Historical Dictionary of Ancient Egyptian Warfare Robert G . Morkot
Historical Dictionaries of War, Revolution, and Civil Unrest, No. 26
The Scarecrow Press, Inc . Lanham , Maryland , and Oxford 2003
Contents
SCA REC RO W PR ESS,INC . Publi shed in the United States of America
hy Scarec row Press. In c . A wholly ow ned subsid iary of The Rowmun & Littlefield Publi sh ing Gro up , Inc . 450 1 For bes Bou levard. Suite 200 , Lanham. Maryland 20706 www.scarCCrtlWprc ss.com
PO Box 3 17 Oxford O X29 RU .UK Co pyr ight © 2U03 by Robert G . Mork ot
"II
All rig
reserved. No part o f this publicat ion may be rep roduced, store d
in a retri eval system , or transm itted in any fo rm or by any m eans, electronic .
mec hanica l. photoc opying . recor din g . or otherwise , without the prior permiss ion of the publisher.
Editor's Foreword
Jail Wo rollojf
Acknowledgments
IX
Reader 's Notes
xi
Chronology
xiii
Introduction
xxxi
Maps and Illustrations
Ii
T il E DICTIONARY Append ix: Dynastic Lisl
257
Bibliograp hy
265
About (he Author
3 15
Brit ish Library Cata log uing in Publicat ion Info rmat ion Availab le Li h rary of C nngress Ca ta lo~i n~- i n - P u hlica t i o n Da ta Morko t, Rober t. Il istor ical d ict ionary of anc ie nt Egyp tian war fare I Rob ert G . Mor kot. - lst cd . p. eIIl.- (I listorical d ictionaries of war , revo lution, and ci vil unrest; no . 26) I ncl udes bibliographica l re ferences. IS BN O-XIOX-4X62-7 (alk. paper) I. Egy pt- I1islOry. Mi litary-Dictionaries . 2 . Egyp t - Histor y - To 640 A .D.-Dictio naries . I. Ti tle. II. Series . DT XI .M67 2003 932' .03- de2 l 2UU3U 1181 6
e
~T ~'
vii
T he pa per used in this pub lication meets the minimu m requ ireme nts of
A merican Na tion a l Standard It)1" lnfo rm at io n Sc icnces- Pennancnce of Paper for Prin ted Libr a ry Matc ria ls , ANS I/N ISO Z39 .48- 1992.
Manufact ured in the United State s of America.
v
Editor's Foreword
Altho ug h most of what we kno w about A nc ient Egypt relates to the art s of peace , it mu st be obviou s that to surv ive-and o ften thri ve- as long as it did , Egypt must also have bee n well vers ed in the arts of war. A las , so me of the co nflicts we re inte rna l, reb ellio ns and civi l wars. But the more not abl e accompanied its co ntinuing e xpan sion into o ne of the largest e mpires ever, with the con q uest of la nds a nd peo ples all along the Ni le a nd so meti mes fart her afie ld . T he most vita l we re wa rs against majo r rivals , so me of them h uge empires in their ow n right , o the rs smalle r maraudi ng peo ples . Indeed , while it wo n most of the e nd less hostilit ies , it d id not w in them a ll. Thu s , Egy pt had a succ ess io n of " fore ign" rule rs as we ll as ind ige no us o nes . During thi s lon g per iod , it crea ted a re ma rka ble c iv ilization, but it also fo rged an exceptiona l fig htin g machin e . Th is Historical Dictionary of Ancient Egyptian \Vw f are is particu larly significa nt bec ause it tell s us so mu ch about the part of Egyp tian history we tend to neglect. The introd uction already ex plains just how warlike the Egyp tians were, actually, had to be in order to survive and thrive . T he c hro nology, ad mitted ly patc hy becau se our know ledge of Egy ptian histo ry remai ns patchy, shows ho w o ften the emp ire was at war, whet her e ngaged in re lative ly minor skir mishes or much large r o pera tio ns . T he entries go into fur ther detail on these engageme nts a nd also info rm us about the organiza tion o f the army a nd navy, the role of the various officers a nd leader s right up to the pharaoh him sel f, the stratage ms and strateg y, and especially the weaponry . Thi s blend s into Egy ptian histor y per se with a prese ntat io n of the co untless allies and e nem ies (so metimes on e and the same) , co nquere d a nd co nq uero rs
vii
viii •
1Il1l0WS 10 1{1 WORD
In so me ways it is eve n hard er to write abo ut Anc ient Egy pt at war than at peace . T he archaeo logica l a nd written rem ains are fewe r, and , to co mpound the prob lem . most of what there is may be harder to interp ret and, for rea so ns that will become obv ious on reading , far from trustworthy. Despi te these d iffic ulties , Robert Morkot has done an adm ira~le job of sor ting thin gs out a nd making them reaso nably clear, summmg ~IP what is re lative ly ce rtain, dis pelling so me of the abid ing myths and mrstakes , and treatin g with due cautio n what we think we now know but may be pro ven wro ng at so me late r dat e. Dr. Morkot has spent mo re than two decad es study ing and then lectu ring o n Ancient Egypt , with a special interest in Nuhia and Egy ptian warfare. His stud ies were initially at University Co llege Lond o n. At present he lect ures for the Universi ty of Exeter. li e has traveled frequen tly for resear ch , to visit sites and lead study tours , not only to Egypt but also to Lib ya , the Suda n, and Syri:1. l ie has writte n four books and many other academic pub lications . T his lime he has produ ced a truly fascin atin g histo rical dict ion ary. Jon Wor onoff Series Ed itor
Acknowledgments
My interes t in warfare is to a large e xtent accidental. As an Ancient Hislor ia.n, I a m part icularly con cern ed with the interconnecti on s of Egyp t a nd Its co ntemporaries in Africa , wes tern Asia , and the eas tern Med iterranean. Jnevitubly, co nflic t a nd wa rfare played a major ro le in that. But , as I emphasize in the introd uct ion , our ev idence is remarkably patc hy, both c hro nologically, and in certain issues , such as tacti cs and strategy, that form a major part of stud ies o f warfa re. In orde r to ex plain the nalure ~ f Ih: surv ~vi~lg record, and the role of wa rfa re in Ancient Egy pt, the Historical Diction ary there fore ran ges through so me o f the wide r social. economic , a nd rel igio us spheres that affected, and were affected by, thi ngs military. A boo k o f thi s type , sy nthes izing a wide ra nge of materi al , is indebt ed 10 the specialized sc holarly wo rk of num erou s profession al co lleag ues, ranging from the ana lysis of the types of wood used to make a chariot wheel to the interpretation of d ifficu lt anc ient te xts, and from ca lculating how man y so ld iers wer e req ui red to defend a par tic ular fortress to unde rstandi ng the diffi culties of destro yin g cro ps. Th e bibliograph y shows the richness and d ive rsity of research relat ing to all aspects of warfare . My ow n spec ialist wor k, not ab ly that o n the Egyp tian Empire in Nubia, has benefi ted from d isc ussio ns wi th many co lleagues, a nd particu larly from th.e invitat io n to co ntribute to " Imperial Design s: Cornp aralive Dynami cs of Ear ly Em pires" spo nsored by the Wenner-Gren Foundat ion for Anthrop o logical Research at their Internat ional Syrnp osrum # 122 held in M ijas , Sp ain, in 1997. My than ks go to the orga nizers, Susa n Alc ock , Tere nce D 'Altro y, Kath lee n M o rrison , and Carla S inopoli fo r the invi tation, and to the other co lleag ues present , for the ir inspiration.
ix
x •
ACKNOW I I IlC M I NTS
As always , I have plea sure in thanking Peter Jam~s a~d Step hen Qu irke for their willingness to an swer nun~erous queStlO~IS 'Illd. ~upply to references , and their wide- ranging discussIOns of many Is.sues, anfd h . N' t for their help 111 the library 0 t e Patricia Sp encer and C hns aun o n . . . t'ron :Snc"rcinyv. My tha, nks also go to the senes edditor , Jon Egypt I,' x ll IOIa . d t ' 1 He has rna e man y Woron olT, for his patience and alte ntlo n to e au . . . . I number of additio nal entnes t iat . I. . valuable suggesllo nS, resu ling 111 a bri ng together recurring subjec ts . . f ' ks as ever, to John Vincej nt or c s. Fina lly on a persona l note , my i Inaru " . . T hat one of my une les serv er as an co nstant suppor t 111 so many wa ys. ' . r rna office r in the ord nance. and my grandfat h~r 111 the.ca valry, may, .o b' y . I b f en tnes relating to eco nomics . Il not. have a hearin g o n me num er 0 rcuucrucy. and ho rses .
Reader's Notes
T here is no universa lly accepted system of rendering ancie nt Egyptia n name s . Some Egyptolo gists still prefer to use Greek forms o f royal names, suc h as Amenophis and Seth os, but since Greek forms are not know n for all pharao hs (e.g. , Hatsheps ut, Tut an khamun ). this inevitabl y leads to an unhappy mixture . Thi s volume use s a standard system of names based upon the hieroglyph ic writ ings . It sho uld be noted that these tra nscriptions may have no relation to how the nam es were actually pron oun ced in ancient time s . Simil ar problems occ ur with Persian , G ree k , and Roman name s . Greek names have often been Latinized (e.g. , Seleucus for Se leukos), and Lati n names hav e o ften been Ang licized (e .g., Trajan rather Tra ianu s). Greek names are give n here in their Greek , rath er than Latini zed , forms (e .g.. Ak tio n, Antiochos, rather than Ac tium, Antiochus), although so me fam iliar form s, such as Ptolem y, are retained . Persian name s such as Dar ius hav e suffered by being La tinized from Greek li mn s of the O ld Persia n. but are retai ned because of their familiarity. T he familiar forms of Assyrian and Bab ylonian name s are also used . T his incon sisten cy is perh ap s un fortun ate , but refl ects modern trend s, hopefully without being overly ped anti c at the expen se of famil iarit y. T he name s used for places are also rather complicated . Egypto logist s still ge nerally employ the Greek forms , such as Helio polis, Memphis, and Th ebes , rath er than the Egy ptian Iunu , Men -nofer, and Waset. Th ere is incon sistency, but princ ipal town s have been cross-refe renced to their Greek o r Egyp tian form s. Archaeo logica l sites are genera lly referred to hy the ir Arabi c names , but a large c ity. such as Memphis , include s many doze ns of individual archae ologica l sites . T he chro nology of ancient Egypt is stiII a matter of so me co ntroversy . The relative ordering of pharaoh s, and their reign length s, is genera lly acce pted for the princip al phases, the O ld, Midd le, and New Kingdom s ,
xi
xii •
~ rA[) II{' S NOT! S
thc Late , Ptolema ic . and Roman pe rio ds , It is during the " Inte rmed iate Per iod s" whenthcre we re two or more pharaoh s ru ling in d ifferent parts or Egypt thaI mo st prob le ms oc c ur. T he ear liest abso lute ly ce rtain da te is 690 Be , the acce ssion or the pharaoh Taharqo . Th e dates for rei gn s and peri od s used in Ihis vo lume are , with a few exceptio ns , tho se employed in Morris Bierb rier, Historical Dictionary of Ancient Egypt , Scarecro w Press , 1999, T he use o r hold fac e typ e to highli ght name s in the di cti on ar y ind icates that these ha ve a s pec ific e ntry o r their own e lsew here in the text. T he map s a nd plan s are inte nded as a simple gu ide for o rientatio n , and sho uld not he cons idere d as su bstitute s for those in archaeo logica l report s o r in histori ca l atlases .
Chronology
c. 5000-c. 3100 BC c. 3100-2686 BC
c. 3150 -3050 BC
Predy nas tic Peri od
Ea rly Dyna stic Period
Dynasty " 0"
"Scorpion"
c. 3050- 2890 BC ". 3100 Ilc
fi rst Dyna sty
Narrner: wars that led to unification of Egypt.
". 30511 IlC Djer: Nubian campaign recorded at Gebel Sheikh Suleirnan. c, 2985 IlC Den: military action in Asia or Sinai'!
c. 289 0-2 686 BC Se cond Dynast y r,
2600 li e
Khasekhcmwy: civil war; action in Ta-Scty (Nubia).
c. 2686-218 1 BC
O ld Kingdo m
", 2686-2613 IlC Third Dynasty ", 2686-2613 IlC 2(,48- 2640 IlC
Sanakhte: action in Sinai.
Sekhemkhet: action in Sinai.
c, 2613- 2494 IlC fo urth Dynasty 2(' 13- 2589 lie Snefru, Nubian campaign captured 7.000 people, Defensive system of walls and forts built on eastern bordcr. 25119- 2566 lie
Khufu: battle reliefs ( ?) .
xiii
CH RONOLOGY •
x iv •
C11~O N() 1
c. 1985-1795 2558-2532
2494-2487
12th Dynast y
1985- 1955 IIC Ame ne mha t I: Nu bian ca mpaig ns ove r 20 yea rs, under Inyotcf-iqcr : co ns truc tion o f fortress at Buhc n; co nstruc tio n o f the Walls of the Ruler o n the ea ste rn border.
Fifth D ynasty
IIC
Usc rka f: tro op s dep icted in sce ne fro m te mp le , but not
IIC
speci fically militar y. . . . ' 1St 2487-2475 IIC Suhurc : m 't1'nar y act 'io ns. .agall , Libyans' , ASI'l' , and Nubia . implied in rel iefs fro m King's te mp le . Expcditi o n to Pu nt : . 2375-2345
BC
Khufrc: battl e reliefs ('I) .
IIC
c . 2498-2345
xv
O Cy
Unas: batt le sec ne fro m temple shows As iuucs o r Libyans .
IIC
c. 234 5- 2 18 1
IIC
2287-227811c
Sixth Dynasty
Nemtyc msaf: ex peditio ns of Har khu f to Yam .
1955
M urder of Amenernhat l.
1965- 192 0 Catarac t.
Sc nusret I: N ub ian ca mpa igns: fort s buill aro und Seco nd
IIC
192 2- 1878 I1c
Ame ne mhat II: yca r 28 exped itio n to Punt.
188 0- 1874 IIC First Ca taract.
Se nusrct II: wa ll built betwee n Aswan and the hcad of thc
1874- 1855 11c
Scnusret III
c,
181i7 Year 8. Nubian ca mpaign .
227ll--2184 IIC Pepi II: ex peditions of Harkhuf 10 Yam : cm crgcnce of united kingdom o f Wawat in Lower Nubia ; references to raid on eastern border 01
c. 181i1i Year 9. Nubian ca mpaign .
Egy pt.
r·.1859
c. 2181-2000
BC
First Intermediate Period
r,
181i5
Yea r 10. Nubi an ca mpaig n so uth of Seco nd Ca taract. Year 16 . Fortr ess o f Uro nar ti co mpleted .
r. 1857 Year 19 . Fortresses co mpleted . Pcrhaps this year, ca mpaig n in As ia; .utnck o n Shcchcm . 1855- 1808
c. 2181 -212 5
BC
Sevenlh/Eighth Dynasti es
c. 2160-21 30
IIC
N in th Dynast y. Period of con flic t between lo ca l
I'.
1782-1 65 0
IIC
13 th Dynast y
Loss of Nubia to Kushite kingd o m of Ker ma , Fo rtresses (e .g.• Buhen ) sac ked "1Il1 burned . Kush ite ga rriso ns later insta lled in so me fo rtresses. Hyksos take ove r the Dell a and establish their main ce nter at Avar is .
rul ers (" ci vil war") .
c . 21 30-2040
BC
10th Dynasty. Ru lers of Herakleopo lis.
c . 2125-1985
BC
111h Dynast y. Th e rul ers oflhebe s, Intef I a nd Inte f
II, e xpanded their power northward ,
c. 2040-1 795
Amcncm hut III
II('
BC
1'. 1650- 15 5 0 r. 1585-1550
M iddle Kingdom
11th D ynasl y (con tinued) . 2055-2004 IIC Ncb hcpctrc Mcn thuhotcp II: wars (~f rcu ~l ification of Egypt (taking 40 years) ; ca mpaigns in Nub ia. Si nai, and aga inst LIbyans .
IIC
,'. 1580- 1 55 0 ,.. 15(,0
IIC
BC
IIC
15th D ynasty (H yksos) Apcpi War with T hc ban ru lers Tao and Kam osc .
17th D ynasty (Thehan rulers)
Tao : co nflic t with Hyksos; campaign in Nu bia?
". 1555 - 1550 IIC Kamose: ca mpaig n in Nub ia, Bu hen rega ined ; co nflict with l lyksos. capture o f Ncfrusy, adv ance o n Avar is.
xvi .
C1 IRC)N C)I O C Y
C1 IKONOLOGY • xvii Co
e . 1550-l295 IIC 1550-1525
Il l:
1550-1069 IIC
New Kingdom
l8lh Dynasly
Alu no sc
Ca mpai g n in Nu bia. T he Egy ptia n a rmy reoccupied and restored the fortress o f Buh cn , instulling a ga rriso n and vice roy. Military ex pa ns ion so uth o f the Sec o nd Cataract aga inst Ken na , followed by the co ns tructio n of a fortress o n the island of Sa i. Wars with Il yksos. A naval battle at Avaris, The Hyk sos were defe ated . Thi s was followed by act ion s in Ca naa n , including the siege of Sharuhen (three years or three campaigns).
To co nso lida te his posit ion . Ahrnosc led anot he r ca mpa ign in Lo wer Nubia. agai nst Autu , probabl y a local ruler. and de fea ted Tcti-an, prob abl y an anti-T heba n rebel in Egy pt. Th e ar my sa iled 10 Byl os.jhen cam pa igned inl and . 1525-150411<:
A me nho tep I
Year 30 . S ixth ca mpa ign. aga inst Qa des h, Sumu r, and Retenu. ;ear ~3 . E ighl.h campaig n. ~gai ns t Na harin (Mita nni). Th e army crossed the I.uphrd tes . engag ed In ba ttle In Na harin, and captured Ca rc he mish A b d ste la was se t u licati h . o un ary ',. ' , . . p rep rcatmg t at of T h utmose I, Thutmose III received tribute lro m Baby lo n and the Hittites . Year 34 . Ninth campaig n; Thutmose III . d rece ive tribute from Rctenu , Djahy, J Nukhas hshe , and Cy prus . Year 35 10th ca m ' . O' ' . pa ig n aga ins t j ah y, foll OWing the " re be llion" of Na ha rin , Year 38. 13th ca mpaign, in Nu khashshe. Year 39 . 14th ca mpa ign, aga inst the Sh asu . Year 42 . 17th ca mpa ign, against Qadcsh and Tun ip.
~ear 47. Thutrnose II I returned ( 0 Nubia, sailing to Gebe l Barkal . t tl F I a te OU r( 1 ( "'11'1 ract , w Ilere a ,.ortrcss was built. A me nho tep II
1427-14ll0 ne 1425 11<:
Year 3 . Asi atic campaign aga inst Ta khsy.
To co nso lidate his posit ion . A rn e nho te p campa igned in Nubia . with furth er buildi ng in the fortress o n Sui. In western As ia there wa s a ca mpaig n in the O ronics Valley ncar T unip .
1421 IlC Year 7. Ame n hote p led his army across the Oro nte s , the n so ut h Ihrough Tak hsy and Ga lilee.
1504-1492 uc
1419 Il l: Year 9. Ca mpai g n aga inst Qaqa, chief of Qebaasu mi n. ncar Meg iddo . 1401l-139llllc T hut rnosc IV
Th urmosc I
Thuunosc I led the ar my int o Nu bia and a ttacked Kenna . Th e ci ty was burned . but late r rebu ilt. Th e army march ed to the Fifth Cataract. Campaig n in Asia . T he a rmy sailed to Byblos , then mar ch ed inl and to the Euph rates as a show of s trength agai nst the kingdom of Mitanni . 1492- 1479 11<:
Thutrn osc II
At the pha raoh's accession. the re was a rebell ion by the Kushite princes . Th utmosc led his army into Nubi a and de feate d the Kushit es in battle . 1479 -1425 11<:
Thutrnosc III (so le reign from 14 56 ).
147 2- 145S II<:
Hatshcp sut and Thutmose Ill . joint rule .
Pou r ca m paig ns in Nubia . the fi rst probabl y led by Hatshep sut in per son . One e xped ition was led by Thutmose III and o ne reach ed Miu . 1456 Year 22-23 . First campaig n of Th utmosc Ill's so le reign. The army marched from Tjel to Ga za, then north into Sy ria to co nfro nt a coa lition led by the ru lers o f Qadcsh and Megiddo. Battle o f Meg iddo, followed by seven-month s iege. and the city's ca pture . Return march through Leba non, where a fort ress was built. Return 10 Egy pt. Year 25 . Third ca mpa ign, ap parently a peaceful tour of inspection . Year 29 . Fiftb campaign. in Djah i: Arvad ca pture d .
1.193 IIC Year 8 . T he army was se nt on ca mpaign into Nub i . I . a. precise oca uo n unknown. lJl)ll- 1352 I1c A rnenhotep III 1J1l6 . . N ub'la, possibly . . IlC Year 5 . Ca rnpntgn III follo wed by tw ' p'" g" s in N ub ia, 0 mo re cam1.152- 1336 BC
Ak hena ten
I ': . 1:143/ 13~~1 BC Year. 10 (+ '1). Th e Nub ian army . led by the vicero ca my p,lIgned agai nst Ikayta , III the Easte rn Desert.
I': 1.14.0/1336 BC
".gYl'tlan co ntro l. 1.1.16- 1327 uc
Hittites und er the ir king . Suppil uliumn, take A rnu
r
rru ro m
Tut an kharnu n
:I'h~re m ight. have been a ca mpa ign ill Nubia. Egyptian con flic t with the Hittites III . y n a . T hIS was perhaps a victo ry led by Ge ne ral Horemheb . 1.12.1- 1295 I1c Horemheb
c. 1295- 1 18 6 1l '!4- 1279 BC
BC
191h Dy nasty
Se ty I
xviii •
Cl IRONOIOGY •
C1 lllONOI OC Y
xix
1294/1293 Ill: Ca mpaign aga inst the Shasu; captu re of Beth-Shean ami Yenoam . Ca mpaig ns ensured Egy plian control of Damasc us , Tyre, Sidon , Bybios, a nd Sumur.
e. 1174
1290/1 2119 Ill: tite rule .
1151 Ill: T he army was invo lved in a major expedition to the qua rries of the Eastern Desert.
Egyptia ns rega ined Qudcs h, but the city soo n re turned to Hit-
Libyan War. Year ll. Rebell ion o f (rem , fo llowed by retaliatory ca mpaign, perhaps led by C row n Prince Ramcsscs .
1279-1213 Ill:
Ramesses II
Year II . Second Liby an War dom inated by the Meshwesh.
IIC
115311c " Harim conspiracy " in which Ramesses III was, perhaps, murdered . 11 53- 1147 BC Ramesscs IV
1143- 1136 11c
Ramesses VI
T he ~arrison towns o f Megidd o, Beth Shean, and Gaza were destroyed by fire, mark ing the end of the Egy ptian Em pire in western As ia. 1126-1108 Ill:
Ramesscs IX
1275 Ill: Year 4 . First campaign: march along coas t of Ca naan and Leb anon , returning via Byblos, Tyre , and Na hr el-Kelb.
Nubian troops defeated the Shas u.
1274 Ill: Year 5 . Campaign to Syri a agai nst Hittite coalilion led by Mu watalli, Batt le of Qades h: Ramesses II claim ed an Egy ptian victory .
c, 1O~8 Ill: Anarchy in Th ebes; the viceroy Panehesy brough t the Kushite army Into Upper Egypt. This was foll owed by a campaign farther north into Middle Egypt or the Delta , and a battle.
127111l: Year ll. Ramesses ensured Egyptia n contro l of co astal c ities of Tyrc , Sidon, Be irut, and Ilyblos . 1269 Ill: Year 10 . Ramesscs bad a stela ca rved at Nahr e l Kelb on the army's return from Tu nip or Dapur. Yea r 2 1. Pea ce treaty with Hittites . Year 40. Rebelli on o f Ircm. 1213-1203 Ill:
1099- 1069 uc
Ramesses Xl
c. 1083 IIC Year. 17 . P.anehesy and the army had returned to Nubia, leaving the genera l and HIgh Priest o f Am un , Her ihor, in co ntro l in T hebe s . ". 1080-1069 IIC Years 20- 30 . Wars co nduc ted by the High Pr iest o f Amun, Pa ian kh, against the viceroy Pane hcsy in Lo wer Nubia . E nd o f the Egyptia n Emp ire in Nubia .
Merncptah Third Int ermediate Period c. 1069- 656
Action in Ca naa n, with the ca pture o f Gezc r, Ash kelon, and Yen oam . Year 4 . Rebellion in Lower Nubia, suppressed .
c. 1069-9 45
IlC
c. 1208/1207 Ill: Year 5 . Invasion o f Libyan tribes, domi nated by the Libu , allied with gro ups of the Sea Peoples. Battle near Mem ph is.
'11l4-978
IIC
Oso rkon " the elder"
1203-1200 Ill:
Amcnrncsses (or e ntire ly within the reign of Sety II): dynas-
'178-959
IIC
Siam un
Scty II
('. 945 - 715
BC
21 st Dynast y
lie war.
1200-11 94 Ill:
'145-924 Ill:
c. 11 8 6-1 0 69
BC
2 01h Dynast y
'1-15 Ill:
IlC
2 2 nd Dynasty
Sheshonq I
Sheshonq I establishes a dynasty of Libyan chiefs as pharaohs of
I;gypt.
1184-11 53 Ill: Ramcsscs III e. 1180 Ill: Year 5 . First Libya n War , in which an alliance of Mesh wesh , Lib u, and Se ped invaded Egypt, bUI were rep ulsed .
lJ25 Ill: Campa ign of "S hishak" aga inst Judah ca ptures Je rusa lem. lJ24-1189 IIC Oso rkon I
Syrian War, incl uding siege o f Ar zaw a and Tunip .
1174-850
Nubian War, probably d irected aga inst Irem .
IlS.! Ill: Battle of Qarqar, Army of Sha lmaneser III of Assyria defeated a coaliIiun of western Asiatic rulers led by Damascus, including a contingent from Egy pt.
e. 1177 Ill:
Yea r ll. Batt le with the Sea Peop les .
IIC
Oso rkon II
xx •
C1 1 ~ ON () 1
O(; Y
C1 1~ ONOI. OG Y
•
xxi
1150-825 I1c Takc loth II. Rebell ion in Khm unu ami Thebes crushed by Crow n Prince Oso rkc n.
T here was a third bail ie on II July 67 1, at Mem phis, which was captured and sacked . Taharqo fled,
c. 75 0-656
(,{,9 IIC Taharqo regained co ntrol o f Memphi s and Lower Egypt and the Assyrian army ret urned 10 oust him , bUI Esarhaddon died en route and the ca mpaign was abandoned .
c. 750-736
IIC
25 1h Dynas ty
IIC
Kashtu. Kush itc power acknowledged in Th ebes and Upper
IIC
Piye (Piunkh y)
Egyp t. c. 736-71 2
Tcfnakht ruler o r Suu expanded power and look co ntro l or Me mphis, A coalition or Libyan dynusts led by Tefnakht marched into Midd le Eg,Ypt. N imlot or Khmunu , a Kushit e vassa l, joined Tc fnakht . Piye sent the Kushi tc army based in T hebes aga inst Tef nak ht: Despite several co nfro ntatio ns , the Kl~sh i le ar,m y fa iled 10 defe at the coa litio n. Piye led second arm y to Egy pt and besie ged Nun lot in Kbmunu . A part of the a rmy was sent north and relieved the Kush itc all y, Peftjauawybasl , who had been besie ged withi n He rakleop o lis. Khm ~nu yielded , and Piye led his ar my north . Tefn akht fled back to S '~u . T he Kus hitc s ca ptured Me mphis and Piye recei ved the submission of the LIbyan dy nasts at Athribis; Tef nakht swo re his oat h of fealt y at Sau .
720
Bailie o r Qarqar, Sa rgon II of Assyria de feated Yau'bi di, ruler of Il amath , then marched south , reca ptur ing Dam ascu s and Sa maria. Th e Ass yrian arm y defeated an Egyptian force at the bailie of Raphia , and cap tured the Egyptian vassa l ruler of Ga za . The Assy ria ns were left III co ntrol 01 the Egyptian bonier at Brook -of-Egypt.
(,{,711c The new Assy rian king,Ashurbanipa l, marched his ar my to Egypt and defeated Taharq o , capturing Memphis. Taharqo fled . Th ere was a rebell ion aga inst the Assy rian army by the Libyan dy nasts . In response the Assy rians atlacked Sa u and ot her Delta cit ies. massacring the population , ('{,+-6 56 IlC Tanwetam ani
(,(,-t
IIC Tanwctamu ni led a Kushite army to Memphi s. where he de feated and killed the Assyrian vassal , Ncka u 10 1' Sa u, Neka u was s ucceeded by Psarn tik l.
663 IIC Ash urbani pal led his army 10 Egypt and pu rsued Tan wctam ani from ~kmph is 10 Thebes , which was sack ed. Tanwctam ani fled to Na pata. Th e Assyrians wit hdrew, leaving Psumtik I as their vassa l ru ler in Lower Egy pt.
664-332
IIC
c. 711-695
IIC
Shabaqo
61>4-52 5 Be (,(,+-6 lf1 llc
BC
l ate Period
26th Dyna sty Psamrik I
r. 6M--656 IIC Psarntik I establ ished him self as sole ruler of Lower Egypt, redllelllg the power of the other Delta dy nasts.
710 IIC Year 2. Shabaqo and the Kushit e army marched into Egy pt, defe at ing the Suite pharaoh Bakc nra nef in bailie .
(,5(, IIC Year 9 . Following d iplomat ic mo ves the Kushit es withdrew from Thebes and Upper Egypt, leaving Psa rntik as so le ruler of the whole of Egypt.
701 IIC A joi nt Egyptian-Ku shite army marched to s upport Hczck iah of Judah in his reb elli on aga inst Assyria. T he army of Sennaeh erib de fea ted them at the Bail ie of Eltekeh.
(,111-595
c. 695-690 69(~64 IIC
679
IIC
IIC
Shcbitqo Taharqo
Esarhaddo n led the Assyrian army to Brook -of-Egypt.
