dispensed with therefore play less of a role than for instance in
and the
2) Even nowadays one finds in the so-called "jantri", a kind of calendar or almanach, "dream tables" which indicate quite systematically the meaning of different dream contents. An ancient version is the "svapnacintamani" of Jagaddeva, written in Kashmir (German translation and commentary by NEGELEIN, Julius von: "Der Traumschlilssel des Jagaddeva", Giessen, 1912).
1 35
world of the Old Testament of the Bible. The also
question
in
of
waking
the
life?"
Daseins-analyst, is
illustrated
namely
in
"Why
peculiar
not
manner
by a short tale from Assam, the eastern-most part of India. It deserves to be quoted here (7): "On in
the
the
banks of a
hollow
(elephant) the
of
used
river
for
the
to a
certain river, trunk
pass
drink:
of· a
this
an owl used to live
banyan
tree
One day a
tree.
daily
on
A tusker
his
way
to
strong wind overturned
the tree, so the elephant to take
owl, finding no other help, begged the pity on him and straighten the tree. The elephant at once did as he was told and from that day on the two became staunch friends. "Now, that
one
he
had eaten
morning asked
night
he
him
went the
the
Goddess
the head of up
to
meaning
her of
Parvati's
tiger
dreamt
this elephant. So the next
husband,
this
the
dream.
God
Shiva,
Shiva said:
and
"Well,
if you have dreamt like this, perhaps it could be realised. Go and eat the elephant's head." "The went
tiger,
to
the
elephant
having
river
came
for
brother,
I
dreamt
so
I
asked
when
made
true,
his
he
received
and waited his
command
drink,
last night
that
the I
So
"Yes!"
if
you
Now I
have
terribly frightened do.
his
friend's
has
allowed
what
to
plight,
In
said:
the meantime "Well,
if
speed
you to eat my friend's head, But
them.
As
nodding wanted
than
soon her
to
as
head
let
her
us
all
go
to
two companions,
she arrived and
know what
suddenly waking up, I
said:
"Big
before
pretended
to
him
"Lord,
was married to Goddess Parvati.
do,
finish
and kept silent, the owl,
seeing
there is nothing and
verify
your
But the owl, making
reached
there before'
the God, be asleep.
the matter was with said:
to
the great God Shiva
statement." "So they started for Shiva's place. more
God,
When the
shall eat you up with
knowing
say.
tiger
anything
not
to
the
had eaten your head;
it soon." "The elephant was
more
of
the elephant.
the great God whether my dream could be
told me
permission.
usual
the
for
her,
she started When Shiva she,
as
if
I was just dreaming that Now can it be made true
1 36
or not?" Shiva replied: "No, you cannot marry her just 11 because you have dreamt so." So the owl said: How, then, could your tiger be allowed to ·eat the elephant's head, just because he dreamt
so?" The God then said:
"No,
the
tiger also cannot eat the elephant's head." "By this time the tiger and the elephant had arrived and the tiger hearing the God's final verdict. was very disappointed, while the elephant and his friend, the owl, left for home with great rejoicings." This little story, simple and phantastic as it may be, shows the obstacles that oppose themselves to implementing in waking life all the possibilities given to a human being and freely available to him in his dream experience: In the first place, the waking world is limited by gross physical characteristics such as size, weight' hardness and consistence, distance in time and space. A primary reason why the tiger cannot bite off and eat the head of the elephant is that the relative size of their bodies does not allow this. Second: there are biological hindrances. A union of owl and Goddess as man and wife is unthinkable, not only because the physical proportions do not tally, but also because certain natural laws separate creatures that differ in species and mode of life. Beyond this, in the world of men, but to a certain extent already amongst animals, there exists a social code of behaviour to which each individual has to sacrifice his freedom to a certain extent. A woman who is already someone's wife cannot be claimed as a spouse without violating this order. Finally one may point out that, beyond social law and decorum there are still higher values that may hem in human action in waking life: apart from all the obstacles already mentioned, a further reason why the tiger cannot transform his dreamt desire into the reality of waking life even only tentatively, is that the owl stands up for its threatened friend, the elephant, in gratitude, in faithful fulfilment of a friend's duty and in loving care.
137
If we now turn to ancient Indian philosophical scriptures,
in
particular
dream and cular
its
to
Upani~ads,
the
psychological
dreamer
loses
its
the
content
interpretation importance
It is dreaming as a phenomen,
of
a
for any parti-
almost
completely.
as a mode of being, to which
ancient Indian thinkers have devoted their attention. If, torn
to begin with,
out
of
actually might to
or
gain ~
fulf.ilmwt"
this type comments: "In
I
the Out
wish
dream
further
FREUD' s of
the
concept numerous
to off er only a the
3),
effulgent
seems
or
even
( 2)
to
rejoice
see
4, 3
v.
in
the
terrible 1 3,
few
some
texts, one
dreaming
as
descriptions
of
of
a
basis for
(i.e.
the
of
to
"self)
or
women,
(B~HAD~RA~YAKA
objects.
my
creates manifold forms.
company
subsequently
as
entity
attaining higher and lower states, It
to
explanation,
impression that they lend support
an~icipate
rather
"wish
we expose ourselves
context and without
be
referred
to
laugh,
UPANI~AD
as
B~H.
UP.) II
Now,
him,
or
~n
he
overpowered
or he was time
when
falling
through
ignorance
king,
as
comprise
UP.
(2) 4,3, v.·20.)
It
II
king,
as
reaches take
all".
as
or
an
it his
were, and
was
killing
(in short) fears
fancies at the
he has experienced
So also when he is a god, as it were, or he
thinks
"I am this universe
This last is his highest state."
or
a
(retinue
of)
(B~H.
then becomes either a great
worthy
low states,
in his own kingdom,
somebody
elephant was chasing him,
pit -
(the self in dream)
high
if
whatever
it were,
and
may
him
into a
the waking state.
or a
feels
as
Brahmana, it were.
as
it were,
or
As a great king
citizens and go about at will
so does this self thus take the organs
and go about at will in its own body."
(B~H.
UP.
(2)
2,1,
v. 18.)
3) Here and in what follows "dream" without article is used to refer to the "dream state" or "condition of dreaming", a usage to be found in most translations of and commentaries on ancient Indian texts dealing with the "dream state".
1 38
If, thus, any comparison is made in these texts between the dream world and waking life, it does not serve in any way the exploration of individual psychological motives and mechanisms, but merely the purpose of recognising, proving and teaching the true essence of man. The theses, which
in
these
dialogues
between
wise
philosophers
and
aspirants eager for knowledge about the "right life" are brought close to the understanding of the disciples, and for which 'contemplation of the dream state provides essential arguments, are broadly the following: 1. Human existence takes its course in four different worlds or states, amongst which dream'· just as the three others, has its own, authentic justification and need not be derived from a "more real" waking world. 2. Pointing out these four states serves the purpose of examining what is then the constant and enduring element of human existence that permeates equally all these worlds. Furthermore, these reflections also provide important information about the· nature of the world and its creator and about the relationship of man to this creator. This, however, is a question which can be taken up only in a later part of this article. The "Four States" or "worlds" amongst which man alternates are: the waking world ("jagarat" or "vais;,anara") (S), i.e. the realm that belongs to all men in common; the dream world ( "svapana"); deep sleep ( "su~upta") and, as the State".
last,
the
so-called
"turiya",
i.e.
"the
Fourth
Western man usually regards the waking~world as the only "real" one Sleep and the dream-world are inserted into the framework of waking life: dream is a phenomen to be understood as derived from waking experience; sleep becomes an "object" of wakeful reasoning insofar as even if one cannot experience one's own sleep con~ciously - one can undertake scientific observations and experiments on someone else's sleep and thus objectify certain phenomena. The "Fourth State" is beyond understanding and interest of Western thought. In the ancient Indian texts, however, each of the three first-named states has its own originality and justificat-
1 39
ion.
Some
and
at
extracts
the
same
from
time
the
show
texts
up
can
the
illustrate
peculiarities
this
of
the
dream-world as compared with the other conditions: One
of
presents who has the
the a
other: come?"
of
their
thus When
self
asleep,
reflections.
he
it
is
asleep,
within
has
the
((2)
2,1,
v.
16-18)
in which a
One
of
them
is
withdrawn, When
are
the
its
world"
answer, with
he
man
asks
the
specialised lies
When
"svapiti"
organ
of
in
it
4).
the
of 11
as
its
past work
Then
follows
describing
nose
the eye
and the mind is with-
the self thus stays in the dream state, E.H.).
the Self
the organs,
verily,
is withdrawn,
the ear is withdrawn,
thus
Supreme
withdraws
it
"When
is
knowledge
the
Then,
speech
did
intellect
and
heart.
Whence
continues:
the
its
of
results
earlier
then?
by
the
is withdrawn,
no
it
organs,
the
name
was
associated
the
it
drawn.
is
withdraws
of
where
receives
that
functions that
UP.
two wise men
"When this self that is associated with the intell-
was
this
B~H.
In
between
just been stirred out of his sleep by them becomes
object
ect
episodes
dialogue
(or better:
the verse
various
dream
of
same
these
"These are
already quoted
contents
(2,1,
v.
UP.
(2)
18). In 4,3,
v.
ni te) is
it
dialogue
7-10),
entity
amid
light the
another
we find a which
organs,
the
within
the
intellect, thinks,
as
is
it were,
one with dreams,
and
roams
text
(B~H.
similar formulation: "This (infi-
reflected
intellect
it
the
in
which· (is
is
the
between
the the
as
which
(self-effulgent)
self).
this
and quivers,
intellect,
and
Simulating the
it were.
next
life;
For being
it goes beyond this (waking) world, which
represents the forms of death (ignorance and its offshoots) This
entity
(the
individual
self),
mentioned
above,
4) "svapi ti": This is an example of the play or one might say "juggleries" with words and syllables orye frequently finds in Sanskrit. Though the root from which "svapana" and "svapiti", i.e. "he sleeps" are derived, is "svap", the wise man, not in poetical, but in philosophical licence, takes the 1 iberty of separating the syllables differently, namely "sva-piti", which means "he is 11 sucked in" or "absorbed into himself •
1 40
has only two places, this life and the next life. The dream-state, which is the third, is at the junction (of the two). staying in that place at the junction (or "transition" E.H.), it sees both places, this life and the next. No\)',
whatever
support
it may have for the next life,
it
betakes itself to that and sees both, miseries and joys. When it dreams, it takes away a little of this all-sustaining body, itself makes (the body) insensible and itself creates (a dream body) and dreams through its own radiance (illuminated) by its own light. In this state this entity (the self) itself becomes the light. In that state there are neither chariots nor animals to be hitched to them, nor roads, yet it (the self) creates the chariots, animals and roads. There are no joys, delights or raptures in it, yet it creates the joys, delights and raptures. There are no pools, tanks or rivers in it, yet it creates the pools, tanks and rivers. For it is the doer." While these texts from the Upanisads speak a poetic and mystic language, which is often difficult to understand 5), later commentators express these same ideas in .shorter and more sober form. Amongst them it is in particular Shri Sankaracarya and his pupils who often use the teaching about
the "Four States" for their arguments, as for instance in the short treatise "Drg-Drsya Viveka" (4) where, from verse 1 0-1 2, one finds the following formulation:
v. of)
10:
ego
"In the state of deep sleep, when (the thought disappears, the body also becomes unconscious.
5) One has the choice of rendering the original Sanskrit text as literally as possible, as for instance in the Sanskrit-English parallel editions of Shri Ramakrishna Math, with the consequence that much of the concentrated n1caning and also the poetical flavour is lost, or to take recourse to freer translations that bear the stamp of literary genius and thus are aesthetically more pleasing, but at times may deviate from the original concepts. In either case, only little of the wealth of meaning which is condensed within the original texts can be rendered. I have used the Ramakrishna Math editions, but at times have taken the liberty of adding to their translation under my own initials (E.H.). Other "brackets" are those added by the translators.
1 41 The state in which there is the half manifestation of the -ego is called the dream state and the full manifestation of the ego is the state of waking". V. 11: "The inner organ (mind) which is itself but a modification identifying itself with the reflection of Consciousness, imagines (various) ideas in the dream. And the same inner organ (identifying itself with the body) imagines objects external to itself in the waking state with respect to the senseorgans". V. 12: "The subtle body which is the material cause of the mind and egoism, is one and of the nature of insentiency. It moves in the three states and is born and it dies. 11 Similarly one reads in a small booklet with the title / "Aparoksanubhuti" (12) 6) verses 56-58: "This world, though an object of our daily experience and serving all practical purposes,
is,
like the dream world, of the nature of non-
existence, inasmuch as it is contradicted the next moment. The dream (experience) is unreal in waking, whereas the waking (experience) is absent in dream. Both, however, are non~existent in deep sleep which, again, is not experienced in either. Thus all the three states are unreal inasmuch as but
their
they
are
witness
the
(the
creation of the three reality
behind
them)
11
is
gUIJas"; beyond
all "gui:ias" 7), eternal, one, and is consciousness itself." If one wants to translate these formulations, the full understanding of which would actually require an introduction to ancient Indian terminol?gy and psychology, into a language which is more appealing nowadays, and which will also be understood in the West,
one can sum up more
or less as follows: Dream and sleep are products of "non-knowing" ( avidya) or perhaps one may pe permitted to say "of the unconsci-
/
6) "Aparoksanubhuti" or "Self-Realization" (literally: experience of "revelation", i.e. something,., that _c~nnot be seen with the eyes) attributed to Shri Sankaracarya, 8th century A.D. 7) "guna" ( s): The three "gunas" are the or qualities of the whole of creation.
basic elements
142
ous". The self can only recognise itself in these two states by remembering and reflecting, when it ponders over them in its waking state. If, therefore, one takes consciousness, in particular ego-consciousness, as the criterion, the waking state, in spite of all its limitations, is superior to the dream-state, though the latter allows for a greater wealth of possibilities. One can alomst regard it as a postulate of the human need for symmetry and analogy that one wishes to contrast deep sleep with a still further state in which all-embracing illumined and illuminating knowledge and creative freedom, a state of not ·being conditioned (the German "unbedingt" literally means "not limited by objects") which in dreaming and waking only partially and' imperfectly exists and in deep sleep is completely absent, would be present to the highest degree. This is "turTya", the Fourth State. In deep sleep, of course, the self also rests in itself, no longer surrounded and determined by a world of other creatures and things. This state, however, is characterized by darkness and unknowing. Against this, the "tur'iya"-state is perfect, all penetrating illumination, all-embracing knowledge and highest potency of being. Synoptically, one can present the significance and characteristics of these four states as shown on pp. 144/145.
The
terminology
confusing.
On
impression
that
subject and and act of
used in this synopsis may be somewhat
reading certain texts one actually has deep
object, seeing
sleep,
in
which
the difference is eliminated,
the
split
the
between
between seer, seen is praised as the
condition of highest bliss, and that it is not sufficiently differentiated from the Fourth State. This is perhaps connected with the difficulties that present themselves if one wishes to translate into a European language the Sanskrit terms, which presuppose a quite different type of psychology. On the other hand, one has to add that various philosophical schools do not represent the Four States
in
the
same
manner,
attributing
more
importance
to one or the other aspect. What is clear is that the "self" which persists steadily
143
throughout all dered
as
worlds of
the
known
the
witness to us,
"turiya".
everything, pear ls, the
these Four States, and which can be consi-
and
the
of
This
on
is
which
experiences
"non-experiencing"
this
highest
to reach
Self,
this
exercises,
all
that
happens
in
the
three
can only be the all-illuminating Self the
thread
like of
of
which
waking deep
is
which
separate, and
dreaming
sleep
to
be
runs
single
are
through beads and
strung.
aspired
or
also It
is
to and it is
realm that all yoga systems, all meditation
all
philosophical
scriptures
attempt
to offer
paths adap~d to the needs of each individual. Though
one
may be
justified in comparing tnese Indian
methods, in particular certain yoga practices, with Western psychotherapeutic procedures
(S),
one has
to stress again
and again that their aim is different. Western psychotherapy
is out to assist the person who seeks help in arriving
at a
more conscious recognition and a more mature fulfil-
ment
of
the
possibilities
waking world beings
8).
in which he has Indian
liberating
that
man
waking
world
waking
state,
from
his
in
but
own within
however,
involvement
making
also
his
this
to come to terms with other
philosophy,
and
are
him
dream
sees in
this
transcend
and
its
in
deceptive
not
deep sleep.
aim
only
the
The method
for this is not a remembering, a recalling and associating of in
thoughts their
becoming
"suppression one
with
sometimes
be
thought
to
so
presented
far
the
unmanageable
8) Once
can
then
be
examined
connections of meaning,
thought", can
which
the dimly
next, an
obstacle
again:
of
the
all
moment
but a thought
of
perceived
and with
German
processes" and
void
transition
9),
a
which
from
one
that very moment which has
irritating, or
recognised
"cessation of all
silence on
and
as
yet
even
an
term
"sich
unexplained
awkward
annoyance
and to
auseinandersetzen" !
{ s)
9) The fundamental definition "Yogas citta vrtti nirodhah", i.e. "Yoga is the arresting of ali revolving of thoughts", stands at the beginning of the standard work on Yoga, PATANJALI' s "Yoga-Sutras" ( 11 ) Section I, Verse 2 (see also page 175).
1 44
SYNOPSIS OF SIGNIFICANCE AND CHARACTERISTICS III
II
su~upti or prajna
svapana or taijasa
Deep sleep (knowing or preliminary stage, "gate" to knowledge).
Dream (consisting of light, luminous).
Enjoying pure bliss (ananda).
Enjoying the subtle < siiksma) •
No split between subject and object.
Within the dream world, subject and object distinguished.
Cognition is only a dark, undifferentiated mass.
Cognition only "inward".
Seer, seen and act of seeing are one, as there is no second that could be seen.
Within the dream: seer, seen and act of seeing different; but when seen from the waking state, they are one.
No ego-consciousness.
Dream ego is not conscious of itself.
Not illuminated or illuminating.
The self illuminates its own dream world.
No activity, no effectiveness.
Dream happenings are "real" and effective with regard to dream figures, but not for fellow-creatures of the waking world.
"gate to knowledge", slumbering potential for knowledge.
Purely product of ignorance.
Products of ignorance. Belonging to the sphere of "non,-being".
145
OF THE FOUR STATES I
IV
jagarat or vaisvanara
turiya
Waking state (common to all men).
Fourth State
Enjoying gross matter (sthula)
P~ce,
Split between subject and object.
"Advaita", one-ness.
Cognition "outward".
No cognition or perception.
Seer, seen, act of seeing experienced as separate.
"Advaita": seer, seen and act of seeing perfectly one.
Ego-consciousness present.
Ego is one with the highest Self, participating in universal consciousness.
Man appears in the light in which the whole of creation appears, but himself also has a certain capacity for illuminating world.
All-pervading and allembracing highest illumination.
Action is effective and binding also for fellowbeings.
Highest creative potential.
Determinate, concrete knowledge.
All-embracing, unifying knowledge.
/
cal~, non-duality (santam, sivam, advaitam)
Highest potential of being, also including !'non-being", permanent, eternal.
146
the
modern
object
of
Western his
psychologist
studies
only
itself outwardly! One sometimes
hears
to
to
an
an
attitude
regression
would
lead
to
who
wants
to
"behaviour"
the
reproach
embryonal of
that
that
stage
as
an
manifests
this
and,
careless
have
at
amounts
any
rate,
indifference
with
regard to the world and in particular with regard to suffering
fellow human beings.
developments would as
make
of
HEIDEGGER
human
a
such
theoretical
criticism
has
presented
"Dasein",
One could indeed trace various
and as
and
appear it
practical justified.
as
the
nature
that
"Care",
such
central
it decisively guides
concern of
the
Daseins-
analytically oriented therapist in his thinking and doing, is
something
literature
that
in
derived
ancient
from
Indian
them,
of many so-called "saints",
as
scriptures
also
in
the
and
the
practices
plays hardly any role or none
at all.
If, however, one searches carefully in the ancient scriptures, one discovers that this defect does not lie in the sources themselves, but that probably it has crept in as a later pollution of the streams of thought that flowed from it. I have already pointed out earlier that the one who has himself becomes a for
the
find
source of
effect
in
the
reached a
light
which
for
his
scriptures
characterize him and
fellow-world
he has on his
ancient
that are
enlightenment
state of
and
environment,
several
that,
one
expressions
indeed modes
of
that
being
bu~
would befit not only any perfect human being,
can that
in parti-
cular any psychotherapist (S). The power of
illumination of the "tur'i'ya" is too over-
whelming,
even
tries
penetrate
to
annihilating,
is
overcome
by
of
becoming
firm,
hold the
something ancient
without
it of
of
prematurely,
unwittingly. is it
Indian
risk
it
scorching,
already
going
astray,
or
if
in
one
this
only
is
under
the "~arana",
in
illumination
wisdom
of
his
own
is
the
his
turn
maturation,
to
way
who
grasp
and
According to
do
to
this,
supervision
(S). One surrenders
oneself to the protection, the
in
of
life.
the
and guidance of an experienced "guru"
someone
who
A process
necessary
scriptures,
for
of a master who, just as
a
good
therapist! - only offers as much as the aspirant can grasp,
147
thus helping him to open himself up gradually to illumination, according to the extent of his own capacity for maturing,
and
also
to
strengthen
himself
to
be
able
to
hold
and to withstand the forces that will flow into him.
*
*
*
It
has
already been pointed out that discussion about
dream
and
deep sleep in ancient Indian scriptures serves
not only as an approach to the understanding of the ultimate
essence
about
the
now
have
I
Indian what
of man,
but also allows
nature of tried
justified
important conclusions
In other words,
to explain in which way,
scriptures,
remains
the world.
dream deserves
if up to
in the ancient
to be called "a world",
to be examined now is whether one is really
in
calling
the
world
"a
dream".
(See
also
p.
1 77.)
Probably no one
-
except some of our psychiatric pati-
ents who are extremely alienated from themselves!
- would
contest the idea that the contents which appear in a dream belong
and
pertain
to
the
dreamer
himself.
His
own
possibilities show themselves to him in the shape of other people,
animals,
in
waking
as
approaching
made in
life
these,
waking
too, us
our
life
experienced
plants,
objects
everything
"from
by
is
an
others
in
can again
dream
the
The
dreamer,
the
seer,
figures
as
scene
solitude,
that which
Furthermore,
first
fully
as
experienced
long as we have not our
own.
which
But
can
furthermore,
while
also
therefore
which
and
is
just
be is
the experiencer
be an object of experience for others,
entire in
situations
"outside"
"objectifiable" and in which, himself
at
outside" as
possibilities, there
and
is
is is
shifted at
one
to
the
and
the
"inside". same
time
seen and also the act of seeing.
the ·seer,
he
is
not
experienced
by
the
that appear before him and even otherwise is not
seen by anyone else. It is only on his return to the waking world
that,
remembering,
himself as the dreamer, ly,
reflecting,
he
can
recognise
the seer, and thus, retrospective-
can become one who is "seen" by himself. Such oneness
of "seer, seen and act of seeing", or, as one might express
1 48
it
in
Western
experience, phy,
the
language:
teaching
situation bringing
of
subject,
object
and
act
of
is what the ancient Indian "advai ta" phi losois,
of
"non-duality",
therefore,
closer
to
our
a
very
advocates.
apt
The dream
starting-point
understanding
this
for
philosophical
truth which is otherwise very difficult to grasp. In doing so, the argument runs more or less as follows: 1.
In
dream,
one. 2. Dream
seer,
and
the
waking
seen
and
world
are
the
act
equally
of
seeing
original
are
worlds
or modes of existence, each in its own right. 3.
Once
one
arises
admits
whether
characterised
perhaps
by
a
the seen. 4. In the waking individual
dream the
similar world,
human
in a dream.
that
is
a
world,
waking
world
relationship
if
it
is
the too
of
seen
as
to add,
of course,
might
be
seer
to
the a
being corresponds to one of
One has
question
whole, the
that,
the
figures
within this
waking world he also has, to a certain degree, the capacity to
figure
as
a
"seer"
and
even
stage
certain
"dreams"
or "world projects" in which other creatures become f igures.
Nevertheless,
happenings
in
this
all
human
beings,
for
it
seer,
takes
a
place,
if
one
keeps
world
that
one faces
a
out
in is
mind
the
totality
common and binding
the necessity of
dreamer,
within
of
creative
whose
whose
for
postulating
"mind"
power
of
all
all
this
this has
been realised. 5.
As,
however,
it
has
been
through
made
clear
seer and seen are one, all-that-is
-
the
example
that
dreamer
it follows
of
the
and
dream-state,
dream
that man -
is one with the great Dreamer,
figures,
or actually the
highest
creative Power. This
oneness
which, however, Ultimately,
can
also
be
proved
by
other
arguments
in the present context, we cannot discuss.
it cannot be grasped by any logical argument;
it passes all human understanding and is really accessible only through one's own experience of illumination. A few
extracts
from
the
ancient
scriptures
and
later
commentaries on them may again illustrate what the reasoning just sketched out looks like in the original:
149 is
It
MANDUKYOPANI~AD
the
quite particularly for rears
old,
( 9)
which
1 0)
lends
itself
this purpose. This text, over 2000 limited only to 12 verses,
very concentrated,
interprets the mystical significance of the great "mantra" 11
0M 11
(S)
11)
States". and at
By
by
likening
quoting
the same
some
its of
components
its
verses,
time further elucidate,
to we
the
can
"Four
repeat,
part of what has
already been explained: Verse
11
2:
Self within ters."
-
truly,
(atman)
Verse 3:
(common
to
all
waking
state
(the
-
for
his
4:
or
his
•
And this
quarter is material
field,
11
vai;vanara 11
condition)
outwardly
12)
and
(
with
s)
the
cognitive,
enjoying
gross
"The second quarter is the "taij asa"
the
mental
field,
nineteen-mouthed, 5:
the
brahman 11
The Self has four quar-
•
nineteen-mouthed Verse
brilliant
state
or
11
brahman
"The first
for
seven-limbed, objects".
is
men
11
everything is 11
and
cognitive,
enjoying
"When one is asleep,
with
condition)
inwardly
subtle
the
dream
seven-limbed,
objects."
feels no desires,
Verse
sees no dreams,
that is deep sleep. The third is "prajna" (the cognitional or
the
stage his
intellectual of
it!
field,
E.H.)
with
condition having
-
or
this
experiences
all
and
forming Verse
cognitions." knower,
the 6:
and
dissolution." is not wise say,
unified,
with
7:
inwardly
cognitive,
nor
cognitive
indefinite
mass
of
10)
"This is
Verse
to
for
cognition
all
definite
the Lord of all,
their source, "The
Fourth
cognitive, nor
sleep
full of bliss, enjoying
both-wise;
cognition,
preliminary
deep
gate-way
their inner controller,
a
of
reduced to a mere indefinite mass, bliss,
rather
state
their
their origin ( turiya) ,
nor
neither
collecti v~
It is mostly the terminology of this text been used for the synopsis on pages 144/145.
the
outwardly is
it
an
cognition,
that
11 ) "OM" is really "AUM". The 4 components are "A", 11 M11 and as the fourth the syllable as a whole. 12) 19 the various organs of perception, action cognition according to ancient Indian psychology.
has 11
11
U
,
and
150 nor non-cognition. It is the essence of the one self-cognition common to all cease
in it.
states of consciousness.
It is peace,
it is bliss,
All phenomena
it is non-duality.
This is the Self, and it is to be realised."
.
. . of subject and
In BRHADARANYAKA UPANISAD ((2)
4,3,
'
of
oneness
in
sleep,
is
described
object,
as
V.
transcends desire,
and
is
and
fearless.
21-32) the state
which already
follows:
is his form which demerits
v.
As
11
prevails
That
indeed
is bereft of
merits
a
21:
man
fully
embraced
by his dear wife knows nothing external or internal, so
this
Self
infinite
knows
his
nothing
form,
ised,
entity
fully
external
or
embraced
by
internal.
That
in which all objects of desire
in which
they
have
become
the
the
even
Supreme
indeed
is
have been real-
self,
and
which
is
devoid of desire and beyond grief." V. 22: "In this state, a
father
worlds
is no
are
Vedas
no
mor~
a
more
worlds,
father,
a mother no more a mother,
the
(the holy scriptures,
gods
E.H.)
no
more
gods,
no more Vedas.
the
In
this
state, a thief is no more a thief, the murderer of a worthy "Brahmana" no more such a murderer etc ••• This form is unaffected by good actions and unaffected by bad actions i for
the
self
heart. •• " that
state
state,
is
V. is
it
11
23:
then
beyond
That
it
because,
does
not
all
does
al though
see;
for
afflictions
not
(really)
there
of
(apparently)
cannot
the
see
in
seeing
in
be
absence
any
that
of the sight of the seer, since the latter is imperishable. But
there
is
not
that
second
entity
differentiated
from
it which it can see." In similar manner,
it is enumerated
that
can
there
is
no
longer
tasted,
spoken, heard,
V.
"Where
31:
there
one
can
there see
can taste another, another." water, world
V.
one, that
32: the is
anything
that
thought or touched. is
a
different
another,
one
can
be
smelled,
(Verses 24-30).
thing,
as
smell
it
were,
another,
one
one can touch another and one can know
"It becomes seer
and
(in deep sleep) from duality.
free
"brahman"
this
this
is
its
highest
glory,
this
this
is
its
highest
bliss,
all
particle of this very bliss. That this unifying world
serene,
is is
the its
other
This
highest highest
beings
like
is
the
goal, world,
live
on
a
II
of
deep
sleep
is
still
not
1 51
the
last
as
and
the
highest
is
evident from various texts,
in CHANDOGYA UPANI~AD
e.g.
( 3) ,
where it is reported,
how the God Indra, who is taking philosophical instruction from
Prajapati,
partial,
the
Creator,
fragmentary
is
knowledge
not
he
is
satisfied with
the
first
but
offered,
again and again critically re-examines what he has learned as
it
were
teacher
propaedeutically,
for
deeper
and
then
enlightenment.
The
returns master,
to in
the
reply
to his questions concerning the Self, after various insufficient pointers, See also p. 189): Verse He
is
serene
the
student that
and
said:
the
leaves
(8,11,
explains:
knows
immortal,
first
this
self, the
"Prajapati
1:
composed,
finally
"He
no
who
dream,
fearless.
satisfied.
He
is
fully
he is
the
is
But
again according to Verse 1: does
asleep, "atman".
"brahman"." The
soon
new knowledge too is untenable.
sleeper)
1-3).
verses
he
discovers
He says to him-
"In truth this one (i.e.
not know himself now as "I am he", nor
indeed these beings. It seems as if he has gone to annihilation. I see no good in this". He again returns to Prajapati
who
the
now
explains
ultimate "O
1:
truth
Indra,
to his pupil, as
mortal
who has
(8,12,
follows:
thus matured,
v.
indeed is this body,
ff):
Verse
held by death.
But it is the support of this death less, bodiless ''atman". Verily,
the
embodied
Surely,
there
one who
is embodied.
is
self
no
is
held
cessation
of
by pleasure and pain. pleasure
and
pain
for
But pleasure and pain do not indeed
touch one who is bodiless." This
imperishable
Self
is
the witness of all
percept-
ions, whether in waking, dream or deep sleep. In (4),
the the
soul, as
treatise
relationship
and
"jagat",
follows
fallacious "buddhi" their (which the
between
36-41):
(Verses
(intellect)
of
nature
means
the of
of
the
it
"the
elements the
Viveka"
"jiva",
the individual
the universe,
v.
36/37: various
(the
objects
is
E.H.).
their of
located
actions
self)
living" and
is presented
"It is because the
Consciousness
performs
therefore
actually
mentioned~
the world,
presentation
result,
consisting of
already
in
the
and
enjoys
called
"jiva"
And
products
enjoyment,
all
this,
which is
are
called
1 52
"jagat"
(universe).
beginning,
have
These
(only)
two,
dating
from
time
without
empirical existence and exist till
one attains liberation. Therefore both are called empirical (i.e. suited for the every-day transactions of this phenomenal world. with of
V.
Consciousness the
covers
nature the
universe, V.
E.H.)
29:
38:
wrongly
of
but
then
said to be associated
presented
concealment
(empirical)
"These
"Sleep, and
the
mind)
projection,
individual
self
imagines
them
objects
(namely
two
(in
(in
and
dream)
the
at
the
and first
cognized
afresh".
perceiving
and the perceived world - according to the text;
self
but more
plausibly: the objects seen in the dream: E.H.) are illusory
on
account
of
period of
(dream)
waking
from
up
again. 11 dream) as
real,
but
world)
thinks
real."
In
having
experience.
dream
40:
V.
thinks
their
"He
sees who
is
(i.e.
the
empirical to
of
the
(i.e.
"jTva" i.e.
this,
v.
the
(i.e.
the
the
(of
the
dream-world)
of
the
waking
dream-world)
comparison
41:
waking
the
one after
"fI va"
illusory
the
analogy
during
objects when one dreams
illusory world
(that world,
only
It is because no
these
the
then continues as follows: "jiva"
existed
in
as
un-
the
text
"He who is the empirical
world),
sees
this
empirical
world as real. But the real "jiva" knows it to be unreal". V.
42:
11
The "paramarthika jiva"
(i.e.
the self that tran-
scends the world of objects) knows its identity with "brahman"
to
be
(alone)
real.
He
does
not
see
the other
(if
he sees the other) he knows it to be illusory." For us people from the West, who are so firmly anchored in
the
reality
up our faith,
of
into
ject 11,
life,
taken so much for
and genuineness. us
waking
is
difficult
granted,
to
give
in its solidity
People like Medard BOSS who try to arouse
questioning "inside"
it
and
such
concepts
"outside",
as
or
at
11
subj e'ct" least
and
warn
"obus
to
deal with them cautiously and critically, tend to be experienced as disturbing or even annoying. The ancient Indian philosophers,
too,
had
disciples
these
views,
"real" or
of
"unreal
11
no
easy and
task the
to
convince
question,
as
this world which we experience
their to
how
in
the
waking state is and what its meaning is, draws a dividing line between different philosophical schools. It is Kashmi-
153
ri
Shaivism,
exponents, which to
and
above
all
ABHINAVAGUPTA
offers
a
reconcile
one
(S)
particularly
harmoniously
of
its
most
significant
(10th/11th
century
A.D.),
illuminating
answer,
suited
the
two
extremes
of
"realism
11
and "idealism". According experience the
to is
these "real
all-embracing
teachings
11
because
13),
it
consciousness
is
of
the a
world
of
our
manifestation
the highest Self,
of or,
in other words, the highest reality - just as the materialisations bring not
which
abou.t,
for
people.
i.e.
a
but
the
yogi
are 'not
binding
other
a
endowed
simply a
others,
On
the
mere mental
with
but
effecti venes.s
hand,
the
representation,
experience
of
a
powers
can
dream peculiar to him and
gain
other
special
self
world
also 11
is
for
ideal 11 ,
because it is nothing
(namely
of
the
highest,
all-embracing Self) and, as such, has its existence totally within has
this
its
calls
appears
which we tellect
as
our
experience
to
is
reach
operate,
not
short:
of
that
dream also
Idealism".
our
all
accessible
all
in
This philosophical school,
"Realistic
remain conscious,
cease
in
itself
within
still
o..i::dinarily ness,
just
seat within ourselves.
therefore, which
Self,
senses,
when
the
that,
to
which
All
all
that
that
of
senses and in-
furthermore,
which
limited human consciousis
and
of which one can
say that in some way or other it exists, that can be named by
speech,
no
matter
whether
it
be
subject
or
object,
means for gaining knowledge or knowledge itself, is summed up
by
the
concept
11
of
abhasa"
(i.e.
that which
"shines"
or "appears", corresponding literally to the Greek menon"). ~ere
is
then
argued
that
if
subject
totally cut apart from eac~ other,
between appear logs
It
of
them to
be
wood
could as
not have
been
the coming thrown
phaino-
and
object
any communication
be possible or at
difficult as
which
11
onto
least
it would
together of two
far
two
apart
areas of a beach by two different currents.
13) The following summing up of what has been taught by ABHINAVAGUPTA is taken from the comprehensive work of K.C. PANDEY (10) in particular pages 319-329.
154 This problem is dealt with by a theory of an all-embracing universal consciousness or Self, the "anuttara" (literally the "non-plus-ultra"). This is the one reality, beyond which nothing can pass, which is free from all limitations, undefinable, not to be grasped by the human mind and therefore also not to be formulated in words. This is the "brahman" of the Vedantic school. Whatever we can state about it concerns this Highest only in its relationship to us as its creatures. No definition is adequate for it. This "anuttara", however, being self-luminous or "shining", has the capacity to bring into appearance and to let shine forth a world which immanently already is present in it' and thus to create a possibility of "grasping" or "perceiving" and thus recognising itself 1 4). As the "cause" not only the efficient, but also the material ca use! of all that is and can be, implying both being and nonbeing, this Highest is also called "mahasatta", which means "highest potential of being". Within this particular philosophical system, illumination need not be acquired by escape from the world. It is, on the contrary, recommended that one should accept this concrete world and render the contact and friction with it fruitful for becoming conscious of oneself and for maturing, in the same way in which the highest creative power is trying to become conscious of itself through the world created by it and the friction against it. rt
14) The term "viman(a" (S) which is used for this aspect, actually means literally "touch, friction". PANDEY (10) gives the following definition for it: "Vimar§a stands for that aspect that is a force which we, for lack of a better expression, here call "consciousness"; a force which, by bringing about self-consciousness, will, ordered activity, is responsible for the selection of that which immanently is already available and also for the manifestation of the material thus selected as different ·from itself". One may add, in this context, that the German term "begreifen", which denotes not only mental "grasping", but a quite concrete physical act of touching and gripping, is particularly apt to render this double meaning. In English, it cannot be adequately rendered by anything else but "grasping" with a similar double sense.
155
is this very opportunity for maturing, for rubbing oneself against a resistent reality that essentially distinguishes this waking-world from the dream-world and that brings about the continuing historicity of the former. (See BOSS, (1
a)
p. 236.)
It would lead us too far to enter into this whole terminology and all the ideas implied in it. The few references to some of its aspects which I have been able to give in this context, may have sufficed to show that this philosophical system is particularly akin to what Martin HEIDEGGER has formulated, though from a quite different background, and what Medard BOSS has made fruitful for psychiatry and psychotherapy. Many doubts and unsolved questions remain. Perhaps, however, readers
what I have briefly summed up, may have led some to eliminate
the question mark after
the
second
half of the title. Absurd and unrealistic as this idea of "world - a dream" may appear, it is above all our present time for which it might have its impressive significance. Has modern science not led more and more to the insight that the ultimate "element" to which we can reduce everything in this world which up to now seemed so solid, is
one
single
force,
still
difficult
to
define,
which
can manifest itself in the form of matter, but can also, by transformation or destruction of its creation, again liberate itself from it? Are we not experiencing, how "laws of nature" that up to now appeared to be immovable, nowadays have come to be considered as mere conventions of Are
a
social
we
our
not
own
order
existing
witnessing with
human
social
amongst some
structure
humans
alarm is
or . animals?
the way
in which
increasingly
being
shaken? How, on one hand, the network of human relationship previously considered to be so solid is crumbling and how, on the other hand, more and mo~e zealous, if not desperate, efforts are being made to fix and integrate this dilapidated structure in increasingly rigid artificial plans and schemes intended to fulfil the dream of guaranteed social security? Does not a great part of humanity spend
more
screens,
on
and
more
which
a
time
facing
cinema
two-dimensional
and
world
television is
conjured
156
up that has no substance and that does not challenge one into any responsibility? Is it not the case that more and more young people ·escape with the help of drugs into states in which the commonly binding world is replaced by a dream that need not be shared with anyone and that creates no obligation towards anyone? Are we not sometimes affected by some of the happenings of our time as by an anxious dream, which intensifies into a regular nightmare? Are we not increasingly afraid that one day this dream might end with a world-sh'attering bang? and then - into what shall we awaken? In the midst of all these frightening phenomena of dissolution in our present-day world in which the distinctions between waking- and dream~state are increasingly obliterated, would it not be fitting to reflect on the essence of our world and our own being in it and to prepare ourselves for a true awakening into a more comprehensive and more permanent reality?
157 LITERATURE (1) BOSS, MEDARD:
a) "Der Traum und seine Auslegung", Huber, Bern, 1953. English edition: Rider & Co., London, 1 9 5 7 • b) 11 Indienfahrt eines Psychiaters", Gunther Neske, Pfullingen, 1959. English translation: "A Psychiatrist Discovers India", Oswald Wolff, London, 1965. c) "Psychoanalysis & Daseinsanalysis", Basic Books Inc., New York, London, 1963. d) 11 Grundriss der Medizin", Hans Huber, Bern 1971.
(2) BRHADARANYAKA UPANISf.D:
used: Sanskrit-English parallel text of Shri Ramakrishna Math, Madras, 1961.
(3) CHANDOGYA
UPANI~AD:
used: Sanskrit-English parallel text of Shri Ramakrishna Math, Madras, 1 956.
(4) D~G-D~SYA, VIVEKA:
attributed to Brahmananda Bharati, 14th century A.D. Shri Ramakrishna Ashrama, Mysore, 1955. (SanskritEnglish text & commentary.)
(5) HEIDEGGER, MARTIN:
"Ueber den Humanismus". Vittorio Klostermann, Frankfurt a/M., 1947.
(6)
HOCH, E.M.:
a) "Bhaya, Shoka, Moha". In "Abendlandische Therapie und ostliche Weisheit", Ed. by W. Bitter, Klett Verlag, Stuttgart, 1968. English version: pp. 29 ff in this volume. b) "Altindische Philosophie, Indische Religionen und Psychotherapie". Article in "Enzyklopaedie der Psychologie des 20. Jahrhunderts", Vol. XV, pp. 214-222, Kindler, Zurich, 1979. English version: pp. 13 ff in this volume.
( 7) LAKSHMINATH BEZBARAO:
"Tales of a Grandfather from Assam". The Indian Institute of Culture, Bangalore, 1955.
(8) MACDONELL, A.A.:
"Practical Sanskrit Dictionary", Oxford University Press. Originally published 1929. Photocopied edition 1954-1958.
158 (9)
-
MA~gUKYOPANI~AD:
used: Sanskrit-English parallel text of Shri Ramakrishna Math, Madras, 1956.
(10) PANDEY, K.C.:
"Abhinavagupta". An Historical and Philosophical Study. The Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1963.
(11) PATANJALI:
"Yoga-Su tr as". Used: "The Science of Yoga", Sanskrit-English parallel text with commentaries by I.K. TAIMNI, The Theosophical Publishing House, Madras, 1961.
/
(12) SHRI, SANKARACARYA:
"Aparoks'anubhuti" (Self Realisation). With commentary by Swami Viniktananda. Advaita Ashram, Calcutta, 1955.
159
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE "ZUERCHER GESPRAECHE" The following four items in this volume are all contributions to the so-called "Ziirche,i- Gesprache" ("Zurich Colloquies"). This small, interdisciplinary, international and intercultural group has been holding its meetings twice a year, usually in Zurich, since 1 977. As GRASSI and SCHMALE have stated in a first publication which has come out under the title: "Das Gesprach als Ereignis. Ein semiotisches Problem." (English translation: Colloquy as Event. A Semiotic Problem." 1 ) , the initial concern was the question "whether the reason for frequent failure of colloquy amongst scientists of different branches and of different schools within the same discipline, is a purely formal one, i.e. due to the differences in terminology, or whether perhaps it may have deeper causes that are connected with the present-day concept of Science." The pre-eminence of "rational thinking" which is characteristic for our time, is b.eing critically viewed and, in contrast to it, the importance of creative fantasy which, in speech and colloquy, takes the form of images and metaphors what the 14th/15th century Italian humanists, in particular G.B. VICO, called the "ingenium" - is stressed again and again. Knowledge, adjustment to the environment, are not to be seen as a result of institutionalised indoctrination through "formal education", but as something that has to be searched for and found, "invented", by the individual in each particular situation. The "authenticity" which this presupposes and in its turn again re-inforces, is not the only link with HEIDEGGER' s Daseinsanalytical philosophy, with which quite a few of the members of the group are closely acquainted. HEIDEGGER's scepticism with regard to technology and his view that Science is not the only means of recognising reality, but only one of the many possible ways and that actually, by its very existence, it obliterates the openness within which it can appear, also prov ides a background with which the group most of the time finds itself in harmony. "Colloquy" itself - mainly carried out in small groups of only 5-8 participants who discuss the contributions presented to the plenum by appointed speakers is not simply seen as a means of communicating knowledge and debating on it, as a process that is out to prove with general validity as objectively and dispassionately as possible the given premises, but as a creative "happening" or "event", into which each participant brings himself and his very own experience, his history and his subjectivity and which, thus, of ten takes a quite unpredictable course. Right from the start, the idea had been to bring together, in a group of 20-25, well qualified people from different branches of science and from different parts of the world. In view of the importance given to non-rational approaches, care was of course taken to include participants from the East. As the language used throughout was to be and still is German (and this was necessary
1) Wilhelm Fink Verlag, Miinchen, 1982.
1 60
if even greater semantic confusion than this is already the case in interdisciplinary discussion in one single language was to be avoided! ) it was not very easy to find people from Asian countries who, though well versed in the German language and acquainted with the problems of the West and the European cultural background, were still sufficiently rooted in their own culture to be a~le to represent its spirit in a free exchange of views •. w~ile from Japan suitable representatives of the human~ti7s, but also from the field of psychiatry, were fairly re~dily available, India, with English as its "medium of higher education" and "link language", offered a much more restricted choice. It was thus m)' good fortune to be invited. Joining as a newcomer after the group had already developed its style and .created 'an atmosphere of friendly familiarity in three meetings, meant that my first contribution on "The significance of images in Hinduism" had to be bas:d on a vague guess at the needs and interests of those it was meant for. Fortunately the preliminary correspondence with Prof. E. GRASSI provided some useful clues, so tha~, not only in offering my own presentation, but also . in participating in the discussions, I could soon feel quite "at home". As the themes for subsequent meetings always grew out of what had emerged during one of the colloquies, one thus became involved in a continuous - but never predictable - process of intensive and stimulating exchange with a core-group of old, familiar members, but each time also with newcomers who brought in fresh viewpoints and opened up new avenues of thought. I found that the subjects proposed for the different meetings were never quite outside my scope. Though at f ;i.r~t sight the one or the other might have sounded strange or even unappealing, relevant associations either from my field of work, psychiatry, or from my study of ancient Indian scriptures or often from both, would come up quite soon and shape themselves into a presentable structure· Both the psychiatric elements as well as those pertaining to Indian philosophical tradition could be of use in this context only as far as they had become part of my own 11 f e lt .experience • II , gained through a process of persona 1 searching and finding, and not just by way of handing on. knowledge acquired from generally available, formally laid-down sources. This, of course, was just what suited me, as in the course of the years, when approaching retirement-age, I had felt more and more that being harnessed t~ ~ particular profession - especially one performed within the framework of government service and involving the teaching of students according to a prescribed syllabus - tended to limit one's views and to cramp one's style. Accordingly, what these next four papers contain by way of "psychiatry" is not "talking shop" within this branch of medical science, but something much closer simply to "human experience" that can be shared with and understood by anyone. The contributions as they were originally presented contained of course some references quite specific to the setting of the "Zurcher Gesprache". These have been either eliminated or, as far as possible, formulated in
1 61
more general terms. The "patrons" of the "Zurcher Gesprache": the late Dr. h.c. V. ,LANGEN and Mrs. M. LANGEN, Prof. E. GRASSI and Prof. H. SCHMALE, have kindly given their consent to my publishing these contributions to the "Zurcher Gesprache" in this volume. Only one i tern ("Criteria of Reality") and part of a second one (Section III and the initial paragraphs of Section I of "Colloquy") have been included in the first publication about the "Zurcher Gesprache", so that most of what is to be presented in English translation in this collection will be published for the first time. Though the last paper in this group ("Anxiety and speech") was written almost 15 years after the earliest one included in this volume ("Bhaya, S"oka, moha"), the latter could still provide a ready-made basis for these further elaborations on the theme of "anxiety", perhaps indicating that development, far from stagnating, had moved in a spiral and had again come back to the same point, but on a different level. After this general introduction which explains the context in which they took their origin, the four following papers will not need any separate comments. The dates and theme of the "Zurcher Gesprach" for which each one of them was prepared, will be given in footnotes.
163
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF IMAGES IN HINDUISM
1)
1. Introduction The request to produce a contribution on the signif icance
of
images
Hinduism, and an
in
the
power
almost
tions.
Indian
of
ritualisation",
overwhelming
Hinduism,
Gods,
culture_ or,
more
precisely,
in
for a colloquy on the theme "The force of images
temple
with
all
at
first
aroused in me
of associations and ref lec-
its
sculptures,
is certainly one of during a
f load
myths,
sacred
epics,
syllables
the religions richest
stay in India of over 20 years,
figures
and
of
symbols,
in images,
and
I have had ample
opportunity to get acquainted with it. What
finally helped me to put the wealth of material into
shape,
so
framework of views
that of
it
the
the
preliminary following had
for
tried
the
around
fit
harmoniously into
planned
and
that would not go beyond
The he
would meeting
correspondence
passage to
explain
colloquy, which
my
from
of
his
his
grouped
exchange
E.
GRASSI
letters,
2) •
in which
ideas on the subject
the nucleus
thoughts
the given
an
the given subject, was
with· Prof.
one
to me
became
allow
for
crystallisation
themselves
in
a
well-
ordered structure: "What
is
adequate fact
-
the reason why biological signs are no longer
or which
sufficient?" lies
at
the
Prof.
GRASSI
base of
asked.
"Has
this
the human world -
its
origin in an "estrangement" with regard to the life-force at
the
is
at
needs,
biological work
revealing
or
is
it
itself
that
that
in
man
brings
a
power
forth
new
other than the mere biological ones, and therefore
implying the
and
level?
the necessity for
col lapse
of
the
finding a ~ code?
oneness
of
subject-object
If,
thus,
which
one
1) Contribution for the Fourth ziircher Gesprach, held at Zurich in July 1978, with the theme: "The force of images and the power of ritualisation". 2) Prof. of Philosophy, Rome and Munich. One of the founders and chief organisers and in many ways the inspiring force of the "Zurcher Gesprache".
1 64 still
finds on the biological level, were to be seen as the expression of an "estrangement" from the biological life-force, one would have to regard language and all that which it expresses in its code, i.e. technology, art, philosophy, only just as an expression of this alienation.
If,
on the other hand,
this
theory
is absurd, one will have to admit that, in man, something completely emerges; a power manifests itself that implies the question of "religion". In this text, which also figured in certain parts of Prof. GRASSI's introduction to the Fourth Zurcher Gesprach, I have already brought into clear relief, by underlining, the
terms
"no
longer",
"estrangement",
"new".
These,
in
a flash of insight, had made me realise, how diametrically different to Western thinking Indian concepts are and how different, consequently, the experience of the world, its origin and dissolution, will be within this framework of Indian ideas. In what follows, it is in particular this essential contrast and the role of images implied in it which I want to show. The
texts
with
which
I
wish
to
illustrate
my
ideas
are to be found mostly in the Upani~ads (dated some time between the 10th and 6th century B.C.), in the Bhagavad GI ta (part of the epic of "Mahabharata", probably the second century B.C.) and in PATANJALI's "Yoga-Sutras" (concise
aphorisms
of
it is not certain whether
yoga;
second
century
summing
B.C.
or
up
only
the
the
theory
and
it dates
4th-5th
practice
back
to
century
the
A.O.).
The translations given here are mostly those of the English editions
used.
At
times,
however,
translation and
interpretation with
English parallel
text~
I
have
given
my
own
the help of Sanskrit-
and a Sanskrit Dictionary (3).
