Architectural Design Editedby AndreasC Papadakis
OF E LEMEN T S A R CHITECTURE Ro b Kr i e r i L
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EDITOR Dr Andrcas C Pap.dakis Firs! publishcd in Crcat Brihin in 1983 by /rcl it.crural D.sign tn ifrDlina ol thc ACADEMY GROUP LTD, 42 LEINSTER GARDENS, LONDON W2 3AN
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Dktributed to rhc radc in ihe Unired Statcs of Amc.ic. by ST MARTIN'S PRESS,I?5 FIFTH AVENUE. NEW YORK. NY IOOIO ISBN: I 85490 17?X
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Sccond cnlargcd cdition, 1992 Copyrighr @ 1983, 1992 rhc Acrdcmy Croup Lrd All righrs rcsencd The entirc contcnts of this publicatiol r!! copyright.nd cannot bc r.goduccd in any mattltcr whsts@vcr wirhout wrincn pcamissionfrom lhc publishcrs AD Profilc 49 is published as pan of .Arcrrrl"ctwal DesiSnVol/untc 53 9/10"1983 Translstcd from the Gcrman by Romrna Schncidcr. Origin.l rcrt prcpat d for public.tion by Dcitrnar Srciner. Photogrrphs illusuating lh. El€mcnts of Architccturc by JohannKdiftncr unlcss othcrwis€ crcditcd. Front and ba.k coe.r: Typological slndics of rcctangular buildings lnd U-typcs snd tow€rc by Rob Krier. lnsidc front and back cov?r.' Studcnt drawings of rhe intc.ior of thc Post Offic. Savin$ Bu*, Vicnn! by Otto wagncr and thc staircas€of thc An History Muscum, Vicnna by G Scmpc. and KV Hascnaucr.
Printcd and bound irt Sing.pore
EL EMENTS OF ARCHITE CTURE
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BESCHAFFT AUS MITTELNDER
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THE WALL
The mostobvious,pethapsevn the nost archoic, buildinS techniquei to lor stoneand thusto lom an homogeneous constructed||.,ass. A long watt |.|.utteither be thick eaouehto stondalone ot it needsto be suppo ed by a systen of pillan, bs and tenacia|, outer cov ng or zet\|ork.
THE COLUMN
In a niraculous liligrce natrre has l?ft us a mosnifc.nt .ac!.lop?.lia ol pnssihilities nhith tould be e\ploite.l ia btiUins. For thousan.lsoJ\edN the basicloms of dtchit..lure hdv heen shen sisDricatt iueryrctdtion in stote. Thenodeltin! oJthe shdft. the hasednd tlrc capital sith thei onplex isml and srnrcturclrcquir.nrcntshdsnto R.l to peiection oter the co .s? oJlime.
THEHOUSE
Theenclosingandprotectingwll, the difrercnti;tiot ol roons idside,r'indo"s os to"rces ol light. doors as entruncesand erits, the rcoJto k.ep out the ruin and cokl . . . all this,thenatkalb. rcchni.alb ot in the archiectunl oestheticneedno lonSer be questionedtoda!. Folloeing the desttuctionof a de.p-.ootednadition in the twenties.\'e muststaft again,IeaninS to build f.on t hef ndanenlols.
THE CITY
TheBeonetrj of the single hotse de fts itsJofte lrom the.on|tust uith li|ing nature.TheBreaterthe dehsnyondth. nunber olhouses, the 8rcott the displacenentof naturc ond the eAvircnnentond thus the nore inportant the artificial spacesb..on.. Sne.t and squorcsare the ,ehicles of public life, r'hile qtiet cells in the fo.n oJ.ourtJards arc places ol rcfuge, intinacy and rctrcat.
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CONTENTS
A' LINDEI{UFETX.I I. BETIN SIA,iIDAC. I''9
ARCHITECTUML PROFILE DESIGN No 49
EL EMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE ROB KRIER l
Introductionby AndreasPapadakisandKennethPowell I I A Criticism of ModemArchitectur€
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or About the Downfall of the An of Building 12 ELEMENTSOF ARCHITECTI.'RE 25 ELEMENTSI: INTERIORS 26 The Typology of Interior Spaces26 The Art of ComposingSpaces36 Cciling andFloon 210ColumnsandPiers 44 Doon z16 Windows 49 Staircases55 ef.ff"feVfS tr: FACADES 60 '
Enrericcs andPoials 69 Arcades 70 GroundFIoors 7t
' Bay-Wfurdows,Balconiesandloggias 72 RoofsandAttic Storrys 74 ELEMENTS ltr: GROLTND-PLANAND BUILDING F9 RM 76 SquarcBuitdings ?8 RccungularBuildings 8l T-shapcdGr,oundPfans 82 LTypes 85 U-Typcs 85 Building Comcs 86 Interior Courtysrds 90 OutsidcStaircrscs 92 Prosoect94 TowersandMonumcnts 94
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Th.lttarkcl Placcin Karlsruhelookin! lowardsthe Palacc
Tle Circus in Karlsruhe
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FOREWORD To the SecondEdition
It is with sreat pride that we are reissuing the Elemcnts of Ar..hitectr,z by Rob Krier. When this issue ol Architecnu'al Desig, was first published in 1983 it was an instanr successwith both studentsand academics and quickly became a set text for a number of architecturecoursesthroughout the world. This \\as the first part to be published of Rob K er's book.4 rchitectu..l Conpos ior. When $e whole $ork appeareda few yearslater it was receivedequallyenthusiastically. In the words of one reviewer.'lt is, in its way, a masterpiece. . . [t is an immenselyrich resourcebook,not merelyfor use in architecturaleducationas Krier himself suggests,but as an inspiredseriesof lessonsin good architecturaldesign'. It is a greatpleasurefor us to reprintthis issueand to takethe opportuniryto includeeight ofKrier.s magnificent colour drawings including the Wall. the Colrnn, the Holr.t. and lhe CiA. Rob Krier is a theoristand an architectcommittedto seekingout iuilamenral architecturaltruths. His anal)sis oftraditionalarchitecturalform is set in thecontextofpresent-dayneeds.He cutsth6ugh many of the simplisric fallaciesthat lie behind modern architecturalcriticism and revealshow the architecural agendaremainsconstant.By severingarchirecture's associationwith changingfashion he sho\\'show it respondsto the b{sic human requirementswhich are unfulfilled by designalone. while remaininga vital medium fo communicatethe most significantsocialand spiritualvalues. Krier does not fit readilyinto any of the contemporarystylisticcategories. lhoughhis traditionalism is, in some ways, deepand sincere.He is a definiteeclectic,whoseview of'rrtrdition' is original and far from sfatic. He looks at tradition not as a static quantity, anchoring humanity to the past, but as a measureof the present.Krier's analysisof traditionalarchitecturalform is set in the context of present-da) needs- he is not a simple reactionary - but looks beyond them. The essenceof Krier's work is to be soughtin his deepbelief in the powerof beautyand order_ not an artificially imposed, authoritarian order but that order which is pafl of the power of nature in the world. He reflects the Modern Movement's anempt to redefine the image of a church, a house or a museum and restores the place of symbolism, a guiding force through history Krier is not just a theorist.His buildingsare at one with his theory.demonsrrations of the power of tradition in lhe face of what he sees as an anarchic and destructive sabotageof ancient values. His influence on architectural design in the years since rhis book first appearedhas been immense and does not look set lo diminish. In times of confusion and decay, as well as of rebinh and creativity, Krier reassens constant values. He is a true humanist who, Iike the artists and philosophers of the Renaissance,does not reject the past but looks to it to instruct and inspirc the future. Andreas Paoadakis
A Criticism of Modern Architecture or About the Downfall of the Art of Building This essay,and the typological studiesof the elementsof architecture whichfollow, arc extracbd from Rob Krier's nngnum opus, ArchitecturalComposition,currentlybeingpreparedfor publication by AcademyEditions (seepage 88 for d.etaik), This 'critical and admonishing'essay,in Kier's oumwords, 'shouldsemeasa logical link, connectinganalyticondappliedtheory,ondit shoud be citical in orderto selectivelyfiber theachievements in architecture ofhalf a century,to examinewhattheyrepresent.'The ttpologiesond,he accomponyingetamplesof studentwork were madeover a pefiod ofyeals duing coursework ot the TechnicalUnirersity in Vienna, where Rob Krier has been Professorof Architecturesince 1975. ArchitecturalDeriSnis pleasedandproud to be able to publishthese ettracts from what it considerswill be one of the most imponant works of architecturol theory of the twentiethcentury.
a Ufian Spac., Acad€rnyEdirions,1979
professional worldwhichiurally,duringthetimeofthe post-Second World War buildingboom,sawthe chanceto realisethearchitecnrral revolutiondreamtof in the Twenties.The principlesof tie CIAM AthensCharter,whichconcemed theseparation offunctions in the city (zoning),were incorporatedinto building law ar an international levelandcarriedoutwiththerigourandscrupulousness of bu.eaucraticmachines.This deplorablestateof affairs was primarily helpedby the indescribable miseryin Europeafter the SecondWorld War. But oddly enough,in Warsawfor instance, wherethesituationwasworst,areasin ruinswhichwereimDortanl for thecity'sidenlitywererebuiltwirha heroiccenainq.Ofcourse this operationwascriticisedby somepeopleas producingmerely stage-sets. Yet thePolishpeoplehadbeendisgraced wirhourbeing at fault. They thereforemadeWarsawa symbolof rheir national strength. Ourmodemcitiesandtheirbuildingsaremerelyfunctional objects,withoutanyethicalmeaning.Theyare simplyproduction areas or housilgesurtes whichpeopleoccupyavidlybutleavewithour sonow,because uglhesssooneror lalercreates coniempt anddisgust in everyhumanbeing,andsometimes lgds ro delinquency. The masshousingshortagewas abuse?by specularors in order for themto become richin a shonperiodof time.Theprofit-seeking attitudeof thesepeopleforcedthebuildingindustryintotheuseof prefabricated systems andceftainothermaterialsregardless oftheir durability.The planners,as if struckby madness, agreedto this profiteeringr by buildingextremely densely,theymadeit eveneasier for buildingcompanies to makefastmoney-a viciouscircle,still rotating,but now consciousof its limits. Someplannerseven welcometheconsumer/disposable ideologyasa substitute for nonexistentarchitectural concepts. The revolutionof modemorchitecturehasfailed, Evenif it is difficultfor professionals to admitthisfact,for yearsjournalistsand lay-peoplehavebeenheapingreproaches on us andhavegivenus themostappallingrepons.Citizens'initiatives,morethanbefore, vehemently takeupurbandesignproblems.Thepressspiesoutand huntsdown, with moreandmoresuccess, the dubiousoperations
PiazzaNavona.Rome
GropiuvStadr. Bedin
I do not intendto put cenainpersonalities on trial, or to produce a lexical review with the aim of analysingevery architectural contributionon the basisof its theoreticalstability.WhatI wantto do is to takea goodlook at architectural which,widely tendencies supponed,haveinfluencedwholedecades;furlher, I wish to sepamte theoreticalsubstance from fashionabletrends,and to formulate propositions accordingto my own personalconviction.Thesewill allow me to makea critical statement, and to give an outlookon an architecturewhich outlaststhe present. Modern architecture,in a disastrousway, has ruined cities throughoutthe wholeworld. The lossof spatialityin the modern city is mostespeciallydeplorable.Someyearsago, I publisheda book on this traumaticissuein whichI tried to fathomthe reason for thisdestruction,*Spatialurbansystems havcbeenradicallyand callouslyignored,whilethe repertoireof architectural composition just as brutally,to becomethe mostprimirive hasbeendegraded formulae;andall this with poor economicandtechnical'reasons'. This developmenttook placewith fte euphoricsupponof theentire
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The samestred after reconstrucrion
of big buildingcompanies. Industrialisation hasnot leadto the perfectionand reductionin priceof buildingcomponents as it wasexpectedby Le Corbusier and his generation.All thst has beenachievedis that through mechani2ation, thearchitecturaldetailhasbe€nsubminedto the laws of productionterhnology.Ofcoursetheca.lculation of the maximum yield simplifics the consrructionalsolution. Also, reducing productiontime often offcnds sgainstall practicalreasoning. Decadence in architecture and the ruin of buildingcraftsmanship go together,and canonly recovertogether. Yet I have hopethat, despitcthe discrcditarchitectsand the buildingindustryhavebroughtuponthemselves by theirown faults, theremight be a chancefor a 'renewal'. Mankindin our centurycontinues to demonstrate its apocalyptic power.Thebrutalityofself-slaughrcr destructive is re0ectcdin all pansof industrialised problemthatworsociety.Thearchitectural riesme is no doubtoneof the mostobvious.bui cenainlvnot the mostthrearening problemtie twentiethceniuryhasgivenbinh to. Thearchitectural problemwill neitherexplodenor emitfatalradiation. But the illnesses which may be createdby chemicalswhich newbuildingsarc stuffcdwith, I hardlydareto foresee.We wait with distrustanddesperation for theresultsofall theseexperiments which haveplungedus into a meaningless venturc. Of cqursetheindividualcasedoesnotmanersomuch,but a host ofbad architecturcbccomestlreatening.A few ugiy ouildingswould not be thatseriousa threat,but if theyspreadrc that in theendhardly one per centof real qualityis leff in buildingactivities,then the
time would havecome to sit up and take notice. Unfortunatelythis ugliness,this private kitsch, in millions of variationsfloodingcity boundaries and countrysidein the form of singlefamily houscs,is not viewedthat way by their inhabitants, as it is the casewith their standardupholsteredfumiture and wall decorations.Education,which at one time everyoneenjoyed,has suffocatedunderempty acs&eticism.A society,wealthier andbetter schooledthanever before, is in dangerof wastingaway b€cause wh-ichis ofrenaccompanied ofirs selfishress, by ridiculousgestures. In philosopbical terdS,thisdevelopment seemsro represenr a logical resuh.ln historicaltc.ms it is certainlynot tle only exampleof this kind ofdevelopment.Bui thedecadence in culrureto which I refer is by no meansconfinedto theprivate sector;it is evenmore obvious in thesegigantic,hypenrophicbuilding complexes.Aristocratic powerwas successfully foughtagainst,andwhen it finally ccased to exist, we were indeedleft with an immenselylavishbut tasteful heritage.Ifthe modernbureaucratic andtechnocraticpowerstructures werc takenby storm what would then be left? Only a gigantic rubbishheapofuselessequipmentand,ofcourse,a scorchedearth. Can we, with good conscience,cntcr into a heritageof such dubious value? Who would be willing to take over all this hideousncss; who would further enjoy all theseshapeless idylls? I think we will put the 'throw-away'ideologyinto pracriceand pull down all the rubbish.This would be necessaryanywayfor economlcreasons, Suchis the sadstaning-pointof contemporaryarchitecture.He who has not yet realisedthis shouldop€n his eyesand nameme
ComDutcrCcntrc. Vicnna
Bourg€oisdining room in rhe 'inlemlional modemg:sryle
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the modern buildings in his close vicinity which will go down in building history for having met high architectural demands. I live in rhe centre of a metropolis called Vienna. If I think about the banalities which for the last 30 years have emetged from a ground that is pregnant with tradition, I am on the verge of tears. The illustrations which accompany this essay have been deliberately picked from anonymous modem architecture to be found in all our cities. I am convinced that rnany lay-peopleconsider theseexamples as serious contempo.ary architecture. After all, similar crireria are applied when, from a holiday catalogue,somebodymakesa decision about his 'seaside hotel'. What then should one be guided by? In caseofdoubt, certainly by the buildings which are close to the hean of the ruling panies; in vienna these would be the UN-City, the Allgemeine Krankenhaus(hospital),the FEnz-roseph railway station or the Hilton Hotel, which is also frequentedby Willy Brandl. \ 'hat also gives certainty is the taste of big companies and banks which, by way oftrendy architects,try to pep up their image and, indirectly, their products and scrvices. So it is that lay-people are spell-bound and ter.orized by the taste of magnates,who abusearchitecture for their own publicity and to be celebratedpublicly as culhrral patrons. As an exampleofhow evidentthe opportunism ofpowerful clients and architectscan be nowadays,I would like to mention two building programmes in Vienna concerning the Ballhausplatz and Schwarzenbergplatz,which have becomepolitical issues.After tlteir first glass-facadedesigns had been successfully rejected by local initiatives, architectsand clients changedtheir anitude and architectural sytle, proposing for the iwo sites buildings with historicist facades. Nobody knows whether these games were an attempl to deceive the citizens, or wheiher they were meant to be an ironical affront. The architectsconcerned,being among the busiestin vienna, are experiencedtradesmenand entrepaeneurs.They are too clever not to have a precise strategy for these kinds of prestige objects. Anyway, different groups got very concemed about the aichitectural tradition of vienna and initiated meetings and panel discussions, certainly to the amusementoftbeir supposedenemies. These 'enemies' however, veered round to go the 'alternative \r'a) : the citizens were invited to discuss proposals, to reject or agree. (heir choices being manipulated according to the strategy of clienls and architects. These 'link' (left) tactics for the fooling of citizens are disgraceful. Architecture has been degraded to a masque, ' hich changes accoiding to a required role in a strategy. It was characteristic of the ensuing discussion that the plans were never dealt with. Only the facadeswere discussed.l-ater it bp{cme apparent lhat the former did not exist at all. The 'Mother of the Arts' must have gone asiray in a brothel. She has fallen to the marke! value of a car-body. If this is not capable of being changed abruptly we could end this chapter with some lascivious swear-words, and could better devote our time to a good game of golf. So much for the 'ahospherical'. Nou'we can begin our analysis with a relaxed and enlightened mind. At the beginning of this century, the revolt against traditional architecture took place in several stagesand with different shades of opinion. The garden city movement fought against the overgrowing of the city. Art Nouveau, Vienna Secessionor artists and architects like Antoni Gaudi, Tony Gamier, Otto Wagner, Josef Hoffman, Adolf loos, Henry van de Velde, and many others, attemptedsuccessfully to halt the industrialised historicism of the nineteenth century. At the moment I live in an apanment block typical of the last cenrury, and enjoy the room heights and the cross-section of the three front rooms. But everything which lies behind this front is not wonh mentioning,althoughthe flat is 27 metresde€p. Twelve metres in front of my window is a facade which could be ours, decorated with rhis successfulindustrial ornamentationin Neo-Classicalstyle, exchangeable,but more bearablethan an aluminium-profile facade.
Salzburg, accommo&tingNature' Ilodern alpinehorelarchirecrure.
v i c nnr .b!i l di nSbl Stl bc r '...fol l os i ngc l os el fF i s c her l onEr l ac h.O uoW agne r .nd Loos .. (quorilrion by rhe archncd lbou his building)
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F r l nz nx eph R ai l w ay Sr r l i or . v i enna. b) Sc h$r dz er l nd H l a$eni c z ta
Srcet in Vicnna,lar€ nin€reenrh ccorury
ClasgowSch@lof An by C.R. M&kinrosh, 1697,t9O9
:asa Mili|, Barc.lona,by A. caudi, 1905-10
All this of coursedoesnot rcachthe levelof architecture. The youngartistsandarchitects of the nineteenth centurydetested this kind of work for which the busyplasterers werein demand,and intended to put an endto suchactivities.Theywercseekingforms andthemeswhichwouldbe goodenoughto takethe placeof the classicalstylessuchas$e Rornanesque, theCothic,theRenaissance, the BaroqueandNeo-Classicism, whichin the nineteenth cenftry wereemployedarbikarily. Mackintosh achieved thislibefationby takirg refugein geometry. He did withoutclassicat symbolsandrilied oi thea'estheiic valuis inherentin well-proponioned forms.surfacesandstructures. The uaditionalwayofcomposingthebuildingbodyandirsinteriorwere notquestioned by him, His conception becamevery influentialfor a.chitectural developmenr in the twentiethcentury. Wirh Gaudi,the tiberationfrom the classicallinguagehappens almostlike a sensuouseruption.The sculpturalquality of his a.chitecture canbesolelyanributed to $e artistGaudi.His individual playwiih interpretations is too irrationalto seta precedent. Where his architecture was takenas an example,the resultswere often awk'yardfaLt pos. Still, straight-forward geometryis alsoa good protectionfor mediocrearchitects.The realmof irregulardesign canonly be masteredby extremelytalentedartists. This may be a warningto all thoseyoungarchirectswho think thatihe spontaneous individualline andliberationfrom geometry are the pre-conditions for becomingan artisticpersonality. TheCasaMila, thisimmensely powerfularchitectural event,just cannotbe repeated at everycorner.k is a uniquebuilding.The analysis of theCasaMila, a sreel-srructured buildingon a freeplan witha sculpted sandstone facing,revealsa very interesting building tlpe whichwasonlypossible because of newQechnology. Butthis is a specificqualitywhichwascerrainlynorexploiredsuperficially by Gaudi.Evenif he had hadto usea traditionalsolid structure. a similareffectwouldhaveresulted. Thepassionfor constructional subtlelies is deeplyrootedin theCatalan buildingrradition,andGaudi certainlybenefitedfrom this background. Whoeverbuilds up and teachesan architecturaltheory must examineeverytheoremin te.msofits universality. This meansthat the margin of possibleinterpretations of principleshas ro be anticipated,and all tangibleexp€riences in history have to be reviewed for practicalapplication. Thus,onlysolidprinciples remain a matterfor instructionin orderto guarantec soundhigh qualityof \4ork.The truly greatanistshaveindeeda commandofthis alphab€t, buttlreyarealsoawareof its limils.with theirsecureinstincts.they only abandonapprovedrulesonce,aftera long search,theyhave founda yet unknownvariant. The Art Nouveaumovemcntwasan international revoltaeainst the historicalstyles being rrivialised.The classicaldecoiative elementswerereplacedby floral andotheromamentsborrowedfrom nature.But althoughthe resultswerefresh,powerfulandofteneffusive,as best seenin the works of Horta, van de Velde and Guimard,they were too individual in rheir inlerpretationand thereforecould not last for long. Theartisb ofthe Viema Sec€ssion lcd by Ono Wsgner,Hofftnan, Plecniketc.hadessentially a moreclassicalanitudeandabstained gestures. fromexpressionist Wagner'sPostOfficeSavingsBankin Viennaand Hoffmann'sPalaisStocletin Brusselsare wonderful highlighlsof thismovement,WhereHoffsun still formallycelebrates thedetail,Wagnerexposes theconsttuctive andtechnicalqualities of the building's parts. Becauseof the numerousengine€ring buildings he executedfor the 'Sradtbahn'network and the Donaukanal,his attentionwas drawn on the designqualitiesof unmasked construcrive details.The bankinghall of thePostOffice SavingsBankis designedwith greattechnicalprecisionas glasssteelarchitecture, which until thenwasonly appliedto hallsand Sreennouses.