6711llc Tuhurqo migh t have bee n active in the Levant while Esurhuddo n confronted pro ble ms in Babylonia.
677 11c
Esar had do n att acked Sid on , Taharq o's ally.
674
Th e Assyr ian army marc hed to Egypt but was defeated in bailie ,
IIC
67 1 IIC T he Assyr ians invaded Egyp t again. The Egypt ian-Kushite arn~y marched to meet them , and the re we re two battl es between Gaza and Memph is.
(,5-t
IIC
Year II . Psamti k led his ar my agai nst Libyans to the lVeSI of Egy pt. Nekau IJ
IIC
(,tI') IIC Nckau led the Egyptian army to aid the Assy rian king besieged in ( 'lI rchemish , At the baili e of Megiddo , the Egy pti an army defeated Jos iah , king " I Judah . Nek au installed Jehoiakim as king o f J udah .
Th e Egy ptia n army marched into Syria . The siege o f Kimu hu was 1'01lowed by an Egy ptian victory ove r the Bahylo nians at Qura rnati.
1tlI(, Il l:
At the bailie o f Ca rchc mish , the Egy ptian army was defeated by the Illlhylollians unde r prince Ne buchadnezza r. A second Egy ptian defeat at l ltnuuth fo llowed .
1tlI5 IIC
f,U 1 Il l.' Ne buchadnezza r II atte mp ted to invade Egypt, but was preve nted by II Il' Egyptia n army at the battle o f M igdol (Tell e l-Hei r) . Nckau II pursued the
xxii •
C1 1 ~ONOI OC Y
CHRONOLOGY •
:~;;c456 , IIC .
T he Pers ian ~rmy invad ed Egy pt. Memphis wa s rec ap tured. T he I Egyp tian s a nd Athe ma ns we re besie ged at Prosopitis in the Delt a .
ret reat ing Bahylon ian a rmy a nd recaptured Ga za . Nckau may have led his a rmy into Kush . 595-5119
Psamti k II
IIC
4)5,4 .IIC A n A the nian re lief expedi tion was dest royed by Persi an force s in the c 1ta . Inaros was ca ptured and exec uted .
1
593 IIC The Egy ptian a rmy. w ith Io n ia n and Ca ria n me rcen ari es , inva ded Kush and ga ined a victo ry in bailie at Pn ubs . 589-5701lc
423-404
IIC Wahibrc attacked Tyre a nd Si don whi le Neb ue hadnezzar a nd the l3ah y lon ian arm y was besieg ing Jeru salem .
404 -3 99
570/569
IIC
5611/567
IIC
Ahmose II (A mas is)
400/399
IIC
:1'19- 379
Nc buc had nezz ar II a nd the Ba byl oni an ar my attem pted to restore Wah ibrc , Wah ibre wa s killed in baili e .
525-521
.1115 11 ('
.1 110- 341
Duri us I
IIC
l
l la kor In
Pcrsian attuc k o n Egypt ; Eg y ptia n actio ns in Phoeni cia .
;~~J
IIC Th e Pe rsian king . Artaxe rxes II. se nt Pharna bazos and the army to ,gypt. T hey fat/ed to e nter via Pclusion, but we re succ essful throu h th ~klldcSlan bra nc h o f the De lta . Th e Ni le 1100d ca use d di saster a nd fore~d th~ forc es to ret reat.
Xe rxes
l """Ill
Xerxes suppressed the Egy ptian reb ell ion . IIC
465-424/423 IIC
IIC
A sec o nd Egy p tia n rebelli on aga ins t Persian rule . Arta xe rxes I Th e rebell ion of Inaros a nd A myrtaios o f Sau , aided by Athen s ,
459 IIC Memphis ca ptured . exce pt for a Pe rsian gar rison . The Per sia n satrap was killed at the batt le o f Pa prcmis .
30th D ynast y
.179/378-3 62/36 1 IIC Na kh tne bef (Ncc tanebo I) JllO IIC Ha rs .ryo t e I'r, kiIIlg 0 I' Mcroe , ca m paig ned with his arm y in Lo we r Nllhia,
A rebe llion (pe rha ps led by Psam tik IV) bro ke o ut in Egypt. IIC
BC
" II•
4115
c. 460-454
of Sp a t. in the G reek War r ..l
Ca mbyscs
IIC
ca . 4110-470
11( '
J
.111 'I(' l la ko r fo rmed a n a nti-Pe rsian a lliance with Evagoras, o f S i.IIanus " ( 'vp rus .
C'll .
IIC
' ~ ,
1)
An Egy pt ia n dy nast, Ped ubast III , reb e lled agai nst Persia n ru le , The satrap o f Egy pt led the army o n a d isastrou s exp ed itio n to Cyre naica.
4115-465
Ncfuarud I
Ne I'a'" .UII se nt a 'id to Ages iho s
.I'J.\/3 )2-38 1-380
There we re probabl y military activ ities o n the so uthe rn bo rde r in Lo wer Nubia a nd perh a ps in Kh argu Oasis . 521 -4115
29 th Dy nasty
1
27th D ynast y (Persia n Kings)
BC
BC
.IC)(>-.W -~ 11( ' ;Ipa ill "d Pe r... in.
52511c Eg ypt was invaded by the Pe rsia n army a nd fl ee t led hy Ca mbysc s. A batt le at Pel usion was fo llo wed by the siege a nd capture o f Memphis, a nd o f Psamtik Ill , who was later put to deat h.
52 5-404
Amyrta ios was defeated by the rival dynast, Nefaa rud , and exec uted .
rn. 399/398-394/3')3 lie
Psamtik III
IIC
A myrt aio s
IIC
404 11c A myr taios es tablished himself as pharaoh afte r sev era l " 1' , n lla warfare . . years 0 g ucr-
Wa hibre atte mpte d to rega in thron e with help fro m Cy p rus. He was defe ate d in batt le a nd fled to Asia.
52(>-525
28t h Dynasty
HC
404-400/399
570 IIC Wahib rc se nt the army to Cy rene . Th e exped itio n failed , the ar my rcbe lled ami acc la imed the ge ne ral, Ahrnosc , pha rao h , IIC
Dariu s II
IIC
Wahih rc (A pr ies)
5118/587
570-526
xxiii
lit 1/.160- 360- 359
lie
Dj edh or
I Iln lho r led a n a rmy o f Egy ptians a nd G reek meree n ' . PI' II . aries Into a est me He sag rced with the G reek co m ma nde r, Agesil aos II o f S pa rta who th . 1''',I..d the rebellion o f Djedh or 's nep he w Nekhthorh e b A : I I ' ell sup~ I ' I" ' . n va e atma nt 111 I ll' CS W .
CHRONOLOGY • xxv
xxiv • C1 IRONOIOey
359/35ll-3-12/34 1 Il l' 351 -350 IIC
Nck hi ho rhcb (Nccianc bo II)
A n atte m pted Pe rsia n invasion by the forces of A rtaxe rxes III
was d rive n back . 343 11c An invasi o n by the Pe rsia n ar my was successful, and Nckhthorhc b fl ed .
.\1 1 uc
Peace reached .
.I HI nc
Ptol emy led an e xpedi tio n ag a ins t Ci licia a nd oc cu pied Cyprus .
.109 nc Ptol cm y led a n exp ed ition to Lycia a nd Cari n, ga in ing co ntro l of I'ha se hs, Xant ho s , Ka unos, Mynd os , a nd lasos . .I09/3 0ll tiC
Second Persi a n D yn as ty 343-332 BC 3-13-33llllc e. 33 ll
A rtaxc rxes III
Kha bbash established himself as pharaoh . He was acknowledged in
Memph is and the Del ta . c. 340- 330 IIC Nastascn, kin g of Meroc , with his army in Lower Nubia (d ifficult to date precisely). Th e arm y of Dar ius III regained control of Egypt for Persia . 333 11c
Ophell as wa s murdered a nd Pto lem y regained Cy re ne .
,~~Ill uc Ptol em y led a na val e xped ition ag ainst Greece, occupying Ko rinth , S ikyo u, a nd M cgar a . .lOti tI ~ Ptolem y 's fleet defeated at Sala m is (Cy prus) by Demetri os who the n occ upied Cy prus (306-295/294). A ntigon os Monop hth al mos and his so n l icmc trios assumed title of kings . In autumn , they att e mpted an invasio n o f I':gypt , w hic h was foil ed by bad we at he r. .lOS tiC The oth er d iadoc hoi , incl ud ing Ptol e my. proclaim ed the msel ves ki ngs .
The Maccd o nian adven ture r, Am yntas, captured Pelu sio n but was de-
feated o uts ide Memphi s . 332 IIC, Se p t.-Nov. Al exande r III bes ieged Gaza , In December , he ca ptured
Ihe Pt ol emie s 3 05-3 0 BC
Pelusion .
.1115 IIC
.111-1- 3 1111 tiC
M aga s installed as go ve rnor o f Cy re ne .
Ma cedonian Kings 332- 3 05 BC
.111.1- 3111 IIC
Fo urth War of the Di adochoi .
332-32311c
.1112/311 1 tiC
Ptol em y ga ined Coe le Sy ria .
A lexander III the G reat
Pto le my I Soter ass umed title o f ki ng.
332 IIC
A lexa nde r was c ro w ned pha raoh at Memphi s .
.111 1 IIC
33 I IIC
Alexande r visited Siwa and founded A lexa nd ria before leavin g Egypt.
2'15/294 IIC Pto le my a nnex ed Cyp rus, Phoen ic ia , Pumph yliu, a nd possibly part o f Lycia.
323 uc , J u ne
Alexande r d ied at Ba byl on . Philip Arrhid aios a nd A lexa nder IV
we re procl aimed jo int king s . 3 23 tiC
Pto lemy gove rning as sa tra p of Egypt fo r Phi lip Arrhida ios (32 3- 3 17
uc ) a nd A lexa nder IV (323 - 305 uc) ,
322/.'2 1
uc
Ptol em y wa s in v ited in to C y re ne . li e in stall ed O phc llas as
governor.
32 1 uc
First War o f the Di adochoi: Pe rd ikaa s k illed by hi s troops in Egy pt.
3 19 tiC
Se co nd War of the Diadoc ho i; Syria a nd Phoen icia a nnex ed b y
Pto lemy. 314-311 uc 3 D uc
T h ird War of the Diadoc ho i,
Ptol em y c rus hed revo lt in Cy prus .
313/312 uc
Ipsos , the " Battle of the Kin gs ."
2'1-1 IIC Pto lemy 's attem pted rel ie f of Ath e ns fa iled becau se o f Dem e trios 's supe rio r fleet .
2HH-2llS tiC HH IIC
Fift h War of the Diad ocho i.
Pto le my 's fleet in G reece .
2H(. III· ) Dcmetri os 's Phoen ician ad miral. Philok les , king o f Sidon, allied him':' " to I to le my I a nd took the best of the fleet , includi ng the Phoe nician co nIlIlgl·lItS. Ptol emy the re by ac quired Tyr e and Si do n a nd g ained co ntro l of the "'II und the Is lan d Leagu e, wit ho ut fig hting . He also acq uire d Th era .
HS til'
Phi lo k les ca ptu red Cau nos. which gave Ptole my a foo ting in Ca ria,
H.l llc
Sarnos , l lal ikar nassos , a nd Cn ido s beco me Eg ypti a n.
Re belli on o f Cy re nc led by Ophe llas .
3 12 uc Pto le my I an d Seleuko s I led ex pedi tio n into S yria . Dem e trios defeated by Pto lem y at the bailie o f Ga za; b ut at the batt le of Myu s , Ptol e my wa s de feated by Dem et rio s .
l' tu lcmy II Philadelphos ' 7,1- 27 1 lie
Fir st Sy ria n War.
xxvi • n
I~(J NOI OC; Y
274 IIC Antlochos I formed an alliance with Magas of Cy rcnc , Magus marched toward Egy pt and nearly reached Alexandria because of a mutiny by Ptolemy II's mercenary Gauls , but a rebellion in Libya co mpelled him to return to Cy rene. 27311c Ptolem y inspected the de fen ses at Hero onp oli s in the Wadi Turni lat . Invasion of Arabs; by 269 a protectin g cana l and wa ll had been co nstructed . 272 IIC Thc end o f the war Ic rt Ptolemy in possession of: Cilicia west of the Calycydnus; eastern wast of Pamphylia with Phrasclis and perhaps Aspendes; Lycia south of the Milyud; in Curia and Ionia-Caunus, Halikarnassos, Myndus, Knidos, and probably Miletos; in Aegea n-besides Sames, Thera, and the Cyclades, Ptolemy held Samot hruce and llanos in Crete; Code Syria (retained Marsyas Valley); acquired Aradus and Marathus, making all of Phoen icia Egy ptian.
C II~O NO lOGY
•
xxvii
2 UI :I C The forces of Antioehos III moved south by land and sea, engaging Ihe Ptolemai c ar my at the bail ie of Porph yrion ncar Beirut.
22 Ju ne 217 BC Battle o f Raphia: Ptolem y IV defeated Anti ochos III, who evacuated Coe le Syria and Lebanon. A peace treaty concluded hostilit ies. 21(. lIc
The beginning of the nationalist rebellio n by the Egy ptians .
205 IIC Be.gi nning of rebell ion in the Thebaid . The Egy ptian rebel pharaoh, Ilaronnop hns , controlled Uppe r Egy pt from Abydos to Pathyri s. 205 IIC Ptole.my IV died , but his dea th was co ncea led , and his favorit e, Agathokles ,. se ized power. Ptolemy 's widow, Arsinoe III. was murdered . Riot s II I Alexandr ia ended in the murder o f Agathoklcs and his famil y.
267-26 1 IIC
Chrcmonidcan War.
260-253
IIC
Second Syria n War.
257
IIC
Campaign in Sy ria.
2112- 195 I1c
255
IIC
Bailie of Kos, end of Egypt 's co ntrol of sea.
Allli.od lOS III acquired Palestine and parts of the Ptolem aic Empire in As ia MiI he Egyptian army under Skopas was defeated in Palestine and evacuated lode Syria, but prevented Anti ocho s from invadin g Egy pt.
255'! 255
IIC
IIC
Bailie of Ephesos, fleet under Chremonides . General peace co ncluded .
"Iolemy V Epiphanes Fifth Syri an War.
" : rr.
252 IIC Pto lem y II instigated o r supported the revolt o f Alexand er o f Cor inth.
20 1 IIC 200 llc
Ptolemy III Eue rgetes I
200/ 199 11c Antioc hus took Sid on which became, and remain ed , Seleukid . "lllllc Ant iochu s redu ced the whole of south Syri a .
246--241
IIC
Third Syrian War (Laod icean War).
246 IIC The Egy ptians ca ptured Se leuke ia in Pieri a , Antioc hei a on the Oro ntes , and So li in Ciliciu. In the spring, Ptolem y III started from Antioc h , marchin g 10 Scleukeia on the Tigr is. 246 or 245 IIC, s pring At the bailie o f Andros , the Egy ptian fleet was defeated by Ant igo nos Gonatus o f Maced on . An uprising in Egypt forced Ptolemy to return . 241
IIC
Peace concluded bet wee n Scleukos II and Ptolem y III.
Antiochus took Palestine . Ballies at Gaza and Lade . Battle of Pan ion .
1'/7 IIC Beginn ing of reign of the Egyptian rebel pha raoh , Chaonnophris, in I hehes and Upper Egypt. I 'IS IIC
Peace o f Lysimacheia.
11111 lie
Treaty of Apa mea, se u le mcnt of As iatic affairs.
1117 li e 111(, lie
Ptolem aic army regained co ntro l of Th ebes . Chao nnophris defeated .
IIl0lle
Ptolem y V Philadclph os murdered .
Ptolem y IV Philopator
1'lulcl11y VI Philomelor
Klcom cncs of Spa rta at Alexa ndria , start ed an uprising. l Ie commi tted suicide when it co llapsed .
• (klubcr 170 BC Beginning of jo int reign of Ptolemy VI Philometor, l'tulcmy VIII Euergetes II , and Kleopatra II.
219-21711c
17U-IMlllc
Fo urth Syria n War.
219 11c Antiochos III recovered Sclcukcia in Picri u, then made gai ns in Palestine and Syria , except S idon.
Sixth Sy rian War.
IIlntl'/'1 70/169 Be Anti ochos IV besieged and ca ptured Pclusion and entered I', 'yl't. On his return to Syria, the three Egypt ian rulers were re instated .
xxviii •
C1 IRONOIO(;Y Cl IRONOl OG Y •
1611nc Antioc hos I V invaded Egy pt aga in, bu t the Rom an se nate inte rven ed and sc nt Pop iliu s Lucnus to Alexandria. He forced A ntio chos to withdraw. 165 nc Th e re be llio n o f Dion ys ios l'ctosarapis sprea d from A lexa ndria , 1'01 lo wed by a rebe llio n in T hcb cs . 164-163 uc
Dynastic co nflict, which ended whe n Ptol em y VIII Eucrgetes II
we nt to Cy rcnc as king .
147 uc Ptol emy V I Ph ilom cto r led Egy ptian ar my and navy to Sy ria, whe re he becam e invo lved in Sc lcuk id dyn ast ic wars to regain co ntro l of Coele Sy ria. 145 nc Ph ilom cto r d ied while he was on campaign. Euergetes II returned to Egypt and seized the thro nc . 132
IlC
Klcop atra II began a dyn astic wa r and gained Th eb es .
/JIllc Euc rgctcs II e xpelled fro m Alexandria but had re turned before 15 Januar y 130 and was prep ar ing an exped itio n aga inst Kleop atra . A n Egyptian reb el , Hursicsis seized po we r in Th eb cs . 124 IlC Peace and orde r wa s restored , wit h a series of am nesty decre es in the nam es o f Euergc tes II, Kleopatra II , and Kleopatra III. 1161l c
:II IS murdered A lexa nder. T he thron e was o ffered to Ptolem y XII Ncos I Jionysos (" Auletes") . 511 nc Rom e annexe d Cy prus , Th e Alexand rians drove A uletes into ex ile His da ug hters Ber en ike I V an d Kleop atra T ry phaina rule togeth er, un til Kleopa tra 's death the next ye ar. ' ~ ~ IlC
,51~S~::~'s .
Aulet es d ied appoi nting Klcopatra V II and Ptolem y XIII as his s ue-
,I'} lie
War bet
.I,llll~ :
Th e
1Il7 IlC Before 15 No vember, prob abl y before 19 Sep tember , ex puls ion of Soter by Klco pat ra III. Join t ru le o f Klcop atra III and A lexa nde r I. Soter II spe nt thc next 19 years as king of Cy prus. 1Il3-101 IlC Sy rian War : ac tio ns by Pto lemy IX So ter II, Kleop atra HI , and Ptol em y X Alexa nder I in Palestin e . Battl e of Aso pho n. IlC
961lc
in Egy pt and was put to death by
Ill.'
Oc ta vian and the Roman Republ ic declared wa r o n Klcop atra , Battl e o f Ak tion in G reece . Octavian de feated the fleet of Anto nius and
II lvop at ra and pu rsued them to Egy pt.
Sote r II resto red .
1081lc Between 10 March and 28 May, seco nd interruption of Soter 's reign by A lexander I.
IIlI
~oma~ ge ne ral: Pom pey, land ed
.J7 ne Ptol emy XIII killed , Kleop atra VII was co nfirme d as queen , with l'Iulcmy XI V as king .
,1,1 11( '
Il C
KI V eo pa tra II and Ptol em y XHI. Klcop atra fled to Sy ria .
II,' V II al.o ngs lde her brot her. Caesar 's reli eving army captured Pelu sion. Th e " 'l'xandn an War.
,1 2
109
wee n
I ~olc my XII I s ad VIso rs. Julius Caesa r arrived in Egypt and rein stated Kleop a-
lJO
Sot er II ex pe lled from Egypt. Kle op atra III assoc iated her yo unger so n, Ptolemy X Alexand er I with her.
A I . G bi .
., u ,us a iruus, the Rom an governo r of Syria , escorted A uletes back '." Alexa nd ria . He was accom pa nied by large mi litary unit , the "Gabinians,' the , nvulry co m ma nde d by Mar cu s Anto nius . Aulctes put Be re nike to death .
Death of Eue rgetes 11. T he army and the peo ple o f A lexa ndria forced Klcopatra [JI to appo int her elde r so n , Ptol em y IX Sote r II , as king. IlC
xxix
Befo re 26 Octobe r, murder of Klcopaira III by A lexander I. Ptolemy Api on di ed bequeath ing Cy re ne to Rom e .
881l c Alexand er I dri ven into ex ile by a reb elli on o f both the army and Greek populat ion of Alexand ria , incensed by his pro -Jewish at titude . He fled and was killed in a na val batt le off Cy prus . Return o f Sote r II fro m Cy prus . Reb ell ion in the T he ba id. 80llc March , death of Sote r II. Bere nike III ruled unt il the G reek s of A lexa ndri a forced her to loo k for a co rcgc nt . Ptol em y XI A lexander II was chose n, but afte r 19 days , he had Bcr cnikc murdered . In response , the e nraged A lcx and ri-
'lolllan Emperors 30 8c-395 AD ,III Ill'
A ug ust 3, A lexa nd ria ca ptured .
Allgust 12, dea th of Klcop atra , followed by the 18 days rule o f her child ren . '\ lIg ust 3 1, New Year 's Day, Oct avian began to date his reign in Egy pt. q C I' G . , '" ' . or~e IUS a llus suppress ed rebe llio n in the Th ebaid; the army then , IlIlIp'"g ned 10 Lo wer Nubia . t', 25 nc Kush ite army led by the Kandake of Meroe , A rna ni rcnas , march ed 1I11, th II1 to L~we.r Nubia . Attack o n Aswan. T he pre fect Pctroniu s led a cam1'11 1):'.' to Nubia , Invol ving actions at Qasr Ibrim .
III ,\II Anti-Jewish rio ts in A lexan d ria . ·1 (,ll All Nero ,III
Jcwish-Greck riot s and co nflict in Al exandria ,
/'(' : " ' Jewish revolt in Jerusalem spa rked riot s in A lcxandr ia . T he prcfec t 1II IIIIs Alexa nde r att ack ed the Je wish qu art er of the c ity. h'I ,III
Vcspa s ia n pro claim ed empe ro r in A lexandria.
C1 1~ (l N (l 1
xxx •
(le y
911-117 All Trajan 115-117 All Jewish revolt spread from Cyrcnc to Egypt.and Palestine. Greek population in Alexandria bes ieged until relie ved by Marci us Turbo. Fortress of
Introduction
Babylon rebui lt, 171
,\ Il
Rebe llio n of the Bouko loi. Jcd by the priest lsidoros.
172
All
T he rebe llio n was quashed by Avidius Cassius.
175
All
Avidi us Cassius proc la im ed e m peror in Egypt.
215
All
Th e Empe ro r Caracalla in Alexandri a; o rdered massacre of population
and di vid ed thc city into two parts. . 2111 All Co nfl ict in Alcxandria between supporters of rival cmpcrurs, Mac rinus and Elagubalus . 262 All A lexand ria n mob proc la imed lulius Aemilianus e mp eror, 2611
All
270-275 270
,\ Il
c, 272 ""
Ze nob ia of Palmyra captured Alexandria and Egypt.
Aurclian Aurelian in Egypt.
All
Repu ted rebel lio n of "Firmus."
21l6-305 All Dioclctian 296 All Domitius Domitianus proclaimed as emperor in Alexandria. The Empcror Dioclctian in Egypt. Alexandria besieged until 2lJH ,\ Il . 306-337 All Constantinc I 32 5 All Council of Nicaca sparked rcligious riots in Alexandria. 361-363
All
Julian. Riots and attacks on pagan temples in AleX:lI ldria.
379-395 All Thcodosius 391 All Thcodosius ordered closure of all pagan temples in Roman Empire;
riots and destruction of temples in Alexandria.
Byzanline Emperors 395-642 602~10 All
AD
Pho ca s
Hcraclius and troops landed in Egypt. Persian army of Khosroes II captured Egypt. 61U~~2 A ll
639 All 640
All
Ilcmclius Arab armies led by .AmI' Ibn-al ' Asi entered Egypt. Defeat of Hcraclius at Hcliopolis; fortrcss of Babylon captured.
Alexandria besieged for II months, September 642 All Last Byzantinc forces left Egypt; beginning of Arab rule, 641
All
This vo lume cov ers anc ient Egypt ian history fro m the late Predynastic l'criod to the Ara b Conq ues t of Egypt in 64 2 AD. Th is is a vast span of II I1IC . some 4 ,000 years altoge ther, yet, for such a long per iod , there is 1" IIIarkably littl e surv iving evid ence for spec ific battles and wa rs, alIhongh the imagery of war is co mmon in most periods. Egypt was united into o ne state aro und 3000 BC. The date ass igned hI' El;yptolog ists to this event, and the beginning of the First Dyn asty, 1'11 1ies by so me 200 yea rs. In recent years , excavations at the Upper I')')'plian site o f Ahydo s . notably by the German Archaeologica l Insti111 11' . have reveal ed so much " new" mater ial that a Dynasty " 0" has been 1Il'alcd. Although there are artifacts from this peri od , notabl y the "slate 1'" I1' IICS" and cerc moniul muceh euds. so me from the site o f Nck hen, that ho'" violent and militar istic sce nes , there is no dir ect evi dence relating 10 rhc IVa I's and batt les that are presumed to have created the Egyptian lall', Even if the " Narrner Palette" is a record of an Upper Egyptian victOI )' ove r Lower Egy pt (as has long been assumed) , it is co uched in a typica lly Egyptian styli zed image of the pharaoh smiting enemies. of a I\'pc that wo uld co ntinue to appear until the Rom an per iod . The depi c1I0 1lS of so ldiers do, however , show that the principal types of wea pon, how and arrows , axe, and spear, were already deve loped . Evide nce from the first two dynasties is hardly any more ex plicit. Th e u uk inscriptio n form erly at Gebel Sh eikh Sul eiman in Nubia (now in IIII' National Mu seum , Khartoum ) has generally been att ributed to the II' ll'n o r the pharaoh Djer (c . 305 0 BC) , and understood as a record of I " pIian military activities in Nubia. Th e figures aro und the base of a IIIIIIC or Khasekhem wy (c . 2600 BC) , allied with o the r sca nty ev idence, huvc sugg ested that there wa s a civil war during his reign . Images of pluuuohs smiting Libyan s and Asiatic s sugges t co nflicts with immedi01 1,· neighbors, perh aps 011 the western bord ers of the Delta and in Sinai ,
xxxi
xxxii • INTRO DUCTIO N
rath er than farther afie ld . Th ey a re not , however, evid ence of spec ific ac tio ns . Th c O ld Kin gd om (T hird to Sixth Dyn ast ie s, c . 2686-2 18 1 BC) has little mo re evi dence to offer. More sce nes o f pharaoh s in the sy mbo lic ac t o f s m iting were carve d at quarr y sites in Sin ai , an d a fe w fra gme nts o f reli ef depi ct the army in action , a ltho ugh the contex t is lost. Th e annali sti c te xt known as the " Pa le rm o St on e" refers to a maj or ca mpa ign in Nubi a in the reign o f Sn eleru (c . 261 3-2589 BC) , and Egy ptian activities in thc reg ion o f the Second C ata rac t, a lo ng w ith other arc haeological material , does sugg es t major Egypt ian inv ol vement in the reg io n. Inscripti o nal evi de nce fro m the late Old K ingd om to mb o f the border offi c ial, Harkhuf, at As wa n, tell s how the a rmy was used to acco mpa ny trad ing expedi tio ns int o Nubi a an d a lso that b and s o f Nubian mercen ar y troops ca me bac k to Egy pt. Frag me nts o f relief depict ing arche rs are the earli est surv iving parts o f battl e sce ne s , prob abl y fro m the pyram id temples of the Fo ur th Dynasty pharaoh s Khufu or Kh afre . Similar fragm ents , whi ch imply military ac tivi ties , have been recovered from py rami d comp lexes of the Fifth a nd Sixth Dyn astie s , but no " historical" te xts surv ive w ith them. Scenes in two late O ld Kingd om tombs , those of Int i at Desh asheh and Kaemhe set at Snqqara, are the first dep iction s o f s iege warfare , show ing sca ling ladd ers and the underminin g of wa lls by sa ppers . Th e breakdo wn o f the ce ntra l govern ment during the First Intenned iate Peri od appea rs to have see n the rise of local armies und er the co mman d of the local gove rnors iuomarchsi . Scenes in the tombs o f suc h governors at Beni Ilasan in Middl e Egypt sho w attac ks o n walled town s and tra ining exerci ses (ot herwi se quite rare in Egyptian ar t) . Th ere is also co ns ide rab le ev ide nce for Nubi an mer cenarie s based at Geb elein in Uppe r Egypt. T here is s lightly more ev ide nce from the e nd of the F irst Intermediate Per iod (c . 2 18 1- 2000 BC) for the milit ar y activities of the prince s of Th e bes that brought abo ut the reunificatio n o f Egy pt by Men tuh otep II (c. 2055-2004 BC), notably the fragm ent ary sce nes of battl e from the kin g 's temple at Deir e l-Ba ha ri (T hebes) a nd the mass bu rial o f so ldie rs appare ntly killed during an attack on a wa lled town . Th e events o f this peri od could perhap s be c lasse d as "civi l wa r." The pharaoh s of the 12th Dyn a sty (c . 1985 -1 795 BC) , notabl y A me ne mhat I , Se uus ret I, a nd Se nusrct III ex pand cd Egy ptian control over Nubia . Insc ripti on s g ive some infor mat ion from which the ge nera l
INTRO DUCTION •
xxxiii
prn: c.s s ca n be recon stru ct ed , but there are no deta iled narrati ve s o f the IIll hv l.dua l co nflic ts. Th ese ph araoh s a lso estab lished ma ssi ve fortre sses It. defe nd the tran sit o f luxury trade through the ne wly conquered terri I ~ "y . Th ese fortresses we re parti cularly num erous around the vuln erabl e S,.·.w nd.Ca tarac t: Se mn.a and Kumrna controlled the nar ro w go rge at the h'.I d o f the ca taract, with s maller fo rts on the island s and wes t bank a t Avkut, Mei na.11i , Sh al fa k , and Uro nart i. Th ere we re two large s upp ly d<" pots at the lo ot ~ f the ca taract, at Buh en and Mirgi ssa. A lthoug h co n'.fllleled o.f sU ~-dned mud bric k, these fo rtresses were impressi ve exmuplcs o~ mil.ltar y architec ture, carefu lly planned intern all y, and de " ·IIl I.c d w!th d itch es , g lac is , basti on s , a nd co mp lex ga teways . Th e end 0,' I~g7 pt lan ru!e in ~ubi a ca me with attacks o n the fort resse s by ':' 'ypt s e rstwhile trading partn er, the kin gd om o f Kush based on 1\<" lIna . T here is ev ide nce for se rious destru ct ion in the fort resses durIII)' tbc 13th Dyn asty, and ultimately occupa tio n by Ku shit e troops, in ~ " , n c cases under the co m ma nd o f Egyptia ns. T he Second Interm edi ate Peri od (c . 1795-1 550 ac) once again saw the " " ''' Ion o f Eg~pt , with an Upp er Egypti an kingd om ce ntered upon I h"~)es: a~~1 a kingdom con troll i n~ the Delta and mu ch of Mid dle Egy pt. I I~ I 'I traditi on ca lls the ru lers o f th is northern kingd om the " Hyksos" and II " ucncra lly accepted that there were close co ntacts with Ca naa n at this 111I1l· ,. Whether there was a large As iatic popul ation in Lo wer Egypt at this 11111(' IS a more ~on troversia l iss ue . The northern kin gdom had d irect trad:" 1' ,'olltact.s with the Kushit e kingdom based o n Kerma in the northern ,' 10 1:111, wh l~h had ~aptured and occ upied the fortresses o f the Second I II laraet.reglon. ThI S pha se appa rently saw the introdu ction of the horse 111 10 1eh.allot, and th: co mpos ite bow, into Egy pt. A lthough ex treme ly rare I" "..g ill with , c hariots were to com e to dominate the warfare of the next '"'' YC:I~'S, the Late Bron ze Age (the Egypt ian Ne w Kin gdom ) . 11.1 1' I hcb an .rulers Tao and Kamose regained cont rol of mu ch of Lower Nllilia and their successor Ahmose reunited Egypt, estab lishing what is 1I1111' . k nowl~ as ~ he 18th Dynasty and the Ne w K ingd om (c . 1550-1069 ru I, I here .IS slt.gh.t1y more detailed ev ide nce for these ca mpa igns from 1"'11i roya l inscnpuons and records of pri vate indi vidu als who too k part III Ih,' II" II:S. A ltho ugh these have legitimately been used 10 recon stru ct the 1,1 lilly 0 /. even.ts , both types of document are still bound by the co nve n111111', 01 ' ~gyptl.an te.xts.. Similar r~:ords con tin ue throughout the ea rly IHIIi I>yn.lsty, Illumlll atlllg the mil itary expansion o f Egy pt under the
xx x iv •
INTRO DUCTIO N
phara ohs Am cnhotep I, Thutmosc I , and Thutmose II, until the joint reign of T hutmose III and lI atshep su t. With the so le re ign o f Thut mose III an edited ve rsion o f a diffe rent type o f docum ent gives much more detail about the pharaoh 's 17 cam paig ns in wes tern As ia o ver a period o f 20 years . Thi s te xt , the " Annals of Thutmose Ill " is carved as an offic ial record in the temple o f A mun at Karnak (T hebes) but is edited from the actual Day Books kept du ring cam paigns . A ltho ugh it is still fra med w ithin the conve ntions o f royal reports to the gods, it contains more detail abo ut the progress of the army and the contlicts, wit h lists of booty captured . S ignificant here are the large numbers o f ch ariots and horses. Diplomac y, rather than wa rfare, see ms to have maint ained Egy pt's pre-eminenc e in western Asia in the reign s of the phara oh s Ame nhote p II, Thuunose IV, A me nhotep III , a nd Ak he nate n. Thi s is detailed in the archi ve of state co rres po nde nce know n as the " A ma rna Lett er s." Besides details o f the probl em s co nfronting the ci ty-states of Syri a, Palestin e, the letter s e numerate the arm or a nd we apons of the intem ation al arm s trad e . Th e end of the 18th Dynasty, from the latter part of the reign of Akh enate n, th rough those of Tu tankhamun and Hore rnheb , saw the rise of the Anatolian kingdom o f the Hittit es as the major threat to Egy pt's intlu ence in western Asia. Th e situa tion may have led to conflict earlier, but is we ll documented in the early 19th Dynasty reigns of Se ty I ( 1294- 1279 BC) and Ramesses II (1279- 1213 BC) . Indeed the "victory" o f Ramesses II at Qad esh 1274 BC) is, perhaps ironi cally, the most depicted and doc umented battle in Egy ptian history, It is also docum ent ed in the Hittite royal archives , giving a rare alternative view to the official Egy ptian record s . Th e rei gn s o f Sety I and Ram esses II are al so imp ortant for the ev idence of military co ntl ict wi th the Li byans that was to beco me ever more important in the later 19th and 20th Dyn asties . Th e sce nes carved to record the military ac tio ns of Set y I in Asia and against the Li byan s a re the earlies t major surviving battl e reli efs ill situ: on ly fragments a nd d ism antl ed block s survive for earlier ph araoh s. A ltho ug h military sce nes fig ure pro mine ntly in the temples bui lt by Ram esses II , ma ny of them ac tua lly depi ct the battl e of Qa de sh . In the rei gn of Ram esses Il ' s so n, Merneptah ( 12 13-1203 BC) , the Lib yan threat increased , and a n invasion o f Egypt by the Libu a nd Mesh wesh , w ith a llies and mer cen ary troop s, is recorded in both a prose account a nd more literary eulogy o f the pharaoh . Thi s seco nd account con tai ns the o nly know n re fe ren ce to Israel in Egyptia n texts and has
INm O DUCTION
•
xxxv
l'@ Se~l ue n l ly been. called the " Israe l St ela ." Impli c it in the te xt is an
1 ~~~pt Jan .ad va nce Into Pal estin e ea rlier in Merneptah 's reign .