2. Process and aim of "creation" The lines just quoted from Prof. GRASSI's letter imply the assumption that, as is generally taken for granted in
the
West,
creation
and
evolution
take
their
course
"from below upwards", as for instance presented in biology textbooks: from simple form to ever higher differentiation; from
the
purely material,
lifeless
to ever higher
levels
165
of consciousness~
from creatures rigidly tied to a select-
ive environment towards a widening of the degrees of freedom and
the capacity for lending shape to the environment
actively it.
instead
According
to
of
being
merely
the
Indian
view,
passively this
delivered
process,
at
to
least
in the first instance, moves in exactly the opposite direction:
"from
above
downward"!
that
which
is
"One",
unlimited, subjects
the
nomically a
highest
itself
from
long
The
unborn,
original,
potential
of
being
time to time -
periods
of
a
unformed and
and
non-being,
interrupted by astro-
resting
splitting up into duality,
all-powerful
imperishable,
within
itself
to
"descent", a grossification
or precipitation into a transient world of names and forms. The most extreme degree of this descent, this concretisation,
is
to
be
if
one wishes
in
this
of
what
remote even
Prof. from
the
a
level the
lifeless
this
have
be
meant
of
contrary,
the
an
as
therefore,
the
it:
not
the
biological
to,
lifeless form
"Estrangement",
would,
understood by
stranger
would
matter.
term at all,
to
GRASSI
or
view
on
in
to use
context
Western but,
seen
as
opposite
having
become
sphere
or
matter, i.e. that which in starting point of evolution,
estrangement
of
"creation"
all
from its spiritual origin! Within
mankind,
which
amongst
living
all
organisms
takes a preferential position due to its higher degree of consciousness, one distinguishes on the lower level the to a
so-called a
peg
meagre
human
"pa~u"
and
thus
potential
beings who,
strive
again
thus
few
in
freeing
for
overcome
tied
down
insight the
(as with
to I
state
that
mountain
the
peasants!)
freedom to
of many and
and
those
previous
ignorance,
Uni versa 1
this one
in i=lnimals and also
can actually confirm on illiterate
tied
themselves from this
the of
"estrangement" from their origin. In contrast to Western concepts, have
of
lethargy
into
remains
contrast
result
to
duality
that
degrees
development
capable of
are
being
can
has
"cattle"
the
incarnations, who
only for
the
perhaps as
condition
of
(S),
basis
One
world and would in
and
their
therefore
primitive man
of my experience
the effect of
images
166
is
limited,
running as
it were on one
track only
and
at
the same time guiding the creature concerned in one def inite direction, or
become
but of
not because
estranged
because freedom
they
they have
from · their
have
lost
"not yet"
moved
biological
all
their
away
foundation,
original
degrees so ~hat,
in this descent towards the material,
in their limited, tied-down condition, weal"th and abundance of are
the
original
"no
ground
longer"
process,
of
open to
Being and
them.
It
thus also of
is only
the search for the origin,
in a
images
secondary
that an "ascent" comes
about, in which of course the "not yet" and the "no longer" can
,;_
then be seen
in a
sequence
similar
to that customary
4
in the West. If
in
this
connection
(and
also
in other
contexts
in
this volume; see e.g. footnote on page 37!) the term "creation" as
( S)
has
been
used,
we
"Schopfung"
which
somehow
in
take
the
West
for
granted,
in German one
has
to be cautious: By these terms we implicitly refer to the way in which this "creation" or "Schopfung" comes about. The German term "Schopfung", at any rate, refers to an act of "scooping something out of a fluid with a ladle"
or
at
least
of
material.
The
term
on
origin,
also
work of
the Crea tor's hands".
caught
some
act
working
in
a
"creator" himself. The
is
generally
dualistic
produces
"creation",
understood
to
something
according from
a
of
refer
In either case,
concept
Indian concepts of
something
producing
an
to
by
Latin
to
"the
one remains
to
which
material
the
outside
"creation" are much less active
and, above all,
are out to avoid the impression of duality
at
of
the
origin
complicated to
present
all
things.
etymological the
Instead
reflections,
of it
entering will
images which various ancient
be
into
better
Indian
texts
use for this "creating" or better "emitting" or "releasing" which
in
in the West.
fact
is
sense of
CHANDOGYA this
neither
Some say that,
"creation",
"creatio ex nihilo",
UPANI~AD was
a
Being
(5
b)
alone,
6, 2, one
in the beginning,
v.
1:
only,
nor
a
"Schopfung
as we assume in the "In
the
without
beginning a
second.
this was Non-Being alone,
167
one only, without a second. From that Non-Being arose Being." v. 3: "That Being willed: "May I become many, may I grow forth " MUNDAKOPANI~AD (5 d) 1,1, v. 6-7: "What is invisible, ungraspable, unoriginated and attributeless; what has neither eyes, nor ears nor hands, nor feet; what is eternal, all-pervading, immeasurably subtle and limitless in manifestation; - that Imperishable Being is what the wise perceive as the source of all creation." - "As the spider emits and withdraws the web, as herbs sprout on the earth, as hair grows on the head and body of man without any effort, so from the Imperishable Being the universe springs out." (Literally: "grows together", "becomes concrete".) MU~J?AKOPANI9AD
(5
d)
2,1,
v.
1:
"As from a blazing fire
thousands of sparks, similar to it in nature, issue forth, so ••• manifold beings are produced from the Imperishable, and they verily go back to It again." TAITTIRIYOPANI~AD ( 5 g) 2, 6: "... He, the Atman, desired: May I become many. Let Me procreate Myself. He brooded over
Himself.
whatever He
Having
there
entered
brooded,
is here.
into
it;
he
projected
all
Having brought it forth,
having
entered
it,
He
this verily,
became
both
the Being and the Beyond. He became the defined and the undefined, the founded and the foundation-less, the conscious and the unconscious, the real and the unreal; whatever else there is - yes, He became the entire Reality •.• " / - / SVETASVATAROPANISAD: ( 5 ·f) 5, 3: "Differentiating
eac h
genus into its species and each species into its members, the
Supreme
Being
own ground. Again,
withdraws
them
once
more
into
their
bringing forth the agents of creation,
the Great Self holds sway over them all." rhe Universal One which stands at the beginning allows this world to proceed, to spring from it. If, action is needed for this, it does not consist in working on some material which lies outside, but rather in a hatching out of that which has already been potentially contained in this Universal One. As to the purpose for which the One, the Eternal, allows itself
to enter
into this dualistic and
transient
world
168
of
creatures,
and
into
that which
the
process
is
of
the
duality
perceived,
of
the
and as
perception,
the
a
one who
perceives
third element into
various
philosophical
schools do not have one single view. Often the whole process is simply designated as a i.e.
a
kind
that does
of
not
capricious
"play", a so-called "11la",
inspiration
of
the
"creator"
need any rational explanation. Other texts,
however, point out that a division into that which recognises
and
order of
that
to
which
permit
itself
is
the
through
being
recognised
Universal
an
act
of
One
is
to
necessary,
become
"grasping"
itself,
of "friction", a "coming to terms with itself". This is for
in
conscious a
kind
(S)
instance expressed with utmost conciseness,
which in a Western language can hardly be adequately rendered,
in
The and
one
of
purpose
of
"creation"
within nature The
aphorisms
the
and
of
coming
(actually
himself
gaining
the
PATANJALI
together
meaning:
the
power
the
"creator"
of
the
and
the
unfoldment
of
powers
original
material
Sanskrit
in
this
word
text
"appropriation"
in
awareness
or
"creator"
Him") of
used
the double
2, 23):
who
inherent
"upalabdhi"
has
the
Master
inherent
by
awareness"
of
"the
( ( 4)
is his
in
the true
him ••• "
for
"gaining
sense of
"acquisition"
rests
a
and,
quite
on
the
other hand, in a figurative sense, of "cognition" or "recognition". What of
seems
process the
of
to
is that this condescending into a
terms
with
"Auseinandersetzung" !
German
dualistic world, itself"
(S)),
(once
points
the
again:
into
two
on the one hand it leads back to consciousness
the Universal One,
cessarily also, and
to me,
to enter
"corning
directions: of
important
the Ultimate One
unfolding
before of
the
as
"the One,
the
Eternal",
this can be achieved, inherent
to a
possibilities
but neknowing
which
this
"Ultimate One" has as a potential multiplicity, as a duality of perceiver and the perceived, itself
in
this world
in
and which can manifest
innumerable varieties
of
knowing
and acting. Perhaps one may point out, this
double
such
as
function
reflecting
is
also
man,
i.e.
already at a
t~~s
characteristic the
one
who
is
stage,
that
of
images
no
longer
169 like
cattle
them
in
tied
his
multiplicity
to
the
peg,
dreams,
and
also
of
forms.
The
a
"pa£u 11
( s)
his
waking
in
images
on
can
experiences
I
in
life
the
a
hand
one
stimulate man into widening his existential possibilities, so
that
he
experience
can dare what
the
the
same time,
of
"assimilating",
can
be
to
try
images
out
have
in
action
brought
and
home
concrete
to him;
at
through this process of "making one's own" a
unitary
self
cognizant
of
itself
promoted and along with it the return to the One
that stands at the origin. This
analogy
philosophy
is
the
all
world
the
is
more
often
justified as presented
as
in a
Indian
"dream",
in other words as an "image" in the mind of the Uni versa! One.
(See pp. 131 ff in this volume.)
3. Name and form In a
the
course
dualistic
of
the
material
descent
world
into this
"creation" of
the originally omnipotent and
self-contained One increasingly loses its degrees of freedom.
It
subjects
A first and
step
form",
both
in
itself this
which
actually
more
process
originally
mean
"form",
and is
more
to
limitations.
the appearance of
are
one.
but
the
"nama" former
and
"name "rupa"
refers
more
to what offers itself to auditory perception, i.e. "names", while
"rupa" designates visible configurations;
are just two variations, of
organs can
first
appreciate
also
only
a
syllables
of
are what according
-
thus
step of becoming manifest. the
or
they
perceptible for different sense
magic power of sounds,
as
One thus
the word or even
originally
they
fully
to modern Western concepts they merely
"represent" or "indicate". (See also page 190.) It
is at
this
widest sense, types",
as
stage
that we can place "images" in the
so-to-speak as "primaeval images" or "arche-
it
were
as a
first
"blue print" or
"project"
for creation, consisting in very elementary, undifferentiated form, merely as
11
s"abda", a kind of primaeval vibration,
a stirring or readiness for action, which then differentiates
itself
perception. they
can
into the various qualities of concrete sensory The
perceiving
perceive,
are
sense
always
organs
closely
and
that
related
to
which each
1 70
other
and
similar
psychology
-
Often
the
senses
that
which
to
the
"field theory"
cannot be thought of is
are
described
perceived
by
one without
as
them
( S)
cows
as
or
their
of
modern
the
other.
horses,
pasture.
and At
a
further level of concretisation, action is added to perception,
and
one
is
probably
"ritualisation" in it. The Indian philosophy
justified
of
in
grammar,
also
including
developed
in
very
ancient times has as one of its tasks to show, in grammatical forms and in the development of language quite generally,
the
descent
from
a
state
of
utmost
freedom,
of
being hemmed
in by any conditions and contingencies,
to
more
more
and
languages,
one
fixed
also
and
limited
designates
as
forms.
(In
not down
Western
"inf ini ti ve",
i.e.
as
"unlimited", that form of the verb which is not yet limited and
conditioned
every-day which
person, is
time
tendencies gross,
thinking is
one is
mode!) the
deriving
remembers
defined
refined,
level,
inaudible
In this respect, once again the
that
as
Articulated
grossest
remarkable contrast with
towards
if
as
series of more
(See later, page 236.)
we come upon a
and
considered
is preceded by a
stages.
this
by
language
more
in
regard
behavioural
"soundless
to modern
refined
the
psychology,
speech"
the case in Indian philosophy,
from
and
not,
as
speech or language
as thinking that has grossified into sound! Four I
have
Upani~ad
just
comment. the
As
Gods,
very
form
according that
can
texts
explained: to
the
to
is
again the
shine"
and
two
words
the
same root!),
the
quoted
first
last one,
of whom it and
be I
said
this
origin
of
the
those
who
and
i.e.
illustrate hardly
need
what any
just wish to mention that
of
"scheinen"
three
that
out
also
to
"they enter form
word
they emerge "deva",
appear.
"erscheinen"
into
(In are
are
this "
"those
German
derived
the from
that which manifests itself in ima-
ges. BI~HADARANYAKA
was
then
and
form
form. and
UPANI SAD
unmani fested. it
got
such
(5
a)
1 , 4,
v.
It manifested and
such
7:
"This
uni verse
itself only as
name and
such
and
name such
So even now the universe is manifested only as name
form,
-
it gets
such and such name and such and such
1 71
form.
This
bodies its
Supreme
up
to
case,
or
realise
It,
the as
Self
penetrated
nail-ends, fire
for
has
It
lies
is
just
in
its
as
incomplete ( 5 a)
a
(i.e.
1 , 6, v.
all
razor
source.
these
lies
in
People do not
when
viewed
as
11
engaging in particular functions! E.H.). BRHADARANYAKA UPANISAD
into
1:
"Verily this uni-
verse is made up of three things: name, form and action." KATHOPANI~AD
(5
c)
3, 4:
"The
senses,
they
say,
are
the
horses, and their pasture are the sense-objects." CHANDOGYA UPANISAD
( 5 b)
3, 6 v.
2
ff
(repeatedly) :
"They
(the Gods) enter into this very form and out of this form they emerge •.• "
4.
The process of estrangement from the origin of "creat-
ion"; yoga as the path to "re-union" The process of "estrangement" it
in
the
of
"being
terminology far
removed
( 11 Seinsferne 11
Bei.ng"
or as one might express
of Daseins-analysis: from
und
Being"
or
"having
"Seinsvergessenheit"
characterized by being increasingly tied by
growing
to
the
ignorance
and
true nature of
one's
having
power
that
fall en
makes
deceptive
the world,
prey
this
the condition
to
regard
in other words,
delusion of
phenomenal
is
to the material,
illusion. with
or,
the
forgotten (S))
world
"Maya",
appear
"real"
by the by
its deceptive mirror-game, while at the same time concealing what is from on
this the
11
entanglement
origin,
actually this
is
only
re-gaining
means
"re-uniting" to
real 11 in terms of eternity. To release oneself
"yoking
and,
in
the
possible original
together I i ,
its
of
reflecting
oneness.
"joining
philosophical
"becoming one again"
by
"Yoga
11
together",
sense,
it
refers
the two halves that have
fallen apart in the world of duality. The texts I have selected to illustrate this fundamental theory, which,
are
above
keeping
in
all mind
and emancipation of
its
taken the
from
the
Bhagavad
different
readers,
levels
Gita
of
(1 )
insight
imparts in poetical form
precise instructions as to how this re-union can be reached by different types of human beings. ionally, of
the
we Hindu
are
not
Gods
only
who
are
given
In these texts, addit-
some
called
idea
"the
of
the
million
nature
faces
of
172
the universal one", but also some references to the significance of ritual in worshipping them. A striking contrast to these texts from the Bhagavad Grta ( 1 ) (see below), the "Song of God", is once again provided
by
the
terse and
extremely
concise
formulations
of PATANJALI (4). What is necessary is to see through the deceptive game in this duality of
cognizing and being cognized and
thus
to draw aside the veil of ignorance. Knowledge and ignorance,
however,
customary the
must
usage.
exact,
tendency parts
be we
determinate
to
and
veil of
not What
taken
in
value
so
knowledge
differentiate and particles,
forms
terms of
the
ignorance and deception.
our
modern,
nowadays,
science,
isolate,
on
of
highly
i. e •
with
its
to divide up
contrary
part
into
of
the
It can of course provide
for us "images of reality" -
usually only a very pragmatic
reality~
delineating
in
the
configurations not
in
any
way
this world, them
to
sense
with lead
out
of
from
our
the
one
"reality"
GITA:
but
it
in
the
Indian
nature.
Chapter
by
7,
worldly
Whatever
to worship with
faith
unflinching.
sense,
and does in
in which
(about "reality" see earlier,
(1)
discrimination
faith
contours
having gone astray
verses
form -
a
with
"Deprived
swayed by their devotee
that alone
that
(S)).
they worship other
being
particular
concerning
Endowed
20-23:
desires,
deities observing particular rites, own
its
precision,
back to the "primaeval images" and even beyond
all images pale away. BHAGAVAD
of
photographic
faith,
wishes
I
make his
he
worships
that deity, and from him gets his desires, which are indeed granted by Me alone. But that fruit of these men of little understanding the gods,
has
an
end;
the
worshippers
but My devotees come to Me"
of gods
(i.e.
go
to
Lord Krishna,
who is speaking). BHAGAVAD through as
GfTA the
(1 )
9,
verse
knowledge-sacrifice
identical with
down before
Chapter
the
1 5:
others
"
worshipping
adore
themselves or as separate,
Me,
'either
or they bend
innumerable gods who are only my million
faces. The rites prescribed by the Veda, the rituals ordered
by other
sacred
scriptures,
as well as
the
sacrifices
brought to the spirits of the ancestors, all that I am."
173 BHAGAVAD
GfTA
on Me alone, in
Me
you
(1 )
alone
are
Chapter
12,
v.
8
ff:
"Fix
your
mind
let your intellect rest in Me, you will live hereafter;
not
able
to
there
fix
is
the
no
mind
doubt.
If,
however,
steadily
on
Me,
then
through the Yoga of constant practice seek to attain Me ••• If
you
are
unable
even
to
practise
(i.e.
the repetition
of a "mantra" or other recitation E.H.), then devote yourself
to
good works for Me;
"rites")
for
My
sake,
even by doing good works
you
will
attain
(or
perfection.
If,
however, you are unable to do even this, then taking refuge in Me and being all actions." PATANJALI, which
is
Seer
"Yoga-Stitras" to
and
self-controlled,
be
the
avoided
Seen."
as
( 4)
2, 17:
the
"coming
which
"is
fruit
cause
of
together" to
that
of
the
avoided"
is
verse
indicates,
the
suffering that might befall one in future,
but quite
Buddhism, in
this
we
all
also
preceding
be
of
only,
as
immediately
"The
the
not
generally,
the
is
(That
renounce
find
suffering
in
this the
clearly
world.
expressed
"Coming
context should not be understood as
in
together"
"being one",
but means on the contrary the mutual interaction for which duality is a pre-requisite! E.H.) I
/
SVETJ\SVATAROPANI~AD
without midst
beginning
of
chao!:>,
(5 or
who
f)
end,
5,13: who
assumes
"Realising
creates many
Him
who
is
the cosmos in the
forms,
and
who
alone
envelopes everything, one becomes free from all fetters."
5. The role of images in meditation In
meditation,
an
attempt
and perception away from the
centre.
The
aim
is
oneness.
the
very
The
two
fundamental
texts one
is
red
the
thinking
inward,
renunciation
towards of
all
to
from
be
quoted,
.
KATHA
in
particular
can . impressive manner: UPANISAD
( 5 c)'
(5 c) 2,4, v. 1: "The eternal Self has rende-
senses
defective
hence man
sees
wise
desirous
man,
direct
the re-gaining of the origi-
bring understanding of this closer in KA'!'HOPANI~AD:
to
the outer world,
ultimately
attachments to form and name, nal
made
so
that
they
the external and not of
immortality
and beholds the inner Atman".
(S)
go
outward,
and
the inner Self· Some
turns
his
eyes
inward
174 AMRITABINDUPANI~AD
(5
d)
4:
"When
the
mind,
with
its
attachment for sense-objects annihilated, is fully controlled
within
the
heart
and
thus
realises
its
own
essence,
then that Supreme State is gained." It is in this process of overcoming attachment to names and
forms
that
images,
in
in mental representation,
particular
if
they
are
images
can be of valuable and effective
help. Just as images in the widest sense represent a first step in concretisa ti on on the descending pa th of the process in
of
"creation",
returning
analogy
can
to
they
the
can
also
source.
be permitted,
serve
Thus,
they
if a
fulfil
a
as
a
last
step
somewhat
trivial
function
similar
to that of the "transitional object" described by WINNICOT for
the process of weaning of
breast:
comforter,
which
initially
the baby from the mother's
thumb-sucking
console
the
and
similar
child
during
substitutes
the
mother's
absence and, though only in fragmentary manner, temporarily replace
her,
at
the
same
time
signify
As
already
Hinduism even
an
only
mentioned enormous
to
sum
at
the
wealth
them
up
first
beginning:
of
in
a
step
in
finds
in
describe
or
moth~r!
the baby's detaching himself from this
images.
one
To
satisfactory
manner
would
go far beyond the scope of this presentation. For meditation, of
visual Gods
has
stimuli
( "murti",
become
firm,
can
be
which
used
in
literally
concrete,
the
form
means
of
figures
"something
materialised")
or
even
that only
their attributes or the postures of their bodies or fingers ( "mudra"),
figures
"yantras", fully form
i.e.
inserted of
the
from
the
geometrical
into each other,
"Tripurasundari
of creator and creation and if a
the
guiding
centre
only
is
means
epics
figures
from
Yantra", the world
"circle"!)
or
the
myths,
the
towards as
a
e.g.
coming
thus
art-
in
the
together
"created"
the
"ma~gala",
finally,
so-cal led
triangles
symbolising,
multiplicity
to be stressed,
or
(often
or,
oneness
of
which actually
last
step before
all that is visible dwindles away, simply a point ("bindu") which can no longer be said to have spatial extension. The "mantra" perceived visual
by
(actually "that which protects the mind"),
hearing,
stimulus
in
its
but
which
written
can form,
also can
be be
used a
as
verse
a or
175
only a
word,
often a
syllable or even only a
sound.
What
is probably best known in the West nowadays, is the sacred syllable "OM"
(actually "AUM");
its wealth of significance
would justify a treatise on its own! Any be
form
they
of
meditation
visual
(i.e.
or
with
(differentiating) of
auditory
endowed
which
also
a
which
and
makes
is
use
the
less
last
of
considered
qualities) valued
renounces
(S) images
as
and
"sagupa"
"savikalpa"
highly
than
stimulus
a
and
method
perception
sensory nature and thus uniquely aims at the merging
of
the
In
this
separate
individual
process,
too,
self
with
the
Universal
one can distinguish a
One.
whole series
of steps for gradually giving up "form" completely. As
long
as
on to as a
concentration
on
yogic discipline,
a
form
or
name
is
held
images can play the following
role: a) The image helps to collect one's thoughts and to prevent them
from
made
in
the
"running
a
very
fundamental
work
inhibition· of "the
roaming"
the or
to 3:
he
this
(of is
the
at
or
three
is
of
contemplation
1 , 2: the
start
"Yoga
mind
"rolling"
different
is
is of the
(actually
of
the
levels
very difficult
( "dhara~a")
towards
necessity very
mind)"
In a later chapter in "Yoga-
is
the object
( "dhya:na")"
to
the
limited mental area."
mind)
this the
( 4) :
PATANJALI
modifications
which a
of
manner
page 143).
"Concentration
mind within
by
describes
aim,
Mention
"revolving"
(see also earlier, Sutras",
away".
elementary
on
3,
confining
-
way
v. of
1the
"Uninterrupted flow
(chosen for
"The
the
reach:
same
meditation)
(contemplation)
when there is consciousness only of the object of meditation and not of itself (the mind) is samadhi" (i.e. complete absorption). b)
Becoming
one
with
concentration
on
would
case
be
aim
of
but
much
oneself to the
be
the sharp
it.
reached,
subject
of
image.
image,
in
one's
this
the
being-one
observation
does and
with
implies
act
of
disappears
as -
this
serve
the
differentiation, image and
with
that
intensive
not
observation
perception
merging
A complete and
This
however,
scientific
objective
rather in
an
the
the
losing
object
is
consciousness
of
into
its
object.
176
The more one becomes one with the object of contemplation, the more, as e.g. Shri Ramakrishna taught, its attributes will disappear, until finally the image itself also dissolves into nothing. During this process, however, the qualities of the object are received or as one would say in modern psychology: "introjected" - into the contemplator and assimilated within himself. What up to that point in his transactions with the world he had not yet experienced and integrated - and in India this has been and even nowadays often is, quite a lot in view of the traditional limitations of life imposed on each individual! can thus be "realised 11 with the help of the image. Maturity for
transcendence beyond all that shows itself in images
thus can be promoted through the very images themse 1 ves. As the image is less "bodily", less substantial than the concrete life situations, it can be given up more easily than attachment to the objects of manifest, three-dimensional reality. Two
Upani~ad
texts will clarify this:
PARAMAHAMSOPANI~AD (5 d) 4: "The outgoing tendency of all the sense-organs subsides in him who rests in the ·Atman alone. Realising "I am that Brahman who is the One Infinite Knowledge-Bliss", he reaches the end of his desires, verily he reaches the end of his desires." KA'fHOPANI~AD ( 5 c) 5, 1 2: " Those wise men who perceive Him as existing in their own self, to them belongs eternal
happiness and to none else." c) Experience of the one-ness of perceiver, perceived and the act of perceiving. This aim is difficult to achieve as long as one dwells in the sphere of dealing with the objects of this world, which customarily one experiences as "outside" oneself and as existing independently of oneself, i.e. in terms of "duality". Inner images, be it the ones that show themselves in dream, the ones actively and deliberately evoked for stimulating concentration, or those that may come up spontaneously in the course of meditation, are therefore particularly apt to promote in the dreamer or meditator, who will know himself as the creator o! these phenomena, the experience of one-ness of
the
perceiver,
what
is perceived and the
177
act of perception. Initially this insight will have its validity only within these special situations; gradually, however, it will come to apply also to the "common reality" of this world, where in the way in which we usually live, we are simply the unwitting figures in the dream or the images in the mind of a highest Creator with whom ultimately we are one. (See earlier, page 1 31 ff.)) Again we can quote some texts that bear this out: PATANJALI, "Yoga-Siitras" (4) 1,41: "In the case of one whose revolutions of the mind have been almost annihilated, fusion or entire absorption in one another of the cognizer, cognition and cognized is brought about as in the case of a transparent jewel (resting on a coloured surface)." For when BRHADARANYAKA UPANISAD: ( 5 a) 2,4, v. 1 4: II
.
.
.
there is duality, as it were, then one smells another (sees, hears, speaks, thinks, knows another). When however all has become the very self of the knower of Brahman, then what should one smell (see, hear, speak, think, know) and through what? Through what should one know That because of which all this is known? Through what should one know the Knower?" / SVETASVATAROPANI~AD (5 f) 1 ,12: "As a result of meditation, the enjoyer, the enjoyed and the the enjoyment, all are declared "brahman"." d) The awakening and directing of ~ A further r.ole which images in particular if they are sounds (e.g. syllables or letters which
power which brings about to be three aspects of subtle physical processcan play in medi ta ti on, or their visual symbols are imagined in certain
colours and at certain points of the body), is the awakening and re-inforcing of subtle vibrations, the promoting of the transformation of the grossly material into a mor~ subtle form that is more suited to follow the high frequency of these vibrations, and also the drawing up of certain energy-streams (Ku~9alinI) through channels which are pre-formed but which usually remain unused in man, from the lower end of the spine through the various subtle energy centres ("cakra") up to the parietal region.
178
6. The Indian world of images in the light of psychiatric experience Finally, to
return
from to
the
the
lofty heights
field
of
of
meditation,
psychiatry,
which
I
lies
want
closer
to earth, and in which for the last 22 years I have gathered
my
the
experience
Indian
world
in
India,
of
images has
and
to report
briefly
revealed
itself
on
to
how
me
in
this sphere of activity. From what has that images, to
that
already
not only
of
dream
it ought
been said,
play
in meditation,
experience.
can
They
to be clear
a
role
thus
be
similar used
in
psychotherapy in various forms: as spontaneous imagination, probably even by way of hallucinations rected
day-dreaming
school;
"Reve eveille"
thymes a
("active
Bilderleben"
sufficient
of R.
perhaps of
as
the
of
to
LEUNER
images
and
does
di-
JUNGian
DESOILLE and nowadays
according
production
or
imagination"
"Kata-
others).
not
come
If
forth
from the patient, one sometimes can aptly introduce traditional his
images
with
religious
kind
can;
as
which
and
the
patient
cultural
already
is
familiar
background.
mentioned,
the growth and development of
all
on
through
Images
the
one
of
hand
that which,
this permit
up to that
time, had remained atrophic or inaccessible, so that eventually it can be assimilated and integrated and thus contribute to the wholeness of the self. Some
of
my Indian patients would
tell
me
that when they consulted indigenous healers, Hindu for
"scrdhus",
a
specific
deity,
but
they
were
period
possibly
given
a
just
the
task
certain
image,
that
a
of
occasionally in particular
of
worshipping
e.g.
that
particular
of
a
creature,
including their looking after it as if the being represented by the image were actually alive and physically present. I
remember,
official
of
spent
a
in
for
instance,
middle village
age in
a
who, the
rather ever
immature since
Him~layan
his
government childhood,
foothills,
had kept
up a strong "mother fixation" and who was beset by terrible anxiety adult
as
into
soon a
as
he
situation
was
to
venture
involving
as
a
self-reliant
responsibility.
To
this
man, a "sadhu" set the task of daily worshipping and caring for a cow, either a real one or, if this was not possible,
179
at
least a
symbol
small effigy of
of maternal
understand,
a
cow
(which
love and devotion!)
in
As
India
far
is
as I
the
could
the hopeful expectation was that his intensive
preoccupation with this image would make the man internalise its qualities and, ice
to
from
furthermore,
that his devoted serv-
this symbol of motherhood would help him to mature
a
childlike craving for
only
"taking"
into an adult
capacity for also "giving". An
image,
parable,
a
concentration
verse or a
on
the
syllable is
figure thus
of
a
deity,
a
initially imposed
on the patient or disciple as a task and duty, as a stimulus
for
becoming aware of and appreciating the potentials
and possibilities of existence contained in it; in a second stage,
however,
follow,
what
follows,
or
at
least what ought to
is the "giving up" of the image through its comple-
te assimilation and absorption, so that the need for experiencing
it
as
something
outside
oneself
falls
away
and
can be renounced. 3) During many years of experience in parts of India where Hinduism with
is
my
folklore
would
I
had
new setting, ing
images
ground
of
images. les
the to
work
and
my
of
knowledge
become
images
used
to
in dealing
about
myths
and
to
me and
about
their
legends
they
last 8-9 years
mostly
dreams, had
their
been
told
in Kashmir,
how-
amongst Mohammedans.
In this
initially missed the possibility of utilisto the cultural and religious back-
patients,
Eventually,
immediate
gradually
world
its origin in the tales which these
myths
pertaining my
of
During the I
had
rich
Much
report
and
childhood.
I
the
actually has
fantasies ever,
to
patients.
patients in
predominant,
r~ference
making
metaphors
I
as
Islam
is
entirely
averse
to
learned to make use of simple parabtaken
environment
of
from these
the
daily
people,
life
mostly
11
and
the
illiterate
11
3) In German, the terms ·" Auf gabe" and auf geben used in the original text have the double sense of "setting a task", "imposing a duty", as this is required at the first stage of the process described, but also of "giving up" i.e~ "renouncing", as should become possible during the second phase!
180
peasants from small villages as, after all, this is also often the case in the parables of the New Testament! (See later, pp. 199 ff.) The question arose, however, - and at present I cannot give a relevant answer to it, though my work on the present subject has once again revived it! as to whether and in which way the attitude of a religion with regard to images - i.e. welcoming or rejecting or outright forbidding them .- has any effect on the personality of its adherents and, if so, whethe~ this might possibly imply some differences in the _!!!anffestation of mental illness. Perhaps this has already been undertaken with regard- to Roman Catholics (welcoming attitude to imagery!) and Protestants, in particular those subscribing to the most puritanical forms of their faith (hostile to images!), but I cannot quote any literature. For myself, as mentioned, the problem has its relevance with regard to Hinduism and Islam. What I can communicate so far, are only isolated observations and impressions. It is quite possible that some of them are not so much the consequence of the specific religious background of the people concerned, but rather of their social position and, even more so the degree of individual emancipation. If one assumes that frequent dealing with images should promote the appropriation of various possibilities of existence which the person concerned, in his limited sphere of life, has no opportunity to experience and bear out actively, one may have to ask in which other way this possibility of assimilation and self-realisation can be fulfilled if traditionally permitted or even prescribed images are not available. First of all one has to say that for Mohammedans, images are only forbidden in the form of "rupa", i.e. of visually perceptible figures; the auditory "images" in the form of the 99 names _of Allah and in particular of the "namaz", the prayer which has to be recited regularly five times a day, also the litanies which are of ten sung in big gatherings, play all the greater a role. Stories, parables, anecdotes, often very colourful, are also sufficiently known in Muslim culture, though of course the world of
1 81
the Gods plays no part in them. If all the same one wishes to assume tute a
the absence of visual images might consti-
certain deficiency, one can perhaps point out that
amongst or
that
Mohammedans,
no
"mentally deranged"
tendency more
towards
matter -
at least here in Kashmir!
"acting
predominant
"normal 11
whether they are
out"
and
than in Hindus.
- the
dramatising. is
much
The capacity for vicar-
iously experiencing what does not actually belong to one's own life-sphere through observing others - often of course degenerating into unpleasant curiosity or envy and jealousy!
also seems to me to be more strongly developed in
Muslims
(again
Hindus.
I
have
to add:
here
in Kashmir!)
than in
Quite generally, one finds amongst Muslims a tight
network of unifying social ties, which are greatly enhanced by the regular, often common performance of the prescribed prayers.
Within
this more open social order,
one perhaps
has greater chances for living in close contact with other spheres
of
least was
life
strict
This
would are
is
the
case
in earlier periods!
the ion
than
caste mean
taboos that
accessible
than in a
-
real-life
more
of
or a
amongst
models
easily' and
the
for
in
latter.
identif icat-
greater
variety
society in which social intercourse is strictly
the
wise
Hindus -
taking into consideration
prevalent
limited to family and caste. Perhaps the more individual, role
amongst
religious
elder)
person
more
priest
whose
leader
amongst
into
Mohammedans
nowadays,
"institutionalised"
("Maul vi 11
identification
role,
less
can
than
has
priest;
=
also the
often
"Pir
stimulate
Hindu
11
a
family-
degenerated
to
that of a business-minded master of ceremonies. The except. ion, also amongst Hindus, is of course th e "guru" who is
sought and is highly respected for his personal quali-
ties
by someone who wishes
to obtain expert guidance
his spiritual development. What may be relevant is yet
seen
was
a
a
Hindu
Muslim
or
who, who
that
while
at
least
up
to
now I
for
have never
psychotic,
imagined that he
showed
in
interest
Islam.
On the other hand I have repeatedly observed that Mohammed~ ans
in
Hinduism
psychosis or
at
would
least
live
confess
in to
the
world
being
of
images
attracted
to
of it.
182
Apparently images are closer t o th e so-ca 11 e d "pri· mary process" by which a person is overwhelmed in psychosis than
the more
rational
structure of a monotheistic relig-
ion. They permit the channeling of floods
in
some
way
or
other
so
the threatening chaotic as
to
direct
them
into
a sphere of experience which is understandable and familiar also
to
world".
others
thus
Furthermore,
meditation
but
to feel one, with
and
a
also
form
Hindu
in
of
even
the
great
blasphemy
modest
at
least
with
feel
free,
to
the
"heal thy
not
identify
after all,
only
in
himself
"mantras"). if
he
role with
of
a
the
The
imagines "Pir"
claim
he has been
is he himself.
in maniform expansiveness
the
link
and
not only with the figure of a deity but even
that ultimately "all this" commit
can
psychosis
the Universal One, as,
one
a
taught
("Tat twam asi",
Muslim,
himself
however,
to
be
will
Allah
and
has to remain content with
or a
that
"pagambar"
Allah
or
(prophet.)
his
or
Prophet
are
personally speaking to him. As already mentioned, these are only a few stray observations.
Perhaps
exploration find
they
and
can
stimulate
reflection.
confirmation
for
One
them
others
would,
within
a
Kashmir,
in
customary
respects
from
the
however,
wider
my present field of activity, various
into
further have
to
framework
as
apparently deviates features
of
Islam
in other countries.
7. Conclusion I have tried to show that in Hinduism, with its concept of
"creation"
as
a
"grossification" a
process
and
quite particular role:
types" as
at
the
a
first
last
Similarly,
step
with
of
descent
concealment,
into
images
increasing
have
to
play
as "primaeval images" or "arche-
stage of concretisation and before
reference
returning to
to
the
individual
then
again
original
One.
existence,
they
can permit a man narrowed in by his traditionally prescribed
style of
wise hand, to
are
however,
transcend
this
life
to experience possibilities that other-
forbidden
second
or
inaccessible
images
beyond movement
have
all is
the
to
him.
purpose
that
shows
not
always
of
itself easy
On in
and
the
other
helping them. can
him That
seldom
183
actually
be
achieved perfectly,
images
do
turned
towards
their
not
power
repeated
so
easily
them,
and
ritual,
set
so
in other words:
free
that
thus
becoming
is
something
he
that the
again
the one who has
risks
falling
rigidly the
tied
ancient
to
prey
to
endlessly
Indian
wise
men also knew. The images - and this also means the Gods! need
men
manner,
who
see
and
worship
them!
In
quite
humorous
we find this expressed in a verse in B~HADARA~YAKA
UPANI~AD,
which
permits
me
to
close
my
contribution
to
the subject "Force of Images" in a very fitting manner: B~HADARA~YAKA
animal serve one
(to a
man,
animal
UPANI~AD
man), is
so
so
is
does
(5 he each
taken away,
a)
1,4
to man
the
v.
1 0:
gods.
serve
"
As
is
an
As many animals
the
gods.
If
even
it causes unpleasantness,
what
should one say of many animals? The ref.ore it is not pleasant to the gods that men should tealise this Self."
184 LITERATURE (1) BHAGAVAD GITA:
Various editions. Used: "Hindu Scriptures" ed. by Nicol Macnicol, Everyman's Library, No. 944, London, J.M. Dent & Sons, 1957 and "The Song of God" Bhagavad Gita translated by Swami Prabhavanande and Christopher Isherwood, Phoenix House, London, 1947.
( 2 ) HOCH I E. M. :
"Der Traum: eine Welt - Die Welt: ein Traum?" in Gion Condrau: "Medard Boss zum Siebzigsten Geburtstag", Hans Huber, Bern, Stuttgart, Wien, 1973. - English translation: in this volume, pp. 131 ff.
(3) MACDONELL, A.A.:
"A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary", Oxford University Press, 1929, (reprinted 1954-1958).
(4) PATANJALI:
"Yoga-Sutras". Used: "The Science of Yoga", Sanskrit-English text with commentaries by I.K. Taimni. The Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar, Madras, 1961,
(5) UPANISADS:
Used: the Sanskrit-English parallel texts with commentaries published by Shri Ramakrishna Math, Mylapore, Madras. In detail: a) BRHADARANYAKA UPANISAD: 1951. b) CHANDOGYA UPANISAD:.1956. c) KATHOPANISAD: 1956. d) MUNDAKOPANISAD: 1957. e) Minor Upani~ads: PARAMAHANSOPANISAD: 1956. ~MRI!A,BINDUPANI~AD: 1956. f) SVETASV~TAROPANI~AD: 1957. g) TAITTIRIYOPANI~AD: 1958.
185
COLLOQUY
1)
1. General remarks about "colloquy" and its elements "Colloquy" first of all
is
to become its own subject! This requires
some reflections about the elements or char-
acteristics that belong to "colloquy" and whether perhaps the in
predominance each
to it.
of
instance
one
may
Based on this,
or
be
the
other
lending
a
of
these
particular
elements character
I can then, on the one hand, sketch
out the type and significance of "colloquy" as it applies within
my
professional
activity
as
is
to
in
it
be
found
the
and,
on
ancient
the
other hand,
Indian
scriptures.
2)
HEIDEGGER
(4)
in
"Sein
und Zeit"
(§
34,
pp.
160 ff),
in the Section about "Da-Sein und Rede: die Sprache" ( "Daseih
and
speaking:
elements is
of
spoken
speech")
speaking:
of");
what
" is
mentions as the
about
spoke~n
as
the cons ti tu ti ve of
speech
such;
("what
communication
and bearing witness" ("Das Woriiber der Rede (das Beredete); das
Geredete
als
solches,
die
Mi tteilung
und
die
Bekun-
dung"). 3) When, GER' s
without
main
work,
as yet having taken recourse to HEIDEGI
had
on
my
own
reflected what might
be the essential elements of colloquy, the following more or less similar characteristics presented themselves:
1)
Contribution for the Fifth "Zurcher Gesprach", held at Meerbusch near Diisseldorf in April 1979 with the theme: "Das Gesprach", i.e. "Colloquy".
2) When the paper was originally written, one of the tasks was also to evaluate the adequacy of the procedure used in these "colloquies" up to that time and to offer some suggestions for their future shaping. Portions devoted to this purpose are only included as far as they could have some relevance for "colloquy" in general. 3) The German "Bekunden" has no exact equivalent in English. The meanings are: "to announce something", "to bear witness" to something which, in itself, is not present on the spot or of such nature that it cannot be manifestly present at all.
1 86
1. Colloquy has an object, it is "colloquy about something" ("what is spoken of"}. 2. Colloquy has one or several partners7
it
is
"colloqµy
with" (communication). 3. Colloquy points or aims, beyond this, towards something which, in
at least for
speech;
it
is
the time being,
"colloquy
towards
cannot reveal something"
itself
("bearing
witness", "Bekunden"). In addition to these three elements, one has to mention the merely formal aspect, probably that which HEIDEGGER designates as "what is spoken as such"; this, however, is of less interest in this context, except if we include under this heading the form of images or metaphors which colloquy can take. In practice it is difficult to keep the three elements neatly apart and to distinguish variants of "colloquy" in which one or the other completely predominates. We can cnce again point to HEIDEGGER (4) who, in the paragraph about speech already mentioned, stresses that " in the actual configuration of a particular instance of speech ···"the one or the other " ... of these existential characteristics
which
are
rooted
in
the
existential
condition
of "Da-sein" and, on their part, only render possible ontologically something like speech may be lacking or remain unnoticed This, however, as HEIDEGGER continues, does not alter the fact that each type of speech in
each
instance
must
remain
within
the
wholeness
of the structures thus mentioned •.. ". Colloquy, therefore, is never only "colloquy about" or "colloquy with" or "colloquy also
towards includes
something", the
other
but
always
elements.
at
Yet,
the the
same one
time
element
which in any particular instance occupies the foreground, gives colloquy its particular character. 2. Colloquy in ancient Indian scriptures
I know of no specific treatise on "colloquy" in ancient Indian
literature.
It
may
be
that
in
the
scriptures
on
the art of politics and on grammar, one may find references to the rules and methods of conducting dialogue or colloquy·
These,
however,
would
hardly
be
of
interest
in the
187
present context. What,
on
the
situations of
other
hand,
colloquy.
one
finds
quite
often,
are
In the epics and parables, dialo-
gues about various matters, sometimes concerns of every-day how~ver,
life, more often, order
of
necessary What
is
the
world
for
carrying
most
and
famous
the
dialogue
and
between
duties and moral obligations
it out, occupy an important place.
is the "Bhagavad Gita", the
i.e. the s~cred
about "dharma",
also
widely
known
in
the
West,
contained in the Mahabharata epic:
the
warrior
Arjun
who
hesitates
to
enter into battle against his relatives and his charioteer Shri
Krishna
makes in
use
(S).
of
Arjun' s
magnificent
and,
The
latter,
omnipotence.
the
main
correct directive falls as the
in
Vishnu,
dialogue,
of
India
of
Hinduism
to reveal to him His usually con-
The
description
quoted
of
teachings
which one finds a very impressive, often
"avatara"
dilemma in order to impart to him,
manner,
as a great climax,
cealed
an
an as
counselling".
at
the
beginning
anxiety
attack,
is
nowadays
the most ancient model of
I
of
psychosomatically quite
myself
feel
that
this
"non
analogy
short of what is really implied. It aims at proving happens
ancient
all
Indian
they
anticipated
time
ago.
The
"colloquy
too often in present-day India! scriptures
insights
"Bhagavad
GTta"
at
best
that
and
that
and achievements a
long
are
modern
about",
-
"scientific"
is
thus
"colloquy
characterised
with";
but
what
as is
left out of consideration is that it is above all directed "towards something". Situations of colloquy are often found in the Upanisads. They the
lend
have the
a
a
touch
character
disciple. men
human
touch
lofty philosophical of of
Often,
deserve
to
and
humour. a
refreshing
These
didactic
however, be
a
teachings,
called
colloquies
dialogue
the
immediacy
to
and at times they even usually
between
discussions
"disputations"
or
have
master
between
and wise
"competitive
debates". What is striking is that colloquy actually always takes its
course
group a
of
master,
between
wise
men
two or
partners of
only.
disciples
one does not find a
has
Even
if
gathered
a
whole around
general exchange of views.
1 88
One has his turn after the other: with his
a
question
turn,
can
or
put
a
whole
his
each one is confronted
series
inquiries
of
questions
and,
in
before the master.
The
round ends when neither of the partners has anything further to say. the
In that case,
sentence:
other
"Upon
instances,
the paragraph often ends with
this,
the
so-and-so
partner
kept
silence."
who has come to
the
In
end of
his knowledge will express his recognition of the master's superiority. In at least one instance, the customary threat of punishment for of
the
one
proved
have actually assumes!
be
ignorant
about.
is
his
namely that the head
will
fall,
Humorously
.
described
II
26)
v.
to
come
it
3,9
a)
lack of knowledge,
. off,
fell
said to
hopefully
.
UPANISAD
(BRHADARANYAKA
head
is
one
as and
(12
robbers
took
away his bones, supposing them to be something else (i.e. something more precious} ••• ". MACNICOL
(10),
ancient
Indian
of
ap~ropriate
the
question
his
and
striving
introduction
scriptures,
comment:
Upanishads,
are
in
but
"
gives
There
one
is
answer
come
after
is
long
the
is
aware
to
that
anthology
following
much
sometimes
speech
very
discussion
silences.
beyond
an
The
and
in
between
truth
indeed
they
beyond
knowing. When questions arise that are of very grave consequence
for
aloud.
Thus, when it comes to the matter of a man's final
destiny, else
man,
their
Yajnavalkya
can
hear.
answers
takes
Hand
in
are
his
not
pupil
hand
they
to
be
aside
proclaimed
where
whisper
no
one
together
and
"after that Jaratkarava 1\rthabhaga held his peace". UP. (12 a) 3,2 v. 13). Repeatedly, stance
as
eagerness
a
need "Do
to not
stressed -
reaction
for
participants
it is
of
knowledge in
these
the of
in particular master
one
of
the
colloquies!
admonished:
too
far",
"You
are
the
all
(BRH.
too
questioning
in one
exaggerated very few female certain UP.
(12
inquisitive
about
in-
the
that
be covered up by silence. ask
to
( BRH.
a
things a)
3,6)
Gargi
deity
who
is is
not to be known through reasoning. Do not ask too far". In 4:0
this
drawing
reticence, down
and
apart fixing
what actually is unspeakable,
from in
a
reluctance linguistic
with
regard
formulation
a different kind of caution
189
is also involved: in ancient Indian philosophy it is considered as wrong, as objectionable, to communicate or explain to a person something that goes beyond his horizon of understanding. It i~ even said (unfortunately I cannot indicate the ·source!) that one makes oneself guilty of a lie, if one tells a person something for which the latter is not yet mature enough. For this reason, I suppose, we usually find in these colloquies a slow procedure; first the master tests, step by step, how far the disciple or pupil has already progressed and then, carefully groping along, attempts to prom9te further insight and understanding in him. A method, thus, similar to what we find in Socratic dialogues, where also, in the manner of a skilled obstetrician, only that is brought to light which is already present, in slumbering condition, in the partner in colloquy, and without forcing anything upon someone who is not ready yet. How long this process of maturation of a disciple may take is instructively demonstrated by an episode in CHAND. UP. (12 b) 8,7 v. 1 ff: (See also earlier, p. 151.) Indra, as
the
representative
representative
of
the
of
the
demons,
Gods seek
and
Virocana
enlightenment
as
the
about
the "atman" from Prajapati, the "creator". Virocana declares himself contented with what he has learned after an apprenticeship of 32 years. Indra, however, reflects in silence and, after some time, comes back to the master in order to supplement the reply already received as it does not satisfy him. This repeats itself four times, and
each
time
he
has to earn the more complete teaching
through an additional period of study and service - altogether
1 01
years!
I
am referring to this tale because for
Western people, used to enjoying everything instantaneously or even to having it set before them "predigested", it is often a matter of astonishment or even annoyance that in the East one allows oneself so much time perhaps even a period that runs over several incarnations! - to arrive at Truth! What I have mentioned shows distinctly that what is of concern in these ancient Indian colloquies is not the "about", but the "towards something". They represent
190 attempts at "bringing into speech", ious
manner,
what
actually
lies
at least in a beyond
sensory perception and beyond intellect. close what is all
too distant,
all
precar-
speech,
beyond
In order to bring
too vague,
images and
metaphors are often used as the best possible means. As
I
have
had
occasion
to
show
earlier
(pp.
169
ff)
one of the first steps in manifestation of "brahman" which originally
lies
beyond
of "nama-rupa", names;
i.e.
all
concrete
appearance,
of name and form.
but with the help of these names,
were
one
with
form,
can
imagery,
forms
show for
images earlier (pp.
-
and
along
a
middle one
is
unformed,
form"
hand
on
unborn; on
the
speech ( 12
d)
by
Again,
169 ff),
as
linguistic I
tried
other
they
can
manifest
hand, thus
that
point
II
from
towards
What
one
has
to
"creation"
than
as
yet
sides:
"name and which
speech
not having reached It ••• "
2, 9).
occupy
which
that
all
which
-
to both
still more concrete hand,
to
language and speech
concrete,
the
other
and
mind turns away, NISAD
between
and,
that
which originally
up,
them of course also colloquy!
that which is
and,
beyond
with
conjure
configurations.
position
on
towards
and
it
is
Speech deals with
lies the
with
(TAITTIRIYOPA-
understand,
is
that
it is not at all man who creates and utilises speech but that, this,
on
the
contrary,
we
once
for
whom
also
again
not
something
come
speech that
speech is
has
very
needs
and
close
to
constitutive
been
added
uses
man!
With
HEIDEGGER
( 4) ,
of
by
"Da-sein"
man
as
and
one of his
inventions or achievements. Furthermore,
as
I
have
already mentioned,
for
certain
ancient Indian philosophical schools,. the meaning of this concrete in
world
order
with
to
other",
could
be
duality
recognise
itself"
"an
of
itself,
( vimarS'a) which
more
( S) ,
only
suited
is a
duality
that
the
needs
a
kind can
original "coming
of
friction
provide.
than colloquy -
a
"One",
to
against
What,
"coming
terms
to
then, terms
with each other" (S), i.e. a stressing of one's differences and to
yet
to
a
coming
together
in
agreement of
two partners!
implement this necessary act and, more particularly,
implement
which man,
it
within
the
sphere
of
consciousness,
beyond all other creatures of
this earth,
by has
1 91
been distinguished? Colloquy
in
the ancient
Indian scriptures thus stands,
above all,
in the service of pointing towards the unspeak-
able.
as
Yet,
already hinted at,
the element of "colloquy
with" is not neglected either. Sketched out in the extremely
condensed
way
of
to
Sanskrit,
one
finds
that of
depict
these
expressing
the being
human
in
things
the
Upanisads
together and
beings
2500
that
years
is
peculiar
charming
scenes
the
speaking together
ago
in
a
manner
that
has its genuine fascination even for present-day readers. What the ,of
is
most
perhaps
best
known
and
immediate human touch
what affects one with
is
the
fare-well
dialogue
ageing wise man Yaj navalkya with his wife Mai trey I
the
(BFH.
UP.
(12
a)
2,4
v.
ff
and
4,5,
v.
1 ff)
to which
I have already repeatedly referred (S). We are very concisely
informed
that
one,
KatyayanI,
Yajnavalkya
had
two
ted
in
ultimate questions, of
of
which
only occupied herself with the usual mattMaitrey~,
ers of women, whereas the other one, concern
wives,
her
husband.
i.e.