CasaBarlld.Barcelona,by A. C.udi,
Mdtro sration,Pafls. by H. cu'mard. 1899-
PalaisStoclet,Bruss€ls,by J. Hofrmann,1905-l I
Maisondu Peuplc,Brusscls.by V. Hona, 18 -99
Roadbridgcovcr thc rivcr Norderelb€by Mcycrs,Haue6 and Picp.r, IEE4-EE
Watcr Tower, Hamburg, by von Lindlcy and dc ChaEauncuf.1854
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Buildingar llichaelerphtz. Vi€nna,by A. Loos, l9l0
In retrosp€ct,oneis amazedthat in the nineteenthcennrryarchitecture and engineeringwere kcpt at a distancefrom cachotherand that the latter,wherc it was found to be necessary, employedthe classicalordersas if ashamedof its nakedness. Adolf Loos alwaysplaycda specialrole in the scenein Vienna. He did notjoin any group,andvehementlycririciscdtheromantic air ofthe ViennesesnrdiosunderHoffman.Horv hisbanleagaiost Ornamentshouldbeunderstood is evidentin his ownwork. He had passionfor panellingthe walls with preciousmate als. He also -a used hollow piers and non-supporting beamswh€n,in his terms, this was required by the composition of rhe room. Somc of his intedorsweredecoGtedwith classicalfriezesin plaster:the Doric r-columns which emphasiselhc main cntranceof the Goldman commercial building at Michaelerplatzin Vienna are me.e 'decorations'(to be naughty).To accomplish lhis architccture, long spanningconcrelebeamswerc inse ed storeyby storeywhich, in r-the phoographsofthe carcasse.gavethe impressionofbeingsuitabl€ for oblong window bands.Far from it! They were filled in with bricksand, after plastering,a simpleperforatedfacadcappeared. This Viennese'ruughthess'is noteasyto tolerate.VeryoftenLoos ltook up contradictory themeswhich he then piecedtogetherlike collages.Different facadesin one building are oft€njoin€dtogether as if they have nothing to do with each other. The interior composiiionof spaces,accordingto his 'Raumplan'(room-ptan) sconcept, is interlockedanddivcrsified,and surprisingin termsof -
CompcririondesiSnfor rhe ChicagoT.ibuneby A. Loos. t9:l
their different heights.One of his projects,the administration buildingof the HeraldTribuncin Chicago,is oneof the strangesr aodmostmisleading statements in recentarchitectural history,not only because of its gesture,but becaus€ of its anticipation of many representations in contemporary an andarchitecture. Loos was a biting critic of tlre International Style,and I canonly unde.stand his entryfor theHeraldTribunecompetition asa grandiose affront againstmodernisml la Gropius,Hilberseimer,et al.
ClacsOld€nburg.'The Bi8 Screw. Designfor a monunenton Karlaplan. Stockholm.1966
I think thatif this buildinghadb€enrcalised,ideaandrealitywould not haveaSrecdwith eachother.This builCing,in amongall the
a culrunl objeclb€comes HansHotlein.vienna 1963i T.ansfomntion, a technical
Karlski.che,vienna. by J-8. Fischervon Erlach.l7l6-21
other kitsch. would have looked monstrous and ridiculous Steinbergs drawings picture similar American situations. Consideringtie app€aranceof the Herald Tribune Building, one might associatethis gigantic Doric column wilh the wondersof the Antiqueworld. But lhis is not possibleif one reflectson its meaning. An office tower among many others in an American city with millions of inhabitantswould soon have lost its spirituality. vienna, benefiting from her topographicalsiruation. has always been a place where cultural controversieshave been fought out. Here, the southGermanBaroqu€celebratedits splendidalliancewitl foreign sqles in the masterly collage of the Karlskirche by Fischer von Erlach. Hildebrandt was by no meansan orthodox classicist. His Upper Belvederefor Prince Eugenis a marvellcusarchitechrral achievement.It is a building which is not deepin plan, yet its clear geometricalfacadeand carved decoration Sivesthe impressionof a gigantic complex when viewed from the city. The enormous solenLnityof$e bulldingson the Ringstrasseis still experiencedwith pleasure.alfiough asculruralachievemensthe) cannotcompetewitl the unique musical creations of Beethoven.Schuben or Brahms' crearionswhich have not been surpassedanlwhere in $e world. Gottfried Semper, who was commissioned to design the Burgtheatre.left Vienna headover heelsafter only three years. He could not cope with the intrigues and the manoeuvresof the viennese partner Hasenauer with whom he had to wolk. and who beslowed Semper's plans with an effusive local hue. So the depot,asoneofhis with the exceptionofthe stage-set Burgtheater. late works has little in common wilh the strict discipline of his buildings in Zurich and Dresden. andWebern In thet$enri!'thccnturythr'nrusicofBerg. Schdnberg hr\ !Jin!'.1irn internati,)n!lrr'putrti(9. The ver) fL'$ modcrn buil,lin!. in vicnnx huve n,'t rcach.'dlhc.rrnrclcrcl. Like Ne,rClassicisnet the beginningof lhc ninctecnlhcentur). lhe clear. rational Ilod.rn trlovenrcnl $'us onl) halt--hc'arledl)supported in Vienna. Only in the romantic exp.essionism of the Viennese 'Cemeinde'(conununity)buildings ofthe T$enties and Thirties has a generationof architectsfound its identity. This tendency.which was paniall) rooled in rhe school of Ono Wagner, gained spontaneous public acknowledgement because many details employed xere known by the population as classical motifs.
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Firit Coun Th€atre,Drcsd€n.by G. Semper.lElS--4!
Ph' ofthe Bid turrenb€r8' quaner. Berlin. by A. Klein. 1930
ideologycertainlynradefun whoadheredto theBauhaus Architects The laner were of their Viennesecolleagues. of the playfulncss andfor thatreasonthcy werenot brandedassecrettraditionalists, (courtyard for a long time. These'Hof-Siedlungen' appreciated in termsofurban havea panicularspatialquality,especially estates) as linearhousingestates; designwhencomparedto the schematic cstatein Karlsruheby walter Gropius for exampletheDammer-stock in Berlin.(Thissubjecthas andSiemensstadt o. Onkel-Toms-Hiine wiug€nsEin's House.vienna. designedby himsclfdown lo lhe lastdeBil
l8
Former slage,set dcpoi, Vicnna. bt c. ScnrDer. c 1875
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'Karl Seirz-Hol. vierna. b! F. and H. Gessncr.1926
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beendealtwith at lengthin my book lJtban Spoce,and therefore I can do better than to repeatmyself, but concentratemy thoughts on thearchiteltuieof thebuildingsthemselves.)I hopenobodyminds that Vienna,at preseotmy adoptedhomecity, is alwaysthe focus of my rcflections.In a similar way in which I teachmy students to learnexemplarilyfrom this city, my observationsofarchitectural eventsreceivetheir orientatioinfrom this background. HeinrichTessenow,despitehis lechrreshipat the Akademiefiir Kunst(AcademyofApplied Art) which lastedfor five Ang€wandte ye€rs,neverbeaamean 'echterWiener' (real Viennese).But b€cause of his very honest,restrainedarchitecturallanguage,he cenainly hadsomefollowersamongthearchitectsofcouncil cstatesnot only in Vienna.Oneaspect,however,shouldbe pointedout in Tessenow's at a time when many work. Shortlyafter the tum-of-the-century, architecs were still concernedwith heroic designthemesof the nineteenthcenNry Tessenowconcentratedall his efforts on workers' housing.In Rome,Tony Garder wasdesigninghis 'Cit6 lndustriellc' ofthesedrawingswere at thesametime. The beautyandfreshness neverreachedin Gamier'sactualbuildings.Both Tessenow'sand for Gamier'sprojectscatlbe comparedhereasbeingrepresentative future generations. ln everyculturalera thereare two carnps,the one of the tradi The two are mostly tionalistsand the other of the avant-gardists. standardbearersof the sameage and educationalbackground but to culturalheritage;the one cautiously with differentattachments tradition.Anirudes weighingtradition,theotherboldly questioning can changeqrith the life of an artist. However, at the time of comp€tingfor breadandrecognition,not themostpolitecomments These,however,will be knowinglysmil€dat thirare Cxchanged. ty, forty yea$ later ... One 'reactionary',the other 'progressive'... Can art b€ the one or the other?After a short time ideological hostilitiesdisappearand what is left can be put in simplewords: he was proficient,but incaPable. An lives solelyon $e quality of meaningand lhe embodiment of it. All a/ r,acpublicityshouldthereforeb€ handledcautiously, ai leastuntil suoerficialeffecs havedied down. Even in times where culture is imposedby dictators, the socalled reactionaryand piecesofan will only revealtheirtrue artisticquality opportunistic andbecomerecognisablefor everybodyafter the ideologicalasp€cts havebecomemeadngless.The altist is at liberty to frecly choose his meansofcxpression.He only disqualifieshimselfthroughsloPpinessand incapabilityin termsof skill and design.Cezannehas andportraits; createda fantastic
Cymnasium(Dalcrozelnttitute),Hell€rau.l9l0
Housingeslalen€arSchwechatby H. Tessenow
D.awing from Ct, /a/6r'islle by T. Gamier, l9O4
'tfr,f, .'.,.iqi.\,
ffi-;-**. Dn\|ings frcm Cift ltdusri.
. "/
e by T. Gamier. l9O1
A b a |l o ' r d c l a Mo u ch e . L ],D . b y T . Car nr er . Iq09- tJ
MaisonCassaodre, Versailles.by A. PeEer.
archibcrurewasnot in dernand.That it wasall to do with prescribing a 'Zeirgeist'nevercameinto my tnind. The .Zeitgeist'is solely createdby artistsand not by the public.It is a very naturalthing thattheoldergeneration hasto copewith theirachievements being questioned, andthereforewe do nor mind their strugglingagainst us. We for our paJtwill not be supercensitive either,but nevertheless askfor a fair battle.Despitcall hindrances, betterargumentsand achievcments alwaysreceive$e merit they descrve. To re-capitulate the aim of this essay,I would likc to mention rhat my extensivewords have only the purposcof putting my criticismon a solidbasis.I am not concerned aboutthe normal changeofgenerations, but thattheans worldwideare beinemade bankrupr.To positandproverhishasrequiredrhislong prJlogue. However,the disputebetween'reactionaries' and .avant-gardisis' hasanothcraspect; dreformer,buildingon a saferepenoire,benefit from immediate succcss; thelatter,seekingnewways,are existentially threatened. Today,asthe 'Modernc'in all its banalityis enjoyingculturalacknowledgement, whorriesto avoidthis everybody cul-de-sac by wa) of thoroughstudiesof historyis brandedas a reactionary. Nolr it is hewhois calledto b€arthepioneer'sstandard andto sufferthepriyationsof a renewer.In bothcamps,only the besttalentswill survivethe hardesttest,while strugglingfor the realisationfo their ideas. Tony Garnier,who won the Prix de Romein 1899,renounced theraditional B€aux-Ansprogrammcanddevotedhimselfto a theme ncglected in thenineteenth century:theindustrialcity. His architecoral conceptsareof ingenious clarity andvoid of any decorative romanticism. Ifone looksat Carnier'sdesignfor the prix de Rome in theBeaux-Arrs publications, onewill niricerhatir is slill tully in line with thebourgeois fashion-architectuC of the fin de sibcle. All themoreastonishing is his reversalafterwards, which hadvery muchto do with his sojournin Rome.His projectsare disciplined by an almostantiqueattitude.He wasusingthe qualitiesof reinforcedconcrete, srillnewandrevolutionary at thetime,andrefined thisnewmaterialby wayofan aesthetic designwhichrespected its inherentconstructional rules and logical composition.Uae citl industrielleis abook whichbelongsto the mostbeautifultheorerical contributions ofthis century.Garnierhada stronginfluenceon the 'Moderne'whichwasdevelopingin the Twenties.But persooally he rejectedthe ideaof becominga promoterof this scene.His buildings,however,did not fulfil the expectations of his powerful early work. Unfortunatelyheendedup in a structuralism,I la perret, whichwaspopularin Frarce.Yct hisOlympicSradiumandhisabattoir of La Moucheremainoutstandingachievem€nts . Thus an avantgardistbecame a bourgeois traditionalist. It wassimilarwith perret. Perret'searly work conhastsin 0le sameway with his later buildings in l,e Havre.UnlikeGarnier,Tessenow developedfrom being a poetictraditionalistinro a classicistof the Thirties. This pre-S€cond World War scene,socolourful andrich asit was, was abruptlyendedin the middleof the Thinics when, on the Continent,dictatorsassumcd politicalpower.Theofficial architcctural canonfor public buildingsin Germancities prescribeda primitiveandinflatcdNeo-Classicism whichhadnothilg to do with the delicacyandelegance of the era of Schinkel,Weinbrenneror Klenze,Buildingsin rural areaswereto represent the 'Heimatstil' (homelandrtyle). Only industrialbuilding wassparedregimentation andcouldrealiseclearmodemconstruction withoutDroblems.The debateon thearchitectural historyofthe Third Reichis immensely burdened,despitethe fact that it is an issueof the past. The new rulersquicklyrealised thatneithertheaesthetics nor thetechnology of ModernArchitectureweresuitableto serveas tbe Dretenceof theParty.The sameappliedto ModemAn wirh its critical social aspe.ts.The sob€rbuilding bodieswereanythinSbut popular, their not tully developed, buildingtechnologies andthereforenot reliable enough.To impressthe masses,thc Nazis fell back upon the
Alb€n Sp€€r'sstudio.Obersalzb€rs, l916
Factory in W€stphaliaby F. Schuppand M. Krcmm.r
approvedmonur|€nt!.Iorderswhich, givenfie pressureof time they were und€r,couldstill bemasteredin termsofcraftsmanship.Thcrc was no time for new developments,and thcy did not want to run anyrisk. Thc modelfor a lateNeo-Classical monumental architecture wasfoundin *rc USA, andin colonialcities.Here, not only public buildiogsbut also banls, officc buildingsand business prcmiseswercall alikein termsof thestyledescribed above.That the Nazis used the best materialsand craffsmanshipfor the few pompouscditices they were able to build, canhardly be criticised. They sought to disguise the brutality of their regime with 8n appropriate(in thcir terms) architecture.In the history of urban design,thc plansfor Bcrlinarcof'cxcessivcgrandeur'.The urban geographywould,bowever,haveb€nefitedfrom them.If one€xaminesthc diffcrcnt stagesof planning, it appearsthat the initial proposalswere muchmoredifferentiatedandsympatheticto the urban structurein termsof scale.Only later did they becomecoarse in texture and lort in terms of space.A gigantic domed building of Boullde-likedirnensionwasto establishthehigh point in tbis B€rlin apotheosis.Sometimesone is temptedto think to oneseli 'Thcy should have built all this stuff instcadof makirlg a war.' But this would probably have meantthat the fascistswould have been in power for an evenlonger period of time. Io the EsstemBlock this kind of idiolic despotismis p€rpehDted.The Stalinalleewhich could (developmentplan) wcll havesprungfrom Sp€cr'sBebauungsplan
by meansof an oppressivearchitecture,becametha symbol for th€ rise ofa young, comrnuniststatewhich did not wa to be one. Later on, assoonasthe imagesofsocialismwcrc fadingaway,thefeeble archiiectural thcory of capitalism came back into fsvour. If today the Berlin Wall was pulled down, the difference betwe€nthe two Germanieswouldonly beeconomic.Otherwise EastandWestdo not coDtradictcachother on the levcl of gcDeralcultural taste.The East simply did not succeedin finding an architectural languagefor its kind of society. It was oot possible*cause its social order is that of a policc state. I was very shocked to find the Wall being dealr with as an arcbitecturalmonumentin an architechrraljournal publishedin East Berlin. Wc do rot car€ for this kind of macabrejoke. A schizophrcniadrug scemsto exist in modern statcs, ihe effert of wbich is very unpleasartatrdpainful. That 8 majority of the world allows itself to be placedunder schizophrenictyranny cart only be explainedby an analysisof power mechanismswhich have got out of the handsof society.Or are there indeedpleasants€nsationsabout self{estructioo? Or are there any natural automatawhich, in caseof surfeit, order self{estruction? Literature, music and art anticipatedthc apocalyseof the Fonies long before it happencd.I fcar that the state of architecture, this mute imagery, has to b€ understoodas a waming of an imminent
DomedHall planncdfor Berlin by A. Sp€er.l9J8
22
f\arl-Marx-Allcc(formcrlySlalinallcc),EsstB€rlin,by Paulicl. Hcnselmann.Hopp,t-cucht, Souradnylnd Hannlann, l95l-5?
No 6, Sandwingasse, Vienna,c 1860
_No
42. Linke wienzcile. vienna, b) Kmunke and Kohl. 1896-97
spiritualabyss.The last time thatthis abyssopenedup wasafrer mankindhad inflictedthe biggestself-destruction in its existence. I rememberlheboomof thebomb€rsvery well. Buttodaytheywould soundlike light music in comparisonwith the vast amountof destructive materialavailablenow. How canbeautyevergrow on sucha brutalbackground? culhre is interconnected Architecnrral butdividedintotwo parts: the wide basisof commonfunctionalbuildingsfor dwellingand working,and rising from that,the smallapexof buildingswhich accommodate specialfunctionsfor society.k is legitimate to design the latter in distinctmanner,in orderrhatthey differ ftom functionalbuildings. During the nineteenthcenturywhenthe bourgeoNtewasgettlng rich, it emb€llished its reside ial premiseswirh all the atuibutes which were usedby the dethronedaristocracyto standour from the masses.The architecturallanguagegot so confusedthat it became publicbuildingsfrom necessary to find anotherwayof distinguishing privateones.The former, therefore,were isolatedfrom adjacent buildingsandsetinto a square,a parkor sitedon thetop ofa hill. But this stcp soonfoundits followers.ln the Twentiesthe frecstandingobjectassgchb€came desirable for benerliving, working and resting in general.Only one aspectwas not taken into giventhat everyMy hadthe samerights,this deconsideration; mandwouldhavemeantthedcathofthe city. Todaythisno longer needsto be proved.Moderncitiesarethe built evidence. The majority of Americansclaim thattheydo not wantto haveanything elseotherthanolemodem'anti-city'; 0tatonly some'fanatics'would still preferNew York, Bostonor SanFrancisco.[,et us wait and seewhat happensif, br4auseof a newenergycrisis,legshavelo be uscdfor walkingagain.MaybethenAmticans will remember the good old Europ€ancity again! The confusionin architecturallanguagebecameeven more profoundafter the SecondWorld War. As historicalarchitectural featureshadbeenabusedsomuch,architects thoughtthartheyhad been left without any good examplesand thercfore anemptedao expressthespecialsignificalc€ofa buildingby wayof employing novel methodsof construction.For the last thirty yearsthe whole rangeof exotic structu.eshas beentried out, for example,on churches.Flickingthroughpublications dealingwith this subject, oneshuddersat somuchki6ch. In aermsalsoofground-plandesign, anythingconceivablehasberr put to the test.The underground churchat lrurdes, or the oneby Nervi besideSaintPeter's,can garages.Thesebuildingshave at best be calledwell-structured nothhg to do with churches.Manymodemchurchescanb€ mistaken for b€ingindustrialhalls;someof themare dcliberately designed that way to suppos€dlyreducethedistancebetweenthe churchand the faithful, To underminethe sacredin this way, given the significance of churchesin thehistoryofarchitecture, is for methe worst asp€ctof our presentculturaldecline. Templesandchurchcshavebeenacknowledged andvaluedat all times,evenby unbelievers, asthemostnoblesymbolicbuildings. They receivedthe bestof artisticand anisanachievement. They exemplifiedthearchitecturaltraditionofan epoch.After theantique, they also becamethe most magniilc€ntinterior public spaces.Are thereany other functionsavailablenow to compensate for thc loss of religiousfeeling?Thc readingroomsin publiclibraries,therestilg rooms in swimming pools or spon centles, stationhalls, concert hallsor theatres?Noneof thesefunctionscancver reachthe mystic andsymbolicsignificanceof a placeof worship.Everyhurnanb€ing is touchedby lhe enigmaoflife aoddeath.Thefatefulandinscrutable dimensionsof cxistenceatld non-eistenceare asoverwhelmingas theyarc frightening.Nature,in its monumcnblityandbquty, bcing thebackgroundfor every0ing thathappens,ordycautiouslyreveals its secrets.To soothehis fearsandto calm his senses,manhas erectedsymbolic placeson earth for the spiritual interpretationof
Designby Archisram,London. l960s
his being.Thesebuildingsservedas placesof mediationbetween him and the unnameable enigmas;the addressee in this fictitious dialogue:a glorifiedhumanbeing,a God:thebuilding:an idealised accoBrmodation for the supernatural. I do not klow whetherthis subjcctis definitelylost in architecNre.For the time being,I am satisfiedpith the sacralbuildingswhich historyhaspassedon to us.We canlive with thesefor anotherwhilelonger.If anideacannot genuinelyanymore,whatelsecanone do but stick be celebrated worldpeoplearenotvery to thingsoneis goodat?In thisconsumer interestedin spiritualvalues. At the beginningof the Fifties, the confusionaboutformsgave a freshimpeNsto thedevelopmcnt of newstructures. T€chnology waslessloadeda termthanform, andimmunefrom id€ology.After a shon periodof time, theaftitudespreadthatoncetheconstructional requirements had beenmet, one haddonejusticeto architecture. ln a similarone-sidedway, effons werealsoconcentrated on lhe solution of functionalproblemsand cost-effectiveconstruction processes. Butdespitethemiseriesof thepost-warpcriod,thereareofcourse examplesof an 'archite.tural' anitudetowardsdesign,and nowada;-s some buildings from that time gain symparhydespite their clumsiness. Onephenomenon, however,hit fie devastated middleEuropequite unexpectedly: an explodingeconomicprosperityandin connection
with that, an unrestrainedbuilding boom. In order to encourage building activities, governments offered special finance and depreciationschemeswhich could easilybe abused.It is maybeonly too naturallhat in this competitionbet$een 'more money' and 'more architecture', the Muse was the loser. Ir is a long time ago that a p€rson who commissioneda building demandedthe best skills of architectsand craftsmen, becausehis building was to demonstratehis honourablepositionin society.Also, the house of the poor and tie house of the rich were easily comparablein terms of elegance.despiterhe difference in expenditure and embellishment. The idea of making a lot of money in a shon period of time has destroyedthe quality of a building as such. Even rhe majority of buildings that do not needto meet high architecturaldemandshave lost tle elegancewhich I have mentionedabove. That is also due to the fact that b€causeofquick indusrrialisation,rhe building crafu have been ruined. Responsiblefor all this are first and foremost the architectsand planners who, burdened by growing competition, scll their souls and professional credit with the empry phrase: 'If I don'r do it, anothercolleague will'. Can rhis faral lack of s€lf-resp€ctstill be overcome?Who is the first one whose eyes must be opened, the one r,,ho buys or the one who produces?Both are cheatedat the momenl. The client who relies on cheaptechnologywill soon have to pay for its defectiveness.He will also be bored quite quickly with superficialarchitecturalcosmetics.The architecthas rricked himself out of the most elementary professionalfulfillment; and I cannot imagine that the easy rnoney he earns can make up for the shame of blunt opDortunism. There aii no less talented archikcrstday than in rhe pasi. But now, to a much greater extent, they are condemnedto inactivity or their crearivity isjust not askedfor. Very often they take refuge eitler in the arts scene where it is still possible to get fair acknowledgement,or they lecture at schoolsofarchitecture which guaranteeanistic freedom and survival But without practical challenge every theory is meaningless.I would very much like to prove my argumentswith my own work iosteadof letting others do this for me. But to build under today's conditions is a damned hurniliatingbusiness,not very sympathetic to the fulfillment of theoretical and anistic ambitions.