. I h~ ~e lgn o f Merneptah 's son, Sety II ( 1200- 1194 BC) , ap pa rently "."V.CIVil ,or dyna stic war and the rival king ship o f A me nmesses, per",II'S Set~ ~ ~wn so n. Th e e nd of the 19th Dyn asty might also have been : ~ 11In,e 01civi l war , a ltho ugh not as long lastin g and se rio us as so me earlier t gy pto log ists suggested . T he reig n o f Ra~esses I.II saw the re-esta blishment of Egypt ian au IlulIlly ove~ pa rts 01 Palestin e , but this was a tim e of cris is throu gh out \l'e s~e rn ASia . Th e temple o f Rarn esses 111 at Med inet Hab u (T he bes) ,'IUTle S.both co nve ntiona l milit ary images a nd striking ly origina l dep ic11 ~ lI l s .1 he mo st not abl e o f the ca mpa igns depicted are those agai nst the I:I"ya ns ~n~ the "~e~ Peopl es ." The battl e with the " Sea Peoples" is the Inst s urv Iving ~epl(:lIon o f a " nava l" conflict. Th e king a lso had to fight \1' 11 11 the Kushit e klllgdo m o f Irem , which see ms to ha ve become in1ll'l.lsing ly pow~rfu l o n the bord er o f Egy pt's Nubian pro vinces. "01' the rem ainde r o f the 20 th Dyna sty, the e vide nce is fro m te xts and 1II l'illleo logy ra the r than depi cti on s. Thi s re veals that there we re co ntnut in.cursi o~ s o f Lib yan s into Egy pt (a ltho ug h not necessaril y all were mi lita ry III nature) , a nd that Egy pt lost co ntro l of its territories in l'lI ht ine in the reign o f Rarnesses VI , a nd in Upp er N ubia in the rei gn III, 1< l lIn~sses X or XI. Th ere was so me so rt o f civ il war in Egy p t in the 11'1/' 110 1 Ram esses XI , follo wed by military acti vit ies aga inst the Egy pt1'11 1viceroy 111 Lo wer Nubi a . Tile co llapse of Egyp t's e mpi re should be see n in the bro ader cont e xt I" Ille "e nd" of the Late Bron ze Age , a nd the fact ors that ca used that a re
1III II0lly deba ted . In Egypt, the ph ase imm edi atel y follow ing is kno wn ., I"l' 'T hird Inte rmedi ate Period " (c. 106 9- 65 6 BC) . Pharaoh s w ith I I" '1111 nam es appea red . a nd a se r ies of Li byan chiefdo ms dom inat ed I '"Ve l' E~yp~.It is not .u~t.H the later Lib yan per iod that there is any ev Id' II\'1' 01 milit ary ac uv nies . In thi s case , it is not a broad, but within I H PJ. T he High Priest o f A mun and Crown Prin ce O sor kon took his II ru v to T he bes o n a number o f occasion s and used force to assert his 11I 11" ",·ilY. TI.le limited , and ve ry o ne-s ide d , ev ide nce suggests a peri od ..I I Ivli IVaI' In which Theb es was tryin g to asse rt its indep endenc e from II" nuu hc ru pharao hs and set up its own riva l ruler. III Nuhia, foll o win g the e nd o f Egy p tia n rul e there in the late 20 th 1 \ 1 U II ~t y, there mu st a lso have bee n mil itary ac tivities . Aga in these are
xxxvi •
INTRO llllCl IO N
not document ed for so me time , the first ind ication of a c ivil wa r be ing found in the ex tre me ly diffi cul t inscription of Karimala carved in the temple at Sc mna at the Second Ca taract. Military actions must have played a sig nifica nt ro le in the for mati on of the ne w Kush ite state that had co me into ex istence by about 750 BC. Unde r the ru le of Kashta (c . 750 - 736 BC), the Kushit e ar my had become sufficie ntly large a nd well armed to inva de Egy pt and take con tro l of Th ebes and leave a ga rrison the re . Aga in, mi litary activ ities within Egy pt itse lf are implicit , but the response of Kasht a's successor , Piye (c . 736-7 12 BC) , to the so uthward ex pansio n o f the Libya n dynast, Te fnakht, is detailed in the text of a very lon g insc ripti on , known as the " Victor y Ste la ." Altho ug h co uched in thc lan gu age of a co nve ntiona l Egy ptian royal inscrip tion , thi s do cumcnt does detail the progress of Piye 's ca mpaig n agai nst the coalitio n o f northe rn rule rs led by Tcfna kht. T her e are re fe rences to co nllict o n the river, to siege s, and to siege e ngi nes, scaling tow er s . and ladder s . T he ev ide nce of the " Vic tor y Ste la" o f Piye imp lies a style o f ca mpaig n typical of the Late Bro nze Age . but in we stern Asia there '."'e~e no w c hanges in arm y, weaponry, and warfare , introd uced by the pnncrpal pow er , Assy ria , Th e Assy rians had iron wea po ns , althoug h at th is stage they mi ght not been the deci sive factor in thei r victories . Mor e significa nt may have been the larger ty pes of hor se that had been introduced and br ed , lead ing to a far grea ter use of cava lry a nd reduction in c huriotry . Th e As sy rians used a heavy char iot , rathe r than the fast lightframed vehic le o f the Late Bron ze Age. They also had so phisticated siege eng ines and sca ling towe rs that they used wit h g reat effec t, and whic h are depicted in the sce nes o f the ir campaigns in Palestine . Estab lished as the major po we r hold e rs in Egy pt , the Kushites und er P iye 's succe ssors, Shabaqo , She bitqo , a nd Taharqo , began to o ffer support to the ru lers of Palestin e and the Le vant in thei r bids for inde pe nde nce fro m the Ass yria ns . T he first major con flict ca me at the battle of Elteke h (70 1 BC) , in which the Egyp tian-Kushi te arm y was force d to retreat. Lat er activities were appare ntly more succe ss ful, bu t led to As syrian invasion s o f Egypt. Th e Kushit e position was made more di ffic ult by the po litical machi nat ion s o f the Libyan dyn asts, o ne o f who m, Psamti k , eve ntually succeeded in reun iting the who le o f Egypt under his rule , forci ng the last Kushi te pha raoh, Tan wetamani, to aba ndon Th e bes a nd Upper Egy pt (656 BC) . Psamt ik I (664-6 10 BC) was fortunate that his bid for inde pende nce from Assyr ian vassa ldo m came at a time when the Mesopotamian Empire
INTROD UCTIO N •
xxxvii
was under pressure on severa l di ffere nt fronts. In a long reign, Psamt ik I was able to co nso lidate his position and re move a ny internal oppositio n. lie see.m s t~ h~ve achieved this with the aid of mercenary troop s from Auato lia , princip al ly Lydia and the Gree k ci ties of Ionia . Psamtik I's reunification of Egypt w~s fo llo wed in the reig n of his succe sso rs by atu- mpts to restore Egyptian authority in western Asia and Nubia. Th e acII Vl tlCS of Nekau " (6 10- 595 BC) in JUdah , and in aid of the last Assyria n ~ III~ . brought Egy pt 1n~0 conflic t with the new major power , the kingdom III Hahylon. Nek au enjoyed only limited and short-lived success, which "lillie to an e nd when Babylon attemp ted to invade Egypt. Psamtik II's Nubian ca mpaign (593 BC) , although hailed as a victory, see ms to have h.ul 11 0 lasting, gains of terri tory in the so uth. Th e later kings of the 26th I )l' lIast~, Wahibre and Ahmose Il , became invo lved in the polit ics of their rut her distan t ~estem neigh bors, the Greek cities o f Cyre naica, a region llilll was to be increasingl y important to Egypt. III 525 ~c, Egy~t fell to the invadin g armies of the ne w power in wv vrc rn ASia, Persia , For the next three hundred years Egypt was ei ther
III"'d hy the Pe rsia ns o r in reb ellion agai nst the m. Egy ptia n independen t III II'IS (the 28th-30 th Dynasties and Khabbash) established contacts willi ihc Greek cities and island s that were also hostile to Persian a mluliou x. For this peri od , Gree k so urces pro vide more infor mation o n 'W ills than .Egy ptian ones. Egypt ian success es we re in part affected, if 11111 de term ined , by the co mple x po litics o f the states of mainl and I h,','ce a nd.the ~on ian coast o f Asia M inor. Egyp t gave aid, usually in II", lnrm of gra m, to Greek ci ties suc h as Athens and welco med the 1I!'l'lIIl of.ships and mercenary troo ps fro m Athe ns and from Sparta . I ii" defea t of the Pe rsian s by A lexander the Grea t of Maced on I I I ' .\23 BC) brou ght Egyp t under Mace donian co ntro l, a nd so it re'''"II1<,d tor.. thr~e hundred yea rs und er the Pto lem aic dynasty. These I'ltlliliohs effec tive ly es tab lished an e mpire ex te ndi ng into Palest ine and \ 1111 with sma ller te rritories a nd cities all aro und the coa st of the , l'illl and eastern Medi terranean from Cyre ne to the western coast of 1I I1 II1 Ii:l. a nd incl uding such importa nt island s as Cy prus . Th ere is 111111" ,kt:,,1o n battle and military activities fro m this time as the sources " , 11 111 " .,Iely roya l na rrat ives . T he orga niza tio n o f the army a nd tech "" III,'s 01 war fare were now d iffer en t fro m those o r ea rlier times . Th e II lill I' S ~~e re far l ar~er, o ften co mprising huge number s of mercena ry " lillI'S. I he em phasis had mo ved fro m the elite c har iotry of the Late "'"'I /(' Age to the infantry orga nized into a phalanx of pike-me n, with
xxxviii •
INHOIJUCTION INTRODUCTION •
smaller co ntinge nts o f archers, sling throwers, and cava lry. With control of the sea and the islands being a major focu s for the rival Hellenistic monarchies, there were many more sea battles, with result ing deve lopm ents in ship construction. Although the Ptolemics ultimately lost control of the sea at the battle of Kos (256 Be ) they still retained considerable territory and important cities outside of Egypt proper.The Ptolemies consistently had to fight with their neighbors, the Seleukid kings of Syria, for control of parts of Palestine . The situation was briefly resolved with the Egyptian victory at the battle of Raphia (2 17 Be) notable for its use of elephants by both armies , Internally, there was oppos ition to the Ptolemaic dynasty, most notably in Upper Egypt, based on the c ity o f T hebes, although there was a more widespread "native revolt" following the battle o f Raphia. The dynastic squabbles of the later Ptolernies a lso had repercussions throughout the co untry. In their ca pital city, Alexandria, the mob emerged as a force that beca me increasingly prominent in Roman times. With the defeat of Kleopatra VII and Marc us Antonius at the battle of Aktion in 31 Be and the fall o f Alexandria to Octavia n (Augustus), the fo llowing year, Egypt becam e a province of the Rom an Empire. The conso lidation o f Rom an co ntrol of the cou ntry and its southern borders is well documented by literary sources, archaeo logical remains , and evidence from the neighboring southern kingdom o f Mero e. The Rom an army syste m was introduced into Egy pt, and there is much evidence for its location and for individu al so ldiers . New fortresses were built , particu larly in the Western and Eas tern Deserts. There were periodic outbreaks of opposition to the author ities, some related to the Jewish Wars of the Flavian emperors , and the Jewish revo lt ( 115- 117 AD) . Ten sions between Greeks and Jews in Alexandria frequently erupted into co nflict. On some occas ions, such as the rebellion of the Bouk oloi ( 17 11 172 AD), stirred up hy the priest Isidoros, the co nfl ict spread from Alexandr ia to other parts of Egypt. Augustus had foresee n that Egypt's wea lth and importance might pose problems within the Roman Empire and had ensured that it was under the direct rule of the emperor through a prefect , rather than a sen atorial o fficer. Th is did not , however, prevent pretend ers to the imperial purple from appearing. Vespasia n was proc la imed as empero r iu Alexandr ia by the pre fect luiius Alexander, but he was the only pre tend er who gained wide r recogniti on . The aspirations of Avidius Cas
xxxix
, illS: luiius Ae milianus, "Fi rmus ," Domi tius Domitian us, and Aure lius Achilleus , all came to noth ing. . The increas in.g import ance of C hristianity in Egypt did not end reli-
~.I ~)U S ~en s lons ,.n AI.exandria and Egypt. Doctrinal dispu tes broug ht I.gypt mto co nflic t With a number of empero rs, and imper ial appointees 10 the Se~ of Ale.xandria were usually greeted with riots. With the br ief Il' YI.val 01 ~agallIsm under the emperor Julian , and the Edict of Theot10slllSclos lllg the temp les, tensions broke into violence and Widespread ,h tlllction of buildings.
INTERPRETING THE EVIDENCE
1 ~~'YJll ian ~rt that dom~nates the entrance towers of the temples appears to I,. hdl ofImages of Violence, notably the massive figures of the pharaoh IIl1t lllg his enemies. A closer examination of these images reveals that reIIlillkab!y. fe~ of them are "historical" and related to actual events. AI11~'," .l gh II l~:, 111 p~rt , due to accident of survival, there are relatively few depillIons of . ~eal battles for the vast span of Egyptian history, and most of 1111'S: .survJvlllg bel?ng to the New Kingdom (c. 1550-1069 Be) and I"'cr!ically to the reigns o f Sety I, Ramesses II , and Ramcsses III. II must be emphasized that survival of monuments is an important 1111 '1 01'. Recent excavations at Abydos have recovered small fragments 01 ":111 Ie. scenes of the reig n of Ahmose, and other isolated fragments III vrvc lrom the Old and Middle Kingdoms showi ng that the depic tion ul "allies ~as a we ll-estab lished ge nre. Neve rthele ss, the destruction of 1I 111~IY earlier mon~ments m eans that the materials for the study of war1'111 ,lJId battle are immediately weighted in favor of the New Kingdom . II II I\Cl appe~rs, from the fragme ntary ev idence, that battle sce nes were ' I "'Itillre 0 1 the temp les assoc iated with the king's burial, rather than 111"\,, deslgnal~d for the cults of the gods. It is only in the relatively "l ld peJ"l(~d 01 the reigns of Sety 1 and Ramesses II that battle scenes II . ICllllld In cult templ es. 1\ similnr situation is found with the literary record, with more refer-
ICl battle and most of the detailed acco unts of the conduct of miliII Y Clperatlons belonging to the New Kingdom. It has long been reco _ "I • oJ .tltat the acco unts of military activities do not attempt to be objective " 1I llI llves. and more recent studies of literary ge nres have emphasized the ", I"
I
INT RODUCTIO N •
xl •
xli
INTRO D UCTIO N
ways in which "a utobiogr aphical" texts are cont rolled by what it is ap, (" d ") A pro priate within ce rtai n circ ums ta nces lor a te xt to say e~orum . leading expone nt of this ana lysis has bee n John Bain es, who, 111 his studies of specific texts, and of "deco rum" more generally, po ints out tha.t certain as pec ts o f military activi ty fall within the royal, rath~r ~han pn~ate, sphe re: so a soldier might have said that he had broug~t livin g c.al~t ~ves, but not that he has killed bec ause that was the pharaoh s respon sibility. O n a broader level , Egy ptian " historical" te xts are rarely th at: the " Annals" of Thutmose III arc unusua l in th at th ey do appear to have bee n adapted from Day Boo ks of the campaigns. But even in thi s insta nce. ad a plation is the esse ntial factor : even if the army scribe respons ible actu all y wro te a stra ightforward " factual" and.··objecti~:" acco unt o f the day's activities , thi s has been edited , and edi ted spec il lcally for the location o f the final te xt . O f co urse , mo st o fficia l records, whe ther in the form of ste le o r insc riptio ns on te mple wa lls are sta temen ts of legitimacy by the ph araoh . T hey are , howeve r, our prime so urces for recon struct ing hi storical events . We have noth ing surv iving from Egypt co mparab le to the narr ati ve hi stori es (objective or oth erwi se) o f the G ree k and Roman wo rlds . w ith the ir det ailed accounts of cam paigns and battl es . Nor do we have a ny manu al s rel ating to tactics or mil itary training. B UI agai n we mu st rel y on those texts that have survived . For e xample. we know that the re was a manual relat ing to the train ing of hor ses for c hariotI')' that \\a, used in north Sy ria and Anato lia . Th ere are no surv iving cnp ics from E~ypt . but it is likel y that it was tran slated into Egy ptian becau se man )' Egy ptia n te rm s rel atin g to c hariotry are Sy rian lo an words . From a brier com me nt in the "A nna ls of Thutmose 111 ," we learn that the Day Books of ca mpaigns were wr itten o n pa pyrus or leath er ro lls , but , like so ma ny doc ume nts, these have not survived , and we have to re ly o n br ief edited accounts in o ffic ial te xts: A fe w . I~tters us~d as sc riba l exe rcises relate to equ ipping of ex ped itio ns or life 111 garnso ns . Suc h te xts might poss ibly be fab ricated letters , but eve n so the " inform at ion " that they co ntai n ca n be pres umed to be " real" and co nsc . . ' .. q ue ntly usefu l to our ana lyses. G ive n these prob lems with basic so urce materials . It IS not surpnsm ' that the re have been re lati vely few ge nera l studies o f warfare in anc ient Egy pt. co mpared with the G reek and Rom an worlds, and that those thai ha ve been written have focu sed on the techn ologies and material remain -
o r \Ve a p~ n ry a nd fortresses, and the organi zation o f the army. Th e matei iul relating to battle is remarkabl y limit ed , with relati vely detailed ac,-ollnts fro m the ~haraon i c per iod of o nly two battles , Meg iddo and () ;l(les,h. He ~e , the information is der ived from official versions. T he re are even lewer .1I1~tance s where there is more than o ne so urce for a battle or war. T he H IllIl ~ roya l archives supp leme nt the Egypt ian so urces on the 1);lllesh campaign, .and the con du ct of the wars. o f tile Th eba, n plln .' ces ' Ilg a l ~ l ~ t t ~e Hy.k s~s ISdocumented from seve ra l d ifferent sources and ge nII·S . I.he mscnpnon of Piye recounting his co nflict with the Libyan d lIasls IS.one very few pos t-New Kingdom records of military I uuuanons Im pose~ by the natu re of the texts and by the space ava ilab le II here they were wn tten, mean that nearl y a ll accounts are rather brief. , W I~ h, .so m ~n y .pro ble ms rela ti.ng to the ev ide nce for the history of II 1110' uga mst ((?re.lgn peopl es . It IS not surprising that the evi de nce for , 1 \'~ I.".nr~s t w ithin ~~y pt d~lring the ph araoni c pe riod is negli g ible . IIIl It I ~ a lillie survivmg evide nce for dynastic op posi tion , usua lly inIl I'III opl:tate ly du bbed " Harirn Co ns piracies ," but there was dou btless II lOll' VIo le nt o p~os i t io n than there is evide nce for. T he surv ival o f a I' ....11 1 0 1 th ~ trial o f co urtiers invol ved in the co ns piracy aga inst I ,j\ II ~l:sse s III IS rema rk a~l e . S im ilarl y, the archive o f pri vat e co rres pond III l 01 t~e Th eb an sc ribes Dhut mose and his so n Buteh amun de ta ils , 1"'lIls during the civ il wa r of the reign of Ramesses XI. I llT osition.to ru lers is we ll do c ume nted from the Ptol e ma ic era , fro m , \' I II I~ ty of d l~f~ren t so urces. b ut ra ises many other issues such as na1I 11 11 1~ llS l n , h o stl!lt ~ to the Ptol erni es as a dyn asty, and to the G ree ks (i n, II IlllIIg Mace do nians) as a ruling pow er that play ed no part in the earII. I I' n lod ~ . A nother .new feature of the document s wr itte n at the tim e ,I uutiunalist op pos ition to the Ptole mies is the moral izing in literatu re III II , lIS tile :'Dem? tic.C hronic le." An important aspect o f opposition i~ Ih. Il o klll a ~c pe riod IS the foc us o n the so uthern ci ty of T hebes , whic h I. " I S ~' I lip rival rulers , or ac ted as the main ce nter of an Upper Egypt~,, " gd :"n through o~l~ Egypti an history , but particularly during the I ,101 1111 perio d . Op pos ition to monarch s d ur ing the pha rao nic per iod • 1'10" ahly the res ult of co nflic ts between the pharaoh an d elite fac""11 , lIl1d as such wo uld have been more co ncea led . I ypl, was th ~ resul t of the un ificati on o r two kingdo ms , and the irn- I I' 01 rulcrs hip emphas ized that , w ith crowns, protecti ve deiti es , and 1I11" ds IorI hc north a nd so uth . At tim es o f nati on al weakness, Egypt
~f
."'
activiti~.
xlii •
INTRO DUCTIO N •
INTRO DLICTIO N
d id di vid e , althou gh it ca nno t be sa id that the re we re any natural units . Th ebes first e merge d as a major power in so uthern Egy pt in the Fir st Inte rmed iatc Pe riod and became a maj or ce nter o f o ppositio n to no rthern ruler s in the Thi rd Inte rmed iate a nd Ptole maic Per iods. Th ebes set up rivals to the late r Lib yan pharaohs, apparently first local, the n supporting the Kushit es. T he city became the principal s~at of a nti-Ptolema i.c acti viti es w ith its ow n aspiring rule rs . Th e rebe llion 01 Haronnophn s and Chao nno phris in the rei gns of Pto lemy IV a nd V lasted for 20 years and was succeeded by further, if briefer , atte mpts at independe nce . Alth ou gh the Egyptian bo rde rs , most notably those to the south, .in Nubi a . have received co nsiderable attentio n because of the substantial rem ains of for tresses, the intern al sec ur ity of Egypt is less we ll kno wn . Lite rature te nds to e mp has ize Egy pt's safe ty fro m fore ign invasion by its geographical posit ion. I lowe ve r, the evi de nce suggests t1~ at al.tho ug h invad ing armies, especially those co ming fro m we stern ASia, did have to conte nd with the diffi c ulties o f cross ing no rthern Sinai, and the defe nses of the " Ways o f Horus," smalle r grou ps o f nomad ic peopl es reg ularl y entered Egy pt either seaso nally or whe n forced by fa ~ine or other causes . There we re man y e ntra nce s int o th e NIle Vall e y lrom the Eastern and Western Desert s and these must have been co ntro lled by guard posts , galTisons, and m ilitary patrol s . Access to so me, if not all, of the main cities was also co ntro lled by gua rd posts. Texts refer to the city wa lls o f Thebe s and Memphis , am o ng ? th.ers, and altho ugh noth ing of these survives , it does suggest that certain Im portant parts , If not entire cities , were stro ngly defended . Wi thin the society, sce nes showing police and henchm e n acco mpanyi ng offic ials give the im press ion ~f an authori tarian . eve n brut al , reg ime stand ing in direct co ntras t to the Idyllic ima ges of rura l life found in the tombs o f the sa me offi cials (and per petu ated in much popu lar lite rature on anc ie n~ Egy pt) . . . T he ro le of the Pharaoh was alwa ys pre do mina ntly relt glou s.ln so me sense , he was ak in to medi eval po pes , rathe r tha n being a mil itary leader who also had some religious duti es . It is impossible to se parate the religious from any other ro le of the ph araoh . T he phar ao h thu s had the autho rity of the sun god and wa s dep icted as both terrestrial a nd cc lestial co nq ueror (in the form o f the sphinx) a nd judge . T he pharaoh" dut y to co ntrol emb raced all are as of op posi tio n , both foreigners and the Egyptian people . Hunting wild animals, particu larly those of the desert and rive r, was another way o f depi cti ng th e ph araoh 's co ntro l over till'
xliii
world . At the sa me time, the pharaoh co uld assum e the for m of the most lcrocious anima ls, notab ly the fa lco n. the bull, the lio n, a nd the leop ard . AI Ihe ne ws of a "rebellion" (and all oppos ition was view ed as re bel111 m agal nst the king), the king is usually de scribed as " ragi ng like a leopard . ' In b~tt l e, he roars like a bull (or, in so me late New Kingd o m ux ts, like a gn ffon) and drop s o n his e ne mies like a falco n. For a brief !,I'liod In the late 18th Dynasty, in the reigns of Ame nhotep III and ,1\ ~ hc l~ a t e n , the qu een s were also depi cted as sp hinxes a nd co nquero rs . I heir Imagery, derived d irect ly fro m that o f the pharaoh , sho wed them li S the c Ol~ q uero.rs of Egypt'S fe ma le enem ies. In thi s ro le , the qu eens II'l' l l' manifestation s o f the vio lent so lar a nd lion ess goddess , Tefnut.