It
is
was interes-
the dearest and constant with her that Yaj navalkya
speaks at the moment when, during his second half of life, he
wishes
to
withdraw
to
He
starts
by
proposing
that
the
solitude
before
of
the
forests.
leaving he wishes
to
settle the situation between her and Katyayanr, presumably with
regard
Instead Mai trey I the
of
to
make
of
her
created for a that
which
to by one
his
whole
slightly
of
the
this
whole
necessary
earth,
openness
is
her in
and
the
wise
man during his whole
at the moment of parting, he bequeathes
instead
feel
depth
belongings.
"colloquy about",
the possession of all
even
Thus
fascinated
occasional
can
worldly
"colloquy towards" something, namely towards
expressed the
his
whether
world,
immortal.
has
wife
in
this proposed
asks,
the
life an which now, has
share
into
immediately
treasures
would
their
entering
of
the
worldly
contempt. use this
of
melancholy
goods
of
terms
philosophical this
seriousness,
for
delicately
affectionate
deeply
tenderness
Only
which
she
hinted
at,
of
relationship
but
also
address,
dialogue the
the
and
the
calm
and
peace of this farewell-hour. One
further
finds
various
short
episodes
that
offer
192 us insight into the tests to which an aspirant for eternal Truth (S)
was
The
v.
often
ff),
exposed
when
searching
Satyak~ma Jabala
young to
whom
at
the
moment
into the world, his mother,
for
(CHAND.
UP.
when
he
his
master·
(12
b)
was
to go out
in straight and simple manner,
had communicated his illegitimate origin,
instead of being
allowed to sit at the feet of 'his chosen mas~er, to
look
and so
after
some
other
that,
as a on
his
cowherd,
his
the
face
case
The
adopt
after
he returns
to
other
b)
(12
v.
4, 1 O,
ff)
1
and
act
years
of
is ordered
fire, as
his
swan
teachers service
one can perceive brahman".
disciple,
SJ>eaks up for
Even the Gods
the
faithful
"one who knows
"neglected"
master's wife who finally
the
the Master,
radiance of
the
cows,
him
finally,
the
of
cattle.
bird
when
4,4,
it
him.
In
is
the
(CHAND.
UP.
become disciples
of
the "creator" and often behave hardly better than bragging school-boys. All this is brought before our eyes only by way of rough sketches, in a few lines of condensed expression, a
the
form
realistic starting point,
full
mostly
in
dialogue,
of of
life,
for
providing the
teach-
ings that are to be conveyed. Particularly 9harming and moving is the initial situation
in
KA'fHA
UPANISAD
(12
ketas
has
meant
to
the
out
father to
in
rather
the
though
by
the
again
it
is
only
in
his
the
carries
questions
latter has apparently
manner.
anger. out
ruler of
insistent
sincerity and validity of
which
shabby
him
literally Yama,
father upon
ceremony
curses
Naciketas goes
his
doubt
sacrificial
carried his
annoyed throw
c),
(See also p. 79): The young Naci-
hinted at very scantily.
Being his
the
As
a
an
consequence, obedient
father's
son,
curse
realm of death.
and
Assuming
that Yama would be the best authority for giving information
about
him
to
the
teach
secrets him
of
about
the
these
"beyond", ultimate
the
boy
forces
questions.
Though
Yama, who had made his young guest wait for an inordinately long
time,
lapse
in
has
promised
hospitality
the
by
way
of
fulfilment
compensation of
three
for
wishes,
his he
initially refuses to enter upon this very special request. In
this
instance,
the
dialogue
manages
to
show
in
very
drastic manner how the aspirant for eternal Truth is first
193
put on trial by offering him,
in the place of the teaching
asked for by him all the treasures of the earth, enumerated in detai 1.
It is only when Yama finds that Naciketas act-
ually has
passed beyond all worldly desires
sents
impart
to
to
him
the
longed-for
that he con-
eternal
wisdom.
In a lively manner the colloquy between this macabre master and
the courageous,
sincere adolescent
treatise and one can feel
pervades the whole
the teacher's concern to reveal
very gradually to his pupil only as much as he is capable of grasping,
but also his joy at having found so receptive
and worthy a disciple. Of in
course
which,
thus
however,
any
without
in
a
to
particular narrative framework and
colloquy,
terse be
in the Upani~a9s sections
can also find,
without
also
offered
one
and
the
philosophical
factual
preferred
manner.
form
teachings Colloquy
in which
are
seems'
this concern
for doing justice to the level of maturation and the capacity
for
one's
understanding
openness
in
one
particular
its
best
of
person
expression.
"colloquy
with"
been described, in a
an
ideal
time
the
the
whom
and
partner
instance
It
will
manner
when
of
each
one
is
easy
"towards
very
and
happens to
for
adj us ting
especially see
to
face,
that
something",
to
as
this finds
situations they have
hardly have a chance of coming about in
mass
the
present-day Western world,
media
aim
at
reducing
at
everything
to the least common denominator and ·institutions for hiqher education are overcrowded!
3. Colloquy in present-day India At might
this
point,
I
had better anticipate a question that
be brought up:
"And what about all this in present-
day India?" Of if
c!1e
course cares
there to
still
search
are
them
some out
genuine
"gurus"
their
hermitages
in
who, or
caves, can bestow wisdom in intimate dialogue with a disciple, perhaps after first putting him to some tests. Probably at
times this may happen more through silence and only
a few short instructions and not through much talking. in
In
every-day
my
present
life,
place
it of
often
work,
seems
Kashmir
to
me that
at
least
the art of
194
dialogue or colloquy as we find it in the ancient scriptures
has
one
can,
been
public
lost.
for
Of
course
instance,
transport
conversation
without
by
a
hardly
one's
lot
of
travel
immediately
neighbour,
talking goes
in
any
drawn
into
quite
soon,
very
and
European exper-
iences as uncomfortably indiscrete.
Equally soon,
one
what
that
very
little
of
of
getting
personal questions will be asked, which a notices
on•
vehicle
one
however,
communicates
actually "sticks". The very same questions ai:e often repeated
a
second
or
even
and it is obvious does
not
a
third
time
after a
short while,
that this. game of questions-and-answers
even serve the purpose of
satisfying curiosity,
but merely of killing time. of avoiding the dreaded loneliness. Still, on occasions of this kind - perhaps necessarily, as
the
the a
noise of a
conversation conversation
remain on a when
the
sex.
In
their of of
two
home,
tries
other and
single
to get
by
rate,
a
about
one
of
that if
a
may even
the
same
friends
at
conversation
they happen
to be
If,
same,
all
the
coherent and continued exchange some
risks
finally
one
matter
being
interruptions
that
not
it
about,
visiting
particular member of a
perhaps
irritated
are
when
impression any
though
can come
somehow "tabu".
into
one
affairs, so
at is
partner,
level,
e.g.
to extend at least
partners!
companions
the
-
sex
group,
present,
one
gets
people
with
every-day
distant
situations,
one
two
views
with
travelling
different
one
more
very superficial
other
between
vehicle does not permit one to
and has
family or
that
goes
some
beyond
constantly
disturbed
intrusions
of
t.o
resign
others
oneself
and
settle down to the casual exchange of trivial communications and meaningless gossip which appears is
possible
in
the
setting;
in
to be all
other 'words:
what
that the
ancient scriptures call "viglapana", i.e. a "useless exhaustion of the tongue". If
one
knows
that in traditional Hindu
families
young
married couples are not supposed to converse openly together
in the presence of ·older family-members,
and if fur-
thermore one considers that the customary Hindi expression for
"to converse",
"to talk with each other",
namely "bat
195 karna" a
(literally:
euphemism
for
"intercourse"
"to
sexual
apart
intercourse"
can
sense
of
which
figures
do
this
have
at
(as
the
in
same
time
English,
too,
special meaning of "sexual the
intercourse"
in
is
intercourse
from
also
"social
things")
wider
and
and
in
"Geschlechtsverkehr"
more
general
German
"Verkehr",
at
same
the
time
means "traffic" and "social intercourse"!), one need hardly be surprised at this.
If
people
lead
can
no
longer th~
original and at the
risk
the
physical
of
the spoken exchange between two to
one-ness
in
terms
of
the
same time ultimate Oneness, it implies
stimulating level.
desires
The
for
obstacles
"becoming
put
into
one"
on
way
of
th...e
intimate conversation between two partners within a family and
also
service
some of
other
the
groups
thus
appear
"incest barrier"
and,
to
stand
beyond
in
this,
the
quite
generally in the service of a sex-tabu. What then, is the situation with regard to th'e "teaching dialogue"? Quite contrary to the ancient idea of the "gurukul", where each student was assigned to a caste according to
his
to
a
and
abilities
caste then
nowadays a
was
his
and not
his
development
finds,
level
hereditary was
of yet
maturity in
promoted
the
(belonging
Vedic
age!),
accordingly,
one
in the sphere of education and schooling,
"mass procedure" nearly everywhere and starting already
at a
very tender age.
One must admit that besides school
or college, many pupils of elementary schools and students of
higher
educational
institutions
have
their
private
teachers for "tuition". This, however, means almost exclusively cramming knowledge for exams, and neither a "forming" (according to the German ideal of "Bildung") of the young pupil
appropriate
providing
of
an
to
his
"ideal
needs
and
image"
potentials,
that
might
nor
challenge
the the·
young person into following it, comes about. What
comes
described contrast
closest to reminding one of the situations
in to
the the
ancient West,
scriptures
where
great inhibition and reticence! that in
in
conversing
particular
if
with
during
in -
a
particular
respect
one
in
finds
is perhaps my experience
simple,
old-fashioned
journey
has part of the way in common, one
in
this
or
ah
someti~es
people,
excursion
one
quickly arriv-
196 es at speaking about "ultimate matters". The great e\·ents of
life:
birth,
illness,
various
blows
of
fate,
death,
but also God, can still be named and talked about openly, without embarrassment. conversation
It thus happens at
succeeds
in
"pointing
times
towards
that
the
something"
that lies beyond speech. In
more
at a
emancipated
"mysterious
itself in the fact the
circles,
beyond"
this
capacities
later
become
is
merely
that one tries to find
hopes
the
subject.
of
or
these
phenomena,
that
this
an Ultimate and forces too!
to
though
on which
some
Still,
what
secretly
Power,
that
science
is
saints
happens
one
di~ferent
types
"about", even
its
perhaps least I
the
"with"
and
significance assume
very
mostly
that
poorly have
limitations,
based,
the
the
as
for deal,
beyond may
not
"about"
and
"towards"
a
whole,
the
often
the
of
vary.
in
laws
get
lost
4) particular to
the
colloquy,
and
One
might (S)
peasants mind
colloquy
in
the
given
illiterate
mountain
of
in
importance
keeping
still
in the miraculous, stands
psychiatric
educated
to
the
of
encounter,
then
perhaps
4. Colloquy in my psychiatric activity in Kashmir In
sooner
scientific explanations
last bit of faith
Creative
psychotherapeutic
hint
that usually the miraculous deeds and
parapsychological
for
tendency
in conversation still manifest:s
with
their should
now
or
at
whom
mental be
in
the foreground. This, however, is not quite correct. It is true that the "with" perhaps plays a less prominent in
or
at least a different role
conversi'ng
than would be
the case
wi'th
· t e d pa t'ien t s, i'nsofar more emancipa less differentiated adjustment and a less
as one needs a
specific openness for "tuning in" to the one unique person before
one.
people
are
less due
The
problems
rather
lie
in
and
to their
certain
social
conflicts individual and
of
these. simple
personality,
cultural
factors
but that
4) This section has been published in GRASSI/SCHMALE: "Das Gesprach als Ereignis." (See p. 159.)
197
apply in common to a whole group of similarly placed persons.
Thorough
knowledge
particular
of
fore
important
more
the
of
the
customary than
social
family
a
conditions
structures,
quite
specific
and
is
in
there-
focusing
on
one particular and unique human being. All this the
same,
the
and
Even
not always easy.
the
patient
an
to
"object",
make
also
places to
has
its
very
"get
importance
special
into
First of all,
demands
talking
in on
together"
the relatives who bring
the doctor have already degraded him into
"about
statements,
subject
"with"
even
psychiatrist.
is
a
the
situation
which"
and
he
one
can
is no
give
longer
"with" whom one can talk.
information
seen as a
and
partner,
Of ten one has a hard
time
to work one's way into contact with the patient him-
self
and
to
be
allowed
to
listen to what he has
to say
and to address one's questions to him personally. Secondly:
If
one
physician or a with
Sadhu,
exchange.
these
for
some
time
amongst
people
no matter whether he is an ~yurvedic or Unani
ous healer any verbal
lives
one learns that consultations of an indig~n
of this kind,
healers,
out-patient clinic
a
Pir or a Faqir -
According it
to
happens
that a
hardly call for
the procedure customary even
in
our
psychiatric
patient, without saying a word,
will simply stretch out his hand - not by way of a greeting gesture,
but
so that his pulse should be felt!
Any quest-
ions on the part of the doctor tend to provoke astonishment or
even
disappointment,
granted
that
miracles,
the
should
questioning, a
is wrong. then
the
doctor,
patient
certainly
be omniscient and
simply
::>alpation of
as
by
an
the pulse,
had
taken it
capable
of
working
that without need
experienced
look. and
for for
perhaps
he should immediately know what
The expected response· to this-dumb offer should
consist
in
the
almost
equally
prescribing of a medicine or,
dumb handing over or
in the case of a non-medical
healer, in his preparing and giving an amulet or his ,carrying out a fumigation ceremony. If, the
all
the
same,
psychiatrist with a
comes
about,
knows
nothing
one or
soon very
according
to
the
expectations
Western orienta·tion, a notices
that
little
about
of
"colloquy"
the patient not only the
insides
of
his
198
body and aware of
their functioning, but that he is even hardly his moods and feelings and their connections with what he has recently experienced. Under these circumin the sense of stances, the "about" of the colloquy lie!; a common discussion about an object that already the is it recedes into the background, and before one "towards something" that assumes greater importance· Of course, for the time being, this "something" towards which the colloquy now aims, is in a quite profane sense merely something that is no~ yet known to or consciously integrated by the patient and therefore still lying beyond speech, and not something so highly intellectual or loftily spiritual that it could on no account find verbal expression. The searching for possible problems and conflicts proceeds in fairly concrete manner in the form of a "tour d 'horizon" of the various sphere-s of life, unless I can immediately recognise intuitively what is wrong. On the other hand, to explain physical functions and psychosomatic correlations, to a certain extent also for instructions about therapeutic procedures, I prefer to use figurative speech. Something which up to that moment the patient has not known, has to be brought to his sight and insight. For this purpose, I point towards a situation or a process that is already familiar to him and that has something in common with the matter that is to be clarified. If at all possible, I choose a metaphor from the patient's own sphere of life and work, so that I can be sure that he will be acquainted with it not only through hearsay, but
that
he has himself
experienced
it and gone through
.it with as much bodily involvemen.t as possible. If this is the case, the image used will not just lead to an intellectual understanding of what is to be explained, but it should help the patient to experience, in the wholeness of body-mind-soul, not only the situation referred to in the metaphor· which he already knows, but also the hitherto unknown aspect of himself, no matter whether it is a physical function or a correlation between symptoms and some happenings in his life. A
further
advantage
in
using
"images"
is
that
his they
do not abruptly uncover something which the patient perhaps
199
is
not ready to face yet.
avoid and
"resistance".
revealing
In FREUDian terms: one can thus
The
inherent
peculiar in
mixture
images
in
a
of
concealing
similar manner
as in dreams - allows one, in this way, to offer explanations and insights "in advance" as it were or "for storage", so
that
will in
the
person
perhaps
the
only
image
in
in
the
New
fully
later
with
his
what
was
hidden
own maturation.
In
I wish to remind the reader of the verses
Testament
Christ
this case the .patient,
in
realise
accordance
this connection, which
concerned,
(Matth.
answers
his
ff,
as
ff) in to why
(See also earlier;
pp.95,
13,10
disciples'
he so of ten spoke in parables.
Mark 4,10
question
180).
The best way to make all this clear is to give an example:
Let
us
assume
that
a
patient has
already
gone
the
round of various doctors with complaints such as "palpitations, him
giddiness, that
nevertheless has
pain all over".
"nothing
lost
is
wrong";
prescribed
confidence
Each doctor has assured
yet
expensive
in
the
each
one
medicines.
doctors
and
is
of
them has
The
patient
puzzled,
no
longer sure what he should believe. I now of course could explain to him in scientific manner, with as many technical terms
as
possible,
dystonia of
of
stress".
and
the
vegetative
nervous
system
as
a
result
Perhaps this would create in the patient awe
respect
standing.
that he is suffering from "functional
for
I
my
have
learnedness,
to
search
but
for
a
certainly no
language
under-
that has
its
significance for him too. I thus use the image of a "tonga" (a two-wheeled vehicle drawn by a horse, as is still customary
in
city),
Kashmir, and
the
to
some extent even for traffic
horse
attached to it.
in the
Let us now suppose
that each time this vehicle starts moving its course will be
irregular
and
course!
First
"tonga"
and
the
vehicle
all
parts
of
the
all nail,
joined
have been duly greased; its good
hooves
fixed
condition
What
one
horse.
each
are
bumpy.
One
one do?
thoroughly
therefore
-
Yes,
together
of
examine
the
makes sure that in
each screw is in its place, properly,
that
the
that axles
then that the horse is well-fed,
correctly,
and
should
should
properly
and
that
fitted.
its Let
harness us
assume
is
in
that
200
all this is found in good order. But if now, all the same, the
vehicle
still
stalls
and
jolts
going, what else could be wrong? In some cases it may now be
as
the
soon
as
patient
it
himself
whom it occurs that the driver also plays a role. cases,
I
have
partner
in
to
my
further
in
his
questions.
when
the
same
trying
stimulate
him
closer of
into
"And now:
to use
brakes,
time,
course,
suppose
he
much
as
cooperation
as
by
what has this driver got "Yes, and in the other this driver
the whip and when
to
applies
what would happen?"
to
In other
to the helpless
active
"The reins." hands?" "The whip". "Now, suppose
hand?" or
the answer
conversation,
possible,
know
to bring
gets
-
tighten
both
"Well,
of
does the
them
yes,
not
reins at
the
in that case
the vehicle will not move smoothly." Subsequently is
controlled
like
the
I
explain
by
reins
two
or
the
that
"Well,
or
"brain"
the
whether back
to
in
go
a
muddle,
yes, of
one
brakes,
the other
the a
forward
and
one
there
or
But
rather
or
other,
now,"
I
vehicle
and
the
the
methods
at
saying we
that
shall
continue,
nothing
have
horse
their to
wrong
see whether
the
even
will in
p~rform
like
"head"
taking
about
to
move
result
in
a
itself
quite
its work proper-
"the doctors
and,
disposal, was
acting
in
stop or
though
to
"Up
body
restraining,
one
now,
this
may no longer be able to
ly.
if
to
healthy, the
them
our
is doubt or dilemma
situation,
organ
of
in
"And who then will be the driv-
head."
man
particular
organ
nerves,
a whip that drives it on. er?"
each
have
into
they
were
with
them.
the driver
quite Now,
too
examined
account right
all in
however,
is
managing
perhaps· be some situation in his,
the pat-
his work properly." Could ient's, hand
there life
-
so
the questioning goes
he wants to or ought to approach,
time,
on while,
which on one at the same
it makes him feel hesitant and want to shrink back?
The patient can not always give a reply and often I myself again,
on
the
basis
of
my
intuition
or
my
knowledge
of
social and cultural conditions, have to bring to his notice possible to
problems:
consideration
Is for
it
perhaps
others
or
rising anger which, fear
uf
their
due
reaction
201
one has to hold back? Could it be that the young man would like to
to
get
face
married the
married,
the young
woman
parental
though, run
on
a
but
at
the
responsibilities insist
home,
the
the
and
security
to
time
is
she
look
of
is
reluctant
Does
that her husband
other hand,
household
same
involved? the
the
newly
should leave joint
family,
in no way prepared to
after
children
without
the
help of the mother-in-law? Has some peasant perhaps entrusted
himself
burdens his
to
him with
worldly
to
tasks
desires
uncover
physical
that
and
connections
symptoms
or
involve him
duties? of
the
-
this
may,
situation
however, lies
be
that
;~is
the
may
by
of
this
in
motion
ness by
as
have
"anxiety
vicious
it
were
about
that
possible
underlie
the thus
conflicts. precipitating
be guessed~ or possibly
in
which,
and
has
In
and
from
set the
purposeless-
emotions
perpetuate
cases
already
detached
automatic
symptoms
these
importance.
anxiety" with
re-inforce
be done
its
in
event,
physical
mutually
can
lost
circle
precipitating
them
What
even
kind,
original
is
so far back and perhaps has been so slight
now a
it
initially
and trivial that it can no longer it
in conflict with
Often
type
PTr 11 who now
emotional disturbances and
to help the patient in sorting out It
11
the spiritual guidance of a
provoked
each
other.
cases is at least that the re-
sponse of the physical functions to the emotional stirrings and vice versa, which is experienced as threatening, should be
reduced
to a
reasonable measure and ,that
the
inherent
positive aspects of anxiety should be shown. For
this
vehicle, the
purpose,
this
time
harmlessness
of
I
often
however
a
again bus,
palpitations
-
use in
the
image
order
one of
to
of
a
explain
the vegetative
symptoms most frequently reported and much dreaded! Practically
all
made a
trip in a
and
the
of
our
entire
patients
bus,
have,
at
one
time
or
other,
as in Kashmir there are no railways
public
transport
is
by
motor
vehicles,
in particular big buses, which of course are mere "rattletraps"
i:r..
in
West!
the
in a
comparison I
then
to ask:
the
smoothly
"What
running
happens,
if
"coaches" the
engine
bus has already been started but the bus cannot move
off yet, perhaps because the driver has forgotten something
202
or has to wait for a passenger who comes running?"· usually the patient then remembers what he has often experienced, namely
that
the
engine
will
rattle
vehicle vibrate.
"Would
it be correct," so I
"if the driver concludes from is
not
noise
the
whole
ask further,
that
his
engine
properly and therefore decided "No, once the bus moves, going?"
"So
you see", heart.
It
the same time to
make
functioning
to get the bus noise and the trembling your
tnis
and
hesitate,
ready
everything courage,
will
is
for
least becomes is also
something
short
Urdu and which
never
be
alright.
you
see
at
this
couplet,
point,
but
at
If now you continue to
gain you
nothing
which
less."
case with
other,
however,
that
is useful for
the
or
able
If,
will
Sometimes, a
"this
it is being kept back. you
that
patient
stops or at
continue,
is
with
happen."
I
not the
I
go
forward
dangerous
try
rhymes
certainty
to
will
teach
the
impressively
in
bringing back to his memory
again and again what he has been told. In English it would approximately run as follows: "Anxiety - an illness? No! It just means: ready-steady-go!
11
At times, when the patient is slightly more differentiated,
I
sents
try to point out that language itself already prea
picture
the German word (in a
English
1 '
what
"Angst"
"oppression
condition
between",
of
of
being
"driven
is
happening
(see also p. 11
"being
,
narrowed
into
a
inside 48)
hemmed
in,
of
corner",
him.
"Beklemmung 1 '
or
in")
indicates
being
the
While
"jammed
Hindustani
in
term
gabhrahat' 1 (S), used equally for palpitations and anxiety,
seems at
to indicate a
the
situation in which
rim -Of an abyss,
the
person
while behind him high
stands
rocks
are
towering. The Kashmiri "dil ravan" finally means literally 11
the
an
heart
image
"my
heart
heart
is
is
running
similar is
to
falling
sinking".
away"
the
or
"is
Swiss-German
into Showing
my
pants"
the
getting
lost",
dialect or
the
figurative
i.e.
expression English
character
"my of
terms like these, can often serve as a basis for a fruitful conversation which can awaken in the patient insight into his condition and his problems. self
may
use
some
imagery
in
Possibly the patient him-
describing
his
complaints,
203 as
e.g.
the
heart,
woman
said:
who,
"There
pointing
is
a
to
her
wildly
clock ticking here;
beating
but it has
nothing to stand on." One
sees
that for one and the same situation or, more
accurately,
for
explaining o~
symptom, a variety is
to
select,
first and, to
at what
why, I
this
is
closest
the
same
time,
is
to
for
my
have
two-wheeled
horse-cart one
the
rattling
the
bus
and
and
vehicle,
this
the
other
bus
for
which,
of
in
be
the
the the
less
obvious
and
of
ready
patient to
will
a
of
Well, to
get have
horse-drawn
demonstrated. I
the
instead
bus,
referring
the start,
the
once
throughout.
engine
ask
correlations,
vehicles;
adequately
from
instance
were
If,
to use
on the
about the activating and
parts of the vegetative nervous system, this would, for a patient who is not familiar with the hidden mechanics of a motor vehicle, be
functions
image
for
metaphor
un~erstanding
conveying
inhibiting
may
then
same
something
right
one
psychosomatic
and
and,
cannot
hand,
of
One
different
the
is
himself
the
the most plausible analogy
clear.
vibrating
going
experienced
bears
two
sticking
to
variety,
explanation
utilised
psychosomatic
to the patient's sphere of life
made
be
particular
images can be used. What is important
from
of all,
one
less
two
close
to
experience
than
the
whip and the reins of a horsecart, which anyone can openly watch
and
which
possibly
he
himself
has had occasion to
handle at one time or other.
5. The multiplicity of meanings of images The fact that one can not only use for
the
idea my the
-
illustration as
I
have
psychiatric same
deserves
one
and
just demonstrated
activity
image some
of
in
its
further
but turn
the
different
same
images
situation
or
it by an example from
that,
inversely,
one
and
can have different meanings,
thought.
It had caused some concern
amongst some of the participants of the "Zurcher Gesprache" and
one
of
them
(Dr.
h. c.
a memorandum as follows:
V.
LANGEN)
referred
to it in
(7)" ••• once again the unequivocal
character of images was a matter of doubt; in other words: it
was
again
and
again
stressed,
in
particular
by
the
204
psychiatrists, and
interpret
again,
on
the
that
one
could
each
image
other
hand,
in
of
course
read,
different
the
ways.
question came
consider Again
up,
and
whether
perhaps certain images might not be, after all, archetypal, i.e.
images
emerging i.e.
rooted
in
in
the
human
in
same
to get a
whether
is
one
Sometimes,
manner
beings
not possible
to
human
soul,
even
different
cul tu res,
in
clarification
the
that images were
the human
all over the world.
consider
during
nature,
this
view
colloquies,
It was
free
from
as
however
any doubt,
valid
one got
and
the
or
not•
impression
far too much a play-ball of intellectual
enthusiasm for debating and
that
thus
they had no chance
of keeping their archetypal character ••• ". The conclusion was:
that
11
in
our
highly
developed
of
our
images,
but
Western
continuously
adjust
expression
to
thus
are
they
that
it
is
intellectual
an unambiguous
inherent
in the nature
evolution
themselves
different no
in
feelings
longer
culture
to
it is no longer possible to limit oneself concept of
Western
that
their and
valued
images
potential
thoughts
and
images
with
as
for that one
well-defined meaning." I
was
tempted to comment on this problem as this gives
me
a
of
ancient
chance
detail
not
only
Indian
to
bring
philosophy,
out but
some also
to the use of metaphor in my
further to
refer
aspects in more
psychiatric activity
and in "colloquy" in general. "Images"
as
"primaeval
images 11
or
"archetypes",
i.e.
as a preliminary stage, a "blue-print" as it were in "creation",
in
can
understood
be
the
sense as
of
the
ancient
an
attempt
by
Indian the
"nama-rupa",
Ultimate
One
to
allow the manifestation of one or several of its innumerable
inherent
aspects
or
possibilities.
The
"image"
as
such, however, is again a whole that has different aspects. The
deity
which,
within
the
ancient
Indian
trinity
of
"Creator, Preserver and Destroyer" represents the last-named aspect,
i.e.
Shiva (see also p.
79),
for instance, can
at the same time appear as a symbol for masculine generat. •h I/_ I ive power an d , in is f unction as Ipasupati' (S), as the protector of all and
again
in
the
beings. ancient
Quite generally, Indian
one finds again
scriptures
that
nothing
205
-
not even the five elements of which "creation" consists is
completely pure and uniform:
and
possibilities
minor
measure
instance,
but
work,
always
also
included,
though
th~
background.
Thus,
never
of
and concealed in
the
nature", at
are
concrete
"fire"
in
it
earth,
though
to
a
is
water,
lesser
the other constituents
only
in for
"fiery
air and ether are also
degree
than the determining
element "fire". Thus, much
if
more
one
uses
an
complicated
image
than
-
a
which
mere
of course may be
element!
in
order
to illustrate, to allow an aspect of a particular situation to
appear
image
in
more its
aspects.
clearly,
totality,
What
occupy
the
one
usual.ly
does not apply this
but only in one or several of its
feature
in
foreground
each
can
only
particular become
instance
evident
will
from
the
connection of meanings and perhaps the emotion~! atmosphere of
the
is, of
situation concerned.
for
instance,
remaining
image, it~
aware
they
of
this
applicability of the concretely, taking •it in
partial
misunderstand
it
totality! For animals
serves
as
aspect
may
an
This understanding of symbols disturbed in schizophrenics; instead
a
too,
in an "image" - namely the image that
model be
for
imprinting
model
situation
sufficient
for
is
One
can
various
characteristics remain, cular
imprinting
decisive.
only
one
and
by
traits
by
until
particular remove
only
from
the
few
for which the animal in the parti-
adjusted
or
attracting
the
"programmed". young
Thus
animals
it
to
is
their
"mother" if one replaces the mother as a whole by an artificial
"decoy",
shape,
or
if
a
rough model of a
one
tape-recording.
produces
The
human
particular colour and
the
sound
of
baby
also,
apparently,
her
voice
by
a
during
the first weeks and months of life, only responds to certain a
aspects
of
the
mother
f igu"t"e
and
befo~e
the
age
of
few months does not recognise her in her total appearan-
ce, e.g. when she is dressed in an unusual manner. What and in
in
is
unique
contrast
to
one-and-the-same
or a
for
man
animals, image,
beyond
this
appears it
is
stage
to be
not
one
of
that
infancy for
him,
characteristic
few only that have the effect of releasing in stereo-
206
type manner a
very particular behaviour in a well defined
situation, but that he has at his disposal the whole wealth of meanings of the image and that, out of them, to
situation
and
emotional
This
is
images, fied
atmosphere,
pa~ticular
again pick out new above
can
again
and
aspects. for
dream
to which neither the simple looking up of a
codi-
meaning
mechanistic
all
he
according
in
a
important
in
"dream-book"
FREUDian
method
psychiatry
nor
of
the
all
too
rigidly
dream-interpretation
can
do justice. I
now wish to show in greater detail
meaning of that
is
images
not
is at work
immediately
how the multiple
in colloquy,
obvious
is
to
when
be
something
presented
in
the form of imagery: Let us take as an example the "image" of the bus which has
already
been
used:
The
"archetype"
on
which
it
is
based and which certainly remains plausible even nowadays, might
be
local
distance
man
on
that
described
his
makes
as
more
"a
vehicle
quickly
own
legs"
use
of
and
than
more
wheels
capable this
of
is
overcoming
possible
particularly:
for
reducing
"a
for
vehicle
friction,
while
moving on the ground", in contrast for instance to a sledge or a of
vehicle that moves on water or in the air.
this
type,
Vehicles
which simply have in common the fundamental
characteristics just mentioned, have been invented, fabricated and used by human beings once a certain evolutionary stage
is
reached,
at
all
times,
in
perhaps where snow,
desert
did
use of wheels)
not
permit
variants.
in many different such how-
implies
images
for
also
and
to
of
the
serve
other
no
the
in
are not only suited distance
attributes
metaphors
for
situations; sense
to
serve as
the basic situation of being car-
overcoming
varying as
understanding longer
they
illustrating
along
thanks can
that
elaboration
(except
and equipment of
ried
detailed
and
regions
too uneven ground
vehicles which varies under different circumstances, ever,
The
the
all
sand or all
of
an
and
and
functions
bringing in
friction,
that
archetype,
one
they
closer
case, but
-
but to
however, merely
as
the carrier of some particular illustrative aspect. For
FREUD,
for
instance,
a
bus
could
above
all
have
20,7
provided an
image of masculine sexuality with its "drive"
to
push
forward dynamically,
in particuiar if the vehicle
in
the image used were just about to enter through a gate
or into a tunnel. If, however, the aspect of "being carried about" the
in
bus
might just as well figure as a feminine,
symbol. who
the "body" of the vehicle is in the foreground,
I
was
happen going
to remember
through
a
maternal
the dream of a young Indian
crisis
while
having
to
detach
himself from his family and in particular from his mother. At that time
(when other dreams with quite different imag-
ery also pointed travelling he
clung on
mained a
in
to
an
to
this
overcrowded
the door,
dreamer's
intentional
"the
on
bicycle or even on
or a
even
vehicle far
quite
for
away
bus.
With
that he was
great
the roadside.
getting
all",
from
different
he dreamt
difficulty
but eventually fell out and re-
lying helplessly on
i.e. a
problem!)
and
foot, any
out
of
the
"omnibus",
his continui!'lg his
perhaps on a
trodden
situation,
In another case,
path,
namely
narrow track
might
that
trip
of
indicate
liberating
himself from having fallen prey to the anonymous "everyone" (the
German
"man")
and
making
a
decided
move
towards
"authentic existence". In the example I have already reported or
of
explaining
palpitations,
or halting and,
to the patient his vegetative dystonia
it
is merely the element of slowing down
on the other hand, speeding up or starting
a vehicle to which attention is to be drawn. In some other situation bus
to
again,
the
out and
top
finds
altitude,
for of
he has
instance a
mountain
in
a
dream,
where
the
travelling passenger
to gasp for breath due
by
gets
to the high
could illustrate the situation of "having climb-
ed" or better "having been carried" "beyond one's reach". In images
modern
art
and
of ten amounts
ling" with them.
literature, to a
however
5),
the· use of
playing or perhaps1 even
"j ugg-
The examples just mentioned of the multi-
5) During the Fourth "Zurcher Gesprach", impressive examples were presented by Eugen BAER who spoke on the work of the painter Rene MAGRITTE and Kurt WEINBERG who gave an interpretation of one of S. MALLARME' s poems in terms of its "receptional history".
208 ple
use
stood
to
in
lent
a
them
to,
which quite
particular
sense;
however,
ial
one particular the
image can be put always
connection
playful
use
of
of
meaning
images
that
now ref erred
- often reminiscent of the verbal and pictor-
products
of
schizophrenics!
appears
to
tear
what
is presented out of any connection or at least any familiar, customary context, and to use it arbitrarily, possibly even by ignoring its elementary functions. So,
one
remain?
may
Well,
of non-sense
legitimately ask: perhaps
to call
one
can
where
say
then does
that
into question
it
the
is
"sense"
the
sense
"good sense",
the
meaningfulness of what we generally experience as "making sense" make it. at
or
it
of out
"common more
sense"
clearly
and
or
thus
even
possibly
to
point
to
beyond
Is it not the sense of the Japanese Zen "koan", which first
against has
even
stand sight all
been
sense,
"sense",
set
non-sense,
cannot
as
a
towards
being
as
and at the same contrasts? 6) Non-sense
can
be to
task
understood lead
by
the
his
and
appears
disciple,
Master,
to
beyond
to
go
whom
l. t
sense and
the One in which sense as well as non-
well
as
non-being,
are
time cancelled out and thus
have
an
safely
contained
raised above
important ·function
all
in
the
fight against stagnation in the habitual and against rigid ritualisation: taken all too far, however, it makes impossible
any
one's
ken",
feeling and
meanings that "unheif!1lich". One
may
of
"being
thus
are
perhaps
both
at
becomes
or
"being
"un-homely",
together
assume
home"
that
included the
within
"uncanny", in
artist
the who
German engages
in such a playful use of images,
konws very ~ell and also
gratefully
that,
appreciates
the
fact
in
everyday
life,
6) The German "aufheben" and "aufgehoben" cannot be rendered adequately by one single. English term. Apart from the most trivial meaning of "picking up", it has the different connotations 9f "to keep safely", "to cancel out" and "to raise something up", which are all simultaneously implied in the use of "aufgehoben" in the original German text!
209
certain connections of meaning have to remain intact if the order of the world is to continue functioning and "habitation" i.e. remaining in what is habitual is to
be
possible.
Suppose
a
picture shows us a bus pinned
up on a sharp crag in a pathless mountain area or another one
which
is
being dragged,
possibly
in
reverse,
by
an
elephant through dense jungle, while necks of giraffes and heads of monkeys stick through the windows, this may a~peal to one's sense of humour and may bring to awareness some ridiculous "non~sensical" aspects of our technological civilisation; at the same time, however, one will also gladly rely on the regular functioning of the vehicle one intends to board next moment or in which one is actually
sitting
while
looking
at
the
grotesque
cartoons
in
one's magazine. In my earlier contribution ("Significance of ilJlages in Hinduism") I mentioned a statement by Shri Ramakrishna Paramhans (of which unfortunately I cannot give the exact text and source): The more the meditating or worshipping person becomes absorbed in gazing at an image, the more its attributes will disappear, until finally the image itself
also
dissolves.
In
this
last
stage,
just before
complete dissolution, which presumably again amounts to the origin of the image in a first stage of "creation"' we probably have to look for the "archetype" with its very scanty conf igurati6n that cannot be reduced any further and that serves a function which is uniquely peculiar to it. What is added later, by way of further elaborations and the
adornments, results in the multiple functioning of image which, correspondingly, then also lends itself
to illustrating quite varied connections of meaning. Even the Indian Gods have attributes which some of them hold with hundreds of arms and hands. Apart from this, their body postures, even a slight variation in the position of the fingers ( "mudra") can change the meaning of the figure thus presented, though al~ays only within the framework of a code strictly laid down by convention. Nevertheless, this does not change the fact that each one of these di vine figures, in contradistinction to all others,
has
its
very
specific
features
which
in
their
21 0
particular configuration are peculiar only to itself. It has already been mentioned that in ancient Indian teaching the five elements present themselves in different form
according
figure
to
in each
ever, this is elements: each place
in
the
the
particular
instance. valid
for
element
mixture
In quite our
a
which
they
similar manner,
how-
modern
in
science
is characterized as
periodic
system,
number of electrons and
the
by
its
of
chemical
unique
by
its
atomic weight,
the
corresponding nuclear charge;
in conjunction with other elements, in molecular and multimolecular
structures,
on
the
other
hand,
again manifests different qualities. as
research
too well,
workers
in
the
field
there are compounds
In
of
that
it
again
and
this respect too,
chemistry know only
"make
sense"
and
that
are useful for something, and others which one can designate "non-sense". Occasionally, however, only
after
years,
that. what
was
it happens,
rejected at
perhaps
first
sight
as "non-sense" can suddenly acquire valuable significance. In the sphere of biochemistry and molecular biology, "nonsense"
in
the
configuration
of
atoms
and
molecules
can
come about spontaneously, without any intentional research experiment and this "mutation" can then spell malformation or even the
~ath
of an organism.
To come back to speech. and to colloquy, in
Sanskrit
languages
but
that
also this
to
a
certain
contrast
it is not only
extent
between
a
in
our
unique
modern
character
determined as a matter of principle on the one hand, on
the
for
other
the
hand,
a
multiplicity 11
Our "H" for instance is an ated character; an
"s",
of
meanings
functioning of words and even of
or
if
but if
I
is
valid
letters.
H11 with its well-defined aspir-
use
it stands
single
and,
it along with a
"c" or with
in connection with a
vowel:
"ah,
oh, eh!" (serving in German to lengthen a vowel; in English only
used
in
this
way
for
exclamations!),
it
loses
its
typical sound and assumes new qualities. In Sanskrit where, even more than in German, words can easily be joined together,
most
letters
their
written
sign
change
not
when
they
only
their
become
sound but also
"contaminated"
by
close contact with other letters. As
far
as
Sanskrit
words
( S)
are
concerned,
one gets
211
the impression that originally conglomerations or connections of meaning were designated in a very condensed manner through each a
very
few
cluster
roots
was
only.
perhaps
certain emotional
The
just
tone,
a
common
a
element
certain
"theme",
and
binding
"atmosphere",
it was probably
only by and by that different more definite meanings fanned out of this complex. Words in Sanskrit therefore can still have an immense variety of meanings. have
a
life
very and,
concrete
significance,
th~
on
other
hand,
Above all, many words current
as
we
in day-to-day would
say,
a
"transferred_", a "f:i:gurative", abstract sense. Considering, however, Images in
what in
Indian
from to
Hinduism", formless
assume
that
"derived" in
its
presented pp.
previously
163
ff),
{"Signif..i.cance
namely that
of
"creation"
philosophy proceeds from the top to the bottom,
the
ion"
I
or
the
concrete
abstract
corresponds
form,
and
to
level at which
one
meaning
"transferred"
turn,
from a
to
is
that
the
may
primary
the
descent
there
well and
concrete of
have
all
not use,
"creat-
is only "name and form"
as a blue-print, into the condition of tangible manifestation, and thus proves to be secondary. It
seems
coI').stant
to
me
pointing
its
mere
and,
on
name,
that of
to
it
the
is
trivial,
something
the other hand,
this
the
that
very the
ambiguity,
concrete,
lies
beyond
this
through
all
names
possibility of understanding
the "abstract" figuratively on the basis of one's familiarity in
with
the
every-day
concrete life
use
that
of
keeps
the a
same
linguistic
language
alive
and
root thus
renders it suited to serve as a mediator between the sphere of
the
however, ment
purely
ideal
and the manifestly present.
Nowadays'
one notes in this respect-an alarming impoverish-
even
in
the
German
language.
While
up
to
about
20
years ago one still had the privilege in German of disposing
in
derived
the
various
from
in every-day a
fine
indigenous language,
ear for
to the abstract, in
particular
fields
it!
of
roots
science of that
and while
technical
could
this
-
also
be
terms found
provided one had
lent the character of
imagery even
one finds that during the last few years,
also
in the
field of behavioural
sciences,
the German language has become the victim of "Americanisat-
21 2
ion".
The
have
their
which
terms
are
of
the
origins more
in
latter,
Latin
foreign
however,
and
and
Greek,
remote
ironically!
i.e.
to
in elements
Anglo-Saxons
than
to the continental European intellectual who usually still feels
more
doubt,
or less at home
signifies
an
in Latin and Greek.
estrangement
of
This,
language
from
no its
origins and therefore also an estrangement of the speaker from his speech. Where there is merely exchange of foreign terms, as the signals of a code as it were, as the elements for
the programming of a
for
language,
say
to
us
the
is
computer,
careful
lost,
listening
there
the
the "Da-sein" in its fullness, quy
with
its
"colloquy
vibrations.
about",
but
where
and
what
respect
it wants
psycho-somatic
to
wholeness,
can no longer eni:-ich collo-
What the
to
awe
may
still
"with"
be
and
possible
above
all
is the
"towards" of colloquy dwindle away.
6. Problems of colloquy in an international, interdisciplinary setting In the
the
basis
course
of
of
amateurish
scriptures
my
and
the
this role
contribution, knowledge
"colloquy"
I of
plays
have
tried
ancient in
on
Indian
them,
and
on the other hand on the basis of my psychiatric experience in
Kashmir,
to
present
and
illustrate
important
elements
of colloquy and in particular the use of imagery and metaphors what to
in
it.
What
particular
take place
setting
and
now
remains
problems
in an
arise
to
be
in
done
is
colloquy
to
examine
when
it
is
inter-cultural and inter-disciplinary
to suggest
some
seen
in
possible
solutions
for
them.
7)
We
have
colloquy
nearly
that always
the
takes
ancient place
Indian
between
scriptures two
people
7) The comments specifically aimed at the way the "Zurcher Gesprache" had been proceeding up to that time, have been formulated in a more generally valid fashion than this was the case in the original German version of the paper. References to situations quite particular to the "Zurcher Gesprache" have been omitted as far as possible.
213
only
and
which
that
a
this
very
the
level
the
purest
probably
specific
of
maturity
and
most
is
the
openness of
the
form
tuned
partner
intensive
of
to can
manner,
colloquy
the
needs
come
just
about
as
in and
is
in
also
usually the case in a psychiatric and particularly a psychotherapeutic
interview.
Any
plurality
of
participants openness~
in colloquy implies the risk that all too wide an aimed at doing justice to everyone,
leads to a flattening
or generalisation or that, on the contrary, as a precaution against certain limitations or even threatening the
openness
becomes
is
acute
overrestricted.
if
these
This
multiple
situ~tions,
problem
participants
different fields of knowledge and,
naturally come
from
in addition, have their
roots in different cultures. Above all, however, a plurality of participants in colloquy introduces problems concerning its course in time: If,
in
involved assume
colloquy, with
all
participants
"body-mind-and-soul",
are
really
one
would
to have
get to
that at any moment, or at least after any decisive
. utterance
by
one
participant,
on the part of all intellectual responses
those present -
reflections
or
even
there
are
would
reactions
and by this not only
meant,
psychosomatic
be
but
also
stirrings!
emotional and
these
could or should be communicated to the others. The simultaneity
of
these
phenomena
would
then
have
to
be
folded
out into the linear dimension of time. Instead of a concentric
figure,
again to
in which
all
that is said points again and
the same starting point as
its .centre, one then
obtains a line··that "runs" (-running away from the centre! - )
in
one
direction
or
a
configuration in which various
lines branch off, as any new communication by a participant can
further
deviate
turn become there or
is
no
"moderator"
psychologist again
from
the
initial
concern and in its
the object of comments and questions.
and
in
again
a
who
-
just as
dynamically
calls
the
the
oriented
group back
to
If now
psychiatrist therapy' group the
subject,
one hardly ever succeeds in this way in reaching the appropria:te
density
happen
is
that
and depth the
one
of
exchange.
participant
Possibly
who
is
most
what
may
capable
of making himself heard and quickest in responding -
and
21 4
he may perhaps not always be the one who experiences most thoroughly and with his whole being! - can take hold of the colloquy and determine its further direction, while those who are more thoughtful and who if granted enough time would be able to lead more deeply and fully into what is being discussed, may not be able to get a hearing and therefore will be overtaken, left behind, by the further course of the colloquy. Division into small groups can to a certain extent avoid this risk. ~ossibly, roughly similar to the pattern we find io anciertt Indian scriptures, each group might remain throughout formed around one of the mai-n speakers so that the group can deal more thoroughly with what he has already communicated or what he is ready to share over and above what he has already brought up or will bring up in his formal contribution to the whole gathering. Of course, if one is technologically minded, one might manage, through tape recording and repeated play-back of certain phases of the colloquy, to give some or all participants a chance of commenting on it in "concentric" manner, without risking a situation where the colloquy would be diverted from its main course or branch off into siQe issues. The same purpose could be served if the participants were to take notes about matters that·particularly stir or preoccupy them so that they can come back to them, even if perhaps in the meantime the colloquy has already moved off in a different direction. All this will, however, inhibit spontaneousness and the natural, always and unpredictable flow of the exchange of ideas.
unique
One sees that it is not easy to solve the problem of the time-dimension, quite apart from the much bigger question which becomes evident in the being together of participants from East and West, namely whether it is at all possible to arrive within so short a time, "instantaneously" as it were,_ at an understanding and a fitting response to profound concerns for which the Eastern aspirant to eternal wisdom, if he really wants to experience and integrate them, is willing not only to devote the span of one whole
life-time,
but a
innumerable incarnations!
whole
succession of
possibly
21 5 What remains
to be said apart from these two problems,
namely that of the specific openness while being together with
several partners in colloquy and that of the course
the colloquy takes basis
of
a
text
in time, from
is an
"invocation",
which
one
(e.g.
KA'!'HOPANI~AD
purpose
often
of
the
i.e.
finds
Indian
scriptures.
It
kind of prayer or benediction the
c) ) ,
transmitting
to disciple or pupil.
a as
(12
can best be presented on the ancient
introduction
in
particular
knowledge
to
colloquy
if it has the
and wisdom from master
The complete text goes as follows:
(English translation taken from KA!HOPANISAD (12 c); alternatives and comments are my.own, arrived at with the help of Sanskrit Dictionary (9)). "May He (or It, i.e. "brahman") protect us both together; "May He nourish us both together; "May we both work together with great energy (effort); "May our study (or colloquy) be thorough and fruitful (better: sharp and brilliant); ::May we~- ne:rer )2a te ea,£h other (enter into discord) i AUM, santi, $anti, santi ! '' Though at first sight this short text looks quite simple and self-evident, to
our
subject
translation the
length
original,
it may yet have various things pertinent to
reveal
provided, of
the
lines
cannot do
to
which
us,
above
tries
more
the
number
and
all or
because less
to
the keep
of words of the
justice to the condensed multiplicity
of
meanings
of
the
Sanskrit
of
associations
can
be
terms
brought
'cs) .
together
A whole for
weal th
each
single
line of the text. 1. May He protect us both together. This first line appeals for it
"protection" is
and
for
"propitiousness".
not quite clear at first,
also
asks by
or
are
the
the
further
blessings
supposed to come. implied
"he 11
or
11
original
and
again
ultimate
but
which
at
the is
speakers
and
recognition
sense:
of
recognition
their this of
from· whom this protection for
"brahman"
Ground same
speech.
the
invocation
is
to which
meant,
this
colloquy
is
time underlies and bears The
"Ground", the
which
The commentators explain that It",
devoted,
the
From the text,
aim
and
"brahman"
of
this by
the
the in
colloquy a
twofold
partners
in
colloquy, and at the same time recognition of the "brahman"
21 6
of itself by itself~ · needed? In order Against what d angers is pro t ec t·on i to clarify this we had better turn to the last line of 11 /_ t i, · s"-anti· , s/_anti· .' 11 The the "invocation", namely AUM, san mantra in. a
"AUM"
(often
most condensed manner
and
the
whole
reaches
and
that
lasts
11
written
0M 11
the
comprehends beyond
(S)),
which
beginning, all
them,
symbolises
middle
these
three
presumably
and
end
and
also
indicates
that
. " towar d s " the colloquy too, again and again, ought to point
this wholeness. means
peace,
The
threefold
calm,
is
repetition
according
assure one that disturbances
to
from
11
of
the
s'anti" which
commentators
to
three different spheres
or levels will be warded off, namely "adhiatmika": disturbances
arising
physical
as
from
the
well
as
person
the
of
the
mental
speakers,
sense;
in
the
"adhibhautika",
upsetting factors from the material and natural envir0nment that could interfere with the colloquy; and finally "adhidaivika", disturbing or even disrupting influences originating
in
the
"world
of
the
gods",
the
realm
of
higher
powers. Of course an environment free from irritation contributes a great deal towards keeping away disturbances arising from a
the
person of
grouping
that
an
agreeable
in
a
is
concerned,
room
beautiful
these
are
one's
mental
the
can
participants:
easily
no
silence
worrying
only
on
at
one
seat,
glance,
sheltered
corner
far
as
the
food
or
lodgings,
towards
the
comfortable in
even a as
about
helpful
powers
a
taken
temperature or
garden,
not
be
all
concentrating
fully
colloquy,
telephone
but
also
promote
a relaxed mood and a feeling of being together as friends, in
short:
an
atmosphere
in
which
flashes
of
thought
can
arise and w1tnout undue haste find their way into speech. Protection not
all
demands up,
have
openness
however,
sed", are
we
from
unless
retained
external to
think
from
its
risks
of
the necessary by
the
being
in
this
Opening
into one's
respect
partners.
however,
context.
participants.
might easily turn
be "taken by one's word", one
inconveniences,
is
Colloquy oneself
"feeling expo-
and discrete reticence
It could
be
that
one will
"held down to one's statements";
misunderstood,
ridiculed;
possibly
one
2i7
may
have
one
has
to
hear
or
read
communicated,
as
again
e.g.
in
is
distorted
so
easily
form
the
what
case
in
interviews with press representatives! What was only meant for
a
quite
particular
mutual
openness
between
friends
or close acquaintances might prove to be to one's damage if spread or even "broadcast" in public. Instead of finding in colloquy a free space for encounter, one might be narrowed
in or even driven into a tight corner by embarrassing
questions.