Iffusrrationsin this anicle are either from rhe archivesof Architectwal Jahrhunden,Propyhen-Verlag.Berlin; Herben Ric]rfn. Der Architekt, Dpri8n,AcademyEditions,andRobKrier, or fromthefollowingsources: Geschichte einesBerufes,Henschelverlag; Alben SWet,Architektur,ProActeU. ModemeKunst,Berlini ArchigramCroup,London;PaoloFaroce. plladn.Berlin:Sreinberg's Pdp"rrdck,Ro\rohlr:WaheFMuller-Wutkow, Piozzad holia, Bra'x.anreEditrice; JohannKraftner(phorographer); Heinrich Architektw der Z+'anzigeiahrc in Deutschland,langewiescheKonigssein; lleltgeschichte Kulka,AdoALoos,Likker'Verlag; Bemhardl,eitner,me Architecturcof desArchrie*tu/e,Belser/Elecrrai lvienerFassaden des19 LudwigWirgenstein.NewYork, 1976;C6sarManinell,Cd!d/, Edilorial Jah undens,BOhlau-Verlag, Wien. 1976. Blume,BarcelonaiProplldenKunstg.schichte , Bandll, Die Kunstd.s 19
EL E M EN TS AR C H IT EC TU R E Ro b
OF
K ri cr
r-lr--F
tLffiJ ffi
ffir4g 25
ExplanationsRelatingto the Typology of Interior Spaces The diagrarn shows in the horizonlal lhe geometlical ground-plan forms:square,triangle, ci.cle and the amorphousfigure; and in $e vertical thepossibilitiesof transfonnationof these basicelemenlsby way ofaddition, penetralion, buckling, breaking, accentuationof the perspective,or effect of depth and distortion. Theseop€rationsar€ put togetherside by side withoutany valuation.The examplespresented bere,however,areonly a fractionof thevariants createdso far by humaningenuiry. At thispoinrI \rould like to suggestrhat,from $e historyof building, one shouldpicrurethe greatvarietyof forms for oneselfand refreshit againandagair by *ay of drawingexerciser. Addition Addition is rhe most elemenraryprinciple of order.Wilh $e mostsimpleway ofaddition,the elementsare only closelyjoined and form an accumulation or a group.Their relationto each other ensuesfrom the proximity, a so-called topologicalrelation(Norberg-Schulz) .esuhing in an irregular,amoaphous shape.In contrastto thal,geometrical relationmeansa relationwhich is createdby a geometricalprincipl€of order, e.g. by axialityor parallelity.The basilicaserves asanexamplein whichseveralsimilarelements ofspacearearrangedin parallel.ln th€perspe€tive of depth,a seriesof impressionsof closed spaces ofnaveandside-aisles emerges,whereas in the transversedirection, becauseof rne transparency of theorderof columns,theentire spacecan be perceived.By augmentingthe heighlsofside-aislestowardsthenave,lhe latler is especiallyaccentuatedand the orienlation towardsthe altar is emphasised. We have here the different heightsof spacesas a meansof design to express the hierarchy of spatial elements. Penetration l. Two or several spaces of different
Interior Spaces As the saning point of architecnrralcomgosition, lhe srnallestspatial uniry, tle interior room, shouldfirstly be srudied.Normally an interior spacehasfor its bounds:walls,piers,ceilingand floor, beingthe traditionalelements.Windows anddoorsserveasconnections with theexterior, By these,the technicalelementsof a spaceare determined.It becomescornprehensibleand describableby the definition of irs size, proporlion(relationships betweenlength,height
geometricalform overlapandmergeinto a new shape.In this proccssonespace,or evenboth, will be deformed,i.e. their formal separation would be senseless, becauseit would yield fragments. 2. Two spacesbeingoverlappedretain thelr independence,remainrecognisable,and toSether createa new spatialquality.The crossingof$e cathedralis aclassical example:lie longitudinal aisle and the lranseptpenetrate eachotherand form a commonspacewhich is emphasised by a domeor a tower, 3. Whentwo spaces overlapin a way rharone includestheother,thisgivesriseto spacewithin space.If the interiorspaceis borderedby rows from the enclosing of columnsand segregated space,theentirespace rernains lo b€experienced Classical examples of this kind simuhaneously. of spatialpenetrarion areto be foundin Eglprian BaldachinTemples.The closerthe two spaces movetogether,i.c. if theybecomenearlyequal in size,onegetstheimpression of or. spacewift a doubleenclosure.Louis Kahn. for example, setscifcularspaces intosquareboundsfor lighl penetration.Throughdiffe.entopeningsin the walls, the light is filteredwhen required,and indirectlyled inlo the interior. Funher possibiliriesof transformingbisic geometrical formsarctheprocesses ofbuckling, bending.breaking,s€parationand fragmentation. This happensmosdy if severalelemenlsof different geometricalshapeshouldbe joined toge$er, and if onehasto adjustto the other. Ler us imaginean octaSonalspacewhich is surroundedby a conidor. Because of the given geometryof the octaton,il haslo b€ buckled severaltimes, in a srnseto submititself to the Seom€tricalform. However,it can achievean independentspatialquality if the bucklingpoin6 , by expansion,arernrdeintojoints. Or another example, which very often can be found in in the nineteenth century, housingconstruclion in weinbrenner'swork for instance:in a given
retbr and width) and shape.Thesecomponedts they directlyto the firnctionof theroombecause of peoplc,the accomallow for the r€sideoce modationof fumilurcandlhe executionof certain activities. Shapesand ainospheresof spacescan b€ describ€d.At first we rEcognizethe geometryof a room, e.g. cube,cylinderor differentforms mixed together.we canalso sp€ciry$e exact sizesand identify $c proponionsby relarinS length, widrh and height. Although we still describe rooms accordingto rheir basic geometricalfoftls, clear and simple spaces
ground-plan form, which very often resuhed from the shape of the site-p€rhaps a triangle as rhe residual site benreen two streets-dle main spa.-e! were insened as independenl forms-as circle. square or oval, Between them and the exleror skin, spacesofdeformed shaperernained,*hich sometimes had lhe awksard effecr of being me.ely remnants. becausetbey originated from something which was of more importance- So they offered $e possibilir) of accommoddrrng technicalfacililies. Bul ofien lhey are independent locali(ies of the 'in between' and have enoush spadal charm to accofirmodate staircas-j. for The 'perspectivedistonion'. i.e. the aflificial fiunipulation of the effecl of depth.can b€ crered by simple geometrical tricks, as Scamozzi did w i t-hhi s stage set' i n l he Teatro O l i mpi c o i n V i cen7n:and B emi ni i n bothhi s desi gnfor S ai nr Peler's Square. and his famous staircasein tlte Valican, the Scala Regia. The 'dislorlion' of a geometrical form can ln most cases ha acibuted ro faleful. historical The examplesofinterior spaceslisted here do not in any way represenl a complete lypolog\ . The publish€d drawings have emerged from exerciseswili my studenlscarried out in the first year of lheir course. I am of the opin ion thal rhe decisions which form the design of a space. or a building, can only be completely undersbod if they have been apprehendedrhrough dra$ing them. Il may be noted lhat my students draw €xclusively in Vienna, so that they learn to recognize the city in which they sody with all its aualrtie\ and the characteristicfeaturesof rt. local architectural rradition- That modern architecture thcreby gets the shorter end of consid€ration is not surprising. Th€ good examplesin modem archhectureaie anyway loo
nowadayshavean almost€litisl character.The so-called liberation of spacesby modern architecturehasgiven rise to the unfonunateterm 'flowiog space'. Spaceswere separatedinlo areas, only able to function, but without contributing Therepressron to b€tterfunctioning. a truly free ofclear geometryhasnot resulted.in and poetic solutronof room forms, but in deformedstructures,which no loogerallo$ a meaningful relationshipb€tween wall and op€ning.The naNre of a room is very much determinedby its enclosure,which dernarcates it from the exteriorand rurnsit into an intenor
space.kt usconsiderthegeometry: a spherehas a maxim!m€nclosure. ln geometrical terms.ir cannot be connected!o another form. In accordance with lhat, the circutarroom is not directional and rests in itself. Symmerry emphasises independence, In a rectangular space. the enclosureis createdby the uninterrupted relalionship b€twe€n |hefourwalls,especially the inteSrity of the comers. Rounded comers emphasise lhe enclosinS characterof fie \r'alls. By differentlreatmcntof the surfacesn rerms ofcolourandtexture.by arrangentnlo[ openings andincid€nces of lighr,theenclosure ofa space can ei6er be emphasised or b.oken. More difficult is rhed€scriprion oflhe quality of a space.Very oftertwhenwe describetheir characrer,we talk aboutsmall, spacious,low. high, oppressive, friendly,comfonable.coldor warm rooms.Very oftenfor theseappraisals of a space,not only ils geometrybut also irs attributes arecaucial.In thissense everyinrcrior spaceoffersa complete'culturalimage'.gi\.en by proportion, light p€netration,strucure. furnitureand accessories, Already the accenruation of the surfaces confiningtheroomaddsro i!5character: dividing venical and horizontalelements,floor texlure. * omamentsand mouldingson ceilingand walls. extensions. bays,coloursandmaterials etc.The basicformsareequallychanged by pierssranding free in theroom-Newspaces'within thespace' are crealed.Accordingto rheir purpose,the! - aniculateand structureithey form transparent wallsdividingthe space.andbecause we move rn lhe room.newperspectives. vistasandspace relationships emergeagainand again. With thc kno*ledge of theseeffecrs. the archilectcangive to a roomthecharacter which suitsils functionandsignilicance, He cancreate a sacredspacewhich makesp€opleworship.a lecture-hallhelpingpeopleto concenlraleon - listening,or an office room which, b€cause of its functionalism, placeswork in theforeground. Finally.owingto E-adition, symbolicmeanings canbe anributed!o certainforms.Archeoloeists and ethnologistshave inrensivelyconceired - themselves wirhrhesignificance ofcenainforms ofspace.Psychologists too,likeC.G.Jung,rnade imf,onam contributionsto tle explorationof archetypes.Hanns Sieder. rhroughertensive ..- researchin his book U4onnen der abendldndischenBaukunst(ArchaicForms in Westem Architecrure),comesto lhe follo\r'inqmesls: 'Considering... existingforms,excludingeach olher in the circularor reclangularhouse,ii is - conceivablefrom what is krown about the differentstagesin changeof houseconstruclion in ltaly and Creece,that we can lrace back prcciselythegenesis ofa reclangular houseborn - out ofa circularhousevia ovalandapse-shaped preliminaryforms. Decisionsof tlat kind in favourof the circularor the rectangular house are rootedin the entiteexistence of $e human beinS;lhey are not at all left to the free will. Culures not yetfon*d or no longersound,,nate fotmlessbuildingt.' Siederalso mainGinsthat cerlain geometricalforms of spacesgavc expressronto a correspondingphysical ard - spiritual atritllde: 'A nondirectionalcircular spac€allows for relaxationandconcenfation.An oval-shapedspace encloseslwo points of encounter.The form of theapsehasrisenfrom
the feuerschism ('firescreen ) ro the s)mbolic place of spirirual promulgadon. A broad space becomes a place of prepararion. a longitudinal spacea route leading to some\rhere.Bo$ spatial directions meet in the square-L\e crossing-the place of ritually structured concenration. Of course $e mythically influenced a(itude conceming rhe effect of spacesdoes nor applv to such a degree to contemporary archilecture, e.g. housingconstrucrion.Bur it is cruciallo bear in mind thar cerlain rooms fumighed in a cenain
way can actually and significandy stimulare and i nfl uence the spi ri t and emori ons of rhe inhabitan6. This should also be undersrood as a waming to those who think lhat size and form ofa room are only ro be determined by lhe space rcquirementsof sondard furniture. and therefore forgel about o$er spatial qualiries. Only if we succeedin understandingthe relaiionshipbet*een form, proponion, effect and usefulness can wc achi eve a meani ngful and w el l -bal anc ed composhion.
XEI: I CEOM ET RIC A LGR OU N DFIGLR E S II ADDITION III PENETRATION
IV V VI V II
B U C K LIN G S E GME N TA TION P E R S P E C TIV E D IS TOR TION
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SquareInterior Spaces The squareremainsclea.lyrecognizable ar besl by means of an all-round symmetrical arrangement ofopenings. A we -balanced sDatial effectwithouldircctionis shownin illustration I, in whichtheope[ingsareplacedon lhe room axes. Going be)ond lhis. $e spacecan be strucoredby \r'ay of a subrle.squaregrid of pilasters,door lintelsandbeams.As thegeometry of the spaceis speciallysupported,the square achcvesan elen more po$etful expression (illuslration2). Also in illusrration3, we nave a square ground-plan,but a space with a completely differenlcentreofgravitybecause of lhe pier and cross-vault.Here.lhe tectonicsof the vault are more important than lhe ground-plan. In illustralion4 to 7, examplesof srructures are shown which-ofren for technical or functionalrcasons-ineachcasegiveto thespace entirelydifferenlrelationsanddirections.They alterthescalc,andareconfusingwhenil comes lo describingtheproponions.Whendividedby meansof a row of piers (illustration4), two equallyrelevantrecEngularspaces are creareo. By thedivisionofthe squareinto rhreepartsin one direction(illustralion5), the emphas$is laidon the mainsDace' in rhemiddle.Thisinlensificationcan be reversedif lhe middleparl whichoneentersis narrowerlhanthetwo boroer areas.In thiscaserhespacein tlte middlegains lhecharactcrofaroute,andsolheareason each sideb€corncmoresignihcant.Illustralion6 shows an enclos€dspace with a skel€lal canopy constructioninside. A sDacewithin a sDac€ emerges.By that. the shapeofthe entirespace is intensified;thecanopydefinesanalmosrsacred area and the edgesbecomea silent zone; a threshold ar€awhich,although existinginsidethe spacc,doesnot fully belongto it. The fully skeleralinlcriorspace(illusrralion Z) is of courseonly co0ceivable ar a largerscale. Hereonerhinksof a spacedesignedfor special tunctlons:fte vasrhlposlylehall of the Creat Tcmple of Ammon in lGrnak wilh irs 134 sandstone columns:thebaseof theterracein lhe ParkCiiell (Barcelona)by Gaudi;or the Danreum projectby Tenagni.Illustrations8 and 9 show thecentnlisationof thesquareby way of rounded or bevellededgcs.These'manipulations of the edges', however,needto be minor in proportion to lhe sides,in ordcrto avoidindistinctspaces. Otherwise this superimpositionmay iasily provokeassociations wirha circularor octagonal spaca.
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Distorted.Basicallv Square,Geometries Suchspacesonly poss.ssthenotionof.ccntality, found in the originalbasicgeomericalform. Because ofbaysandfronral$resholdarcas,the followingexamplcs(illusrmlionI to 3) havean interm.diatepositionbetwecn'purespaccs'and a seriesof spaces.Windowsanddoorsin thebays form paniculararchitectonic spaccsrridr strong individuality.They almosrforcethe rniddleof the space to rcmain void bccaus€the us€r's attentioDis focusedon rhe bays.
Rhythmic Segiesof Spaces
{ illustmtions4 and 5) Stationsof a rout4with a smallcntrancearca which functionsas a'bordar-crossine'.Thc anteroomhas a clear oricntation:a rictangre whichaccompanies $a oura andprepares usfor themainspace.Thismainspacehasde form of a square,butonly at its finalwindowfrontdo€s lhe routcend,Thc roulcis mainlyrccognizable by ils sericsof spacesin p€rspcctive. Suchan effectis prohibitedin illusfarion4 wherefour colunlnsform an additionalspatialfihe., wbich psychologically'stops' thc route.
Rectangular Interior Spaces
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The simplc, rcctangularspacewitb an opcn pitched.oof (illustrarion 6) is anarcherypal form for the housc.lt is to be foundas seDulchre. as wcll asbam or gardenhouse. This foim of space is a Soodaramplcof the significanccof used nat€rials.From the rush-hutto thc solid stone shrine, lhc meaniagand charactcrof thc space can thcrebybe subjectcdto a completetransformation.Thc sudacetexruredet€rmincsthewhole rangeof what is prcciousto $ hatis nErely rmkeshift. This is somerhing that appliesin gcneral !o cvery spacc,but herethis fact is panicularly cvldent. ln rectantularspaces(illustrations 7 and 9), the location of the olanings is panicularly si8nifica . Ifrhey areposirionedin lhe shortsides (illustration7), tie roomtains ar airy aEpsphcrE with a cleir alignm€ntalongits longitudinalaxls. By inscningrowsofpiers,d|istendency is morc manifcst.Thc dark side-zoncs can be assigned lo secondary purposcs and activities. A longitudinalbarrel (illuslrarion9) cnphasises cvcnmorethcclosedcrossdir€ction,
ELEIIENTS OF ALCHITECTLTREl: INTERIORS
OctagonalInterior Spaces \-,---r''r The variantsof ocugonalspaces prcsenred here (illustrations I and2) have.according toconrem_ pomryunde$tanding,quiteanexoticcharact€r. Nevenlrlessthcydo rcvealsomeadvanrages. By wa) ot stretchtng.octagonalspacesdevelopa clearlydefinedmiddlezon€and two narowine edgeareas.The roomlherebygainsan inrimati stability.
Cross-shapedInterior Spaces The crucialproblemwith cross-shaDed intenor (illustrations spaces 3 to 7) is rhevaluationof the two directions. Illustration 3 shows me interpcnetration of two rectangular spaces of tle sam€kind. lfone focosesonly on rheinncrpan. tie equivalence oflhe spatialareasis withoulany doubt still existent. But this spacealso has opentngs-doors or windows-which becauseof different valuations,immediatelyestablisna hie.archy b the spatialareas.I would like in this contextto cite Palladio'sVilla Rotoitdaas an erarnple.a buildingwith a similar ground-plan wher€ the cffecl of the different prospectsis norieable,A spacchavinganirtrinsichiemG*ny of dir€.tionswill beachicv€d,if for examDle Ine proportionofone part is changed.Illusrr;don4 sho*s the effectthat can be gainedby suchan arangernent:onc port of thc spaceis elevatedand th€rebydemotcsthe side pans to bays. A focus to the centml space(illuslrations5 and 6) is reachcdby a crcss-vauh,or evenmote so, by elevating$c crossingarca.This space.whichis called'crossing'in centralised planchurches, has a supremesymbolicand mythicalsignificance.
Circular Spaces Illustration8 showsa rcundwall-shellwithura squareroom, cstablishinga panicular innerarea. By the principlc 'spacewithin space'residual are3srcnain $hich have becn develoDedro pcrfection, espcciallyby thc American architecf Iaris K!hn, with thc r.sult t|at iDtcrEsthgspatial enects were crcated. Thc circular sDacein illuslrEtion 9 bclongstikesquareandcrois to rhc
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'archetypalforms' of architecture. The axtreme spatialconsequences rcquirea well{onside.ed discrerion as ro practical application. Psychological havealsoto bc takeninto aspects consideration; not cvery humanbcingcancope p€rmanentlywith sucha polre.fuI form.
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The overlayinSof two basicforms-the square and ihe circle-has b€€natlemptedin illustration 1. Comparedto the altitudeof the cube, the cyclinderis lower and lhereforefour segments remain as bays. This is an exampleof the differentiationof heightsin a room and the resullingeffects.Nowadays,lhinkin8 io three dimensionsis very oftenneglecEdwhen it comes to desien.The circulaLsDaccwith the souare canopyin the middle{tuiration 21 inteniifies the significanceof the centralspace.At thc sarnc time lhe roomgivestheimpression of openness. A hetcrogeneolsspacewith rnrny side-roomsand bays(illustiation3) delermines its centreby way of an insenedcilcular spaceformed by piels and coveredby a dome.This is a techniquewhich can alsobe appliedto lal€r adaptationsofexistinS spaceswhercone oftenachievesvalid architecNral results.Circular spaces,to d€veloptheir sparialiryand functionaluscfulness,ne€da certain minimum dimension which should not be underestirnaled.Esp€ciallyheightandform of lhe ceiling are crucial. In illustration4 a hiShcircular spaceis cut throughby a bridgewhich,because ofits transparent strucNre,allowsp€rception of the olcrall space.This examplealsohintsst the fact lhat circular rooms,beingnondirectional, are often used in a boundarypositionas the mediation of spaces with multidirectional structure.Illuslration5 describes two cyclinders which interlock. The transparenttangenlialzooe offers a fascinatingarperienceof space. A famousexamplein architectumlhistory is the holse of lhc RussianconslructivistConstantin Melnilov. Illustrarions6 and 7 show circular spaccsin eachcasebeinSrelatedto otber rooms. The laier are designedas loggiasor anterooms which surround the central space. These anangementsplace on the circular spac€an aftbiYalentrole. On the one hand,it is a space of tranquilliry, void of fumiture and other equipment.On theotherhand,it servesasa kind ofdlstributor, beingin thc bcstpositionto connect different routes and meanings.Illustotion 9 actually belongsto thc them€:compositionof spaces.In plan, sqlarc, octaSonands€mi-circle form a rhylhmic scquenc€of spaces.It is imporlant io note how cle3rly geomelricalfonns can be broucht into correlation.
ELEMENTSOF ARCHITECTTRE Ir INTERIoRS
Addition and Penetration of Spacesin Practical Examples The basicformsdealt wilh abovecan give rise !o innumerable combinationsof spaces;so it is oul of thequestionthat theemploymentofclear forms restrictscrcative irnagination.Considering the mightyheritageofarchitecoral history,the aberrations of modernarchitecnrre haveproved one fact: spaceswhich canbe described,which are conceivablein real lerms, havethe advantage of multifariouswaysof utilization;still-and this fact cannot be pointed out often enough-a buildingerists in g€nerallongerthanits initially assigned utilization.IllustralionI showsa square, tenrshapedspacc,fonned by an inner shell which s€pamtesi( from a cor.idor. The roule leadsfrom a represenlationalstaircase-inserted in an ellipse-lo an ante-spacelllter into the main room. In illustration2 a directionalaectangular spaceleadsto a semi-circulaa one which hasa relieving effect, promising a pleasantvtsta. Narrownessof the two spacescreatcs an lmportanttension.In the spacewhich is shown in illustralion 3, it is the vaulting of the reclangularspacewhich createsa relationship withthesemi-circular forecourts. Iltusrrations 4 and5 pictureexamples ofsimpleseriesof spaces: through an entaanceafea one reaches a rectangular room whichis terminatedby a semicirclewhichis ils culmination.Illustrations 6 and 7 provethatit is alsopossibleio give reclangular spacesa centre by way of widening and the superimposition ofa cenrralcircularspace.The laslrwoexamples, illustrations 8 and9, dealwith a rectangularspacewith curvedends.It gains differ€nl spatial effects by way of irs inner configurationor widening.