CHANGES IN WARFARE l lu-re were o nly two major c hanges in techn ology and o rganization d lll ll l g the I.on g span o f Egyptian history. Th e most significa nt du ring tlu- !'hara? l1Ic pen od was at the beginning of the New Kin gd om with the lnumluctio n ~ f horses a nd chariotry: unt il then , Egyptian armies had 1"' 1'11 c l l t l r~ l y infant ry. T his reall y was a revolution in milit ary tec hno l"I'y, al low ing a who le new type of batt le . A t the sa me time , it was an 1111' Jlrc~erve and !ed t~ a who le ne w ge nre of literature a nd de pict ion I, tliux). The use of c hanotry o n a large scale was a pheno menon of the I Il l ~' II.mnze Age . ~ lt houg h the re is much less ev ide nce fro m Egy pt for 11 11 l'hin l.Intermed late and Late Periods , co ntempora ry armies . suc h as Ih, AS,sy n an and ~ abyl oni a n , used larger num ber s of infantry a nd cav,II, y, ( han ots co ntinued to be used in batt le into the Hell e nistic and RoII Ii III pe riods , but they bec ame more impor tant as transport. IIII' seco nd s ig n i fi~a~ t cha nge in the ar my ca me in the Pto le maic pe,1t ,,1, whcn the Hell eni stic ar my wa s introd uced . Thi s put e mphasis back "" 1111: infantry, but usin g the phalan x of pike-men that had been de vel"I"" III Maced on by Philip. fath er of Alexander the Great. Th e PtoleIII,IIt' pe riod also saw a great ex pansio n of military act ion at sea . The II, "" lIislic kingdo ms fringed the eas te rn Med iterra nean. and vied fo r " 1111,, 1 0 1 the coast, and the island s. Larger wa rships, the triremes a nd ruluqucrc mes. we n~ bui lt, and sea batt les beca me mo re frequent, and I , I Il'l': It was de fea t at Aktion in 3 I Be that effective ly brought the 1' ,,1, IIIHIl" dy nasty to an end .
xliv •
INm OD UCTIO N INmODUCTION
•
xlv
WAR AND SOCIETY
" I' o rchards report ed in th e Assyrian records , not abl y fo r to wn s, suc h as
The good preservati on o f we apo ns and c hario ts ha s focu sed stud ies on technol og y rath er than thc cond uc t a nd soc ia l as pec ts o f wa rfare. Indeed , the co nd uct o f war in Egypt is quite diffi cult to d iscuss , s im ply becau se o f th e lack of good ev ide nce . F rom other an ci ent so urc es , suc h as th e Homeric e pics (a nd the Egypti an " Ped ubast Cy cle," which was influen ced by them ), we lind accounts of the field of battle as a socia l occasion in w hic h etique tte was import ant , as was social sta tus . In these heroic conflicts , warriors did not fight with th ose o f lower soc ia l rank . In so me soc ieties , ind ividu al s ide ntify them sel ves to th e ir op po ne nts ; thi s can be done by sho uting o ut nam e and line age , als o by th e use of the shie ld w ith an indi vidu al de vice . Ther e is hardl y a ny di rect ev idence fro m Egypt for th e conduct o f bailie before the New Kin gdom . The New Kingd om ( the Lat e Bronze Age of the Near Eas t) did see a s ignifica nt change, at least in the fir st phase o f bailie, There was now a major socia l di stincti on in the army wi th th e e lite chariot d ivi sion s a pparently taking a leading ro le in th e ea rly stag es of the battle. Di splay must a lso have been an important fea tu re o f New Kin gd om cam pa ig ns. On lon g marches through we st ern A sia , th e ordered progr ess o f the army wo uld have been important as a threat. The large number s of chariots and foot so ld ie rs th at a ph ar aoh cou ld mu ster would have impressed the ex te nt o f hi s wealth and power. Fo rei gn contingents may a lso have bee n important in thi s aspec t, as a no ther indicator o f the ex te nt of Egypti an rule . In Nubi a , wh e re th e fleet was frequ entl y used to co nvey the army, th e shi ps we re decorat ed wi th ima ges o f th e ph araoh as ce les tia l a nd terrestrial conqueror. One as pect o f Egypti a n warfare th at has recei ved lilli e det ail ed treat ment is th e e ffec t o n ag ricu lture of th e regi on s attac ke d. There is good evidence from A ssy rian and biblical re cord s o f the practice of cuttine c ro ps and tree s , and thi s is attested for the Egypti an s in th e A nna ls 01 Thutrnose III a nd in so me Rarn esside baili e sce nes (s uc h as the sto rm ing of Tun ip dep ict ed in th e templ e o f Medinet Habu ). Obv iou sl y, thr taking o f a har vest had pr actical ad vant ages , as is sta ted in the anna ls becau se it could be used as food for th e army, as we ll as depriving til ' e ne my and ca usi ng har dship . Thi s acti on was limited in time becau se the cro ps could be re sown th e foll owin g ye ar. The regular CUll ing dow II
h;~s, ~Iealt. Wlt~ the issu es o f CUll ing and regrowth in co nsi derably mo re d, t,u l 1'01 anc~ent ~reece (l#/I j are and Agriculture in Classical Greece.
I)amascus , .m ust have had longer-term repercu ssion s . Victor Han son
Ik rkeJey : Uni vers ity o f Califo rn ia Press , re vised edi tio n 1998) than has ""en don e fo r th e an cient Near East. .·':lIel:e is le~s ~vidence for t~e Egyptian destruction o f crops by fire , at~t e d from blbllc~1 and cla ssic al so urces. Th e va lue o f the crops as food II 11gh t have o utwe ighed the punitive and prop aganda value o f de stru ction ' "11 l1 l11g crops is quite as e ffec tive in deprivin g a populati on and mud; " "we use to an arm y that has marched a co ns ide ra ble di stan ce . Effecti ve • II l1 l11g of crops co uld o nly be achieved if the e ne my was bes iege d (as a t ~ '''l,:lddo) and una~le to at.tac k the ar my . Victor Han son highli ghts a ll o f Ihl' prohlems associated with dest royin g crops w he the r by fire hi I . I " W IC 1 IS ',"1Iy e lfect] ec tl.ve w len the c:op is fU.lly ripe ; by cutting , which is very tim e" "lslIm lng , o r by trampling , w hich is not alway s co mpletely effecti ve . I II her fact ors , such as terrain, are also important- terraced fields are o bv iItll\,'y much more diffi cult to ra vage than nat , open g ro und. It
S lnH/.ar ~roblems Occur in th e atte mpts to dest roy tree s. CUll ing is the Itll ~y ~lI ectlve ~ay o f destroying o rc ha rds : g ree n wood being difficult Ign,He. As Victor Han son det ail s , there are immen se pro blem s in atto destroy o live .trees , a~d ev~n tre es fired o r cut do wn rapidly I I ucnu e . Th e depred alJon s o f invadin g arm ies would hav e had seriItIl~ shorl-t~rn1 effects ,. but thi s is probably a ll th at was de s ire d: the ag VII S,, " S IIlI~ht have WI shed to recei ve the products of orchards through 11 ,,,1,, or tax III future years . lit
':'I:I~lIl.n.g
,!f all the soc ia l issue s , the status of the so ld ier is the one wh ere the 11 1"1" 111
sou r.c~s are most a m biva le nt, a nd modern o p in ion has been
""Il'w IH~t .di vid ed .
There is good eviden ce for con script ion and e nIltll'n l lllilllary se: vice in the Old and Middle Kingd om s and so me ev Id, I ~l'e lo r Its .co ntllluatio n int o th e New Kin gdom. Th e o ft-q uo ted view It' h 'y pl.o log lsts that the Egypti an s "di d not like Iighting" (unlike the 1111"1'" of the " blood thirsty As sy ria ns ") m ight owe more to a 19th _ . . cen "II V n,te"st .vle w than an y 'lI1~ien t sou rces . Cert ainly there were large IIIIIIIII,IS o f merc~nary troop s 111 th e Egy pti an army at a ll period s , es pe 10111 v,the ~ew KIIl~dom , but there is no doubt that the bulk o f the a rmy " I:gyptl an . ~ubJan bo wmen were a regular feature o f the arm y, and II" I,,','r Ne w KlIlgd om had larg e co nti nge nts of Lib yan s. This was in
xlvi •
INTROD UCTIO N INTRO DUCTION •
par t a n Egyptian res po nse to circu mstances . From the re ign of Se ty I onward , Libyan s were marc hing into Egyp t to sett le , a ppare ntly as the result of fa mine in thei r hom el and . Ram esses II and his successor s inco rpo rated s igni fica nt numbe rs into the ar my and se tt led the m in spec ific area s , not abl y aro und Buba stis in the eastern De lta . Other foreign troop s are fo und assoc iated wit h the Li byans , a nd also in the Egy ptian army, notably the Sheke lesh and Sharda na. Both gro ups are also numbered a mo ng the " Sea Peop les," who are suppo sed to have posed a threa t to Egy pt in the re ign o f Ra messes III . Mercen ary so ldie rs ce rta inly had hi gh status : Egy ptian w ives and se rva nts are document ed for Nubian merce na ries at Gebe lein in the First Inte rmed iate Peri od a nd for Asiatic mercen aries at Ak hetate n in the Ne w Kingdo m . Militar y office rs of Lib yan origin married into the Egyptian e lite and e ventua lly beca me pha rao hs. O ne of the most co ntro ve rsial iss ues is the re lat ionsh ip o f the army and its co m mande rs to the Eg yp tian e lite as whole . In the earl y 20 th ce ntury, Egypto log ists argued that there was a "ma riyanuu" c lass in. Egy pt. T he mariyannu we re supposed ly a chari ot-o wni ng ar istocracy 01 Indo-Eu ropean or ig in. T he term certai nly occurs in Egyptian texts and is a loan -word from Asia. However, identifyi ng th is group w ith a race was certai nly wron g, althoug h it was typical o f ideas abo ut race and diffusion that had rece ived w ide spread academ ic sanction at that time. Wolfgan g He ick, in his influ e ntia l vo lume Del' Einfluss del' Milititrfii hrer ("T he rise of the milit ar y lead er" ) , publi shed , rat her significantly, in 1939 , rei nforced the idea th at the New Kingd om saw the rise of military leaders as ph araoh s . T hi s process is seen to have c ulminated with the accessio n o f, firstly, Hore rnheb , and then the fam ily of Se ty I and Ramesses II, to the ki ngship. Th ese men were certainly army ge nera ls before they becam e ph araoh s , but w he ther they becam e ph araoh s because o f thei r mili tary back gro un d (a nd , presumabl y, suppo rt) is rath ci more co nte ntious . It m ight be wrong to se parate the mil itary, as a n in stitution, fro m the rest of the e lite . Th e Egypt ian E mp ire o f the New Kin gdom req uired an increased spec ializatio n and professio nalism ill a ll o f the key a reas o f ad min istra tion , priesthood , and army . A ll mem bel'S o f the e lite shared the sa me ed ucatio n, w hic h co mbined sc ribal ski lls wit h those o f c hariotry and archery . Indeed , so me mili tary off cials chose 10 be depi cted as sc ribes on the ir monument s . A lthoug h ill the later New Kingd om and the succ eed ing pe riod s , the ideal of herod
xlvii
11" ry o~fices might ha ve led to who le families being largely, for ex a mI'k , pr iests , " the milit ary" is unli kely to have co nstituted a sepa rate 1'0lVcr before the late r 20 th Dyn asty. Re!,lted to ~his issue , ano the r term that has provoked co nside rable dehale IS machimni , There is abu ndant ev ide nce for the term fro n th / '1 I . . d b I e o cmarc perm. ' ut the key text is Herod otos , who lays great e mpha'" , Oil th.e machim oi as a mi litary "cas te." There is no e vide nce for suc h II caste 1IJ the New Kingd om (despite the mariya nnu y and it has no w h'T11suggested lI~at the emergence o f such a military cas te was perhap s II legacy o f the Li byan pe riod .
WAR AND ECONOMICS
WI' see m to know more about the eco nom ic aspe cts of warfar e than abo ut 1I1IIl'gy and tactics in battle. Th is is largely bec ause of the nature o f I "Yl'tlan document s, and "decorum ." The import ant role o f the bureau , " ":~ !n war has been exam ined by Ian Shaw (" Battle in Ancient Egy pt: II", In umph o f Horus or the C utting Edge of the Te mple Eco no my ?" In \111 11 Il. Lloyd , ed ., Battle ill Antiq uity. Lo ndo n: Duckworth , 1996, I 1'1 2( )l) . Egy pt was an extrao rd inarily bureaucrat ic soc iety, and the de,,,1"'" record o f captures, both peo ple and things, is fou nd in both official '11101 1'1'1 vat~ texts. As with so much o f Egy ptian history, the best docu1I1I'llIallon IS fro m the New Kingd o m. Th e autobiog raphica l texts o f so lol" 'I S, such as A hmos e son of Ebana and Ahmose-pen-Nck hbet, detail 11 11 Ii ow n captures on the fie ld of battle and the ir re wards from the I'ltll llllllis under whom they served. They are impo rtant so urce s lo r un,I" lalltling the eco nomic as pec ts of wa r as it affected ind ividuals. I IH' "~n nals of TI~utmose III" and so me ot her texts provide deta ils o f 11 11 , Iall' s re venues from war throu gh ca ptures on the field of battle and ' '' '''I y 11'0 111 defeated cities and states . Th e " Arna rna Lett ers" a re a ric h " 'lIn' lor underst.a~lding the import ance o f g ift exc ha nge bet ween rulers 11 111, 1 : ~Jlread of military equipme nt and technology. They detail the types I I 1II IIIIary equipme nr sent fro m M itanni to Egy pt, includ ing chariots, "'I equipment and ar~or, spea rs, arrows, shie lds, and he lmets . Th ey 111 11 11 111 u.s ~bou t the Import o f horses to Egypt from north Syria . hi ~ he indi vid ua l le vel , texts record the re wards mad e to so ldier s for 'I 'lUIlug ene my so ld iers and c ivilians o r chariots a nd horses. Captured
I:,I:
xlviii • INTKODUCTION civilians were o fte n g ive n to the so ld ier as slaves . G old flies and other va lua bles we re a lso g iven as rew ard and as indi cators o f bra very in the field . Mo st significa nt, perh ap s, were the grants of land , as the se may have aide d famil ies in soc ia l advanceme nt. T he importance of suc h document ati on to the elite is rev ea led parti cul arl y well in the insc riptio n of a man nam ed Mose w ho lived in the ea rly 19th Dyn asty. There had been a fam ily d isput e o ve r a period of so me 50 years , but the di spute was about the produce from land that had been granted to a so ld ier ancesto r so me 200 yea rs ea rlie r, in the ea rly 18th Dyn asty. On a broader level , what becomes c lear from the sources is the rapid spread and ex pa nsio n o f the c har iotry. Th e text s fro m the ea rly 18th Dynasty in Egy pl, and contemporary records from western Asia , indicate that c hariots were very fe w in number at the beginn ing o f the peri od , but by the time o f the battl e o f Qadesh , rulers we re able to put hundreds, if not thous and s, into the field . Th e incre ase in number s o f char iots avai lable to the G reat King o f the H ittites illustrates th is well. Early rulers had few chariots , but by the tim e of Thutrnose III , the Hittite G rea t King could mu ste r 1,000 , and the reco rds of Rarnesses II c laim that the re we re 2,500- 3,000 cha riots of the Hitt ites , their vassa ls and allies. at the bailie of Qad esh . Th e Egy ptians ce rtainly increased the ir num be rs o f cha rio ts throu gh ca ptures . At Megiddo Thutrnose III se ized 924 c hario ts. and slightly later Am enh otep II ca ptured a total o f I .lQ 2 in his ca mpaigns, A ltho ugh a ll ea rly c har iots a ppea r to ha ve been impo rts or captures, by the mid-1 8th Dyn asty , the Egy ptians we re manufactu ring them themsel ves , a nd tran sfe rabl e technologies in wa rfa re a nd eq uipme nt an' a c ha rac ter istic of the peri od , w ith an e ffec t o n the trad e in raw mate ri als. Lac king good- q uality timber, Egypt had go ld and othe r luxur ies il co uld use in excha nge. Mit anni co ntro lled the trade in deciduou s tim ber s suc h as oa k, as h, and birch that we re essent ial lor cha riot building, and doubtless thi s played a significa nt part in the imp ort an ce o f tht, kingd om intern ationall y, C hariots, of cou rse , need horses , and the horse trad e was o f great im port ance , es pec ially to a cou ntry like Egypt , w here it was d ifficult III breed the a nima ls . At Megiddo , Thutmose III ca pture d 2,04 1 horses Aga in, Mitanni see ms to have been an important so urce, or cha nne l, 01 horses . Th e biblical record indicates that later, Sol om on , king of Israel becam e o ne of the grea t hor se trad er s . The hor ses of the Late Bron« Age were relativel y s ma ll animals a nd hors e breeding and the intr«
INTRODUCTION • xlix ,IlIclion o f new typ es of a hea vier hor se had imp ort ant milit ary reper' IiSSlo ns In the Iron Age, not abl y a n increase in the use of ca va lry, flrslly by the army o f the Assyn an Empire . The A man~a Lett er s det ail the many othe r aspect s of the intern ati on al ',lIS t n~de o f the Late Bron ze , from armor to d iffe rent typ es of arrows . ,II " typi cal ?f Egyptian depi cti on s that littl e o f thi s import ed wea po nry " shown be ing used by Egypti an so ldiers. Ho we ver, the earlies t kno wn 11"',1 ~ea pon fro m Egypt , a da gger from the tomb o f Tut an khamun is Id<, nllca l to o ne described in the Am arna Letter s. ' HI
Altho ug h the girt exchange bet ween ruler s was the ma in way in Ill:ld l arm s were trade(~, the wide spread e mploy me nt of merc en ary so ld" " wo uld also ha ve d issemin ated wea po ns and techniques of warfare. Ih<,y s ho uld per~ulps be co ns ide red as part o f the arms trad e itself. Th e \ 11I:ll na Lett~rs include a request by a n Egyptian vassa l ruler in Paleslit ,,· Ior Nub ian archer s , and a fragm ent ary papyrus of the sa me date h" ws a ba ttle between Lib yan s and wha t appea r to be My cen aean so ld",IS. who shou l~1 also perh ap s be regarded as me rce na ry troops. Th ere ' ,'" :111 Increase In the number and ethnic gro ups o r mercenaries in the I lilt r )~ n,l' ty, So me. suc h as the Sha rda na, w ith the ir di stinctive hel1I 1t' 1, :11 '." weap on s. ar~ to be round both in the Egy ptian army and fight1111' "1'" lllS t the Egy ptians a long side the Libyan s. 1\ 11 o i the SO UrL'es indi cate the "i nternationa l" natu re of the Late 11 11 111 / " Age. w ith the spread o f technologies and weaponry throu uh the h"'" ' " .Mesop ota mia . wes te rn Asia , the Aegean, and northeast Africa . II" ,'han ot. for exa mple, sprea d to Nubia , presumably as royal g ift and II1 V II ,' 1I l'ply frol~l the pharaoh s . A ltho ugh battl e sce nes show N ub ian ", III "" co nve ntionally as bo wm en with rel ati vely littl e eq uipment II" I ".',III'ces show the us~ of c hariots by the e lite a nd sugge sl tha t the; ' I' Itl lllg manuf,~ctured If] so me center s . Th e Egyptians a lso rece ived I I" o,' ,an no,r, shields : and we apo ns, notabl y spears and bows , from 111 "" , r here IS al so e viden ce that horses were be ing bre d in Nubia by I, 1IIII," ,that tl~e Kushite kingd om co nq uered Egypl in the eighth cen'II Il l , I he. Libyan s, too , acq uired fore ign wea po ns. By the 19th Dy, 1\ , fltt' Libyan s had cha rio ts , and swords of western As iatic typ e . I •• 11 1'." ;111 Greece and the Aegea n was a lso part o f th is net work, as evI II" 110 11 1 I'ylos , Mycen ae, a nd Kn ossos sho ws . lilt 11,l i ~ interde pe nde nce o f the states o f the Late Bron ze Age , it is I III I" IS l lIg that the co llapse o f the H ittite Empire had widespread
I •
INTRO DUCTI ON
repercu ssion s . In the past , this was ge nera lly attrib uted to the "Sea Peoples" as a mass migration o f populati on from the north into western Asia . More rece ntly. this idea of populatio n mo vement has bee n cha llenged , and Robert Drews has re-exam ined the who le issue in The End of the Bronze Age. Changes in Wwfa re and the Catas trophe ca. 1200 B.C. (Prince ton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. 1993). He emphasizes the increased im portance o f infant ry over chario try. Ce rta inly, the ev ide nce from the succee ding historical phases (a ltho ugh sca nty fo r Egy pt) shows that the massed chariot ranks o f the Late Bron ze Age were repl aced by infantry and cavalry. Th e first millennium Be saw the rise of a series o f increas ingly large empires , which were in turn taken ove r. Th e first, the Assyrian Empire, extended its sway ove r Mesopotam ia and westward to the Medit erranean and briefly into Egy pt. II was conquere d by the resurgence o f Babylonian pow er, but that empire in tum fell to the Medes and then the Persians . Egyp t. under the strong rule of the 26th Dynasty. manage d to remain independ ent , even to cha llenge the power of Babylo n, but ultimately fell to the ove rw he lming might of Persia. Th roughout this period, mercen aries played a signifi cant role in the Egyptian army. many co ming from so uthern and western Anatolia, the lands of Carla , and the [onian coast. Th e states of the Gre ek mainl and now played an increasingly impor tant ro le, and sea battles increase d in numb er (or are better documented) . II was also the Greek mainland that produ ced the major new developm ent in warfa re, the phalanx of pike-m en . Th is formatio n, developed by Philip II of Macedon , was used with devastating effect by Alexande r the Great in his ca mpaigns agai nst Persia and co ntinued to playa major role in the wars o f his immediate succes sors (the diadochoii and the later Hellen istic kingdom s. T he armi es of the Helleni stic kingdo ms were organized and equipped in largely the same ways. and there was frequent defecti on to an enemy by both troops and command ers. In trod uction s, such as the use of elephants by the Seleukid kings o f Syria. were soon ado pted by other monarch s . Th e fall of the Hellenistic king doms ( 0 Ro me saw the rise of the largest empire. and also the cu lmina lion of military standardization. Egypt now shared an arm y and had mil itary structure s of a type that cou ld be found from Britain to Syria.
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1il iI, J J !' JIll ., [1111 liT i!! Illl :filll 1111 i\.ll ~ A small baNlem ented garrison ion a t Akhetaten (Amarnal depicted in the tomb ", MaIJU, chiei oi the Madjoy, at Amarna. The complete scene shows pro vision s beilll' brought to the tort. Inside, there are am phorae and ioodstulls. a soldier end spare 5.11 ' dais, shields, axes, bows, and quivers. Aiter N. de G. Davies Rock Tombs "I
el-Amarna, vol. 1\1, pl. xx iv.
" I'I ' " " ·,,Ie armor etter a pai nting in the tom b oi Qenam un at Thebes ireign oi lit "
IP /I '/J /I) ,
A cowhide shield after a pailltillg ill the tomb of Qellamull at Thebes (reili" , Am en hotep I/) showillli the produ cts of royal workshops. The accompallyillli ' .,/ tiot: states that 680 w ere presented to the king.
, '/'" " '" .llier a paillting in the tom b of Oenamun at Thebes (reigll of AmenI ' III ,howing the products o f royal workshops; that 0 11 the right is made o f , ,,, ..I, I II.
l (Le ft) A khepes h-SlVord with scaled hand-grip an d a ridge in the shape of a CO/II,' From a scene showing gifts presen ted to Thutm ose IV in the tomb of Tjaflllll)' " Thebe«. (Right! A group of khepesh-SlVords in a painting in the tom b of Qenamu/I , l TIlebes (reign of Amenho tep /I) showing the products of royal workshops. TI,,' ," co mpanying caption states that 360 were presented to the king.
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,,,,,I rI" lmers depi cted in a sce ne of gi fts presented to A menho tep' /I in the
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Troops from Akhenalen's bodyguard. In the upper register are an Asiatic wilh sp"" and kh epesh, a Nubia n, and a Libyan, both with bow and axe. The lower regilt I has anot her Asialic witb spear and khepesh and a Nubian with a cudgel, follow,,, by an Egyptian with a khepesh. From a scene in the lomb of Ahmes al Amarn., ", ter N. de G. Davies RockTombs of el-Amarna, vol. 11/, p l. xxxi .
, , 'II /'{I./I ' archer wearing a long robe and po inted helmet. Reien . " /1. o of Rm ( lCS!'iUi
II, ,,·//i"R of orchards outside a fortified town in western Asia, from a scene of one II,,' ,,""paigns of Ramesses ll .
A m ilitary trump eter from a scene of the campaigns of Ramesses //.
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or Tutu at Amarnc1, after N .
T/lUtmose /V in his chariot, from a scene o n the side of the king's chariot.
II.., lII,lIlufacture of a chariot, and an axe, and leatherworking. A bow case, two 'I"!I" 'S, and other cbetiotrv equip ment, d,l ggers and a shield are depicted ,I..''''. From a scene in the lomb of Puyemre at Thebes (reign of Ibu tmose 1/1).
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The Dictionary
-A .\ ATI\ (11. c. 1530 uc ), O ppo nent o r Ahm ose I. In the autobiography o r Ahmose son or Ebana the e pisode follows the Nubia n ca mpaig n, II l1d it is likely that Aa ta was a local ruler in Wawat . Aata ca me wi th i ll l ar my a nd ships, bu t in the ou tco me he was take n as a living ca plive a nd his people were en slaved . T he text impli es that a whole popIl lation was involv ed a nd this incid e nt therefore co ntrasts with the " rc hellinn" ofTcri -un referred to in the sa me autob iography, both in l'llI npo, ilio n and treatm ent.
Queen Tiye as a iemaie sphinx trampling the female enemies.of Egypt. From a paw'/ on the side of the queens throne as depicted in the tomb 01 Kheruef at Thebes.
\ 111 1. T he Egy ptia n na me for the island or Ele pha ntine in the Nile at the 100 101' the Firs t Ca taract. opposite the tow n or As wa n. Its position at Ih.. root o r the catar act ensured its role as an ea rly trad ing center, and silategic front ier town . By the Midd le Kingdom , it was protected by IIIl' lortress or Sc n m ut and a lon g defen sive wall , whic h exte nded to Ihl' head or the catarac t and its harb or. Se n us r et I orde red a canal to he clea red th rough the cataract to ease navigat ion, which was renewed h ' Thutmose I. Th e tombs or the town 's officials are carved into the d ills o n the west bank or the Nile, at Qubbet el-H awa. T hese include Ihl' Old Kingdom "co ntro llers or the doors or the south," respo nsib le 1111 the frontier and ex pedi tions into Nu bia, es pecially to Wa wa t, lrt1"1. Satju, Yam , and Kush . Th ere are informati ve autobiographica l in" '1 iplions in these to mbs , notab ly that or Harkhuf. \ «''1'1 li M. See AKTION. \1 :ES ILI\ O S II (c. 445- 359 nc ). King or S pa r ta in Greece (rrom 400 Ill ') .
i\ ges ilaos co mma nded the G reek wa r agai nst Per sia in 396-395
2
•
Al lMOS r I (~II G N IU C. I S,!)2 1527 lie)
BC, receiving aid from the pharaoh Nefaarud . Later , the elde rly Agesilaos, with an army of G reek mercenarics accompa nied by a fleet from At hc ns , aided Djcdhor 's attem pt to ga in territo ry in Pale stine and Syria . I l is c hange of alleg iance e nsured Nakhthorheb was sueces sfu l in his bid for the Egy ptia n th rone (360-359 BC) . Agesilaos died in Cyre na ica on his way back to Gr eece .
AHMOSE 1 (reigned c. 1552-1527 BC). Th eban ruler , successor 01 Kamose , who re united Egy pt by defeat ing the Hyksos ruler of Avaris in thc easte rn Delta . He is reco gn ized in literature as the first pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty and the New Kingdom . His military ca mpaigns, which ac hie ved the reunificat ion of Egypt , are record ed in autobio graphical texts of so ldiers who served in the wars: Ahmose son of Ebana, and Ahm ose-P en-Nek h bet . A brief referenc e to Ahrnose 's war may be preser ved on the Rhind Mathem atical Papyru s . and small fragment s of battle reli efs have rece ntly bee n reco vered from the phar aoh 's temp le at Ab ydo s. It see ms like ly that Ahmose I was a mi nor at the death of Kam ose (either his c ider brother or father), as there see ms to be no milita ry acti vity until the seco nd decade of the reign , Activities in Nu bia may have preceded the Hyksos ca mpa igns, which are prob ab ly to be placed late in the seco nd decade . Ev ide nce from Buhen attests building wo rk by the viceroy , A hrnose-Turo , and it is likely that the Nubian gains of Kam ose were co nso lidated . Ahrnosc I' s name also occur s in the fortress es tablished at Sai nor th of the T hird Cataract, ind icating an Egy ptian adva nce into Kushite territory. The records o f the Hyksos campaigns also show that Mem phis had been rega ined by the Theban forces before the co mmence men t o f hostilities, The inscr iption of Ahmose so n o f Ebana describes battles in which th(' navy was prominent ; the siege of Avaris; the defeat of the Hyksos; and sack of Ava ris, The Rhind Mathem atical Papyru s carries notes dated til a yea r II , attrib uted by scho lars vario us ly to Ahmose or the Hykso: king Khamudi . Th ese notes record the capture of Heliopoli s and Tjaru The defeat of the Hyksos in the Delta was fo llow ed by the siege III Sharuhcn, which lasted for three years , o r th rce ca mpaigns . AhmOSI also see ms to have ca mpaigned inland from Bybl os (which was, pn' sumably, reached by ship). Fo llowi ng the ca mpaigns aga inst the Hyk sos, Ahmosc led a military action in Nubi a and later quashed the " 1'1' bell ion s" of Aa ta and Teti-an , Aata was probabl y a local ruler III
AHMOS[ SON
o r [ IlANA II L. C. 1560 · 1500 Rei
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I.ower Nubi a (Wa wa t), Teti- a n is sa id to ha ve ga thered " malcontents" !,l'rhaps represent ing a pro-Hyk sos faction in the nort h of Egypt itself. ,\l II\IOSE II (AMASIS) (reig ned 570-526 BC). Phara oh of the 26th I )yn a~ty who ga ined t.he thron e during an army rebe/lion followin g Ihe failure of a campaign se nt agai nst Cyrene by Wa hibre (A pries). Alunose appears to have face d o ppos ition from so me facti on s and in ~:()/569 BC Wal~ibre a ttemp ted to rega in the th ron e with help from ( yp r us ~1Jt1 Ionian and Ca rlan me rcenaries . In a seco nd atte mp t to I,.' ga lll his thron e, Wah ibre e nlisted the support of the Bab ylon ian 1"lIg Neh ucha d nezza r II who invaded Egy pt. Ahmo se gained help 110111 Cyrene (pro bably sealed with the d ip lomatic marriage alliance rvpo rted by He rod oto s). T he invadin g for ce was defeated , and Wahiluc was ~ i1 led . A n inscription of Ahmose attr ibut es the victory to the uucrve rn io n of the go ds and the wea ther. Ahrnose entered into alliance with Polykrntes , tyrant of Sarn os , fro m whom he recei ved so lrlicrs. A h ~ose also es ta blished a treat y with Croes us of Lydi a , (there was a simila r treaty bet ween Lyd ia and Babylon). Th e new threat to I!gypl a nd we stern Asia was Persia unde r Cy rus . Lydi a was attacked hili Croesus received less help than ex pected . A Pe rsian attack Ilahylon foll owed (539 BC) , but the deat h of Cy rus (530 BC) rel ie ved li/'ypt for a bri ef per iod .