In short,
stand
protection
of
the
ancient
their GER
India
col~oquies
( 5),
I
think that nowadays, we may underwhich
called
2500
down
years
from
ago
the
wise
men
the higher powers for
in the terms used so strikingly by HEIDEG-
namely
as
a
wish
that
the
colloquy may
serve
a "procreative" and not a "provocative" disclosure. 8) If
the
participants
in
colloquy
each other in every-day life by difference
in
professional
are
separated
from
local distance or by the
sphere
or possibly both,
this
can only be conducive to sheltered openness, as a certain confidential easily,
if
intimacy the
in
partners
colloquy only
often comes about most
have
part of
their way
in
common, without being too much entangled in the same social network. 2. May "He"
nourish
us
both.
This
second
request,
for
should not be taken too literally. The "nourishment", Sanskrit term used here means "to be nourished, to enjoy, to derive benefit, to find fulfilment". A true colloquy should provide enjoyment, shoul·· nourish and enrich the participant. It is not without reason that one
says:
"I
am
still
quite
full
of
what
I
just
heard
••• ". "Fulfilment", however, should be achieved by colloquy
8) The German terms "hervorbringendes" and "herausforderndes Entbergen" (S), literally a disclosing or revealing that is "bringing forth" something in contrast to one that merely "challenges" or "provokes", namely into yielding what can be exploited, have a slightly wider spectrum of meaning and emotional appeal than "procreative and provocative disclosure", which, being foreign terms, taken over from Latin, no longer poir.t to the roots and furthermore are too much reminiscent of the technical world!
218
in the
particular
if
communication
it serves
between
the
doctor
purpose and
of
teaching
or
also
in
patient!
the sense of "fulfilling a task with regard to one's fell?w human
being"
who
perhaps
has
come
as
learn or one who is suffering; and, larly
well,
in
the
in
a
one
should
openness
quite
destiny
of
and
left
exchange
particular one's
be
being
with
of
manner, human
one
who
wishes
to
if things go particuthe
the
feeling
colloquy,
that,
one
fulfilled
the
purpose
in general
and
at
the
has, and same
time of being this particular human being. If colloquy does not lead to a satisfaction and satiety of
this
kind,
one
may,
on
the
contrary,
get
a
feeling
of having been "sucked out" or "squeezed out". The venture of
offering
oneself
in
communication has
miscarried~
in-
stead of being "fed", one is "eaten up". Fear what
of
being
makes
the
overwhelmed
in
this
schizophrenic
if
manner
he
is
ventures
probably forth
at
all into colloqJy! - disguise his communications in cryptic language and
thus,
in his ambivalence,
keep in the middle
between sharing and retaining. One There
aspect must
allowing was
of
be
oneself
offered
"being
sufficient to
or,
be
in
nourished" time
for
impressed
other words:
is
also
quiet and
digestion.
reflection,
for
penetrated
by
what
there must also
be
time
"to chew the cud", to ruminate_. 3.
May we both work with great energy.
here
translated
with
"energy"
or
The Sanskrit term
"effort",
i.e.
"virya",
in its most concrete sense signifies the masculine generatj_ ve
power.
venture
This
into
means
that
colloquy
with
the
partners
zeal
and
should not
effort,
only
but what
is
implied is also a wish that the colloquy should be "creative". In
colloquy
in
itself;
one
reveal of
insight,
the
its
best
ought
emerging
sense
to of
something
follow an
idea
up
the
new
should
germinating
"in statu nascendi"
as it were in the different participants. The mere reading of
a
prepared
moments, case back.
the
at
"paper"
is
apt
to
least on the part of
instant
Perhaps
this
of is
the
creative
exclude
such
creative
the speaker, as in this act
the reason why
already it
is
lies
far
so difficult
219
to speak spontaneously and freely on a has
already
"laid
down"
has
already
"become"
in writing;
and
subject which one
one is tied to what
therefore,
in
colloquy,
cannot
"bring something ·into becoming" so that the others present can also participate in the moment of creation, and there is
thus
hardly
a
chance
of
releasing
in
them
a
process
of "conceiving" or "generating". I
have already hinted that the problem of transforming
simultaneous
experience
dictated
the
speak
by
in
into
need
succession,
for
the
linear sequence of time
making
stands
in
different
the
way
participants
of
an
immediate
common experiencing of this creative process as each individual only
may be
feel
it,
and
satisfactorily
that
this
problem
solved
in
colloquy
can actually between
two
people. 4. May our study (or "colloquy") be thorough and fruitful. I
prefer
and
to translate the Sanskrit term "tejas" by "sharp
brilliant",
thus
indicating
that
it
has a wealth of
meanings which in English (and in German!) cannot be rendered
in
one
single
is one of a in
the
word.
The image conveyed by this term
sharp-edged weapon which flashes up brightly
light
of
the
sun;
at
the
same time,
however,
it
suggests the bright flame of the fire in which the flashing blade is and
was
originally
sharply
flashing,
beauty
and,
a
power, vitality -
tempered.
Thus
brilliant,
little
"tej as"
bright,
less
is
full
concretely,
all
that
of glamour
also
energy,
but also destructive violence! - spirit-
' . even magic power, majesty, glory and even passion. ual·and It
seems
to
me
that
the
central
theme
to which
all
these different meanings point is that of a sudden "illumination",
a
"sudden
flashing
up",
and
this
also
includes
what in German we call in similarly condensed manner "Geistesbli tz 11 or
in
(literally:
English,
insight"
or,
"a flash of lightning of the mind
slightly
-
less
impressively,
"a
flash
11 )
of
no longer remaining in the metaphoric con-
text suggested by the Sanskrit word: "a brainwave". The be the
implied
related
to
primary
sphere
in
meaning the
fact
process
which
the
of
of
"sharpness"
that,
can
in colloquy,
thinking
individual
i.e.
perhaps
also
that which in in
rests. within
that
mental
himself
and
220
has
only
in
indeterminate,
to
cater
and shadow-like, understandable brought speaker giving
to
his
vague
own needs manner
is only hinted at can
remain
diffuse
at the moment when it has to be rendered
to others has
into
precise
al.so
gains
form,
-
and
of
to be sharply contoured and
formulatioh. clarity
At
about
clarification,
the
same
himself.
takes
time,
the
A process
place
which
of
might
have been omitted if one had not been moved by necessity and
by
with out
one's
a
wish
partner
to
in
that what
is
come
to
colloquy. disturbed
terms
I
may
in
the
and
to
communicate
perhaps
again
schizophrenic
point
is
this
very process of transforming into a clear utterance something that originally,
is only unclear
in its inwardness,
thought, moving at random in erratic manner. 5.
May
we
never
hate
each
other.
Between
the
partners
in colloquy, no hatred, no discord should arise. A colloquy ought to build up a common world,
a "becoming
one" of the partners; at the same time, however, also implies a too
close
a
"coming to
one-ness
no
cause the colloquy to agreement. other
An
hand,
all
spoils
longer
lapse
too
9)
All
permits exchange and may
into
heated
the
colloquy
terms" with each other. the
silence
"coming
pleasant
to
of
complete
terms",
atmosphere
on
conducive
the
to
colloquy and perhaps tears open rifts that cannot be bridged. In an interdisciplinary, international and intercultural group it is particularly important to keep a good balance in
this
respect,
or
even
only
right
from
as
for
the
the prerequisites
reaching
start.
It
some is,
for
agreement however,
"becoming one" are
this
not
given
process
of
creating a common world while starting from these different initial ness"
positions,
and
thus
the attempt
into our fragmented world,
that
is
to bring usually
"wholethe
aim
of such gatherings. While engaged in this kind of exchange, each
one
should
insofar as
preserve
through
his own characteristic
features
them and through the particular sphere
9) Once again the Ger.man term "Auseinandersetzung".
( s)
221
of science or culture he represents, he can offer a contrienl~ghten
bution that can world,
while,
allegiance and
the others and enrich the common
on the other hand,
to
promote
this it
"becoming
he
can,
if
he should have sufficient
one" need
that be,
in order to save
sacrifice
something
of himself or his opinions. Again
it
is
observe
with
a
to
wish
keep could other
( 6)
the
would
and who
his
on
the
I
once
was
thinking
of
if,
the
other asked
convinced
thoughts,
expect
patient
distinctness
oneself".
into
hand, he
schizophrenic
one
to
patient
peep
what
the
become
oneself
paranoid
in
particular
but
he
between
hand
a
a
young
that
that
others
as
that we can
dilemma
to
need
all him,
remained
"to
Indian people on
the
concealed,
insistently demanded,
he
could look into the minds of other people~ Would it satisfy him more, of
his
that
his
cannoc he
if
own
own
be
Later,
could find of
thoughts
of
As
confirmation of himself and there,
are
or
something
anyone
else?
if he could state quite
After
special
some
that
hesitation
"It would of course be nice if one could find
however,
them.
by
thoughts;
thoughts
a
thinking
shared
replied:
similar
he way
that would confirm and strengthen one·" he
once
others
long
as
so
he
argued as
did
to not
that
he
put
up
know
what
had
to
know
resistance was
the
against
going
on
in
others he could not set himself apart as different. It
is
as
a
defence
against a
loss of
identity of this
kind that we can better Lnderstand the aggressive behaviour or the extreme withdrawal of patients of this kind. ERIKSON gist
K.
( 2),
basing himself on what the animal etholo-
LORENZ
(8)
has
reported about
inter-specific and
intra-specific aggression in the animal world, has postulated
that
one
of
the best ways
to overcome hostility and
aggression between different! "sub-species", i.e .. sub-groups of humanity, would be the search for "higher, more inclusive
identities".
identity by
the
The
however,
ancient
as
very is
highest brought
India11 scriptures,
and to
most
comprehensive
mind again and again
would be
that with
the
original and also ultimate One. I one"
think and
that
yet
a
harmonious
interplay between
"remaining oneself",
"becoming
can best be guaranteed
222 if colloquy
remains directed
that
from
which,
itself
in
meanings
a
and
will . perhaps
all
world
"towards
beginning of
able
to
If
bring
something",
One
multiformity
differentiations. be
is
and
and
this
yet
towards
manifests
multiplicity is
together
the a
case,
common
of one
store
of unifying knowledge which may help to overcome the fragmentation of
of
knowledge,
science, and
split
up
into
individual
sectors
to build up a unified world-view,
which
gives its due place and dignity to the wholeness and ultimate
des~iny
of man.
223 LITERATURE (1) BHAGAVAD GITA:
Various editions. Used: "Hindu Scriptures", ed. by Nicol MACNICOL, Everyman's Library, No. 944, London, J.M. Dent & Sons, 1957. 11
(2) ERIKSON, E.H.:
The Concept of Identity in Race Relations" in "Daedalus", Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 95, No. 1 (Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Winter 1966).
(3) GRASSI, E.:
Instructions for the participants of the Fifth Zurcher Gesprach (cyclostyled), 1979.
(4) HEIDEGGER, M.:
"Sein und Zeit 11 , Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tubingen, 1927. 8th Edition 1957.
(5) HEIDEGGER, M.:
"Die Frage nach der Technik 11 in "Vortrage und Aufsatze 11 , Verlag Neske, Pfullingen, 1954. Second Edition 1959.
( 6 ) HOCH , E. :
"Negative Existenz". Unpublished manuscript, 1964.
( 7 ) LANGEN I
(8)
v. :
LORENZ, K.:
"Gedanken uber die drei letzten Kolloquien in unseren Zurcher Gespachen. 11 10.1. 79 (cyclostyled). "Das sogenannte Bose .• 11 G. BorothaSchoeler Verlag, Wien, 1963.
(9) MACDONELL, A.A.: "A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary". Oxford University Press, 1929. (Reprinted 1954-1958). (10) MACNICOL, N.:
"Hindu Scriptures". Everyman's Library, No. 944, J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1938. Reprinted 1957.
(11) NEW TESTAMENT:
"The Holy Bible". Authorised Version.
(12) UPANISADS:
Various editions. Used: SanskritEnglish parallel texts with commentaries published by Shri Ramakrishna Math, Mylapore, Madras. In detail: a) BRHADARANYAKA UPANISAD: 1951. b) CH~NDOGYA UPANI~AD: 1956. c) KATHOPANISAD: 1956. d) TAITTIRIYOPANISAD: 1958. 0
225
CRITERIA OF REALITY
Amongst
the
"scientific", more
than
terms
in others,
with
that
the
the
that
is
deserve
one
of
to
those
be
of
"reality".
has
to
deal
(S)
called
in which,
one again and again has
concept
psychiatrist
existence and
professions
psychiatry
1)
far
to come to
It is not only
with aspects of human
that do not manifest themselves in recognisable
measurable
facts
and
events,
and
thus
reach
beyond
a scientifically appreciable reality in a strictly material sense "the
in
other
reality
but,
of
beyond
the
soul" the
of
confront
him with
most
so
remote
what
(die
C.G.
JUNG
has
called
Wirklichkeit
der
Seele)
hallucinations,
delusions
and
estrangement of his pa ti en ts again and again
which
and
with
this,
feelings within
terms
the question:
these
pa ti en ts
impressive that
imagination?"
"reality"
they
cannot
Furthermore,
"Which now is
the sphere
experience as most immediate what
even
during
to
others
enter the
into
is a world it
in
their
last three decades,
the increasing use - or rather misuse! - of hallucinogenic drugs up
even outside
additional
during and
the
problems:
intoxication
other
territory of psychiatry has thrown
similar
the
with
world
drugs,
substances,
no
that
such
as
doubt
is
experienced
LSD,
does
Mescaline
not
pertain
to the same sphere of "reality" that provides the framework for
our
every-day
transient revealed "reality",
life.
quality, that
and
In even
its
through
apparently. there
it points
flimsy, are
the
transparent mere
different
fact types
and thus of
to a much more fundamental "Reality"
lying beyond any experience that can be grasped by science: the
ultimate
ground
for
all
other
"real,.,ities"
that
are
merely derived from it and reflecting its light.
1) Contribution to the "Seventh Zurcher Gesprach", held at Zurich in May 1980, with the theme: "Rationales Denken der einzige (wissenschaftliche) Zugang zur Wirklichkei t?" ("Rational thinking - the only ( scientific) approach to .ceali ty?") Published in GRASSI/SCHMALE: "Das Gesprach als Ereignis" (seep. 159).
226 For
myself,
in
my
this
question
psychiatric
and stimulating manner chotherapy long, the
as
of
a
yet
concerning
activity
it
a
"reality"
ied
Indian
boy.
monograph to.
In
came
particularly
some 20 years ago,
psychotic
unpublished
reflections
in
during the psy-
I
have
about
this
up
intensive written
this
present
case
a
and
context,
I
only wish to bring up one particular aspect. At the time of treatment - which extended over several years -
this boy was aged 9-13. Ever since early childhood
he
shown
had
puberty
and
signs
of
autistic
even more
so
in
development
and
in
pre-
puberty and adolescence his
condition increasingly deteriorated and took on the characteristics of an adult form ot schizophrenia. What struck me at the very beginning of the treatment, and what who
had
had
already
repeatedly
been noted by one of
seen
the
child
was that mirror images,
shadows,
pictures -
that which
in short all
three-dimensional had
an
reality
extraordinary
to
a
few
my
colleagues
years
earlier'
photographic and painted reduces
only
our
customary
two-dimensional
fascination
for
this
images
boy.
Again
and again he would ask questions concerning these phenomena:
"Why
is
the
as "real" as can
these
mirror-image
images
pre-puberty,
or
the person or the not
signs
preoccupied with
become
of
the
the photograph
tangible
megalomania question
not
just
thing pictured by it? v)hy
of
reality?"
appeared, why
When,
he
was
he himse 1 f
in
also
did
not
have the power of awakening into "real life" these pictures,
shadows or mirror
him
the
Greek
myth
images.
of
the
Repeatedly,
adolescent
I
had
to
tell
Narcissus,
which
obviously had its deep significance for him. As
his
father,
a
well-known Professor of
Medicine had
already done, I too kept on explaining to him the differences
between
terms
of
"reality"
physics.
and
This
pictures
did
not
or
help
mirror at
images
all.
in
Decisive
success was only achieved by a quite pragmatic explanation which
once
despair When,
on
occurred
about one
the
to
me when
many
particular
I
had almost
tenaciously occasion,
fallen
repeated he
once
into
questions.
again
wanted
to know why he could not transform a photograph of Gandhi into the "real Mahatma",
I
replied:
"You see,
if one puts
227
something for
it.
after It
living One
this
is,
into this world,
will
then have
creature,
however,
just
God
alone
one becomes responsible
to protect, as
your
who
has
nourish and look
parents the
do
wisdom
for
yol,l.
only
just
to create what He also can keep alive and also the power and
the
and
to
loving
care
that
nourish
what
He
beings do
not have
allow
has
Him
called
the necessary
actually into
to
life.
protect We
human
foresight and care.
For
this reason, God has kept this capacity for creating reserved for ing.
Himself."
When doing I
next so,
could
find had
he came
he
this
grass
understood
much of
our
to
he drew a
remarked:
little rabbit
to
feed some
"reality",
living
to see me,
spontaneously
make
some
This reply obviously set the boy think-
it
extent
"Now
"real",
with
rabbit.
I
you
While
see,
if
would have to
-
wouldn't I?" The boy
what
"care" means and how
in particular insofar as it consists
beings,is
in
need
of
being
this
very
duty
kept
safe
within
someone's "care"! It
is,
care"
from
flight, the
however,
many
help
which
not only
of
one
can
to
"keep within one's
conveniently
escape
through
into psychotic experience, but also into
two-dimensional technical
gadgets
realities and
by
drugs,
which, humanity
with
the
nowadays
chooses to delude itself! As lish,
my conversation with the boy went on partly in Engpartly
in Hindustani and as,
furthermore,
I
subse-
quently made my own reflections about what had been going on
in
each
German, three
treatment
session
in
my
mother
tongue,
i.e.
it soon struck me that the expressions which these
languages use
for what in English one calls "reali-
ty", actually do not mean the same thing at all. The German "Wirklichkeit" obviously relates to a world
228 in
which
effect; thing
one and
can
"work"
this
and
effectiveness
perceivable
belong
2)
in which
is
at
and binding also
to this world.
It is a
the
for
something
takes
same
some-
time
other
beings
"manifest" world,
that
something
with which one can come to grips and which one can "handle" actively and concretely. Technology has its place in it. If we now consider the English "real", which is derived from Roman languages (whether there is any original AngloSaxon not
term
been
with
able
the
to
same
meaning,
find out!)
and
is
something
stems
from
I
Latin
have "res",
at first sight it also still appears to indicate a manifest reality
pertaining
however, a
points
"thing"
but
the
as inner
or matter. is
to
out
and
in
which
essence,
the
core
of
While
meaning
If one inquires further,
us
to
from Sanskrit
taste,
aroma"
sensory appears
a
world
sensory
as
of
and
mean
before
one,
of
and
a
thing
that
"res"
this
means
has
aesthetic
and
something
sensory
stimuli
any
feelings
not
finds
eventually
quality,
also
one
"rasa",
and
dictionary,
does
concretely
any
to
Latin
lies
particular
refers
The
originally
that
essence,
designate
"res"
something
probably derived
"sap,
"things".
that
moods.
sober,
perceptions
and
are
to
pleasure "Reality",
thus
impressions
come
actually feelings!
still
fairly
open to the investigating and measuring processes of science,
not
quality
only and
value
"aesthetics", moods
into
physiologically, it
the
also is
in
but
the
difficult
sphere
of
with
regard
scientific to
what
is
include
to
their
discipline feelings
measurable.
of and
Nowadays'
of course, as one has the possibility of releasing emotions -
the subjective experience as we 11 as
pression one
through electrical
approaches,
in
this
stimuli
respect
too
its objective ex( evoked an
potentials)
objectification
2) The German "wirklich" stems from the same root as "Werk, ~erken", i.e. "work", but also "wirken, bewirken", i.e. to produce an effect. This implies that it is a reality in which one cannot only "work" on and with the material provided by it, but that this "work" is ','wirksam", i.e. effective, within a sphere experienced in common by those involved.
229
c~uld
of what previously
only be appreciated subjectively.
If we now see what Indian languages designate as "real", we
find
also
that
terms
still
the Sanskrit root for
current
simply
means
"real",
"sat" or
"as",
from which
"genuine",
"essential", · "true",
in present-day common
language are derived,
"that
which
is
to
is
concealed behind all
is",
and
this
"is"
in its
turn
be understood in the sense of Ultimate Being, which concrete manifestations and which
has allowed "all that is" to be released out of Itself. That
which,
for
Western man,
the world of action, but
.also
by
the
ancient
the
of the feasible,
world
Indian
deceptive
counts as
of
sensory
philosophy
"real",
of handling things,
impress.ions,
as
an
namely
un-real
is
regarded
delusion,
as
"May~",
mirroring game or playful dance of
something which anyone who has acquired sufficient wisdom will try to see through. If
one
searches
"reality"
in
the
for
Hindi
Western
expressions
sense,
one
can
/
closest to this meaning "vaisvanara 11 belongs the
to
world
all of
human
experienced
in
common
by
in
which
all
and
beings
social
in
(
and
in
an
"common
in
name
as
in
for
coming
other
which
equally
sense"
stand
i.e. "that which
S),
common",
relationships
that
binding
has
words
things
its
are
manner
place;
or,
with a slightly different connotation: "vyavahara", indicating
the
common
transacting
world
handling
of of
actiort, matters
of of
the
producing
every-day
and
concern,
in other words: a "practical" or ·"pragmatic" reality. What Indian a
is
psychology
group
the to
revealing,
of
five
in
enumerates
five
organs
senses known
them,
the
this
five
context,
ten
of
sensory
perception,
to us
is
that
organs,
namely
corresponding
in the West and,
t•active"
ancient to
in addition
"' namely speaking w.ith
senses,
one's mouth, acting with one's hands - "handling" -, moving about
with
one's
feet,
excreting by
the organs concerned
and finally sexual activity. While waking
the
latter,
world,
mentioned,
i.e.
they
at
and
are,
provided
the
"active"
("jagarat"),
to
"vai§vanara" least
no
if
seen
pathological
senses,
which
and
the
pertain, to two
"vyavahara"
objectively deviations
terms
the just
also• apply,
"from
outside"
(such as walking
230
or
talking
in
sleep or bedwetting
out of action in dream itself,
of
course,
etc.)
("svapana").
the
are
influence
on
but
unfolds
its
the
common
The
sensory
perceptions
action
action
sphere
on
a
and
of
of
the
sleeper
i t has, however, the
completely the
put
Within the dream world
dreaming
has its effect on the other dream-figures; no
present,
waking-world' private
feelings,
on
stage.
the
other
hand
which in any case belong to the sphere of sujectiv-
ity
also
however, in
function
active
dreamless
the
seen
deep
and
senses)
can
no
longer
"sucked sleep
thus
is
therefore, designated underlies Being"
a
last
also
as
i.e.
"reality
"reality",
another
having
is
"sat"
and is
11
the
11
being
highest
is
to
these
aspect
for
the
also This
"turiya",
in
Urdu,
the
the
language
i.e.
Mohammedan conquerors,
different
something
else.
It
designation "haq,
the
reality
is
for
introduced
144/145.)
expressions
itself:
namely
the
aim of all spiritual
revealed
Hindu,
of
as
In
to the ultimate, highest sense which "reality", has
11
(See the synopsis on pp.
on
which
power
knowledge.
so-called the
11
sat
"highest
both
and
But
un-knowing
dream-state, the
the
been
oneness.
and
contrary and
other
all
for
original
as
to reach which
reflecting
in
darkness
itself
11
extinguished which the seer,
"unreal",
light
disciplines in Hinduism. While
the by
entirely
in
pure
truest
Fourth State,
into
activity,
is
distinguished,
"Being"
contains is
sensory
(equally
waking-life
"a-sat"
that
and
be
governed
everything,
"non-being",
seeing,
condition
as
All
receptive,
( "su~upta")
of
back" is
(S).
as
sleep act
while and
dream
well
the
withdrawn, deep
in
as
contrast
i.e.
"sat",
"reality"
into
India
haqiqat", of
for
by
again
social
used the
means
relations
regulated by laws and customs, the "right" or "the lawful", and
thus
represents
a
secondary
reality
that
has
been
superimposed by man upon "natural reality". Or,
if
one
thinks
of
all
that
comparative
ethologists
have reported about their observations and investigations, is
perhaps
all,
but
on
this the
differentiation, in
his
inborne
"legal
reality"
contrary, deeply patterns
even
rooted of
not in
in
all the
behaviour,
so
secondary
its
diversity
nature as
a
after and
of
man
and
plan
for
the
231
harmonious
interaction
between
animal
or human being and
their environment? Of
this,
Indian the
too,
philosophy:
splitting
duality, "field" j na")
in
up
each the
The
ancient
the
and
of the
"f iela"
would
"One" place
"knower of
them
joining
or
possibly
and
probably
the
term
at
least hints
scriptures
takes
a
two of
find
original
instance
perce~tion
process one
can already
of
( "ksetra")
( S) ,
between as
one
in
the
a
that
world
the
form
field"
of
of
a
( "ksetra-
together again in the action.
"knower it
describe
into
in
of
The
the
nowadays,
contact
field"
or,
"the _interface"
between them, seems to come closest to what deserves the of "reality" in a temporal sense. While, however,
name
"reality"
this
exposes
man
of
to
the
loss
dualistic
and
at
the
with regard to Ultimate Truth, the
merging
all
contact,
of
these
all
two
world same
binds
time
and
to
thus
deception
only the complete re-union,
separate
perception,
"partners",
all
activity
in
which
ceases,
can
characterise Ultimate Reality, the "sat".
*
*
*
By chance - if there is anything that deserves chance! a
on
first
stands by
11
very
evening
of
this
contribution,
draft now,
the
say,
the I
r.ead
scientist invented"
chi ld", 3)
I
of
what
this
was I
famous
had
scientist and
who
LSD,
amazed
the
to
just
last
after
investigated
and
at
or
and,
a
less
one
may
the
time
to
formulate.
down as
it
book written
about his
same
be called
written
HOFMANN,
research worker who,
ience with hallucinogens,
more
on these pages
tried
had
few pages of
Albert find
I
~o
perhaps
"problem-
ill:--famed LSD!
the conf irma ti on This
well
known
through his own exper-
but also through his association
with prominent people from all walks of life who communicated to him their experiences under the influence of drugs,
3) HOFMANN, Albert: Stuttgart, 1979.
"LSD -
mein Sorgenkind",
Klett-Cotta,
232 has gained deep insight into "realities" very different from those that surround us in every-day life, writes: (pp. 217/218 of the book mentioned under footnote 3) translated from German.) "What became of greatest significance for me,
was
the
insight, confirmed by all LSD experiments, that what commonly we designate as "reality", including the reality of one's own person, is by no means something fixed and determined, but something with a great multiplicity of meanings; that there is not just one "reality", but there are many realities, each of them including a different I-consciousness ..• ". II
Without an experiencing subject, an "I", reality cannot be thought of. It is the product of an external world, a "sender" and, on the other hand, a "receiver", an "I", in the innermost core of which the emanations of the external world, registered by the antennae of the sensory organs, come to consciousness. If une of the two is lacking, no "reality" comes about; no radio-music will be sounding; the projection screen will remain empty ••• ". 11
as the infinite variety of creation at its many levels must have an infinite number of wave-lengths corresponding to it, according to the tuning-in of the receivers, different realities, each of them including the particular "I" can come to consciousness. These, or rather the different layers of reality, do not mutually exclude each other; they are complementary and, all together, form part of the all-embracing, timeless, transcendent Reality, in which also the intangible, :ndestructible core of the "I -consciousness . II , which registers all the changes of the "I" ultimately has its "home"."
233
ANXIETY AND SPEECH To
write
Speech", no
contri~ution
a
on
1)
the
subject
"Anxiety and
on the basis of my experience in India,
great
difficulty
As early as entitled
1 967,
I
"Bhaya,
as
far
as
"anxiety"
had put together
s'oka,
11
moha".
is
involved
concerned.
the lengthy article
Anx:i.ety,
suffering
and
confusion in the ancient Indian scriptures and their significance
for
volume
(pp.
initially should some
29
ff).
was
have
the
with
further
therefore my
the origin of illness", which figures in this
speech.
searching
necessary.
professional
can
What did not quite make particular
hope
to
which
anxiety
additional
reflection
and
ancient Indian scriptures were
Apart
activity
do
Some
of
sense to me
connection
from came
reasonable
this, to
a
my
justice
lucky
aid
to
so
the
chance that
in
now
I
as
a
subject
whole. 1. Anxiety
As to
fqr
be
as
said,
anxiety
(S)
including
ancient
Indian
already
mentioned.
present
context
the
scriptures, What
2)
is
is
concerned,
relevant is may
merely
all
that
quotations
from
contained
in
be
adding
worth
one
the
particular
needs the
article in
this
consequen-
ce of the present-day precipitated "emancipation" in developing
countries
and
the
escape
from
anxiety
which
it
provokes: In illiterate or poorly educated Indians in rural areas, one often finds an attitude which in many ways comes close to that of nomads
(S)
and on the other hand also·resembles
certain features one is accustomed to observe in the field of psychiatry, in autistic children: The world is perceived only
insofar
as
it
is
of
relevance
for
one's
own
needs
1) Contribution for the Ninth "Zurcher Gesprach", held at Zurich in June 1981 with the theme "SpracJ\e und Angst in der technifizierten Welt". 2) The original title of this paper was: angst zu Seinsvergessenheit".
"Von Trennungs-
234 and
usually
only
within
the
framework
of
the
immediate
"here-and-now". One relies as it were on an "ever-presentcaretaker" is
(BOSCH
supposed
time,
to
without
(1 )) ,
provide one's
planned
efforts
oneself
personally
Even
Indian
in
correspond
powers
stage
and
to
may
one
passive
th.ings, cannot
be
make
one's
the
many
An
address
for
help. that
subject-less
remaining
which
"ego"
to
at
in
the
the
mercy
characCeri ze
conscious
any
well-
expressions the
anonymous
at
and
anyone
being completely
understand,
development.
having
to
finds
which
necessary
expectancy,
of
agency
purposeful
deliberately
languages
of one
of
anonymous
and even without
background,- the feeling of
an
whatever
having
th~
to
"happening"
i.e
of
this
itself,
a
capacity for introspection, hardly exist as yet. It seems to me, however, that quite similar characteristics are also to be increasingly noted again in the modern technologically everything fellow
oriented
from
human
of personal
a
world:
one
would
welfare-state;
beings
apart
friends
-
to a
like
living
perhaps
from
large extent
to
expect
together a
small
takes
with circle
its course
in anonymity; one leaves more and more to soul-less technology, tne
in
particula:r
task
of
human
to
the
computer,
thinking,
planning
what
hitherto
was
and di scr imi nation.
Furthermore, due to the overwhelming growth of technology, man
nowadays
again
feels
threatened
handle with the necessary safety. beings
from
the
as
"primitive
to
this
''no
which
man
care"!
I
autism",
longer"
proc~ss
this
level
is
of
avoided
becomes
which
I
i.e.
a
"modern or
be
conscious
of
neither
by
he
cannot
It is easy to lead human would
like
condition
to of
h.is
is
designate "not
automatism".
think that this is one of solved
powers
skipped over
lems of any development aid, can
by
Yet the
commitment
to
yet",
what
in
stage
at
"taking
the most burning prob-
and a problem, at that, which
money
nor
by
modern
technical
equipment but only by patient and devoted human involvement of
a
kind
that
genuine "care".
can
provide
persona 1
experience
of
this
235
2. Speech But what
has
Theoretically
it
answer:
might
It
not
serves
equally
being
be
a
only
isolated
lost
to
do
with
"speech"?
left
all
suitable
by
means
oneself,
for
speech
overcoming
it.
to establish communication with other
beings
primary
"communication",
got
as has been shown, comes about through
through
naturally
this
not too difficult to give a plausible
If anxiety,
separation,
the
all is
and
thus
"communion",
but
in
the
to
create,
at
least
form
of
in place of a
secondary
"inner
speech"
it
also permits one to carry and move within oneself - though not
by
way
"name"
of
a
one,
"form",
whole
perhaps
i.e.
world.
find
"rupa",
but
as
(See earlier pp.
something
in
"nama",
169
the
i.e.
ff.)
ancient
Might Indian
scriptures, that could bear this out? First of all one has to point out that in ancient Indian philosophy "speech" is not something that has been invented or
created
entrusted a
by
to him.
hymn
that
as
a
Goddess
In
it,
comes
the
who holds es",
man,
can
but
that
has
been
given,
A magnificent hymn
to speech or rather
from
"Speech"
be
Goddess
and
something the mouth
found
in
describes
of
~GVEDA
the
herself
protects the Gods",
a
personified
(5)
(X,
125).
the
as
one
"gatherer of treasur-
as the one who has been established by the Gods "
in
many
As
.0
places
human
with
beings,
many it
homes
is
to
enter
said:
and
abide
in".
they know it not,
but yet they dwell beside me", and finally Speech declares: "I
breathe
a
strong
breath
like
the
wind
Similarly, 34/35),
in
a
in
MAHANARAYANA
hymn
to Gayatr'i
UPANI~AD
(which
and
tempest,
11
the while I hold together all existence
((6
f),
Section
literally means
"the
one who protects and achieves through singing"), one learns that
she,
ters
of
the Goddess who also is "the origin of all let-
the alphabet",
and
their
are
synonyms
fine
arts,
speech.
name". for who
Lord
is "the dwalling place of the Gods
"Vac",
i.e.
Sarasvati, thus
Shiva's
at
the
consort
"Speech",
as
the Goddess same too,
time his
11
also
GayatrT,
of knowledge and is
the
s'akti
11
deity
of
(=power),
without whom he himself would be without life and strength, is
at
times presented wearing a necklace made of the let-
236
ters
of
the
alphabet,
which
means
that
that also bears speech within itself. In Kashmiri Shaivism, speech, in is supposed to pass through four also earlier, p. 170): 1. "Para" ("beyond,
most
its
stages
remote")
she
is
a
power
manifestations, (PANDEY
Speech
in
( 4) i its
see most
subtle state, in which it is still pure consciousness and undivided oneness; in other words, at this stage, no "ego" conscious of itself is as yet separated from the universal "Self". Some lines in KENOPANI~AD ( ( 6 c) 1,4f also appear to refer to this, by stating: "What speech cannot reveal, but what reveals speech, know that alone as Brahman •.• ". I II 2. II Pasyanti (actually a condition of seeing, above all of seeing with the inner eye!) represents the first step in the manifestation of speech in its gross form: an extremely subtle stirring of a distinction, caused by a desire. 3. 11 Madhyama 11 : a "middle stage" which precedes articulated
speech.
distinct
from
Idea
and
each
linguistic
other,
but
expression the
are
substratum
already for
both
is still the same. 4. "Vaikhari 11 : ordinary speech. Idea and articulated symbol have a different substratum. _Thus, in this process, we once again see a separation being brought about, a separation ·in a double sense: firstly between an "ego" conscious of itself and its separateness and on the other hand the universal Self with which this "ego" originally was one, and secondly, between idea and sound-symbol. One can assume that a third kind of separation is also implied, namely the one between "rupa", i.e. "form", and "nama", i.e. "name", which has been referred to earlier (see pp. 169 ff). It might therefore be worthwile following up this common element of "separation" and seeing whether perhaps in this respect some connection between anxiety and speech also exists in the ancient Indian scriptures. In
B~HADARA~YAKA
UPANI~AD
( (6
b)
1, 2
v.
ff) ,
one
finds a myth of creation (S) which very closely resembles the one I quoted earlier to illustrate the origin of anx~-
237 ety
in'
This I
there
universe
for
hunger
be
was
possessed As
then
be
a
was In
"
follows: in
Death
In
the
alone
the
uni verse. or
Hunger;
He
thus
moved
about
worshipping
"May
worshipping
himself,
water
the following verses, a description
fire and sun were produced, and verse
"
me".
as
whatever by
mind".
how earth, to
runs
He produced the mind, desiring:
he
"
continues:
born
It
nothing
enveloped
of
produced
is given, 4
was
is death.
himself was
( S)
separation.
beg inning,
He
He,
desired:
Dea th
or
"May
Hunger,
a
second
caused
the
body union
of speech (probably a subtle, preliminary stage of articulated
speech!
E.H.)
with
the
mind.
The
seed
that
was
in
that union became the year. Never was the~e any year before him.
He
for He
(Dea th)
nourished
the
foetus
opened
his mouth
The baby cried: Verse
5:
"He
to
in
the
per~od
as long as a year and after that
cosmic
egg
produced him.
swallow the baby as he was born.
"Bhan!".
It was this that became speech."
reflected:
"If
perchance
I
kill
this baby,
I shall have but little food". He therefore created through (the
union
i.e.
the
of)
that
speech
~g-Veda,
the
and
that
mind
Yajur-Veda,
the
( (6
similar a)
other
1 , 3) :
for
and
them.
thus
After
creatures,
worlds
their
now
The
food
to
having
be
found
brought
"Creator"
the
guardian
the
form
that
the
AITAREYOPANISAD Gods,
men
"There are
let
me
and
these
create
food
and from the waters
sprang up the
form,
thus born was
verily the created food.
was
to run away. ~e,
in
forth
deities;
is,
Sama-Veda,
thought:
He brooded over the waters;
brooded over
And
is
episode
there
II
metres, the sacrifices, men and animals A
all
thus
projected,
or organic matter.
out of
fear
attempted
the first embodied being, sought to seize
it by speech; but he could not seize it.with speech What show
these
the
connection original
myths
origin with
of
those anxiety
speech
condition
of
quoted and
have
this
earlier
those in
just
common
( p.
" 37)
to
mentioned
in
is
that
the
creature which became anxious
due to its finding itself alone, was a state of deficiency, of
lacking
with to
the
eat",
something.
origin of
In
speech,
in other words
the
two
what
is
quotations lacking
"the objects".
Thus
which
is
deal
"something
the creation
238 which the
this
desire
food,
by
only
being
then
for
companion,
a
which
one
physical,
undertakes
is
but
probably
not
only
also
from
meant
to
springs the
from
need
for
understand
not
but also mental nourishment,
i.e.
the
ob-
jects for the sensory organs and the intellect. The primaeval
"creator",
(i.e.
who
"incapacity
life",
in
to
"non-being")
eating"
or
this
live" and
instance
or
also
"lack
of
"not-being-able-to-eat",
obviously also a
called
"Death"
possibilities
"Hunger" or
devour its very first product. attack -
is
is
literally actually
of
"not-
out
to
It is defence against this
kind of anxiety,
ance the fear of being swallowed up,
in this inst-
of having to return
into "non-being"! - that elicits from this newborn creature a
first
sound which is presented as
the
first
linguistic
symbol. What
is
of
interest
"language 11
this year"
(again 68 ! )
page
or
is
that
"speech",
the
is also implied.
feminine
which in
is
contrast
which of
up
function
referred to
to
that
"creation".
that
there is also a
eating, The
point
has
for
distinction;
or rather up
or
in
the
in
hint
immediate
to
tries
have
not
speak
speech
been 11
The
hatching 11 stands
"genera ting" the
story
method
it
seems
takes in" while
"giving" when
does
to
11
and
of
"the
time.
obviously
that man, who
instance,
he
out"
this grotesque
to use his mouth for
stammerer,
this
appears
Somehow,
articulated
context
more masculine
of
earlier,
the dimension of
this
out
form
mentioned
"bearing
in
hatching the
After all,
of
to
the
in
"samvatsara 11
term
can only unfold itself within more
the
in
time,
seem
while
speaking.
to
realise
breathing
in
"sucking in" the air. The possibility of mixing
confusing myth
these
of
two
creation
functions quoted
seems
from
to be
implied
AITAREYOPANISAD
(6
a), where we are told that the "food" the "eatable" "wanted to run away", and its creator II sought to seize it by speech, but he could not seiz~ it with speech ••• ". Speech is thus seen as having originated from a ion of time,
"being hungry", or "need for objects"; at the same however,
it
anxiety-provoking object
condi~
to
be
serves
for
situation
ea ten
up.
of
rescuing being
A protective
oneself
oneself
a
function
from
the
potential of
speech
239
is
also
3,10)
implied
which
in
a
verse
TAITTIRIYOPANI~AD
of
recommends
meditating
on
( (6
g)
Brahman
as
safety or preservation in speech In
a
(6 b)
further
1 ,3 v.
the
Gods,
the
demons.
episode ff)
the
of a
( B~H.
myth of creation
UP.
we are told about a competition amongst
"shinin'g ones",
In one of
and
the
so-called
the commentaries,
"asura",
the word
"asura"
(Sanskrit: "living, spiritual, divine; evil spirit, demon") is
explained
story shows above
all
as
meaning
"selfish,
self-indulgent".
how already at its very origin,
was
The
speech, which
to serve sacred purposes, was "pierced with
evil"
by
these
trick
of
the
"asura".
demons
In
it
other
was
words,
rendered
by
the
profane
cunning
and
pulled
down to a merely utilitarian level. Various b)
4,1
1 is t
of
in
and CHAND.
priorities
Eternal, of
passages
v.2
for
Upani~ads
the UP.
(6
the
c)
use of
"dharma",
i.e.
UP.
(6
state the following
speech:
naming and worshipping of
the
B~H.
(e.g.
7,2)
Praise for the
the Gods,
preservation
the sacred social order.
It is only
in hierarchically descending order that sciences and finally
also
In
a
hymn of
with not
the
love all
( (6
b)
for
an
friendship;
it
in
this
1,5
according
3)
to
10,71)
it
is
are
mentioned.
speech is associated
hinted,
spirit:"
however,
that
using speech in a
consulted
meant
is but
it
"Speech
verse
indeed
B~H.UP.
in is
intended
is nothing by itself". This has
flavour and reminds one of modern views, speech and to the
rather: it
translation of a
maintains:
which
According
objects, In a
v.
pragmatic
ments". having
questionable
end or object,
very
es:
((5)
life
they weave on a weft of rags, without understand-
A very
is
every-day
II
ing
a
of
~GVEDA
the
and
use
bad way,
concerns
is
language are
another original "Speech not
translation text,
I
underlies
itself
slightly different context,
the
subject
to
which, better,
after what
revelation
of
revelation."
the commentator formulat-
"Speech is that which recognises.
it brings other objects to light."
find
just "instru-
It is self-luminous,
240 3. Anxiety and speech Summing up, we can
thus
say
that
our
search
in
the
ancient Indian scriptures has brought some evidence that in fact anxiety and speech have their origins quite close to each other.
Both of them have arisen
in which a
first
alone
defect.
as
a
Speech not only other
loss.
Above all,
with
the
lost
serves as
creatures
pressure of this loneliness, creation of an inner world
the the
situation
primaeval creature experienced its being
with
communication
from a
brought
though
means of
forth
but also makes that
it can help to find,
origin,
a
this
is
not
subject
once again,
time
on
under
possible
a
to
oneness
conscious
level. It
appears
that
as
an
outward-going
function
of
the
mouth, speech is opposed to the wish to immediately incorporate
all
that
arises
and
thus
to soothe one's hunger. sho~ld
Through speech - or at least one instead of
being
they
"preserved"
are",
truth
and
"eaten
being.
up", or
hope so! - things,
are allowed
even
to be
brought
Furthermore,
the
into
one
who
"left as
their
very
speaks
can,
by means of his speech, protect himself from being devoured like a lifeless object. We have, however, been able to note in the texts mentioned
that
evil",
at
was
the
very
beginning
tainted as
speech was
it were with a
"pierced with
curse:
the
risk of
inappropriate, unworthy use, misuse for profane and selfish purposes
or,
as
HEIDEGGER
might
have
evil of "provocative disclosure" disclosure" (2 b). (S) All
expressed
instead
of
it:
"procreative
this may sound quite plausible in theory.
without
getting
too
lost
in
speculation,
the
But how,
are we
to
link
it up with our present-day si tua ti on which after to be "brought into speech"?
al 1 was
Well,
already
it
is
at
this point that the
mentioned came to my aid: Professor
of
Psychiatry
while at
Institute of Mental Health, a an
young
psychologist
approximately
fascinated
him.
I
Ahmedabad, to
year-old
little
was acting as Visiting
psychiatric
reported
three This
a
lucky chance
boy
me
child was
institute
Gujarat) an
recently,
observation
that the
had
only
(BM on
greatly child
of
2 41
a young mother who had quite recently moved to this town, along with her husband, far away from her home city, where she had still enjoyed the warmth and protection of a joi~t family. After being sent to a so-called "nursery-school" at this tender age, the child showed severe symptoms of separation anxiety and school-phobia, which at times assumed psychotic proportions, including mutism or inappropriate use of speech. As the psychologist realised quite relevantly that the mother with her own anxiety and helplessness in her new situation was significantly contributing to the child's emotional disturbance, he proposed that both mother and child should come for the therapeutic sessions. Fairly soon, he was able to encourage the boy, who had initially clung tightly to his mother without showing any interest in anything else, to take a look at the toys spread out in the treatment room. Along with gaining confidence in this situation in which both mother and child were sheltered in the presence of a calm human being who was not carried away by their anxiety, a new pattern of behaviour gradually emerged: what as
in
"rapprochement".
original an
developmental
psychology
At
this
empathic-symbiotic
ex pl ic it
"approach"
3)
stage, oneness
between
two
has
been
which with
described
replaces the
beings
mother
who
are
the by now
experienced as separate, speech helps to overcome this separation and the anxiety associated with it. The little fellow now ventured out, away from the mother, to undertake small would
exploratory trips in the room, and each time he bring back a toy or a picture book to his mother,
to whom he would then name the object concerned in English, as
apparently
he had already learned in school: "This this is a stove etc." Sometimes he would
is a bear ask questions, which however he would often an5wer himself. The mother, obviou·sly emotionally dry and poor, limited herself
to
occasionally
correcting
these
efforts.
But
3) MAHLER, Margaret: "On human Symbiosis and.the Vic~ssit1:1des of Individuation", New York, International University Press, 1968.
242 one could note that she was happy to see that her child now at last was "~peaking sense" and devoting more attention to his environment. to
bring
telling
out
in
the
imaginative
It was
child,
the
by
stories,
a
task of the therapist
playing greater
and stimulation for
further development.
eventually
herself
allowed
to
rudiments of a conversation. How wonderful would it of
speech
and
as
open
up
enter
have
together sense of
The motQer,
into
at
if
this
been
and
by
security too,
least
the
discovery
something
that can link one up with others
the
could
world
into a
new world that would open up the wealth of
human
that
case!
in
present-day
parents
that
a
child
fantasy!
all
is
India
too
ready
lead
Instead not
frequently
for
to
the
child
finds
as
by
her
creative
so
utilised
skilfully and
joy,
been
mother
communication
and with
have
school,
of
only
in
draw
the
once
it
it,
one
this
one
conclusion has
reached
this point; and this, unfortunately already at the nurseryschool
stage,
i.e.
at
the
the
acquisition
of
The
newly
ability
found
to affectionately them
-
them!
the
formal
as
call
3-4
as
years, is
means
by
their
perhaps
words
that
represent
the
eagerness
and correlations,
just experiment
with
upon. names,
to playfully make with
the
to hear stories and perhaps make them up oneself, or
that
insisted
things
them,
well
combinations
of
knowledge
to
recognise
objects
new
age
sounds
and
to sing
syllables
in
one's own way, before they can actually unfold themselves, are
already
squeezed
tightly
discipline!
Above
all,
a
where
the
si tua ti on
to
overcome
separation
into
however, very and
the
harness
the
child
achievement anxiety,
that
i.e.
of
school
experiences helped
his
being
him able
to speak, now becomes the occasion for a renewed separation by
his
being
away from can
sent
easily
imagine
ted which will and some
to
school
and
the mother during a
phobias
and
how
a
vicious
then manifest possibly
consternation,
I
having
circle
itself
also
noted
thus
to
remain
great part of the day.
of
that
in
the
speech in
is
the
thus
One
ini tia-
form of fears
disorders.
With
Institute
just
mentioned neither the psychologists nor the speech therapists
seemed to be aware of
the
importance of
"functional
243 pleasure" use
i.e.
and
the
practice
consequently, patients,
joy of
they
e.g.
inherent
a
newly
were
all
in
the
repeated
acquired too
skill,
impatient
playful
and
that,
get
their
to
stammerers or mutistic children,
"to speak
properly" as soon as possible. No wonder iatric
colleagues, ional sphere
but
fantasy
and
nor
also
quite
"normal"
people,
even
often present an embarrassing poverty of emot-
and
say,
then if one finds that not only adult psych-
patients,
life;
trivial
do
deficiency
they
worse
beyond their narrow professional
gossip, wish is
they
hardly
have
to hear anything.
the
fact
that
anything
to
What makes this
they
have
neglected
their native language and with it the wealth of traditional myths, hand
epics,
they
have
language", and
the
parables
and metaphors,
while on the other
from English,
the so-called "link
snatched
only
what
can
serve
their
professional career
prestige of a modern man with a Western orientat-
ion. At to
this
treat
point,
I
reminded of a
during my early years
teacher,
aged
suffering
about
from
32,
medical
terminology
the
medicines
not
brought
any
one
would the
patient whom I
India:
lean
"loose
prescribed
relief,
in
tall,
persistent
As as
am
This university
and
emaciated,
motions", call
by
i.e.
in
colon".
physicians finally
was
what
"irritable
various
trouble was
had
had
labelled
"psychosomatic" dnd the patient referred to the "Psych-
iatric Centre". After only a few psychotherapy sessions, the very intelligent
and
cooperative
man
arrived
at
the
insight
that
it was not only his intestinal functioning that was taking an
abnormally
rapid
course,
was happening in his mind. a
book
a
brilliant
But At
in
nothing the
same
the
evening,
lecture
for
and
he
next
about
whether
actually
offer
his
something
similar
morning
I
can deliver
it does not become my own."
confessed
bothered
that
my students on what I have read.
remains with me; time
but
"I can", so he explained, "read
his
students
never
really
"brilliant
that
he
lectures"
would
what
needed
they
had
and
what
they could readily understand. He subsequently made sincere efforts to reshape his lectures and to enter into dialogue
244 with h-is students. Some time later when I was able, on the basis of one of his dreams, to point out to him that he had "assimilated", his own",
i.e.
a metaphor I
"thoroughly digested" and "made
had .used months
earlier,
he had brought it out in his dream in his was
a
real revelation to him.
and that
own way,
He then stated that
this I
was
the first person in his life who had ever "told him staries". Another
patient,
who
had
passed
through
an
equally
impoverished childhood, once expressed the following opinion about ther:
the result of our psychotherapeutic work
toge-
"I cannot really define what has transpired in this
treatment. spirit."
But
one
Sometimes
thing
I
know:
one hears
You
have
patients
of
nourished
this
type
my
com-
plaining that "the head has become bigger than the heart".
*
*
*
After this short excursion into the field of psychiatry, which I
has
provided
a
welcome
link
for
our
reflections,
shall now try to supplement what was formulated earlier
(pp. 29 ff) about anxiety by including speech: Wherever condition first a
one experiences
of
"being
primaeval
child
who
separate
from
cultural
creature
for
the
his
a
one" in
first
mother,
transformation
falling whether
out the
of
a
familiar
situation
of
a
Indian mythology
or
that
of
time
himself
as
or
experiences
maybe
that
the rapid social
drives
many
and
people
in
developing countries away from the shelter of their tradition
into a
anxiety,
strange "modern world"
will_ arise.
Speech offers
as something that can provide a time
illuminate
back
to
the
is, however, namely at
by
loving
tecting
of
contrary, one's
-
anxiety,
separation-
itself at
this moment
new
the new world and -
original
oneness
on
a
link and at the same at best
-
conscious
even
lead
level.