ELEME:{TSOF ARCHITECTURE It INTERIORS
Oval-shapcd spaccs(illuslrationsI to 3) are not a mcdificationofcircular spaces,but standasan indep€ndent type which, sincethe Renaissance, hasalwaysbecns€€nas a contrastto the circle, Th€circlereprescnB a moncaentricview oflife, the oval shapea duo-centricone. Thc circle was favoured by the conservative,neo-classical lhaorisls(Albcni, Brasunte) in the RcDaissance, whcres the modehs (Penrzzi, S€rlio) preferred the oval, vrhich reached its prime in the Baroqu€.* Of cours€from a formalpointof vi€w, lheovalallowsfor similaroperations asdo€srhe circle. However,similar to the rectangle,the oval is dircctional. Triangllar spaces(illusr.ations4 to 6) are conceivableas specialftrrns becauscof thatr pointedeages,whicharc?ifficuhro tulty urilize. For praclical reasons,the triangl€ is oftcn deformed;theedgesarecut off or rhethreesides are roundedoul. The T.inity churchcsof the Baroqu€areknownexanplcsofthis. For secular purposes, thetriangleis suitableasmgdiationof threedistinctdircctionsoftraffic routes,or if a tnrnk roadsplits into two less importantones. Sp€cialshapcs(illustrations7 io 9) $dch from all possiblepolygonsto the irregularlymodelled space-urccave. To and this chronology, it may bc rernarked thatall spacesshouldhavein commondefining bordcrs.A spaceshouldalwaysallow itself to b€ defurd, describcdand understoodwi$out one havinSto takerefugein its airnospherical values to besin with.
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' Sccl.od. 'Dic ovalcnKirch.nrii.tmcdcs Cinqucnro', il R(,nisch.s Jahtuuch Jtu Ku^sts.schichte, 1tl volum., 1955.
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ELEIIENTS OF ARCHITECTURI Ir ItiTERtORS
Diagraounaticinrcrpr.tadonof Pailadio'sSround'planscxplainingsparialrclatioNhips
The Art of ComposingSpaces cuided by thc work of Palladio,I would like to dernonslratehorv spaccsshouldbc brought itlo scqucnccin ordcr to crcatespatial andaesthctic relationships. It is not sufficicnt to be well acquaintcdwith $c quality of a single spaceas such. One must also be ablc to join spaccsiD a way that togcthar ihcy nukc an intercstinS composition. l T.atro Ollnplco, Vlcenza l5t0 The auditorium dcviatesfrom the semi_circular vitruvian typc, conunonat lhat dme, bccauscof lack of spacc. It is . half amphithcatrcin plan with .isint tiers of scats.At thc l.v.l of fte toP ticr, the spaca is terminated by a colonoadc consisting of blind and frec-standinScolumns giving acccssto thc stairs which src siNatad in thecomets.This sclf-co ainedgeom€ldaalspacc appeaBasif ins.ned into an irrcgular larger onc. The stageis linked with th. audienccby wry of a rcctilinca! scenaeJrons. a .ichly structured facadewidt fivc openiogsthrouShwhich scvan 'slrccts'are visiblcin exrggcrat€dPc$pcctivc. This pcnnancntsc!lin8, reprasenlhga city in Rcnaissarrccstyle, only allowed fo! tha pcrformancc of classicalplays. 2. Pdrzzo Porto. Vlcebz! 1549 The ccntrdl spaccof this complcx is an inner courtvad which is siuratrdbctwccntwo lic kal oalaccblock. onc for thc uscof thc matcr aid iis houschold,and thc other for Sucsls.The two tivinS arcis widr idcnticalfacadcsare situatadba*_ ween two public strcats. Ona antcrsthe palacc through a vcstibulc with four colunut slrpPortinS a cross-vault.Frcm thcrc a narow corridor lcrds to cenral conilc which on clch sidc ha fivc axca. Thc $ace bctwc€n thc i*o columns in thc ccntrc is biggcr than thlt bcNecn lhc othcrs:6,3/6,3/8/6,3/6,3 (frct). Thc colurn$ arc iwo srorryshigh lrd suppolta Sdlcry on lhc lcv.l of lhe upper floor which is also hcld by srnatlcr pilastcrsopposiElhe columns.Thc only clcltEnt that has no symnEtrical countcrysn is thc rnrn stairc8scwhich is situatadat onc si& ofthccoutt' yard a{ually distant from thc two cntranccs. Pa.lladio'sintentiol was !o focusattcntionoo lhc cortilc, bcint drc mo6t bcauritul pan of lhc Dalacc.Thc staircsscis rathaamodestin lcrms of spatiality.PalladioncvcrcraatcdlatSc-scale conncctingspacesbetwccDthe difrarenlfloors.
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It was only in thc Barcque that the st ircase becamea theatrical evcnt. h thc Venetian NDe of palaceit alwaysrenaineda secondarvelement. Much more imponrnt wasthe rhyfhm of spaccs ro be experiencedwhcn walking throughthe roonE: the vicissiNdeofwide andnafiow, squaE and rectangularspacrssuggestingei6er to llnSer of to continueone's way. 3. Palazzo V.lnrrara, Vlc€||'o 1565 The scquenceof spacesin this palacecorrcsponds in a rnalv€llousway to a cadenc€ofdiffercni light intensity. One entersrhe building throlgh a dark narrow corridor which leads to a dim arcaded hall. the transparcncy of which givesaccessto rhe brighr squarcinnerSounyard.The spacc trerwe€nthe columnsdifinishes from the middle towardsthe sidesr2/4/4n W4/2 (fr,t\ . Th.reforc lhe light penetrationis morEintensein the middle of th€ spacc where one actually walks. On the o6er sideof the counyardoneentersaSaina dim hall which medialesb€tweenIhe exteriorand interior,andwhichon bothsidesis narowedby one verticalaxis. Thena dark corridor, which is shonerthanthe fi.st one, leadsinto a tarocn which has a proportionof 2:1. 4. Palezzo Thlene. Vtcenza 1542/,16 The ground-planof this palaccis one of lhe mosl intercsiingin Palladio'searly work, From a lripartite en!"nce hall, the ponal of which is cmphasis€dby a ponico,onearrivesin a squareinner courtyard which is surroundcdby an arcade. The comers sccm to be denscrb€€ause their hish rectangularopenhgsareonly 4 feerwidc whe; lhe normal opcningsare 8 fert *ide. The same rhythn is applied to thc orSanisationof the upper floor. Of inte.rst is the varicty of differc spatial geomet.ic! which ar€ aftangedround the coulOfard within the wholc complcx forming a consistcntscrics of sluces. SquareaoornsalterDatewith oblongor tnnsverser€ctargularspaces. Comersare aniculat€dby way ofthe ocbgonal room-width bays.The stalEscs atr oval in phn. 5. Pslrzzo Porto, Plsz?r Cartello, Vlcenza t57l Only two window axeshavebcenbuilt from this dcsiSn Oottom riSht). The facsdc's dominan! featurcis a tigantic order of colums. A spacpus tripanite cotftnce hall was rneqnt to lcad to a courtyard consdrutedby a rcc(angleand a scfircircle. Thc concaveback wall absorbsrnovcnEnl in the dilcction of ahelongitudinal axis. Spiral starrcasesare grcupcd around the courtyard for acccssto thc buildinc.
6. Villa Rotonds, Vicenzs 156tu7 The Villa Rotondais themostconsistent e*unDle of a symmetricalplan. The idea for such a composttronwas cenainly also due lo the topographicalcharaclerof lhe si!e, a gently slopinghill. Palladio'sinrention,ro conslrurea relationshipbctween rhe laodscapeand tfie building. is manifesredby way of the broad extemalstairson all four sidesof rhe villa. As they rise rowardsthe house,they form a buift continualion of thenahiralhill. The entrances on all four sidesareemphasised by porticoesfor the enjoyment ofthe viewsall round.Inside,thetwo main axes nrn ihrough narrow halls, slightly wider on the entry axis, and meet h a rouncl cenlral space which is rwo-storeyshigh and coveredby a dome.In conlmstto theplanswhich I havedescribed before,it is not theaxisofdeoth that is the rnainprinciple in this case,bur ihe hamoniousarrangement of rectangulalrooms with a circular rnainspacein lhe centre
ll. ChicsadeueZlt.Is, Venic€ 1579 A recuotlc, whichis enclosed from theoutside, includesa basicallysquarernain spaccin its centralarla covercdby a dom€.The edgesof dis room arc bevelledin order to rn€diatesouatcand circle. A r€ctangularanteroomsupponinga ba.rel-shaped vault is extendedin front of lhc mainspace.In contrastlo th€TempienoBarbaro (10), the entranceaxis is orientatedtowardsa singlechancel*hich is anachedro theopposite sideof lhc rnainspacc.
plan,whichhasnoprojecrions oradditions. Fmm an anteroomone arrivesin a rectangular main spacewhich is coveredby a transverse barrel vauk.Thechancelis situa(ed in rheprolonqarron of de longitudinal axis\ idr semi-ciicular n-iches addedto it; it is flantedlo the left andrherighr by mjnorsquarechapels wirl compound column! in thecomers.Theemphasised tr;nsverse direction ofthe mainspacecreates a calminqcounterbalance to themovement axisofentran; to alLr.
12, Chlessdi S. Luci., Venice t564 Herc also,we havean cnclosed.nearlysqlare
13. PalazzoCapra, Vicenza1563-64 Similarto the PalazzoPono (2). a rhythmical, syrnmetrical sequence of spaces developsalong
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7. Vlls Pisani, Bagnolo di Loniso lS42 The main entranceis situaredon a iouitudinat sideof the spaciousrectangular courtya;d*,hich rsmostlysuftoundedby an arcade.Thecorunrns ofthe arcadeareinterruptedin theenlrancearca Srvulgwaytoa tliple flighrofslairsanda ponico. The vestibulele3dsdirecdyinrothe cross-shapd vauhedmain spac€.The passagero rhe garden rslhrougha lransverserecbngularloggiawhich hastwo semi-circularterminationson the snon sides.
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t. VUla Pisad, lltontagnana (psdur) l5S2 From th€ streetand an outsideshircasc. one arrivcsdirectlyin rhesquaremain room wirich, by way offour free-standing columnssupporting a transversebarrel vault, is divided into mree zones,A corridor givesaccessto the loggia where the positionof the columnscortespondsto that of the main space.From here on! has access eilher to the upperpart of rhe buitdingby way ol two oval staircases on eachshon sideof the loggia.or onecondnueson axis into the garden by way of an outsidesbircase.
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9. Chies. d€l Redentore,Venice 1576 The ground-planconsistsof three spadalar€as which correspondto different funitions. The church is enteredand a long rectangularnave providesrhe spatialframe for the Drocessional routeof$e faithful.Thedirectionof movemenr is emphasisedby lhe longitudinatbarrel vault and the doublecolumnsof both sidesof the nave, which in €achcaseconstiturea niche.The nav€ terminatesal rhe most imponant pan of $e church, the s€lf-containcdchancel which is coveredby a dome and is accessiblefrom all sides.The spaceis er argedon rhreesidesby way ofaps€s.The backofthe middleaDseis a *all of columns through which the cioir can be viewed. 10. Tempietto Barbaro, Mss€r l5t0 A rectangulaa porticogivesaccessto a circular domedspac€.To this spacechancelsare attrched which arc situat€don the prolongationof thernain axes.They haveroundedback walls and ther€by conespondto thc form of the main space.The entire compositionis orientatedtowads the cenlre, as with the Villa Rotonda. 7
38
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at aiShtanglesto eachother sPaces rectangular wirh similar dimensionswhich, when taken room together,form a T-shape.The lransverse apsesaddedlo ils shon sides hassemi-circular From tlere one reachestle rectangularmain roomwhichpicksup the motiveof|he four col unmsfrom lhe entrancehall. This sPaceis enlarged to theleft andriShtby a secondaxis.A small loggiacreatesthetransitionto thecounyardand, 14. Project for r Prlsce in V€nice 155f, inlo todreoYalsiaircase a very evenlfulsequence on theleft, givesaccess This projectdiscloses axis.The square lhe house. of spacesalonga lonSitudinal entrancehall is structuredby way of four free_ above. 15. Project for a Prlace ln venlce standingcolumnscarryinga cross-vault when compar€dwith tbe formerexamplelils basically by lwo room is folloeed -This Groundpllnsof projedsb) Palhdio(contrnued) the axisofdeplh. A narro\! corridorleadsto a widenedanteroomand futallylo a quietsquare by an arcadesup_ inner counyardsurrounded portedby four free-standing columns.Tmvers_ ing the counyard,the roomsSraduallynarow inlo a lo88lafollo{ed by a seconcl again,leading and la.gercourtyard.
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projectshowsa similar organisation;however, rhe situation is different. The transverse entrancehall is biggerand againis rectangular constitutedby four free-standingcolumns. A shortnarrowcorridor leadsto a snuller oblong hatl which to the left receivesliSht from the adjacen!courtyard,and to the riShl givesaccess to the main staircase,A secondshort corridor leadsthrolgh an arcadedhall inlo thecourtyard which, on its opposi(eside, is conlined by a s€condarcadedhall. 16. Pslazzo Angsrano, Ylc€nza 1564 of The ground-planis conslitulcdby a sequence lhree spatial unils, rrhere one preparcs for the oext. All arcashave in commonthe motiveof the positionofcolumns bul differcndyaPplied. The entrancehall is slructuredby way of two directionandcor_ rowsof columnsin transverse rcspondinghalf columnsrecessedinto lhe walls. Theadjacen!first courtyard,with anarcadc,has thesamewidth asthe entrancehall, bu! is much de€pcr.The colunmssurroundthe counyardor y on threesidesand,asarcades,supporta 8allery. The openfounh sideof the entmnceaxis gives accessto lhe main slaircaseso that lhe narrow passages on both sidesof lhe staircaseinto the secondarcadedcourtyardappearaspolongations of arcadesof the firs! courtyard- The larSer by an arcadewith courtyardis againsurrounded theexceptionofthe staircasearea.By the spacing oftheiows ofcolunns, the width of thetwo olher spacesis takenllFJagain. 17. PalarzoTorre, Verom 156l hasanenclosed Thisbuildingis free-standinSand reclangularground-plan. The two main axesdelerminelhe organisationof intersecting differentspaces,The shorterentranceaxisleads first ofall into a reclangularspace,lhen into the squaremain ball, and from thereagainhto a reclh€ man tangularspacewhich accornmodales The threeroomshav€the samcwidth staircase. of thecolurnns.The because andarelransparent longeraxis runs throuShthe two sideentrances which, by way of narrow corridorsand snrall anterooms,l€ads againinto the centralhall.The principlehereis the gradualwideningof spaces towardsthe cenlre. 16, ViUr Mocenico, 1564 Thc wholccomposilionis orientatedlowardsthe centml hall as is the casewith the Villa Rotonda The differencehere is that a definitemain axis exists,On two sidesexteriorspacesare created by way of quaner-circlearcadcswhich prepare for lhe interior. Here we also have locatedthe nrainentrances,whoseponicoes consistof eight columns,whereasthe side
Ceilingsand Floors Thesccxamplcsshouldonly scwe as a smali mdication of what wc havc lost in terms of trearmentofthe mostihportant surfaccsofan intenor spacc-thc floor and thc cciling. Thc surfaceof a roomwhich wausee3chday, on which we walk all the time, cannottr€ dealt with only in terms ofuscfulncss or caseof maintenaDcc. Tha sam€ applicsto rhe cciling, the tlrminatior of I space
aboveour hcads.A sprce's significanccand us€, indcpcnd€nt from its sizc, car bc adaptedand structurcdby way ofan intentionaland pair|staking fcatment of thesd suafaccs. Centralised spaccscan be emphldsrd, lincs of movemcnts can bc represcnted.No carFt covcring the entire floor can have the effect which is so clearly achicvedby scparatcbetutiful nrgson a haads:urfacai the crcalion of sriall islandswithin a space, of infonnal borders which underlinethe crnployment and structure of thc room; 8nd vhich also,
Srudentworls on rhe thcm. of Ccilingsand Floors
40
whcn looked at, give rise to a little happinesssnd relief. With one cxemple, I would also likc ro explain thc clonomic aspectof a soundtr€ftlent of surfaccs. Ai thc moment timber ceilings are vcry popular. But, riany pcople pr€fer to use chcap vcnecrcd pancls, or even foarn rubb€r berns with an cmbossed wood pattcm. After somcyesrssuchjunk becomesdusty,sciatchcd and mean-lookin8, and has to bc raplacedby a ncw ceiling. Compalcdwirh this, wc still find in old housesunpaintedceilings rnadcof natural
Jmb€r. Every few years they are cleanedwith soap and brush and thcteby develop ovcr time 1 silky lustre, a patina,which makesthe matetial, n the course of decades, more and more )e5uritul. Thesc thrc! clamples demonstratethc pnnciple of floot and ceiling correspondingto eacho0rcr. lhey show how thc two surfacesare broughtinto nlo relationshipby way of fornul and consttuccompositions.Thc first eramplc (illustra-ional tion l) is the banting hlll of Otto wagner's Post
OmceSavingsBankin Vienna.TheSlassbricks of the floor correspondto the glassroof in ils The pie6 teodencytowardsdernaterialisation. cmergefiom the floor pa(itions and Penetrate the roof into infinity. Also in thc nextexample (illuslration2) the companments of thc vault correspondto thoseof thc floor. Thc transverse lrches of the cciling are representedin the floor, thc rilesofwhich repeatlhe diagonalprinciple. A classical,8€omctricalordcr is applied in illustration 3. ,osef Plccnik createdan alrnost
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sacralspacewhendesigning lheentmncehallfor $e 'Zacherlhaus'in Viennafillustratioo4). From a shinyfloor riadc of naunl stone,black nudle columnsrise and breakthroughan exquisitely dctailedbrightcciling.Theclosepositions of the marblecolufius,and their sitnificanccas pan of ihecomposition of thespaccasa whole,makc it necessary to leave them wilhout base and capi(al.Whatis mostcrucialis the cnvelopeof the wholespace.
R oof l r us \ .f r hc Sr n F nnr e,c o c hur c h. R J \ennr
DomcdHall in the PalaisRasumofsky,vienna, by L. Monloyer. lE06-07
|or orlhe DomedHall, PalaisRasumofsky,by L. Monroyer. t806-07
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on |he ftcme of Columnsand Picrs
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Columnsand Piers Cennrriesof architecturalculture havecreatedan inex.haustible variety of forms of columls ano piers.In Creekarchitecturccpochsw€rc named afte. their orders- Time and again the proponioninganddecoration ofa columnor oier servedas an indication6nd characterisation of a cenain architecturalstyle. The students' dowings which accompanythis chaptershould merely remind us of this. h remainedfor our timesto giveup thecontinuous refinement ofthis archaicform. A columnhasa relationshiD wirh
thc groundand hasto carry a load; this alone shouldhave beeosufficientenoughto tlestow higherconsiderarions on rheselwo prop€nies. Concrete or brick piersare probl€maticdue to ItE vulnerabilityof their edges,whichup to a certainheightrcquire specialprot€ction.The reason for the cmploymentof banalconcr€te,steeior timberpiersnowadaysis v€ry simpleandclear: it i5 dueto high wageswhichhavefar exceeded thcpric€of nuterials.Experimenls withconcrere picrsby Morandior Nervi, for cxample,are no longerpossiblebecause the makingofthem has bccometoo exF,€nsive. Exposedsteelpiershad
lo disappearfrom the classicreDenoireof architecturedue to rigorousfire regulationsl ano fte qualiry oflimberwhichisgenerall! available todayis sofeeblethalit hardlt allowsforanisan treatment. Doesall thismeanrheendofthe columnandpierasanelementin archilecuralcreation?Of course.the high wagesfor fabricarion arejustified.But it wouldbe imDonantto maKe societyapprcciaEthe significarc; of archiccNral designandarchitecrutal themes,andlo thereby gainpublicsupporlwhich$ould makeit meaningful againlo learnfrom lhe Ancienrshow to us€columnsas a deviceof structure,
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Arcadeofa buildingfron rh. jttiddleAgcs,borcgna
Eascofa picr in rh. coldcn Hall of rh€casdcHohcnsalrburg.c 1500
Ponalof thc HciliSgeislkirchc, vi€nna,by J. Pl.Cnik, l9 l0 - t I
Bas€of a pier, BasilicaSan Viialc. Ravcnna.545
villa Salrcgno. Sanlasofia di pcdcmonrc,by pajladio, 1569
ELEMENTSOF ARCHITECTUREI: INTERIORS
Doors If one considersthc conceptionof an inlerior space,everyopening,whelberdooror window, meanstheviolationof thewall. Thesevioladons, however,givc the roomits directionand i$ appropriatemeaninS. Doorsplaya decisiverole ln theypreparethe visilor for thiscontextbecause of the thespatialcventto come.The significance door shouldthercforebe consideredfrom differen!sandDoints. forour rellectionis to A cnrcialirrc-condition recognizethedoor asteing an ihporlant symbol. This baial statefiFntrnakess€nseifone examines the manyversionsof door formatsavailableal present.We areusedto a door havinSthe form of an upright rcctangle. Here lhe most popular sizeslie in lhe proponionsl:2 to l:3 (illustration l). Beyondthis, lhe meaningofa door can vary accordinSto its purpose.A low door for whichgivesaccess to the parlourofan instance, old farm house,clearlycodmunicatesthat the privatearcais to bepenetratedinto. Doors ofde individually by way samekind canbe emphasised of addidonalopeninSson the sidesor above (illusrralion2). This kind of arlculation also faciliratesorientation. It is not always the scale of rhe humanbody which detenninesthe size of buildings,thc a door.Espcciallyin monurnental dimensionsof the openings darivc from lhe proponions of thc raceptive space. Quile often for everydaypurposes,a door within a door {,as conceived,which could be usedeasily by peoPle just wantingto go thmugh. But when rnajor eventsoccurred,the cnlite over-dimensioned door was opened. Descendantsof thesepalace doors arg still to be found in bourgeois houses of the nineteenthcentury. Thc norrnal foldinSdoor of a Vieoncscbourgeoishousehad a width of 1.25rnetresanda heiShtof 2.50 metrcs.But normally only onc half wasopened(about 60cm width)-seemingly nowadaysa hardly bearable standard.(I am always amusedto seesome 20O studentswho cameto my lecturesat theT€chnical University in vicnna goinS in and out through sucha nanow slit withoutanyonehavi[g the ides to open the s€condwinS of the door; a good e&mpl€ of the relativityof frrnction.) More delerminedby tunction is the position of a door. But even under complicated functional constraints,it is possiblein most cascsto find an appropriateposition which is in gc.metrical harmonywith thc room. Illustratiods 3 to 6 show attemptslo craatea pleciserelation bct\reenwall and opening. Of prime imponance are the pro-
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ponions of door heighr and door lintel !o fie residualsurfaccsat the sidesof thc door opening. As a mlc ir might bc approp.iateto apply the sysiemof prolrcnionwhichdctcrmincsthe ground-plan andthc clevatiolofa buildingalso io the s€condaryelenrentssuchas windows and doo$. lf i! is nol possiblc!o coordirlatedoor and wau in this way, thercarc otherdcvicesto neverthclessachievea harmoniousspace.Rclatively simpleis thecreadooof nichesin a wall or lhe concentmtion of a groupof doorsandwindows. A morcdifficult method,bu onc *hich helpsto cffich the spatial afiiosphcrc, is to insen bays which by way of piers are s€paratedfrom the actual room and would cushion irrcgular posttionsofdoors.This 'fiher' in frontofthe opening would c.eatea propet door spacewhich is symparhcticto thc functionalstructureof the actual room (illustration O. The combination of door andwindowclemcnts(illustration7) is very appropriate, esp€cially in thecas€ofbalconies, terracesanil loggias.It is css€ntial,however,thal a distinctionin terms of proponionand sizc betweendoor and windo\, is retaincd. Befo.e I cnd this s€ction,I would like to mentionsometechnicalandconstructionalfactors reladngo doors.The violarionof thc wall causeo by a door can b€st be ovcrcome by fair-faced brickwork.The aftangement of lintcl anddoor lcaf is determined by the logicof the brickwork stttrcore,andtheframeis s€qrredin thc rnasofy accordingly.Ifthe wallsareplastercd,thedoor fram€ in most cases si{ply surrounds the opening. And becauseof the incessantctack betwc€ntimber, plastcr and wallpapet, $e inhabitantrcalisesvery soonthat thesedifferent rnaterials aredifficulrtojoin properly.With old doors.theseweal areaswereresolvedby wayof richly prof cd framcsand the employrnent of beautitul timb€r. ln addition to that, tne decorators uscdmouldingsto achievca p.oper transidonfrom door frame to wall. (A fantastic example is Otto Wagncr's design for the managcmentroorns in the Post Office Savings Bankin Vienna.The doorsare treatedas logical clcrncntsof thc conposhionof the wall surfaces; lhe *all panelsare thercforcof the ssmelimber as thc door and window fmmes.)Our contcmpomry standarddoor setsoffcr fela possibilities in terms of design. Today we can only conceotrateon the quality of proponions, the matcrial and colour. The st€cl frame is mercly the rcpres€ntation of a fmmc aroundlhe plain doorleaf. I think thereis no longerany signof lheold typeofdoor. SeeminSly our buildingmdus!ryis or y interestcd incoshing nahtralproductssuchastimb€r into fibrcs only !o laler glue rhe stuff together agrin and to roll it imo big sheels.The tccluriqueof rnaking penelsoul of boards had led to astonishing results which b€camcrcal worksof an.