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\ III\ IOSE SON OF EBA NA (fl. c. 156(1-1500
BC). Milit ary office r in II ", na vy who se rved under Ahmose I, Amenho te p I, and T h ut mose 1,IIe was bu ried in his hom et own of Nekheb (mode rn el-Kab), so uth II I I.uxo r, Where an auto biogra phica l inscrip tio n record s the eve nts o f Iii, military service. Ahmose was the so n of a so ld ier who se rved Seqru c nrc Tao , ca lled Baba (Eba na was the nam e of his rnoth er ). AhIlIme's milita ry serv ice began as a yo uth, before he was marri ed when he wa s a so ld ier on a ship ca lled the " Wild Bull ." He serve d I WII more ships, the " No rthern" and "A rising in Mem phi s." At this lillie he too k part in the wars against the Hyksos a nd the naval battl e III Avaris . He wa s late r invo lved in the Nubi an campaig ns of Ahm ose I, Amc nhote p I, and Thutrnose I. Apart from the histor ica l value of II II' texts they ind icate the numbers of enemies slain and the re wards IIII' those . Altoge ther Ahrnose c ut off eight hands from slain enemies IIl1d hrought live capt ives . So me of the ca ptives we re g iven to him as
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AI IMOSE· I' EN ·NEKI m ET III .
c. 1550·1 470 BC )
slaves other s were exc ha nge d . In return for two Nu bian wa rriors Ahmo se recei ved fi ve slaves (se x unsp ec ified ), and , for two Nubia n men , he was g ive n four Nubia n wo me n. Ahmos e was re warded w ith go ld o n sev e n occas ions, g ive n a total o f 19 slaves a nd grants o f five arouras o f land in Nekh eb (e l-Kab) . Of part icul ar signifi cance wa s Ah mo se 's ca pture . in o ne campaign in the rei gn o f Thutrnose I. o f 1I chariot. horse . and so ld ier. T he cha riot was still a rel ativel y new deve lopment and was prese nted by Ahm o se to the pharaoh , for whi ch he was re warded w ith go ld . A hmose ro se from be ing a so ld ier to beco me crew com mander. Ili s tomb was decor ated , at least in part , by h is earundson, Pah eri , who was a sc ribe of the trea sury and mayor of . Ne kh eb (e l-Kab) and Es na . Ahrnose 's milit ary se rvice lind Its mate ria l ga ins might the refore be see n as e vide nce for social adva nce ment of a famil y. AHMOS E-P E N-NEKHBET (fl. c. 1550-1470 IIC) . Served in ca lli paign s from the reign o f Ah m ose I to the core ign o f Thutmose III and Ha tshep sut. He was buried in his hom etown o f Ne k heb (el-Kab ). Ill' records an e xped ition to Djahy (Le banon) by Ahmose I, which is not documented e lsew here (e .g. A h m ose son of Eba na ). Th is is presum ed to have tak en place after the ca pture o f Sha ruhen . He served in K lish wi th Amen hote p I and with Thutmose I in Kush and Na ha r in. I h' went with Thutmose II on an e xped ition against the Shas u . Th e te xt is also va lua ble fo r its lists o f the r e wa r d g ive n by vari ous pharaoh s for ac tio ns o n the batt lefi e ld . From the Djahy campaign o f Ahrnose I, Ahrnose-pen-Nek hbet brought a livi ng prison er a nd II hand . On the ca mpa ign o f Am e nho tep I to Kush , A hrno se took Olll' living priso ner; in that against Yamu-kehek ; three hand s; during Thul mose I's Ku sh ite e xped ition, he ca ptured a tot al o f five living prison e rs; and in the pharaoh's Na ha rin ex ped ition, 2 1 hand s w ith Oil horse and one ch ariot. Under A menho te p I , he received as re ward tw o bra cel ets, two neckl aces , an arm let, a da gger , a headdress , a fall and a mekhtebet (a typ e of orna me nt), all o f go ld. In a ca mpaign 01 Thutrnose I, he rece ived two brace let s, four nec klaces , o ne a rm let, si flie s , three lion amulets, and two axes , again all of go ld. O n another oc casio n, under the sa me pharaoh , he was rew arde d with thrc brace let s , six nec klace s , three arm lets , and a mekhtebet , all of go ld a nd a silve r axe. No allotme nts of la nd are me ntion ed in the te xt.
AKl-ltNATEN IRUG Nm
c. 1352- 1336 BC)
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'\ I\ II E NAT E N (r eigned c. 1352-1336 uc ). Ph araoh o f the later 18th Dy nasty, so n and succ essor o f Amen hotep III, asce nded the thron e ax A ~n~n hotep IV. but c ha nged his nam e ea rly in his re ign . Th e re is a possibility o f that Ame nhote p III and Ak henate n we re coreg e nts for lip to 12 years, but Egy pto logis ts are still di vided on this , and it is not ncccpted her e . Th e Amarna L etters are the prin c ipal so urce for our understanding o f Asiatic affairs in the reign , altho ug h frau ght with prob le ms of chro no logy and interpre ta tion. Earl ier literature painted 1I pictu re o f the pharao h as unw ar like, or even a "pac ifist," wh o let the I':gyptian Em pire fall apart throu gh inac tivity, whi le de vot ing him sel f 10 the worship o f the sun go d . Th e view of Ak he na len as a pac ifist "lI lI safe ly be rej ect ed : he is depi cted smi ting his enem ies in the co nvcutiona] mann er o f a pha raoh , as is his chi ef queen, Nefertiti , A hlldyg uard always surro unded the pharaoh and co ntingents o f the 1I1111y acco mpany him on his public appearances . One milita? actio n by the Egyptian army in N ubia , pro bably on a ~ 1 1I :l 1I sca le, IS known from the reig n . A fragment ary ste le fro m Buhc n record s a military ex ped ition into the Nu bian de serts between W:lrs 10 and 12 (the exac t read ing o f the date is uncert ain ). T his was "illT lcd agai nst the go ld-mining regi o ns in the Wad i A llaqi , the land ' Ii Ika ytja. T here is a frag mc nt o f a parall el text from A rnada . Scenes in the tombs of the o ffic ia ls Huya and Meryre II at Amarna huw the par ade o f foreign tribute in the "G reat Durbur" at ~ 1. ll't a te n in year .12. Su ch presentation s of tribute are frequ e ntly as' '' 'I:lled With fore ig n wars an d co nseq ue ntly it has bee n s uggested Ihlll there was a mil itary ca mpaign in that yea r. Oth e r Egy pto logi sts " 'I':lrd.the " D urbar" as part of the ce remo nies atte ndi ng Ak he na te u's ," rc sxron as so le ph araoh followi ng a lon g co regency wi th his fathe r Ilhis is co ntroversial). Th e fore ign tribut e incl ude s chariots , horses, '"111 IIlher w.eapons fro m bot h Nubi a an d wes tern As ia , rellecting the "' "'lIll1l'nlatlon o f the arms trade in the A ma rna Lett er s. lh c Ama rna Letter s are co nce rned with affairs in Asia . At so me 1'"1111 in the reig n, the .H itt it e King, S uppiluliuma , co nd ucted a major , '" l1 p:lIg n III north Syria, seizing Egy ptian vassa l states. Thi s is probaI,' \, III ~'e dated betwee n yea rs 12 and 14 of Akhena te n's reign . At the '" 1'" tunc , Aziru, rule r of Arn u r r u , gained co ntro l o f Surnu r, Az iru " 1I )':lined co ntro l of Tu nip , and there was a coup in Bybl os . Right at II" " lid III Ak henaten's reig n (or immediate ly following it) , there was
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AKTIO N IACT IUM I
an Egy ptian offe nsive again st Qadesh , which was followed up in the later years of Tu ta nkha m un , probab ly comm anded by Horemheb. A KT IO N (ACTlU M) . Nava l bailie , 2 Se pte mbe r 3 1 BC , at whic h the forces of Kleopatra VII and Ma rcus Anto nius were defeated by those o f Oc tavian (A ug us t us) and the Rom an Republic. Aktion is at the entra nce to the Ambracian Gulf on the western coa st of Greece, Antonius pitched ca mp o n the mainl and , but malari a and dysentery affected his troops , foll owed by the defections of so me of his leadin g supporters . Antonius 's fleet , along w ith 200 o f Kleopatr a's ships sailed to jo in the land army. But another disaster occ urred when, on its arrival, the joint fleet was blockaded in the G ulf. Pol itical factors influenc ed the deci sion to attempt withdrawal by sea rather than by land . Illness meant that Antonius did not have enoug h rowe rs to man all o f the ships , so he equipped 230 and burned the rest. Source s state that Antonius took 20 ,000 legion aries and 2 ,000 a rchers and slingers o nto his ships co nstructing firing to wers for them at bow and stern, Oc tav ian 's fleet of 400 now vas tly outnumbered Antonius's and was more experienced. Later claims that Octavian 's ships were sma ller and more eas ily maneuvered are prob ably incorrect. Ant oniu s's ships were allowed to sail out in file through the narrow G ulf. As they sprea d into line , Octav ian's fleet wa s drawn up aga inst them . Oc tavian apparently wished to lure the fleet into open water so that his greater nu mbers co uld o utflank them . He refu sed to jo in hallie and Antonius had no optio n but to sail fart her out or ret urn to the G ulf. As the fleets moved o ut and engaged, the ce nter wea kened, allowing Kleo patra and her sq uadro n of 60 ships to break through and set sail for Egypt. T his had dou btless been prearranged . Anto nius man aged to follo w her, altho ugh he had to abando n his llagship. Few of the other co mma nders we re abl e to break free. About 30 or 40 of Antoniu s' s ships were sunk. The remainder surrendered , alth ough so me retreated into the Gulf until the next da y. T he defeat led directl y to the fall of Eg ypt and its incorp oration into the Ro man Empire . ALA MEIN , T he existence of a fortress here in the reign of Ramesses II has been suggested by so me remains, notably gra nite stele fragment s referring to Libyan Wars . Estimates o f distance between forts along the coastal route from Rakote to Z a wiyet Um m el-Ra kha m
Al f XANDR IA •
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also suggest that Alamein was a likel y site . Any such fort would have been part of the defense against the Libyans, but prob ab ly o nly operated d uring the ea rly 19th Dyn asty. ALEXANDE R THE GREAT (III OF M ACEDON) (re igned 336-323 11(' ). Macedonian king who defeated Dariu s III and co nquered the empire of Persia, Followin g Alex and er 's defeat of Persian forces at Issos t.U 3 BC) in Asia Min or, the Macedon ian adventurer Amyntas tried to capture Egy pt for personal gai n, but was put to death , with his force , hy the Persian satrap of Egypt. Meanwhile, Alexa nder's army and llcct proceeded toward Egypt along the Phoenician coas t to Gaza , which was besieged (September-Nov ember 332 BC) . With the fall of (i aza , Maced on ia 's supremacy at sea was unchallenged . Alexa nder IIOW crosse d the Sina i Penin sula to Pelusion (Dece mber 332 BC) . Mazaces, the Persian satrap, yielded Egypt to Alexander without rnakillg oppos itio n. Alexander installed a garr ison in Pelu sion and went dircctly to the capital at Memphis . From Memphis, A lexander sailed to I.ake Mareotis and found ed Alexa ndria , near the small port of Rakote (Jnnuary 331 BC), before makin g the long desert journ ey to the oracle temple of Zeus-Amm on at Siwa . Recogni zed by the god as his son, and Il'l,:itimate pharaoh, Alexander return ed to Mem phis , apparently dircctly across the dese rt . Whil e at Memph is, Alexander imposed Macedonian rule o n the country. He appointed two of his co mpanions, Panfalcon of Pydna and Polemon o f Pella, as commanders o f the ga r risons ill Memphis and Pe lusion . Lykidas, an Ae tolian Greek , was placed in rornmand of the mercenary troops , and other mil itary appointments ensured that the sec urity of the country was not under the co mmand of OIIC individual. The Rom an writer, Arrian, in his history of Alexander 's cnmpuigns based on contemporary sources, observes that Alexan der thought that the co untry's potenti al strength made it unsafe to be under 1'0 11 11'0 1 of one individual. Leaving Egy pt in late spring of 331 ac , Alexander co ntinued his advance into the heart of the Persian Empire, d ,jllg at Babylon in 323 !lC , after which Egypt was seized by the genrrnl, later pharaoh , Ptolemy I. \ I.EXAN DR IA . Ca pital city of the Ptolem ies . Fou nded by Alexa nde r tlu- G rea t in January 33 1 BC , A lexa ndria became the greates t Med iterranea n port in the Hell enistic period and , with a pop ulatio n of
ALEXAND RIA •
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AI r X A N IJ~ I A
over half a mi llio n person s , the seco nd c ity of the Rom an Empire. Th e populati on was ve ry mi xed , including a large number of Jews , and wa s the s ite o f num erou s c ivi l di sturbanc es un der the Ploleml es and in Ro ma n tim es . T he A lexandrian mob took s ides in the dynasti c wars o f the Pto le mie s, o fte n with devast ating re sults . In the first cen tury AD , there we re race riot s against the Jews . . . . Shortly after the acce ssio n o f Ptolem y IV , the ex iled k in g 01 S par ta , Kleomen es Ill , atte m pte d a coup bu t was ~wiftly put dow n . T here we re further problem s in the city fo llow mg the death 01 Ptolem y IV, the murder of hi s w idow, and the accession o f Ptolemy V (204-03 BC). Thi s culminate d in mob violence . In the rei gn of P tolemy V I, A lexa ndria w as besieged by Autiochos IV , the Seleukid king of Sy r ia , during the Si xth Sy r ia n Wur (168 BC) , b ut he failed to take the ci ty. A fe w ~ears later (about 1. 65 BC) , an Egy ptian co urtier, Dionysios P.:toserapl s , started a r ebellion amo ng the so ldiers stationed in Ele usis, to the e ast of the c ity. I k raised about 4 ,000 rebe ls , but the y were defe ate d and n ed to till' cham (countrysi de) , where he recei ved some po pular supporl. A Rom an arm y und er the co m ma nd o f Aulus Gab inius. w ith Ma r cus A nt on ius lead ing the ca va lry , was sen t b y Pompe y to re ston ' Ptolemy X II (Auletes) in 55 BC. T here was a ba u le outs ide the cit y followed b y a naval battle on the Nile . A lthoug h G ab inil" ret ur ned to Ro me , a for ce of legionaries . the Gab in ia ns . rem ain cd in the ci ty. T here we re two major m ilit ar y actio ns in the ci ty in the re ign III Kleopatra V II . In 48 BC, the arriva l o f lulius C aesar in pursuit 01 Pompey led to the Alex a n d r ia n W ar and th e re storat ion of Kleop u tra to the throne. In 30 IJC, the forces o f the future emperor A u gus ln arrived outside of the c ity whe re Kleop atra and M . A nto nius returned follo w ing their de feat at Ak tio n the preced ing year. On I August .111 BC, Aug ustus en tered the c ity . T h is was fo llowed sho rtly afte r b y th deaths o f Anto nius and Kl eopatra and the appo intme nt o f a Roman prefect , the first bei ng C o rnelius G a llus . . ' In 38 A D, the appearance o f the Ju daean tetrarch Ag n ppa , a fn e lld o f the re igning emperor, Calig ula , pro voked a nti- Jew ish riots aliiI desecr ation o f sy nagog ue s . T hese are the fir st raci st attacks h Greek s o n Je ws in Alexa nd ria . T he prefect failed to inte rven e and Ihl ar my did not play a major ro le . T he re were fur ther Jewish -Greek II ots in the cit y in 55 AD, sho rtly after the access ion of the e mp cn»
~ e ro . T his w~ s connec ted w ith the attem pt by a large g ro up o f Egypt1.111 Je ws to liberate Je rusalem from Rom an rul e. Later, in 66 AD a Jewish reb elli on in Palest ine led to further conflict in Al exandri a, which had to be suppressed by the prefectlulius A lexa n de r , w ho 01'tined a n atta ck on the Je wish q uarter o f the c ity. O l~ I J uly 69 ~ D , I Ul i u ~ ~ I ex a n d er fo rmall y pro c lai med Ve spasia n k oman e m pe~o r m opposinon to Vite lliu s w ith the back ing of the leglllns of . Syria and Egy pt. Th e ne w e mperor we nt in person to A lexandria to ensure that the corn supplies to Rome were c ut off if lIece ssa ry, ~u t rece ived the new s o f the defeat o f Vite llius and th at he was recogn ized as e mpe ror in Rome . 111 the rei gn o f Traj an wa s a major Jewish revolt , wh ich a ffected ruo st o f. the e:lstern pro vin ce s ( 115- 117 A D) . Th e G reek populat ion was be s le~ed in A lexand ria until it was re lie ved by an ar my a nd fleet III1t1C I.· Quintus Marcius Turbo . Th ere were severa l batt les before the "I'ns lllg was suppres se d . Turbo the n or de red the rebu ildi ng o f the l.urrcss o f Babylon . T here was furth er c ivil d isturb ance in A lexandria in the reign of I IOItln:.II1 . apparcntlv o ver the hou sing o f the sacred Ap is bull. Thi s is another Instan cc o f the vio lent outbursts resulting fro m religious matters 1" :11 churnctc rizcd the c ity. A rebe llion in the reign o f Antoninus Pius 11I"l!ncd IJ R-1 61 All ) ~s bad ly docu ment ed. althoug h o ne (not entirely II lIsl\\ 0I1hy ) source c laims that the prefect was killed. Th ere was a muc h 1I'" ll' w l d e s p ~'e a d Egyptian rebe llion in the re ign o f Marcu s Aurelius 1"011 begun \~tt h the Boukoloi. Th e rebels nearly captured A lexandria 1'"1 \\,cl:e defeated by the go vernor of Syria, Avidius Cass ius. in 172 AD. 1 ' "I I ()\~ lIl g a false report o f the e mperor 's deat h , Avidius Cassius was I '~ ""'.a ~ med e mpero r (175 AD) supported by the prefect o f Egy pt, Ca ius 1 II lvlS IUS Statianus . but the rebellion ca me to a sw ift end Thc e mpe ror Caracalla visited Alexandria in 2 15 ~D. Carac alla I,"!'hl t ~ emulate so me of the grea t heroes such as A lexa nder the Great II l1d Achilles and as a resu lt had been mocked by the A lexa ndria ns . In I. vcngc , ~araca lla orde red the ma ssacre o f a large number of ci tizens II l1d the city was. div ided into two part s with a wa ll. T he empero r also III tallcd . I the legion . ary troops inside the c ity rather tha n . at Nik o po I'IS, II l1h ll c . Fo llow ing Caracalla 's death and the acce ssion of Macrinu s (in ' I I ~\ Il ) . n e w co nflict bro ke out in Alexandri a. E lagabulus, cla iming to I" t nruculla's so n. was procl aimed e mpe ror by the Syrian troops and
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AI E XA NIJ~ IA
supported by the Roman garrison in the city, but the citizens and the new prefect opposed him. Bailie ensued in which the military triumphed after considerable bloodshed on both sides. From this time on, both Egypt and Alexandria ceded their importance in the empire: the cou ntry, as a corn supplier, to Africa, and the city, to Antioch. There was further li ghting between factions in the reign of Valerian (253-260 AU) . In 262 AU , the Alexandrine mob proclaimed the prefect Marcus Julius Aemilianus emperor. After some successe s in Upper Egypt, supporters of the emperor Gallienus arrived in Alexandria, and the city was divided into two warring factions. The troops of Ga llienus ultimately won, and Aemilianus was captured and sent to Rome. Alexandria was left a wreck with a much-reduced popula tion . Shortly afterward, in 268 AD , Alexandria was captured by the Palmyrene army of Zenobi a . Shortly after his access ion in 270 All , the emperor Aure lian went in person to regain control of Egypt. Ilc was partly successful, ousting the Palmyrenes from Alexandria. Also at this time sources claim that an Alexandrian merchant, Fir mus, attempted to proclaim himself emperor. In about 296 AD, Alexandria again proclaimed a rival emperor, the Roman officer, Lucius Domitius Domitianus. The emperor Dioclet ian had to come in person to restore order. Alexandria was besieged for severa l months, before being captured, probably in 298 AD . Under the later Roman Empire, a new source of civil dissension in Alexandria was the rapid spread of Christianity. The fourth and fifth centuries were marked in Alexandria by religious disputes that spo radically erupted in violence . They began with a major theological controversy between the Bishop of Alexandria, Athanasius, and his rival, Arius, that was only partly resolved by the Counc il of Nicacn (325 AD) . The "Arian" dispute continued to erupt in succeeding reigns and violence was frequently assoc iated with the imposition 01 bishops from Constantinople. Later in the fourth century, the resur gence of paganism , in the reign of Julian (36 1-63 AD), led to riots and attac ks on temples, particularly that of Sarapis, which was one of till' greatest symbols of paganism in Alexandria. In 39 1, Theodosius I proclaimed Christianity the state religion and ordered the closure 01 the temples. There was still a nourishing philosophical school at Alexandria, and the savage murder of Hypatia , a leading Neoplaton ist , at the instigation of the bishop of Alexandria, and the violent de
AI r XAN DRIAN WAR (48- 47 Be) •
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-truction of the temple of Sarapis, revea ls the continued tensions in the city. Even after Christianity had triumphed, the installation of Alexandrian bishops was usually marked by riots. ln the reign ~f Phocas (602- 6 10 AD), Heraclius rebelled against the vmpcror and his troops landed in Egypt, gaining Alexandria, which Ihey held aga inst Byzantine reinforcements. Shortly after Heraclius lI'as,"ec.ognized as empero r (6 10 AD), the forces of the Sasanid king ..I I ersra, Khosroes II, captured Egypt, and Alexandria was filled with refug~es . It was 10 years before Heraclius could recover Egypt, hilt only briefly, The capture of Alexandria in 642 AU marked the fall ..I' Byzantine Egypt to the Arab forces of 'A m I' Ibn-al ' asi . ,\ I.EXANDRIAN WAR (4~7 li e), The principal historical sources llle the work entitled the Civil War (De bello civieo) written by Iulius ( 'acsar and its continuation 0 11 the Alexandrian War (De bello ,1/".w ll dr iIl O) , which was probably written by one of his officers. Fol1'.'lVing h i ~ defeat by Caesar, the Roman general Pompey had ned to I ~gypt , which had previously supported his cause. On his arrival, how" \'( '1', the young Egyptian pharaoh , Ptolemy XIII , ordered his murder. 1'1111 1' ~Iays later lulius Caesar arrived in pursuit of Pompey, with 10 warships and a force of 3,200 infantry and 800 cavalry. Shortly afterward . Kleopatra VII , who had been ousted by her brother, managed III garn entry to Alexandria and access to Caesar, who attempted to re1 1I ~l ate her alongside her brother. Ptolemy XIII was popular in Alexan""a , and hIS courtiers tried to prevent a reconciliation with Kleopatra. l 'rolcmy recalled the Egyptian army, including a Roman continzent tlu- ( ~a hi n ians , under the command of Achillas. Caesar was take~l b; urpnse as ~he army marched on Alexandria and did not have enough " li llI'S to risk confrontation outside of the city. Caesar now took l'lulcmy hostage, and as a result, a nationalist, anti-Roman mood soon ' It ' W in Alexandria. The war in the city began in November 48 sc and concentrated around the Great Harbor and the palace quarter. c Iit'sar managed to capture the Egyptian royal fleet of 72 ships, but in "I.k r to prevent it falling into enemy hands, set it on fire. Another l 'I~ , I~'ll l:lic p~incess , Arsinoe, managed to escape from the palace, and 1'lIlllllg Achillas, was proclaimed queen by the Alexandrians. Caesar I' It'as.cd Ptolemy XIII from custody in the hope that peace could be lit ' 'lIllated, but the pharaoh immediately joined his army.
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AMEN EMHAT II (REIGN ED C. 1922 -1878 BC) • 12
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AMAN IRINAS til . J Il ·2 0 sc)
po wer struggles amo ng the d ifferent leaders of the Egyptia ns reo suited in the death of Achillas . In March 47 Be, Caesar 's reli e vin g army und er the co mmand of Mithridates of Pergam o.n app roached Peillsion fro m Jud aea . It incl uded a co ntingent of jewish troop s and the Je wish high priest Hyrcanus hi msel f. T his won over the J ew s 01 Alexandria to Caesar and Kleop atra . The arm y skirte d around till' De lta a nd approac hed Alexandria where they co nfro nted t.he army ~ll Pto lem y XIII. Caesar and his force managed to leave the city andJOIII with Mith rid ates , and the decisive battle took place on 27 March 47 Be. The Egy ptia n army was defeated and Caesar returned tn umph antly to Alexa nd ria . Th e yo ung pharaoh Ptolem y ned , and was drowned , and Arsinoe wa s ca ptured and sent to Rom e . Kleop atra Wll ' restored as ruler , in assoc iation wit h a yo unge r bro ther, Ptole my X IV AMAN IRENAS (fl . 31l-21lIlc). Me roit ic Kandake (q uee n). Arnanirc nas was probabl y the rule r of Mcr oe who led her forc es into Lowci Nu bia and co nfro nted the Rom an army o f A ugus t us , under the pre feet , P etronills . AMA RNA LETTE RS , A co llectio n of clay tablets with texts wr itte n ill the Akkadian langu age found at the site of e l-Amarna (the ancient city o f Akh etat en) in Midd le Egypt. The y are a part o f the dipl omati, correspondence of the reigns of Amenhote p III , Ak he naten, ami Tuta nk ham u n , mo stly lette rs received from other rule rs , such II Tu sh ratt a of Mi tanni , or Egyptian vassals in the Le vant. T hey III va luable source of info rma tion on local affairs in the Levant alld north Sy ria and for diplomatic marriage and gin exchange. Th pri nci pal towns and territori es menti on ed are : Alashiya (C yp r u,) Am u rru, Assy r ia . Arvad , Babylon (as Kardu niash) , Bybl os (G ubla1 Canaan (as Kin ak hk hi), Gaza , Ha nigalbat (M itanni), the Hittitv J e r u sa le m , J opp a (Ya pu), Lachi sh , Lukki , Megid do , Niv Nu k h asse , Qadesh , Su mu r, Tu nl p , Tyre , and Ugarit. AMASIS . See AHMOSE
, hn,:lOlogical. He rec ~rd s his se rvice in the sixth ca mpaign of T hutmoxc III (ye a r 30) d irected aga inst Qadesh ; the eighth campaign I Yl'ar 33) and ~he capture o f Se ndjar, three battl es in Na ha r in and the ell- pha nt hunt 111 Niy ; the yea r 35 cam paig n in Ta khsy ; that of year 39 III the Nege b ; and that of yea r 42 , whic h saw the capture o f Qade sh. \ ~IEN EM H A:
I (r eig ned c. 1985-1955 BC) . Fi rst pharaoh o f the 12th 1'y"a,ty. He IS ge nera lly ide ntified with the Vizier Ame ne mhat who ..''I'V~d M.enth.uhotep IV: ~ut it is unknown how he attained supreme I'" wel. HIS reig n saw mi litary ex pa nsio n in Nubia . He also defe nded tln- eas tern frontier with the Walls of the Ruler . The papyru s docu1 1ll:1I~ kn?w n as .Th~ 11lS/1'II~'/ioll of Kin g Amenemliat / begins wi th the phuraoh s des criptio n of his ow n murde r. a nd the cautio n that his so n vhuuld be wary of palace plot s . Th e intro duction to the Tale of Sill,,1,,' also suggests that the phar ao h might ha ve been murd ered while III, ~·o reg~ n t . Se n us ret I , was o n a ca mpaig n agai nst Li byans . lixtensi ve campaigns in Nub ia were led by the Vizier Inyotef-iq er 1I 11 t! by Se nusret I. Th e chro nology of the actio ns depe nds on whether the ,Idea o f a .c or~ge n c y between fath er and so n is acce pted: it is a subject that still divides Egy pto log ists . Th ere are indicati on s in so me "~ the rock inscripti on s that docu ment the ca mpaig ns that local Nuhiun rulers had ass umed roya l style in the late 11th Dyn ast I iti II I . ., . h . . y. 111 ta y. I I~' C mig t have bee n no Egyp tian o ppos ition to them , and they might have been reco gni zed as vassals . Howe ve r, the Nu bian kings " T ill to have asserted the ir independence in the reign of Ame ne mhat, 1I11l 1 lI,lIs co uld have s.timulated the pro longed wars that brou ght the whole of Lo wer Nubia under Egy ptian contro l, foll o wed by the de~.I ' I~ se of the Second Ca tarac t. An inscription o f Inyotef-iqer alludes to him who rebell ed against the king ." Another text indi cates that the Vizie r and army had been active fo r 20 years in Nubia , and that the hl.I:!1act had .bee n t h~ sailing of the royal flagship throu g h Lo wer Nuhin. d es t ~u c.tl on of Villages, and the cutt ing do wn o f trees . /\ n As iatic ca mpaign might have been assoc iated with the defen se III the ea ste rn border and the bu ild ing of the Walls of the Ruler.
u.