It
spoilt by an evil curse right from the start,
the
risk
that
through
it
one
will
not
arrive
one-ness and at careful understanding and prothat one
which
will
attachment
to
reveals
itself,
simply exploit the
objects
of
it
but in
that,
the
on
service
the of
this world and one's
245
desire by
to
dominate
applying
over
language
them.
in
"handy"
for
practical
conceal
the
etymological
but
also
root
can
from
world as even
no
point
the
which
which
of
issued
this is done
form
and
roots
speech
the first
In addition,
mutilated
purposes
longer
which
before
a
the
is
does
words
not only
th 1s used, 1
~
towards
the
at
beginning
the
just
original of
the
thing as it were, even before men and
Gods!
Instead
of
leading
to
one-ness,
it then becomes the tool and occasion for a further separation:
the
of
estrangement
from
( "Seinsvergessenhei t"
und
and
separation
from
one's
the
"Seinsferne"
no solution of the anxiety crisis, in which
origins,
Ultimate
separation-anxiety,
forgetting
Power
of
Being!
(S)).
There
is
only a vicious circle
misuse of speech and further
separation alternate with each other ad infinitum.
* So
far
"active"
I
have
aspect
perhaps of
*
* dealt
speech,
too exclusively with the
the
possibility
and
ability
to name - and unfortunately also to command! - the objects of
this
world. "to or
world Yet
and
we
perceive", what
even
even
should to
hear
loudly
once
again
close
else
described
that
not
which
forget
reaches
that
beyond
speech
this
also means
that which wishes to speak to us challenges
with
us.
Let
who
better
HEIDEGGER,
us,
therefore, than anyone
to us how separation releases anxiety and
how in this very anxiety the call of "Being", its challenge,
its
hand, how
"speaking
he
also
to
showed
it can turn into
us" can be perceived. how "
speech
On the other
can become mere gossip,
• • • the mode of· being of uprooted
understanding of Being ••• ". on p. 277 of "Sein und Zei t" ( 2 a) , we read: one" this all
(in
"man")
than
the
lost
to
the multiple concerns of
uncanniness
of
the
itself and thrown into nothingness?
existence of
German
world, by
"... what could be stranger to the "every-
( "Da-sein")
misunderstanding
something
else
or
(S) and
from
Self
isolated
• • • What robs
so radically of the possibility misrecognising
elsewhere,
if
itself
through
not the feeling of
abandonment in being left to itself?" - and then the reply:
246 "Conscience reveals "call its
of
ontological
( "Da-sein") is
itself as the call c,f "care" and this
conscience",
"care"."
or
possibility
ultimately, Or,
rather
as
at
in
conscience the
fact
that
the very ground
HEIDEGGER
formulated
itself,
of
it
has
existence its
later
being, (2
c),
that man has "to take care of the truth of being" or that he
is
"the
shepherd
once again back in the ned earlier, his
way
back
we to
find his
of
and
Being",
Upani~ads,
that
this
we
are
where, as already mentio-
the human
source,
a "shepherd of all beings".
with
becomes
being who has traced a
"bhutapala"
( S),
247 LITERATURE ( 1) BOSCH, GERHARD:
"Der friihkindliche Autismus", Springer Verlag, Berlin, Gottingen, Heidelberg, 1962.
(2) HEIDEGGER, MARTIN:
a) "Sein und Zeit", Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tiibingen, 8th Edition, 1957. b) "Vortrage und Aufsatze". Neske Verlag, Pfullingen, 1954. c) "Ueber den Humanismus", Vittorio Klostermann, Frankfurt a/M., 1947.
( 3) HOCH, E.M.:
"Bhaya, shoka, moha" in BITTER, Wilhelm (Ed.): "Abendlandische Therapie und ostliche Weisheit", Klett Verlag, Stuttgart, 1968. (pp. 29 ff in this volume in English translation.)
(4) PANDEY, K.C.:
"Abhinavagupta". The Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1963.
(5) RGVEDA:
Used: MACNICOL, Nicol: "Hindu Scriptures", Everyman's Library, No. 944, London, J.M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., 1938, and: "The Rig Veda. An Anthology". Selected, translated and annotated by O'FLAHERTY, Wendy Doniger. Penguin Classics, (ISBN O 14 044.402 5), Harmondsworth, ·England, 1 981 •
(6) UPANISADS:
Used: the Sanskrit-English parallel texts with commentaries published by Shri Ramakrishna Math, Madras. a) AITAREYOPANISAD: 1955. b) BRHADARA~YAKA UPANISAD: 1951. c) CHANDOGYA UPANISAD: 1956. d) KATHOPANISAD: 1960. e) MAH~N~R~YANA UPANISAD: 1957. f) TAITTIRIYOPANI~Ao:'1958. 0
249
MESSENGER BETWEEN EAST AND WEST By 1 989, when the idea of publishing this collection of papers was revived, several new pieces of work had been written since it was first planned in 1981. Thus the decision was made to widen the scope of the volume by adding three more items. Of these, the first one "Messenger between East and West" - is still in line with the previous eight in that it was also written for a Western public. The remaining two papers belong to a different category, having been presented to Indian audiences. The material on which "Messenger between East and West" is based had already been collected in 1960. It was only when I sorted out my belongings on moving into "retirement" that the idea struck me of using these old notes, typed on brittle Indian paper which was already crumbling, for a pre sen ta tion to my teacher and friend Medard BOSS on the occasion of his 80th birthday in October 1983. The original German version was subsequently published in the periodical "Daseinsanalyse" (Vol. 2, pp. 1 36, Karger, Basel, 1985). The faithful rendering of my dialogue with the Sanskrit scholar and philosopher of Lucknow University, Prof. K· C • PANDEY, offers an interesting example of the limitations and hurdles one has to overcome when trying to compare philosophical ideas and concepts with an expert from a different culture and language. If one simply agrees on the equivalence of terms in two languages in more or less arbitrary fashion, on the basis of a superficial similarity of meaning, - as Prof. PANDEY was ready to do - the train of thought of the partners in the dialogue may well move on quite different tracks without their being aware of it. The conclusions at which one arrives - in the extreme case either a satisfied agreement that "after all there is not so much of a difference" or, on the contrary, a proud statement on both sides that "the point of view of my tradition is unique, incomparable or even superior" - may therefore be deceptive. The. "convention" thus established may keep one from penetrating deeper into the matter as one would do for instance by tracing terms in either language to their root-meanings and ramifications, and experiencing by more than just a rational approach the concrete "images" which they evoke. By the time I wrote the paper - more than 20 years after the material had been gathered - I had l~arned mu~h more about Indian philosophy and western Daseinsanalysis with its psychotherapeutic applications. I was therefore able to put these old notes to much better use than would have been possible earlier. Furthermore, interest in both these subjects had meanwhile grown in the West so that this presentation not only could be formulated more relevantly but also hac a chance of falling onto more receptive soil.
250
Introduction In his book "A. Psychiatrist discovers India" published
in
German
Psychiaters" travellers
under
the
title
( 2)' first
"Indienfahrt
eines
(1) and popular in recent years amongst young to
India,
Medard
BOSS
has
repeatedly
stated
and to some extent even commented on this in detail, many
similarities
and
points
of
contact
can
be
that found
between ancient Indian philosophy and HEIDEGGER's "Daseinsanalytik", and that grammatical forms and idioms of Indian languages
often
analysis"
than
come closer is
to the
possible
with
insights our
of
"Daseins-
European
means
of
linguistic expression. Thou~h BOSS has not written anything further
on
this
subject,
I
happen
to
know
that
during
the following years, he and with him also Martin HEIDEGGER, devoted further attention and concern to it. When I myself went to India in 1956, Medard BOSS played an important role in promoting this venture, and the clinic I
was
to
run
(Nur
Manzil
Psychiatric
Centre,
Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh) was the very one in which he acted as Visiting
Professor
in
1956
and
1958.
It
thus
happened
that
I was able to contribute not only ample clinical material, but
also
we were fahrt at
linguistic together
eines
that
for
meaning
of
for
Psychiaters"
time,
errands
observations
I
(1)
was
occasionally
presenting Sanskrit
HEIDEGGER' s
and
in India and also
being
had
questions
terms
reflections
later, to
on
concerning
while
"Indien-
written.
go
or possible
terminology
while
Already
messenger's the
original
Ind.ian equivalents
to our Sanskrit expert,
Prof.
Kanti Chandra PANDEY in Lucknow. While
the
utilised to a
results
my
earlier
inquiries
have
been
great extent in "Indienfahrt eines Psychia-
ters"
( 1)
larly
intensive
a
of
the material which I phase
of
compiled during a
research
in
1 960
particu-
apart
from
few paragraphs added to the English edition of the book
( 2)
remained
BOSS, for that
a
I
unpublished.
With
now wish to communicate, wider
time
circle,
with
Prof.
my notes K.
C.
on
the
consent
of
Medard
as far as may be relevant the discussions
PANDEY
and
the
held
at
commentaries
251
on these, as they followed in my correspondence with Medard BOSS. in I
All
the reflections
particular
those
and supplementary explanations,
concerning
linguistic aspects,
which
have added only now, while writing this paper, are added
in brackets.
*
*
*
The messenger's errands The request It Medard to
was
in
BOSS
clarify
following
a
'ietter
rE;..guested some
dated
me
linguistic
excerpt
from
to
"Zollikon, serve
as
a
12.3.60", messenger
that again
and philosophical i-ssues.
this
letter
shows
clearly
The that
the main point at that time was to find out whether HEIDEGGER' s ent
"ontological difference" had any equivalent in anci-
Indian
adequate
thought and whether Sanskrit might off er more
terms
for
"Sein" and "Seiendes" than is the case
in European languages and in partictilar in English. Medard BOSS wrote: "These days, when HEIDEGGER comes to stay with me, he shows more and more interest in Indian thought. He regrets in particular that he has no knowledge of Sanskrit. He now has asked me to inquire what would be the Sanskrit equivalent of some fundamental terms and concepts. Above all, he wishes to know whether the Sanskrit language can distinguish between "Sein" and "Seiendes", something that in English, for instance is not possible, as in that language both simply amount to "being". This distinction between "Sein" and "Seiendes" is of central significance in HEIDEGGER' s thinking. He calls this difference between "Sein" and ''Seiendes" the "ontological difference". "Sein" in this context is understood in its highest and deepest sense, not just as the mode of being of one particular thing in difference to another mode of being, e.g. that of a particular human being or all human beings together, as one would use it while speaking of the "Sein des Menschen" or the "Sein eines Steines" i.e. of the "being of man" or "the being of a stone", b~t it is to be under:..: s tc.od as "Sein" as such, that is in the verbal sense of "the coming into being" of something or other. In other words: the "Sein" of which one has to think if one asks why anything is (exists) and not rather nothing. What is meant is that "Sein" which HEIDEGGER, in his recent work, calls "event" ("Ereignis"). It is "Sein" as such, which is always implied, however vaguely, if one says that something or other "is" (exists). "Seiendes" ("thatwhich-is") on the other hand, refers to all objects, creatures, gods, thoughts. It indicates all that, about which
252 one can say that "it is"." 1) 11 A few weeks ago, I wrote to Prof. PANDEY of Lucknow University, whom you have previously visited, to inquire about the Sanskrit equivalents of these terms. Up to no~' however, I have not received any reply. It is quite poss7ble that he could not make out what I am after, as it is extremely difficult to explain the meaning of the "ontological difference" in a short letter to someone who is quite unfamiliar with HEIDEGGER's thinking. I would be extremely grateful, if you could meet Prof. PANDEY, so as to explain to him my request ••• As far as I remember, Sanskrit knows only "sat" for "Sein". Perhaps, however, even this may already be a participle and thus more likely to signify "das Seiende" ("that-which-is"). If, while conversing with Prof. PANDEY, you could bring in something additional, .please ask for the Sanskrit term for "unconcealedness" ( "Unverborgenheit") 2), "concealedness" ( Verborgenhei t 11 ) 2) and 11 forgot ten-ness" ( "Vergessenhei t) 2). I have some idea that in this respect ancient Indian thinking comes close to HEIDEGGER' s concepts. As far as I remember, one calls things, as they present themselves to ordinary perception "samvritti", which means "concealed"
1 ) One will realise already at this point that the task of translating this paper from German into Enqlish is a difficult task. In what follows, I have mostly used "being" in the sense c:;>f a verbal noun ("gerundium") for "Sein", but have spelled it with a capital "B", whenever the highest, ultimate power of "being" - that which HEIDEGGER occasionally calls "Seyn" - is meant. For "Seiendes", I have used "being" in the sense of present participle, wherever this creates no confusion, but otherwise circumscribed it by "that-which-is" or "all-that-is". 2) The 3 German terms "Unverborgenhei t", "Verborgenhei t" and "Vergessenhei t 11 , which play an important role in HEIDEGGER' s terminology, would not be adequately rendered by "concealment" and "unconcealment" or "lack of concealment" and sl,mply "forgetting". What is meant is actually "a state or condition of being concealed, unconcealed or forgotten". Though this may not be "good English", I have tried to express this by using "concealedness, unconcealedness" and "forgotten-ness".
253
or "wrapped up". 3) The truth of all things - so I read in ancient Indian scriptures shows itself only if one peals off .these concealing wrappers. "Vri tti" or "vri ti" would then signify "the true". Could that be right? If so, "aletheia" (in Greek) as that which is unconcealed and therefore true, would come very close to this I..dian way of thinking." "May I ask you to take the trouble, for my own sake and that of HEIDEGGER, to trace these fundamental concepts along with a wise expert of Sanskrit and, if possible, to explore their meaning right down to the connotations of the Sanskrit roots? I would be excedingly grateful, if you could do so .•. " As
soon
as
possible,
already
see Prof.
PANDEY.
At that time,
skrit
Lucknow
University.
a
at
Sanskrit scholar,
setting
theoretical
that
one
of
way
dedicates
to one of
time,
was,
however,
philosopher.
have
with
philosophical
oneself
went not
to
only
In an Indian
developed
the
scriptures.
school"
then
determines
in
particular
of
laid
rigidly
language,
meaning
process
of
down
narrowing-in
"body,
schools which,
on
This
questions,
so-to-speak
the various
ancient
exact
I
he was Professor of San-
He
but also a
20. 3. 60,
this means that one does not just deal in a gene-
ral, s9ul"
on
a
to
great for
all
a
and
"philosophical
extent
Sanskrit
is
mind
in the cpurse
basis of the fundamental
allegiance to
but
and
the
especially
certain
the
usage
more
terms.
of the
This
regretable
as
the original Sanskrit roots have an enormously wide spectrum
of
language, hint
at
meanings, in very
its
so
that
one
beginnings,
widely
drawn,
gets the impression,
might vague
have
managed
themes,
a
that
only
being
to
tuned
3) This is an error. What is meant is probably "samvrti" (r is pronounced as "ri" with a short "i", as ·for instance in "rid"), which signifies a state of being "locked in, closed up, being kept secret"., but eventually also "dissimulation" and "hypocrisy", while "samvrtti" is derived from another root "vrt", which means" "to roll, to turn to move forward",· but also "to remain, to dwell". F~r "samvrtti", I found •in the Sanskrit dictionary (5) the term "common activity", i.e. "doing something together". Prof. PANDEY translated it with "determinate knowledge" presumably in the sense of scientific, generally accessible knowledge.
254 as
it
were
to
a
particular
mood
or
atmosphere
which more definite meanings were only
to
fan
4)
from
out event-
ually, in the course of time. (S) Fortunately we were lucky in our choice of Prof. PANDEY. He was a
representative of
so-called "Kashmiri Shaivism" •
H& had not only written a monumental work exponent A.O.),
of
this
school,
ABHINAVAGUPTA
(6)
on the main
( 10I11 th
century
(S), but also compiled several volumes of commenta-
ries on one of the latter's main treatises (7). As during his two trips to India Medard BOSS had undergone an
"apprenticeship'~
with a "guru" in Kashmir who identified ~o a-great extent with this very line of thought,
himself there
was
some guarantee
that our expert's
replies
would
be understandable and meaningful for us. Prof.
PANDEY
official
assignment
interest
in
grammar"
as
spite his
of
the
his
evident
found
an
as a
by
central
from
this
tried
the
choosing
concern
learnedness
which I
elegant
way of
linking his
"Professor of Sanskrit"
philosophy
limits,
be
had
of
his
renowned
invain
notes
"the
on
my
and
his
philosophy
studies. scholar
of
That also
in had
to transcend,
will
soon
discussions
with
him,
which I wish to communicate as completely as possible. This of
kind
of
limitation
knowledge
is
something
has were a
its
origin
out
person
with
to
in
limit
according
which
usually
was closely linked,
to
a
strictly
typically
traditional to to a
a
narrow
his
social area
caste
and
defined
Indian.
structures
the
field
Possibly
life
family
it
which
sphere
of
background,
particular occupation or
profession
thus preventing not only what nowadays
is called "social mobility",
but also very extensive know-
ledge and,
perhaps "identity diffusion".
Traces of even
as a consequence,
restrictions of this kind can still be observed
nowadays.
They
create
the
impression
that
one
has
4) Concerning the difficulty of translating the German "Stimmung" into English and also other European languages, see (S) "Stimmung".
255
to protect oneself from stretching too far or even bursting the
relatively
weak
and
tenuous
"ego-boundaries",
or,
expressed in terms of "Daseinsanalysis": "the narrow sphere of
openness
up against limits
to the world". This restriction, which I came in our Sanskrit expert was
something that set
to our research. We could perhaps have found addi-
tional and complementary spheres of openness by consulting further
experts.
my experience, anyone with
can
state,
however,
on
the
basis
of
it would have been difficult to find
else who would have collaborated in our enterprise
the
spectrum PANDEY.
same well-meaning readiness and the considerable of
interests
Above all,
fluently to
I
that
the
and
was
extent
which
he even
of
we
actually
found
in
Prof.
spoke; understood and wrote English familiar
having
with
written
a
Western
highly
philosophy
regarded
book
on "Western Aesthetics" (8). If,
in what follows,
critical comments may occasionally
appear to be harsh, they should therefore not be understood as
directed
against bound
against
these
and
Prof.
traditional
which
presented
PANDEY
personally,
but
merely
restrictions
by
which
he
was
considerable
obstacles
in
the
English.
For
course of our inquiry. My the
and
original
them. to
notes
comments
German
version
In what follows,
the
original
were
written
of
this
in
paper
I
translated
I have reverted as much as possible
text,
including
the
terms
actually
used
by Prof. PANDEY.
The question of the "ontol09ical difference" As
already
on
the
scholar gave me a he
listened
occasion
of
my earlier visits,
the
friendly welcome. With patient interest
to my translation of
the question concerning
the "ontological difference" as formulated in Medard BOSS' lelter.
The
discussion
that
followed
in the immediacy of direct speech: Prof. PANDEY (in what follows, "What
corresponds
to
"Sein"
in
w~ll
be
designated
Sanskrit
rendered by
"p"):
be
"sat"
"H"):
"What
would
or "satta:". E.
HOCH
(in
what
follows,
grammatical form is this?"
designated
by
256 P.: ""as" is the root of the verb "to be". "sat" is present participle. The terminal syllable "-ta", added as a suffix in
"satta",
has
been
where,
as
dropped,
in "sat",
signifies
the opening
"capacity,
"a" of
power",
"as"
so
that
"satta" would actually amount to the "possibility or power to be". So as to stress more clearly that this possibility exists
in
an
("maha"
absolute
"great,
sense,
big").
one
This
speaks
is
"the
of
"Mahasa t ta
absolute
of
11
the
nature of being". But what then is "sat"? To understand this, one has to know that consciousness is "self-shining, self-luminous"." "Would this be "cit"?" -P.:
"Yes. As in this way each
H.:
"being"
is luminous,
it would be difficult to distinguish
it from other self-luminous objects. tion between
consciousness
This
can
"satta"
to be,
be
and
The point of distinc-
other objects
anything;
it
the possibility of being,
is
a
just
is
"being"·
the
capacity
potential,
the· power'
being capable of being everything." "In is
an
essentially
mind.
This
all this. to be"." H.: is
idealistic
"Or a
of
philosophical
the
aspect
nature
of
even
the
freedom
pertinent
"not
thing
is
shining,
absolute.
The absolute
tially,
the
What
speak
we
Every
universal in
11
to the
responsible
for
"the freedom
-P.:
being"
"Yes, can
this
also
be
therefore it is also "being"·
luminous
subject. So, everything is consciousness.
"not
everything
belonging
is
be 11 ? 11
to
question.
an object of consciousness,
to
of ·ideas,
consciousness
"satta" can also be designated as
very
Every
system,
in
its rel a ti on
to
the
being 11 which shines in relation
thing
is
a
manifestation
of
shines as different things. and
the
reference
individual
are
the
Essen-
identical.
to the universal,
we
find
in
the individual. But.the thought which an individual thinks, is in the individual. 11 H.:
"And
this
universal?"
-P.:
first
consider
that,
in
11
-P. :
appears
what "Yes.
the
this,
universal ? thought
is
the
separates But
state
of
just
in
a
sleep."
thought
In dream
objectively
individual
wait
deep
individual
"Yes.
the
( S) the
,
from
moment! -H.:
"merges"
Let
the us
"You mean with
the
on the other hand, form
of
persons
and
257
things. it
Now,
this
appears
in
is
just
objects,
what
it
happens
to
"satta":
becomes
so-called
more
less
if
"bhavana",
the "bhavana" of "sat". H.:
"Could
one
equate
this
or
with
"a
coming
into being of the power of being", i.e. in German "Seiendwerden des Seins"?" At
this had
BOSS
letter,
point
written "sat"
has
What actually P.:
""sat"
is
this
used
for
b:~,-
"sat"
is,
and
letter
been
actually
translate
again
I once in his
as
I
literally what
explain:
"sein",
"In
i.e.
the
"being".
way of grammatical form?"
far
as grammar is concerned,
a present participle and quite generally signifies "being" in a
contrast
to
particular
"satta",
"being"
on
the
possibility this
"not-being".
of
"satta"
and
other
not
only
hand,
"being"."
and
But it can also be used for
"sat"
is
-H.: in
in a
a
universal sense.
noun,
indicating
"What would
modern
the
correspond
Hindi?
It
to
strikes
me
as strange that Hindi has no inf ini ti ve for "to be"; there is only "hona" and this signifies "to become"." P.:
"The Hindi language is too poor to make this distinc-
tion.
It
is true that "hona" has the sense of "becoming".
There is no other word for "being". But one must be careful not
to confuse
change,
while
absolute
is
"being" and "being"
"being as
merely
really being
is,
mean
is
"Becoming" implies
change."satta"
If one says
as
the
"becoming",
one
"But change in the sense of becoming
that
transforms
into
without
such".
implies change." -H.: might
"becoming".
complete
something itself
becomes
from
fulfilment.
a
that which
deficient
For
mode
instance
the
it of
seed
becomes the tree which it potentially is." P.:
"This
would
depend
one
bases
one's
which even
in
the
maintain is
grown-up
that
formal
there
change,
on
the
philosophical
reflections. tree
is and
the
no
seed
change.
there
If
The
changes
within;
but
minerals,
can it
be
caused
remains
and not "being"."
air?"
But
occurs
a
by
-P.:
even
on
that
one might
then,
absorption
of
there that
"You mean absorp-
"Yes,
outward
change,
system
admits
persists,
which first did not belong to it." -H.: tion of water,
one
this
effects
and this
is
is right. or go
on
"becoming"
258 "What
H• :
does
the
""bhavana"
mean
which
you
mentioned this? How
a little while ago? What grammatical form is does it differ from "sat"?" -P.: "When the potentiality this is of "satta" manifests itself, becomes active, "bhavana"." a
-H.:
"Could
degenerated,
it
mutilated
be
that the of this
form
Hindi "hona" is 11 11 bhavana ? -P.:
11
I
"Yes, this is probable." It
occurs
to
me
that
might have
this
dwell,
with also
the German "wohnen" (to with "bauen" (to build) and
that
this
matter
will
have
know that it would be
futile
Prof.
is
PANDEY,
studies
and
as
has
he no
to
not
I
be
to
some
make
of
and
thus
mental
note
up
later·
I
this question before
interested
knowledge
a
followed
put
connection
inhabit)
in
La tin,
etymological
Greek or German·
Meanwhile he is continuing with his explanations: P.:
"The
root
of
"bhavana"
is
"bha"
also one of the roots of "being". different roots?" -H.: a
"But
if
reason
original
-P.:
there
for
it:
or
-H.
"bhG".
This
is
"But why are there
"This happens in other verbs too."
are
different
either
languages,
11
they
roots,
there
are derived
from
or they must indicate a
must
be
different
subtle diffe-
rence in meaning, which would come out in the way in which they are used. What other grammatical forms does one derive from the two roots?" P.
(after
some
reflection) :
"From
the
root
11
as",
f rorn
which "sat" stems, one only derives other forms that belong to
the
belong
present to
the
derived from
tense. past
11
From
or
"bhu"
the
one derives
future."
-H.:
forms
"So,
the
that forms
bhu" would be more likely to indicate change
than those derived from "as", similar to the Hindi "hona"?" P.:
"Yes,
"satta"
is
of "being". calls
this
states;
"sat ta"
-H.: of it
-H.:
and
In
"bhavana",
itself
in
the
capacity
particular
of
instances
"That would correspond to what HEIDEGGER
"Seiendes"
"being"."
right.
manifesting 11
the- process of
is
("that-which-is")." realising
is "I
therefore have
"bhavana".
its
-P.:
potentiality
nearer
understood
to
"bhavana" in
a
"becoming"
the difference
is
series than
to
between
But what is the difference between
259
"sat" and "bhavana"?" 5). P.:
""sat"
is
a
instance the pencil I realised,
(S)
being-as-such,
potential
or
actual,
for
am holding in my hand. It is already
apprehensible." -H. :
"So,
"sat" apparently means
more the present form in which we can perceive "somethingthat-is",
while
instance
from
being?"
-P.:
"satta",
"bhavana"
birth
to
"Yes.
the
would
death,
And
if
we
refer
to
through want
possibility of being,
its
total,
various
again
to
for
stages
of
distinguish
in a more vulgar sense
from its highest, absolute sense, we speak of "Mahasatta"." At
the end of the interview, after having already dis-
cussed
the
Prof.
concepts
PANDEY
of
showed me a
"truth" passage
and
"unconcealedness",
in one of his
books
in
which he mentions this "Mahasatta" as "the absolute possibility of
being".
sometimes
it
In
the
same paragraph he explains that
is also called "Paravak", which means speech
in its most subtle form. H.:
"Would
instance John?" some
this
used
-P. :
correspond
in
the
"Yes,
concept
first
more
different
or
to our
"logos",
chapter of less.
names.
One
Each
as
it is
for
the Gospel of St. often
name
has
only
to
give
shows
one
partial aspect and you can only grasp the total signif icance,
if
each so
you call
name
you
throws
have
it different names." the
to change
curtain
over
-H.: it
in
"You mean that some
the way the curtain is
fashion;
thrown,
so
as to get an idea of the whole?" -P.: "Yes, approximately. The "Mahasatta" itself, however,
is infinite and unlimited
and unchanging."
5)
In using here and in some other places later the spelling "bhavana" and not "bhavana" with a long "a", I have anticipated something which I only learned later, partly from Prof. PANDEY, ( p. 276), partly from the Sanskrit dictionary: "bhavana" is transitive, meaning "bringing into being", while "bhavana", intransitive, would be "coming into being".
260 The
question
truth" I first
BOSS'
concerning
explain
letter,
question
as
pointing out that
in
concealment
or
the
"unconcealedness,
better
a
state
concealedness,
formulated the Greek
of
in
Medard
"aletheia",
concealedness
is
thought of as primary and that, in similar manner, Daseinsanalytical philosophy philosophy, as
the
"coming
with
into
cealedness sphere
be
into
intellectus
understanding
the
of
open"
out
ad
how
of
of
the
lumination this
a
and
of
saw
is
"coming
comes
all
forth"
and
into
about
"clearing"
"truth"
above
uncon-
and
(S),
what would
would take place. I further mention that for this reason it was impertant for the inquirers, namely Medard BOSS and Martin HEIDEGGER, to know whethei in Indian thought terms for "concealedness"
kind
who
rem"
concealedness
"all-that-which-is"
which
to post-Greek Western
more so since DESCARTES,
"adaequatio
concerned
the
and
in contrast
"un-concealing"
"unconcealedness"
indicate
also
a
primacy of "concealedness". P.: "You wish to know the Sanskrit term for "concealedness" and
"unconcealedness"?
-H.:
"Yes,
that
is
what
we
would
like
to know." -P.: ""avrtatva" means concealedness; t t II anav; a va , i.e. a negating form, means 1 I unconcealedness". 6) -H.: "Could one call this latter "truth"?" -P.: "Yes, one might. Now about this question of concealing: II
-
A thing first must be there, Concealedness can only be, A thing In
becomes
Indian
only
unconcealed,
without
becomes
individual."
the
the
if a cover is put over a thing.
unconcealed,
thinking,
"vei 1 of Maya"
so that it can be concealed. if
this
cover
"Mahasatta",
cover.
But
it
-H.:"Would
is
removed.
the
absolute,
covers
itself
this
correspond
in later Hindu philosophy?"
-P.:
is and to Yes,
6) Both these terms, as also 11 samvrti" - quoted by BOSS in his letter erroneously as "samvritti" stem from the root "vr" or "var", which means "to cover, wrap up, surround·, close, keep away, defend, protect". The past participle is "v;ta", "concealed, wrapped up".
261
you
can
say
so.
cealedness, the
again
cover.
is
In
concealed. has
to
this,
Uncoveredness, has
to
be
the
individual
The
individual
"discover"
there are
namely a
established being
its
to
by
removal
universal
~t
if
itself,
two ways:
secondary uncon-
is
remove
a
human
the
of
nature being
covers.
For
Either he can remove them him-
self." -H.: "But would this not be a special gift or blessing?"
-P.:
"Yes.
the teacher.
Or
the coverings have to be removed by
This is a question on which I am working
(S).
myself at present. The teacher again has different methods at his disposal:
either he enters the mind of the "taught"
and
there."
thinks
which
from
HEIDEGGER
have
to
enter
with"
and,
self
would the
"Being"
there.
into
-H.: not
mind
is
"This
is a
agree.
of
the
originally
The
teacher
pupil, and
formulation with as
he
does is
not
already
fundamentally
"being
on the ground of this oneness, no putting onethe
-?\pparently
place this
of
the
a
new
is
other and
person
is
somewhat
necessary."
puzzling
view
to Prof. PANDEY. He replies: "There is a process of thought being
given
converted not
do
into
received. that
according
convert merely
and
the of
of
to
pupil's
helping
The
the
mind
of
teacher."
the
"taught"
-H.:
"That
is
would
HEIDEGGER.
The task would not be to
mind
that
the
into
pupil
to
come
of
the
into
teacher, his
but
own wider
and truer being." Prof.
PANDEY again
is puzzled and suggests that this must
be a particular application to my profession. P. :
"The
thoughts. H. :
other
way
is
that
the
teacher
suggests certain
The pupil follows and begins to think that way."
"This kind of suggestion again would not be the right
thing for HEIDEGGER. and
"anticipating"
His distinction between "intervening" care
(in
German:
"einsp'ringende
und
vorausspringende Sorge"), which finds its special application
in
relationship
a 1 so
between
teacher
between and
therapist
pupi 1,
would
and
patient,
make
one
try
but to
avoid anything that could be mere "suggestion". Prof.
PANDEY
listens
with
interest.
It
seems,
• 1 as strange to him that something as practica
have
its
place
in
a
philosophical
II
however, care II s h ou ld
discussion.
He
again
262 continues in his own line of thought: -P.: "Uncoveredness" can either come through ledge.
Thus
one
the covers then
one
fall
comes away.
follows
reason or through spir i tua 1 knowto
the
true
nature
of
things
and
First comes intellectual knowledge,
certain
disciplines
towards
spiritual
knowledge." H.: "This seems to me to be a rather intellectual explanation.
HEIDEGGER
would
probably
stress
more
the
point
of
experience. Through his ability to see the pupil or patient in
his
po ten tiali ties,
or
therapist
everything
can
get
into
fallen, and
bring
suddenly
experience.
Our
great so
the
is In
pupil
into can
whom the
longer
this
or
could be,
this
to
all
no
he
former
up,
patients,
there
The
what
opens
anxiety;
protection.
need<:d.
in
the
truer be
this
a
teacher
being.
happens,
often
curtains and walls
any
place
situation,
to
some
If
frightening
find
have
hiding
"covering"
patient can only afford
is
to open up
some of his covers, while he is protected by the "covering" of
the
teacher's
remain,
if
teacher,
all
it
concern
other
may
be
and
covers God,
love.
are
as
for
to
Some fall.
covering It may
instance
idea of an accepting and forgiving God,
our
must
be
the
Christian
or the conscious-
ness of oneness with the universal. The unclosed can only be disclosed clumsy tion:
into the protection of closeness."
approximation
to
the
(A rather
more elegant German
formula-
"Das Verborgene kann nur in die Geborgenhei t
hinein
entbergt werden.") P .• "But the ultimate aim would be total uncovering." H.:
"But
death tied is
that
takes to
But -H.:
one
away
our
true.
cannot
can
"You
within
last
covering.
the
incarnation,
While
can occur,
happen
the
body
transcend
mean when
body
why should anyone wish -P.:
"It. is
true.
No
body -P.:
is
As
even "Yes. back
long
remains."
there
is
Total 11
we
-P.:
are This
life-time."
uncoveredness
-H.:
into his
uncoveredness
as
as only
concealedness.
within
transcended.
to come total
life-time,
cover
lasts,
the
"samadhi"? the
some
a
But
then,
coverings?"
can happen,
as
long as there is any association with the body." H.:
"And a
temporary state of being "out-of-body" is still
263 a
way
of
being
distinguish one
related
three
to
stages
automatically returns
there
is
no
automatic
this
of
body!"
"samadhi":
to the body.
return,
but
one
-P.:
"One has
to
In the first one., In the second one, has
t0
be
shaken
back into it by someone else. The third stage of "samadhi" is
one
from
which
there
is
no
return
to
the body.
This
is total uncoveredness."
Further explanations and clarifications My the
notes
on
following
this
discussion with
reply
from
Prof.
Medard BOSS,
PANDEY brought
dated Lenzerheide,
10.4.60.: My thanks for your letter of 20.3.60 and the weighty enclosure containing your interview with Prof. PANDEY have been due for a long time. Once again, however, I was under great pressure and almost f loaded by very urgent matters, so that, much as I would have liked tc, I did not find the necessary leisure for a reply. After al 1, what you wrote to me calls for a lot of undisturbed pondering over. Watever remains still unclear or questionable concerning your discussion with Prof. PANDEY has been noted down on a separate sheet. If you yourself find pleasure in exploring the matter further, you might be kind enough to see Prof. PANDEY once more, along with
these questions, - but only if you yourself are interested. I feel that Prof. PANDEY would be ready for it. As you mentioned in your letter, he seemed to be pleased with your quick understanding. Apart from this, he would certainly understand that I prefer to have his answers through you and your conversing with him rather than in reply to written questions, as a written exchange 9f views on matters of this kind and with people belonging to so different a world easily amounts to speaking past each other." It was only on 15.5.60 that I managed to visit
to
already of
a
Prof. tried
PANDEY. on
my
own,
the to
voluble Hindi dictionary
Sanskrit
dictionary
however,
the
to
In
compile
at
relevant some
meantime, some
extent
~ay
however, with
(at that time I
hand~
in
Sanskrit
supplementary
this second I
the
had help
had no good
the
Hindi
dictionary,
roots
were
mentioned),
explanations.
These
had
been despatched as a follow-up to the first report. I shall now take up, one by one, the "questions concerning
the
discussion
with
Prof.
PANDEY
of
20.3.60",
which
Medard BOSS had enclosed in this letter of 10. 4. 60, mentioning
in
each
instance
first
my
own
reflections
to
264 some
extent
adding
the
supplemented further
misunderstanding
"satta",
which
part
about
I
was
next paragraph).
later
clarifications
from Prof. PANDEY. Question 1 : The first a
by
The
of
the
able
and
inquiries I
was
the
able
to
to, set
right
receive due
to
derivation
of
question
grammatical
then
on
was my
(see
own
second part was:
"Insofar as "sat ta" or "Mahasatta". is "the possibility to be", would this really correspond to the "Seyn" in its highest sense, as HEIDEGGER sees it, as the condition, the possibility that something is at all, that "Sein" (being) can come about?" My
answer
is
mentioned
is
a
to
this
that
suffix,
was:
"sat"
"In
my
notes
signifying
a
capacity,
a
tives,
form abstract nouns.
so
as
to
in
many
to
Latin
"-tas",
German
"-heit"
"-ty".
Apparently
Hindi as
or
words."
e.g.
in
"-keit", in
The
"-ta"
possibility.
The
"-ta 11 is added to nouns and adj ec-
says:
found
20. 3. 60, ·it
is present participle.
Hindi dictionary be
of
7'he syllable seems
"veritas",
to
"satta"
It
French
it
is
to
is
i'humanitas",
"-te"
added
to
to
correspond and
to
English
the present
participle, so as to express the possibility, the capacity, the power
"to be".
"Seiend-hei t" to
form
an
in
Literally one would have
German.
equivalent
(In English, by
adding
as to distinguish it from a that-is",
it - is
"-ty"
to
to
translate
not possible "being"!)
mere generalisation of
So
"all-
one then speaks of "Mahasatta" as the "possibi-
lity to be in the absolute sense". During this second visit, Prof. PANDEY offered some further commerits on this "Mahasatta", in particular by showing me a section of his commentary "Bhaskari" ( 7) on one of the works of ABHINAVAGUPTA ( s) , in which an attempt is made at describing this "Mahasatta". The relevant passage, an English translation of an ancient Sanskrit
-
/
,
text ("Isvara Pratiabhijna Vimarsini" (7)) goes as follows:
265 "It
is
It
is
of
all
time of
the
the
absolute
acts
and
as
imperceptible
place.
the
request,
of
being,
being. This,
resting
Prof
eternal
beyond
is
{ sphuratta)
perfectly free
i.e.
It
stir the
in
of
the
Highest
respect
limitations
being the essence of all,
place
7). of
is spoken
Lord."
On
my
PANDEY confirmed once more that "Mahasatta"
is "the possibility of being". Question
2:
absolute
of
mean?
"In the
"Absolute
kind
of
sense,
the
turn of
nature
of
being":
being":
is
this
substance, can
which,
"manifest"
"Mahasatta"
speech:
really,
has or is substance,
more
itself
in
to or
in
"Mahasatta" is the what be
does
less
in
concrete
HEIDEGGER's
"absolute"
thought
of
the
a
Platonic
objects?
sense,
as
nothing
Or
is
that
but pure possibility, pure "eventing"
{in German "Sich-Ereignen" which cannot be quite adequately rendered by terms like "happening".)" I
answered
this
as
follows:
"As
far
as
"absolute"
is
concerned, (the Latin term originally signifies "loosened from something"!), I take the following explanation from one "All
of
my
former
verbal
independent
interviews with Prof.
roots
signify
existence.
activities.
They
have
to
PANDEY But
refer
( 14.9. 58):
they to
have
an
no
actor.
Activity belongs to one who is free." - My question concerning
this:
asks
"from
"Free
from what?"
what?",
this
-
limits
P.: the
"From nothing. freedom
and
If one then
it
7) The Sanskrit term 11 sphuratti 11 or "sphurti", stemming from a root "sphur", means a "quivering, throbbing, vibrating", but also, probably secondarily, "manifestation, appearance, display." For the root "sphur" one finds the meanings: " to dart, bound, spring, quiver, throb, tremble; vibrate, writhe, struggle, glisten, flash, sparkle, burst into violence, be manifested or display, appear, shine, be distinguished". By its sound, it seems to be related to German "spriihen, sprudeln, spri tzen" and English "to spurt". Incidentally, this is a good example for showing, how di verse and manifold the meanings of a Sanskrit root can be and how some kind of central oneness in all this multiplicity can probably best be found in a quite vague "atmospheric" theme. (S)
266 is
no
longer absolute.
ultimate
principle
to one who is free. in
its
In the philosophy of grammar,
is
freedom.
Action
as
such
the
belongs
Why does the Absolute One show itself
multiplicity?
This
is
its
freedom:
to
concretise
itself; not to choose, as choice implies that there already exists something one can choose. Acting is something limited:
no
predicate
is
possible
without
a
subject.
But
a
subject can have "being" independent of action. The subject is that which is independent and has freedom." I further referred to the answer already
given
on
20.3.60, in which I had rendered P~of. PANDEY's explanation as follows "If the potential of tes
itself,
anything,
this
just
it
"bhavana",
is
capacity,
the
is
satta 11 manifests, activaand "This "satta" can be
11
to
possibility
the
- This does not sound be, a potential, the power to be. like "substance"! Later, Prof. PANDEY compared the "bhavana II
of satta" with that which happens in the dream of an individual:
"Thought appears objectively,
sons and things" or then again: in
the
form
interesting English spread in
of to
"to
various note "to
"to
in be
seem",
German:
this
11 •
Incidentally,
context"
it
is
11
(in
it means on one hand
"to
luminous", it
means
something ••. ", similarly already "In
"The Absolute shines forth
things •••
the double meaning of
shine")
light",
English
in the form of per-
on "to
11
11
scheinen
other
the
or
look
hand,
appear
as like
phainestai 11 in Greek!"
so continued my
reply
-
"one has
to point out that many of the designations for the "Ultimate"
that
probably call
which
in
our
Western
terminology
we
would
"God",
always only indicate what it is not;
this is presumably more likely to lead to an understanding of
the
"Absolute" or
everything.
One
has
from" or "loose of", like an
something
adequate
something been is
freedom
form
or
is free
from,
however,
that
"loose
"Absolute"
from
is
something",
linked.
In
that
primary and
"being
is
"loose of" this
"free
just as the Latin "a~solutum", sounds
secondary.
concept in this connection.
as
tied,
that which to realise,
covered
this up"
idea the
of
therefore If one
it
must
"satta",
"being
tied"
secondary
hardly
considers first
have
however,
it
to a certain
condition.
The
267
meaning of "av:rt" is not only "concealed", but also "closed in,
surrounded by
something".
signifies
"open"
but
"unlimited",
also
not only
On the other hand,
in the context of
but
probably
not
"anav!'.'t"
"uncovered",
only
"unlimited"
after the removal of "limits", but also before any limi tation." The
discussion
question
to
which
Prof.
developed
PANDEY
when
became very
I
presented
this
lengthy and brought
to light several other interesting connections of meaning. "The concept of '"Mahasatta 1111 to
an
ideali..s.tic'
can be
itself
whether
is
it
it definitely dream.
within
mind
All
the
sation"
is
philosophy,
vague
or
as
in
In
there
it denies- substance.
expression.
matter.
"belongs
which
an
One
might
idealistic
ask
system,
Let us take once again the example
figures
subject.
in
a
is mind.
subject." -H.: the
so he explained -
-
of
no question cf substance,
"Mahasa tta"
of
system
occurring
They are an
in
a
dream
only
exist
"externalisation" of
the
"Is it not risky to speak of an "externali-
particular
if one wishes
to use
this term for
"Mahasatta"? This would mean that something is trans-
formed
to
tained
that
"outside there
of
it",
is
nothing
though
initially
"outside"
or
it
is main-
"beyond"
the
"-Mahasatta"!" Prof
PANDEY
various all,
one
agreed, to
admits
concepts has
in
their
to
apply
their -
He
continues
loosely,
certain
however
arguing
terms
on
to
that,
which
use
after
one
has
conventional meaning. A tracing of words
origin
HEIDEGGER!
this.
somewhat
something
that
is
so
meaningful
to
does not seem to make sense to him. I finally
propose, instead of "self externalisation", "self concretisation", a term which Prof. PANDEY had used himself. He
then
jects tc
continues:
itself."
speak of
ion"
in
itself.
this One
-H.:"
"Mahasatfa" Is
it
"projection"?" instance might
is
better
not -P.:
not
is everything, once
again
"You are right.
into something
talk
of
it
rather
prorisky
"Project-
that
is not
"manifestation"."
-H.:
"This would literally mean that something becomes tangible, can
be
Other
touched
and
expressions
hand led."
could
be:
-P. :
"Yes,
this
grossification,
would
do.
solidificat-
268 ion." H.: "More a
ore
less
what
happens
when
salt
dissolved
in
glass of water under certain circumstances crystallizes
and
thus becomes visible,
turning
into
fies".
ice
Here
or
solid?"
snow.
-P.:
"Rather like water
In this way
the
in Inda we have the "yogin".
spiritual power,
idea
"solidi-
By their special
they can bring anything into being inde-
pendent of matter. While the object in a dream is illusory, related
only
to
one
subject,
not
the
object
of
common
experience, an experience that could be shared, the product of
the effort of will-power of
the yogi
can be perceived
by other subjects too. This is meant by "externalisation"." -H.:
"It seems to me that the example of the yogi is less
apt
for
characterizing
dreamer, ~re
insofar as
actually
"Mahasatta" this
the
only
perceived
itself."
kind
only
"Mahasatta"
than
that
of
the
the man if est a tions of the "Mahasa t ta" -P.:
for
by
subjects
"One
should
illustrating
one
which
use
are
the
.examples
particular
of
point.
One should not stretch the metaphor too far. With the example of the yogi one only wishes to show that in this case the object appears in a realm outside the subject, while within a dream the object appears outside the subject,
but not in a the dreaming subject." He
then
shows
already mentioned is the
sentiency, objects
me
sphere which
another
( 7): are
in
"That Lord,
externally
which
text
the work
"Bhaskari"
whose essential nature
manifests,
within
lies outside
in fact
him,
like
a
yogin,
all
according
to his
free
will, without any material cause." (The term "sentiency" used in this English translation, which
probably
ABHINAVAGUPTA
does very
not
render
accurately,
the
original
refers
to
Sanskrit
the
"power
of of
sensory perception" and reminds one of HEIDEGGER's concept of
"Vernehmenkonnen",
i.e.
the capacity to hear or listen
or more generally "to take something in". It could however also mean "intelligent" or·"animated".) H·:
"According to the newer insights of physics,
formation
of
plausible."
energy
into
matter
and
vice
versa
a
transis
very
269
P.:
"Yes, at present I am busy investigating this problem.
But
let us
what
the
return once more to the· example of the yogin:
yogi
produces,
is
not
just
illusion.
"Ramaya~a",
the world also is not an illusion. In the epic there
is
Ram,
a
his
passage
brother,
in
which
Bharata
Equally,
tries
to
persuade
to come back. He stops at the hermitage
of a sage. He has his whole army with him. The sage wills that provisions should be created for them, and it actually happens." feeding Mark
-H.:
of
8,
"This
the -
sounds
4000
9).
just
like
the
in the New Testament
story of (Math.
the
15,
32,
This kind of feeding actually fills
the
stomach and part of what is digested will be quite concretely
excreted;
it
is
not
just
an
illusion
that
one
has
eaten." P.: "Yes, as long as the suject wills, the object is there. In
a
the
dream, example
only of
the
the
subject experiences the obje.ct;
yogi,
in·
it becomes an object of common
experience." -H.: "But will one not, by using this example, conjure up the risk of dualism? After all, the "Mahasatta" is
at
the same time subject and object;
and this can be
shown more clearly by taking the example of the dreamer." P.:
"Yes,
this risk is there. The example is however only
used
for
illustrating
show
that
what
perceived
and
has
one
particular
point,
namely
been produced by one subject,
experienced
by
other
subjects.
to
can be
One
should
not stretch the metaphor too far." I
now turn the discussion to the point actually aimed
at in this second question, name.ly what is meant by "absolute", and I give a short summary of my own reflections. P.: of
"The concept of "limited" and "unlimited" is the way thinking
of
a
limited
subject,
which
can only
think
in terms of temporal succession. The subject- is understood. similarly to KANT's concept. in
temporal
succession;
Human thought can only occur
time is a
category.
Though,
KANT
too has some idea of a transcendental unity of perception. Such
concepts
as
"limited"
and
"unlimited"
have
no use,
if one talks about the universal subject. In "Mahasatta", limitation and freedom from limitation is all included." Prof.
PANDEY
confirms
that
in grammar
the
"absolute"
270 unlimited) , is illustrated by the infinitive (infinite which in Sanskrit, as a root without an ending is completely
unlimited;
in
other
words:
not determined,
by way of person, tense, number or mode. Question 3: "How is one to understand and
"mind"?
As
qualities
of
a
subject?
undefined
"consciousness How
then
is
11
one
to understand this kind of a subject? What is its nature, so
that
of
grasping
is
"consciousness·"
for
it
the
can
"have
the
consciousness"
significance
of
a deficient,
Sanskr.it '"cit",
to an individual of
and
what
thus
it
be
capable
perceives?
makeshift English
which
is
not
necessarily
the human species or
Or
concept linked
rather not tied
to a subject at all?" My
own
reply
to
this was:
"From my notes
of
20.3.60,
it is clear that Prof. PANDEY seems to be willing to take "consciousness" as identical with "cit". (S). He says: "Consciousness is self-shining, self-luminous" and further: "As
in
this
way
each
being
is
luminous .•• ",
which
means
that it does not "have" but "is" luminosity; as you know, our "have" cannot be expressed in Sanskrit in our Western sense!
My
instance
impression is
used
is only part of
11
in
was, the
brahman 11 •
that sense
11
"consciousness" of
"atman
11 ,
in
which
this again
8)
8) According to Prof. PANDEY, the concept of "atman", however, can not be used in this connection, as it pertains to an other philosophical system. For "cit" (S) I found in the Sanskrit dictionary (5): "perceive, observe, mark, intend, desire, understand, know, appear" and as a noun: "an intelligent being, perception", but also "appearance" and in feminine gender "consciousness, intelligence, mind". Apart from the connotation "appear" (which in German, translated as "scheinen", could have the double meaning of "appearing" and "shining forth"!), which is not given as primary, no special connnection with "light" or "lumination" can be found.
271
When
I
presented
this
question
to
Prof.
PANDEY,
he
admitted that "consciousness" once again is only a conventional translation which probably does not render the exact meaning very well. In
Sanskrit
one
"Consciousness is
can
call
luminousness itself. /
it
"prakasana"
9).
A luminous
object does not need another illumination for its perception.
This
book,
e.g.
is
not
self-shining;
shine in the light of the sun or a lamp. is
not
So,
self-shining,
what
is
the
it
can
only
If consciousness
it is not different from
this
lamp.
difference? That it is capable of being
aware of being self-luminous." H.:
"What
you
have
translated
as
"consciousness":
does
it usually correspond to the Sanskrit "cit"?" Prof.
PANDEY
admits
that
this
is
right and then con-
tinues: "Again we have to remember that we are in an idealistic
system,
and
in this,
what do we know? We are aware
of ideas and there is nothing apart from ideas." seems
to
imply
that
knowledge,
which
is
of
~.:
the
"This nature
of ideas, can know nothing else but ideas?" - P.: "Exactly. Everything of
ideas.
not is
need a
and
"prakas~na",
is An
idea,
other
difference
however,
ideas
so
between
as the
everything
is
of
the
is. self-luminous. to
know
idea
that which becomes aware of
of
an
idea.
which
the idea.
we
nature
One
does
But
ther~
are
aware
Some ideas are
self-luminous, but not self-conscious; others both self-luminous and self-conscious. Again: the analogy of the dream: the object appears, but is not self-conscious. "Mahasatta", on the other hand, ous. H.:
"I
have
ous"
for
two
terms
term
is both:
self-luminous and self-consci-
II
you
noted
that previously you substituted "lumin-
"conscious". in
Now,
however,
two different ways.
could
use
in
Sanskrit
distinct from "luminous"? -
Prof.
you
Which for
are
using
these
then would be the
thijs
"conscious"
as
PANDEY does not immedia-
9) "prakas~" = "shining out, clear bright; manifest, open, visible, public", as a noun: "lustre, splendour, light". "prakasana" "illuminating, illumination, allowing to appear, manifestation".