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*i; Studert works on the them€ of Doo.s
FormerStadtbahn surionat Kadsplarz,Vi€nna.byO. wasner, 1898-9
Kind€rschutzstarion, Vicnoa,by J. Plc{ni}, 1907-08
PalmHouscin thcBurggaflcn.vicnna.by F. OhFlann, c 1900
Hous€Knips. Vienna. by J. Hoffmann, 1923-24
Th€S€c.srionBuildirg,vi.nna. byJ.M. Olbnch.1898
Zachcrlhaus,Vienna.by J. Plcinik. 1903-05
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vicnna,by A. Loos, l9t0 Buildingat Michacl€rplaE.
'Pawlatsche',popularAustriancxpressionfor an arcade,ninctc.nthccntury
ilindows he themeofthis sectionis the window ano ns rlationshipto interio. space.lts effecton the outside,the facade.is deahwith in the seclon dealiDgwith the compositionof $e facade. Wilh respect to the relarionshipberween indow and interior space, first of all the - indow's functionas the sourceof lighr is of greatimponance.To b€ more specific,we should ralk aboutthe effectp€netrating light hason $e Lteiiorspace.To the sameextentthat a room crcat€dby its wall surfaces,it is enliv€nedby Iighr.Onemaythinkofa sunbeamstrikingupon a whitewall or producingreflectionssomewherc rthe room.The pl6yoflight andshadecreating aightanddark zonesin a room, motivatesour *,var€nessof the space-wherebynol only the sourceof the light, the window, remainsin oui .onsciousn€ss, but alsothe illuminatedsurfaces f$e room:$e tertureofthe walls,a sparkling oor, fumitureor otherobjectswhichare given -prominence by thelight. Thercfor€thedesignof an interiorspaceandthechoiceofmaterialsand tours, shouldalwaysuke into accounttheeffect f p€netratinglight. * one aspectthat is quite often underestimated is the qualityof light and its dependence on the rimeofthe day, season,weather,cardinalpoints rd intensity.All this resultsin certainthough whichwe expcrience unsn8 light atmospheres ;s harsh, soft, suMued, dazzlinS,sparkling, obscure,misty etc. It is also imponantto find rt what quantityof light is app.op.iatefor a )ace.Too little light canonly be complemented artificial illumination;too muchor too direcl -ylight shouldbe filteredwi$ the help of devices .,rch as shutters,blinds, lintels, transparent inains and plants.Also forms of doubleskin 'all constructionwhich allow indirecl (i.e. rts ;rcnsity weatened)light to penetmteare a good and appropriatesolution. I do notallow my students to designhorizontal bbonwindows.becauseI want themfrom the rrrst momenton to tackle the Droblemsof the
windowand its sigDificance for the room. In the end,lighlcomingfrom a ribbonwindowonlyhas a very monotonousand banaleffect on space, Therefore for housing developments, the appropriateness of ribbon windows is rather lirnited.I am of the opinion that singlesources of light offer an opportuniryfor the spaceto be li( in a muchmoreexcitingwaywhilelheyalso allow the cr€adonof areasin shadewhich are very pleasantin time of direci sunlighlpenetration. Equallydoubttul in |ermsof benefiris tle fullyglazedwall or cunirn wall.The excessive amountof lighl is exiaustingfor lhe eyes,and oddlyenough,afterhavingtom up the wall, one hasto counteract the implications of excessive lighi by way ofspecialsunprolectionequipment. The room itsclf is completelyopenonly on one side,its geometryis dertroted.andlhe tension b€tweeninsideandoutsideis diluted.But, iffor functionalor designreasonsone \vall of a toom hasro be left open,it is much bette.to applyan architecturallyeffectivemethod,suchas a row of piersor welfo.dered bars, which would not destroy,butenrich,theinteriorspace.As we are not in favourof the ribbon window, we haveto cometo termswith the positionof the window. ln general,we can €slablishthat if a room ls penetrat€d by light onlt from oneside,whichin theextremecasecouldbe directsunlighl,anuncomforlabledazzlewill easilyresult.Bu! if the main sourceof light is balancedby a smaller windowon anotherside-the oppositeonewould be b€st- or fmm above.lhen the room will be betterlil. Even reflectivemasonrysurrounding big windowscansoftent}tecontrastb€tweenthe brigh! outsideand the dark inside. Nor only is rhe way in which lighl affectsihe interiorspacesignificant\r'henlalkingaboutthe is positionof a window, but the view presented a cenainpan of important.The *indow f!_ames our environmentand makesit inlo a kind of pictur€, but one which is changingconslandy, painting to themotionless very muchin constrast oo the wall which canbe an artisticsubsdnrdon for what migh! be seenlhrougha window. The of theoutsideworld is inlensifiedby awareness
a crosswindow,or generallyby \rindowswith struc$ringbars,andbecomes wealerthebigger the windowopeningis. Thuswindowsor glass walls which are too big, which open up the interiorspacctolally,maketheroomuncomforuble; the feelingof safetyand securilyis lost. If nevenheless a generouslransitionfrom the inside!o the oulsideis desired,one shouldnot think of achievingthis in an abruptway. but gradually.by way of loggiasor transparent ancl lightweiBhtprojeclions(verandas for instance). lf weconsiderallthepointswhicharesi8nificant when dealingwith the window-such as light penetrationand its effec!on the interior, Iight quality,positionof the window, view from the window-then it becomes obviousl})at,strictly speaking,fie windowdeserves asmuchcareas doestle actualroom. BasicForms and Bars The square,tle triangleand lhe circle are lhe basicgeomelricalforms for the window. The latter two, however,have to be regardedas specialforms.Traditionallytheywereusedfor spacesof eminentor solemnsignificance.It is thereforerecommendable to trcat circular and triangularwindowswith greatcare,and to use them sparinglyso ihat their meaningis not trivialised.Othe.wisetheywoulddegene.ate to too quickly(illusrranegligiblegraphicattribules tio[ l). The classicwindow hasa rectangular upright format. For thousands of yearsof architecture, thiskindof li*lt sourcehasprovedto be the most economic both in terms of conslructionand in optimaltermsof functlon, Relatedto constructionalconsiderations,the simpleargumentagainslbroadwindowsis that lhey violateth€ wall considerably.In termsof function,lheuprigh windowhasevolvedto meet moslsimplyandefficientlytherequirements for sufficientli8ht, air and view. The squarewindow,althoughrepresenting a preciseform.is a veryabstract. and.in addirion. a very banalformat.It canbe appropriateif in the composidonof a facadeit is used as a harmonizing elementtogetherwi$ olherforms.
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Fo.merstag€-set depot,Vienna.by G. Semp€r,l87l
Leopoldwingofthe HofburS,vi- 1a.byP 1660-66
ELEMEMS
In anonymousrural and urban architecture, squarc window formats are almost exclusively lsed for s€condaryutility spaces.Vcry rurely arc they applied to dorheslicbuildings. Scvcrd times when I thought I had discovercd a square window, it tumed out ir facl to be slightly reclan8llar. The exact squarc has also the disadvantagcof apFarhg disto(€d whcnvi€wed from a cenain anglei face to facc it takes on a horizontal fonrut. The most common window proponionsresuhfrom thedivisionof thecircle into 6rer parts( I : I . I 6); the division of th. circlc irro four pans (l:1.4); lhe goldensection;and the proportion l:2.5 (illustration2). I shouldmcntion that all my recortunendations of design,although concemingdifferen!aspects thcy rnay soundirrEfutable,alwaysallow for filstrate exccptions.I refer only to k Corbusicr's 'ribbon wirdow' or Aldo Rossi's'squarewirdow'. windo\r divisions are firsdy related to the kind of oper ng one is dealingwith. They have to comply with basic function, such?rsopcnin8. ventilation and cleaning. In addition to these, window bars c6n be employed for the aesthetic structuring of thc window plane (illustrations 3 to E). This Lttrr desiSnrcsponsibilityhasbeen very much ncglectedin the rccent years. h was rhouShtto bc cnough to satisry the passionfor an unhindered view by way of panoramaglazing, which was rnadepossible by th€ producls of the Slazingindustry.Very oftenas a re$lt, the intimacy of a spaccwas destroyed:tastelcss 'cunain culturc' tr,astbc us€r'saesponsa, Bccause of all thcse rcasonsonc shouldgo back again to sensibledivisions for the window and reconcile its desiSn with that of the facade. Th€ simple divisions, dependint on the kind of openinS, are horizontal or vcrtical, and the superimposition of these two. The colunon 'window-caoss'hasbe€nquite successful. It is economic in tcrms of timbcr consumPtionand handy in terms of ventilation and clcsniDg.One ofthe top casarncnlscan oFn sepantely by way of a levcr rnecharism. Thc lowcr sftlc hung casemcntsalsoallow for tbe uMvoidablecurtains to be moved asidc when lhe willdow is io be opcncd. If peoplehave fcar of heighls, Ihey can le3non the closedcas€mentand look out $rough the other oFned one (illustration 6). The cxamples in illustration 4, which show differcnt arrangcments of bars, are rather decorativc. Thescwindows aaesp€cial in l€rms of their strucure, lheir figurarion.the lension berweenlarSeaand srnaller divisions: they have an indcpendcntarchitectu€l siSnificance.The
OF ARCHITECTURE I: INTERIORS
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ELEME\TS OF ARCHITECTURE I: INTERIORS
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window surface itself becornesan imDor.ant elemen!of design. It would be precariousto replacethesekinds of windowsby synlheticor panorama glazing. They would destroy the texore of rhe facade. A successfulbar patremin architecrumlhistory is the multipledivisiooof the window in fairly exactsquarecompartmen6(illustration5). For this rype, the differcnt thicknessof bars ls a characteristicwhich resultsfrom the constructional functionsof frameand thinnerelcmenls. Vertical sash-windows,common in Great Britain, allow for the greatestgraduarionof ventilalion.Both halvesof thc window can be moved upwardsand downwardsand they can remair in any F,osition-ir can come in either from tle top or the bonom. Specialforms of windowsdeak with hereare seenasderivarions of the re.langular window (itlustrations7 and 8). As regards rhe combrnationof differcnl *indow forrnats,J would like to suggesta smpre 'peasan!s maxim' (illustration9): l. Different window fomralsshouldnever line up witi eitherlheir lintelsor their sills. Otn€rwise this would be a typical result of T-shape thinking . Cut the formrls out of dark cardboard and mo\e themaroundon the facadedrawing: yo! *ill leam quickly how to avoid banal solutions.The tensionof the fomraE one ro anotheris teometricallymeasurcable. 2. One shouldb€ carcful with lhe additionof identical fo.rnalsboth in the horizontalandlhe verucar direction.Ifone triesto alt€malelhe siresstorcy by storey,it will becomeevidenthow lively $e relationshipbetwe€nopeningand nusonry can become(illustration9). Window Flgur€s Windos figures are created when differcnt formats are brou3ht int6 "ar15",,a interdependence. They can even ba::t in an architecturalfaame and thciefoae b.ao6rc a paaticular elementoithe facade.I havesketched someexamplesto explainwhatI mean:palladio (illusrrarjons l. 2 top,3). Schintcl(illu.r:arion} 2 bonom.4. 5 top and middle.r,. 7). Gaudt (illustrationE),and tr Corbusier(illustrarion9). Window figurcs are always CividcJ into different elements. Openings with different functionsand m.anings are combined!o foi,-I an 'image'.The resuhis anexcitingconducrot light into the in@riorandan archirectura! aniculation on the outside.Window figurcsnrc alsoesFrially addressedto cxt rior space.He.e the rclationship to lhc overall facadeis crucial.
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Vienna.by J. Diirrhamner Markelhallin l-andstrasse,
The Wlndow ss Room Dlvlder The cxamplesin this plate have treenmeasured up by sl.dent"Jfrom old Vicnncscbuildings.They show dre refined treaunent,aherichnessin dctail lnd de significancewhich wasappliedto th€ window. The bay window in illu$ration I is designed as a spccial room. A window is not rnercly 'a hole in the *all', it definesa real spacewith an ar€ain faon!of thc witrdow, a bre3st-wallzone and an erterior space.This is best describcdby thc cxpericnccwc havcwhcn approachinSa wrndow: we are no longerinsideand not yet outside. Behind us Iics tlrc prot cting room and in front of us the exteaiorworld. The window has to be casyto reachto bc uscd. lr shouldalso tell us sonEthingaboutthe significanceand situation
Vienna, by C. Vostrovky. No 12, Akademiest.asse. and Schlors Schnnbrunn, vienna. by G. Aicher
BuildinSar Ilinorirenplatz, vienna. by E. Aich€r
of the roomsbehind.Illustrationsl, 2 and4 also showwindows$ herelhe spacebetweenexterior and interior windowscan b€ used.By lhis, an oDtimalrcsDonseto diffcrcnt climatic ne€dsis en' are available sured-becauseseveralcasements to be openedor leff closed.This work much berler than even thc most sophisticatedmodem ventilaiion systems(if they work at all!), Thesehints advocatethat the window should b€ understood asa spatialelementandnot astnnspar€ntwall. A spccialtheme is inroduced by lhe arched window (illustrations2,3 and 4). Although dividing the arch is an exremely risky task in aestheticlerms, this w.s often undertakento emphasise certainwindowsover others.In the nin€leenthcenrurythc archadwindo\t wasalao
usedin engineer-designed buildings. But the bars in the arch alrcadyusherin the dominationof the macbine(illustration3). Hcinrich Tessenophad slrong opinionsabout filling in panswhichcameinto conflictwith the overall formi especiallywhen-as with lhe arched window-a rcctilineardivision meetswith an arch so lhat unsightly residualare3sremain. As much as an archedwindow canbe very attractive,these difficultiesshouldnot be brushedaside.Albeni haspobably expEssedthe mostsevener€striction conceming this problemi '[n thes€Sons of Ap.rtures various desiSns have becn commendedlbut lhe bestArchitectshavenever madeUseofany but Squaresandstmit Lines.'r
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EEE H.HAL BRIT'I'E R Facsdelnd Window Axls Funhet referencelo a conEmporarygrievance E is givenby ihcs€facsdesegmen6.The windows let us irnaginethe wonderfully high rooms behind. It is rcally qucstionablewhetherthe loweted ceiling heiShts in council housing represent suchstrikinSproSrcss. Ofcoursethey L ar€ cheaperthan the old ones.Bathroomsand toiletsare cxpensive:but would anyMy think of ignorinSthemin councilhousingbecauscof cost facrors?| just want to hinr at the priorities _ whichshouldgovemus whenrnalinSbuildings. Unfonunatelyonc priority, the quality of the space,hasbeennost ersily renounced.And what alsob€€nlost in this contcxtis the high, reprEsentativewindow. Therefore,againan admonition
H. R. schmrdt from Albeni aboutthc lreaimentof *indo$s: '...from whaleversidewe takcin theLight. we oughtto makc suchan Openingfor it, as may alwaysSiveus a free Sighlof lhe Sky, and de Top ofthat Openingoughtneve.to be too low, becausewe are to seethe Light with our Eyes, and not with our Heels;besidesthe lnconyenience,$at ifone Man getsbetween anotherand the Window,rheLiShtis int€rceptcd, andall lhc rest of thc Room is darken'd, $hich never happenswhen the Light comesfrom above.' Withoutinlendingto anticipatetle sectionon facades,I would like to show herc parts of facad€swhich rclateto tbe vertical graduationof windows. The examplesdemonskatethat in former times the valuationand meaningof
paniculafstoreyswasalsoappliedro dledcsign of their windows. The a.rangemcntin these buildingsreprcsented socialconditions, because differcnt storeyswere inhabitedby membersof differentsocialclasses.N€verthcless todaywe are attractedby this differentiation not only for nostalgicrcasons.It allowsfor sponEn€ous orientation,the racognitionofpanicular storeysand a precisearchilcctunldesignation.To achicve 6is, it is norabsolutelyneccssaryto usediffer€ot windo* formats for special stor€ys. Different rnat rials on the facadecanalsosuppona similar effect, 'L.onc BanishAlbcni,1.r EooktonArchit.ctun, EnSlish publishcd tnnslatior byAIccTinnt.London | 965.chaDEr XIl.
Studcnlworks on $e them. ot SBkcascs
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nesaon !op. Here the motivc of lhe staircaseis linkedwi$ a socialfunclion.In Baroquepalaces thc well ofthe staircaseb€comesa representative Hall. The staircaseitself is gorgeousin detail, heslaircaseis lhe venicalelementofaccessin oversizedandnrnsup in severalflights.lt is full building, which enablesone to ascendand of lighr and sometimesends under a mighry lescend from one slorey to the next. The primitive forcrunnerof the staircaseis lhe ladder. cupola.The acrualpurposeof the staircasets The : is theshones!connectionbelweentwo places. dominatedby the nolion of representation. ot it is alsosteepandhardlo use.In mostcas€s typical staircasesin relidential buildings in Vienis not firmly insBlled in orde. to be used na reachedlheir prime in the nine|eenthcentury: - flexibly, and thereforelacksany properspatial curvedstairsof naturaistone,frce projeclionover .r architectonicquality.The otherextreme,the one side, minimal lhicknessof rnaterial,generous gaps bet*een flights. anistically designed rmp,allorrsforan almostimperceptible lranslbanistersand profiled handrails.The well was on from storeyto storey.The differencesin leight are very easilyovercome.But the space in mostcasesilluminated by a rooflight and quite which is requiredfor a ramp is considerably oft€n,besideswater-taps,conlainedsculptureor rrgerrhanfor a slaircasebecauseof the gentle stone benches.ln Orto wagner's residential buildings 6ese detaitshavebeenexecutedasreal iseof the former. masterPreces, its form determines - The functionofa staircase andat the sametime shapes theenclosingspace. In theyearsafterthe war, spacewascul down we perceive either a straight flight or two for economic rcasonsand the large-scalestairppositediagonalfli8hls which cut throughthe casehasbeensacrificedwithouthesitation.This in is why we havemerely functionalstaircases ,Jace.or a windinS movementwhich turns our modembuildings. They appearasan sddidon The way a skircaseruns: whetherit of disjoin@ds€ctionswith tiny landidgsand requiresa-typically vertical-well; wherei( fi(s -pwards.ground-plan: lto the its constructionand rnaterial minimal flights. The Senerous8ap bctwecn re all aspectswhich contributeto its form. flights, which allo,*ed the view from storeyto glance the chanSing storey,has almos!completelygone. A shon at history shows emphasiswhich wasgivento the staircase.The The staircase,which fomerly wasan imporqomanesque tan! area of humanconmrlnication.has to be spiral staircase,for inslance,had given back hs approprialc significancein a o light and havingthe shapeof a tube filled a prcssed into building. solutions for stai$ on a more r€cess in the masonry or was _lecial approprialescale a.e still possible.It is not . circular (ower. lt fulfiUed the purpos€of transportingpeopleupstairsanddownstairslike difficult to crcatcthcm as spaceswhich we find pleasan!,which receiveenoughliSht and allow venicalconidor. Du.ingthecothic period,the views to the outside, and which arc enlivenedby uter skin of the suircasewas a(iculated by a sunbeampcnetratingthrougha roofli8ht.The columns and tracery. Light could -rcades. widthsdo not needio be enormous:l.l0 metres lherefore penetraleand it could be looked to l 20 metrcsis anough,if landingsintervene 'hrough. In the sixteenrhc€nturywe havestair )wers which werc extendedvedcally beyond vJhichallow for conversationor restingon a bench. buildingsthcybelonged to, havinSa'crow's-rc
Staircases
- The mo$ imponantrequLement ofa staircase is thatthedegrceofrise is asgendeaspossible, in order to rcduce to a minimum lhe effort necessary for climbing. To determine a convenient angleofrise, firsl ofall thestrideof a hurnanbeingmustbetakenintoconsid€ration, which on averagehasa lengrhof 63 cm. lt is assumed lhatthe movementin vcnicaldirectlon requires a double effon in comparisonwilh the horizonul one. This meansin arithrneticalterms. onc trcadandtwice the riser shouldmake63 cm. The most comfortable staircas€accoading to Vicnnesetraditionhasriserswhich arc 14 cm high and treadsof 35 cm width. Unfortunately most staircasesare steeperlpith risers of lE to 19 cm becausea rcduction in floor spacecan be achieved.If lhe heiShtof stepsis lessthan 14 cm, the botlom line of convenierceis .eached because differencein altitudeis onlyvery slowly mastered. The staircaseand its surroundingspacearean ess€ntialpan of the architectoniccompositionof a building. Its function of giving accessto different storcyscan ooly be achicvcdin a meaningtulway if lhis quality is irnrnediatelyobvious; in olher words, if it is clear that the starrcase serves as a device of orientation in a buildinS. Todayone nukes do with lechnicaland SraphicalguidinSsystemsinsrcadof organising rouGsand stairsin a way thatby their positioo, by wayof theirrelationsto theentrancc andthcir particular form, the plan of the building can bc understood and visitoa can easily oricntate tbcmselves.If a building has !o acco[unodate s€veralsiaircases,the hierarchy of significance and frequencyin termsofuse canbe rnanifested in desiSn,whileunmistakable areasarc crcated. Form directly fulfills function. H€re the whole richnessof typologicalvariationsis at our disDosal.