AMENEM HA B (It c. 1460-1400 IIc ). Amenemhab served in the earn paigns of Thutmose III and Ame nhote p II . He ~e f~ a n auto.hi<' gra phical insc ription in his to mb at Theb es but thi s IS not strict!
\~ I E N E MHAT
Il (reig~ed c. 1922-1878 BC). Ph araoh of the 12th Dy11I1, ly. T he d.ocum ent atl on of foreign a ffairs in this rei gn is not as rich II' Ihat for his predecessor s , Amene m ha t I and Se n us r et I. There was
14
•
AMFNFMI IAT 1I 1 1 ~[I G Nm
c. 1855 -1!lOB BC)
a co mmerc ial exped ition on the Red Sea (0 Punt and the building 01 the Nubian fortifi cations co ntinued . An inscr iption beneath the dl' fen sive wall between the First Ca ta ract and As wa n is dated joi ntly (0 Ame nemhat II and Senusret II , sugges ting that the wall , perh aps til be identifi ed with the fortress of Se nm ut, was built at thi s time . AMENEM HAT III (reig ned c. 1855-1808 IIC). Ph araoh of the 12th Dynasty. Altho ug h there are man y monument s o f thi s rei gn , nOI Il' ca rry a ny spec ifica lly military informati on . It ca n be ass umed that till" build ing activities o f his father, Senusret III , in the region of the Sec o nd C ata ra ct were co mpleted. AMENH OTEP I (reigned c. 1527-1506 IIC). Pharaoh of the 18th Dy nasty. Son and successor o f Ahmose I. His reign co nsol ida ted th.. achieveme nts of his father. T he mi litary e vents are record ed in the all tobiograp hica l inscr iptions o f Ah mose son of Ebana and Ahmosc pen-Nekheb. A campaign in Kli sh is refer red to in the texts , and ill scr iptional material from the island of SOli suggests that the fortresthere was built abo ut this time . O ne frag me ntary insc ription anributu l to the pharaoh indicates act ivities in As ia in the Oront es Valley nciu Tunip. Unfo rtunately, ma ny monument s of this reign were later d i, mantled and ev ide nce from the m is on ly now being brought to ligh t. AMENHOTEP II (reigned c. 1427-1401 IIC) . Pharaoh of the 18th Dy nasty. So n and successor of Thutmose III , with who m he ap pea rs til have ruled as coregent for two years, Literat ure ge nera lly, and llll fairl y, por tra ys him as a more bombast ic , but less success ful, ruh-i than his father. Thi s reign saw the tran sition from wa r to di ploma cy and gift exchange as the means of maint ainin g Egy pt's pre-em inence in wes tern As ia. Th e principal record of his milit ary activities is th stela carved in the sanctuary of the temple of Amad a in Nu bia . At till beginning of his so le reign , yea r 3, Amenhote p led a ca mpaign again. t Tak hsy (in Syria) . Seven princes were cap ture d and slain in the tern pie of Amlin at Karnak. Th e bodi es of six of them were di splayed 011 the wa lls o f Theb es and the seventh ta ken to the far so uth of Nublu where it was hung fro m the walls of Na pa ta "as a warn ing to Ihl Kushit es ." A seco nd ca mpaign in year 7 saw Amenhotep march hi ar my across the Oro ntes, then so uth through Takh sy and Ga lilee . II
AMENMl SSES ( ~ [ IG N W C. 1202- 1199 RC) •
15
lurther cam paign in year 9 was d irec ted against Qaqa , the chie f of Qehaasurnin, an otherwise unknown tow n near Megiddo. Qaqa was replaced with an Egy ptia n vassal. T he pharaoh ' s so-ca lled " D ream Stela" was di scover ed in 1936 on the north east side of the gre at sphinx at Gi za . Th e inscripti on is a l,..y tex t for the militar istic ethos of the 18th Dyn asty, of which Ame nhotep wa s the model. It tell s ho w the pharaoh is supe rior to all III the army in runni ng , row ing , arc hery, and , most impo rta ntly, in :" iving chariots a nd train ing horses . Th rou gh out the text , the prin ce Is likened to the go d Monthu , Th e text rep ort s a n epi sode in which II Il' pri nce shoo ts arro ws fro m his fas t-mo ving chariot at cop per tarf'l'Is o ne pal m thick so that the arro ws go rig ht thro ug h the ta rge ts 11 111 1 appea r o n the other side . Th e prin ce is also said to be praised by tlu- Asia tic deit ies Reshep and Astarte, bo th assoc iated with wa rfare IlI lti c hariot ry.
\ ~I E NHOTEP III (reig ned c. 1390-1352 IIC). Pharaoh of the later IHl h Dynasty. So n ofTh u tm ose IV . In a long reign of38 yea rs , there 1I1l' very few recorded mil itary ca mpaig ns: o ne certai nly in yea r 5 in Nubia , a nd perh aps two others . Egy pt maintain ed her pre-eminent I'"silion in western A sia throu gh d iplomacy, diplom atic marriage , III1t1 gift excha nge, all of which is detailed in the Arna r na Letters . \ ~ IENIIOTE P IV. See AKHEN ATEN.
\~ JIo:N M ESSES (reig ned c. 1202-1199 IIC) . Pharaoh of the 19th DylIasty. During the reig n of M er e n pta h, his so n Se ty was crown 1'1 incc . At so me po int sho rtly afte r Me renptah 's death , a d ynastic wur broke out bet ween the legitimate heir Scty II a nd a usurper, Amcnc messes , who may have bee n his ow n son. Amene messes ' uuurumc nts were most e xte nsive in Upper Egypt, part icul arl y ll u-hes . His rebellion and assumption of royal style ap pears to have 111 111 powerful suppor t in Th ebes and Nubia . Sety II appears to ha ve " 'Iaillcd co ntro l of the Delta a nd Memphis . Th e re bell ion was supIlI t'sscd and all of Am enm esses ' sta tues and monument s we re re. urvcd lo r Sety II. Th ere is still uncertaint y as to whether the four \'I ' IIiS o f Amenrnesses ' rebel kingship were co ncurrent with the years III Sc ty II , or preceded them ,
AM YRTAIOS (2) IRlIGN UJ 404 -39 9 He) • 16 •
17
'AMR mN·AI 'Asi .c. 580· &&3 ADI
' A M R IBN-AL' xst (C. 580-663 All). Arab leader w ho ent er ed Egy pl with his army in the winte r o f 639 AD , via Rhinocolura (e l Arish) . I k e stablis he d hi msel f at Pelusion, where he we lco me d fu rt.he~ Arab so ldiers . In Jul y 640 AD, he march ed on the stra tegically slgOlfic:"11 fo rtress of Babylon (O ld Cairo) , defeating the army o f the B yzantl ~I" emperor Heracl ius . at Heli op ol is . The govern or, Cy rus, sue d 101 peace , but the em peror accuse d him of treason . B ab ylon was Ill' sieged, fa lli ng in A pri l 64 1. Fo llow ing the .fall of Babylon : A ~III march ed o n Alexa nd r ia and rece ive d the ca pitulatio n of the ci ty .11 te l' a n l l -m onth siege . By 29 Se pte mbe r 642 AD (2 1 H ij ri) , the last Byzantine forces had le ft Egy pt to the Arab co nq uerors. A M UN, Local go d o f Thebes whose import an ce inc reased from. the 11Ih Dynasty on ward . He wa s mer ged wi th the sun go d Re, an.d lrmu the 18th Dynasty became one o f the state gods of Eg ypt With J{\' llurakhty , Ptah , and the reignin g pharaoh. P.haraohs are. frequentl ' depicted pre senting c aptives , forei gn co untries. and t~1elr rul ers III Amun , and receivin g from him the khepesh-scirnuar or 01~\l'1 we apo ns of war. The Arnuda ste le of Amen~otep 11 records t~at ,llll lowing the capture of seve n princes in his Synan campaign , th pharaoh sle w them in the temple of Am~n at Karnak . . , .• . Althou gh Arnun himself was not spec ifica lly a war go d , he ~h.lIg, tI the pharaoh w ith expanding his domain , advised him on tacu c s, aI ~d protected and gu ided hi m in battl e , All o f the se ro les ca n be foun~1 1 1I the records of the battl e s of Megiddo a nd Qadesh . The " P oet icul Stela" o f Thutmose III is couc he d as a speec h o f A mun-Re , narrut ing the vic to ries th at the go d has wo rke d for the phar aoh . Ph araoh also presented booty fro m ca m pa ig ns to the go d 's te m ple at Karnak which began to functio n as a royal treasury. Captured town s W" I also give n to A rnun , whic h prob abl y indi cate s an a nnua l levy Wil se nt. Fo llowing the Me giddo ca mpaign of years 22- 23 , Th utrn ose III gave the Leb ane se town s of Nuge s , Yan oam , and Heren~u to A I~ll1 11 The attachme nt of ce rtain temple s, lan d s , an d revenues 111 Nubin h' A nu m 's sanctu ary at Theb es is a lso indi cated. AM U R RU. Te rrit ory in western As ia, so me where in the mod cu Leban on -Syri a , ly ing het wecn the Orontes Valley 5to ~he east ) am] the Mediterranean (west), Arvad ( no rth), and Tnpoh (so uth) . II
houndaries are uncert ain . It figu re s prominentl y in the Am a r n a Letn-rs , whe n its ruler, Aziru, ga ined co ntro l o f Tunip , o n the ea ste rn horde r, and Surnur o n the co ast. \ ~ IYNTA S
(fl . 333 IIC). Arny ntas so n of Antioc hos was a Macedoni an uoh le . He was a close frie nd a nd assoc iate o f Prince Amy ntas who had II rival claim to the th rone on the death of Philip \I and the accessio n of Ah-xa nd er the Great. Wh en Prin ce Amy ntas was put to death . Arnyn111\ son o f Antioc ho s ne d to the Per sian Empire , where he became o ne III four Greek co mmande rs who served with Greek mercen ary troops ill Ihc arm y of Darius III. Foll owin g the Pers ian defeat at the battl e o f I" os (Nov. 333 BC) , they ned from the sce ne with the 8,000 troop s un.h-rt he ir co m ma nd to Tripoli on the coast o f north ern Phoeni cia , where Iheir fleet was based . Th e force now seems to have d ivided , with Amyntas command ing 4 ,000 so ldie rs sailing for C yp r us . He now ""' I ll S to have see n the opportunity, w ith the Persian forces in disarray, h' seize Egypt. Arriving in Eg ypt at Pelusion , Am ynt as anno unce d that Ill' was the adva nce guard for Darius , A s soon as he ga ined co ntro l o f IIIl' garriso n , he began his ad vance on Memphis , now proclaiming himself a liberator fmlll the Persian s, There was so me local Egyptian upport for the invader, and he ac hieved a victory over the Persian s at Mi-mphis. forcin g the ir withdrawa l into the c ity. A myntas' arm y now 1lt' )!:111 to plunder the co untrys ide and became ov erconfident. Th e Per11111 satrap , M azaces , laun ch ed an attack from Memphi s. defeated the hrvudcrs , and put them to death .
I
IYRTA IO S (I ) (r eig ned c. 470-460 IIC). Ruler o r Sau in the we stIII De lta who participated in the rebellion of Inaros against the Per 11111 pharao h , Artaxerxes I , between 463 and 46 1 Be . He sent a id to \lh" lIs in 4 50 . He was grandfather of the pharaoh Amyrtaios (2) .
IYlnA lO S (2) (r eigned 404-399 IIC). (G ree k form o f the Egy ptia n Am e nird is .) Ph ar aoh of the 28 th Dyn asty, The period from I 11,'a ·140- 380 IIC wa s one in w hic h rival wa rlo rds were com petin g 1,01 power, the Persian s re tai ni ng nom ina l co ntro l unt il the death o f IInl'iu s II. in 405 . Then , A rny rta ios of San, who had been lead ing a IlI'lIilla war for sev era l years , succes sfully es tab lished himsel f wi th 1I11111l'
18 •
ANATI I
pharao nic titles and ac hieve d so me indcpendence fro m Artnxerxrs II (40 5-359 IIC) . Amyrtaios appears to have bee n de fea ted and ca p lu red by the dynast of Mendes , Nefaarud , who had him exec uted al Memphis , himsel f assumi ng royal style . ANAT H. Goddess, who orig inated in wes tern As ia, parti cularl y as so c iated with Uga rit. Sh e was sis ter of Baal. Sh e is know n in Egy pl from the M iddl e Kin gdom o nwa rd and her c ult wa s favored by thl' Hyksos. By Ram esside time s , she was a prominent goddess in Ih,' De lta , Ramesses II nami ng o ne of his daught er s Bin t-Ana th (" Da ug hter o f Anath") . Her vio lent aspect led her to be ide ntif 'd wi th the daught e r of Re (Tefn u t) and as a wife o f Seth (hirnsell eq uated with Baal). Anath is depi cted wearing a tall crow n, flanked with plum es, and carrying a shield, spear, and battl e- axe . An ath prll tected the pha raoh in batt le: a text of Ramesses III states that Anur h and Astarte are his shie ld . ANDROS. Naval batt le of the Third Syria n War in 246 or 245 lie, II I whic h the Egypt ian Admiral So phron was defeat ed by Antigo nos (ill natas , kin g of Macedon . As a res ult of the battl e . Gon alas gai ned con trol of the C yc lade s (A ndros is the most north erl y o f the grou p). aud the Ptolernies lost Delos and were no longer able to interfere in till politi cs o f the G ree k mainland . Although dctcut cd at Aud ru Ptolemy III made gains in the eas te rn Aegean. AN IBA (M I ' AM) . Fortress and ad ministra tive ce nter in Wall'ul (Lower Nub ia) . Standi ng o n the wes t ban k of the river, Aniba had III parti cul arl y imp ortant strategic posit ion , but occupied a ce ntra l po I tion in o ne of the three major regio ns of cultivation in Low er Nuluu Archaeolog ica l ev ide nce ind icates the ex istence of a M idd le Kin ' dom fortress, probably co nstruc ted under Senusret I. The forti n ' II tion s were renewed in the New Kingd om when Aniba becam e Olll' II the prin cipal ce nters of the viceregal adm inistration. It .retained, II importa nce until the late 20 th Dynasty. It wa s perhaps duri ng the ell'l wa r at the clo se o f the 20th Dynasty that the hill o f Qasr Ibrim . dl rec tly opposite A niba , was fortified . ANKHWENNE F ER. See C HAONNO PHRIS.
AN TIGO NOS I MONOPH THALM OS (c. 382 -30 1 Bel •
19
,\ NNALS OF THUTMOSE III. The name g iven to the record o f the military cam paig ns of T h ut mose III inscribed on the wa lls of the hall surround ing the ce ntra l sanctuary of the templ e of Am un at Karn ak (The bes). The an.nals are appare ntly der ived from the Day Books kept during the campa igns and are rare among Egy ptian " historical" texts in their ap parent factu ality and lack of rhetoric . Referenc es within the anlIals refer. to. other orig inal doc ume nts, written on leath er rolls and pre\lTvcd within the templ e of Amun. The annals g ive details of the numcrous ~sia t ic campai gn s of the pharaoh 's so le reign fo llow ing the d('alh of Hatshe psut, beg inning with the first campaign of years .' 2 23, and the battle of Megiddo , and includ ing most Asiatic actions III year 42 . The op ponents specified are the Hittites , Naharin (M iIII IIIIi) , the S hasu, and the prince of Qadesh. T he texts place great e mphaSIS upon the booty captured , includin g armor , weapons , chariots , II l1d horses . T here are also references to the t ri bu te of Assyria , C 'yp r us , and the taxes of Wawat and Kush. Other incident s of the exp('ditions were the building of a fortress in Le banon and an elephant luuu in Niy . Th e details are usefu l for calc ulating the rate of the ar my 's Ill/11Th . On the fifth campaign, aimed at Qadesh , the arm y sailed to a nd 110111 Sumur. Som e of the later entries in the origin al Day Books were pllssih ly written by the chief army scribe , Tjanuni. I NTI(;ONO S I MONOPHTHALMOS (c. 382-301 HC). Ant igono s "t lu- one-eyed" was a Macedonian noble man who se rved Philip IT li lld acted as go vernor of Phryg ia a t the tim e o f A lexander the 1;I'l'a l's ex ped ition . Foll owing Alexander 's death at Babylon in 323 Ill ', he became a lead ing fig ure in the wars of the diadochoi ("S uc" '"o rs"), initially ga ini ng co ntro l of a huge kin gd om . Wh ile l'luh-my I was engaged in the ca mpaig n agai nst Cy re ne, Antigono s III YUlkd a nd co nquered Syri a. In respon se , Pto lem y led his armi es to ',ylia against A ntigo nos 's so n, Dem etrios , who had been left in con 1' "1. Ptole my's flee t, under the co mma nd of his bro ther Menelaos, li Sde feated at Cy prus . Pto lemy I was part of the coalition that now 1IIIIIIl'd to o ppose the ambi tion s o f Anti gon os a nd Dem etrios . l'loll'llly aided the invasion of Babylon by Seleukos I in 3 11 BC, hhh led to full-sca le war. Follow ing the defeat o f Ptolem y's forces II SlI la mis in Cypru s in 306 IIC, Antigo nos atte mpted an invasion of I YPI. III Oc tober/November 306 BC , he set o ut from A ntigo ne ia to
20 •
ANTIOCI IO S IV IC 2 1 5 ~ 164 Bel
Egy pt wit h a n a rmy of over 80 ,000 foo t so ldiers, about 8 ,000 horses, and 83 e lepha nts , 150 wa rships , a nd 100 troo p tran sp ort s com ma nded by his so n, Dem ctri os . T he flee t was sca llered by stor m but reasse.11I bled and re-establi shed co ntac t wi th the land force near M t. Kasios (pro bably Ra s Baron ), a sho rt di stan ce beyond Pelusion . P~ol emy re pul sed the inva sio n at Pel usio u. A ntigo nos was later del eated a nd killed at the batt le of Ipsos in 30 I IIC. ANTIOC H OS IV (c. 215-164 uc), Se leu kid kin g o f Syri a from 17 IIC. He atte mpted to incorp orate Ptolemaic Egypt and Cyp r us into hi e m pire. invading Egy pt w ith his army in 169 BC a nd 168 BC, in .tl1\: re ign of Ptolemy V I. He ac ted , a nd may have bee n crowned. as king, but the Roman s inter vened and force d Antioc hos to leave . He d id ho we ver . capture J erusalem from the Ptolern ies , turnin g it into II G reek city. T his led direc tly to a r ebellion by the Jews , led by Judu Maccabeus ( 16817- 164 BC) . after w hich the high priest O nias and, large following sett led in Egypt.
AI'I RU •
21
Ira. and the are na of action moved to G reece . Antoniu s reta ined co nside rable support until ju st be fore the baili e of A k tion . It was supposedl y Kleopatra who alien ated the rem a inder of his mos t influentia l supporte rs. An tonius and Kleopatra ma naged to nee the di sastrous lxutle and return to Egypt. A ntonius re mai ned at Paraitonion to prevent any attack by the governor o f C yrene who had go ne over to Ocravian. He eventua lly joined Kleopatra in A lexa ndr ia, w here he commitred suicide o n Octav ian's e ntry into the ci ty (A ug ust 30 BC) . i\ llho.ugh with Oc~ av ian 's vic tor y, there was co nsidera ble prop agand a hostifi ty to A nto nius . the so urces still port ray him as a fine ge nera l, 1I'111r grea t person a l charm . a ltho ug h with se rious faults . Oc tavia n's ultima te vict~ry was not expec ted , and ap paren tly not so ught for by a larl!C pro port ion of the Rom an nobilit y, Anto nius retain ing supporters throug hout the eas t, right up to the final baili e at Aktion. Exce pting 11 K' " Donatio ns of Ale xandria," whic h never came into effe ct . his po1I IIcai se ttleme nts in the eas t were left in place by Oc tav ian.
\ I'EI' Y (reigne d c. 1585-1550 HC). H ykso s king of Ava r is. His re ign ANT O N IU S, M ARC US (83- 311 IIC) (Mark Antony). Roman pol iu c ian a nd ge neral. H is firs t vis it to Egypt was as a cavalry co mm and I when A ulus Ga bi nius was in Alexa nd r ia to res to re Ptolemy X I( A uletes (57-54 BC). A nto nius then served wi th , or o n be ha lf o f, III rel ative lulius Caesa r in Gau l. Italy. and Greece . He was Caesui ' co lleag ue as co ns ul in 44 BC. an d followi ng his murde r, one o f thc 1''' litical he irs. He was made triumv ir along with Oc tav ian (see AUJ.:II tus ) and Marcus Ae m ilius Le pidu s , to res to re orde r to the Re puhh and und ert ouk the reorgani zat ion o f the easte rn part o f the emph An tonius me t Kleopatra V II at Tarsos in 4 1 BC. Al tho ugh hi s ac tion in western Asia and As ia Minor we re in ma ny way s pro -Egypuu (an d ce rtai nly painted th at way by Octavian) , Ant oniu s did not tal territory away fro m He rod of Judaea as Kl eo patra wi shed . His call paign aga inst Part hia (36 BC) was a d isas ter. In 34 Be , he wa~ 11 11 11 success ful in Armenia , and this was follow ed by the " Do natio ns I A lexa ndria" in whic h K leopatra and her children were named rulers of most of the eas t. This was foll owed by inc reas ing ly ho.l iI propaga nda in Ro me and, in 32 IIC, many of Anto nius's rel~air."1\ supporters among the no bili ty, inc ludi ng the co nsuls , were IlItll ll dated a nd left Rom e for the east. Oc tav ian decl ared war on Kll-1I1'
II II' o pen war w ith the rulers of Thebes , Tao. a nd Kamose . Th e " '"ords of Karn o ses re ign revea l that the Hy ksos had bee n a llied with the kingdom of Kush based o n Kerma , and that w ith the acIl'ssio n of a ne w rul er, A pepy prop osed ajoint Hy kso s-Ku shit e attack 11 11 lhc Thebans . If success ful, this wo uld ha ve d ivided the who le o f I JIIII.n Egy~t he tween the two power s . Ape py's lette r was interce pted hy Isalllose s desert patrol . apparentl y instigat ing the Th eban ru ler 's 1I'1I1S . It is not know n whether Ape py was still king whe n Avar is was IIIIIIIcd by A h m ose I.
1'lIl1 J. Term fou nd in a num ber of tex tua l sources. no tably the \ 11111 1'11:1 Lett ers . Ea rlier sc ho lars hip (read ing the word Habirui Id" lItiricd the m wi th the Hebre ws, but they are now understood to be I ucin l, not et hnic, group , ap parently co mprisi ng a ra nge o f peopl e 111 1luul opted out of soc iety. T hey were asso c iated wi th brigan dage 1I11 111 l1Scd a threat to the tran sit of trade and the settled commun itie s. 1 11 1111 the time of A m e n hotep III they are fo und in Arn u r r-u , and furlIi'1 sllllih in Ca naa n, es pec ia lly the hill co untry . As a res pon se to the 1IIIIIhle they caused, A k he nate n deported some and install ed a rniliI II Y" lIvernor in Jerusalem .
22
•
AI'Rlrs
ARClIERS • 2 3
APRIES. See WAHIBRE . ARABS. Th e term has been used rath er loo sel y for no madic peopl e 01 the desert ma rgi n of the Near East fro m Sinai east ward into the Negeb and A rabia (the ea rly arc haeology of whic h is still imide qu ate ), Th e S ina i region was hom e to the Shasu bed ouin . who a ppear in man y ea rlier texts. Arabs do not become mo re prom inen t until til\' e nd of the Late Bron ze Age und the Iron Age . Their e nc roac h me nts o n the settled areas of the Fertile Crescent were not as extensive :I, that o f the Aramaeans , altho ug h incr eased in Seleukid a nd Romnn times . Israel under Solomon ex pa nde d into the Negeb , but the Arabs first appear more prominentl y as tributaries to the ex pa nd ing power of Assyr ia (nint h-e ighth ce nturies BC) . Th ey co ntro lled the direct routes , bet ween so uthe rn Mesop ot am ia and the Le vant , and the trade, prin cipall y incen se , along the east coast of the Red Sea from Yem en , The Assy rian king, Ti glath- pilese r III (re igned 744- 727 BC) de feated the Me 'unites , an Arab tribe of north ern Sin ai, in his adva nce on Ga:f.II Th e aid of these tribes was so ught by armies attacki ng Egy pt along thl' desert route of north Sinai , the Wa ys of Horus or Via Mari s, because of the d ifficu lties of the rou te: they certa inly assisted the army 01 Esarhaddon. The battle rel iefs o f As h u r ba nipal (re igned 668-63 1' BC) de pict wars with Arabs, prob ably in north Arabia , in which tlu A rabs depl oy archers moun ted on ca me ls . Nabonidu s king of Buh y Ion (re igned 555- 539 IIC) es tab lished a base in the oas is o f Teima, :II' parently in an attempt to sec ure the trade ro utes. Ara bia, probably nOlth Sina i, ap pea rs as a satrapy und er the contro l o f Persia. T he re were " Arabs" in Egypt during the Late , Ptolemaic . and I~" man pe riod s. Th e nam e o f the pharaoh Hakor certa inly mean "A rab " but there is no e vide nce that his fa mily were o f A rab ori gin Simil arl y, the name Kh abbash is sup pose d by so me to be A rab (II I thou gh Libyan and N ub ian are a lso sugg es ted ). During the Hellen i tic peri od. the Nabataean A rabs o f Pe tra cont roll ed the trad e tuu n Sou th Ara bia along the Red Sea. This lasted unt iI Trajan absorbed I tra into the Roman Empire . T he re is good evide nce for migration au 1 stro ng c ultu ra l influ en ce from so uthern Arab ia into Ethiopia in Ih later lirst mi llennium BC . This had a n important in fluen ce in the d, ve loprne nt o f the c ity and kin gd om o f Aksu rn (w hich later came to n va l M eroe). Ot her wise, the re is little evide nce for so uthe rn Arabi»
I,
externa l affa irs until the great and rapi d ex pa nsion o f the sev e nth ce nl ur~ A~ . Th e ca liph Urnar laun ch ed his ar m ies aga inst the By zant ine territOries o f SYria , Palestin e , and Egypt , a nd agai nst the Sasanid ones of Per sia and Mesopotami a . Th e Ara b arm ies und er ' A rn r Ibn'II 'Asl ente red Egy pt in 639 AD , ca ptured the fortress o f Babylon :Iud With the fall of Alexandria the last Byzan tine troop s left Egy pt ((,42 AD , 21 Hijri) . ,\ nAMA EANS. People of Syria who came to prominen ce with the collupse o f the em pires of the Late B ron ze Age as ruler s of many o f lhc sma ller kingdo ms that form ed coalitions agai nst the expa nd ing powe r of Assyria . Th ere were mo vements o f Ara maeans into the marg ins of Mesop otamia ex te nd ing from Assyria in the north so uthward into Ba byl on ia . Th e main Ar a maean kingdoms of the ea rly Iron I\ge ( 1200- 900 BC) were Dam ascu s a nd Bit-Bahi ani (modern Tell l lalaf). Th e nam es of the states ge nerally ca rry the prefi x Bit " Ho use n f" i l~d ica t i ng their sup posed tri bal orig in, for exa mp le, Bit-ad ini , Bit I\gusl. Th ey are closely asso c iated in their opposi tion to Assy ria with the neo-Hittites and the Arabs . \ 1(( '1IE RS. Th e earliest depiction s o f wea po ns a nd so ld ie rs on the cerruu urinl palettes o f the late Pred yn astic and Early Dyn astic Period s I' uch as the Hu ~t~r 's Palett e) show arch er s. Th e ea rliest surviving Il lIgm~ nts of a military sce ne of O ld Kingd om date a lso show part o f n vouu uge nr o f arc hers . It dates from the reign o f Khufu o r Khafre. Ihe ho w rem ain ed the prin c ipal long-ran ge wea po n, a nd archers co n1III IIcd to fo rm one major e lemen t of the army until the Ptole ma ic pedlld whe n the phalanx becam e mo re sign ificant. The ea rl ies t typ e o f I" ,IV. the se lf-bow, co nti nued in use a longs ide the co mpo site bo w inII" duced fro m wes tern As ia a nd was parti cul arl y associated with the « uuingenrs o f N u bia n mercenaries . 1\11 so ld iers in Egy pt we re foot so ld iers until the introduction o f the ' hlldot at the beginn ing of the New Kin gd om. Th e bo w rem a ined the "rillcipal weapo n o f the char iotry . New Kin gd om battl e reli e fs show ," , hers on foo t a nd in c ha riots, w hic h we re used as moving fig hting 1'llI l/lIrllls. The mass burial o f so ld iers o f the re ign of Menthuhotep 1I1l' veals so me o f the typ es of wo unds in flicted by arche rs during the " '/:1' o f a town.