272
tely grasp what I mean, ponders over it for a while and then explains: "The one, the "being-self-luminous", is merely "prakas'a"; the other, "being-conscious-of-itself", would have to be translated by "vimars"a"
(S).
-H.:
"What
does this word stem from and what does it exactly mean?" Again the scholar hesitates and then explains that the prefix "vi-" always points to that which is individual, separate, and that "marS'a" means something like a "touch"· However, he can not.explain how the compound term signifies "consciousness" in the sense of "self-consciousness". He again remarks that one simply has to take these concepts for granted, without trying to analyse them further. 11
-
/II
H.: "Could one perhaps assume that what you call prakasa is capable of touching itself, i.e. in its individuality, or as one might say more pertinently in German, instead of only "greifen" ("to grasp"), "sich begreifen" (i.e. "to grasp oneself" or "perceive oneself" words with "-ceive" in English, as "conceive, perceive", also stemming from Latin "capere" To this,
=
"to catch")?"
I could not get any further
PANDEY. (In the that "vimars~"
(S)
Sanskrit
or
"rubbing
dictionary
reply from Prof.
( 5),
I
later
found
means "examination, consideration, reflection" and that it is probably derived from a root "mard" or "mrd", _ which means "to squeeze, press, rub etc." "vimar;a" would then signify a "grasping of oneself", more
likely
against
oneself",
which
would
come fairly close to being or becoming "conscious of oneself".) Question being)
4:
of
"How does man?
"sat ta"
According
to
relate
to the nature
Indian
concepts,
is
(the there
any "satta" that can "shine forth as the different kinds of particular beings" apart from and outside "human being"? This latter, accord~ng to HEIDEGGER's thought, is indispensable, and without it, there can be "nothing-that-is", because man's being is the sphere of luminosity claimed by "Being" (i.e. "Sein") into which something can come forth and come into appearance. According to Indian ideas, however, everything is basically "self-shining, self-luminous", come
so to
that light.
even without The
"human
two sentences:
being" all
this
could
"as in this way every
273
being
is
luminous,
any one of and
"the
other not
of
or
distinction
beings
understand.
a
to distinguish
them from other equally self-luminous objects"
point
things
cannot
it would be difficult
..
"being"
is
Is
(ein
between consciousness and
this
"sat'"',
"consciousness"
"Seiendes")?
What
are
something
I
in
this
context
else
then
is
con-
sciousness?" Concerning
this
latter
explanation
went
as
light
the
same
from
part
follows:
of
the
question,
"If everything
source,
individual
my
own
simply were
"beings"
could
not be distinguished from each other. There has, therefore, to
be
something
that
limits
them
and
thus
permits
one
to distinguish them from each other. This "giving shape", "limiting", sense of
"distinguishing"
is
apparently
"Satt~",
"bhavana" or "sat".
"Sein"
then,
in
the
would be the
possibility of bringing about this "phenomen" of individual limitation." "Perhaps in
certain
those
one
can
understand
psychopathological
referring
less
"limited"
mean
the
to
Indian
and
same!)
better who
(both
people
by
observations,
patients,
"defined"
than
this
in
particularly
are
these
the
bringing
often much
terms
West.
If
actually one
sees,
how troublesome it is for certain patients to find their "boundaries", impulses, they
to
moods
become etc.
conscious
really
impinge
upon
them
that
"being"
as
really
the
necessity also
pertain
"from
how
to
emotions,
them and how far
outside",
conscious
far
one
mode
of
understands being
faces
of having the "distinction" of the various
"self-luminating but
a
of
or
things
brought
beings"
conscious
to
not only carried out,
experience
or,
in
other
that perhaps it is this very "being separate" and
words,
"being limited"." "I
wonder
whether,
at
this
point,
one
can establish
some connection with HEIDEGGER's idea of a conscious taking over of
responsibility for one's "Da-sein" in distinction
to
the
ordinary
to
the
anonymous
what do
human
is
meant
if
this
••• ) •
This
also be a
kind of
condition
"everyone" "one"
says,
"falling
(in
of
having
German
"das
fallen
prey
Man",
i.e.
"one" should or should not prey
to the everyone" would
"loss of the capacity to delimit one's
274 own
lumination".
To
speak
"loss 11
of
however, might be secondary, the losing ,
wrong, as this too is something of something which once was present; a
primary
incapacity.
Just
as
when
perhaps
entering
it a
may
be
half-dark
room one first perceives everything in a haze, the different
objects
only or
eventually,
through
one
can
from of
remaining the
either
what
other. is
"decay"
in
with
In
can
see
context,
Western
more
source
individual "loss"
clearly
and of
of
it
and
eye that
persons
wonder whether
or
is
the
light
objects I
much
"deterioration"
psychopathology
be a "not yet" rather than a one
a
the
as
other,
habituation
of
this
designated our
each
through
introduction
distinguish
each
merged
might
at
or
times
"no more"? This is something
in
Indian
patients,
as
there
one finds everything still in flux and not yet as strictly limited as we would expect in the West.
Probably,
similar
phenomena of a defective existence can present themselves in both ways: as a "not yet" and a "no longer 11 . " Prof.
PANDEY
gave the
whether
the
without
"human being".:
following
"Mahasatta"
can
shine
"Yes,
reply forth
11
the
and
it can do
the existence of human beings.
to
question
appear
so,
even
even without
Again he showed me a pass-
age in one of his books in which the f lve different levels of
consciousness
of
the
"universal
mind"
are
described /
according to the teachings of Kashmiri Shaivism.: 1. "sivatattva" = consciousness merely concerns the "!"; the accent is
on
to
11
mere am";
!
being. the
consciousness will
power.
knowledge. "These are"
accent
refers 11
4. 5.
11
2.
S'akti":
is
to
"I
level."
:
"sadvidya": so Prof.
Then
he
means of which a duality, cises,
stop
"conscious".
am
this";
"This
3.
the
I
"I am
am", this";
11
refers
sadasiva 11
:
accent
is
on
accent
is
on
continued:
"Yoga above
heart-beat.
only has existence as
accent
on
action.
"all different
but all still beyond the physiis a the
It is even possible,
the
the
PANDEY explained
person rises
humanity. to
consciousness
1
Is vara 11
degrees of solidification, cal
on
the
long as
The
discipline
level of
by
indivi-
during yogic exer-
individual,
this machinery,
however,
the
heart,
is working as a central fact of being. Once it is no longer operating,
the subject has risen above the physical level.
275
One distinguishes mind, in Sanskrit "manas", and intellect, "buddhi".
If one can rise above the physical,
mental and
intellectual, one is no more human, and yet there is experience
according
This,
apparently,
question, the
to
the
five
was
whether
to
be
"human
manifestation
of
named his
11
types
of
experience.
answer
to
the decisive
being"
was
"Mahasatta"!
indispensable
for
continued:
"The
He
characteristic of transcendental experience is the absence of individuality." H.: individual
limits?"
stages.
The
totally
absent."
sleep?"
-P.:
all it
P.:
highest
and
that
in
is
the
"As
not
in
quite.
this
light.
in any way,
"Yes,
is
-H.:
"No,
darkness; is all
"You mean "samadhi"? Leaving behind in this which case
In
is
in deep dreamless
dreamless
sleep,
it
is
form of transcendental experience,
The subjectivity,
it is
there are five
obj ectivation
pure
the
I,
is not limited
"I". If "I" is without "am", then
"I" would only be self-luminous, and not conscious." -H.: "Thus,
"being
as
you
called
of
touching,
In
"Mahasatta"
conscious
it,
in
would
grasping
of
.I
conscious"
the
the
mean
that
itself?"
accent
itself."
sense
"Yes,
on
this
"But
"vimarsa"
something
P.:
lies
-H.:
of
what
is
(S)'
capable
one can say so. "vimars"a 11
is
the
it is
particular
position of "human being" with regard to this "Mahasatta"?" - P.: ""Human being" is one of the levels of grossification of
"Mahasatta".
lower
levels.
matter. being." man?"
11
It
has
The
lowest
Mahasatta 11
-H.:
-P.:
"Yes,
also as one levels of
"But
more
power
level
expresses
does
this·
of
is
illuminating
the
itself
earth, in
all
than
anorganic forms
of
"Mahasatta" necessarily need
as a recognising subject." -H.: "Perhaps
that
is
capable of
speech?"
-P.:
"Yes. Other
grossification can only recognise what is still
lower than themselves." What of
meant
is
gross if ica ti on,
placed his be
is is
apparently
the
particular
somehow necessary.
particular
that
in the whole series
level
at
which
man
is
But it need not be man with
characteristics;
it
might
just
as
well
some being on a different planet, as long as it repre-
sents the particular degree of "grossification, solidification". I
final 1 y
placed before Prof.
PANDEY the question con-
276 cerning
the
this
replied:
the
he
ideal
"distinction "We
of
talk of
nature of a
self-luminous
beings".
self-luminous
to
thing."
were not self-luminous,
-H. :
"You mean
To
emphasize that
if
i't
it could not appear to conscious-
ness?" -P.: "We use this expression to maintain the idealistic
position:
the Absolute ently."
-H.:
everything
is
essentially
identical
with
yet it is such as may not shine independ-
"More or less
like the objects
in a dream?"
-P.: "There are different degrees of grossification. Though they may be "luminous", to a
subject."
is what
you
-H.:
He
"bhavana"?"
then
which means points
out
11
P.:
becoming manifest.
"bhavana kartfta", being".
"And this distinction or separateness
called
grossification,
they can only "shine" in relation bhavana 11
"satta"
is
is also called
"the freedom to bring into
that
in
this
expression
already in earlier connections,
"bhavana" has a
That
with
there
are
two
forms,
one
action,
a
short
as
long "a".
"a"
and one
with a long "a", had already struck me while I was studying the. dictionary and had led me to some interesting reflections (see also footnote on page 259). 10) For Prof. PANDEY, however,
these two forms only had this very special signi-
ficance
within
this,
he
his
explained,
while "bhavana"
is
philosophical "bhavana"
means
system.
According
to
"coming into being",
"mental action responsible for picking
up in the mind the ultimate reality as it is philosophically conceived." By my inc 1 ud i ng "bhl!vana" ( s) in the reply to the fourth question, this fifth question had already been anticipated. It read: "I have understood "bhavana"
=Q_u_e.....;.s"'""'t..;;;i...;;;o..;;.;n:.._=..5. : . :
10) "bhavana"
with short "a" signifies "dwelling, remaining, coming-into-being", but also a "dwelling, a building". "bhavana" with a long "a" relates to "bringinginto-being, bringing about, producing", in particular also to "bringing about" in terms of fantasy and mental representation, i.e. to the world of ideas and thinking. Compare this with HEIDEGGER's essay "Bauen Wohnen Denken" ( 3), i.e. "Building dwelling thinking", where "Denken" (thinking) is linked with "Bauen und Wohnen" (building and dwelling). See also page 286 of this book, footnote.
277 and
"that-which-is".
"bha" "to
or
"bhii"?
build"
the
and
"bin"
person
in
of
bin", "to
German actually means
ancient
"to dwell"
"ich
of
singular
But what is the meaning of the roots
"bhu"
again
and
the
i.e.
be".
is
It
to
is
present
found
be
in
first
tense,
interesting
therefore
that "bhavan" in Hindi means "house"." In
reply
to
this
question
I
had
compiled a
list of
all words derived from the root "bhu" which I could find in the Hindi dictionary and added the following comments: "It
actually
"bauen"
(building)
interesting
in
tions
and
"bha"
specifies not
seems
that ·there
and. "wohnen"
is
a
connection
(dwelling)
(S).
this connection is that Prof. "bhu"
as roots of the verb "to be",
to
the
present
those that indicate change,
tense,
which
means
but
"wes-". (a
This
creature,
again
appears
but
also
with "wahren" (to last) 11 ). out
that
"was"
and
only
In the simple past,
perfect past and future we use a different root:
point
is
coming about and passing away.
We have something similar in German:
"Wesen"
What
PANDEY men-
that one can derive from them only verbal forms
pertaining
"wer.-",
with
to be
"war-",
connected with
"essence"),
perhaps
also
(In English, one can similarly
"were"
in
the
past
tense
stem
from a different root. In addition, there are two different roots
involved
already
in
the
present
tense:
"am"
and
"is" do not sound as if they were related, and the infini_, tive
"to be" again has a quite diffe.rent form. One rather
suspects that "to be" may also be a relict of the Sanskrit root
"bhu",
while
"is"
Sanskrit
at least may have links with the About this, see further on in this
root "as". text.) German "Wesen, wahren, werden", (just as the English "was") are linked to temporali ty, in particular also "verwesen" in German, indicating the process of decay after death.
On
this
too,
HEIDEGGER
wrote
in
his
essay
"Die
11 ) Both these terms are probably related to the sa.nskr it root "vas" which signifies "to stay, to remain, to I II • d f rest I to dwell to live I to exist 11 etc. Derive I • II "h ram it, is "vasa" or in modern Hindi nivas for ouse, lodging, dwelling place".
278
Frage nach der Technik" to
apply
to
this
{3). Something quite similar seems
"bhD.".
In
Hindi
apparently,
as
Prof.
PANDEY admitted, "hona" (to become) is derived from "bhavana"
by
a
and
"athna"
Sanskrit,
process
of
slurring.
Two
exist
in
the
dictionary,
be".
I
for
"to
Hindi have,
11
infinitives but
asana"
not
however never heard
in
them
being used. Prof. PANDEY remarked, in a rather contemptuous manner that Hindi is too primitive - or rather too degenerate! "Sein"
to be able to express an idea
-
reflected -
(Being)
so I
One
may
the
present
probably
serves
as
11
root
namely
in
widest,
assume
verbal
abstract
:•satta", sense.
i.e.
Perhaps
this might also be valid for English:
participle
bhu",
that
the
"being",
noun
inf ini ti ve which
(gerundium)
at
also
11
to be 11
the
same
stems
and time
from
the
from which some German verbal forms of "sein",
"ich
perhaps,
the
like
bin.,
why
it
du
bist"
is
so
are
derived.
difficult
to
One more
express
the difference between "Sein" and "Seiendem",
reason,
in
English
as the infi-
nitive "to be", and along with it also the ugly "be-ness" or
"being-ness"
which
sometimes
are
used
in
trans la ting
HEIDEGGER's texts, _cannot, in accordance with their origin, point to a
"Being-as-such",
but only to "that-which-is"."
This links up with the next question: Question 6: "In the sentence "When the potential of "satta" manifests itself, fest"
then this is "bhavana", what does "mani-
mean? What was
"satta" before it manifested itself?
And how can it transform itself into "bhavana"?" I
first
tried to clarify this question on my own:
"The
term "to transform itself" was not used in my first report. Actually, that
"bhavana"
about, seems
wander
it
in
is
its
about"
After
Zei ten"
formation 11
modern
(in
i.e. or
al 1,
sense
German
we
terwerfen"),
speak
"manifesting a
this
also
means
"to
roam
and
thus
(to wander) in
itself"
German would
(in German:
"becoming",
i.e.
connection
"umherwandeln")
and "Wandel"
of
"der
the changing course of time.
jecting itself to change" a
interesting .in
to be related to "wandern"
(change) . der
though,
Wandel
The "trans-
then
be a
"sub-
"sich-dem-Wandel-un-
again
the
accepting
of
kind of limitation by "satta", which in itself is unli-
mited. One can, therefore, hardly ask: "How can the "satta"
279 transform
("wandeln")
can only this
state
with
and
Prof.
"bhavana
11
itself
into
"bhavana"?,
but
it "wanders". 11
that as "bhavana",
11
PANDEY's explanation concerning at
the
end
of. his
reply
to
one
(Compare bhavana 11 • 4! )
Question
As by now I had realised that in attempting etymological research
I
could
not
expect
any
help from Prof.
PANDEY,
I did not present these two questions, 5 and 6, to him. I
should like to know the root of "avrtatva" meaning. And what is the meaning of the "sam" "samv~tti"? What is the root of 11 vrtti"? I f this Prof. PANDEY stated can mean "an affection of the
Question and
7:
II
its
in as
senses", what then is "an affection of the senses"?" After
having
the
two
"to
cover,
on
ventured
identical
on
conceal,
my
.
envelope,
ther similar root roll,
proceed,
confusion also
disposition"), Prof.
PANDEY
forms
derived
the
with
skrit,
on
about
the
from I
study
of
close etc." and,
select", and also of a fur-
to
which
other
had
led to the
fence,
hand
hedge,
"vrtti"
but also something like "mood,
meaning
the his
but
("rolling,
inspite of my misgivings,
them.
got
etc.",
("enclosure,
the
tried,
regard
was
"v;ti" conduct",
I
confusion.
even
performed
and,
course of action,
some
vrt" with the meaning "to turn, revolve,
be
between
choice")
into
surround,
the other hand "to choose, 11
own
"vr 11 which on the one hand mean
roots
of
This,
these
however,
impression academic
roots only
that
his
teaching
to ask and
the
increased knowledge,
subject,
San-
so narrowed in and dominated by his philosoph-
ical
system
that he was no longer capable of opening him-
self
up
other
are
my
to
connections
notes on this matter:
of
meaning.
The
following
"He maintains that in "avrt"
there is a root "vr" which signifies "to cover, to choose". II v:rtt II , however, according to him, means "t o b e presen t" • He does not seem to consider that perhaps the very meaning "to be and
present" could be connected with a play of opening
covering
that
"avrtti"
When finally he
said
with
up
that
I
and
means
a
choosing.
"repeated
He
further
presence,
maintains
repetition".
asked him how "samv;tti 11 can be translated, it
"determinate
meanings:
also
is
"samvfti",
knowledge".
which again he I
myself
later
tran.'5lated found
the
"closure, concealment, keeping secret; dissimula-
280
tion,
hypocrisy".
something
like
"protopathic is
an
I
then
asked
"epicritical
perception".
affection
of
a
whether
this
perception"
He
then
subject
could
in
contrast
explained:
by
an
mean to
"Knowledge
object.
The
object
of knowledge is reflected in the subject, as in a mirror. The subject is covered by the reflection of -
the object."
In this, after all, he interprets this "v;-ti" as belong-
ing
to
the
word-family
connected with "av;t" cle,
covering)
further
ventured
"samvrti" "well
and
would
covered",
level"."
(It
of
(=
also
into be.
"vr"
in
its
is
(=
with
gate).
"dvar" what
reply
to
door,
(=
the
total
this
is:
as the prefix "sam" means
can,
turn,
concealed), with "var"
asking
The
which,
however,
also
mean
obsta-
meaning "This
"even,
I of
means
entire,
"together,
in
com-
mon"!) "What would "vrti" be without the "sam"
H.:
or,
words,
what would "i.ndetermina te knowedge" be,
ledge
that
is
an
form.
is
not
based
"affection of A sensation
the
is
on
reason?"· -P.:
senses"
there,
but
in other
or a know-
"Nivrti"
12)
that has no determinate not
in
a
temporal
and
spatialised form." -H.: "So, "samvrti" could be the affection
of
the
senses
when
it
is
"organised",
brought
into
harmony with previous experiences and other associations?" To
this
I
cannot
get an answer.
My notes continue:
"Two
hours have passed. I feel that Prof. PANDEY was challenged beyond
his
limits
several
times.
I
do
not
think
we
can
expect anything further from him in reply to our question. He
can only
reply
no
concern
for
possibility
that
in the
his
own
terminology,
root-meaning
something
valuable
of
and
words
could
be
this
has
and
the
hidden
in
it."
1 2)
"ni Vfti" should not be confused with the perhaps more familiar "nivrtti", contrasting with "pravrtti", which designates th·e turning away from worldly· matters in the second half of life in contrast to an attitude turned towards worldly matters, due during the first half of human life.
281
Question
8:
~eferred
This
to
a
misunderstanding
which
had come about through my own use of the concept of "time". In
connection
once
more
with
came
it,
to
however,
be
the term "concealedness"
questioned.
Medard
BOSS
wrote
as
follows: "HEIDEGGER certainly does not assume that in their concealedness things "actually" are already there and just "covered up", but that they are not yet, that they remain shel tered within the secret ( "im Geheimnis geborgen"). Probably the significance of "concealedness" does not quite coincide with the German "Verborgenhei t". And yet, Prof. PANDEY somehow is right, if he says: "A thing must be there, so that it can be concealed." This is something I shall discuss with HEIDEGGER, when the opportunity arises. It seems to me to be something very important." My mean
c:omments "the
on
this
removal
of
the
of
II
were:
wrapping
11
course
in
I
did not
so mechanistic a
sense that something previously hidden is simply uncovered. That only
which in
is
first,
but
"concealment",
which
can reveal
partia~
as
itself always
truth,
in
a
teasing
play of revealing and concealing, is this very "Mahasatta". One so
might that
say:
again
"The and
veil
of
again
Maya"
new
is
aspects
playfully are
thrown,
"dis-covered
11 •
One might
speak of a
"constellation" that changes in each
instance.
I
that
imagine
what
actually
is
"dis-covered"
or "revealed" is basically always the same, namely "satta"; and
there
is
no doubt that this
particular way one
of
the
covered"
in
-
if one wishes
meanings
is pre-existent. But the "the mood",
"vrtti ~·
of
each instance,
in
which is also
which
and in which
it
is
"dis-
"being revealed"
and
"being concealed" are combined in manifold ways' complementing each other, this is what "comes to be", (Is to the English "become" really a condensation of "come
be"?) and what pr·eviously "is not". Compare this with "Die ewige Wiederkehr des Gleichen" ("The eternal return of is
the
same")
in
Nietzsche's
"Wer ist Nietzsche 1 s Zarathustra ?" Zarathustra?")
und Aufsatze" (3)." One will understand that question the
to
insight
reckon
with
Prof.
PANDEY.
that
with
a
phenomen
I
in
HEIDEGGER's
("Who
"Vortrage
did not dare to submit this
r myself had gradually reached
studies similar
of to
this
kind
what
one
ancient
has
to
Indian
282
wisdom mentions for
the
"apprenticeship" with the "guru".
One finally arrives at a point at which one realises that the
physical
one has to
"master"
cannot
any
further,
to find one's teacher within oneself.
ancient
Indian
philosophy
ancient Sanskrit terms, hand
help
explanations
of
as well as
to
it was not enough
what
had
already
but
With regard the
study of
to get
been
that
second-
petrified
in
traditional systems and, in this process, probably contaminated and distorted.
It was necessary to find the courage
to
sources
I
penetrate
to
tried later.
the
In this way,
on
one' s
own.
This
is
what
much became clearer and more
impressive. To report about this,
however,
would go beyond
the framework of this contribution.
*
*
*
Concluding reflections
During from
the
Medard
following BOSS
two
contained
months, the
the
letters
following
received
reactions
to
my "messenger's reports": 22. 5. 60: " Yes, your notes on the second discussion with PANDEY arrived just in time, so that I was able to take them up to Lenzerheide, where HEIDEGGER is staying• We were glad to have them, though I got the impression that PANDEY has been totally "exhausted" by us or rather by you •••• HEIDEGGER was extremely impressed by the Indian concept of "being" and "truth". For me too, it is only now that the decisive difference between ancient Indian thought and HEIDEGGER's Daseinsanalytik reveals itself. It lies in the fundamentally different thinking about the role of "human being" within the total "event" of "Being". As "Mahasatta" is self-luminous and everything originates from it and therefore is also of self-luminating nature, though luminous in very different degrees, "Being" is not as much in need of man as in HEIDEGGER's thought, where "Da-sein" (of man) is the being of the unique and only sphere of lumination - this very "pa" into which things can appear and thus can come irlto their being· Once again, many thanks for the valuable messenger's errands to Prof. PANDEY what you found out on your own, is also of the greatest interest." This
correspondence
had
a
postlude
in
May
1 966
when
I received from Medard BOSS a copy of the English translation
of
title: upon
a
his
book
about
India
with
the
"A Psychiatrist Discovers India" passage
which
had
been
newly
slightly ( 2).
added
altered
In it I came though
and
283 it had been formulated as coming from a different -
11
master 11
summed up what Medard BOSS had gathered from my discuss-
ions with Prof. PANDEY. The
paragraph
(page 1 28 of the first English edition,
following on paragraph 2 of page 176 of the German original edition) goes as follows: "When the master had begun to explain the fundamental term of the highest Indian wisdom, the word "chit" (S), I could hardly b~lieve my ears. For I heard him say things which often corresponded exactly, word for word, with phrases I had heara in the West from the philosopher Martin HEIDEGGER. I then tried, with redoubled caution, not to consider the meaning of the Indian wise man's statements in the light of my knowledge of Western so...:.called "existential philosophy". Not at any price did I want to have them distorted by seeing them through this conceptual filter. By so proceeding, I was very soon able to recognize the underlying difference between Western "Daseinsanalysis" and the Indian doctrine of "chit". The former corresponds only to that Indian insight which the rnaste1: had just characterized as a mere preliminary stage. At this stage as I had just heard - man and man's lurninating, opening-up nature is of necessity, needed, so that something like "being" can take place, can arise and shine forth at all. In accordance with the highest Indian wisdom, however, "chit", primordial illumination and opening-up, is said to be possible purely for itself alone. It is said not to have to make use of human existence as that :r:.ealm which would grant the necessary lurninated openness for the arising of that which has to be, for its shining forth and its corning for th into its being. Nevertheless' despite this fundamental discrepancy, I remained grea~ly dumbfounded by the entirely unexpected, very f ar-reach1ng affinity between what the very recent Western "Daseinsanalysis" and what the very ancient Indian wisdom recognized as the most profound "ground" of being-ness" 11 as such· this "ground" being called c 1 earance II ' II I I d II h • t" openness" ( "Lichtung") by Daseinsanalysis, ~n c 1 by the Indian philosophical tradition. Could 1 t be that in quite another part of our earth, in the Black ~ore~t of Germany, the same deepest irtsight into that-wh1ch-1s is trying to well forth? Could this be happening at the very time when it is about to be completely obscured and suffocated by the bustle of technology in India, where it dwelt for so many millennia in the knowledge of her wise men?" My new
comments
addition.
another
on One
difference
tradition:
this
were:
might, between
HEIDEGGER' s
"
however,
This
perhaps
HEIDEGGER' s
"clearing"
is
(in
obviously present
views German
and
a
sti 11 Indian
"Lichtung")
284 · lf s t resses, actually 1' s a "Lei' ch(S),. as he himse tung 11 , wh'ich means th a t a free space is "cleared", whereas Indian doctrine always - on the contrary - stresses that existence, a by "everything-that-is", including human
1 3) ,
solidification or at least a covering-up, i.e. something more dense and less light and clear, comes about, where previously freedom.
there But
was
"nothing"
but
perhaps
HEIDEGGER's ultimate ideal of
extreme
openness
and
"clearing" also only human existence, which
the 11 (or what you call one could then compare to the "atman "cit"), and the various "wrappers" thrown over it by "Maya"
represents
could then correspond to a mode of being which has forgotten
true
"Being"
and
has
"everyone"." Another formulation 136
of
German
the
English
original,
fallen
in
the
prey English
translation,
para
1:
to
This
para
the
anonymous
translation 3;
passage
p.
too
186 is
(p.
of
the
presented
as being expressed by one of the Indian wise men) reads: 11 ••• What man really is in his essential nature, we have often di~cussed already, and we have said that his nature consists of nothing but a realm of illuminated openness into the light of which the phenomena of the so-called external world can come forth and can immediately show themselves. Depending on the luminating power of the individual human being, this world opens itself up clearly and distinctly to its very pi th or is allowed to emerge only in shadowy outlines".
To to
this
allow
particular Indian
I
remarked:
phenomena mode
of
to
being
"illuminati.on"
rather amounts to a
"Heidegger's appea:i:::
or
(German:
(German:
penetrating
"clearing"
"shine
forth"
"So-Sein")
Erleuchtung") lumination
is
there
in
their
while
the
actually
("Durchleuch-
13) The term "Lichtung" (= clearing) is often misunderstood as referring to the "light" that can penetrate into its open space. HEIDEGGER, however, has repeatedly pointed out thc:tt etymologically it stems from a root that means "leicht", i.e. "light" in the sense of having less weight or being less dense. This is to some extent also· applicable to English "clearing", as this too refers both to "light" that can penetrate and to the "process of clearing away", removing the dense growth that previously covered it. (S)
285
tung") which is out to bring to light, into shining, behind the apparent phenomena which
is
not
Absolute,
of
(which is really a pleonasm!) that
the
Unformed.
nature
Beings
of as
a
phenomen,
such
that
HEIDEGGER
far more interested in the "So-Sein",
i.e.
Indian
nature,
philosophy,
"So-Sein"
which
as
through
degeneration,
towards
Possibly as
it
is
"suchness~'
the is
out
something absolute
just
a
to
of see,
which
is
"Being"
difference
in
the
stress
on
the
beings,
than
through
this
an
obnoxious
or "Power to Be".
of
weight
in both views both aspects are present;
difference
to
as
me
was
seems
the
seen
or
particular
It
namely
rather
"obscurities" the
"obscurations".
are
one or
or
degree,
but this very
the
other
seems
to me to be important for the attitude to life. HEIDEGGER's "Sein" ("Being") can always only appear in a "So-Sein", i.e.
suchness of a particular "being". For the Indian man, however, what is ultimately important in any
the
wise
"So-Sein",
i.e.
in
any
individual,
particular
·"being",
is only the "Being", the "Ultimate Power to Be"." With
this,
of
course,
neither
the
similarities
nor
the differences between Western Daseinsanalysis and ancient Indian
philosophy
only
touched
able
to
ancient and
when
present the
in
I
a
again
Indian
terminology, up
on
state
have
had
reported
exhaustively,
quite preliminary manner. and
scriptures better
there
context,
been
again (in
access
would
however,
be
when to
ITIUCh
As I was
studying
particular the more
the
the
say.
let me limit myself
basic
Upani~ads)
original to
but
Sanskrit In
this
to summing
results of these messenger's errands between East
and West:
The similarities found: 1 • It became clear that Sanskrit certainly offers the possibility of distinguishing between a highest "Being" as "the possibility of being" as such and on the other hand a "being" in the sense· of the mode of being of individual "beings", and thus to give expression to what HEIDEGGER calls "the ontologic~l difference". 2.
For
roots:
this
differentiation,
"as" and "sat"
Sanskrit
has
two different
from which only forms in the present
286 tense
can
be
fact
of
from
which
past
and
ation,
derived
"being"
as
one
the
such
and,
derives
future,
development.
HEIDEGGER
and which more or
wrote
on
verbal
thus
the
less
other
forms
express hand,
"bhu"'
pertaining
indicating
change,
to
the
transform-
This
led us
to the finding
his
essay
"Bauen-Wohnen-Denken"
in
the
that what (3)
need not stop at the ancient German word "buan" (to build), from
which,
(I am) turn
as
HEIDEGGER
remarks,
the
German
"ich
bin"
sterns, but that these ancient German forms in their go
back
to' the
root
(b~ing.)_ in' the
"Sein"
in
Sanskrit
sense of
wandering on this earth.
which
temporality,
From this
latter
designates
of dwelling'
roo.t are deve-
loped present-day Hindi expressions for "earth", the creatures
living
on
it,
and
also
for
buildings,
dwellings,
and finally a transitive verb "bhavana" (S) which signifies "to do
bring with
and
into
being",
producing,
fantasy,
so that
but which
bringing
also
about
has
something
something
in
the connections of meaning
to
thought stressed
by HEIDEGGER between "Bauen-Wohnen-1.Jenken", i.e. "Building, Dwelling
and
Thinking"
14)
can
also
be
confirmed
by
a
common Sanskrit root. 3. Sanskrit also knows terms corresponding to what HEIDEGGER,
in analogy to the Greek "aletheia",
nature
of
forth
from
truth,
namely
a
concealedness
corning into
forth
the
presents
as
the
or being brought
unconcealed.
In
the
word family derived from "vf'' or "var", the original condition,
i.e.
"ayrt", would also be what is concealed, closed
in, and out of this, pers, This
the kind
through removal of the covering wrap-
unconcealed,
the
of
of
procedure
"anav;t" revealing
would with
come
regard
forth. to
the
1 4) See for instance the formula ti on: Dichten ist, als Wohnenlassen, ein Bauen" (In English approximately of course without keeping to terms that point to a similar origin "Poetry, by allowing things to dwell, is building.") in his essay " dichterisch wohnet der Mensch" (In English approximately: " it is in poetry that man dwells"), contained also in "Vortrage und Aufsatze" by Martin HEIDEGGER ( 3). (S)
287
"Sein"
(being),
known
to
certain
however, the
in particular "the being of man", schools
difficult
stages of
to
of
Indian
arrive
at
is also
philosophy.
some
It
congruence
is,
between
this concealing and revealing and the exact
significance
of
"unconcealedness"
and
"concealedness"
in Daseinsanalysis on the one hand and in ancient Indian philosophy
on
the
other.
More
will
be
said
about
this
later when we sum up the differences between the two. 4·
Just
terms
for
that
ity" so
as
HEIDEGGER,
indicate a
in
an
essential
even
of
"consciousness,,.,
( S),
which
is
Indian
philosophy
"shining", a "luminating", a "clar-
as
"cit"
ancient
characteristic again
play and
of
a
"being"
and
great role.
again
more
The term
specially mentioned
by Medard BOSS, and_which often stands for "consciousness", also
seems
to have the quality of luminating. The corres-
ponding Sanskrit root "ci", however, primarily means "perception, ion"
observation,
and
only
perceptible,
in
sensitivity, understanding, meditat-
second
shining".
place
It
something
has
no
like
connection
"rendering with
words
that have the primary meaning of "light, shining, illuminating". other
The hand,
visible,
word
it
"prakaS'a",
stems
to
from
appear,
to
a
radiating,
various
derived
but
also
for
the
by
Prof. /
Pandey,
on the
means
"to be
root
"kas"
which
shine".
From
the root
possibly related
are
used
"bha"
too,
to "bhu"??) which means "shining,
terms
customary
in
Indian
philosophy
indicating not only the highest "Being",
reflection,
in and with which
"all-that-is"
shines after it.
The differences: 1•
While
reveal
for
(and
HEIDEGGER
at
the
"Being"
same
time
(Sein)
also
can
always
conceal!)
only
itself
in
the form of individual "beings" (Seiendemd and an ultimate "Being"
cannot
immediately
be
thought
become
philosophy speaks a which
Prof.
while doing
PANDEY so,
can
ever
do
the
different
of
at
all,
as
"something-that-is",
it
would
ancient
then
Indian
lot of this "highest, absolute Being" designated
by "Mahasatta".
Of course,
one knows that neither speech nor thought
justice
to
this
Ultimate
names
one
has
for
it
One,
can
and
that
all
or.ly be a gross
288 . h i' t se lf i's "unli'mited, unborn, approximation to t ha t wh ic imperishable, without form, without qualities, unspeakable and
unthinkable".
One
to
what
HEIDEGGER
is
not
necessarily
imagines,
postulates bound
in "something-that-is" the to
potency, release
however, of
however, that
to
to
enter
into
this
world
or
this
reveal
(Seiendem). a
with
a
at
One"
all
times
It has the possibility,
world
worlds
duration
contrast
"Ultimate
itself of
out
also keep periods of rest,
Brahma",
in
of
beings
of
or
itself;
rather it
can,
the so-called "nights
astronomical
dimensions
that makes all human history shrink into ridiculous insignificance. The Indian way towards salvation is to transcend the
world
of
"Highest
beings
Being"
and an
to
experience oneness with
experience,
however,
that
this
cannot
be caught in words. The only suitable behaviour with regard to this "Ultimate One" is silence. In comparison with this gigantic
view,
HEIDEGGER'S
understanding of man as a unique, exclusive agent or deputy (German:
"Statthalter")
of
"Being"
looks
almost
like
hubris. 2.
For
has as
HEIDEGGER,
a
quite
"the
"human
particular
sphere of
being",
or
amongst
rather
lumination"
"all-that-is",
indispensable
claimed by
position
"Being"
(Sein),
into which alone something can emerge and come into appearance. 2.)
(See If
the
this
formulation
"Highest
by
Being"
Medard
ip
BOSS
Indian
in
Question
thought,
as
was
just pointed out, is not even in need of a world of beings, man,
in
not
play
the an
particular
shape in which we
indispensable
role
amongst
know him,
all
other
will
beings
either, whenever - and this has already happened uncounted times
and
will
again
come
about
further
countless
times
- this "Being" releases worlds out of itself. One can of course say that man has a privileged position, as he is not only - like all other beings - of selfluminous nature, is even
conscious if
it
is
but, beyond this, of
this
-
or at least at best!
self-luminosity.
self-luminous,
can
only
As be
any
object,
perceived
by
a subject which, in the descending series of grossification and
solidification
itself,
is
above
to it,
which man,
the as
"Highest Being"
the
being
which
subjects according
289
to our understanding is the highest being, has the widest and
most
in
addition
Indian being a
comprehensive the
capacity
philosophy is,
and
therefore,
kind of
suffice
view,
and
for
already
mentioned,
self-reflection.
religion, regarded
as being
as a
born
Even
as
a
particular advantage,
special gra'ce. Theoretically, however,
if
any being,
in
human
it would
perhaps one without the particular
characteristics of man,
perhaps a creature on a different
planet, were to occupy this necessary level in the hierarchy
of
the
light of
beings.
his
own
Furthermore,
level,
"Ultimate
one
Being"
consciousness. ancient
as
man
again
can
grasp
in
his consciousness only that which lies below cannot
there
Prof.
Indian
exclude
may
PANDEY
be
that
other,
hinted
scriptures
at
mention
between him higher
this,
levels
and
of
various
in
"beings
and
other
regions". 3.
HEIDEGGER occasionally calls the "sphere of lumination"
("Lich tung")
the
capacity
in which
man
is
claimed by
"Being" - "the clearing of Being" (die Lichtung des Seins). He
points out,
ing)
however,
of
luminosity),
of
"little
"clearing" to
in
we
but
from
"leicht"
("light"
in
Sanskrit
"laghu").
weight"
create a
tions,
that this word "Lichtung"
(clear-
is not derived from "Licht" ("light" in the sense
(S)
the
free, have
dense
hiding-place
open space. noted
that
of
In Prof.
"freedom,
a
in
the
sense
To create a jungle,
PANDEY' s
means
explana-
openness,
lack
of
any limitation" characterize not only the "Highest Being", but
also
the
that which stand at
is
subject
in
grammar.
In
this
way,
however,
"free, open, clear and light" would already
the very beginning,
so that the "Highest Being"
once again would not be in need of "hum~n being" for having at its disposition a "clearing" of this kind. Indian philosophy
stresses
rather
that
"all-that-is",
in
the
course
I
of
the
increasing gross if ication and solidification which
"Being" periodically engages in, also falls into increasinq "obscuration" either
throuqh
and
"concealment".
inner
For man it is only when
illumination or through the guidance
of a teacher he has become aware of his own self-luminating and
self-conscious nature,
that he may succeed in casting
off these concealing layers or in making them "transparent"
290
and
thus
also
become
illumination. One can question
for
others
whether
a
this
source
of
light
"being concealed"
and
under
the "veil of Maya" would correspond in HEIDEGGER's terminology to the original "concealedness" before the "arising of
truth"
or
rather
perhaps II
to
the condition of
II
II)
forgotten Being ( Seinsvergessenheit strayed away from Being" ("Seinsferne"),
"having "having
(S)
or in which ordinary
man, fallen to the lure of the "everyone", usually remains in his everyday lif~, and out of which he has to be awakened again into his true being. One way or the other, what appears
in Indian philosophy as the origin is not a
"con-
cealedness", but on the contrary the most absolute freedom, widest openness and most intensive light. is"
is
also
not
forget
the
highest
designated
that
this
light,
as
If "that-which-
"self-luminous",
luminosity
in which
all
is
only a
one
should
reflection of
beings appear and
shine
forth 15). It . wo 11ld
be
tempting
to
speculate
on
what
would
happen
to this "clearing" - which plays so great a role for HEIDEGGER
and
which
one
has
the dense darkness of a
to
imagine
forest or a
as
a
"clearing"
brushwood,
in
something
important for the cultural development of originally densely wooded areas
-
when the original, primaeval condition
which man finds in this world is a wide, open desert flooded
by
an
open
of
India.
1 5) As
light sky, In
or as
some is
this
kind
of
wasteland
lying
the case even nowadays situation,
what
bare
under
in many parts
would be needed would
an example, one can quote a paragraph which is to be found in the second part of the "KA'fHOPANI~AD" (4) (and also in other Upani~adic te~ts), Chapter 5, verse 15: "When this (namely the "tat", the Ultimate One) shines, everything verily shines after it (or in its reflection). By its shining, all that also shines." The verb used for "shining" in this instance is derived from the root "bha", and "shining after it", i.e. the secondary way of shining or reflecting of "all-that-is", is designated in one instance by the prefix "anu-" ( = after, according to, with regard to, on account of) and in the other instance by the prefix "vi-", which always refers to the individual and particular condition (German "So-Sein").
291
probably ten"),
not
be
but,
on
some shelter, this
a
further
the
contrary,
a
of
"clearing"
("Lich-
seeking of protection in
in some area that provides a covering. Could
perhaps have its
the
process
teachings
of
influence on the difference between
the
North-Western and the South-Eastern
world? ..i.
HEIDEGGER' s
to
"appear"
"clearing"
or
"shine
is
there
forth"
to
(the
allow
German
phenomena
"erscheinen"
can have both meanings!) and that not only in their "beingas-such", thus"
but in each
("So-Sein
power of layers
through in
not
while
all
man,
impurities,
so
unformed,
however,
his
that
behind
all
would the
beings,
serve
to
superficial
the
"Absolute which is
can "come to light" or "shine
say that HEIDEGGER is more interested
"particular being"
("So-Sein")
of
"that-which-is",
Indian philosophy is out -· through this "particular
being"
("So-Sein") which is seen as a concealment of truth
to behold it
wise
of the nature of phenomena,
One might
•
the
Indian
differentiates
is
undifferentiated, 11
of
phenomena,
that
which
,
an
once it is freed from the enveloping
cleansed
through
appearance One 11
instance in their particular "being
For
).
lumination,
and
shine
11
more
"Absolute Being"
pointedly
can
only
appear
the
Indian
one in
might
or "Power of Being". To put say:
"particular
philosopher,
for
HEIDEGGER,
beings"
"Beinq"
("So-Sein");
the only thing that is
for
important
in "particular being" ("So-Sein") is "Being". One
may
perhaps
consider
it
as
a
consequence of this
difference that HEIDEGGER - though it was his great concern to exhort and encourage his students towards true thinking never became a "guru" who recommends a way towards salvation
and
pupils
on
who this
systematically path,
but
teachings
HEIDEGGER's
that, had
promotes
his
thJ other hand, decisive consequences
his
guides
and
on
spheres
of
for
activity
and psychotherapy, i.e. that have as their task not "salvation" (in German "Heil"),
ps~rchia try
but as
the
healing
(German:
"Heilung")
of human beings,
and
their central concern to help man to manage his earthly
existence more successfully, and not to transcend it. Did in
his
HEIDEGGER most
so one would like to ask - never,
personal
experience,
pass
through
even
moments
292 in which the "Highest Being", beyond all its being revealed and
concealed
nothing
that
silence
on
in at
this
to
name
before
from which,
same
time that
to
according
reduce to
up
as
"the
Does
his
humility of
the
plenitude"?
to
the
to which he cannot bear
own experience? Or
thus
flashed
is
correspond
to speak of
his
and
the point
one who refuses witness
"that-which-is",
to a
ancient
is
it
his
reluctance
mere
"being"!
Indian
texts,
that "speech
and thought have to turn back without reaching their aim"?
293 LITERATURE
1) BOSS Medard:
"Indienfahrt eines Psychiaters" (Neske, Pfullingen, 1959).
2) BOSS Medard:
"A Psychiatrist Discovers India" (Wolff, London, 1965).
3) HEIDEGGER Martin:
"Vortrage und Auf satze" (Neske, Pfullingen, 1954).
4)
KA!HOPANI~AD:
Edition of the Sri Ramakrishna Math (Mylapore, Madras, 1956).
5) MACDONELL A.A.:
"A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary." (Oxford University Press, 1954-1958).
6) PANDEY K.C.:
"Abhinavagupta". (Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Banaras, 1 963.)
7) PANDEY K.C.:
"Bhaskari, a Commentary on,, the
I~vara Pratyabhijna VimarsinI of
Abhinavagupta. (Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Banaras, around 1960.) 8) PANDEY K.C.:
"Western Aesthetics" (Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Banaras, after 1963).
(Translated by the author, March 1990.)
295
SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SUBJECTIVE STATES ?
1)
One wi 11 perhaps note that the title of this paper, as well as that of the following one, along with the style in which both are written, somehow reflect a more sober and scientific attitude than the headings of the preceding nine i terns in this volume. As already mentioned, these two lectures were presented to Indian audiences. When someone from the West wishes to find acceptance amongst Indians by speaking about their own tradition, even if this is done in an appreciative manner, he or she first has to give proof of thorough familiarity with Wes tern 11 progress", i.e. the modern advances in science and technology with regard to which India is so eager to emulate the West. If, in addition to this scientific erudition and possibly technical know-how, the Westerner concerned then shows that he or she also has some understanding of the best in Indian tradition, the response may be favourable. Otherwise one simply risks being taken for someone who knows no better and who, out of ignorance, "backwardness" or "obscurantism" is tempted to associate himself with outdated ideas and practices. Thus it was only towards the end of my stay in India, after I had acquired recognition as someone who could teach and demonstrate the usefulness of Western resources in a particular academic profession psychiatry - that I could dare to communicate to my colleagues and to interdisciplinary groups some of the insights I had arrived at while studying the sources of their own philosophical tradition. Even then, as these last two papers will show, one has to wait until one is invited to speak and then to provide a solid foundation in terms of Western science if one's references to ancient Indian scriptures and one's own understanding of them are to have a chance of being accepted or at least seriously discussed. The invitation to participate in a seminar on "The Scientific Study of Subjective States" at the Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore on 19/20th January 1984 reached me at a time when, somehow, I happened to be tuned in to the problems to be taken up at the seminar. On the other hand, I was starting out "on tour", without the resources in terms of literature, notes etc., which one customarily would rely on in preparing a contribution of this kind. However, the "subj ecti vi ty" of my approach, as dictated by these circumstances, was in itself well suited to provide an examp1e of the di ff icul ties which any scientific, objectivating study of man'a inwardness is likely to encounter. The active core group of the seminar, which was also attended by eager young students, consisted of a group of physicists, amongst them the Nobel Laureate Prof. B.
1 ) Contribution to an international, interdisciplinary seminar on "Scientific Study of Subjective States." held at the Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore from 19th - 20th Jan. 1984.
296
D. JOSEPHSON from Cambridge, at that time Visiting Professor at th~ "Center for Theoretical Studies" at the Indian Institute of Science, and the brilliant Indian physicist Prof. G. SUDARSHAN, who divides his time between Bangalore and California, but had been extended to become an "interdisciplinary setting" by the addition of experts from the fields of mathematics, natural science, biophysics, pathology, neurosurgery, psychiatry, psychology and, at the other end of the scale, apart from an Indian professor of philosophy, an Australian teacher of yoga who had undergone initiation into an Indian monastic order. The psychiatrists, as usually happens in interdisciplinary groups, being acquainted with both the exact sciences and the humanities, had their place somewhere in the middle of this wide range and served as mediators and interpreters. I was pleased to find that my own contribution tallied very well with that of the yoga teacher. It was remarkable how the physicists, in particular the most advanced ones, were willing to make concessions with regard to the def ini ti on of "science", so as to adapt it for application to spheres of experience which at present are not considered as sufficiently objectifiable to fit into its scope. Unfortunately, though I made some efforts in this direction, the "proceedings" of the seminar were never published. Thus my contribution appears in print for the £irst time in this collection.
1. Author's background and view-point
In offering my contribution to this discussion on "Scientific Study of Subjective States", I first have to give a short characterization of my point of view, of my background and of contributed
to
it.
still
on
the
i.e.
are: the
German
brand
of
the
ideologies that have mainly
The decisive influences have been and Olile
hand
Western
rexistentialism"
philosopher ·Martin
HEIDEGGER
"Daseins-analysis", represented and
made
by
the
relevant
for psychiatry and psychotherapy by the Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist Medard BOSS; on the other hand what I have been able to gather and understand of ancient philosophy, in particular the Upani~ads and advaitic teachings, during almost 28 years of life, work and study in India. Fortunately two
it
is
not
too
difficult
to
blend
these
streams of thought into one comprehensive and fairly
harmonious world-view, each other other
as
they have more
in
common
with
than would be the case if one tried to match
Western
philosophical
systems
with
Indian
schools
297
of thought. I
shall
features,
try
to
leaving
give
a
aside,
short
in
sketch
of
the
similar
this particular context,
the
differences which also exist.
a) Daseins-analysis (S) "Daseins-analysis" between
subject
to go further, which
is
within
2)
and
object
only and
and
to at
overcome the
same
the
split
time
tries
deeper than traditional Western philosophy, concerned
"that-which-is",
granted,
attempts
instead,
with
the
taking
logical
the
relationships
ubiquitous
"is"
for
to question the very nature of this
"is", of "being" as such. Man
is
not
seen
as
an
isolated
"subject"
which,
in
some mysterious way, transcends the distance between itself and
the
equally separate
in-the-world"
and
his
"objects" around it. His "being"being
with",
i.e.
with
things,
creatures, fellow human beings, are seen as primary, essential constituents of his existence, without which he cannot be
thought
of.
Man
"is"
his
relationship with
his "existence" is a being "extended",
the world;
"expanded" through-
out the universe in which he lives, far beyond the physical boundaries less "fall
to
what
in
daily
his to
the
body.
his lure
German
life.
does! ial
of
closed
of
is
In
He
can,
however,
possibilities, conforming
called
other
to
"man",
words
he
in
remain more or
particular
common
i.e. can
can
average",
to
the
"everyone"
of
and
most
commonly
- fail to "discover" the whole expanse of his potent-
openness
in
conscious
be
to
to and
become
the world,
fail
to make
responsible manner.
"authentic",
truly
it his very own
The ideal aim would
himself
as
"world project" he is. He can have a varying degree of openness not
he
only
in
at tempts
to
much
what
or
terms open
of
the
himself
level
of
2) For explanation of 299 of this paper.
particular
to,
himself
the
term
but he
also
unique
to the world
possibilities in
allows
"Dasein",
the
terms to
see
of
he how
participate
later,
page
298 in
this
openness.
in this
The
ideal,
of
course,
would
be
that
latter respect he should be "in" his world "body,
mind and soul", and not that the world as a mere "impression"
or
"image"
should
in
him.
"bearing out"
But
too often he
limits
himself
these levels only. This view can for instance open
understanding
for
his
all
one of up
to
be
possibilities
psychosomatic
illness
as
on
an
any
over-
burdening or, on the contrary, a leaving out of the somatic sphere
with
regard
to
experiences
in
which
man
in
his
total existence should be involved. But it also highlights the
shortcomings
which of
of
the
remains
merely
mind,
shutting
the
"scientific
the
concern
out
other
view" of
of
the
levels
the
world,
rational of
part
bearing
out
and other possibilities of openness. Above all, man's openness to the world is always determined - or perhaps we had better say "coloured", as "determined"
refers
should or
be
to
"being
tuned",
"manovftti" a
"limits",
stressed!
word
or,
the
surrounding
while a
perhaps like
tuning nat11re
to
in
is
inner
a
we
music, the
mood
of
mentioned
the
that
"tuning"
could
"Stimmung"
instrument,
an the
"openness" mood,
Hindi
Indian
German
the
of and
it
particular
what
referring
which,
together
by
call
the
"raga"
(S)
brings
atmosphere the
player
in and
the listener. Right
at
the beginning
I
term
"Dasein",
which has given HEIDEGGER's philosophy its name. He himself refused
to
English,
be
considered
however,
there
as is
an
"existentialist"
hardly
any
other
3);
in
convenient
term for it, unless we just leave it in its original German form. So, what does it mean? HEIDEGGER-' s potential awkward always
for
idea Being
English only
instances
of
is
that
the "Sein",
(or Be-ness" or
approximations
manifest "being",
itself thus
try in
at
i.e.
the ultimate
"Being-ness", to
translate
particular, the
same
time
as
the
it)
can
individual revealing
3) He does not accept SARTRE' s "Existence comes before essence.", but maintains that "essence always is existence".