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official staircas.in the PostOfficesalin8s Bant. vi€nna. by O. waSner
II
VieDna,by A l.oos, BuildingstMichaclcrplatz, l 9l 0
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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE I: IMERIORS
Si!ircas€ Similar to the ladder put against a wall, the straightstairis thesimplestsolution.Illustmtion I showsan examplewhich is fitted into a frame of piers and b€ams.If a stmight staircaseis situaiedin a bigger space,accessto the different storeyscan t'e given by way of a gallery (illustmtion 2). This type works very well in public buildings. The respectivestair lo the next storcy is easyto find, and lhe gallery allows all rooms on one level to bc enlrred widDut difficulty. Mor€ €conomicalin tennsof space,andther€forE better suited for housing developments,is the squarewell ath straightflighrsof sbirs of the samesize as lhe landings(illustration3). Onc common solution is the developrnent of two straiSht flighrs with an inErmediate landing (illustralion4). If fte landinSis borderedby an exlerior wall it is possibleto arrangefor the well to ger nabiralligh!. Thre€flights of slairs(ilustrations5 to 7) havc !o be seenprirnarilyas being relaledto reprcs€ntation.They alnost direcdyask for'dignified striding'.The crGmplein illustration 5 is suitablefor repetitionover sevcral storeys.A broadstaircasesbns with one fli8ht until the intermediatalandingis reached,at which point i! tums into two fliShtswhich arc narrower than the tirst one. However, the ctample in illustration6, wheretwo fli8htsrisein different directions from the intermedialelanding, hasits besteffectifapplied only oncein a building.ln illustration 7 two flights of stairs from opposite directionsmeetto becomeonc stair. This iorm witr espaciallyfor passage-ways is recornmended two enttances,asthey canbe approachedequally from both directions.The type in illusttation8, which is a flight of two stairswi$ preliminary stepsleadingto it, dernandsintegratio[ into a high space which allows lhc *hole staircase to be lookeda! from elsewherc.A very cosdy solution is shown in illustration9, wherestairschange their dkection on cvery level to Siva access altcmalely to oppositesides.This canbe suilable for sDecialsolutions.
ELEIIENTS OF ARCHITECTURE I: INTERIORS
The geonEtricalriodification of stmiShtstaircase leadsto spi.al stairs. In difficult spatialsituations, for inslancecomers,a two-fligh! staircascon a triangularground-plancan be applied(illustralion l). A variarionoflhis form is s slair risinc in lhrceIlightson thessmeground-plan(illustra: tion 2). but herc only a small landbg rcmams. Two fli8hts of stairs on a polygonalgroundplan-for examplca hexagon(iltustration3)pmvide the well wilh a high spariatqualirr. Illustrarion4 is more rclatedto the cxDloitation of a geometrical fo.m where thc sides of an octagonare consliotcd altemately by flighb and landings. Illustrations5 to 9 show eromplesof spiral sbircases,The verylnarrow newel slaircases (illustrations5 and dfarc difficutt for cldcrly people and unsuilable fo. bigSer objecb to be transponed.This is not the cas€s/ith *inding staircases on half
Staircascin a buildingfmm th€ Biedenneierp€riod, vienna, c 1830
vienna, Staircasein a building from the Biedemeierp€nod. Margarethenstrass€, c 1830
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Spiralstaircalc,secondbuilding phascof the Post Office SavinSsBank. Vienna, by O. Wagncrwith O. Schonlal,l9l0-12
58
in the PostOfllce SavingsBank,Vi€nna. Staircasefor the officials Beamreosti€ge by O. w aS ncr,l 9l 0-1912
Entranc.hall of a r.sidentialbuildif,8 in Lnndsrrass€, vienna,by ,. Brychb. I 862
'Majolik h.us at dlcR.cht wicnzeil.,VicMa. by O. wrgnci, |898
59
Facades The facadeis still themostessentialarchitectural thc function elementcapableof communicating ofa building.I say'still'. having andsignificance proclaimedrn destruction in mindits theoretical the lwentiethcentury*here the ideologyofthe free-slandingobject, visible from all sides, The p€rfectionof the becameDredominant. 'body had prioriryover the crealionof building lhestre€!.It is only a specific'show-side'facing in receotyears, after the rediscoveryof the imponanceoffte publicrealmandthevalueof urban life, that the facadc rcgained a new valuation. The facadenever only fulfills lhe'natural of by theorganisation dctermined requirements' the roonLsbehind.h talks aboutthe cultural siuationat thctimewhcn$e buildingwasbuilt; it revels criteria of orderandordering,andgives and ingenuilyof an accolntof thc possibilities omamentatiooanddecoration.A facadealsotells of a building,givesthem usabouttheinhabitatts a collectivc identhy as a communily, and of the lalter in ul(irnatrl) is the reprcsentalion Dublic. The root ofthe word 'facade'slemsfrom lhe btin 'facies' which is synonymouswith the Therefore,if we wonds'face'and'appearance'. talk aboutthe 'face' of a building,the facade, 1pemeanaboveall thefroni facingthe strect.In to s€mlcontrastto that, the back is assiSned public or private exterior spaces.Both these of front and back relate-roughly Dhenomena ipeaking-on lhe onehandto public rcsponsibility and on lhe other hand to the privat€ s€lfof the inhabitanls comparedwilh reprcsentation
characterof the sreet the more representative facade,thebackof a buildingis moreopenand communicateswith cou(yard, Sarden and landscape. The often-usedframed facadernadeof liSht materialandglazingis too stlndardin tyPeand too abstracl in character for housing It does nol allow for aesthetic develoDments. differentiation and is too vulnerable and Sucha'skin facade'hasnothingto transparent. do with the appropriatefacadefor a residential buildinq.whichshouldbe moreclosedandconcealinq-towardsthe street.in order to protectthe orivarf sphercof lhc iniabihnts All these ;eouirenenlsarc sliil bestmetby the solid facade wh'osc massive,protecdngexterior wall N perforatcdby openinSslo let air and liShl o€nerrate into the intetiorof thebuilding Also' thesolidfacade in termsofenergyconsumplion is *ithou! doubtmuchmoreapproPnarc'b€cause its exterior wall has a higherthermalstorage capacity. ln Austna,the energyProblcmscaused by glassfacadeshaveal.eadybeentakeninto account.In publicbuildugsa smallerproponion of windowsin a facadesurfaceis allowedas comparedwith previou5)ears This Propodion betweenopeningandPlanehasat leaststopped of curtainwalls,and developmen! theunhindercd hashelpedlhe solid facadeto Sainnewropicality. The comPositionof a facade,laking into (windows, accoudtthe functionalrequirements door op€nings,sun proteclion.roof area) is todo withthecreationola harmonlou! essentially e ity by meansof goodproPo(ions,venicaland horizolal structuring,materials,colour and
decorativeelements,SinceVilruvius architects have beenlrying to developmetricalrelations which would give an ideal order and strucnire to the facade-and alsoto floor plansand rooms This wasthoughtto be the way ofachievingab_ such soluteb€auty.Especiallyh the Renaissance, anefipb were rcfened to systernsof numt€rs and rulesof proportions.Plato'sphilosoPhywaslalen asa basis,aswerc thethoughlsof Neo_Platon$m. SaintAugustineapp.oved-andso Renaissance anistswerelhorouShlyconvincedftat thewhole universewas a rnatiemalicaland harmonious creation.By suchthitikinS, ruleswerc established whichwittkowcr describesasfollows: '. .If fte laws of harmonicnumbersp€rvadeeverything to themosthumblelife from thecelestialsDheres on canh, rhenoui tery soulsmust conform to thisharmony...'t But the aim of reachinga harmoniousbeauty cannotbe achievedonly in this way Oneneeds only to considerfiattheobliqueview Sivenfrom the bottom of a buildinS, togetier with the constantlychangingconstrastsand effects of depthcausedby light andshade,prcvenlusfrom perceivingsuchtruly calculat€dproponionsex' acdy.Neveihelessit seemsvery impo(antto me to examinewindow proponionswith the helPof thegoldensection,andequallyto studytheproponionsof op€ningand parap€t,baseand total heightetc. This exercisewill leadafter a while to a 'narural'senseofpleasanl,harmoniousProportions,e.g. a well-balanced composition.h is the rhythm in architecturewhich, similar to music, rousesemolionsin us. Thereforeit is possibleto transferconceptionsof musicaltheory KORB-WEDENHEIMN
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rccdy lo architectural composhion. The €vent-interval, tnlarilies of tension-relaxation, accord-conlrasl; the principleof repclition;the ^.ocessof lhe themebeing carriedihrough in planes riations;all crcat€therhythmofrnass€s, d lines. -Let us. for examole. reflect on winoow openingswhich repeatthemselvesagain and ain. which in successionwilh the wall )ments.crealethe contrastsof open-closed, smoothand rough surfaces.A! th€ -rkli8ht, sametime becauseof p€riodicalrepelitionthey _.oducea quiet orderand vary the sametheme )m storeyto storeyby way of-for instance_yrhmical diminution towards the top (appropriale becaus€ thelight qualityincreases). An importanlaspectofstructuringthe facade to makea distinc(ionbetwe€nthe horizontal d thevenicalelements, eachof whichcan,in Ecmselves,createan adequaiegeneraleffect. Normauythe proportions of theelemenGshould -'rrespond to thoseof the whole. AccordinSly low broad buildings,windows, bays, elc., whereas *)ad proportionswould predominate, in high buildingsslenderelementsgive a sens€ '.f th€ largebeingfoundin lhe srnalland the srnall ing found in th€ large, as it is similarly periencedin naore. -Following theorderingprinciplesofa facade, $e constructional conditionscan b€ madevisirre, e.g. by chanoellingthe bearingforcesinto :rs. This articulationofvenicality would ema panicular effect of the facade. -asis€ How€ver,thisis notlo putconstniction too much intotheforeground or to showeverynailorjoint,
bu! to rcveal the narure of construclionand craftsmanship. Besidesconslructionlhere are many other things necessaryin termsof functionor simply narrativeelementswhichaddto theanimationof the facade:\*indow surroundingsand lintelsto aniculat€the independence ofthe windorps,rainpipes. shune15,roof projeclions which give shade, materials that emphasisethe masses (rusdcalion)or loosenthem(reflectinSmatble), window boxes and Virginia creepe.give the building a summeror winler appearance. The horizontallayeringof the facaderesults from thediffercntareasoffunction.Inprinciple, a facade should never be designedwithout horizonraldifferentiation.A cleardiffer€ntiation is especiallyappropriatebetweenthe Sround floor, the ordinary storeysand the attic. The facadeas 'built border' actsin a similar way to the portal: in Ge.rnanthe word for wall is 'wand' whichhasto do with 'uenden' (to tum) or with 'wandlung' (change);the wall is thereforethe placewherelhe exlerior lums into the int€rior and vice versa. This transitionalzone has the functionof exchange,becomingmore lively if the surface has a certain plasticity and if movemenlis evident.B) wayofwall Projections, ledgesand pilastersthe plan€ of lhe surface developsthreeiimensionality, b€cominga relief, whereby light and shadow, foregrcund and background,becomeperceptible. The facadeas a whole is compos€dof single with elements, thelanerbeingentitiestherns€lves an exprcssivecapabiliry of their own. The comDositionof a facade.however.consistsof
structuringon lhe onehandandorderingon the olher. The elemenGbase,window, roof etc., which by their narureare differentthings,will alsothereforebe differcnt in their forms, colours and rnaterials.All thesepans should remain recognisable individually,although$e common languagebindingtbemlo the wholehasalsoto be found, However, not every means of connectinS or matchin8is sensibletfor instance to locatetheupperedgesofwindowsanddoors in one line would contradict the different meaningsthey have.lf the heightsare slaggered, the common factor could relate to similar proportionsor shadinggradationsof a basic lf we do not approachthe designof a facade asanautonomous workofan. but incontexlwith adjacenthisloricalfacades,it is necessary lo employdiffercnt elementswhich sepamtethe new from the old as well atones $/hichjoin and connectboth.Thus$e choiceofelementsshould firsl of all be relaledto the languageof the historicalfacades.Partsof them,or particular aspecls,will be taken across, a purponing conlinuity being achievedby such a thenutic approach. But g€nuine continuity is only qualityof lhe conceivable oncethe indep€ndent nelr facade,addits newconditionsanddernands are upheld.The relationshipb€twe€nold and new is in anycaseadialogue,a conversation between lhe pastand the present. *RudolfWinlow€r,,irn!r..'/ ml Pnncipl.sin thcA8e of Hunanatn,Ac^denyEdnions,lrndon | 9?3,p 27.
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This plateshowstundamental possibilities for the designof a facade.First of all, vJitlrsrnall sketches, I wouldlike to againhintat thcde.isive role geometrical proponions play for thc harmoniousapparanceof (hefacade(illustmtion I ) . Considerationsof 0riskind are, of course,no! ro be separatedfrom the whole building body. If, be.auseof a disadvantageous siteor restrictive building regulations,an unsatisfactory solution of $e facadewill transpire,this can be at least panially prevenredby carcfulcomposition,i.e. a deliberatezoningof rhefacade(illustrarion2). Yet whenapplyingthis kind ofdcliberatc zoning, harmoniousgcometrical pmponions havc to be paid atention to (illustrarion 3). By the distribulion of windowsin drc facade,a panicular cffect can b€ emphasisedor suspcnded(illustration 4). Herc thc possibilitiesrangefrom a regular distributionof cqualwindowsto an irregularand figurative arrangemcnt. Windows can be combinedin snBll groups to form panicular figures,or thcy can divide the facadeby b€ing almostsepamtcelemen|s(illustrarions 5 and6). While windows are thc most important means of composition,the facadeitselfcan b€ trcared as a sculpturalpan of $e building. Specificpans of the building can be cxpos€d(illustrated?), whereby the foregroundand lhe backgroundof Lhefacadcare determined(illustralion8). The superimposition of diffe.entbuildingparrsis yet anothcrsubjectof composition,which will be dealt with again in thc sectionon the threedimensionalcompositionof a building(illustrarion 9).
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By meansofthepans ofelevadons,shownhere, the lheme of facadefigures running lhrcu8h venically can be explainedwith examples. llhsration l: The distriburionof windowsrs basedon 6eir axes.Similarwindowproportions are reducedin sizestorey. This motive underlines the perspectiveof lhe facade; it makes the buildingappearhigher than it is in reality, and symbolisesthe needfor more lighl penetration into the lower storeysof buildingsin narrow sareeis, Illustration2: Here rhe windowsincreasein sizewhich makesthe facadeappcarlighter and symbolisesits constructivelogic. Illustmtion3: An almost'rnathernatical' order is achieved by doublinE rhenumberofwinoo$s in eachstoreyandby. a-tik sametime, reducing their formats. Thus a very active facadeprovides nevertlelessthe sameamountofopening space In eachstorey. Illusuation 4: Similar in appearanceto the example shown in illustation l, this figure, however,is not determinedby lhe axesof lhe windows but by the grouping of windows togetlrer. Illuslration 5: A figurc in ar|almostlite.al sense developsfrom this arrangementof windo*s, which is basedon the coordinationof differenr fonnalson one verticalaxis. Here lhe emphasis Iieson rheenranceandrheanicularion ofthe anic by way of a regular s€ri€s of equally sized Illusuation 6: This somehowuneasyfigure has a mther casual effect composedof different window forma6. Il is probablyofimponanc€at this point lo againcall one'sanendonrc the spalial effectsofinterior roomswhich canleadto such figuralionon the facade. lllustration7: A projectedbasewith rcgular openings(insteadof pilastcrs),allows for the zone above to employ a new, independent, organisalion ofwindows.This is a popularrnori\e in 'big city architecNre,wherethegroundfloor hasa separate meaning.Adolf t os appliedlhis themein his buildinBal rhe Michaelerplatzin Vie.na and the HouseofTrisan Tzarain Paris. lllustrarionE: Onevenical elementaccumulates all necessaryopeningsofthe adjacen!.oorns.The lwo storeyhigh glazingfolds into the tefiaces, &e middle sectionaccornnodatingthe sitlin8 room andthe sidesof lhe bedroorns. Illustration9: The same figure as the only openingelem€ntin lhe facade;a giganticfigure wnich runs tbrough all storeys.The scaleof the building must be able to cope with such a monumentatopenlng.
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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTI,.RE II: FACADES
no longershowonly pansofthe Theseexamples facade.Slendcrhigh buildingsaredemonstrated in their total composilionand s€rve for each theme. ljlustrationl: A regularwindow composition basedon axes,From bottomto top increaslng top sizesof windowsculminalein a large-scale floor. intodlreezones: llustration2: Clearscparation the ground floor with large-scaleoPenings:a middleareawilh windowsregularlydistributed; and a light skelelalattic storey. Illustration3: Here the sizesof the windows in a way that the wall surfaces ared'mensioned are largelyreducedto'Piers' and'beams" thewindowsizesvary in each However,because storey,onecannotcall thistyp€a skeletonfacade. 4: The old themeof the 'piano Illustration nobile. the mainfloorofa hous€,is emphasised hereby a closedattic zone. Illustration5: Theext€riorflightsofstairsgive the groundfloor a public character.The larSe studiowindowsofthe top floor indicatea clear differencein valuationcomparedwilh the small windowsof the inlermediateslorey, hall of columns, IllustratioD6: A large-scale a po\rerfulolder almostlike a'stoa', constitutes whichcan alsoconceallhe irregularand lively interiorof the building. 7: Elegant,slenderwindowslitsare nlustration arch.andform boundtogederby a con$ructional a fisure with the circular windowsof the attic storiy. Thusa serialrnotiv€becomesan image. Illustration 8: The zoninS of this facade resembles the'buildingblock' principle.Nith rts andwindowpanitions lt gives differentsurfaces storeys theimp.essionof relativelyindependent beingpiled up. nlustration 9i Herewe havean i.regularfacade strucNredaccordingto lhe interiororganisation of spaces.One should not undereslimalethe difficulry of distributinB*indows this freely, becauseit requiresadherencelo quile prec$e to oneanother. proportions relatingtheoPenings Excellentlastecanleadto a harmoniousyel free design,but a 'secret'principleof order is also o[ theseUndsof composition. the foundat'on
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Compl€tecomposkions are also shownin this plate.Theycannotbeappliedarbirrarily.bul can reinforcethe whole rendenc)'of a buildin8. Illustrationl: Thebaseis clearl)distinguished fromtherestof thebuildingby ha\inga differenr surface.Because of the terracesbeingcut out from the anic srore\. lhe building has a battlemenr-like rermination. Illustration2t Thistacadefigureunfoldsfrom thebotlomto the top like a lree-ropor a goblet. One may also find fiat rhe significance of the individualstoreysdiminishesro\\ardsthe topIllustralion3: Herea plasticfigure.a po(ico. projectsfrom th€bu;lding$hereb]$e enrrance is clearlyemphasised. Illunrarion 4: In conlllisr ro illunrar'on 2. (he facadefiguretaper\offioqards thebp. Oddl) enough,althoughthe orderis reversed.we do not perceivea changein meaning.Probablyil is thehierarchical slructureofthe facadeassuch which suggests a hierarch)of significance. Illustration 5: A projeckdarcadeis subdivided by a loggiaon first floor level.A sociallyuseful interspace is created.rhich almosrgi!esrheidea of $eatricalsraging. lllustration6: The galemotivein fronr of a largelyglazedfacadeclearl) demonstrales the problematic natureof de figure,Sround relationship.The layeringof$e facaderangesfrom $e openingof thegate.to thelightbackground. unljl finally the surroundinS frameof rhebuildingrs feached.
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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE Il: FACADES
Entrancesand Portals
underyroundcar park-with aheentranceinlo the building.For thepedestrian, only a narrowpath alongthe*all fulefi. Thus,by pessinglhe rubbish On the way from thc slreq ino a buildios onc containers, one hurries to the safe apanment passes throughdiffcrcntgraduarions of whit can door, sw€lring at lhe dirty and devaststed becalled'thepublic'. Immediatcly. rheposilion entrancc;and whal else can be expectedfrom _ ol theentlanccandthearchitEctonic sicnificancc sucha buih realiry? it is givendcrDooslratc thc role and dnction of olier badexamplesare lhe so-calledenrancc thebuilding.Thusfte nlaincnranccof a largc hallsofthe modemcenlrcsofpowcr; the ofiice publicbuildingwould norb€a tiny holelocated towcrsand insuranccpalaces.We find an oFn sontewhere*herc nobodywould fud ir. Equally 8.ound floor, flattenedby the load of the ascendin8 storeys,and awkwardly structuredby wall - il would bc inapprop.iale for a modesthouseto bc approached by a rcpres€nrarional drive or partitions, greencry, mural pictures and large-scale flightsof s(airs. orientation boards. Without all this crap, thc The ponal rnarkslhe transitionfrom thc public entnncehall would bejust an arra without rreanto lhc privateintcrior.It is an clemenr ing. Oneshouldask a visitor leavirg one of dles€ -exterior of self-reprcs€nlation for the inhabitanb.The places whether or nol hc could rcmemb€r the routefrom the ponal to d|c venical meansof space. H€ would not even undeKtand the accessforms an individualspaceor scricsof queslion.For this reasonthe following cxamples spaces:this fact is muchtoo seldomtakeninlo havebeenchosenwhich clearly demonstratethc -account. spatialqualitiesof cntmnccarcas. Ponals and entranceshave nowadaysbe€n mostlydegradcdto residualspaces.They rDerely A notableexampleis $e solution for the enmnce sufficc therequirements of buildingregularions. to the former 'L,Anderbank'by Otlo Wagncr. The in pcrvcrsityis thccombination oflhe roundvestibule,which is non{irectional. acs as -Uppennosr entrancafot vchicles-into a counyaador a distributor(illustEtion l). Threediffercnr areas
:. -"r--grFti$,bt!-Lieranda and srzircascof a buildins in Rcssctsass., \ icnM. by J. Kornhiiusct.carly cighreenrh ccntury
Entrancc hall of a bourgeois resid.ntial buildinS. vicnns. c 1900
(banking hall, enlrancc and main staircase)are lhusheld togcther.A richly decomtedan nouveau portal is pictured in illustration 2. As the actual door into the buildingis recesscd,an ante-space is crcaEd which is madcinto a Dorch. Thc nexl cxample(illustration5; showsan inlerestinSsequance of spaces.A roundvestibule preparcsthe visitor lor thc follo*iac archrtcctural event.A small flight of srairsnirmws Oe space, v/hich thcn opcos into an irrcgular hexagon.After this landing,which is scparaleo fiom thc actual stairwell by wall projections, utc roulc terminatcsin a sbircascwhich ascendsin threc flights. Thcrc wcre tincs whcn even ihe cntranceareasto blockl of council flals received Oe necessarydcsign anention.This is clcarly visible in ihe example of a Vicnncse 'Cerneirdchaus'from the yca$ bct$c€n the wars (illustration4). Thc portal is emphasiscdby a fiamc of bricks. A spaciousporch o!,cns inlo a propcr vestibulcwith iililing bonom stcpsof a staircaseand two doors; onc giving acccssto the hous€,thc other lcading inlo thc courtyard. Hcrc a simplc cntrance has been tumcd into an cnjoyable meeringplace.