24 • ARUKA
AR E I KA . Site in Low er Nubia. Th e excavato rs suggested that it was the "castle" of a local Nubian ruler , but rece nt re-assessment of the mate rial from the site by Josef Weg ner proposes that it was a settle ment of the local Nubian "C-Group," which also had a garrison 01 troops with Egyp tian commanders . T he garrison at Areika was proh abl y to co ntro l traffic along the Nile and peopl e e nter ing the valley fro m the desert. A RMO R. Body armor and helmet s are rarely shown being worn hy Egyptia n troop s in ball Ie scenes ; they are usuall y see n wea ring o nl the ki lt. Armor is, ho we ve r, depicted in some to mb sce nes of the 18tli Dyn asty, nota bly that of Qe nam un . Ar mor ap pear s as part of the tribute to the pharaoh . o r as the produ cts of royal and temple work shops. It is also shown , alo ng wi th wea pons, bei ng distributed in tlu bat tle sce nes of Ramesses III at Medinet H abu . The Arnarna Let ters refe r to armo r and also to horse arm or and helm ets for horses . A c uiras s was found in the to mb of Tutankhamun . It co nsists 01 scales of leath er sewn onto a sleeve less linen bodice . Bronze co uld also be used for the scales . Th e textu al record s tell us that Ramessc II put on his coat of mail before the ballIe o f Qadesh and is shown wea ring such a coat in so me ba ttle reliefs. An iden tical type is shown in the gifts prese nted to Amenhotep II in the to mb of Qe namun . ARMS T RA DE. T here is good evidence for the intern at ion al ann trade during the Lat e Bronze Age and the Iron Age . In Egypt, thl'l are scenes in private to mbs and temples showi ng the presentatio n 01 " fo reign tribute" to the pharaoh, whic h incl udes weapon s , c ha r inl and horses. Th e Am a rna L etters give much more deta il abo ut SPl cific items and quantitie s and detail royal gift exch a nge . Th e arcluu o logical evidence is more limited. Both weapon s and the know ledge of developmen ts in mil iuu tech nology co uld be acq uired throu gh ca pture in battle and as booI through "trade" and g ift exc hange , and from merc enar y troops , 'Iii acquis ition of chariots , horses , and other wea ponry throu gh booty all, 1 capture in battle must have bee n significant, part icul arly in the earh part of the 18th Dynasty when c hariots were a re lative ly new inti' du ction. At the battle of Megiddo , Thutmose III ca ptured 924 Ch:1I1 ots (includ ing two " of go ld") and 2,04 1 horses. In his ca mpaign
ARMS TRADE •
25
Amenh otep II ca ptured 730 a nd 1,092 c har iots. A record at Qasr Ihrim , also of the time of Arne nhot ep II , suggests that chariot s had been captured in a m ilita ry skirmish with Kushites . Transf errable techn ologi es. A lthoug h the Egyptians had to import horses fr.om nor th Syria , they soon lea rned the art s of horse training ami chariotry, T hey also soo n began to ma nufac ture their ow n c har iols a nd presumably ada pted it to co ndi tions within Egy pt. Scenes in a num ber of to mbs sho w the ma nufacture of chariots, and some campaign scenes (re lati ng to the bat tle of Qadesh ) show repa irs of charlois 111 the Egypti an cam p. T he timber used in chario t manufactu re was il.npor ted from Syria and farther north . Also req uiri ng imported mate ria ls was the com pos ite bow (see bow, com posite), and it has hccn ~uggested that all of these weap on s were imported , rath er than lila nu / act ur~d in Egypt. Ho wever, it is now cle ar that co mposite bows WlTC made 111 Egypt and that materials such as birch bark co uld ha ve "IT n broug ht from lon g di stances and still used . 1I'c'(/I'0ns trade. T he " tribute" scenes and Ama rna Letters detai I the "'lIding..of ~ ha.riots an~1 horses to Egypt as par t of the royal "gift exl'h:lllge , principally With Mitannl, A scene in the tomb of Horemheb III Sallqar a (now in Leid en ) shows Hittites bringi ng 12 horses (6 h'l~ n l s). The sce ne in the tomb of Meryre " at Amarna shows horses IWl ng brought by two di fferent groups of Asia tics, one probabl y /-lit111l's . Both gro ups br ing a chariot (one six- and o ne fou r-spoked ). The tribute sce nes of the ~ 8th Dynasty show a var iety of weapons being "Io nght from bo th ASia and Nubia . Frag me nts from the Th eban tomb III SL'hck h~tep (reig n of T hutmose lIT) show Nubians bring ing spea rs . 11 11' sce ne 111 the to mb of Meryre II (rei gn of Akhenate n) show s com Ilt l" ilL' bows, qui ver s, khepesh-swords, helmets , lon g spea rs, a nd lul'lds as part of the Asia tic tribu te , and bows and arrows and shields 11 1111 1 Kush. The tribute scene from the tomb of the viceroy of Kus h, l luy, who served und er Tutankhamun , shows bows a nd arrows , Ir ll'lds covered in cowhide and cheet ah-skin, g ilded ce remo nial hll'lds, and ~ c hariot, as part of the K ushite tribute . The weaponry is dlll'lI l1 lcnted IJ1 more de tail in the Am a rna Letters. Of these , EA 22 I 1 '~ 1C o f the most va luable for thi s su bject. The letter co ntains part of III inventory of weddi ng gi fts sent by Tushratta of M itan ni when \ 1I11'IIhulep III ma~ied his daught er. Of particul ar significance , it inIlId,'s a numb er of Iron objects including a dagger with an iron blade.
l
26 •
ARMS TRAf)[
Its guard and hart are descri bed in det ail and the who le has a strikin. ' paralle l in the iron da gger from the tomb o f Tu tankhamun . T here I.' also a mace of iro n. Diffe rent types of a r rows appear 111 large quanti ties as we ll as arrow s " w ith thorn s" and othe rs to be shot flamin u. Th ere we re 10 javelin s w ith iron tips and 10 javelins with bron ze tips: 10 maces; 10 " za llewe"- knives of bron ze , and 10 spea rs. Mercen aries. As we ll as be ing part o f the arms trade itsel f, mercv naries were dou btless import ant in the dissemi nation of weapons and techniques of wa rfare . Egy pt e mployed fore ign mercen ary troop s, inl tiall y Nubi an s, from the ea rlies t tim es . The ru ler s o f wes te rn Asia p.n ticularl y so ught for Nubian troop s in the Amarna Lett er s. There wu an increase o f mercen aries in the 19th Dyn asty a nd some , suc h as th,' Shardana , with their peculi ar helmet s and we apo ns , are to be Ioum! both in the Egyptia n army and fig hting alongside the Libyan s as Cill' mies of Egypt. Th e Libyan s themse lves ben efited fro m the arm s tnllil as they are shown with c hariots and horses and wi th weapons of di, tin ctl y weste rn As iatic types . Th e Lib yan s themsel ves em ploye d 111"1 ce nary troop s , suc h as the Sh ardun a, as is clea r from the account s II I the Libyan Wars o f Merenptah and Ramesses III. Th e evidciu'c fro m ce nters , suc h as Pylos , Mycen ae , and Kno sso s . sho ws uuu Greece and Aegean were part o f the sa me net work s . Western Anutu lia and Cy pru s probabl y provided the main link be twee n Egypl C rete , and G reece, althoug h the re is e vide nce of di rcc t eon tach in th. re ign o f Amen hotep III . Nu hi a, too , must have be nefit ed from the in tern at ion al arms trade . A ltho ug h ba ttle sce nes show Nubian enc nu con venti on all y as bowm e n w ith relati vely little eq uipme nt, there I e vidence o f the use o f char iots by the e lite , and the " tribute" see n show weap onry and armor that wa s ma nufactured in Nubi a . Cha riIII and horses we re presumably give n as gi rts from Egypt , but the inc lu sion of c har iots as part o f the Ku sh ite tr ibut e to Egy pt suggests Ihll they, too , were eve ntua lly be ing ma nufactured in N u bia itse lf. The Iron Age saw a cha nge in the trade rou tes , but there is ampl ev ide nce fro m the Assyrian, and other , reco rds for a simi lar ann trade . Israel under So lomo n (reig ned ca . 950-930/922 BC) seems, 10 " a period , to have co ntrolled the trad e in horses throu ghout north Syun Th e Assyrian s imported horses from man y surro unding region s.1'hl'l is also good evide nce that horse breed ing developed in Kush . 'lh Don gola Reach o f the Nile wa s a horse-breeding area in medicv
ARM Y •
27
limes and prob ably anc ient times as we ll. Th e evi dence that sugges ts Ihal the Ku shites we re breedi ng hor ses co mes from Assyri an te xts o f Ihc cighth-se venth ce nturies BC and the inscription of P iye . .\ llI\ I Y. Th e evi de nce for the Egy ptian army co me s fro m a va riety o f ," nrces in art and literature, althoug h non e g ive s the det a il that we have for, for examp le, the Hell eni stic or Ro man ar m ies. A large numlx-r of term s a re prese rved in docu men ts rel atin g to the m ilita ry bu rru uc r acy, but few text s det a il the nu mbe rs and func tio ns invol ved . lunction ca n ge nera lly be det erm ined from conte xt and lexicograp hy, II I It I so me words , pa rtic ular ly those as soc iated w ith chariots and hors es, suc h as mariya nnu , are fo reign loan wo rds . The army fulfilled many func tions in ad di tion to its ma in o ne of 1ll',liting in battl es and pro tec ting fro ntiers . Bod ies of troop s were se nt III esco rt trad ing exped itio ns (such as tho se to Punt) and dip lom atic "I l" hanges. Th e arm y played a sig nifica nt role in bu ild ing and q uarI " illl!. he ing used 10 gua rd a nd to co nvey sto ne. It a lso had an impor11111 1 role in "'yal .1I1d re ligio us ce remo nials. Th e sce nes depi ctin g the l'II'al 1" lig iolis fe 'l il'a ls. suc h as Op et , show the army to wi ng the river lo"lr e ' III' the go ds from the ban k, accompanied by mil itary rnu si I lnnx. notabl y trumpeter s and Nub ian drummers . ( l id Kingdom . Co nflic t betwee n groups of armed men is shown on 1I111111 1111ents o f the Predynastic Period , such as the Battlefield Palette . Nlllhi11g is know n of the orga nization o f these forces . During the Old I IlIr dlllll troops for campa igns were le vied as necessary, although there 11I1I, t have bee n so me more perma nent military units, such as the roya l 11l1I1.\,gllard and garrisons stationed in key cent ers . Th e ea rliest dep ic1/" " II I' the army in action shows a group of archers and is o f the reign III 1\ hulu or K hafre. Th e inscript ion of Weni indicates that local offi• I" I ~ we re responsible for co nscr iption of troo ps as required , and also , 1I111111'lI1ding them. The only unit mentioned is the Tjeset " batta lion." A 1111111"" 1' o f offic ials carry the title imy-r mesha, Overseer of the soloi l' !'/anny or "General," but they are nearly all recorded in texts relating I " qll:lrrying exped itions (three to Sinai , three to the Wad i Hamrn am at ). I "':lsllwo kings ' so ns- Rahotep, the son o f Snefer u (fourt h Dyna sty), ,,,"I Kucmtjcne net, son o f Isesi (fifth Dynasty) -we re ge nerals. A1i"d'" King dom. During the First Intermedi ate Peri od the local ",'/I I/ In'lis (governo rs of the ad ministra tive dis tric ts ca lled nomesi
AllMY •
29
28 • AKMY
raised forces and there is e vide nce for mercen ary troops, mainl y Nubiun s . T he re wa s ce rta inly a sta nd ing army duri ng the M iddle Kingdom . T he ex te ns ive ca mpaig ning in N ub ia , and the es tab lishment of the fortresscs there w ith permanent ga rriso ns , mu st have see n an inc reas e in pro fessio na l so ldiers . T he increase in terms emp loyed also ind icate s an expans io n o f nu mbers and d iversity o f fu nctions . An inscription o f ye ar 25 o f A m ene m hat III records that the ar my sc ribe trave led to the nome o f Aby dos to choose recru its (neferu). Ano ther te xt states th at a c ro wn pri nce mad e a levy o f o ne man in every hun dred, in a limited area of the country . New Kingdom. In the New Ki ngdom , the re was an inc re ased profe ssion ali zati on in all areas . T he ex te nt o f the Egyp t ian Emp ire , with pe rmane nt garriso ns, and the annua l ca mpa ign ing of pharaoh s, such as T h u tm os e Ill , must have requ ired a large sta nd ing army. By the reign o f R amesses II , there we re fo ur divisions of 5 ,000 plu s m~n . mi xed co nscripts, and profe ssio nal s. T he re is also so me ev ide nce 101' a for m o f nati on al serv ice . C ha nge s in milit ary technol ogy meant that the New Kin gdom army was di vid ed between infantry (me/!fat 01' menfyt ) a nd chariotry . Th e ar my was co mma nded by the Pharaoh, with th e Vizier and till' army co unc il. When in the field , there was a co unc il o f w ar. The roll' o f the counc il in adv ising the pharaoh o n tact ics is det ailed in the ac co unts o f the battl e s o f Mcgiddo a nd Q adesh and in the campaign ut P iye , a ltho ugh the pharaoh usu all y chooses to ado pt a different (a nd success ful) course o f action . A n inscriptio n o f Horemheb ind icates a d ivis ion of the army into two co rps, one for Uppe r a nd one for L OWCI Egy pt, eac h und er the co m ma nd o f the ulnu o f the ar my, who wcr res po ns ib le to a ge nera l. T he ea rly Ramesside army (Sety I ) had reg ime nts (sa) of 200 each w ith its sta ndard bearer. Th ese reg ime nts were subd ivide d into platoons of 50 in fantry under a "ch ief o f 50" an d squads o f 10. By the reign of Ram esses IV , the princ ipa l un it was a co mpany of five platoo ns , 250 men unde r the lI'areltl of till' arm y. Two co m panies fo rmed a host (500+ me n) and 20 com pa nies o ne d iv ision (50 00+) . T he army itse lf com prise d three d ivisio n. named a fte r the state gods of Egypt, A nu m , Ptah, and Re . At times, the re was a fo urth d ivision , named for Se t h . T he army o f the Ne w Kin gdo m incl uded large numbe rs o f merce naries. T here we re many Nub ians, a ltho ugh the se m ight also haw
heen co n sc r i pt~d in th ~ part s o f Nub ia di rectl y ad mi nistere d by Egy pt. In the Rarnesside pen od ,. there we re inc reasing num be rs o f troop s Irom western ASIa, A nato lia, and farther afi eld , such as the S he k clcs h S ha rd a n a, and Pelcsct. T hese usua lly have di st incti ve cos tumes and weapons . Th e Libyans a lso ca me to playa s ignificant ro le. T he Egyp tia n ex pa nsion int o Nubia a nd As ia led to the c reation o f some ne w m ilitary office s, particu larly in re latio n to the co mma nd o f fortresse s and garrisons . In Nubia, the army was spec ifica lly under the co mma nd of .the c1.1ie f o f bo wme n o f Kush , and not the vice r oy , although the earliest vice roy s we re mi litary o fficia ls. As .the art of chario try becam e o ne of the di sti ngu ishing skills o f the e lite , so the roya l princes and pharaoh s we re c hara cterized as warriors in a way not pre viou s ly fo und . T h is is parti cul arl y notable w ith Ame n h otep II , w ~lOse insc ri ption s e pitom ize th is ne w military et hos. ~h e .battl e re liefs o f Ram esses II show the pharaoh 's so ns playII lg a s ignifica nt rol e in the army. Mo nu me nts, insc riptions, and tombs document numerou s militar y per so nnel o f the New Kin eudom (c .g ., A h m os e son of E b a na , Ahmosc-pen-Nekhbct, A m cnc m h a b , Ilnrcm h cb , and Tjanuni). Third lntermediate Period. Th ere is much less ev idence from the Third Intermediate Peri od . Th e brea kdo wn of Egypt a nd Nubia into a number of kingdo ms and prin cipalities wo uld onc e aga in have see n smaller arm ies w ith local loyalti es (or merce naries) , and under the command o f the dyn usts . Th e documentary ev ide nce is rather limited li nd a ltho ug h o ffic ials w ith mil itar y titl es are known, actua l co nflict is detai led o nly in a limit ed nu mber o f texts, such as the inscri ptio ns o f the c:rown p.rince O s.orkon . T he mo st informati ve text is undou btedl y the mscn pn on of Piye narrat ing the conflict w ith Tefn a k h t and the I.ihyan dynasts and the use of the fleet and siege equ ipment. .' ,a le Period. T he ev ide nce is aga in limited . T here are inscription s "~ ar my and n.ava l com ma nde rs , suc h as Wcdjah or rcs nc , but they I:lve litt le det ail of mili tary ac tion or organ iza tion . Herod oto s clai ms that Egyptian society was orga nize d in a sys te m of cas tes , the most impo rtant o f wh ich we re the pries ts and the military (m a c h im oi) . Fro m the reig n o f Psamtik I on . there were large numb ers of merrc uury troo~s in the Egypti an army , many co mi ng fro m Asia Mi nor , notab ly Cari n and the G ree k towns o r the wes te rn coa st (Ion ia). T here is deta iled e vide nce o f the Pers ian ga rriso n at Elep hanti ne (A b u) w ith
30 •
A/{MY
its large co nti nge nt o f Jews a nd other Ph oen ician s and Syrian s . Th e pharaohs who led Egy pt's fina l bid for inde pe ndence from Pers ia em ployed who le forces of Greek mercen ar y troop s and recei ved co n siderub le su ppo rt fro m the c ity-states , suc h as At h en s . and the rul ers of the Aegean Is lands . notab ly Cyprus . Ptolema ic Period. T he arm y of Ptolemy I was recrui ted from G reek and M aced on iun so ld iers who had serv ed w ith h im undci Alex a nd e r t he Great. Fo llo wi ng the failed invas io n o f Egypt hy Pe rdikkas (32 1 BC). many of the Macedo nian troops stayed and en listed in Pto lem y 's arm y. In a s im ilar way, he ga ine d many deserters foll ow ing the attempted in vasion o f An t ig nnos Mo nophthahnus (306 BC) . T he se troops we re sett led as cler uc hs , notab ly in till' F a yu m regi on. T his earl y Ptole ma ic ar my was e sse ntially Greek with so me me rce nary troop s suc h as Gau ls and T hrac ia ns . In o rga nizu tion , it wa s mod eled on the Maced on ian army in whic h the phalan x was the mai n heav y infan try fig hting bod y, w ith ligh t infantr (p elta sts) , ca va lr y, an d th e add itio n (co py ing the Seleu k ids ) of elvphants . The 20 yea rs o f peace at the e nd o f the re ig n of P to lemy III meant that the army lacked tra ining and expe rie nce. Acc or d ing III Pol yb ios , Egypt was no lon ger ab le to defend herself', P to lemy IV therefore rec ru ited Egy ptia ns tma ch imoii into the army . T he vic tory o f th is ne w for ce at R a p hia (2 17 BC) act ua lly prompted ci vil war. Th e later Ptolem aic army was increasingl y in flue nced by Roman organiza tio n. It e mp loye d Egyptians as we ll as Greek se tt le rs alitI mercena rie s, not ably Jews. Th e ne w struc ture was based upon th semeia (pe rha ps deri ved from the Egy ptian de mo tic wo rd seteni with probab ly six per regiment; eac h semeia was di vid ed into two cc n turies co mmande d by he kato ntarch oi and two penteko ntarc hia w ith II heral d/trumpeter and standa rd- beare r (semeiopho rosi. Th e cava h y was d ivided into hipparc hies o f at least two squadro ns (ilai), eac h ilt be ing at least 250. Ten hipp arch ies are attes ted . Roman Period. T he fall o f Egyp t to A u gust us (30 BC) and the ill sta llation o f the prefect saw the intro ductio n of the Roman army inlll Egy pt. A ug us tus hi msel f reorganized the Rom an army int o a prole: sio na l stand ing army of 25 legions . Each legion . total ing 6,000 men was s ubd iv ide d into 10 co ho rts (600) o f s ix ce nturies . T he nu mb er II I leg ion s increased in the late r e mpire . rising to 33 under the Severun d ynasty ( 193-235 AD) and to 67 under Dioc let ia n (re igned 284- 311 AD). Many aux iliary troo ps were rec ru ited fro m groups throughout
ART ·
31
the e mpire, incl ude d cavalry di vis ion s (alae) of about 480-500 me n div ided into 16 troo ps . Augustu s stationed three leg ion s in Egy pt, but Legio XII Fulmi XXII, Deiotar11// /(/. was nam ed after Deiot aru s , ki ng of Galatia , who had formed it "'1the Rom a n model. It was incorpo rated into the Ro man arm y by A~lgustu s and sta tioned at Nikopo lis (o n the edge of A lexan d r ia ) . It miglu have been dest royed in the Jew ish r ebelli on o f Bar Ko khba ( 132- 135 AD). Legi o IIJ Cyrenaica was a lso stat ioned at Nikopo lis by Augustus , w here it rem ain ed unt il T raja n (re igned 98- 117 AD) tran slcrre d it t~ Arab ia, rep lac ing it w ith the newl y for me d Legio II Tra/111/(/ Fortis . T he No ti tia Dign itatum de tai Is the garriso ns o f the later third century. See also SOLDI ER . ~ '." 1/0 was tran sfe rred to Syria late r in his reign . Leg io
.\lW O W S. T he sha fts of arrows were gene ra lly mad e of reed a read ily ava ilab le materi a l. So me from the tomb of Tutank ha munwan- o f wood. Th ey we re fle tch ed with fea the rs, had noc ks (to receive the howst ring) of wood , a nd we re tipped w ith Oint , o bs id ian, e bo ny, I:ory, bo ne , hard wood, g lass. and met al (co ppe r, bro nze , and iron ) . SurVIVI ng ex a mples o f arro ws fro m the tomb o f Maih erpri (a ll reed ) were bet ween 0.64 and 0.85 me ters lon g (ma ny damaged ) and fro m the tomb of T uta nkharn un up to 0 .95 meter. T he maj ority of ar ro ws would ha ve bee n manufact ured in Eg ypt from locall y available rnatvrinls. A re lie f fro m an unident ified tomb at Saq qara show s an ar10 1V ma ker c heck ing the straightne ss of arrows . After ban le , the ar10 IV S and arrowhea ds wo uld have bee n collec ted . A me nhotep II records the capture o f tw o b o ws (presuma b ly composite) and a :lllIvc r IUIl .of arrows a fter a batt le near the R ive r Orontes o n his Sy r11 11 1 campaign. O ther sources show that arrows for med part of the ' " ' IIIS tra de . Th e Am a rna Letters deta il va rieties of arrows se nt 111 11 11 M ita n n i, T he d ifferen t typ es o f arrows we re grouped as: 1,000 III "'I'IS , sha rp, 2,000 arro ws , a nd 3,000 arro ws. In add itio n, the re were speci fied typ es of 20 arrows " w ith tho rns," 20 arrows to be shot lIilllling and 20 arrows of "shukudu" typ e . The bodi es of the so ld iers of Ment h u ho tep II bur ied a t De ir e l-Baha ri sho wed arro w wo unds, 11 11" so me frag me nts o f e bony arrowhea ds were found . \ ItT. Images 0.1' wa r a~d violence in Egy ptia n art are co mmo n, but many III them are Ideological rather than historical. T he most commo n type
32 •
ART
shows the pharaoh (occas ionally a queen ) smiting an individu al enemy, or gro up of enemies, usually in the presence of one or more deities, such as Amun or Re- (Harakhty). Thi s image is found from the earliest pc riods (e .g ., on the Narmer Palette) to the Roman period (in the templ es of Esna and Dendera). It is a favored scene on the pylon gate ways 0 1 tem ples, altho ugh can be found elsew here. O n the pylon s, usually on a vast scale, the sce ne has the added significance of preserving the tem pie from the chaos of the real world and real time , since the templ e is the image of the cos mos and of the mome nt of crea tion when perfection was ac hieved . The enemies are therefore symbols of uni versal threats to orde r and have no specific historical significance . In other contexts till' subj ugated gro ups can be given historical significance . If the image is of the subj ugation of Nu bia ns, Libyans , or Asiatics it may be due to thl' orientation of the scene: Nubians freq uently being foun d on the so uth and others on the north of the templ e axis. The location and purpose 0 1 the temple (i.e., in Nub ia) might also be significant. However , the great relief of Sheshonq I at Karnak recording the Asiatic co nquests of tlupharaoh includes Nubians amo ng the enemies he smites. Th is type of image of the pharaoh as uni versal co nqueror is taken II stage furth er wi th the image of the king as a hum an or hawk -headed s phinx . For a shor t period in the late 18th Dy nasty, queens Tiye and Nefert iti, wives of Amenhote p III and Ak he nate n respectively, wenshow n smiting and tram pling in the form of a sph inx. Th ey are specif ically show n subd uing the fe ma le e nemies of Egy pt as co unter part 10 the pharaoh and as a manife stat ion of the bellicose goddess Tefn ut . It was not only the foreign lands that were subjugated by the pharaoh, the rekltyt-people of Egy pt itse lf were also. T he pharaoh ca n be shown carrying a lapwing , the sy mbo l (derived from the hiero glyph ic writing ) of the rekhy t, who were equally a threat to order. The pharaoh also tram pled his enemies , collectively know n as the Nine Bows , underfoot. Thiv image is found in statue f011n , and bound ca ptives , or bows , were Ill' picted o n the soles of the roya l sanda ls, on the pharaoh's footstool aud dais , and painted o n the lloo r of the throne room . The temples were places in which battle sce nes cou ld be carved Th ey usuall y a ppea r in the o ute r part s of the buildin g o n the pylons, the walls o f the COllI1s a nd outer hall s, all of which were publi c areas, rather than in the inner halls and sanctuaries that we re devoted to 11' ligious and offering scenes . A lthou gh the image of a smiting and COli
ARTAxmXEs I (REIGN ED 465-424/423 Be) •
33
querin g pharaoh is common, the surv iving sce nes that ca n actually be described , even loosely as " historical," are very lim ited in num ber (see battle, representations of) . Th e majorit y, in fact , is of the battle of Q adesh . A ltho ugh the temples of god s do carry historical battle scenes , the te mples of the pharaoh s them sel ves (usually styled "mortuary tem ples" ) were the most appro priate setting , and allowed the e ve nts of a reig n to be present ed as a roy al self-j ustifica tio n. The bestpreserved cyc les o f re liefs are in the tem ples of Ramesses II ("the Ramesseum") and Ramess es III (M ed inet Habu) at Thebes . Tomb sce nes very rare ly show battles , although those of Kaemh eset al Saqqa ra a nd Inti at Desb asheh , of the late Old Kingdom , and tombs .u Beni Hasan do show attac ks on fortifications , and hand -to-hand combat. In the New Kingdom, tomb scenes can be informative for the study of war in that they show weapo nry and chariots and the milita ry burea ucr acy at work. Some of the most valuable scenes are those from the tombs of milit ary officia ls, such as Horemheb and Tj a n uni, which show the registering of recru its and other aspects of army life . Another important gro up of scenes are those that show gift excha nge and reward . At Arnarna , the tombs of the reign of Akh enaten contain many reward scenes , mostly showing go ld and jewelry but also the g ift of a pair of leather gaun tlets to the chariotry officer,Ay. A simi lar pair is described in the Amarna Letters as a roya l gi ft from the king of Mitannl , :lnd a pair was disco vered in the tomb of Tutankhamun. There are scenes in The ban tombs showing the presentation of "g ifts" to the pharaoh. This took place at the New Year, the coro nation , and other signilicant occa sion s. What is actually shown is the product of the roya l und temple wo rkshops. The tomb of Qenamun, part icul arly, depicts co llections of wea pons and armor, with the number of the am ount s produced . T hese are so me of the best representation s. Indeed , in the case of armor, corselets and helm ets are very rarely show n being worn. The presentation of foreign tribute includ es weaponry and is a valuable source of information on the internati onal arms trade. \ IU AXERX ES I (reigne d 46~24/423 nc ), Great King of Persia and ruler of Egy pt. Th e acce ssion of Artaxe rxe s . in a pala ce co up, sa w rehellion throu gh out the empire . In Egy pt. Inaros, a ruler in the western Delta, and Amyr taios (1) , pri nce o f Sau, were aided by a fleet 110m At he ns . In the rebellion , M em p his was ca ptured , and the sa tr a p
34 •
AKTAXrK XI:5 II IKn CNID 405- 359 Bel
(the Persian vicero y) was killed in battl e at Papremis, before till' Egyptian s and Athe nians we re besieged at Prosopit is in the Delta , Th e rebe llion altoge ther lasted from abo ut 462 BC unt il 454 BC . ARTAXERXES II (reigned 405-359 IIC). Great kin g o f Persia and pharaoh o f Egypt. On the death o f Darius II (404 BC) , Egyp t had gai ned indep enden ce from Persia . In 373 BC , in an atte m pt to regain co ntro l o f Egypt, Artaxerxes se nt his army, led by Pharn abazos and the comma nde r o f the Greek mercenaries Iphi krates from Ac re. The failed to enter via Pelusion , but breach ed the Mendesian ba rrie: Th ere was disagreem ent bet ween the two co mmande rs, whic h II I lowed Nakhtnebef to surro und and besieg e th em , until the inundu tio n forced a Per sian retreat. ARTAXE R XE S III (reigned 359-338 IIC). Great Kin g o f Per sia alld pharaoh o f Egy pt. Arta xer xes regained control of Sid on and Cy pru before turning his atte ntion to Egy pt, w hic h had been inde pe nde nt III Per sia fo r 60 years , Th e first invasion , in 35 1/3 50 IIC, was dri ven back by the arm y o f Nakht horh eb , but in 343 Be a second invuviuu was success ful. Artaxerxes no w had the ad van tage o f tw o cap alih co mma nde rs, Bagoas a nd Ment or o f Rh od es. and a large forc e III G ree k mercenaries . Th e Per sian a rmy ad va nce d to Pe lusinn . whi.h was ca ptured by Bagoas . Furthe r Delt a c ities fell as the Pc rsian s ad va nced on Memphis, Th e ph araoh Na khtho rhch see ms to have III fered lillie resistan ce and re puted ly n ed to N u bia . Egy pt o nce ag.un came und er Persian rule a nd a satrap was in stall ed . Later text s . 111 1 tably the Sat rap ste le o f Ptolemy I (c iting a decree o f Khabbash ), Il fer to dev astat ion ca used by the Per sian invasion . ARZAWA. Co untry in wes tern A na to lia, nei ghbor to the Hittite "III pire . As the evi de nce for its position co mes fro m Hitt ite te xts. it I difficult to place Ar zawa preci se ly, althou gh it is thou ght to be W I app roximatel y whe re Lyd ia was in late r tim es. ASHURBANIPAL (reigned 66~3I? BC) . Late Assyrian empe ror o f III Sargonid dy nasty. 5 h0l11yafter his accession. As hurbanipaJ made pI'!'!,,' ration s for the invasion o f Egypt. Th ese incl uded see king the advice " the gods throu gh omens . Th e eve nts of the campaign are record ed 1111