299
and concealing itself. Thus "Sein" always, in each particular
instance,
has
its
in
time and space -
in
terms
now", and
of
time
however,
cultural
context fact
never
be
and space.
particular context
This
"Da" in the "here-and-
as
but also the social and
into which man is "thrown" at his birth.
everything
adequately a
else that "is-in-the-world",
conceived
uniform,
category
or
all
manifold
its
its
the physical body,
Man,
abstract"
i.e.
not only includes the coordinates of time
space and in
"Da",
"da" in German meaning "present" both
species,
but
of
and
understood
interchangeable only
connections
in of
its
can
"in the
specimen· of
uniqueness
meaning
in
a
and
in
the present
"Da", the "here-and-now". This, however, is the very aspect which the scientific view must neglect! With
this,
It has
a
"Dasein"
is not yet exhausted.
second important implication: man not only "has"
this "Da 11 a
the meaning of
but at the same time, in his turn, "is" a "Da",
,
sphere of openness; of lumination (in HEIDEGGER's origi-
nal language something like a clearing in a dark and dense forest! they
(S))
are
into which other beings can appear.
allowed
to
appear
being or only
in a
pends
degree
on
the 11
sphere of that
to
his
Dasein
which
an
and at
limited,
11
of
in
stunted,
their
Whether
full,
true
distorted form,
and
freedom
which
dethis
can grant them. The basic task of man,
and
utmost
it
openness
ultimately,
distortions
reach
into
out
blindness,
openness
of
all
he
should
within
which
his he
limitations,
aspire, can
is
to
encompass
the same time protect and promote all that appears
into it, to "take care" of it or, as HEIDEGGER occasionally expressed it, to become the "Shepherd of Being".
(S)
b) Ancient Indian Philosophy If someone is familiar with ancient Indian philosophy, in
particular Vedanta,
some
analogies with
analysis. of
My
course
some of
own
very
it
he or she may already have spotted in this
acquaintance
incomplete,
you may be able
in
short outline of Daseinswith fact
Indian quite
philosophy lacunary,
is and
to help me to correct and widen
the picture I am trying to convey. The
Advai tic
view
also
stresses
that
the
split
into
300 subject and object, the world, to ultimate is
to
in terms of which we customarily see
is something illusory that does not correspond reality.
The
aim
of
arrive at the point where
the Act of
Seeing are
one".
In
all
spiritual
"the Seer, other
exercises
the Seen and
words,
one has
to
see through or cast away the veil of "Maya", which imposes on us this experience of a sents one
things
can
found
only partly revealed.
usefully
in
duality and which always pre-
the
apply
to
Other terms and
illustrate
apparent division
of
this point,
the original
ideas can be
"One"
in
each instance into a "field" and "the knower of the field" (the
( s)
"ks'etra II
the discovery is
not
of
fact,
and
actually
union"
that
was
and the
a
or
its
"cit"
"is
which
of
the
field
"finding",
always
by
but
belonged
the
rather
together
that
knower a
"re-
and,
in
literally "the way the mind is tur-
revolving",
aspect of (S)
openness
study
implying
r
"made for each other". I have already mentioned
Daseins-analytical in
"ks'etra-j na II)
primary
the term "manovftti", ned"
the
which
concept "being
of
could
"openness",
tuned".
a
"sphere
the "clearing", light". Within
the
into
of
ancient
things
Indian
the
can
notions
the
Sanskrit this
"Lichtung",
appear, of
the
particular
description of
lumination",
which
render
in
Similarly,
comes close to HEIDEGGER' s as
aptly
"come
"creation"
to ( S)
as a process of grossification, a descent into the material, one would also have to assume that "openness" and the capacity for self-awareness, decrease as one goes further down in this "descent" and that within mankind though
grossly
speaking
it
occupies
a
particular
level
in this descending order, one would again have to distinguish varying degrees of differentiation, awareness,
and
life,
be
can
Instead of his routine
of
that
these,
widened,
in the course of a
extended
being "lost",
"common
man",
openness,
the
in
an
upward
self-
well-spent direction.
"fallen prey" to the average Indian
view
sees
man
as
a
victim of the concealing play of "Maya". HEIDEGGER' s terms "Seinsvergessenheit" (S) and "Seinsferne", i.e. a condition of
"having
forgotten"
or
"having
strayed
far
away
from"
the ultimate power of Being and its challenge, would come
301
very
ultimate power of
"Being"
-
which in Sanskrit one
can very aptly express by the terms "satta" or. "Mahasatta" chooses
to
creatures, only
reveal
itself
unlike
itself
in
in
the
form
HEIDEGGER's
particular
of
"Sein",
beings!
individual which
can
can
also be
or in a peak-experience, at the end of a spirit-
imagined, ual
manifest
but
path,
actually be attained, as the absolute Formless,
Nameless,
Unspeakable,
Undifferentiated,
that
without
beginning and end. According one
hand
the
light
in
men.
he
its
is
turn,
references
also
can
we
"all-that-is"
part
as
Indians,
perception
of
which
i.e.
in
ancient
object
together, But
the
to
the
of
seen
man
can also be on
of
others,
in
the
world
appears
is
common
to all
that
which
as
privileged
a
appear
being which,
"shed light" and create worlds.
have
particularly
in
the
In the
Upani~ads
/
some of waking
Sankaracarya' s state
nara"
( S) ,
works
-
to the
"Four States
is described as pertaining to this in
which
perceptions
and
in
and
11
the
,
"vai;va-
experiences
can
be
and are shared by other men. In contrast to this, "svapna", the state of dream (S) ations,
does
not
imagination, fact
all
sphere,
only
is
ion, in
worlds
he
dream
day-dreaming
"subjective"!)
in in
is
sleep,
but
waking seen
also
life,
as
a
in
private
condition in which the "self is drawn or sucked
back into itself", allows
include
fantasy,
that
a
(which, according to some interpret-
to appear in its own light. In this conditgreater
enjoys
waking
in which the self, alone within itself,
where
life,
freedom, he
is
more
possibilities
limited to time,
than
space,
the
laws of physics and biology and also social, cultural and moral restrictions. In spite of this, the dream state is
not
"higher"
it
too
is
darkness. city has
for in
or
"a-sat",
"more
real"
"unreal",
than
the
belonging
to
waking-state; the
realm of
In it, man is deprived even of the limited capaself-reflection
waking
life
of
the
capacity
for
to
the
waking-state
and,
and
perhaps
maturing. that
self-recognition It
most is
important only
on
which of
he
all:
returning
he can become aware of all the
limitations and the illusions of the dreaming-state. Simi-
302
larly, of
it is postulated that the limitations and illusions
our
waking-state
can only be perceived and
understood
on our awakening from it into the so-called "Fourth State", the
"turiya",
which
is
pure
light
c>.nd
all-encompassing
knowledge and bliss. The
difference
"objects" having
in
the
a
between
common
power
to
man's
existing
world and,
on
create worlds
as
one
the other
that
shine
of
the
hand,
his
in
his
own
inner light, also finds its expression in the two Sanskrit words the
"bhavana"
same
and
root
opposed
to
"bhavana"
"bhu",
eternal
wich
(S).
refers
"Be-ness".
Both are derived to
temporal
"bhavana"
with
from
"being"
as
short
"a"
means man's capacity for concretely dwelling in this world; "bhavana" with long "a" refers to his capacity for creating worlds in the imagination. Very significantly, as HEIDEGGER pointed out, very root
an ancient word
"bhu",
in German derived
from
this
later developed not only into the modern
Ger.man word for "dwelling", i.e. "wohnen", but also another one
that
i.e. "a"
designates
allowing would
"has"
an
activity of
someone else
more
or
"building"
to dwell.
less correspond
("bauen"),
"bhavana" with short
to
the
"Da"
which man
in the world, while "bhavana" with long "a" belongs
to the "Da" which man is, his openness for all that comes within his scope. The
concept
appears for or
of
"care"
responsibility
for
all
that
into one's sphere of openness, which is essential
Daseins-analysis, at
and
least
less
at
first
important
sight
seems
in ancient
to
Indian
be
absent
philosophy.
The aspirant on the spiritual path shown by these teachings is,
in
his
own
fact,
often seen as self-centred,
salvation,
and
as
using
other
only out to find creatures
and
the
world in general for this purpose of "self-realisation". I have, however, found references in sorne of the ancient Indian writings which - though in a very discrete, hidden way
hint
Being",
"bhutapala" then
at
at
e.g.
this by
(S),
least
as
function
the if a
of
man as a "Shepherd of literally equivalent term an explicit, deliberate aim,
almost
not
as
spontaneous
outcome
of
his
quest
to
become one with the original and ultimate "Power of Being".
303
2. Some problems of terminology
My attempts at presenting the two main influences that have contributed to my point of view show that one comes across
some difficulties in doing so in English. In both,
German
and
Sanskrit
(S),
so-called
"anstract"
terms are
still closely related to roots with which one is familiar in
words
of
practical,
concrete
use
in every-day
life.
The English language is by now heavily loaded with terms that
have
most
people
is
the
their
origin
hardly
risk
of
in Latin and Greek and of which
know
man's
the
concrete
roots.
being estranged
Thus
from his
there
language
and of language being estranged from itself. One no longer realises are
that
really
meaning
the
"metaphors",
that
appeals
possibility
of
full
with
is
scope, lost is
seeking
only
when
a
it
is
themselves and
total
It
for
but
question
of
a
one
quite
uses
concrete
Consequently,
such
terms
thinking important
what
also
terms
in
the their
impact on our wholt being,
language",
goes
for
a
realm of term
some
to
in analogies, when it comes
on in the so-called
the
coining
approximation
an
allows
senses.
extremely
expression state",
the
from
experiencing
their
"subjective
them.
to
really
not
"abstract"
transfers
"Metaphoric
however, to
apparently
science,
that at
findings
least
which
in
really elude the power of our senses to grasp is,
therefore,
"subjective
a
state",
common
that
link between
could
prove
"science"
to be helpful
for our purpose. Let
me
just
take
as an example the title under which
this Seminar was announced: "Scientific study of Subjective States.": is
"of";
these
The
only word
it
that is genuinely English
all else is borrowed from Latin.
Latin
of them: a) "State":
terms
it
means
something
firmly". "aggregate
for
a
while,
Let us examine
starting
with
the
last
A good English word, one will say. But origi-
nally
thing
in
came In
from
Latin
"stare"
that
stands,
a
physics,
"state"
is
condition
temporary
and
of
matter".
often
to stand, condition used
This,
reversible.
to
of
designate
however, I
and
feel
thus
"standing the
is someit
is
not
entirely applicable to the sphere of the subjective, which
304 one imagines much rather as something continuously underlying and pervading our being; furthermore, a
moving
stream
than
a
stationary
it is much rather
or
even
stagnating
condition. b)
"Subjective":
its
Latin
The
origin,
underneath"
and
"subject",
is
really
if
we
trace
something
consequently
it
which
"underlies"
the
is
distinguish
if
at
we
e.g.
look as
an
experienced "object",
a
person's
object
of
"from
the
this
between
would
a
study,
and a
inside" be
by
"that
"thrown
one might
"subjective
subjectivity from
aspect",
the
outside,
"subjective view",
the
subject.
which
is
to
experience.
If we are to avoid the term "subjective state", profitably
back
As
thrown
to
if the
against"
or "impinges upon" the subject. As
far
four
as
main
I
can
see,
possibilities
one in
would
which
have
to
distinguish
subjective
aspect
and
view can be related to objective aspect and view: 1. Taking an objective (generally valid) view of the objective aspect of "the other" to
have
it
in
no
so
(or an object that is supposed
"subjectivity"),
far
as
interchangeable
it
with
is
i.e.
generally
others
of
observing
and
studying
representative
its
kind.
This
for
and
would
be
the approach of science. 2.
Taking an objective (generally valid)
view of the sub-
jective aspect of "the other": the problem we are proposing to discuss. 3. and
Taking
a
subjective
uniqueness)
view
(peculiar of
the
to one's own
o0bj ecti ve
inwardness
aspects
of
"the
other" (or an object that is supposed to have no "subjectivity"),
thus
transforming
it
from
something
"generally
valid" into something that has a special or unique meaning: imagination, fantasy, etc. 4.
Trying,
in
i t-.s
with one's subjective view,
subjective aspect,
to see "the other"
its unique inwardness,
"letting it be" or "letting it in psychotherapeutic relationship. This can be represented as follows:
become":
and thus
empath\•,
(see next page)
e.g.
305
' c objec~;:;;'sub~ity
~
Person A / as object: generally valid interchangeable
~Person
B as object: generally valid interchangeable
* ~* (j
~*
--- **
ff*_____ .Q.;
~
t
*
*/ * ~).~
SCIENCE
--- --
'*-!<
* * * ~~ ~~ ** * * * ~-
as subject: inward, unique
(?)
* *c,).~~ ).~
--~-----
PJ?ol)---,
~~as subject: inward, unique
<··· ........ EM.PATHY···········)
objective view of objective aspect = Science objective view of subjective aspect Our problem
* * * *
subjective view of objective aspect Imagination, metaphor, symbolic thinking
........ /c)
subjective view of subjective aspect Empathy
"science":
split
between
sharp
division
Of
course,
subject of
it goes without saying that this
and
the
object
world
is
based
a
"res
into
on
DESCARTES'
cogitans"
and
the "res extensae". Though development towards this already started
in
ancient
customary
view
my
outline
short
of
Greece, the
of
it
world
has
and,
not
as
I
Daseins-analysis,
to be the exclusive approach. It is perhaps significant
that
always
been
the
tried to show in need
not
continue
"Daseins-analysis"
has
come up in the German language area. There, "Wissenschaft", i.e.
"science" (S), always comprehended both,. "Naturwissen-
schaften",
i.e.
the "exact" or "natural sciences", devoted
to the objective study of nature, and also "Geisteswissenscha f ten", call of
the
the
the
latter
"humanities"
German
term
being or
being
what
"arts",
in
English
the
exact
"Sciences of
the
one
would
translation
Mind"
or
"of
the Spirit'', in which the methods of inquiry and presentation
of
the
exact
sciences
need
not
and
often
cannot be
306
applied.
Within
this
tradition,
there
would
therefore
be no difficulty in recognising as "science", i.e. a branch of
human
inquiry
and
knowledge,
a
field
that
resists
methods out to explore only what is quantifiable, able,
calculable,
predictable
and
replicable.
measur-
Again
it
may be significant that the three great schools of psycho· d ness, "the therapy which attempted to bring man ' s inwar reality
of
the soul" (C. G. JUNG) into the field of namely FREUD's "psychoanalysis", JUNG's "analytipsychology" and ADLER's "individual psychology", all
science, cal
originated in tne German speaking area. Unfortunately, Anglosaxon has
during
concept
of
increasingly
the
50
as
years
scope
themselves
or
so,
"exact science"
German
language
"Geisteswissenschaf ten
to re-define their calling
last
"Science"
invaded
that some of the by
the
in terms of
"behavioural
11
the only,
area,
so
have been forced
exact
science,
sciences",
e. g ·
and
also
to adjust their terminology accordingly. This has certainly led
to
an
impoverishment
and estrangement,
in the field of psychology. to
what
is
"observable, at
replicable" i.e.
to
processes
least
outwardly
can
only
the
whole
ledge!
of
under
can
Subjective
respectable
is
itself,
not
be
psychology
gained
elaborated
and
what one would call
directly
if
the tool with which practically its
accessible
to
"the
the
know-
presented
terms of something object if iable and measurable. cess
and
conditions!
behaviour.
scientifically
Indian
secondarily
predictable
experimental
manifesting
become
ancient
particular
Inquiry now has to be limited
obj ectif iable,
and when "introspection" -
in
in
The pro-
inner experience",
tools
and
methods
of
exact science. A
word
about
the
term
"science":
the
Latin
"sci re"
is most probably related to the Sanskrit root "Ik~", which means
"to
see".
"Science"
of seeing the world". sophy can be of
would
thus
just
mean
"a
way
''Knowledge" in ancient Indian philo-
two types:
"determinate knowledge", which
separates and limits, corresponding more or less to modern "science", ledge
that
and, is
on the other hand, "unifying".
When
a higher type of knowUpani~adic
texts
speak
about "vidya" and "avidya", one sometimes gets the impress-
307
ion
that
our
be longing
modern
to
"a-sat",
the
the
type
of
latter
"un-real",
"science"
and
thus
rather
would
to
t:han
the
to
be
realm
the
seen
as
of
the
genuine
type
of "vidya" that aims at "wholeness" and "oneness". d)
The
last
term in our
from
Latin
derived zealous, on
a
Sanskrit/Hindi an
outward
is
"study".
This again is
"studium" and has something to do with
concentrated
particular
title
effort,
object,
"dhyana".
object,
e.g.
more It
but
in
or can
also
focusing
less be
turned
inward
attention
equivalent in
not
to
the
only
to
"self-study"
or
"self-reflection",
i.e.
for
in man not equally well differentiated
man,
at all
and
even
something that is probably unique
levels of ontogenetic and phylogenetic development.
There would be, as far as I ing
of
to
mere
"study"
"study"
the
the
of
term
possibilities
can see, no objection to speak-
the
subjective state;
"sci en ti f ic"
might
approaching
and
of
but adding
seriously
lirni t
understanding
the
subjective aspect.
3.
at tempt
An
to
answer
the
questions
proposed
to
this
Seminar a)
Is
it
states
possible
to
on whether one takes "exact sciences", calculable
and
generally to
also
tot a 1 i ty
and
can
be
subjective
depends very much
the
findings
or
and
whether
one
results agrees
as is the case in the German language
methods
gained,
and
replicable,
in ancient
a 11
of
understand
course,
"science" as including only so-called
predictable
valid
and
and
of
for which the object must be measurable,
give "science" -
area
approach
scientifically? This,
India
-
a
wider meaning as
the
and approaches by which knowledge
including
for
instance
not
only
causal,
loqical thinking, but also thinking by analogy, in images. Even
if
retained, make
of
I
some
though what
the
narrower
think
that
approaches
these goes
as I can see,
would on.
definition
to
never
These
of
"science"
it \·:ould at
least be
examining
subjective
(S),
possible
is to
processes,
lead to a complete understanding
possibilities of approach,
lie in three main areas:
•
as
far
308
First of all, as is already being done, e.g. in exploring phenom~na· .. accompanying' dream activity in sleep and also states of altered consciousness during meditation, the
physical
human
structures
organism
with
and
functions
subjective
concomitant
processes
can
be
in
the
further
investigated by electrophysiological and biochemical methods, mainly of course in experimental situations, but perhaps also in approximations to observing spontaneous phenomena. As to "content" of these subjective processes, one will probably have to rely to a great extent, if not totally, on secondary evidence, i.e. the attempts of the subject concerned to render accessible to an external observer in words or by drawn or painted figures or possibly even by music, what he has inwardly experienced. One might be able to discern some regular features in these productions and relate them to particular stimuli, si~uat ions and moods, and these again could be linked with the study of physical concomitants. The formulation of certain "archetypes" JUNG,
which
in
a
one
can
metaphor
call
taken
the from
basic
themes
(S) by C. or organs the
physics
G. or
potential
"collective structures of crystallisation of the unconscious seems to me to be something that goes in this direction. JUNG did not only describe a whole series of archetypes but also on the basis of dreams and 11
,
fantasies,
both
his
own
and his patients'
demonstrate a certain regularity
-
was able
to
in the sequence in which
they would make their appearance during a psychotherapeutic process or even spontaneously. Evidence of these essential figures
of
the
subjective
realm
can
of
course
also
be
found with a certain constancy and uniformity in myths, epics, fairytales and·folklore all over the world. Perhaps more important than these "regularities" and "constancies", however, may be the amazing individual variation one finds in the subjective sphere, where man really is "himself" in his uniqueness. One approach could also be that scientists themselves, instead
of
undesirable to
be
regarding
all
intrusions,
excluded
as
much
subjective
impurities as
possible
phenomena
or
"foreign
during
any
only
as
bodies" type
of
309
scientific work, should direct more of their own awareness and attention to these subjective processes in themselves. After all, ive"
in spite of all attempts at remaining "object-
by avoiding them,
inquiry
they do play a role. No scientific
is possible without starting from a "given" base,
which itself is not open to logical proof. In other words: the
inquiry
an
with
the help of
irrational ground.
essential
insights
rational
methods
rests on
Most scientists also know that some
and
steps
in
their
research are the
result of sudden "hunches" or "brainwaves" for which there is no rational explanation, Furthermore,
as
rational
language
uses
formulate
to
he
is aware of
of
metaphors.
i.e. all
a
I of
signs
his
One
procedures
thus
and
the
results
scientist whether
is to a great extent made up
has
view of
the apparently
or words which
it or not -
subjective
along.
have already hinted,
to
assume
that
the objective,
imagination,
plays its role
One can further add that not only the initial
motivation for engaging in a particular piece of research, but also the way in which the results are ultimately used, can
hardly
be
thought
of
as
being
free
from subjective
elements. Observation of his own subjective processes by a scientist used to relying on his rational thinking, could perhaps provide
valuable
information
about
the
differences
in
these two types of mental activity, the particular conditions
under which one or the other is stimulated and also
their
mutual
thus
realise
cannot
interaction. that
comprehend
Above all,
"science"
with
everything,
the scientist might
its
but
that
rational it
is
methods only
one
way of viewing the world amongst many other possibilities. What would "scientific" mean in this context? This question has already been answered to some extent. "Exact
b)
science" alone may be able to explore the physical concomitants
of
subjective
subjective activity
processes; as
but
reported
by
if
any
the
analysis
subject
on
of the
basis of introspection is to be made with full understanding,
"science" cannot limit itself to the sphere of "exact
science",
but
will
need
the
cooperation
of
humanities
310
and behavioural sciences. What might be particularly useful, the
relatively
new
science
called
would be to include
"Semiotics",
i.e.
the
"science of signs" and their systematisation and patterning in
the
form
elements
in
letters
of
of
"codes",
the
molecules
different
ranging and
from
the
alphabets
the
combination of
"genetic
and
to
code"
more
to
the
complicated
"signs" such as words and symbols, right through to various forms
of
artistic
expression.
"semiotics"
is
as
( "nama").
"names"
exact
The
concerned can be
sciences,
It could
which deal
"signs"
"forms"
thus
provide
mostly with
with
( "rupa") links
"forms",
which
as
well
between and
less
exact "sciences" turned towards the realm of "names". c) What would be the methodology for studying these states? Some
general
answer in
to
suggestions
have
the first question.
which
both
the
exact
already
been
given
in
my
Let us hope that our group,
and
not-so-exact
sciences
are
represented might arrive at some more detailed specificat:.ons. d) How would one correlate the subjective with the objective understanding
of
nature?
In
accordance
with
the
two
ideologies that have shaped my point of view, Daseins-analysis
and
"science"
ancient in the
Indian
sense of
philosophy, "exact
I
maintain
science",
that
would do well
to recognise in all humility that it is only one particular way of viewing the world and that much of the world remains outside area he
its
would
"is",
would in
with
all
its
come
sense
to
Daseins-analytical
"Da"
terms,
the
open
In
the
not
Indian
scope. be
which
man
multifold
within
its
his
its
main
while
the
"Da"
of
Similarly,
say
on
meaninq,
in
that man's
physical existence
inqiry by exact
terms,
connections
scope.
one might perhaps of
"has",
this
scientific methods,
ancient
"bhavana" earth
but
that
is his
"bhavana" (S), his own crea.tivity, goes bt->yond their possibilities. In other words: science can only measure, examine and
to
man I $ extent
some being! the
extent the
II
comprehend unnamaya II
"manomaya
I
kos'a".
the
three
outer
the
"prai:iamaya"
The
innermost
layers
and
of
to
some
sheaths,
the
311
II
/
Vi j nanamaya II and
by
it.
the
In
most
the
descending
subtle
to
solid,
be
the
ate
the "anandamaya kosa II
inanimate
concern
order
of
manifestation of of
knowledge".
;tlatter,
grossif ication
"name"
and
the
lower
only
"science"
Science
cannot be reached
f
from
"form"
down
ranges
in
the
sense of
relies
for
its
can
"determin-
functioning
on
certain limitations, namely the postulates that its objects must be measurable, calculable, predictable and its results appli~able
universally comparison in
to
and
the. realm
replicable.
of
the
This
subjective,
the degrees of freedom open to man.
difficult
to
assume
that
means,
science
a
in
reduction
It is, therefore,
should
be
the
wider
sphere, within which the subjective could be accommodated. "Science" of
the
is
embedded
many
ways
in
in
the
which
total
he
being of
can be open
man as one
to
the world
and to his own possibilities. One might visualise a complementarity
between
subjective some by
higher
those
pa th
the objective world of science and the
inwardness level
of
of
man
and
perhaps
human development
hope
-
as
that
at
is claimed
who have successfully advanced on the spiritual
one
may
get an integrated view within which they
both have their rightful place and significance.
4. Conclusion To conclude my contribution, subjective,
very
refuge this had I
in
namely
Kashmir
two
dream I
nights
had up in my mountain
before
the
invitation
to
Seminar reached me. Though at that time I could have no
rationally
would
be
asked
to
be
to
it
in many ways.
C.
G.
between
JUNG two
causality, some
common
called
transmitted
cannot
in
a
I wish to offer something
an
events
other
the
"synchronicity
the
dream,
subject
even if it
appears
to
relate
that
cannot
be
11 ,
i.e.
a
connection
explained in terms of
only in terms of their belonging together order
and
of
from
spheres
of
or
simultaneously.
even
over,
prediction,
of
Perhaps this is an instance of what
called
but
root
ponder exact
J<:nowledge
experience
things, where
in
where
they
they
emerge
stem
into
from
separate
a
particular
sequence of
The
book which
C.
G.
a
time
JUNG wrote
31 2
with
the
title
w.
physicist
PAULI
"Synchronicity"
trying
to
blend
4)
the
is
on
this
an
interestinq
subjective
subject
and
under
the
example
objective
of
views
of
the world with each other. The dream went as follows: I was in the grounds of a mental hospital, very similar to
one as
I
frequently
they
are
in
visit
in
reality
-
Switzerland. were
The
pleasantly
buildings grouped
in
the midst of green hills, on which small neat farm cottages were scattered. One of the psychiatrists was running around rather
anxiously
looking
for
a
case
record,
as
to give some information about a
patient to an
company
I
or
a
court-of-law.
that had been air
newly
amphi-theatre;
stage,
a
high
whole view. ta~ned
"If
soon as
I
a
a
building
kind
covered
with
of
drawers,
somehow aware
that
sky,
this
openthe
shelves
blocking
the
structure
started levels
burnt it,
catch
II
fire
I
said
con-
in my dream.
had expressed this apprehension,
other
of
all
rose right up to the
was
should
actually was
shown
all the records and other documents of the hospital.
this
at
I
was
It was
had
but where one would have expected
wall,
and pigeon-holes,
Then
constructed.
he
insurance
to
about
remained
breaking of
dust as
intact.
the
out
and
ashes,
high as a This
at
the
structure. and
smoke and fire
top
and
a
short
In only
the
soon
in
also
time,
lowest
person can comfortably
portion,
As
contrast
to
it
part
reach,
the
drab
grey concrete of the upper shelves and drawers, was painted in
gay
colours.
relieved a
and
natural
pleasant
I
comment
horizon
of
who
"Now
One
with
structure" was
"Never mind!
being
was:
again."
hills
"the
colleague
said:
my
green
previously the
Instead
at
could
the had
still
alarmed, least
small
searching
was we
indeed
rather
can
now the
for
have
see
cottages,
concealed
You now have a
I
where
view.
his
good excuse
the To
record, for
not
4) JUNG C. G. and PAULI W.: "Synchronizitat als ein Prinzip akausaler Zusammenhange", in "Naturerklarung und Psyche" Studien aus dem c. G. JUNG Institut, Zurich, Vol. IV, Rascher 1952.
313
finding it as everything has been burnt." The associations that presented themselves in connection with
this
quite
plausible.
in
this
vividly
remembered
dream,
were
numerous
and
It would take too long to enumerate them
context.
I
am,
however,
willing
to communicate
them, as far as this is of general interest, and am attaching
them
as
was
that
"the
calls
an
"das
structure"
Ge-stell"
technological hold the
they form
of
and
computers into
electronic moreover
they clearly indicated
this
over
for
the
scientific
world and
humanity,
the
in
and
increasing
particular
in
that force us to break down human
"bits data
stood
to
gaining
What
(remtniscent of what HEIDEGGER
5))
approach
are
experience into
"appendix".
of
information"
collecting and
that
can
be
fed
processing machines,
threaten to invade. one's private sphere and
to curtail the freedom of one's subjectivity. What
came
to
my
mind
was
HEIDEGGER's
statement that
"Science obstructs the very openness - or horizon - within which
it
can
appear",
(quoted approximately)
and,
along
with it, a formula ti on he gave in an essay on ".technology"• In
this,
of
"disclosure"
one,
he
distinguishes or
between
"discovery"
two
(S):
different
the
types
"provocative"
which is only out to rob that which is to be "disco-
vered"
of
all
that might be of some use;
in contrast to
this exploiting, grabbing "disclosure" stands the "procreative"
one,
''revealed"
in is
which
that which is to be "discovered" or
to be brought, with all possible care, into
its own true and full being. 6)
s)
HEIDEGGER MARTIN: "Die Fr age nach der Technik II, p. 27 of "Vortrage und Aufsatze", Neske, Pfullingen 1954 • The German text is as follows: "Wir nennen jetzt jenen herausfordernden Anspruch, der den Menschen dahin versammel t, das Sichentbergende als Bestand zu bestellen - das Ge-stell."
6) In German: Das "herausfordernde" und das "hervorbringende" Entbergen.
31 4
Can
we
"Science", and
if
provided
invade
I
trust
and
over
it,
that
which
it wishes it
can
exploit
but rather up
would
to
to
ask
in
the
end
to approach the subjective sphere
manage it
like to
with
do
the
so, aim
not of
to deal gently and
now has
remained
sanctuary of the human spirit?
the
to
ruthlessly
gaining
control
respectfully with inner
for tress
or
315 Appendix: Associations to the dream on pages 312/313 1 · Only a
few weeks earlier I
had once again visited the
mental hospital in Switzerland of which the dream scene reminds to
the
me.
in
that
staff,
colleagues had
On
very
occasion,
while
giving
a
lecture
I was surprised to find that the younger
no
longer
knew
fairy
tales
and
apparently
little idea about how to use fantasy material
therapy.
An
older
female
colleague,
however,
com-
plained about their being overburdened with administrative tasks and expert's reports for law-courts and insurances, and
and
also
prescribed
introduced. -
-
and
rather
procedures
She
and others
patients
the felt
rigid
which
schedule of duties
the
new
Director had
that all this was preventing her
from fully devoting themselves to their
their
problems
in
some
depth
and
in an
individual manner. 2.
"The
structure"
building
in
reminds me not only of a
the
neighbourhood
of
the
tall factory
mental hospital
but also of the modern buildings of another psychiatric institution in
that
region,
which I
had visited a few
months earlier. On that occasion, too, I had reason to feel concerned about the lack of imagination and empathy of a young colleague whose work with a patient I had the chance to observe. 3. "The structure" quite generally
scrapers",
in
particular
also
reminds
with
me
regard
of to
"skymodern
hospital buildings, where there is a risk of anonymity, ernotjonal
isolation
re~imentation
and
and
of
being
delivered helplessly to a routine of scientific investigations and the corresponding machinery. 4 • "The
structure",
however,
also
reminds
me
of
the one
wall in the living-room of my small house on a hillside in
Kashmir,
with
documents. to
which
shelves, the
is
covered
containing
The
lower
colourful
portion
part
right
books of
up to the ceiling
and files with various of
"the
it
corresponding
structure"
which
was
not burnt - is occupied by material for various creative activities. a
Whenever
few weeks,
wa tchrnan,
all
I
have
to
leave
the
house
for
r face the problem of finding a reliable the
more
so
as
there
has
alr.eady been
316
a
robbery.
As
far
as
I
am
concerned,
the
books
and
documents on these shelves are the most valuable things, as many of them are irreplaceable, I
know
value. to
that
no
But a
some
common
thief
at least
would
their
ruthless fellow might simply (as was done
extent
least
India.
appreciate
once)
in
his
search
for
scatter them or burn them. At times I wish I could get rid of at
in
detach
myself
"valuables"
the whole
sufficiently
from
lot or
it,
so
as
not to worry. An amusing detail is that, for the purposes
of
writing
this
contribution,
this
"data-bank"
mine might just as well have been burnt, as I
of
got the
letter of in vi ta ti on to this Seminar on my way to the airport, when travelling to Ahmedabad, and had no chance of
I
thus
had to rely on what I had stored "inside myself".
picking
up
books
or
files
from
my
house.
(This
is also the reason why no bibliography has been attached to
this
paper.
Most
of
the
references have also been
mentioned elsewhere in this book.) 5 • The few
amphi-theatre weeks
reminds
earlier:
fantastic
me
"Memo"
story of a
of
by
a
book
Michael
I
had
ENDE,
read
a
a
rather
little beggar-girl who lives in a
dilapidated amphi-theatre somewhere in Southern Europe, and who still has a very natural - one might say "existential"
altitude
with
mysterious
"time-thieves",
regard who
to are
"time".
A gang
of
out to convert all
people in the nearby city to a rational use and saving of
time,
But
try to destroy her,
the
helps
little
to
girl
eliminate
comes these
as
out
she
is
in their way·
victorious and
"grey gentlemen",
in
the
turn
"time-
thieves", who finally dissolve into dust and ashes. 6 · A few
days
shopping, some
I
earlier, noticed
when I that
went down
during
my
to Srinagar
absence
of
the
best
handicraft shops
in one of
streets
had
been
burnt.
of
The
heaps
in
for
Europe
the main
charred
remains
and ashes were still piled up in the street. 7. During been
the
two weeks
collecting
before
material
I
and
had
this
dream,
elaborating
I
had
notes
for
a Seminar I was to hold at Ahmedabad on use of imagery, fairy-tales and myths in psychotherapy and education.
317
8. The day bef o::::e my
notes
I
on a
had the dream,
I
had been re-reading
lecture held by one of the pioneers of
"semiotics" a few weeks earlier during an interdisciplinary meeting in Europe 7). He was speaking on the deterioration of language, various theories about the origin of
language
which
and
electronic
language,
but
in
particular
data
also
to
the other hand he also of
security
nowadays be "erased".
7)
of
pointing
processing human
to
poses
dignity
the
not
and
threat
only
to
privacy.
On
talked about the relative lack
electronic
data-banks,
as
codes
can
"cracked" and electronically recorded data
BAER, Eugen: "Die verdorbene Sprache" or "Der Flu ch der Ki.irzel". Contribution to "Zurcher Gesprach" held from 2. - 4.12.83 at Meerbusch, Dilsseldorf.
31 9
BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION: FROM COMPULSION TO FREE CHOICE After I had moved from Kashmir to Dehra Dun (at the foot of the Himalayan ranges in Uttar Pradesh) in autumn 1986, I got into contact with Prof. G. C. SINGH, whom I had got to know previously as the editor of the journal "The Vedic Pa th". By that time he was approaching retirement as Prof. of Psychology at the Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, a small university which tries to revive the ancient Indian methods of teaching in a rather secluded rural setting close to Hardwar and Rishikesh, the wellknown pilgrimage places near the point where the river Ganges breaks through the last mountain ranges into the wide North Indian plains. For years he had been devoting much of his time and eff o.rt to· exploring psychological and psychotherapeutic aspects and practices in ancient Indian scriptures. After some discussions of our views on this subject, he invited me to present a contribution to a "Summer Institute on Indian approaches and techniques of personality development and behaviour modification" which he was organising, for the second time, for teachers and ·senior students of psychology departments in Indian universities. As initially the subject was formulated only in terms of "Behaviour Modification", which seemed to point to the modern Western type of "behaviourism" and its application to psychotherapy, I was reluctant to participate. On second thoughts, however, particularly after the subject had been formulated more comprehensively, I felt this would be a good opportunity to show the Indian psychologists, who are all too often excessively fascinated by Western ideas and methods, that their own tradition can also provide food for thought and that in recent years considerable efforts have been made in the West to explore and validate ancient Indian concepts and approaches in the field of psychotherapy and personality development. The two days I spent with this group of Indian psychologists (1./2.7.87) were quite profitable. However, it was perhaps not so much the actual reading of my paper but more the informal discussions in small groups or with individual participants which enabled me to communicate my deep interest in and appreciation for what Indian philosophical and psychological tradition has to offer. . . A shortened version of this paper was published in "The Vedic Pa th", Quarterly Journal of Vedic, Indological and Sci en ti f ic Research. Vol. 50, No. 2 - 4, March 1 988, p. 53 - 72.
320
1. Introduction When, already in March 1987, Prof. Singh first mentioned to
me
his
intention
"Behaviour at
that
with but
of
holding
Modification",
time,
it, ·not
I
only
because
as
somewhat
this
Summer
the
topic
hesitated
because title
a
I
was
Institute
was
to
immeaiately
formulated
associate
planning
on
to
conjured
myself
go
up
abroad
in
me
a
view of "behaviour therapy", based on the kind of psychology
which,
science",
in
its
wishes
aspirations
to
deal
towards
only with
being
the
an
"exact
observable,
i.e.
with "behavioural manifestations" and thus does not really admit
an
inner
Furthermore, of
seem to
from
behaviour
learning
mechanical
core
theory
aspects
which
therapy
and
all
is
"behaviour"
based
on
the
of. "conditioning",
of mental activity,
stems. insights
i.e.
rather
and thus does
not
take sufficient account of human spontaneity and
creativity. By its methods, it may be attempting a "de-conditioning",
but
only
so
as
the
concerned
to
a
person
remain
very
much
at
the
to
immediately "re-condition"
pattern same
of behaviour that may
level
of
functioning.
As
a psychiatrist and psychotherapist who values man's uniqueness,
spontaneousness
and
creativity,
I
have always been
rather sceptical of this approach. When I when I now,
thought more about the matter, and in particular
saw the widened scope of
i.e.
the subject as it stands
including "personality development",
that much more could be accommodated within
I
realised
it than
just
"behaviour therapy'' and that it would provide a good opportunity and
to
in
discuss
some of
behavioural
the differences
patterns
between
in development
India
and
Western
countries, but also evidence of convergence between ancient Indian approaches and modern psychological and biophysical research. I
eventually
rambling
found
thoughts
that
that
the
came
somewhat
to
me
on
stray
this
ideas
matter
and
could
be organised into some kind of hierarchical order according to
the
in
determining
from
restricted or expanded amount of
merely
a deeper core.
behaviour,
superficial
and aspects
at
the of
freed om same
involved
time
personality
moving towards
321
When
pondering
over
this,
I
once
again
became
aware
of how different Indian views on "creation" are from Western theories of evolution (S). While in the West one tends to assume
that the evolution of
simplest
anorganic
type
of
the world moved from the
matter
to
more
complicated
compounds and that at one point, somehow, "life" originated and unfolded itself in the shape of more and more complex forms right up to its crowning glory "homo sapiens", ancient Indian scriptures describe the exactly opposite course: The
Ultimate
freedom,
One,
from
more and more bound, more and more of down of -
its
state of
absolute,
unlimited
allows itself to enter into a process of becoming
to
the
determined,
solidity,
anorganic
conditioned, of shedding
its unlimited degrees of freed om,
matter.
density
and
Somewhere
in
apparent this
right
lifelessness
line
of descent
and not necessarily at the top of it! - we have to. place
the
human
whose
species.
freedom i.e.
(S),
area,
Within
it
is very much
again,
one can find beings
limited,
the so-called "paS'u"
people whose behaviour is restricted to a narrow
just as cattle tied to a
pole can only move within
the radius of the rope by which they are attached. Somewhat freer
of
life
with
we
this bondage is the "vira", the hero who masters some
could
pp.
67
the
one
discrimation
perhaps
ff). who
concerns
say
But
one
choice;
who
is
in
Indian
terms
"des'akalaj na"
(see
the ultimate aim should be the "mukta",
has
and
the
and
freed
who
himself · of
comes
close
to
all
worldly
sharing
the
ties
and
unlimited
freedom of the Ultimate Source of Being. In two
this
con text,
different
semantic as
I
into
by
a
just
implies
of
"creation"
In
used
greater
more
single
views
confusion:
have
up"
it may be worth mentioning that these the
it,
life,
the
notion
term
cause
some
"evolution",
usually
also
accompanied
consciousness
and,
within
development of
sometimes the
generally signifies an "opening
complexity,
comprehensive
human
West,
up
"progress".
to
full
maturity.
"Involution",
on
the It the
other hand, signifies a process of return to the anorganic. The
term conjures up the
image of the petals of a flower
that again curl inward after they have opened out - evolved into
blossoming.
This
is
particularly
obvious
in
the
322 use . of
"involutional" .for designating
age"
in
humans.
some
Western
used
to
writings,
Ultimate
the
while
then
a
be
from
term
this
"prav~tti",
"old
late 1 y also
"involution"
Self
is
"involves
equal
process
often
itself"
to
"nivrtti"
-
would again
of
liberating
oneself
"involvement",
which
itself
corresponds
either
personal
on
in
in accepting limits and material
"evolution"
secondary
and
in which the unconditioned,
Universal
"wraps itself up" -
density,
the period of
the Eastern view,
indicate the process
unlimited i.e.
In
the
human
level
or
to with
reference to cosmic cycles of creation and again "pralaya". We the
can
move
term
Institute". in at In
This
or
the way be
of
common
in
the
the
removal
manifestation
within
to
the
potential
Indian
as
on
the
of
to
terminology,
be
we
this
use
"Sumr:1er
obstacles
that
hidden potential.
Western
individual
has
if
shedding of covering
of
a
ground
title of
literally means the
layers,
applicable
least
genetic
safely
"development",
wrappers would
more
idea
of
life-span,
brought
to
lie This
"evolution", during
its
which
unfolding.
it can be understood as
referring /
to the gradual removal of the various coverings or "kosas by
which,
in
the
descent
Uncovered, bound.
Unlimited
This
that
removed the
idea in
order
Indian
of
allows
"involution", itself
"coverings",
to
facilitate
spiritual
path
to
the
be
development
Ultimate
obscured
"obstacles"
have is
II
and
to
be
common
to
and to the meaning of many of
the Western psychotherapeutic schools.
Though
it is prac-
tically absent in what is strictly and specifically called "behaviour
therapy",
it plays a
significant role
in both
the Indian and the Western systems for "behaviour modif ication". This
is perhaps the moment to point out another source
of semantic confusion in this area: one occasionally hears the argument that Western psychotherapy is 'of no significance for "atman" 1982,
India as the ancient scriptures teach that the the
(S)
when
I
self
attended
is a
basically
workshop
at
unchangeable.
Harvard
In
University
(17), on India, which was part of an international project on
"Human
Potential",
a
long
discussion
took
place
on
323
this
question.
arguments there all
is
real
·may
be
brought
forward
something
that
attempts
remain
It
at
quite
because,
can be
"behaviour
superficial
inner
change,
worthwhile
a
summing
unless
we
the
agree
that
changed in human nature,
modification"
and
up
all
hopes
"metanoia"
in
would of
at
best
achieving
a
whether
by
man,
psychotherapy or the spiritual path, would be quite futile. Initially and
there
"ego".
"atman" which
It
is
seemed
was
pointed
sometimes
rearly
to
used
eorr'esponds
be confusion between "self" out
that
for a more
nowadays
"self" of a
to
the
the
term
lower order
"ego".
It was then
explained that until recently, when the process of individual emancipation according to Western patterns got going in
India,
there
was,
in
contrast
to
the
"transcendental
self" - the "atman" in the classical sense - only a "social self",
more or less what in ancient terminology one would
call "vyavaharika" or the "jiva", and that this was not very consistent, but operating in a very context-oriented manner, seeking only to give the "appropriate response" in any social situation. With the emerging of more individualistic and self-reflective tendencies, one had to bring in
the
..t-his,
notion
of
a
"private term
self"
or
course of
the
took
the
this
term had already become contaminated with
ancient
use
inner the
in
for
"atmahatya"
the
"soul",
modern meaning
self" in
of
self",
as
of
its
being
instance as
(S)
and
indicated
"the
its
"suicide",
the concrete sense.
without
the
For
one
connotations,
In
self".
centuries, worldly
"atman".
"inner
by
killing
of
later conversion i.e.
a
the the into
"killing of the
Apparently this usage crept
realised
that
it was
thus
brought
closer to something like the "ego'", i.e. something already considerably original
removed
"atman",
and covered up in comparison to the
the
transcendental
spark of "brahman" and, as such, qualities notion no
and
persisted
longer
used
unchangeable. this
attributes
"private
in in
This
some the
and
original
self",
i.e.
the
which
is
a
"unborn, undying, without
unchanging".
quarters
apparently
self,
that
sense, brought modern
Somehow,
"atman",
the
even if
is unchanging and in
the
"atman",
idea
that
is
also
unchanging. But this would mean that any attempt at psycho-
324
therapy, that is at a transformation that goes beyond the most superficial "behaviour modification", would be impossible and futile, and only "social manipulation" of the "social self" would be feasible. As far as I can see, one has to assume three "layers" or levels: 1 . the "transcendental Self" in the sense of the traditional "atman", which is unchanging or only apparently changing according to the "colour" of the environment or the surrounding sheaths (ko£a) through which it shines. - 2. The "private" or "inner" self, which operates mainly when the person is alone with himself, that is: not engaged in any social interaction and not directly observable in terms of outward behaviour. This cannot be said to be "unchanging", except perhaps in the sense that it remains more "consistent" or less "changing" than the "social self" with regard to different social situations within one and the same stage of development. In terms of "transformation", "change" in the course of time and experience, however, one has to assume the possibility of "change". The clasical "atman" of course cannot be transformed; it has to be "discovered", or "uncovered" underneath the surrounding sheaths. But the gradual disentangling, weakening and removing of these wrappers means "change" for the "private self" in the course of time and development. - 3. There is the "social self", which is mainly contextoriented
and
expect of a
therefore
well developea
is subject to "change" in
different
lacks
social
the
"ego"
consistency in
the
West.
one
would
Thus,
it
both in terms of varying responses
situations
within
one
and
the
same
level of development and also in the course of time according to the changing roles one has to assume with advancing age. "Social self" (vyavaharika) and "private self" would then be two different aspects of what in the West one would call the "ego" or a lower kind of "self". It might be an interesting and worthwhile research task to f 01 lOW UP the Cbnnota tions Of the term II atman II through the centuries and in different schools of philosophy, in particular with reference to its being understood in the original terms of an unchanging innermost core and
its
gradually
taking
on
a
different
meaning
as
an
325 aspect of personality which is the result of the "covering up" of the original "atman" and therefore - through removal of or addition to these coverings - can be changed. After
having
cleared,
or
at
least
pointed out,
these
semantic hurdles, I can now proceed to deal with the different
levels
of
"behaviour"
according
to
the
degree
of
freedom by which they are characterized.
2. The level of sheer habit and drill This stage of human development is probably what ancient scriptures mean by "pa(u" (S), i.e. a human being who moves
within
a
narrow life sphere and is bound to it by
sheer habit in response to the compelling outward circumstances, just as animals are ideally adjusted by "instinct" to
the
narrow
One has
to
confines
of
their
customary
envirqnment.
imagine that there has always been a majority
of human beings who correspond to this pattern. One
rather
suspects
that
the
institution
"caste 11
of
may have had something to do with the insight that people are of
not · really freedom.
take
equal,
but
Assuming
care
to
function
this,
protect
one
those
at different
would
with
levels
obviously have
restricted
to
capacities
from aiming too high and from being exposed to too tempting a
range of posslbili ties which are not really within the
reach
of
their
the
interests
far
from
strong
mental
and
the
imposing
protection
equipment. way of
Delimiting
life
at
"frustrations", against
comparison to those more
feeling
actually at
"privileged",
the
different a
tasks, levels,
provided
disadvantage
a in
provided of course
that a person was really assigned to the caste that corresponded
to
his
birth". At the for
the
those the of
level
of
development
and
not
merely
"by
same time there seems to have been some concern
need
whose
to life
become
aware
sphere
was
of
a
thus
wider world even for restd.cted.
One
gets
impression that . this was really one of the functions ~he
ther.i,
of
many
"devtas"
(=
deities)
and
the
myths
about
the epics and numerous tales and also of temple
sculptures,
in which ancient
Indian tradition is so ·rich.
326
Through contemplating all these figures, their behaviour and their fate, the simple man or woman, whose own life revolved within a narrow circle of repetitive events, was still able to participate - by "proxy" or by "projection"
as
it were
in a
wider
reality.
Perhaps even,
if
he had the capacity for it, gradually in the course of a long life, he was able to integrate some of the possibilities which were thus demonstrated to him. Shri Ramakrishna mentions somewhere that true worship of a "murti 11 consists in gradually taking up into oneself the one
possibilit--ies of contemplates the
disappear
until
life which it represents: the more idol, the more its attr±butes will
finally,
when one
really
has
"taken
in"
all of it, the whole image vanishes. This would mean that even at this level a certain amount of freedom is provided for the one who cares to make use of it. This, by the way, is one of the fascinating features of the Indian social order: on the one hand it assigns to each person his tasks and his station in life according to his level of development, to the extent even of weighing "sins" with a different measure: the "maund" scale ( = hundredweight scale) for the least developed, the "tolama!¥a" scale (= goldsmith's scale for very small weights) for the enlightened! Perhaps something that is similar to the newly discovered "state specific knowledge" of modern order
psychology! provides are
On
the
other
hand,
recognised
roles
and
capable
of
transcending
this
same
social
possibilities their
station
for
those
who
life.
In the West, on the other hand the person who wants
in
to "get out" of his customary setting and who seeks "alternatives"
risks
having
to
do
sd
outside
or
against
the
society in which he lives. Of course, one should not assume that the restricted behaviour typical of the "pasu" prevails only in the least developed human beings. Even at the higher levels of functioning, a great amount of "behaviour" still follows this rather
automatic,
unreflecting
pattern.
Even
nowadys,
when there is so high a premium on developing "individuality",
the
early
extent also
the
schooling
of
small
teaching methods
children and
assure
that
to some , II the "pasu
327
in man cannot acquire too long a rope, but that he gets safely indoctrinated with the current social conventions and rules of behaviour before the mind has had time to expand too far into the realms of its wider possibilities. It is presumably at this level that "behaviour therapy" in
the
human
strict
sense
behaviour
is
can just
be a
successful. result
of
It assumes
learning
that
and
this
again means "conditioning", i.e. habituation by repeated association of the same stimuli. Modification of behaviour would therefore mean to dissociate the originally connected stimuli and to substitute new, more relevant and efficient associations and consequently patterns of behaviour. The worn out grooves in the mind, represented by fixed neuronal pathways,
have to be smoothed out, erased, so as to allow
for the formation of new constellations. Though
"behaviour
therapy"
originated
in
the
West,
based essentially on PAVLOV's research on conditioned reflexes, one finds that nowadays, except perhaps for Soviet countries, it is practiced there to a rather limited extent and that many sceptical arguments are brought against it by other schools of ps~chotherapy. On the other hand,
during recent years,
quite
popular
in
India.