Vcstibuleofa buildinS,vienoa, 1830
69
ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE [: FACADF,S
Arcades who owns thc arcadcs?Are they relaied to the strcet or thc building? Or do thcy cven belong to ihe pavement,craating its propcr spscc?The arcade is detarmined by lhis ambivalence of application, but it is also an intcrmcdiatc space which can bc usad and irtcrpraled in rnany differenl ways. It cln fulfill semi-publicfunctions by bcing projccled in frcnt of a building whercby the usc. is neithcroutsidenor insidethe building. But thc space of the arcade is also capable of assuming an indcpandent public role. It can almo$ grow into the buildinSbchind,and ther€by beconEan arcadedbuilding. Finally lher€arc exampleswhcrc in thc colrsc of tina, arcadesMvc bc€n fillcd in or wallcd up in o.de. to gain additional spacc.(Whcn old buildings arc in the pmcessofbcing restor€d,hiddenarcadesarc ofren found bchindplastcrand brick walls.) The arcadeis a collcctiveurbanelement.For ils construction,it is ncccssary not only to gain thc agrecmentof the neighboun in lhe panicular streclaffccted,but alsoto gain thc pcrmission, and even the irstruction, of the building authorities. Once the arcadeis built it becomes an individual urban clemcnt which is larg.ly understoodto b€ indcFndent faom lhe building behind. The rcasonwhy therr arc so fcw arcadcs buih today is probably due to a lack of commot sensc whan it comes to thc dctcnnination of common uaban elements. However, the us€fulncssandeffichrnent of thc arcadefor urban life has b€enproved for ceo$ries.
ELEME\"TSOf ARCHITECTUREtrr FACADES
Ground Floors Thc baseof a building, its grourd floor zone, is withoul doubt the mostimportanturtan clenrent ofc facade.As it constitutesthc tratrsitionto the ground, or the pavenrent, it is cxposcd to considcrablcstrain, and thercforc the matcrial uscd for this zona is usually morc durablc than that uscd for thc rcsi of thc building. The grcund floor hasa panicular impodance in urb6n life. Becausethis arca is most direcdy pcrceived by people, it oft€n servcs for the accommodationof shopsand olhcr commcrical enterpriscs. Givcnthe natureof business, such a ground floor zon€is alsosubjectcdto frcquent chanre.csDeciallyin tetr|s of its fittincs. It is to trc rccommcndcdlhc-relorclhat $c round floor be given a robust, neutralsrrucurriwhich can copc lrith 'paBsitical architccnrrc' suchas shopfittings. The exampleshe.c showdiff.rcnt kinds of bascs.Thcy rangc from ncutral backgroundsfor largc openingsto buildingswilh I rcjeltin8, evcnclos€d,charaoer,whosctroutd floors do nol, for some reason,havc a public function.
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Bay-windows,Balconies and Loggias balconiesand bay-windows, Similarto arcadcs, loggiasarc !o be s€enas indepadcntspdtialunils. Theysre i'l any ces€ganuinacdrrgcnE s of thc apanmcnt,providing a scnscof steppingout of the building-out of thc faclde-althoughstill b€in8 in thc private rcaLn. In addilion to that, lhcs€ elemcntsallow for a bcttcr vicw of uaban lifei they opanup 'ncw prospocls'h thc ruc scnscof thc woad. To a grcater ext nt than the balcony, bay-
72
windowsandloggiasalsorlpfts.nt a[ cnrich[Ent of $c intcrior spacewhich lies bchind, because they divide it into spsccsof differcnt value Ano0rcrimportantargumentin favour of baywindows and loggias strcsses lheir clirnatic function.They form ! bufrer zoncto the cxterior, which is of gtentadvantrgein tennsof lhe crFrSy consumptionof thc aprrtmcnt. Expcriric swith winter gardensandprojcctcdconservatorieshavc rcvealed intrrcsting rcsults which, rlthough kaown long ago, wcrc largely igno.cd in lhc rccent period of cncrgy wastagc.After the lsst war, whenonly a few houscholdswcrc equiPFd with rcfrigcralors, thcscPansofa building werE
often used for lhe sto€gc of food dutinS the winter. Evcn the intcrmcdiate spsce belwccn doubL Slazed windows also served for thcse purposcs. Two varianb ofbays atr sho*Tr in illustrations I and 2, Th. bay-window in Otto Wagn€r's 'schiitzenhaus' in Vienna (illusmtio.r 1) is conceivcd as I little buildinS on its oll[; a Pulpit abov. thc river. Anothcr buildinS in VicDna revcals a bay elcrncnt which vcnically teachcs over the entire facadc crcating the motive of a srial building which is projectd ftom I largeone (illustration 2). Thc r*o balconicsshown in illustrations 3 and 4 are renarkable in ielms of
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3 their painstaking,constauctiona.l trcatrnentof the soffir. Bay-windows, balconiesand loggias arc also ib very suieble for thc irnctional strucnrrcof the facade. However, it goes without saying that thescelemcnts should not be distribucd on lhe surfacc at random. I would recornrnend a concenttationover s€vcfal storcys, !o allow for \- a firrther differentiation within theseclcmcnrs. This *ould also clearly increasethe legibility of the differcnt storcys. The loggiasshownin illustmtionsI and2 are building projections. , exanplesof rcprcsentational - The loggia in iltustration I measurcsnearlythree
4 squaremetrcsand tlErcby alrnostrcsemblesthc sizeof s propcr room. This clca y invites possi ble useas a room. In contrastto lhat, the archcs dominatingthc loggiasin illustration 2 constiNte a rcprcsenhtional frame, and morc likely only invite the inhabitantsro hai. a brief glancear the street. Probablyhere, thc interior spaceis much more important, thc loggia rathcr seding as an additional filte. of the cxt.rior. Espcciallyat thc times whcn thc Frcnch windows arc openwould it sugSestan optical enlargementof the room b€hhd. Thc degrecto which thcs€kinds ofelernentsarr also appropriatefor the articulationofan impor-
tantpatt of thc buildinSis shownin illuslrarions 3 and 4. Thc contour of a streetconrcr is talen up again by the first two storeys of a comer building (illustation 3), But, asrheanglcdrcoms do not seemto bc vcry suitablefor apartmenrs, thc comer is inl,erruptedby a cyclinder which provides space for a terrace and, in addition, monumenlalis€s the comer of the building, especiallywhen viewedfrom a distance.The big 'hole' in the facadeof the 'G€meindehaus' (illustration 4) achievesa positive m€aning by way of curvedbalconies,whichhavethe effect of the buildingmassbeingmodulaled.
ELEMEMS OF ARCHITECTURE II: FACADES
Roof and Attic Storev Nowadaysonc apparendyonly corDesacrosstwo typasof roofs: the llat roof (the developrnentard asses$De of whbh doesnot need!o be d€scribed herc in dctail), and the norrnal pitchcd roof, which by now has bccome wide-sprcadas the embodiment of lhe 'alpinestyle'. Wc shouldnot engagcours€lvesin clich€s,bul rathe. look at the variety of possibilitiesand meaningsthat this imponant part of thc buildinS has, belring in mind that ir is a building'srerminarionrowards the sky. The meanings which languagcattaches to roofs are v€ry instnrctive. For instancc,if we rcflect on the term 'roof landscape':it risesfrom the buildings like a skin and, ovcrtoppcd by the higher silhouenesor public buildhgs, this artificial lhing becomesa secondplaneb€tween sky and canh. In Seneral,the roof involvcsan ambiguous,undefincdspac€*hich nowadaysis mostlysacrificedto a mdicalexploitationofthe buildingvolume.But we shouldnot completely foBct this rcs€woir of secrcb and mentoncs. Here the obj€cb of the past, th. hisrory of the inhabitanls, and therefore that of the building itselfareprcserved. For all this $ere is a simpleexplanation.The altic is a frce placc, a residual space,a storeroom,a play arcafo.children.It is oftenfull of comers, moslly dark and dusty, lhc oppositcof thc cxtcrior world. The roof is the caownof the building, the evidenccof its meining showingthe pride and dignity of the buildingirself. The crown is canicd by the building body. Visuallyit is lhe tcrminationof thefacade,oftEn with 8n attic storcy inscned,by which dcvicethe roof is withdmwnfmm people'seyes.Thercfore thc top floor zon€,thc anic s|orcy, is muchmor€ important for the dcsign and compositionof the facadethan thc actual rooi The facade is prota.ted from the weather by a comicc. or by any othcrprojectingmoulding. On toDof thesecouldbe a smallbalustaade-as if thire was a tcrrsce behind-to hide the mysterious roof. At imponant points the anic storcy is broken through by dornesand towers which simply havc the purposcof 'crowns' . Bu! let us r€Nm to the rttic storcy. The nccessityof it bcing taEatadin a spccial *ay, in terms of form and firnction, resuks from thc simplefact dtat a building hasa top ard a bonom. The touom is thebascwhich hasto communicate irs pqrticrrlar rclationshipwirh the eanh. At lhe lop cverybodyshouldknow dlat lhe building ends
74
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Basilicain Vicenza,by A- Palladio,15.16--49
Cathedril in Ferrara,rfrcr | 135
Vi€ona Bourgeoisresidentialbuildingat Drnn€bergplatz.
CaslelloSfoncsco in Milan
L L 'Ankerhaui in Crab€n.vienna. by O'wagner. 1895
Palm Hoos€in the Burgganen. vienna. F. Ohmann.c 1900
Ground-Plan and Building Form
A Iong-standingerror in cootemporaryarchitecnrre is the belief that therc is a logical connection between the ftrnction and the form of a buildinS;or eventhatthe laiter is a resultofthe former. Bul as this irrevocablecquationof a direct analogyof functionand space,or form, is non-€xislent,an anemptwas madeto creale an auxiliarytheory which endedin a diftused, vaguedefinitionandvindicationof architectu re. Seeminglytbe infinitepossibilitieswhich lie in lhe relationship of function and form were not understood in a positiveway. No ground-plan or building can be lraced back direcdy to a function. Always in architecturc,certain .rypesof spaces' will be applied. They are ulrimately relarively indeFndent from the initially required function which existedat the beginningof rhe plannng prccess. Thereforelet us asslmethal the designof a building developsfrorn the interdependence of the requirements of thc users-the functionsand the typesof spaceswhich are providedby architecture.Requirements alonedo no! makea buildinS. tf so, all doors would be openedto 'hypenrophic ferociry'and the disruprionof buildings. The rnajority of functionsandground-plansare easilycapableof being rclatedto simple types if the oles and prccedurcsof function arc understood.Wilhin its€lf, every type provides enoughfteedomofd€sign. Experienceshowsthat with lhe clarity and simplicity of rhe ground-pla.n, and the form of a building, the possibilitiesof differcnt usesincrcase, Qlite frequendy,lhe argumentis put forward that conftnementto prccisebuilding iypes would restrictrheindividualityof architectumldesiSn. But it is exacLlythis excessiveindividuality which leads to lhe nowadaysmuch lamenl,edwildness irt architecture and its lack of conccption. In contrast, the cxampleswhich follow show the possibililiesof individualdifferenriarionof buildhgs with similar ground-plans. An addidonal aid in thedesignof a building is drcarulysis of rh€ ropoS.aphicaland typological situation of the surroundings,and lhe tradition of the respective area. In principle, one should always presume lhat every site hrs its own social a|ro historical rneaning. To discover, and to investigate,ils implicltions is a pre-conditionfor the cultuml undeNtanding of an architectural design.Every placehasirs sFcific conditionsand irs hislory. Peoplehavegiven meaningto cven fte rnost desolate prairie, lhe seemingly untouched desen, and the most inaccessible mounlainare{s. bg€nds and mythsdo exist, and
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cerlaio places evoke associationsfor many people.No placeis a virgin pieceof land. Thechoiccof rhebuildingtype andthe building form is deFndent on lhese general specific conditiods, whichmeanmotethanrnasrering the requiremenG of a building'sfu$rc inhabitants andits architectural possibilities. Withourtaking inloaccountthecomplexsiluationofapanicular site, a buildingis merelya trivial th.ow-away p.oduct; and without the involvemen!of tne cuhural heritaSe,every solution remains individualisticand idl€ arbilrariness. The an of architecture,the decisionon the buildingrypeandrhedesignof thebuildinSilself, beginwith de deliberate superirnposition ofthe conditionsof $e_place#ithrhe requiremenrs of the Inhabrtants. If he la}'estheseore-condilions seriously,everyhonestarchitec!will therefore quickly considera simple,und€rstandable and appropriatebuildingtype. D€velopmentand Composition Every ground-planshould be conceivedand developed in relationto space.Here, very often from the clien!'s sidc, the first obstaclesto understanding occur,bccause he is normallynot experienced in sparialimaginarion.But lhereis a usetulrule of thumbwhich might help in this situation:at thebeSinning of a buildingprocess, thearchitectshouldnev€rconfrrse or overwhelm theclient. Simplegcometricalbasicforms also providesufficient possibilities for sparialsurpris€. This kidd of discipline excludes much unnecessary eslmngement, trecauseit involves concreleexperience and understanding, fien the work on the form of the building can be sta ed. Onceits roughcontoursare lisible, the rcquirernents of refiningb€corneihe next step. Openingsare broughtinto a rhythm, and are combinedto form a motive;exterior spaces,such asterraces,balconiesor loggiasare added,not as missingpieces,but asa kind ofsecondlayer to lhe building. Thc mostimponantproblemwhen designing a building is probablj the detcrmination of the line whichhasto bedrawobetweeninteriorand exteriorspace.At thispoint,the wholerangeof possibilitiesof how to createan appropriate transilionfrom the privatesphereto the public realmcomesintoquestion.A changein conception occurs wherebytheseiwo different spaces haveto be takeninlo considemtion.In contrast to a muchch€rishedideologyof architectsadvocating the unlimitedtransitionof interior and exteriot, the user in genemlknows very well whereto draw the line betweenthes€sDaces.
ELEITIENTSOF ARCHITECTLIRE III: GROUND-PLANAND BUILDI\G FOR,\T
SquareBuildings For thesNdyof simplegeometrics .elatedto the conception ofresidentialbuildings,t wouldlike ftrstofall io talkaboutthesquarc.The following threeplateswill dealwith fiis basicform andwill showhow it allowsfor the manipulation of lhe spaccwithin. Thc mostdecisivequestionwhich adseswhendcsigningsquareroomsis probably what to do wiih the centre;whelher!o fill ir in or to keepit void. Thc squareRomanhousehas its fircplaceexactlyin lhecenlre,whereas theentrancewasoI minor imponance.andtherefore siuated in a comer of the building. As a geometrical objecl,thecubemosrclearly communicates lhc notionof enclosure and also the symbol of stability. The cube therefore, amongthePlatonicsolids,symbolizes theearth. The subdivisionsand fragmeniations shown in lhe following plaes shouldfirs! of all be understoodindcpendendy of functionand use. They simplystateprincipalfonnal possibilities whichgiveriseto definable rulesofhow to solve the conflict of enclosureanddivision,and, by wayofinterior structure,how spatialeffeclsare chanSed. we canconsiderthe To cofrmencethesequence whichis orienutedowards all-roundenclosure, thecentrc,wherede similarityofdivisionis emphasised by a pier (illuslralionsI and2). Spatral focus is mainly dclerminedby the positionof the staircase. This is thecasein thebuildingshown in illustration3 despitethelivrng areasrunning through.IUustialion 4 demonstrates thesuperrmpositionofa circulationaxiswith a centralstalrcase,by whichdeviccthecentreofthe building is clearlydet€rmined.lilustration5 concemsa directional division,by whichlhebuildingis subdividedinto two, or several.zoncsrepresenting differentspatialvaluatiolrs. A commonpactice is to sub{ividelhebuildint intoa mainzoneand two subsidiaryzones(illustration6), wherebythe main space can have its own Seometryto emphasise its particularposition.The interior fragmentation of a solid appearsin illust.ation ?. The squarercmainsby way of its bordcring lines.but in termsof irs iDterior.it allowsfor completefrecdomof spatralarrangcmant. Thus only whenviewed thesquareis left recognisable from the oulside. nlustrationsE and 9 showcxamplesof onedircclional space.One side of the squarcis accennratedby a large opening and &us constitutesthe main side, thc facade,of the building.
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ELEMENTS OF ARCHTTECTTJR,EIII: GROTJND.PLAN A.I{D BUTLDTNG FORM
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The centralized vcnical arraogementwirhin a cubc is dividcd into quarlerscgmenls,eachof whichsbns at a diffe.cnthcighr(illusrrationl). The shapeof the squarcis repcatcdin the gap betwecnthc stairsin thecenE"a! well. This method is alsoappliedin principlein the nexrexample (illustration2), wherethe ccntreis constituted by an atrium. As wih rll othersimplegeometricalforms,the squarccanalsobe superimpos€d on otherf;ornls. Dlustration3 sho*s 6 cubebeirg cut throughyet havinSa ccntralhall. The conu'astber\r'eensolid andamorphousbasicforms, lhat is betweeohard andsoft, r€sult! in cxciting spaces(illustsation4). Differcnt forms within a compositionappcar to b€ punchedout (illuttralion5), wherebyrhe residual spaccs-wlA walls of differcnt thickness-disregard the olerall shapeof the enclosurc, The disintcgration ofthe square,lakingplace slepby stcp, is shownin illuslEtions6 and 9. Only pien rentainoflhc basicBeometricalform. Thusa sccondsparirllayerdevclops,\ hich is uscfulforlhc mediation ofinkrior andexterior. The squaEin general,b€inga ncutralandnondirecrionalbasic form, asks for dialectical contsasls,lik€ a fmmewhich surroundschanging inagcs. So thc inncr spaceslhemsclvcscan be createdasSconElricalforms, or lhey can follow the linesof movcmentwithin a building.
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; ELEMENTSOF ARCHITECTLJRE trI: GROUND.PLAN AtiD BUILDI\G FOR\r
A sp€cialform ofthe squarcis consdnrtedby the loosening of its sidesandby theaccenn8donof its four comers.Massivecomer towersdefine a U:nspat€ntinterior space(illustration l), or are reducedto bay-like projectionsfrom a solid cor€ (illustration2). Theco+xistenceof two differcnr building forms is achievedby rhe surrounding cubebeingfrrgrnen@d. whcrebythesolid form Iyingb.hindbecomes visible(illusrralions 3 anq 4). A variationof this type is shownin illusrration 5. A central cylinder servesas lhe matn spaceandat the sametime asa distribulor, giving accessto llte comcr towers eachof which have differenrspatialgeometries. k Corbusieralsoconcemedhims€lfwith m€ square,llluslmtion 6 showsa snrdiobuildine whichrevealsa poeticstructure.Thenextexarn: ple (illustration 7) suggestsa centEl core from whichvery differentspadaldivisionsare possible withoutdestroyirgthc overall form of tne building. The sketchesir| illustrations8 and 9 are anemptsat strucuring a square facade.As alreadymentionedin thc sectionon facades,me Seorretricalrcality of a facadccan, by way of v6ual manipulations. developinto one with a differ€nteffecr.
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Rectangular Buildings RectanSularground-plansare clearly directionar: the exlen.ion of le rectanglelherEforehascenain effects on ihe division of rhe ground-plan. Also. the building has a clear direclion of movemen! which influences thc way ir is us€d, unless dis direction of movement is terminated by sub, divisions and-above all by the position ofthe
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Anolher aspect of recrangular ground-plans affects the design of the building irself. The different valuatioo Siven to the facades on rhe long and the short sides can hardly be changed by means ofcomposition- That means that here ti e possi bi l i ti esof del i qn are l i mi ted. O;e po\ibiliry olthitypological strucrurrng ot a rectangul .rrbui l di ng i s to si ruatethe { tai rcase i n paral l el w i th a l ong si de (i l l usrrati onst lo 3). By so doing, a longitudinal zone is created which separatesmain and subsidiaryspacesfrom each other, If the l ong si de\ havea cenl re. rhe bui l di ng i . autorralically divided into two halves (illustrations 4 to 6), Thus a slaircasein the centre makes possible the division ofthe whole into two spaces of equal value (illustration 4). These can be tunher sub-di vi ded(i l l ustrati on5). Wi th a c enrral hrl l runni ng through veni cal l y (i l l ustrati on 6), thi s ki nd of di vi si on i s even more di sti nc t.
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The exarnplesof this plate shovr'superimposilions of solid and skclebl building parts. Colunns arc never only constructional eleftents, as they always createan indcp€nden!spatial layer or an additional ordcring factor to the structure of a space.Thereforethc rhyrhm of pieN has to be well-considercd. In illustrationI wc havean interiorstructure which is consriotcdby piers andpilasters.This sub{ivision almostdirecdy prcvokesa certain valuationand useof the spacescreat€d:main add subsidiaryspacesbecomeobvious. The examplesin illustrations2 and4 sho\sthe fi-agnEntationof rcchngllar solidsby way of projected loggias.In illustiation5 the middlepan of a building is loos€nedto becomea centralhall, the two rernaininScomer towers forming prominent terminationsto the building. A lively combinationof solid and skeleton building pans eosucsif they are superimposed (illustration6). The rcsllr of this methodis that two differen! rectangularstruc$rcs seemto be inteSraledwith one another. In illustrations7 aod8 thesetwo principlesof defining a space simply co-€xist. The first example(illustration7) showsa solidpanjuxtaposedwith a hall ofpiers, whereasin thesecond examplc (illustration t) the constructional possibilitiesof solid ad skeletonare deliberately oppos€d. Finally, the rectangularsolid can also be understoodas a container which accommodales a free form (illustration9).
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T-shapedGround-Plans This type offers manifoldpossibilitiesof interpretation.It can be a centralisedbuilding with Ihree ext€nsions,a longirudinal building with an accenruatedcentre, or even the codbination of four centralisedbuildingsfoming a T-shape. One realisesthat it is the projecting part of the buildiDgwhich constitutcs lhe rcal challcngefor the designof thb buildhg typei is it a triumphant portico projecting fiom the facade; is it simply an axtensionon the back; or are the two side lrings mercly cxtcnsions of a centralised building?Il is clear that the panicularbuilding partshaveto bc treatedvcry carcfullyaccording to their valuation. Otherwise the intended meaning can easily tum into its opposite.
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ELEITENTS OF ARCHITECTT-R.E III: GROUNDPLAI\
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The projecring pan of the building in illustration I s€ernsto rcsult ftom a needfor addidonalspace. all subsidiaryroorns The lonSsideacconunodates and lhe entrance; and the staircasc pushesthe 'middle' part out towardsthe front. Thc next exarnple(illustration2) consistsof four individual solids. wherebythe ccntraldark onc funclions as the elenreniof accessto the building. Ii is also the centralpan ir illustration3 which givesaccess to lhe building-The sidewingsaredistinguished joinls. from it by way of transparcnt The building in illusrration4 is divided in transversedircction duc to thc arranSementof the subsidiaryrooms.The centnl pan is clearly the main space.This kind ofdivision is alsoapplied in rhefollowingexamnbs(illustrations5 and6). HOWeVet.llle rutn so.gcenere ts even more anrculate. The simple methodof superimposingaheTshapewith a squarepolentiallyallowsoneto get rid of the dark zonesconstitutedby (he inner comers(illustration7). The exteriorpiersofthe loggiasdeterminethc form of the square;the walls the T-shape,If the exte.ior spaceis filled with pergolas(illustration 8), the whole complex is supplemenled io becomea rectangleon plan. This showsthat througharchilecNraltreatment of residtlalspacesit is possibleto gaincompletc buitding forms. In conrrastto 6at. we see in illustration 9 one building part being almost sepamted,as the longitudinalPrincipalpan is of thb entmncc B€cause especiallyemphasised. by wayoflhe rower-likcbuildingpan, it receives a cent.e.
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ELENIENTS OF ARCHITECTURX III: GROUND-PLAIi ,{\D BUILDING FORM
T-shapedGround-Plans Within lhe main space,a row of picrs createsa hlter in front ofa bwer which is a kind ofannexe (illustration l). A ransvcrse main space is emphasiscd by thedissolurionofrhe sidewings (illustration2). The massivecomers of the lonSitudinalpartsof a building (illusrrarion3), give the spacein rhe middle its direction.This is brokcn by a light loggia p.ojecting from the building. This ryp€ hasbeenbuilt as a four room maisoneneapartnent in my ploject for Riaerstrassein Berlin. The dircclion of the main sDace of fie buitdingshownin illuslmtion4 is clearly visible. The cnclosedrectranglecan have a projected pcrgola.In illustrations5 and6 we seethesolid partsof two buildingsbeingshrunkinto a corc. ln bo|hexamples theT-shapeis only consti$ted by piers. A buildingwith an oppositedevelopmentis shown in illustration7. The core is enlircly dissolvedby a transparent staircas€towea,and by isolationfrom the o(her thrce towers. If fte T-shapeis superimposed wirh a circular or semi{ircular cylinder (illustrarions I and9), whichcanalsob€designed asmonumental lnain spaces,|he projecdonsrecedeto becomcmerely cmohasised entrances.
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trI: GROIhiI>PLANANDDUILDINGFOR\I ELEMENTSOF ARCHITECTURE
L-Types
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L-shapedground-plansareesperiallysuitablcfor arrangementsof buildings bccauseof the p.otectedfree spacewhich is c.eatcdb€tweenthem. The examplesshownhcrearc geomet.icaltypes d€velop€d ftom a square,a quanerofwhichhas beenleft void. Theydiffer from thc functionalist L-type, wherethc living areais sioatedin lhe shoner wing and the bedrooms arc joined togetherin thelongerone.The disadvantage of L-shaped buildingryFs liesin lhe possibilityof darkcomersat $e junction.It is advisable to use lhis spacefor subsidiaryroomsor shircases. nlustrationI showsanelamplewherethestair. caseis locatedin thejof, the spacein the wings havingloggiasio from. The superimposition of L-form andthesquaregivesriseto ftc erterior spacebeingfixed (illustrarions 2 and 3). In the nexlexampletheedgeconsists ofmassivewalls (iUustration4), whereasthe oFn sides are relievedby piers. Illusration 5 represents an assernblage of independenl buildingelements. A tmnsparent tower accommodating the siaircase is flaokedby rwo solidtowers.Thc nextexample showsan L-form beingsuperimpos€d with a cylind€r, whichtrccomcsthedominatinSfigure of the building. The t\r'o wings are buih as verandas.
U-Types
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Thcse building fonnr still incvitablyhavc a rnasterlycharacter.The distinct symlnery wilh its defincd centre is so dominantthat a mitigalion by way of fragmentadon or similar techniqucsis difficuhto achiev€.Illustration7 shows this classicrype. ll5 retacted courtyardis closcdby a pcrgola. The opposite cffect is Sained if a pergola constitutes the long sideof a building(illustration E). By this. the transverse ruin spaccis clcarly dcfin.d, thc two lrings bcing lcft to accommodale&e subsidiaryrooms. In ilhlslration 9 thelongsideof thebuildingis terminated by a buffer zonewitb subsidiaryspaces.The ccntre is dominatedby a staircase,and thc side wings accdmmodaterwo nuin spaccs.
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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURT III: GROUND-PLAII AND BUILDING FORM
Building Corners The comer of a building is one of the most imponantzonesand is rnainlyconcemadwith the nEdiationof t',r'ofacadcs.During thepastdecades lhis subjectin architecorc has been largcly negl€ct€d. Nowadays, asa resuhof simplylininS up buildings,rhe comeras a particularpart of the building has not receivcdthe nccessary acknowledgement and treatnent. In comrastto this, the following sketches for special shoulddemonstmte somepossibililies comer lreatment.The first examplc shows (illustrationI ) thatthecomerhasalsobeendealt TerraSni with in modemarchit€cture. Guisepp€ constructivist Golosovachieved andtheRussian the comer of a simiiar resultsby emphasising buildingby way of a glasscylindet..Thissolid carics thearchitraveofthe top storeylike a huge, deriatcflalisedroundcolumn. Thc tuming of the by a projecting corncris cspcciallyemphasised frame which markstheactual terminationof lhe building (illusrration2). In illustralion3 lhe psychological shearing off tha corncr is counteracted by way of an insenedpyramid,a a protection s€nsitivebut perhapstoo Frowerful of the comer. Thc rounded,retractedcomer
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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE III: GROU{D"PLAN AI\D BUILDING FORI1
show[ in illustration4 is emphasised by a similarly shapedrow of colurns crearinga fiher and reducinglhe dark zoneofun associated with a deep comer. In illusrration5 the comer is formedasa buildingin its own right-a tower. Thc problemof connectingthe towerwith lhe steel facadesis solvedby lhc employment of Ioggias.Illustrations 6 and7 alsopresenlcomer towerswhich in termsof lheir proponionsare to be regardedas classicalsolulions, Thecurve,thecircleandtheumingofacomer are, in formalterms,logicalmeansofprolecting a comer. Parls and elementsof the facade, without beingbroken,can therebybe 'wound round' from one facadeto the next.The tower allowsfor a proDerlermiradonof fie sidefacades and createsan additionlhaccentuation. The emptyingofa comeror, in otherwords. a comer beingopenedup is shownin illustration 8. The small monumenr$ith iG outward edgeslakesup thealignmentofthe rwoadjacent facades.Theexamplepresenhdin illusrration 9 is a useful solutionborh in conslruclional and functional terms: the steppedform and the dissolutioninto perSolasallos for a positi!e r€sponse to the otherwiselarSedark zoneof a comer. By openingthe comer rowardsthe top suchDaoblems are removcd-
Student worts on th€ thcm. of Comcr BuildinSs
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Illustralion l: A rnasterlylchieve|trcnt in lerms of the most subtlc and yet accentuatcddevelopmenl of a comcr is rcaliscdin Otto Wagncr'sPost OIfice SavingsBank in Vicnna. The surfacesof thc last vertical window axis of tha sida facadcs are drawn forward and sland oul almost like a frame, terminatedby lhe bevcllcdcomarsabovc. Tle setback also accommodltes a venical
88
window axis and signalsthe developrFnt of a diagonal prospect from lhe building. Thrcc elenEnts,the two vcrtrcalpojlsoflhc 'frarne' and th. comcr ilself are held togelherby a projccting comice,the consolesof which constihrterhe point of transitionof the different parts.All this prepar€s finally for thecomerto bc crowncdby
Illustlalion 2: A ground-planlevcl pavilion in front of a building comcr completesthe alignmen! of tha two facadcswhich approacheach otherat an acutaan8le.The actlal comer facadc, which is slighdyconcavcand tcnacedtowatds thc !op, reccdes,Thc serbacksof thc storcyscnd al lop floor levcl which is cmphasisedby a wtdow si&atedin thevenicalaxiJ,aDdis cro*n-
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by tvo statues. tn addition,this comer is separatrd from thc sidc facades by way of ecess€d com€rs. Illustration 3t This building shows &e -lransparcncy of mediadonof diffcrcnt building levels. The entaaiccarca rcrches symmetrically ight roundthecomer and, by way of a eall band tlove, is connectadwith the side facades.The
plasterjoints at the cnd of thc sidc tacadesrDark their termination, The logSia! finally allow dle bcv.lled comcr !o widcn towardsfic rop wherEby a planc is created. This is flankcd by two flagstaffs,which hclp cvincethc comcr as trcinga complete form. Illustration 4: This cxampleshowsthe penetration of a comer. One side penetntesthe othcr
and davclop6inlo 8n cxprcssivcgatewaystructurc. The srnall tralconiesat the comcr do not representthc prolongationof the facadc,but the Denetation of the comcr.
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Interior Courtyards Intcrior counyardsarc not indeFndent elements, but thc outcomcof a certainkind of building. Wc should not concem ours€lveshcre *ith originel historicsl and rural forms of lhis tyF, so thc 'atdum' and other similar types of counyard buildingswill not be at issue.wlat will be dealt witb in this context are e,(amplesof counyards as thcy are foundin cities.Courtyardsare semipublic spac6 which are for the us€ of thc
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communityconcemed.Thcy canalsotrc pan of rn informal routc nctwork of passagesand thoroughfareswhich give accessto variousparts of th. city (illustrations I lnd 3). A largeroofed courtyard, a hall so to spcak,is cspeciallyuscful in public buildings as a dcvice oforicntrtion. It also rcmovesthe tightnessofan officc complcx ald allowsfor additionrl venti.lalionaid illumina_ tion (illustration 2). As a rcsidentialcourtyard wirhin sn urban developmcnt(illustration4), the courtyard is a conlrDn spaceuscd by thc in' habitantsof thc adjacetl buildings. Especially
trcausc of cxcessive lraffic, the sucets and thereforepubliclife areofienrcstrictedin cities; lhe courtyardhasthusgaincda new significance. Today one should strive to locate apanments oricntaLd towardsa quict courtyard la$cr than towardsthe street.This is a developmeotwhich is only beginningbut which will rcsult in greater suppon for, and considcrationof, cdsting and new intcrior courtyards. Thc rcquired changes to traditionalbuildingtyp€smust,however,be madesenscof.
vienna Inleriorcountaid bctweenWollzeileand Biicte.slrass€,
visu berween Lf,rchenfeldersrrarse and Neubaugassein vienna. ninctecnth cenluR
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Counyard in lhe Justizpalanir vienna. by A. wielemanns. lE75-81
ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE
OutsideStaircases As lhe termalreadyexplains,outsidesBircases form part of the exterior space.They are hlman strucoresof landscape.They alsoact asmarkeG in naful"aland urban environments,and cotrF rnnni;aedteir Fblic use.We cantbink for exanple of a larSeBaroqleoutsidestairwhich,ahhough .elatedto an axis, also lcadsaway from i! and lhereforccngendemmomentsof contemplation, Anothe. axatrple is a footpathin the coun!ryside. Ifsimply rude stepsemergein hilly terrainthen we know that this path is often used by people, and lhat it facilitateswalking. Beyondlhis, outsidestaircasesalsocrcatetheir own space,bccomepointsofcncounter, meeting places,oa simply points from which beautiftll viewscanbc enjoyed.I think i! is not necessary lo enlarSeulron the fact thal thesecharacteristics havelargely b€enlost, and havebeensubstituted by thcsimplisticideaofthe 'shortestconnection betweentwo points'. lllustratioo I showsa simple straightstaircas€cu! into theupp€rlevelofa building.Alr€dy ar the boBomlevel, one comesunderthe influenceof the upperlevel becauseof the slair. Onecan then slowlyascendit. However,the degreeto which a slaircascis projecEdfiDm its upwardt€rmination (illustrations2 and 3) determinesthe different possiblcrclationshipsbetweenthe two levels. If our sens€of spatialitywasstill intact,we would realise the difference. What we nowadays cxperience instead is somebodyrushing up the stairs and getting confusedbecause, as is shownin illustration4, one staircascoften tums st right anglesinto two. SlaLcaseswhich run parallel to one another (illustration5) Siveeverylevelan indcpenoem, yet equal significancc. This arrangement resemblcsErnces. Illustradon6 showsan almost semi
III: GROIIIiD-PLAN
A.\D BUILDING FORM
FOR}I trI: GROUN}PLANAND BTJILDING ELEMENTSOF ARCHITECTI.RE
IllusEationI rcprcsentsthc oppositecffcct ofthat gainedin illustration9 on thc former plata. Herc thecurvedformofthe stairgivcstheimpression that theuppcrlevelhasa graaLr significarcethan in the examplebefore. The semi-circular statcascsho\,nin illustralion 2 cmergesfrom a garticular lcvel to lead up to the next one. Inilially one movesaway from it to comcback to it againon arcther level. The nextexampleconsidcrs6 staicasawhich is again cut inlo thc ground (illusiration 3). Only after havingmovcdon to thebosomstcphasonc rcally left the area coocemed. A bold variation of oppositestaircas€sis sho*n in illustration4. The division into main levels and inlararcdirte (i! landingsis striking.Thdollowing staircase lusrrattn 5; alsJ poSsscs an- inrermedilc landing. From half way up ooe has al.eady enrcredthe sphereof lhc uppcr lcvcl. This cffect ofan 'extErior'and'interior' to a staircaseis cven more explicii in thc simple, yct in anothcr way sophisticated,aarangemcnl shownin illustration 6. Onehalfof rheslair is 'hcapedup', theother half'cut iD'. Apan from the varietyof possible lincsof movcmcntandconncction,thc circular intermediatelanding clearly manifestsa mcaningfulccntrc. Eramplcsof rcprcsentationalfront slaircascsarEprescntrdin illustration7. Herc the upFr level clerrly hrs the prominent me3rling. A rarc erample for an €xterior slair is a spital staircase(illusu"ationt). As a 'functioral *inding' h is a pre-rulner---orrnaybea rcsult---of the Towcr of Babel,evenmore rcminiscentin the lastcxampl. (illustrarion9).
93
ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE trI: GROTJNIIPLAN AND BTJILDING FORM
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Wirh the issueof the prospect,altboughir is closelyrelatedtoarchitccturc,we leavelhesuojefl 'building' asan independent subi:ct ofdesign and s€l out to thint rbout public spacc. It has alr.ady bccnhint€dat that lhe obligalionofevery building is ro be integratedinro its spccific urbantissuc.A spctialproblemin this contextis presented by the 'prospecf. kl us lake the cornmoncaselhat a sfeet oa a squarcis io be lerminatedby a building-our building.Thisterminationis not tb be treatedas anaccidcnt;tbc facadeof lhe buildinSconc€m€d hasro reacrto this specific situation. Whilc thc strcctas suchis a symbolof innniry, its l,ermination communicstesthe fact that a dcstinationhas bcanreachad.This destination,thc facadeof our building,mustrcspondto thisevent,mustcatch thc eyc: only then will lhe building makesense andbe intagratedinlo the urbancontext.If we are committcd to our responsibility for urban space,wehaveto respcctits laws.Thatwehave regardto thc affcct of prospectshas nolhing to do with a delibcratemonumcntalization of buildings,but with renderingrcsp.ctto $c llrtan texNre. A prospectat the end of a stleet makes the eye rcsl, givcs il a larSet, and lhcrcby symbolically shofiensthc way to the desdnation. By taking into considcration thc cffect our hcadehason adjacentstreetali8nnents,we conF municatcour conccm for thc oles of thc placc wherewebuild. We shoulddot rt|akcpoople$ink abolt our buildingin rhesensethata spaccship has landcdin their town by accident.What we shouldcarcaboutis givinSevidencethatwe arc goingtocontinuetobuildmoreforthis specific, for our. olace.
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Srudenrworks on the themeof Prospcct
Towersand Monuments Buildint is always about thc occupationof a place.Architectureis aboutsettingnark. In the free cou rysidc we comc across a tower. It dirlc6 our *ay. Lighthouses,chirnneys,sleeples, ciry gates,defencctowe$ e!c. belongto thearcheqpa.lsymbols of uprighEEss. TowerssymtJolize the eristenceof hurnanachievern€nt,thc lriumph over eanhly Inatlers.Without doubtcvery tower hasa monumcnlal charact€r asit risesabovethe anvionment.Havingsaidthat I can seeb€fore
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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTUR.EUl GROUNDPLAN AND BUILDING FORI\I
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my inncr eye cenain modemarchitectsshaking a wamingfingerat me. llonumenlality?lfone daresto talk aboutthis lasttabooof theModeme, oneis tooeasilyaccus€d ofhavinga lonSingfor a totalitarianstateofaffairs. Whata stlpid and shon-sighted fallacy!A monumentis of course first and forcmosla sign of power. Only the mighty pot€ntatecould afford to rise abovehis manifestations. subjeclsby way of architectlaal 8ut he is mortal. whereashis monumentwill outlasthim and will b€ celebratedby funrre generations asa cuhrrEllestirnony.Witholt thes€ 'signsof power' tlerc would be no suchthing as architecore:we would dwell in a desolale steppe. MonumenisalwaysVere. and still are. cult obiecb \r hich havcnF4ing andvaluefor a community. Because of their symbolism,theyexpress a commonwill or confession,Monurncnlsdo not ne€dto b€towersor high-risebuildings.A srnal waysideshrineat theforkingofa routcsuffices asasignof humancxislence, Bul let ustry agait andfind out whattheterm 'monunEntality'really means.It cenair y impliesa lasdngpieceofarchitecutre;it alsoconveysthebeautyof destnrction. On the l6rh of May lt7l, the Vend6me Column with the statue of Napolcon I was destroyedby fiShtersofthe ParisCommune.This act of overthro'*-in8po\rcr is documentedtn numcrousphotographs.Many groupsof fiShters pose ill front of the dcstloycd monument.w]at do \re leam from such an cx@ple, to which many otherscould be addcd?We leam lhal lhe desructionofa monurrFnti5 a symbol;a symbol for thewill ofa socicty.We, however,preserve and carc for the monumcnts of thc past. sometimesit appcarsthat thc rcscuadstatucof q pastsovcrcigncomp€nsarcs for thadestluclion of entirehistoricalurbanquartcrs.While our societydestmysvalt,abl€testimoniesof the past, it clings !o nice linlc monumcntsbut is unablc to crc{e ncw on€s.Historical worshipof heroes is ccrtainlynot in accordanccwith our undc$iandinSofdemocracy.But is rherenorhingleft we canbelievein? Arc wc no lonScrin thcposidon to sct signs which, olthough not uscful, can d@urlEntcommon s€ns€?Democracyobviously does not stand in need of crectinS monumcnts-but it lcgitimiscs itsclf by tesdmonicsof monarchicandautocraticpowcr. From (hc rnonumentswhich havcnot b€€nbuilt, we canlcamabourthc self.valuation ofa society and *hat position archirccturehas in il. ,,1 societt A'hichdoet iot beli.v. in its sunirol i5 incapable of the tynrbolic reprcsentationof its aim, and thereforc incapabh of btiAinS.
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ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION R O BK R I E R
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Rob Krier is a unique voice in toddy's archil.ctural discourse illustrations.Krier also drarvson siudenr{orks.Lnd pholographic through his commitmentto developinga relevxntand pragmaric exrmplesto support his argument,manv of which rlere commis_ lheory of architecturebasedon his own experienceand observa_ sioned especially for this book. The culminalion of years of tions of architectural practice, and opposed to lhe eas\.. abstracl terchingand practical experienceby one of Europe.sbestknown theorising so common in contemporar! architecturalwritins. architecturaflheorists , Arc.hitettural Conposifio, is without doubt Together wilh his brorher Leon. he hts perfeired a form oi a major achievement, deslined to become a standard work of p.esentationin which the potencyof his thinkingfinds its perfect referencefor both studentsand practising archirects. counterpoinlin detaileddrawings and sketches!rhich arguerhis Rob Krier is an architect.educatorand influentialtheoriston visually throughthe power of example.Following the successof architecture and urbanism. He was born in Luxembourg and his widefy acclaimed Urban Spare, a work which looked at lhe sub\equentl]emigratedto Au.rria $hefe he has lired ever.since. problemsof our citiesfrom an historical.theoreticaland Dractical Krier hasproduced urbanschemesforcitiesasdiverseas Stutrsart. sli|ndpoinr.Krier now applies his ptrticular. highl) jnfluenrirl V i e n n a a n d B e r l i n . H i s b u i l r *o r k . i n c l u d e e r t e n s i v e sJci a l mode of didactic criticism to contemporary architecture in a houJingschemesin Berlin and more recentlyprojectsin Amiens continuingsearchfor fundamentalarchitecturaltruths. and Vienna-Krier's sculpturalwork includessix bronzesfor the Architectural Composiaio,is both a theoreticalandvisual analvsis ponsideof Barcelona( l986). five bronzesfor a castlein Luxem_ clearly illustraling lhe crealive processwhich inform. Krier.s bourg(1987). a bronzeof the philosopherReuchlinfor pforzheim vision and praxis. Separate chapters derail the i.undamentalsof in Germany (1987), and a pair of figures for rhe Camillo Sirre architectural composition, beginning with funcljon, construction Piazza in Vienna (1988) of uhich he is also the architect.His and architectural form; the elements of architecture, including pre\ iousbooksincludeUrba Spa(e,AcademyEditionsI979,and typologies for plans, facades and interior spaces. proportional On At chitecuu.e, A,cademyEdirions( l9g:). He hasbeenprofessor studiesof Gothic cathedrals,the human body,planrs,animalsand at Ihe Technicrl Unjver\ily o[ Viennasince 1975. sculpture,demonstratingtheir rclianceon lhe GoldenSecrion;and a seriesof critical and discursiveessayson the plight of architec_ 25AeJqnn,3JJ paees i,tdtding thrc?doilbte.tt!efottts itt cotour.oter 500 ture and architectspractisingtoday.In addirionto his own didactic IS Ri \ 08:070803x H ,l t,thdt^ tjg.S 0
ACADEMYEDITIONS 42 LeinsterGardens. LondonW2 3AN