"behaviour therapy" has become It
expectations of the public,
seems
to
suit not only the
whose only concern is to get
a disturbing symptom quickly removed, but also the needs of the therapists - many of them psychologists, but also quite a few psychiatrists - in terms of a simple procedure that
promises
What
appeals
appreciable to
the
success
professionals,
within
a
short
time.
is probably the
idea
that, in order to master techniques of behaviour modification
successfully,
the
personality
and
maturity
of
the
therapist is supposed to be of no consequence, which actually is not quite true, and that the tiechniques can be learned even from a book and that they are universally and almost uniformly applicable without bothering much about the patient's unique life experience. Along with drug therapy and electro-shock, this provides a convenient ready-made
set
of
instruments
which,
furthermore,
allow
one to operate within the field of "exact science" without taking
recourse
to
doubtful
theories
and
philosophies.
328
It is interesting to note that, in the "Indian Journal of Psychiatry" for instance, the majority of papers devoted to psychotherapy and these are not many deal with accounts of successful results obtained with techniques of behaviour therapy. It is tempting to
investigate
this
"boom" and to try
to find an explanation for it apart from the practical reasons just mentioned. Do these methods perhaps have their particular attraction for Indian patients and therapists because something in personality development and the determinants of behaviour fits in with them more readily than is the case in the modern West? When one lives as a foreigner in India,
one is of ten
struck by the fact that Indians in general expect much less consistency in a person's behaviour than is customary in the West. In studies comparing methods of child rearing in the West with India (7), it was found that in the west upbringing encourages internalisation and introjection in the process of identification. One thus arrives at more deep seated and stable character traits than by the predominantly
imitative
patterns
favoured
in
India.
Furthermore, child rearing methods in India quite generally, appear to aim more at establishing "immediate control" than at long term objectives. A second factor to be taken into account may be that it
is
only
in
the
present
"Westernisation"
that
of
in
"ascription"
phase
of
"achievement"
India.
"modernisation"
is
Formerly,
a
taking
the
person's
or
place
role
in
life and the patterns of behaviour he would need to adjust to it successfully could be predicted fairly exactly by looking at the social and familial situation into which he or she was born. Certain mode ls were provided, not only in terms of family elders, teachers, religious instructors, but also through the ancient epics, myths and parables. Conforming to these was held to be more important than developing one's own unique personality. In addition, there is something that still often puzzles foreigners in India: behaviour was - and to a great extent still all
is life
not
expected
situations,
but
to
be
always
consistent has
to
and be
stable
in
adjusted
to
329 the actual circumstances.
This comes out most prominently
in
the
communities
in
the
rules
which
South,
some
for
"youngers";
as
grammatical
forms
dealing
far . as
I
for
with
know
these
have,
in particular
"elders",
"equals"
and
language even has separate
different
situations.
Modern
Western sociologists have labelled this as "context oriented
behaviour".
into as the
The
aim
is
to
each h~man encounter
turn
smooth and pleasant an event as possible, without
participants'
being
greatly
concerned
about
further
consequences and in particular about keeping to any commitments,
promises
and
offers
they may
have made
in order
to conform to this aim. These characteristics ence
for
just mentioned,
i.e.
the prefer-
identifica~ion
imitation in the process of
along
with ascribed roles and this "context oriented" behaviour, seem not so much to stem from an inner core of the personality
but
perhaps
to
more
rigid,
they
only
of
remain
they
may
more
appear
mechanistic touch
"fluidity"
the
on to
the
surface.
shape
manner;
surface,
the on
they
In
some ways
personality
the. other allow
to persist underneath.
a
in
hand,
a as
great amount
Can one assume that
character traits in Indians are less firmly and less deeply fixed, to
more
keep
shaped
the
momentary
in the West? I tried to "cari tra" tempted as
I
into
some
assuming in
a
root
and
therefot"e
the
smooth
information a
As
they
common
simply means
originally The
models
more
and
about
the
alike,
two words one
is
But
"cari tra",
( 12),
is derived
·"moving,
figurative
tuned
than is the case
origin.
designates
more
sound
Sanskrit dictionary
which
about".
to
situation
"character".
from moves
get
and
found
according
going,
"the
way
meanings
walking" a
person
given
in
the
dictionary are "behaviour, habit, conduct, practice, acts, deeds", but also "performance, observance, history, biography,
account"
"duty,
and
"nature or disposition",
established
"charakter"
on
or
the
"charassein",
which
Traces
are
"to
of
it
scratch",
instituted
other
hand
is
derived
means
"to
make
sharp,
probably
German
still
"kra tzen".
and
observance."
present
in
"Character"
further: The
from to
Greek a
verb
engrave".
the thus
English means
330
a significant mark and, in a figurative sense, the aggregate
of
thing
characteristics or
the
or
distinguishing
distinguishing
of a person. If, in the
West,
one
qualities
says
that
character" or "has character", features
in
his
personality
and
a
features
of
a
peculiarities
person is
"quite a
one means that some stable
can
be
counted on and often
also that he has achieved some originality in cultivating what is unique in him rather than just to model himself on
some
socially
preferred
patterns.
As
to
the
Indian
"caritra", I have mainly heard it in the context of legendary or also historical figures which are held up as models .to young people. one can furthermore
ponder
on
the
exact
meaning
of
"behaviour": The expression "behave yourself" and more so the German "sich verhalten" indicate that "behaviour" implies
a
from
number of possibilities which requires choice and
a
"holding back" or even concealing,
discrimination. At the level of the be
said
to
apply;
there,
11
a
selection
/
pasu 11 this can hardly
"behaviour"
is really
just the
way a person moves about in unreflected manner. It might be worth investigating whether the astonishing attraction which behaviour therapy has in India, not only for
the public, but also for therapists has as its found-
ation the difference in development and personality makeup:
patterns
of
behaviour which
have
come
about
through
imitation and which are "context oriented" are presumably less
stable
than
those
which
have
been deeply
engrained
through a process of introjection and which aim at consistency.
It may
therefore
and
to
the
case
substitute
the
unchangeabi 1 i ty
with
new
Western of
also be easier to wipe them away patterns
for
patients. the
The
'' atman"
them
than
would
misconception which
I
be
about
ref erred
to
may further enhance this preference, as the only possibility
for
"change"
then
lies
in
modifying
superficial
behaviour patterns, i.e. the "vyavahara" transactions.
331 3. Compulsion versus freedom of choice No
matter
whether
we
assume
stable
inner
character
traits according to the Western model or "context oriented behaviour"
more
typical of
India,
even at a higher level 11
of development that goes beyond the mere
pa£u 11
man often
,
does not exert free choice in his behaviour but acts according to fixed patterns, under some "compulsion". Again a semantic caution is necessary: the term "compulsive"
can
that
one
be is
used
in
a
to
think
forced
wider
sense,
or
act
simply
indicating
in a certain manner
by one's nature or by outward "compelling" circumstances. In psychopathology, however, "compulsive" has a more specific
meaning:
It designates a way of behaving that is "ego
alien", dictated by an unavoidable pressure to act repetitively
in
a
certain
irrationality brings
up
and
manner
of
which
uselessness,
unbearable
anxiety.
one
but
recognises
avoidance
According
of
to FREUD
the
which ( 3)
it
is based on a compromising alliance between equally strong Id-
and
the
Ego.
Super-Ego-forces He
furthermore
that
cannot
maintained
be
controlled
that
the
roots
by for
this deviation are to be found in the anal phase of childhood development. In
this
present
context,
I
"compulsive"
and
"compulsion"
to
any
type
indicate
does of
not
feel
free
perception,
even
if
sense,
of
action.
wider in
"normal"
from
free
patterns choice
Most
of
the
"force of habit".
Of the
II
life
indicates
opening
to
person
of
behaviou~,
and
become
Many of the sohowever,
there
more
patterns,
in the strict
is
a
do
not
tendency
and more a victim
Perhaps the ancient Indian order
in the phase of "vanaprastha" and "sanyasa"
some
tied
awareness
to
"pravrtti"
approach
life
so as
fOUr aS~amaS II With i tS radical break from habitual
of
rigidly
of
the
neurotic
"compulsive"
either,
course
sense,
which
can be characterized in this way.
the
from
the
momentary or customary choice
termed
in
forms
in
behaviour
his
attitude,
they cannot be
called stem
in
am going to use the terms
by up
habit to
which to
new
in
of
this
old
"nivrtti", a
risk
age. it
detachment
possibilities,
of
becoming more
By ordering a wanted
from
the
to what
to
change
provide
an
customary,
an
lies
"beyond",
332 should be facilitated. The neurotic, at least ready
to
accept
something else,
for
in the psychotic, the
hitherto
at
treatment,
the
point when
usually
senses
on the contrary,
untamed
not
with
feel
neurotics
comfortable
gain
some
symptoms.
or
with
insight
This
for
this "something else",
possibilities,
at changing "behaviour". to
becomes need
some freedom from which he is barred; break in against his
will and overwhelm him. As I had indicated in the beginning, peutically
he
his
any
I
in dealing thera-
psychotics,
method
that
I
would
aims
merely
would try to help the patient
into
includes
even
the
not
roots
of
his
disturbing
only exploring past history,
but his attitudes and motivations in the present situation. It
is,
however,
to
be
achieved.
not mere What
"intellectual
allows
the
insight"
that
patient to venture
is
into
greater openness and freedom,
is the sheltered therapeutic
situation.
includes
which,
This,
of
according
playground
for
course,
to
(3),
FREUD
therapy.
strict
The
"transference"
was
to
provide
FREUDian
(S) the
concept
of
"transference" has been increasingly called into question by more
recent
lies
less
which
in
rather
the
itself
on
accepting things
on
schools
again
a
nature kind
opportunity
attitude
in a
psychotherapy.
repetitive is
the
of
of
the
new light,
of
of
which
The
therapist
now
"transference"
"compulsion" the
for making a
stress
but
permissive
provides
for
and
seeing
"new beginning",
for
gaining a "corrective emotional experience". The
outcome
behavioural the case, is a
not
may
consist
patterns.
in
However,
necessarily but
what
moti va ti on for viously
actual
this
need
modification not
at least not in an obvious manner. the
structure
person may perhaps continue
before,
an
it
a
was
has
changed
of
always
of be
What changes
manifest
behaviour;
to act very much as he did is his attitude
to and his
particular type of behaviour. Where predetermined
by
compulsion,
it
is
now
the
result of free, insightful choice. In between these stages, one
may
within An
be the
example
able
to
sheltered from
my
discern
a
sphere
of
therapeutic
phase the
of
experimentation
therapeutic
experience
in
setting. India
can
333
aptly illustrate this: G.S.,
a
medical student,
rather
small
teeth,
soft-spoken
for
his
and
very
and
with protruding upper
mannered,
stammering.
He
was
treatment
himself
aware
this
this
symptom he suffered from many anxieties and was also
history
by
his only problem,
wanted
that
obsessed
not
built,
mild
obvious
was
aged about 22, dark coloured,
delicately
certain
one
could
nasty
find
but that apart from
thoughts.
sufficient
In
his
early
traumatic
life
experiences
that could explain his inhibited development and in particular the choice of a
symptom which,
according to FREUD,
would point to his having been exposed to oral frustration: Though the
he
was
family,
his
after
birth
soon she
herself
was
therefore
the
first
mother he
had
had
apparently
child and
refused
developed
was
bottle-fed
only contact with a
born
in
a
right
only
son
in
to breastfeed him as an ugly
rash and as
stage of exhaustion. He
from
the
start.
Thus
the
woman's breasts which this baby had,
was his being allowed to suck the dry nipples of his grandmother. By
the
way:
even
in
ancient
India
one
seems
to have
known that stammering has something to do with "oral frustration"
in
By
infancy.
dictionary
( 12)
the
chance
word
I
found
"ciicuka",
in
which
the
Sanskrit
signifies
both
"stammering" and "nipple"! Later on, breasts
in puberty, he often had fantasies of women's
rotting
away
through
cancer.
He
would
imagine
that ladies' clothes were hiding black, shrivelled breasts. He
also
confessed
vegetarian the he
family
doctor used
had
to
particular the
he
when eating meat -
was
ordered
imagine
the only one to indulge in, it
that
which in his
he
to was
help
him gain
devouring
the
situation, female
too,
therapist's
he
had
horrifying
anatomy,
which
as
strength
-
flesh,
in
the breasts of his mother and sisters.
therapeutic about
that,
In the
fantasies
he was able
to express only after a long time when he had gained suff icient confidence, and even then with an almost super-human effort to overcome the associated anxiety. All pointed
these to
a
fantasies
and obsessive thoughts, of course,
very basic
"oral frustration" which,
almost
334 needless and
to say,
had led to an accumulation of resentment
aggression.
As,
upbringing
by
or
repressed,
better
fantasies. outlet
a
His
for
under
harsh
the
father
it
speech,
this
found
had
its
of
the
to
be
outlet
in
strict
suppressed
the
cruel
which could have provided a
:risky
ex~losions,
angry
influence
had
to
be
mutilated
to
a
miserable stammer, and this further increased his problems in life by exposing him to humiliation and embarrassment. In
some
simple
the
original
the
symptom
emotional
cases
traumatic has
become
"sting"
it
up
stammering,
a
mere
in
in
to
aim
at
however,
difficult
nothing" have
a
which
in
sense
they
too,
his
had
of
have just
anything
futile.
such
them most.
urgency
expect
kept
reducing time
much
It
patients
on is, to
prolonged therapy that apparently is "doing
great
patient, same
persuade
about what disturbs
with
without
achieving
level only would be quite to
if and
"behaviour therapy"
In a complicated case as I
briefly,
continue in a
temporary
shell
it,
the behavioural quite
particular
only
empty
still active
may be quite useful. summed
of
situation was
and
therapy
challenging
most
a
me
insight
to
need
hurry This
comply.
to
about
embarrassing
sufficient
Stammerers always
succeeding
not
stammer,
to
up,
young
but
at
the
know that he needed
more than just symptom removal. It was after many months of persistent efforts on
the
part of both therapist and patient that he once reported the
following
experience:
the
"mess
boy"
at
his
hostel had brought him some stale "chapatti" of
bread,
customary
in
North
meek and docile as he was,
India).
he would
them and perhaps grumbled inwardly, the
courage
to
frustrating with
the
about a
man
situation: "chapatti".
who
having way
something he
can
he
dared his
to
a
fend
continued
for to
ordinarily,
simply have accepted this time he mustered
about
the
slapped
Initially
this valiant deed,
sessions ever,
do
flat cake
(=
While
he
humiliating
the
boy
was
quite
in
more
face
priding himself on having become himself. report
satisfaction critical
the
and
triumphant
For
a
similar
few
therapeutic
examples
to express anger and resentment.
proud
college
of
Soon,
his how-
with these experiences gave
view:
"You
know",
he
said,
"at
335
first
was
I
mess-boy.
really feeling very great after slapping that
But
later
on
I
realised
it was
not his
fault
that the "chapatti" were stale. He just had to obey orders. I
also
thought of his
having I
being such a small boy
already
and
to work hard. So, next day, feeling sorry for him,
gave
rupee."
With
regard
ventilating aggression
too,
he became similarly critical.
His
him
a
insightful
conclusion
was:
to
other
"You
instances of
see,
I
had
always
thought it was a virtue that I was so mild and non-violent in my behaviour. I
know that I
I
have
Now, after I have dared to use violence,
am also capable of it. But at the same time
learned
that my previously abstaining from it was
due
to
was
afraid of being the
I
weakness
could not
my anger; But
else.
It
me
am
small
and weak and Furthermore,
to be able to keep control over
to all does
feel
too
this, not
and
more
I
have discovered something
agree
much
for
too can be aggressive,
for
I
loser in any fight.
trust myself
really I
cowardice.
might easily have been led away beyond limits.
in addition
others. I
I
and
with
them.
my nature
So,
now
I
to hurt
know
that
but I also know why .it is better
according
to
my
true
nature
to abstain
from it. So the choice is mine." One young
hardly
student's
that who
will
violence is
who
cowardice
to
point
out
how
closely
this
insight corresponds to GANDHij i's remarks may
violent
person
have be
can
sti 11
persists will
better
in
never
than
become
non-violence. non-violent,
non-violence learn
a
out
truly
of
Someone
while
the
weakness
and
motivated
"ahimsa"
(=non-violence). To he
anyone
had
observing
gained
might
have
place:
he
choice.
this
been had
the
young
insight,
obvious;
moved
from
no
yet
a
mere
man
before
and
after
''behaviour modification" great
change
compulsion
had
to
taken
insightful
He had gained degrees of freedom which were pre-
viously denied to him. I of
have this
already
kind
the
shelter
His
first
a of
and
hinted
that
to
bring
"corrective emotional the v~ry
therapeutic tentative
about
a
result
experience" within
situation exercises
is in
necessary. ventilating
aggression actually happened during the therapy sessions.
336
Eventually he became quite in
which
he
could
really
inventive at finding out areas make
a
hit at me,
not only
by
trying to taunt and embarrass me by the fantasies of mutilation
and
regard
to
also him
by
even
cannibalism
female
bluntly
_ and this,
evening
hours
breasts
and
accusing
me
which in
he
entertained
particular
of
not
my
doing
and
often
the only nominal
pay
from
strict
his
and
own,
but
anything
for
though I was-actually sacrificing my free had to postpone dinner
accommodate him outside his college timings, of
with
own
to
fees he was charged so that he could
pocket money without having
stingy
so as
not to speak
father
for
funds.
I
to ask his
could
often
see
how much of an effort it cost him to overcome his inhibitions
and
probably
also
his
fears
with being outraged or even with
that
I
might
rejecting
respond
him.
At
times
he would turn his face away from me and remark in a whispered Or
aside:
then
door, but
"No,
again
hint that
it
he
that
is
would,
all
it was
too
difficult,
perhaps
this was
just
cannot
while
not
something
I
do
leaving,
it."
at
the
really directed at me,
he
had
to do
to
re 1 ieve
himself. In other words, the courage to
both he and
face
often of
terms
them
into
his
closely was
and one
scale
values
in
had to have
these
this
the
this
needs
the
which certain
therapeutic
young by
and
upon
main
calls
case
attacks,
painfully
the open,
of
that
of
helped
aggressive
out into
h!s
am sure tolerate
eventually
with
bringing them
quite
that
I
to
sensibilities,
elements to
capacity
touched
her
therapist
the manifestations of what one
"negative transference". therapist's
the
man
trying
finally
to
come
them
out,
integrating
and controlling
them with
masculine strength. And a
yet
phase
this
of
very
powerful
"negative
tool,
i.e.
transference",
is
the
braving
something
of
which
Indian therapists in general wish to avoid or even consider as unnecessary or at least undesirable! to
make
with
a
the
mistake
"negative
of confusing
therapeutic
Some of them seem
''negative
transference"
relationship".
The
total
therapeutic relationshi t? of course should always be "positive",
which
means
that
it
should
carry
the
therapeutic
337
process on a basis of deep mutual trust and complete openness.
This
provide and
basis,
a
playground
learning
patient he
been his
the world,
also
has
to
be
has
taught
for
ventilating,
enough trying
to out
condemned
as
"negative"
and
suppress
or
repress
those who
to
development
in
childhood.
And
by
which
where else
in
except in this sheltered therapeutic situation,
will he find
someone who,
at his present adult age, will
accept from him the awkward fumblings, horrible
strong
to control the very possibilities which the
hitherto
has
guided
however,
fantasies
become aware,
and
sulking moods
puerile explosions, of which he has to
if he ever is to learn to control and inte-
grate them consciously into his possibilities? Occasionally, in explaining this Indian aversion against allowing "negative transference" to come out in the therapeutic
setting,
between be
"guru"
reference and
characterised
the
is
"cela",
by
made
which
humbie
to is
the
relationship
always
subordination on
supposed the
to
part of
latter and unchanging benevolence on the part of the There
former.
are
relationships:
quite
the
a
few points in which these two
Western
psychotherapeutic one and
the
Indian one between "guru" and "cela" differ. My colleague
s.
J.
some
NEKI
( 1 4,
Western
1 5)
authors
has
few papers on it and
written a
have
also expressed opinions on
it
( s). The question to what happens to the "negative transference"
between "guru" and
ing:
is
it
view
of
the
nature
disciple can time from
him
Does
he
perhaps
so
and
when
odd
the the
"guru" with his penetrating level
of
development of his
the effort and the progress he expects
accurately
know, at
that
perhaps
"cela" fs really worth consider-
the
moments
that
no negative
aspirant even
at
curses
feelings
times the
arise?
grumbles
teacher
for
and the
inconveniences and hardships he expects him to face? Does he refer to this with some subtle remarks? Or has he reached
the
(16, in
stage which PATANJALI describes in his "Yogasutra"
Chapter
II,
nonviolence,
v.
35):
presence."? In other words: ional
atmosphere
"On
being
firmly
established
there is abandonment of hostility in his or
Is the "guru's" positive emot-
emanation
capable
of
simply
wiping
338
out all negative stirrings in the disciple? Is there some11 thing like "forgiveness", "washing away of sins , as is assumed in the Christian religion? This would amount to what in German we call an "Umstimmung
i.e. a "re-tun-
(S),
ing" of the instrument, a changing of the basic mood which determines a person's openness to the world. To some extent, this also plays a role in Western therapies, and all the more so, the less the therapist intervenes verbally and just tries "to be there" for the patient, as is the ideal
procedure
in
"Daseinsanalysis"
for
instance.
The
fire of therapeutic eros - a particular kind of love which only considers the optimal growth of the loved one without any selfish motives -
is supposed to be capable of melting
down resistances, doubts, hostilities and all other negative features. With this,
however, we are already touching upon the third level of "behaviour modification", in which regulating behaviour is no longer a question of insightful choice, but where a true
total openness and a
nature,
the
"atman",
being centered in one's
allows
a
spontaneous
outflow
from the core.
4. Spontaneous outflow from an inner core The stage just dealt with, at which "behaviour modification" aims at leading from compulsion to insightful choice, still over go
presupposes drives
further?
and
some
reflection
emotions.
Is there a
The
and
conscious
question
now
stage at which a
is:
control can
one
human being can
identify himself so completely with his innermost creative core that he is free to act spontaneously out of this centre of his being? Naturally, if such ·action is to be in tune with a
universal order and if no harm is to come
through it to other beings, this presupposes that selfish motives,
the need for the importance and even the survival
of the "ego" no longer play a role, but that the individual knows
himself
"cosmic"
Self
to and
be
part
that
in harmony with it,
of
a
greater
"universal"
if he can tune himself
his behaviour will
or
to remain
aut~matically
con-
tribute to the welfare of the universe and all other creat-
339
ures in it. At that stage, one would no longer be preoccupied with "behaviour", but with "being", with "sat". Everything
would
then
Conditioning role and,
flow
by
spontaneously in the here-and-now.
past
experience
would
no
longer play a
on the other hand, action in the present moment
would no longer be binding for the future. In Indian terms: "karma" accumulated in the past would no longer be effective in shaping the present, and involvement in the present would no longer create "karma" that can bind in the future. This
is
probably \<{hat St. Augustine,
the great Christian ~eant,
philosopher and mystic of the 4th/5th century
when
he said "Love and do what you will." As
this
oneness
"brahman 11
universal spiritual
of
the
individual
"atman"
with
the
is actually the aim of ancient Indian
teachings,
one
can
understand
why
there
was
so little stress on the forming of a strong and consistent ego
in
as
a
personality
powerful
point,
obstacle
however,
without
development.
rigid
is
on
not
the
only
road
that
ego-boundaries,
which it faces!
This
would to
acted
liberation.
there
but also
have
is
an
The
openness
the direction
in
While one can perhaps say that an original
openness, before the consolidation of a firm ego structure, is
turned
in
the
direction of "taking", as if thE world
were a bountiful mother, one would expect that in an ultimate openness to that which is both source and goal, there should
be
a
responsible
element
of
"giving",
of giving
up concern for one's own needs and convenience in favour of
the
universal
welfare.
Otherwise one risks attracting
the kind of criticism sometimes heard from the West, namely that
all
Eastern strivings for oneness with the Ultimate
simply stem from a wish to return to the womb. In this respect too,
one can sometimes observe strange
misunderstandings and shortcomings, offer
an
example
from
my
for which I can again
psychotherapeutic
experience:
A.D., a Punjabi Hindu contractor, aged about 32, the youngest
of
for
treatment
several
experienced itself
in
brothers,
for
his
married,
anxiety,
as
free
floating,
the
form
of
palpitations,
associated
to
children,
came
some extent he
but which also manifested
vegetative with
with
which
disturbances,
"fear
of
death".
such a's At
this
340
imid man had aspirations of turning ear 1 y age, th e ra ther t away from worldly matters and following a spiritual path. one
fallowing dream: "I had to go · town I had to waJk f through a kind of maze o wa 11 s in a • on top of a 6-foot wall and, to make it more difficult, I
day
had
he
brought
to hold a
the
small baby in my arms.
Initially I
could
cope fairly well, as the wall was built with bricks joined together to
a
by
portion
and
it
my
load.
I
the
had
a
safely Then
very
long
of
and
myself
the
that
piece
it
Eventually, bricks
difficult
decided
into
I
side.
in which
became I
long
it
to
were
lying
balance
would
cloth
first
however,
be
with
and
He
carrying
to get down. tied
lowered it down to
climbed down."
readily
came
lengthwise
while
safer
me
I
the
baby
the ground.
could
see
that
this acrobatic stunt represented his aspirations of climbing
too high
too
quickly on the spiritual pa th and
that
the baby he had to carry was a symbol of his own childish immaturity.
In
connection
with
he was actually aiming at and his
yogic
feeling
exercises.
i.n
my
He
stomach."
this,
longing 11
replied: It
I
is
asked
for
Some
him
what
in undertaking
kind
significant
of
a
that
warm
when
I
asked for precisions about his dream, he said he was trying to reach a courtyard in which women were cooking food! If one looks at the more recent developments in psychotherapy
in
the
behind
FREUD's
search
for
freedom
inner
"real
the "self" of lisation,
core
creative
incre~sing
the
which
to
mechanistic
an
of
assumes in
West,
also
great
notions, and
at
importance.
the
of
Karen
We
extent
one
spontaneousness
self"
c.
a
finds
same that
find
HORNEY
have that
the
for
the
time flows
from
it
of
it
school,
in
evidence
and
her
left
G. JUNG, in MASLOW's drive for self actuain
"Gestalt
Therapy"
and
various
other
psychotherapeutic approaches. In all of them, it is acknowledged its
more
~urn
or
less
openly
that
this
innermost
core
in
is that in man which comes closest to communicat-
ing with or rather being one with a higher "cosmic self". Though in a somewhat different terminology, the Daseinsanalytical ness",
i.e.
claim the
that
man
Ultimate
should Power
hear
of
the
Being
call in
of
"Be-
Sanskrit
one might call it "Mahasatta" - which claims him to become
341
a
11
Da-Sein 11
50)
into
an openness -
which
true being, cendence"
i.e.
,
an
of
ayatana 11
(=
see page
"everything that is" can come into its
also points to this.
is
11
course
This element of "trans-
particularly
obvious
in all
the
different movements summed up under the term "Transpersonal Psychology". awareness
In
that
most
of
Indian
these and
approaches
other
one
Eastern
finds
some
philosophical
teachings and the paths for spiritual development associated
with
them
have
a
store
of
knowledge and wisdom in
this area which the West is only just starting to re-discover. I
am
sure
that
during
the
past
few days,
this
last
step in personality development, the "behaviour modif ications" it
which
and
also
on
others
the
one that
hand
are
necessary
are eventually
"techniques"
which
its
ancient
for
undertaking
consequences, Indian
and
scriptures discussed. once more
342 with
safeguarding
one's
identity
and one's
security will
fall away. And this is actually what the ancient scriptures say:
"vijugupsa"
and
anxiety",
vanish
fear, self
also
"bhaya",
automatically
i.e.
"dread,
once
the
alarm,
individual
realises
its oneness with the Universal Self. There no fear, where there is no "second" to be afraid
be
can of.
This fearlessness, self-protection, changes in
which
someone
one
the
who
the absence of any need for cautious
is one of
the most important behavioural
ancient
scriptures describe as
successfully
knows , ""however,
that
pursues
in
order
the to
spiritual
reach
it
"niyama"
pa th.
one
has
' yama"
and
1
to submit oneself to the strict discipline of
rules of conduct for self-restraint for someone the path of yoga) and to conform with all
(=
entering
typical
on
prerequisites,
necessary
the other PATANJALI' s
( 16)
"eight
limbs
of
as
in
enumerated
yoga"
for
instance.
Furthermore, the whole venture has to be undertaken within the framework of the philosophy from which it stems, with be
a
clear
left
understanding
behind and
that
that worldly
liberation
concerns
from
all
i.e.
are
to
attachments
is to be sought. Merely dabbling with a few yogic exercises,
as
this
Beal th", not
of ten
done
nowadays
by
way of
"Yoga
for
or "Yoga for Beauty" or "Yoga for Fitness", will
lead
of
is
very
far
destabilising
and and
possibly harming
may
an
even
imply
organism
the
which
risk
is
not
yet mature enough to master the forces that can be coniured up by such procedures. 2. ion:
A second point to which I wish to draw your attentone
often
regularly methods patterns
comes
engages of
in
across yogic
meditation,
of
the
notion
practices,
certain
behaviour will
that
and
immature
or
"drop off" all
while
this by
one
includes
undesirable themselves,
without one's having to devote any special effort to getting
rid
of
them.
B.
s.
GOEL
(in his recently published
"Psychoanalysis and Meditation" process
can
analysis was
first
be
with
enhanced
by
meditation.
supposed
by
( 4)),
combining
He
FREUD,
appears the
maintains
that
some kind of to
mere
this self-
assume
that,
as
insight
into
the
nature and origin of certain fixed patterns of behaviour,
343
their
acceptance
as
remnants
or
traumatic childhood situations, "dropping
off"
or
"burning
"fixations" dating from
will be the cause of this
up"
of
previous
behaviour.
He calls it "switching back in imagination to the parallel infantile that
situation"
one's
simply one
compulsive
can
"modify
formula: ed"
"I
not
that
the
repetitions one's
can
quite
mere
the
maintains at
that,
of
present
by
present,
recognising
adult
childhood
behaviour".
age
are
fixations,
He
uses
the
"I instantly changed my behaviour and felt reliev-
or:
is
and
shortcomings
really modify my behaviour." Probably it
as
simple as
intellectual
therapeutic
that.
insight
relationship
FREUD himsel;f realised is
not
enough
with
its
opportunity
anp
that for
re-living, i.e. emotionally experiencing, traumatic situations within the shelter of an accepting, tolerant figure, plays far
a
more
too
much
while
more
important on
the
"corrective
for
a
"new
the
recent
role.
Even
compulsive
then,
emotional
the
patterns,
approaches
experience",
in
stress was
repetition of
psychotherapeutic
beginning"
his
the
stress
opportunity
psychotherapeutic
setting.
The intellectual insight or the capacity to remember previously
forgotten
traumatic
the primary factor,
events,
then,
is
no
longer
but merely the consequence of a new,
wider openness which has come about through the influence of the therapeutic atmosphere and the permissive, accepting attitude of the
therapist. This gives the courage to look
back at what previously one could not face, and what therefore had tq remain repressed, forgotten. B. S. GOEL (4) seems to assume that in the self-analysis he
recommends,
kind
of
either
independent
the
patient,
"witness
by
developing
consciousness",
some
becomes his
own therapist, or that it is the "Grace of the Guru" which provides the elements one would expect set ting.
Whichever
that
this
i.e.
a
as
"dropping
true
it may off"
"behaviour
be,
I
fro~
the therapeutic
think one has to assume
of previous behaviour patterns, modification",
comes
about
not
the result of a sudden flash of insight, i f it happens
at all sation
there can a]..so be a quite slow and gradual reali-
that
one
is
changing!
can only
be
the result
of a slow maturation, which requires the strict discipline
344
of total Yoga. The fact that of
pursuing
one
such of
change
the
does
eastern
nowadays recognised as a
happen
in
spiritual
the
course is
disciplines
reality also by Western research
workers. Efforts are made to find out, whether any elements and aspects inherent in it can be made accessible to verification and perhaps explanation by modern scientific methods. It is
to this that
I
want to devote
the
last
part of
my presentation.
5. Modern research on yoga
The most convincing proof for the "reality" of behavioura 1 changes brought about by yoga or occurring in the course of it, would of course be their demonstration by objectifying methods of modern exact science. Thii, by the way, cannot be equated to "proving yoga by science" in its totality, as the wider view and higher level cannot possibly lower.
be And
comprehended if
it
by
comes
that
to
is
narrower
and
distinguishing
which
"vidya"
and
"avidya" in terms of the ancient Indian scriptures, one knows on which side modern "science" (S) would stand! Still, to those obsessed with the importance of scientific verification, concomitant
it
would
give
manifestations
satisfaction,
of
the
yoga
approached with scientific methods. If we extend the term "behaviour" manifestations control,
which
which,
usually
however,
do
to
if
even
some
process
can
be
include
somatic
not come under conscious
expert
yogis
learn
to
master
at will, recording such happenings in a physiology or biophysics or even biochemistry laboratory would be an obvious approach. Investigations of this kind have been undertaken both in India and abroad. On the basis of these, it is recognised that with the help of various yoga techniques
control
can
be
gained
over
some
of
the
functions
of the vegetative nervous system, such as changes in rate and depth of respiration, heart rhythm, oxygen consumption and other metabolic processes. People who regularly engage in
yoga
or
meditation
appear
to
acquire
better
stress
345 tolerance,
which
means
less
proneness
to
anxiety,
and
a general harmonisation of the functioning of the organism. In
terms of biophysics,
practices,
in particular those which imply some rhythmical
elements, in
and
promote the formation of electromagnetic fields
around
various
the
"cakra",
higher,
one assumes that certain yogic
more
body,
especially at
the
level of the
and the integration of these fields into
comprehensive
systems
which
then
vibrate
in harmonious unison. This is supposed to make the organism more resistent against outward influences, in other words: more autonomous. Particular attempts
at
interest
has
of
course
been
devoted
to
objectivating and measuring what goes on in
the brain during the practice of yogic exercises or meditation
and
also
as
a
consequence of
these.
By now,
it is
almost common knowledge that during meditation and trance states
the
tracings
so-called
and
that
slow o<.-rhythrn
with
the help of
appears
in
the
EEG
bio-feedback gadgets
one can help a person to tune in to this pattern of functioning more quickly and successfully. Another
observation
which
seems
to
be
ve!y
relevant
is that during the time when he is not engaged in practicing
his
usual
meditation response" a
no in
exercises, longer EEG
a yogi or a person advanced in
shows
recordings.
the
so-called
Normally,
if
"habituation one
presents
person repeatedly and at short intervals. with the same
stimulus, one observes in the EEG tracings that the response,
in terms of arousal of awareness, gradually decreases.
Attention
to the stimulus becomes blunted, one gets "used to it" and no longer notices or bothers. When an experienced yogi is subjected to this test, one "finds that no matter how of ten the same stimulus is repeated, he will always respond to it as i f it were the first time. He does not get bound by habituation. In every "here and now", he can take in "the world as it is", without forcing it into the
system of his own needs, expectations and attachments
to what has gone before. This is very much what
J.
KRISHNAMURTI
( 10)
stressed
again and again in his books: to stop thinking, reflecting, forcing
the world into our own model of it. One can open
346
any of his books almost at random and come across this main concern of his. Perhaps the following passage, taken from
the
introduction to his "Talks and Dialogues
11 (
1 0) ·
can serve as an illustration: "So the first thing that one has to realize when we become serious, demanding a total revolution within the structure of our own psyche, is that there is no authority of any kind. That is very difficult, for there is not only the outward authority, which one can easily reject, but there is inward authority~ the inward authority of one's experience, of one's own accumulated knowledge, of the opinions, ideas, ideals which guide one's life and according to which one tries to live· ... To be free of that authority is immensely difficult .•. There is not only the authority of accumulated knowledge as tradition, of every experience that has left a mark, but there is yesterday's authority which is as destructive as the authority of a thousand years. To understand ourselves needs no authority of yesterday, or of a thousand years, because we ourselves are a living thing, moving, never resting, always flowing ... To be free of that authority is to die to everything of yesterday so that your mind is always fresh, always young, innocent, full of vigor and passion - it is only in that state that one observes and learns And for this is required a great deal of awareness, actual awareness of what is going on within the skin, without correcting it, without telling it what it should be, or what it should not be; because if you correct it you have already established the authority, the censor." This passage not only points to the need for seeing things again and ag~in in all their freshness as if they were
new,
but
accustomed, to
reach
also
and
the
this
free
one difficulty
to
in
the
detachment
refinement flow
of
of
from
everything
awareness
spontaneousness.
speaking or writing
about
necessary Of
course
this
ma.tter
is that language itself provides one of the most powerful ties
to
keep us
at the world.
limited to a particular mode of looking
The ancient Indian scriptures are therefore
right if they say that what has to be pursued, speech and thought. Modern
investigators
from
wish to mention in particular ( 1 3))
show
that
the
c.
apparent
various
Eastern approaches
vision,
of
reaching
the
a
of
psychology
(I
NARANJO and R. E. ORNSTEIN
paradoxes
to
new
field
is beyond
this
level
one finds
in the
aim of gaining a of
consciousness,
new can
be proved even by modern laboratory methods to have their relevance.
One
can
follow
the
aim
of
liberating
oneself
347 from
customary
attachments
move away from all ties, ion;
it is,
effort to
extreme
smallest
reach
real
manner
which
that
that
we
concentration,
possible
area
"one-pointedness"
experiments a
limitations
by a
primary
however, also possible to get there by primary
at
the
and
towards spontaneous self express-
by
the
of
limiting
awareness
stimulation, mind.
presenting small
at
or a
One
so as
to
show
in
can
stimulus
in
so
scanning movements
of
the
fixed eyes
imperceptibly perform all the time are stopped,
the stimulus finally vanishes. A similar state of "turning off"
can
be achieved by. presenting an absolutely uniform
visual field ing
one
(the so-called "Ganzfeld") or also by repeat-
ana
period.
All
result
in a
the
same .stimulus
these
experimental
procedures and others too
kind of blankness,
an emptiness or darkness,
where
finally
trast
to it,
returns
to
awareness however,
the
monotonously over a
is only aware of itself.
long
In con-
once this exercise is stopped, one
world
with
a
new
capacity
for
openness
and for unprejudiced taking in of the scene as it actually presents itself. An
extreme
these in
two
the
life
orders in
contrasting
fact
of
a
that
on
a
quite
approaches
concrete
can
perhaps
level be
of
found
an Indian "sadhu" can either choose the
homeless,
him
any
expression
wandering monk,
a
"parivraj",
which
to remain without fixed abode and not to stay
one
place
for
longer
than
a
few
days,
while on
the other hand the same ultimate results are to be expected if a
he
withdraws
narrow
cave,
to
a
secluded
hermitage,
perhaps
even
where he will spend the rest of his life
confined within a very limited environment. One
of
the
most
amazing
instances
of
this
latter
approach is perhaps the so-called "Lung-Gorn", the preparation
which
in
Tibetan
monasteries
was
given to those who
were to become "trance runners" (see Lama ANAGARIKA GOVINDA (1 ) ) •
These
people who eventually,
in the service of some
particular religious ceremonies, were to cover huge distances
over
mountaineous
territory
even
in
the dark
in an
unbelievably short time, moving apparently without touching the
ground,
~thletic
acquired
this ability not by engaging in any
training or "body-building", but by being hermeti-
348
cally sealed off from the environment for many years in small hermitages, where, with only limited space for walking about on a roof-terrace, they had to meditate wi th 1
extreme
concentration
rather
something
on
like
the
element
"pra~a",
until
"air"
or
probably
they
had
acquired
complete mastery over it. Not only these extremes of monastic practices, but most of the elements included in various approaches, as conveniently summed up in PATANJALI' s enumeration of the "a~~anga" (16), for instance, can nowadays be shown to have at least approximate parallels or correlates in phenomena that can be produced in a psychological laboratory. What also
these
the
modern
research
experiences
of
methods
research
and
in
workers
particular
in
venturing
into
meditative practices, have brought into the foreground, is that the world as we commonly perceive it, is really some kind of "maya", a mere limited model of our own making. We arrive at this "construct" by picking
" out of the endless range of possibilities which the universe
actually
offers,
only
a
very
restricted
selection,
determined by our needs, in particular the need for security and stability, our expectations, the social conventions, our attachment to what is customary and to what has proved valid in the past, and also the structure of language which forces us to think along the lines dictated by it. We
have
in
1954,
based
on
brain, much
come
to
realise
in
his
small
the
18th
together a
book
century
with
productive
that,
our
organ,
as "The
A.
Doors
mystical sensory but
HUXLEY
of
poet
w.
equipment,
rather
serves
pointed
out
Perception", BLAKE, is the
not
the so
purpose
of selecting, drastically restricting and rigidly systematising the inflow of the total stimuli available. We therefore remain caught in a "make believe" world, not realising that us.
a
much wider
Along with that
supports
scope of
these
insights
them,
not
experience
only
could be open
to
and the scientific evidence in
the field of psychology
but also on the part of modern physics, one finds a tendency towards what one can call a
"secularisation of mysti-
cism". The endeavour to attain higher levels of conscious-
349 ness
is
no longer looked at within the various religious
frameworks
with
which
one
used
to associate
it
in some
way or other, but merely as the activation of an evolutionary
potential
inherent
in
man,
which
probably,
in this
troubled time of ours, has come close to unfolding itself, no
longer
just in a few rare specimens, the mystics, pro-
phets and saints, but in a greater number of human beings. In
India,
fully
this
by the
view was maintained particularly force-
late Pandit GOP! KRISHNA,
"Kundalini,
the
in
series
a
whole
urgent this so
concern
of
that
evolutionary
force
further science
potential
(5)
publications. should
in man,
"Ku~9alinI"
described as
that
first in his book
Evolutionary Force in Man" take
and later
It
was
his
cognizance
which
of
he saw in the
in the ancient scriptures,
it could be safely awakened and cautiously guided
in as many people as possible. Quite a few of the Western research of
workers
yoga
poetic it
a·gree and
in
which
when
to enable
aroused, or, the
programme
to
myths
its
and
and
methods
underneath all
images
the
associated with
reality and has to be taken ser-
enables
the
it might be the power
brain
to
function
on a
to allow intake and processing of a wider range
stimuli
one
has
consciousness"
"ku;isialinI",
According to some of them,
new level, of
"altered this
picturesque
the East,
iously.
on
that
become
expressed
"computer" that
capable
has of
in
modern
technical
language,
to cope with more than just the been
fed
into
programming
it,
itself
perhaps
to a
even
multitude
of alternatives or a much wider total scope. One
of
ventured
the into
producing (11)
Western quite
"a 1 tered
a
research number
states
of
workers of
who
experiences
consciousness",
himself has aiming John
at
LILLY
has formulated this in the rather amazing statement:
"Within the province of the mind, what I believe to be true is true or becomes true, within the limits to be found experientially and experimentally. These limits are further beliefs to be transcended. This is the major thing to be said about all inner trips by LSD, by meditation, by hypnosis, by Gestalt Therapy, by encounter group work, by isolation-solitude-confinement." I
think
there
"secularisation blasphemy.
of
It does
is
no reason to feel
mysticism"
or
even
uneasy about this to consider
it as
not detract from the glory and majesty
350
of the Ultimate Source of Being and Non-Being which ancient Indian scriptures hint at in such beautiful imagery. Rather it shows us how almost ridiculously small the area which ·man
calls
his
"universe"
still
whole fulness - the "pur~a"
(=
is
in
comparison
to
the
the fulness of the Ultimate
One) - and how far his orga~ism, in particular the central nervous system, still has to develop to become able appreciate at least approximately the whole wealth experience potentially open to him. I hope that I have been able to give a to
the directions
in which
research
to of
few hints as
in India could move
in contributing something towards understanding and exploring "behaviour modification",
not just in terms of a me-
chanistic "behaviour therapy", which would enable man to adjust better to his limited environment which he takes for "the world", but also, as understood all along in the ancient Indian scriptures, as a method for radical change, a new vision of a wider world in which man lives more in harmony with Ultimate One.
the cosmos and moves closer to the
To end with, I wish to quote a few lines from ORNSTEIN's chapter on "An Extended Concept of Human Capacities" in the book "On the Psychology of Medi ta ti on 11 ( 1 3) already referred to: "To conclude briefly", he sums up, ""forgotten, esoteric disciplines are rich sources of information for contemporary psychology, and a new and extended view of the human capacity is emerging from the blend of contemporary and older psychologies. - Theoretically these older psychologies were the precursors of the modern analyses of the interactive nature of awareness. They also offer alternative conceptual models for human· behaviour • • • Their centuries-old non-dualistic approach to mind and body has only recently been accepted by science. They describe an extended set of variables that affect human behaviour, which generally are not investigated as part of modern science. These psychologies also offer techniques for altering awareness and the "involuntary" aspects of nervous and glandular activity, which Western science has for a long time ignored. - The study of accomplished practitioners of these disciplines may yield a glimpse of the scope of the mastery that may be achieved over these processes."
351
After
delineating
some
of
the
avenues
which
further
research could take, he remarks in a "closing note": "Man's search for knowledge about himself has been carried out in two modes, the empirical-experiential in the East, and the empirical-experimental in the West. For the first time, a blend of the two great traditions of human inquiry may be possible. Some of the new techniques may enable the latent capacities of man to be developed more efficiently and by many more people in the two worlds ..• 11 •
352
LITERATURE 1. ANAGARIKA GOVINDA, Lama: "The Way of the White Clouds." Hutchinson & Co., Ltd, London, 1966. 2 • DEAN, S • R.
( Ed. ) :
"Psychiatry and Mysticism." Nelson-Hall, Chicago, 1975.
3 • FREUD . S • :
"The Complete Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis." w.w. Norton, New York, 1966.
4 . GOEL, B. S • :
"Psycho-analysis a11.d Meditation." Third Eye Foundation of India, New Delhi, 1986.
5. GOPI
6. HOCH I
KRISH~A,
Pandit:
E.:
"Kundalini, the Evolutionary Energy in Man", Berkeley, California, Shambhala, 1970. (See also his other works, of which list can be had from author.) "Bhaya, Shoka, Moha - Angst, Leid und Verwirrung in den alten indischen Schriften und ihre Bedeutung fur die Entstehung von Krankheiten." In BITTER W. (Ed.) "Abendlandische Therapie und ostliche Weisheit." Klett, Stuttgart, 1 968.
7. HOCH I E.:
"Longitudinal Study of Emotional, Educational and Social Development of a Small Group of School Children." National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi. MS submitted in 1970. Not published.
8. HOCH, E.:
"Psychology in India and the Deprived." In "Religion and Society." Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society, Bangalore. Vol.XXXII, No.4, Dec. 1986.
9 • HUXLEY I A. :
"The Doors "Perception." Chatto & Windus, London, 1954.
10. KRISHNAMURTI, J.:
of
"Talks and Dialogues." Avon Books, New York, 1970. (Originally published 1968.)
353 11. LILLY, John
c.:
"The Center of the Cyclone." Bantam Books, 1973. First Edition: Julian Press, 1972.
12. MACDONELL, A.A.:
"A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary." Oxford University Press, 1954-58.
13. NARANJO C. & ORNSTEIN, R.E.
"On the Psychology of Meditation." Viking Press, New York, 1971.
1 4 • NEKI , J. S. :
"Guru-chela relationship: The possibility of a therapeutic paradigm." Amer.J. Orthopsychiat., Vol. 43, p. 755, 766, 1973.
1 5 • NEKI , J. S.
"A re-examination of the Guru-chela relationship as a therapeutic paradigm." Int. Ment. Health Res. Newslett. Vol. 16, p. 2-7, 1974.
16. PATANJALI:
"Yogasutra. 11 · Edi ti on used: "The Science of Yoga" Sanskrit & English text ·with Commentary, by I.K.TAIMNI. The Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar, Madras 1961.
17. PROJECT ON HUMAN POTENTIAL. Dept. of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge~ U.S.A. WORKSHOP ON INDIA, June 1982, Proceedings. 18. UPANISADS: Used:
Sanskrit-English parallel texts with commentaries, ed. by Shri Ramakrishna Math. Madras.
1 9 • WHITE I J • ( Ed • ) :
"Kundalini, Evolution and Enlightenment." Anchor Books/ Doubleday, New York, 1979.
355
SYNOPSIS OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS RECURRING IN SEVERAL PAPERS marked by (S) in the text Terms and concepts
Pages
Abhinavagupta abstract terms in Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, German action without fruit of action anxiety (separation)
153, 254, 284 210 ff, 303
Arjun and Shri Krishna atman (self) atmahatya Auseinandersetzung
55, 78, 90 16, 35, 37, 40, 44, 48, 112 202, 233, 237 34, 42, 85. 187 25, 36, 54, 76, 87, 322 17, 53, 125, 323 63, 143, 168, 190, 220
bhavana/bhavana bhutapala (shepherd of Being)
258 ff, 276, 286, 302, 310 26, 50, 1 46, 246, 299, 302
cit clearing ( 11 Lichtung 11 in Heidegger's terms) coming to terms with: see 11 Auseinandersetzung 11 creation (Schopfung)
270, 283, 287, 300 1 31 , 260, 284, 289, 299
Dasein, Daseinsanalyse dream
1 4, 31 , 132 ff, 245, 297 ff 1 31 ff, 230, 256 ff, 301
Entbergen: hervorbringendes und herausf orderndes (Heidegger)
217, 240, 313
field/knower of the field
87, 170, 231, 300
gabhrahat (anxiety) gun a guru, relationship between master and disciple
48, 202 20, 36, 88, 141
37, 1 66, 236, 300, 321
2 1 , 7 8 , 1 4 6 ' 1 9 2 ' 2 6. 1 , 3 3 7
illiterate mind (nomadic attitude)
5, 58, 72, 111, 196
Jung, archetypes, symbols of transformation
3 7' 88' 95, 308
/
,
ft., 233
~
ksetra/ksetrajna: see "field/knower of the field" "Lichtung": see "clearing" multiple meaning of Sanskrit roots nomadic attitude: see "illiterate mind"
2, 40, 210, 215, 254, 256
356
Terms and concepts
Pages
OM
149, 175, 216
pasu -vira -mukta pasupati (Lord Shiva as protector of creatures) procreative and provocative disclosure (Heidegger) see 11 Entbergen: hervorbringendes ••. 11
165, 169, 321, 325 ff
reality (Wirklichkeit) re-incarnation relationship between master and disciple: see "guru"·
17, 60, 77, 172, 225 ff 24, 53, 58
Sanskrit roots: see "multiple meaning of Sanskrit roots" Schopfung: see "creation" science (Wissenschaft) Seinsvergessenheit (Heidegger) self: see "atman" senses turned inward shepherd of Being: see "bhutapala" Stimmung (equivalents of Ge~man term) transference
79, 204
305' 307 ff' 344 18, 35, 57, 171, 245, 290 300 15, 55, 76, 78, 173
254, 298, 338 22, 332 ff
Uebertragung: see "transference" vaisvanara videha vijugupsa vimarsa
138, 149, 229, 301 1 9, 63 43, 46, 51, 341 154, 168, 190, 272, 275
Wirklichkeit: see "reality" Wissenschaft: see "science" wohnen (Heidegger)
59, 277, 286
Yajnav~lkya and Maitreyi, d~alogue between (see also under "atman", self) yoga and psychotherapy
54, 76, 191 13 ff, 143 ff, 319 ff
------------c-~
..
-
\
, ~
BOOK FAITH INDIA 4 16, EXPRESS TOWER , AZADPUR COMME RCIAL COMPLE X
DELHI. ] l 0 033
80URC[S
t
R£SIJURC£S A J./£
$1@ . 4G
- - - - - - - - __ fl/fl/flffml/I ~/NII/II~ ___. .:'_{:lJJ6373BSJ /UH• [~ II
V±D [1:'3
PIJJ.J£LLS 16 PSYCH-G£N£~:AL84.5-8