ASKUT •
35
day prism known as the " Rassa m Cy linder." The army adva nced raplilly to ward Eg~pt. rece iving the submission of the Levantine rulers who 1I0W accomp<~l1Ied him . The army engaged and defeat ed the j oint Egypt I ~ III a~ld Kushite force~ of Ta harqo at " Kar-baniti," which is the Assy r1.1 11 name for an Egyptian place , probably on the route from Pe lusion toward Memphis ..Taharqo himself was in Memphi s. The text refers to uuothcr oracle g iven by the gods that As hurba nipal had taken with him. 1\ hattie took place , presuma bly close to Memph is, which fell. Taharqo ' I,'d to Thebes and the Assyrians pursued , but the dy nasts of the Delta Il'I1elled, In respon se, the Assyrian armies attacked Sau , Tan is, and an: uhcr De lta to wn.llaying rebels and hang ing the ir skins from the walls. II~e .pnnces w~re taken to Assyria, where some were exec uted. Only N, I' ,1lI I and his son, the future Psamtik I , were spared . There might have been deportation o f so me of the rebe l popul at ion and people from ,'b",where III ~he Assyrian e mpire settled in Egyp t. laharqo died during . o r short ly after the invasion, a nd was sue" 'l'lil'd by Ta nwcta ma nt, who imm edi ately reoccup ied Mem ph is 1I11 e1 " Io ug ht the De lta dy nasts und er his autho rity, Ashurban ipa lnow 1'"I11..hl·d a sel'Ond ca mpaign (663 BC) . Tanwetam an i fled to T he bes '" Ie1 I IllIll there back to Nubia , Ashurbanipal 's army marched on I h<,hc.' and sacked it. carry ing off its treasures to Assyria, A ltho uoh 1" 11 11 11 I/.; I was originally a n Assyrian vassa l, he grad ua lly shoo k ;1'1' I 1111 Htl I. A~lllI rba nl pa J. preocc up ied w ith e ve nts on the ot her bord er s III ' " ' elllp lr~ (II~I not a ttem pt to inte rve ne agai n in Egypt. i\ , hlllhan!pal s mil itar y campaigns are recorded in anna ls and a seIII ', III ~-el le ls fro m the pal ace at Nineveh . Som e rel iefs dep icted the I \"'lIt, m Egy pt, but they have no accompa nyi ng te xts . Of partic ular IIIIl'r,'st IS the war ag a inst the Ara bs , which shows Arab archers uuuuucd on ca~le.l s . A lar? e se ries of orac le and ome n te xts supple111,'11 1, (he ann alistic material , h IJ:[ Isl an~ for~ress in the Second Ca ta r act to the north of, and 111,"11 sl~n all ~g dista nce o f, Shalfak . It was part of the 12th Dyn asty t , h,1I11 II / /0I1s maugurated by Senusret I and co mpleted b S III '1', . Y enusre , IC plan w~s d Ictated by the topograph y of the site, resultin g in a 11 11111 iulur fort WIth a regu lar to wn plan accommodat ing up to 200 k ' men , III IS unusua l a mong the fortresses in that 22 percent of its total area , V1v<'11 over to granary buildings. It has been suggested tha t it served
36 •
ASSY RIA
as a fort ified grain store to suppl y the ot her fortresses o f the cataract. II is estima ted that , if full, the granar ies had a poten tial capability of feed ing up to 3,264- 5,628 ind ividu als (o r one year, more than any ot l~" 1 fo rt in the reg io n, even the great depot at Mlrgissa . Fro m Ask ut, Sl • nals were relayed northward via Mursh id and Gem ai to Mirgissa . ASSYR IA. Kin gdom o f northern Mesopotamia (mode rn Iraq ), with it cap itals at Assur, N irnrud , and N ineve h.Assyria e njoyed se veral phasr of politica l and military expansio n. T he first major co ntacts betw.eel~ 1\, syria and Egy pt are docu mented by the Am a r na Letters and indican the e me rge nce o f the Middle Assyr ian Empire as a significant politicnl force . By the reign of Ramesses II, Assyria und er S ha lmaneser I WII able to dispose o f the final fragm ent o f the kingdo m o f Mitanni , brillf' ine its we stern bord ers directly up to those of the grea t king o f the 1111 tites, Hattusili III . Direct mili tary invo lve ment w ith Egy pt cam e in Iii Late (or Neo-) Assy ria n Em pire which, from the ninth century BC, grad ually expand ed throughout wes tern As ia to Egy pt itse lf. , As sy ria 's wes tward ex pa ns io n began in the ninth ce ntury BC. Willi Ashu rnasirpa l II (reig ned 88 3-859 BC) , Sha lma nese r III (reigiu 858-824 IlC), a nd Tig lath-p ilese r III (re ig ned 744-727 BC) . Th is hu been att ributed to develo pmen ts in military technology, notably Iii increase in iro n we apo ns , but co u ld result as mu ch fro m the orgnII I zatio n and d iscipline o f the Assyrian ar my (the ac h ieve me nt I Ti glath -pil eser III), Undoubted ly, there were mil itar y de ve lopment during the La te Assyrian E mp ire , not abl y the inc rea sed use o f ,'II airy over ch a r iots . Initiall y, Assyrian expansion es tablished a sphere of infh nn throughout wes tern Asia from Aleppo to Dam ascu s and the Levannn coa st, but with co nstant r eb ellion , this tributary area eve ntua lly bccun an empire with Assyrian govern ors . Egypt aided so me o f these I'd, lion s, se nd ing co ntinge nts of troo ps to the battle of Q arqar (853 III ' ) . ,\ syrian activities brought her arm ies ever closer to the bor ders of E~'\ I A lthough there is no evidence of direct conflict at this tim e , G a za , will was usually an Egy ptian vassal, wa s taken , and the frontier betwee n It two states wa s established at the Brook-of-Egyp t (el Ar ish) , Wit h th e fall of Egypt to the Ku sh ite pharaohs o f the 25t h DYIlIl I a more am i-Assyrian fore ign po licy e merge d, w ith the Kush itcs II ing as pro tec tors o f the state s of we stern A sia . This wa s partl y <111 1
ASWAN •
37
\e ll.·-interest, a ltho ug h the Ku shit es might ha ve harbored a mb itions o f I ~Ie l r own. Th e 0rst di plo matic contac ts are record ed in the re ig n of Sargon II , re lating to the ni ght o f larn an i, rul er of As hdo d to see k the protection o f the Ku shit e king . T he first d irect conflict known ,'ame ~n the re ig n o f Shabaqo, who se nt hi s armie s to the aid o f Ilczck iah o f Judah . Th e Egypti an -Kushite forces c las hed with the almy ?f Sen u nch e r lh at the bailie o f E lt ck eh (70 I BC) . T his led , in Iill', reign s of EsarhaddOIl (re igne d 680-66 9 BC) and As h u r ba n ipa l f ~ 1'I gned 66 8-63 1? BC) , to the Assyrian invasion o f Egyp t itse lf. Th e Kushite pha rao h Ta h a rq o (re igned 69 0-664 BC) had to co nfro nt As,,\'Iiall il: va sion s by Esarhaddo n. Battl es we re fo ug ht at Ishkhup~i , 11 11"
1'/\ RTF:. Goddess o f Can aani te a nd Syr ian orig in, the western As i'llit' eq ulva l.e nt of the Mesop ot amian Isht ar , A star te was introd uce d 111 10 hgy pt In the . 1~th Dyn asty. Astar te wa s a wa rrior goddess who ,,,", u l'I(~s.e assoc~a.tl.on with horses and ch a ri ots , In the de sc riptio n rr] IllS military a bilities as a yo uth, A menh otc p II tell s ho w he was 1 \" II I ~lC bes t horses fro m his fathe r 's sta bles and that becau se o f his 1111 ~v l t h them "R eshep a nd As tarte rej oiced over him. " Like o ther lillll' godde sse s, A starte becam e as soc iated w ith the ferocious I I'V lllian de itie s g ive n the title "da ug hter o f Re" (Sa k h m ct and I, IUIII ) and became a wife o f Se th . \\ '/\ N, ', lilwn o n the so uthern fro ntier o f Egyp t a nd Nubia , at the foot " 11 11' ~: II'St C a t a ract. As wan (Gree k Syene fro m Egyptian Sil li er " a "" 11 1" 1, ) s ta l1 d~ on the east ban k of the N ile opposi te the island of hu (/ ~lepha l1 t Ine) . It was the s ite of a fortress , re fe rred to in Ara 10 ,1& tlOt'llille nts o f the Persian pe rio d as S UII Byrta,
38 •
ASWAN AUG USTUS (63 8C- 14 AD) •
Eve n aft er the expansio n into Nub ia, Aswan retai ned the c harac te ristics of a frontie r to wn and served as a supply and administrative depot and the place from whic h military acti? ns into Nubia v:erc laun ched. The re were major defen sive works m the Aswan reg ion. wi th referen ces to the fortress of Aswa n, the fortress of Ab u (E lephantine) a nd the fort res s of Se nm ut. Th is last is usually assu ~led to be the island of Bigga , at the head of the ca tarac t and oppos ite the presum ed locat ion o f the harbor. Ho we ver , it h ~s recentl y b.een sug ges ted that , ra ther tha n being iso lated on the Island of Bigga, the fortress of Se nrnut was actua lly the who le of the are a between Aswan town a nd the head of the cataract defe nded by a massive mud -b rick wall , fragm ent s of whic h are sti ll ex tant. T he wa ll, some 7 .5 kilom eters lon g , was bu ilt on e leva ted grou nd of mud bri ck , re inforced with reed mats and gra nite rubbl e . With a thickn ess o f to c ubits (5. 25 me ters) at the base , its hei ght wo uld have been up to twice that. A glacis o f 35 degrees defended. its o uter f:ICl" T here is no evi de nce for tower s along its leng th, but Its sca le might ha ve served as an ade quate defen se. Th e ste la of the offic ial Hepu , dated to the coregency of Ame ne m ha t II a nd Senusret II and record ing the inspection of forts of Wa wa t i ~ year 35, is ~arved on a boulder c rossed by the wa ll. Thi s , and the size of the bric ks, would sugge st a co nstruction da te of the tim e of Se nusre t II. A similar v:all ra n for 5 kilome ters bet ween the fortresses of Sem na to Ur ona r ti .u the Second Cataract. It is to be as su med that the wa ll co nnec ted with a fortres s at bo th the Aswan and harb or e nds . Bet ween Aswan and till harbor was a milit ary roa d , along which are roc k inscr ipt ion s record ing mi litary campaigns by Se ty 1. . . Along the sa me route as the wa ll (w hich had dou btless fallen mlo ruin lon g before), there is evi de nce for three Rom an watchtowers III Ge be l Boas, Te ll Asmar, a nd o n the plain of She lla l. Th ese probahl v relate to a wbo le net work o f such to wer s th rou gh out Up per ~gy ,,1 others a re know n at Dendur a nd north of Edfu . Th e fort of Dloch-t ian , Leg io I Maxim iana Filas , was presum ably l ocat~d in a simihu position to the pharaoni c harb or, op pos ite t~l e island of Bl gg~ . O n th o utskirts of the mod ern to wn are the re ma ins of the Byzantine lo wII wa lls, whic h inc lude blocks fro m di smantl ed Rom a n templ es .. , On the we st ba nk of the river, the rock-cu t to mbs of the el ite III e lude those o f the governo rs of the border in the O ld Kingdo m. ill
39
d Ud ing t~at o f Harkh uf, who led se ve ral peace ful ex pedi tio ns to Ya m In the Sixth Dy nasty. A high po int mar ked by Ge bel Tingar , the " Rock of O fferings.". is where the desert roa d bega n. Th is rega ined the Nile n~ar Tosh ka III Low er Nubia a nd was frequently used during the O ld King do m, Th e Mon astery o f St. Sim eon stands at the end of a wadi opposite the so uther n tip of the island of A bu . Like most mon asteri es , it is de fended by high wa lls and mighl ha ve bee n adapted from a Rom an g uard statio n. . Th~oughoul
the ~.swan regio n are numero us rock
inscriplio ns, many
0'.which record military ex peditions or indi vidual offic ials assoc iated with the administration of Nubia. The mountain of g ranite boul ders at the southe~ el~d OfYl~ island o f Sehel has a part icularly large num ber o~ sU~h vouve IllSCnptlon s, ma ny left by officials o n their way into Nu'.,.ra . 1. ~e r~ck of Kon~sso .ha~ some Important inscriptions relating to l ,lInp,lIgns . Th ere are mscnpuon, relatlllg to the campaig n of Psamtik " on the so uthern e nd of Bigga Island and on A bu itself.
,\'I''' E~S. Ci ty of mainland Greece , with surrounding state of Attika . In ~he Sixth- fo urth cen turies BC, it was one of the main po litical and milnary powe~s of the G~eek wor ld. Athens became a center of opposition 10 the el~plre of Persia. As such, il both aided anti-Persia n rebellions II l1d r:ecel ved support from independent or rebellious states . Athens lent "ollslderable su ppo rt to the major. if ultim ately d isas trous. rebellio n of Illa m s . This military suppOl1 from At hens was reci proc aled by local urlcrs .of the Delta who se nt co rn to Athens in times of famine . The Athenian ge neral Cha brias was hired by the pharaoh Hakor , but he ~vas recal led 10 Athens on the interventi on of the Persians . The last mil":II'Y cont?ct was the Ptolem aic involvement in Athens d uring the ( IlI'emomd eall War (268 /265-262/26 1 BC) . See also SPARTA.
\ III a JSTUS (63 /lc-14 AD). Rom an pol itican , ge nera l, and first e m!,l'Ior. Born Cai us Oc tavi us, he was the grea t neph e w of Julius CaeIU' and o ne of his close st male re latives . Cae sar adopted him as his 11l' 1I' (when he became Caiu s Iuliu s OClav ianus. " Oc tavian") . In the 1'~' lVer strugg les followi ng Caesar 's murder in 44 BC, Oc tavia n allied Irliliself w~th M.arc us A nto nius and Ma rcu s Ae mi lius Lepidu s formIII ' tire Trru m vrrate . During the foll o wing yea rs, Oc tav ian was a ble III l'stablish hi msel f, and prom ote himself as the defe nder of Italy.
40 • ALJ Rrt IAN IRFJGN tIJ 270- 275 ADJ
while Anto nius was invol ved in the eastern Roman prov inces and in crea sing ly with Kleo patra V II in Alexandria . T he alienatio n of Oe · tavian and Antonius led ultimate ly to civil war, culminating in the de feat of the fleet o f Antonius at Aktion in 31 Be. Octavian pursued Anton ius to Alexandr ia, which he ca ptured . Follow ing the death or Kleop utra, Egy pt was absorbed into the Roma n Empire , but there were further mi litar y actio ns by the newly appointed prefect to im pose full co ntrol. In 29 BC, Co rnelius Gallus suppresse d a re be llion of the Theba id and took his army into Lower Nubi a leading to the in sta llation of a tyranu os in the Dodekasc ho inos . Octavian himsell was no w unassailab le politi call y, supported by the ca ptured wealth 01 Egypt. In 27 BC, he forma lly "restored the republic" reinsta ting the Roman mag istrates , se nate, and co nstitution, in return for which Ill' was give n the title " Augustus" (Sebastos in the Greek -speak ing eas t). Th ere were further prob lems on the southern frontier, leading to a sec o nd campaign into Nub ia, led by the prefect Caius Petro nius . Thi s was c laimed to have reached Napata , although the town s named are predominantl y in Lower Nubia , such as Qasr Ibrim. AURELIAN (reigned 2711-275 All ) . Rom an emperor. Lucius Dornitiu s Aure lianus rose to high military ran k. becomi ng chief comma nde r 01 the cavalry. He wa s proc laimed emperor by his troops shortly after the dea th of C laud ius II as riva l to Qu intillus. The disputed succes sio n, and thc invasions o f the empire on the Danubi an front, enabled the already po werful kingdo m of Palmyra under Zenobia to take Egy pt and parts of Asia Minor. In 272 AD , Aure lian was able to lead his armies to the east , defeatin g Zenob ia's forces at Antioch and Emesa and drivi ng them back to Palmyra , which was besieged . Palmyra and Zenobi a were captured , but Aurelian return ed the next ye ar to suppress rebellio n in Palm yra and assoc iated turmo il in Egy pt. where the Palm yrene so ldiers had joi ned forces with the B1emm yes . Th ere was a siege of the foreig n troops within Alexa nd r ia , which was captured, and its wa lls were destroy ed . The rebellion of Firmus in Alexa ndria reputedl y occ urred in this reign . AVARIS. Th e Greek form of the anc ient Egy ptian name , Hut-warct , Avaris was the capital c ity o f the Hyksos in the ea stern Delta, the modern site of Tell ed- Dab'a . It was attacked and eve ntually ca ptured
BAAL ·
41
hy the Th eban pri nces who reun ited Egypt in the late 17th and beginning of the 18th Dynast ies . Although the wars with the Hyksos began in the reign of Tao, the first docum ent ed attac k o n Avaris was in the reign of Kamose. Th is did not ca pture o r destroy the city, and the lapse of time before his successor, Ahmose I , bega n his wars must have en abled the I-Iyk sos to recoup and redefend the c ity. Th e Th eban assaults o n Avaris are narrated in the autobiogra phica l text of Ahmose son of Ebana . Th ey invo lved the navy , and the cit y might have been protected by cana ls as well as the Ni le branch. AXES. Fro m the ea rliest times , o ne of the co mmones t wea pons of war, used for hand-to- hand co mbat. Ori gin ally, the war axe was hardly distin ct fro m that used in wood working . During the Old Kingdom , it had a semici rcular head with lugs, perforated for attac hment to the 1V00de n haft. In the Midd le Kingdom , a similar type co ntinued, but it was larger w ith three lugs or "tangs" to attach it to the haft. Another type had a longer, rather than semici rcular, blade . In the New Kingdo m, the lo ng , more rectangu lar, blade was favored . A type of halberd is also attested . T his was an elo ngated tanged blade attached to a long shaft. Ce remonial axes with openwo rk design s are also know n. The earliest blades were of Oint; later copper and bron ze were used . Hand -to-h and co mbat with axes is depicted in the Old Kingdom tombs of Kaemheset at Sa qqara and Inti at Deshasheh . Num ero us examples of axes surv ive. Th ey are also frequ entl y depi cted in sce nes "f the arm y, suc h as the co ntingen ts of troops depic ted in the templ e " f Hatshe psu t at Deir el-Bahari (T hebes). In the tomb of Qen amun at Thebes, statues of Amenh otep II are shown- in which the pharao h wears the short kilt and cut leather apron-carry ing an axe .
-BIlAAL. As iatic go d of thund er. Baa l was worshipp ed in Egypt from the IXth Dynasty on ward. As a thunder god , he was assoc iated with Seth . III acco unts of battle, the pharao hs of the later New Kingd om co uld he iden tified with the god . Sety I was " like Baal when he treads the mount ains" in the text of his Libyan War. Ramesses II was equated with both Se th and Baal " in his mom ent of power" in the record of
42
•
BABYl ON
the battl e o f Qadesh , whil e the battl e inscription s of Ramesses III ca ll him " brave like Baal in his time ," " his form and body are exactly eq ual to those of Baal ," and " like Baal o n top of the mountains ." BABYLON. C ity and kingd om of so uthern Mesopotam ia . An ancient ce nte r, it d id not bec om e invo lved with Egypt in any dire ct military way unti l the first mi llen niu m IlC. Babylon appears in the Amarun Letters as Kard uniush (the city) and Shan gar (Babylonia). panici patin g in the gift exchange and diplomatic marriage network of thl' Late Bronze Age . The wea lth of the co untry meant that Babylo n be ca me the foc us of aggress ion by its north ern neighbor, Assyrin . From 728 IlC onward, Bab ylon was rul ed eith er d irec tly or th rou gh Assyr ian vassals, althoug h there we re freq uent rebelli on s and peri od s of in de pende nce. Th ese often affected (if they were not di rect ly co nnec ted with) Assyrian actions in Syr ia-Palestin e and Egy ptian amb itions there . Assy ria n invol vem ent in Bab ylon allowed, for e xample, Ta harqo to es tablish him sel f as the defender o f Pale stin e . Bab ylon's power increa sed under the Neo-Baby loni nn dynast foun ded by Nabopo lassar (62 6-605 IlC). Rapid ly expanding at a tim« of Assyri an weakne ss. Bab ylon was ab le to conq ue r her no rthern neighbor a nd sack Nine veh (6 12 BC) . Babylonian expansion bro ught direct m ilitary co nflic t with Egypt under Psamtik I a nd Nekau II . III his last yea rs, Psamtik I atte m pted to bo lster the ai ling kingdo m 01 Assy ria , send ing military aid , whic h co nfro nted the Bab ylon ians Oil the Euphra tes . In 6 10, a joint Egypt ian-Assyrian fo rce aba ndo ned Harran to the adva nc ing troops of Nabopolassar, Nekau " renewed the initiative o n his accession, resulting in Egy ptian defeat at the bat tie of C a rehem ish (60 5 BC) and, with the acc ess ion of Nebucha dnezzar II , a Bab ylonian advance on Egypt itself. The hostilities COli tinu ed through the reign of Psarntik II . Self-int erest turned Babyl on from enem y to ally when, deposed by A hmose II. Wahihre l1ed 10 Neb uchad nezzar. In an unsuccessful atte mpt to restore Wahibre, thl' Babyl on ian king invaded Egy pt (568 BC) . Baby lon fell to the risilll' power of Persia und er Cy rus the Great in 539 . Fo llow ing the death o f Alexa nde r the Great in the c ity in 323 BC . it bec am e a key ce ntci in the vas t kin ezdom of the Seleukids, before falling to the Par thian and later the Sasan ids ,
BAGGAGE •
43
ItABYL O N, Fo rtress (O ld Cairo). T he name probably derives from the Egyptian Per-Hapy-e/l-/II1/l1 . Th e Jewish histor ian Joseph os says that Babylo n was founded by Cambyses who installed a Chaldaean garrisun there . The origins of the surv iving fortress are belie ved to be of l'crsian date (circa 500 BC) , but there might have been a fort at this place from much earlier (perhaps the place attest ed textually as KherAha), as it stand s at a strategic poi nt co ntro lling land access to Mem phis from Pe lusion and Tjaru. T he Rom an fort was rebui lt by Traja n alter the .Jewish Revolt of 11 6 A D. This time it also served to defend the end of the canal, which ran to the Red Sea along the Wadi Turn ilat , appare ntly an ex tension of that built by Darius I. Th e fort was aga in rebui lt. in the reign of Diocletian , and now form s part of O ld Ca iro. Baby lon is irreg ular in shape, bei ng a rec tangle with its west corner n it off. Th e eas t wa ll, 300 meter s lon g , has ev ide nce for six rounded hastions and two sq uare co rner tower s; the north wa ll also had six rounded bastion s. Th e short so uth wall. 100 meters long . had a ga te Il.urkcd by rounded bastions. Th ere were other ga tes in the east and IITst wallv. th« laller with rou nd tower s . The interna l arran gernems are unkno wn because the site is now occ upied by later structures . 1t ,\( ;( ;AGE. An esse ntial fact or o n any mi litary ex peditio n. but poor ly docum e nted. A le tter preserved in Pap yru s Ko ller lists so me of the su pp lies a nd eq uipment. incl udi ng wea po nry and armor , but nolah ly the foodstu ffs for the horses . including straw a nd kvlles tisbread. Th e horses also requ ired thei r groo ms a nd stab le masters. Scenes of the Egyptia n cam p, altho ug h rare, show that large tents were ca rried for the pharao h a nd officers, with furniture , such as lo lding stoo ls a nd fold ing bed s (a n example was found in the to mb of Tutankhamun ), and headrests (s ho wn in the Qadesh ca mp) . A large bod y .of nonmi litary per son nel accompanied the ex ped ition, such as scr ibes , se rvants , and groom s, all with thei r o wn specialist rq uip rnent . Ox-drawn carts are show n in a few scen es . Th ese wou ld have bee n extrem el y slow mo ving and affected the rat e of march of the army. Some literature indi cates tha t so ldiers ca rried their ow n lond a nd water on the mar ch , altho ug h sup plies mu st also have been carried in the baggage train, supple men ted by forage and ca ptures en 1IIIIl e a nd d uring the ca mpaign.
44 •
IlA K I N ~ A NLI l ~ lIGN m
c. 7 1 5 ~7 1 0 Bel
BATTL E, SCENES o r
•
45
HAK ENR ANE F (reigned c. 715-710 II C). Th e o nly pharao h ascribed to the 24 th Dynasty, rul ing fro m Sa u in the we stern Delt a . Accord in ' to G reek so urces of du bious re liabi lity, " Bochchoris" was de feated ill battle by the Kushi te pharaoh Sha baqo and bu rned alive .
T he hes have been almost co mpletely destroyed , but even so , the co ncentration reliefs is of the reig n of Ramesses II and spec ifica lly of the battle of Q adesh . Th e foll o wing survey ind icates sce nes of batlie ,.but a lso other more sty lized represent ati on s that cover period s for which there are no spec ific batt les.
BASTI O N. Pro jection fro m the curta in wall or rampart s of a fortress , which e na bles the ga rriso n to e nfilade so ld iers attac king the wa ll. III Egyptia n fort resses, the bastio ns are se micircular o r rec tang ular, T hose a t Buhen had an e laborate sys tem o f loo phol es e na bling till' arc hers to shoot in a cho ice of d irect ion s.
Fro m the Predynastic and Ea rly Dynast ic Peri ods co mes a se ries of objects wi th scenes of batt le o r its afte rma th: the Gebe l cl-A r a k k nife handl e ; tom b 100 at Nekhen (Hiera konpolis) ; the Hu nter 's Palett e; the Libya (o r Town' s) Palette; the Battlefield Palette; and (he Na r me r Palett e . T he re lief of Djer at Gebel Shei kh S uleirnan is (he ea rlie st record of a ca mpa ign in Nu bia . More co nve ntio nalized images are fo und on the ivo ry labels fro m the to mb of Den and the statues of Khasekh elllwy .
BATTL E. A single co nfrontation between two armies . Despi te the sce nes of batt les , detail about the tact ics and co nduct of pitc hed bilt ties in the pharaoni c per iod is actua lly very limi ted , Me giddo arul Q a desh be ing the two best-document ed . In the O ld Kingd o m, the ill fantry were involved in hand-to-hand co mbat with axes . T his might have foll o wed initial co nfro ntatio n by archers. In the New Kingdo m and late r period s unti l the time of Alexa nde r t he G rea t , batt le WII domin ated by chariots , and later by cavalry , altho ug h the actual dl' ployme nt of chariotry is still co ntroversia l. Th e reliefs give little use ful informa tion , ge ne rally depi ctin g a melee of figures with the Vii I image of the victor ious pharao h a nd numerous eq ually victo riou Egyp tia n a nd mercenary so ld iers . Te xts g ive a little mor e impression o f the clangor of batt le , altho ugh the e mph asis is still o n the victou ous phar aoh. Occasiona lly, texts refer to the pharaoh 's war cr y . T here is little detail o f naval battles, apart from that of Rarnesscs III aga inst the "Sea Peo ples" in which the fighting is between the USII II infantry troop s, many of whom are shown in small cra fts. Battles II twee n large warships, suc h as the t r ireme or quinquerem e, do not al' pear to have been a fea ture of early war fare and only become com ruun from the time of the co nfrontatio n betwee n Athe ns and Pers ia 01' Sala mis (480 BC) . Sea battles were a feature of the G reek-Persia n Will and those of the Ptolemaic period , notably Kos , Sa lamis , and Aklillll BAT T LE , SCENES O F. For the vast span o f Egyp tian history, it is 10 markable ho w few sce nes o f batt le survive . Ce rta inly, so me nu nIII merus that mig ht have ca rried batt le rel iefs , suc h as the temples "r T h u tmose II I , Amen hotep II , and Mercn pta h o n the west bunk ,,'
0:
Conve ntionalized images are typica l of the surviving ev ide nce from Ihc O ld Kingdom . O f the Thi rd Dynasty, there a re only smiting sce nes of Sekhem k he t and S neferu from Wadi Ma ghara in Sinai. The ea rli':sl surviving fragme nts of batt le sce nes are of Fourth Dynasty da te , 110m the pyram id tem ple (or a pri vate tomb) of the reign of Khufu o r Khafre at Gi za . The pyrami d te mp les o f the Fifth Dynasty pharaohs IIser ka f and Unas carried ballle sce nes as well as more co nve ntional " .niting scen~s . Sce nes in t~e pyram id te mple of Sahure were copied t1 11': ctly by his succes sor N iuserre and, in the Sixth Dynasty, by Pepy II. I here are sce nes of attack on fortifications in the private tom bs of K
46
•
BATTI r. SON ES 0 1
probably relating to the Hyksos Wars . Th e bod y o f the chariot of Thutmose IV dep icts the pharaoh in battl e with the Asia tics , and the paint ed bo x fro m the tomb of Tutankhamun depi cted both As iatic and Nubi an battles . In both cas es , the sce nes are probabl y more ide o log ica l than histor ical. Neverthe less, these sce nes point to the de velopme nt of a ge nre of battl e depi cti on s, whi ch is co ntinued in the 19th Dynast y and suggests that o ther sce nes have bee n destroyed . Tu tankhamun e rected a temple at Karnak that had sce nes of Asiatic and Nubia n Wars , which have rece ntly bee n reco nstruc ted. Th e c ha pel 01 Horemheb at Gebel Silsila depicts a Nubi an ca mpaig n, perh ap s thilt of the reig n of Tutan kham un . Th e large st number of battl e scenes surviv ing is from the 19th and 20 th Dyn asties . At Karn ak , a cyc le o f reli efs depi cts the battles 01 Sety I with Lib yans , Asiatics, Shasu, and Hittites. Fragm ent s that can probably be attributed to the reign of Se ty I we re recov ered from the temple o f Sese bi in Uppe r Nubia and depi ct a Nubia n baili e , PCI haps in the ca mpaig n aga inst Irem . Th e reign of Rarnesses " provid es the largest num ber of survivinr bailie sce nes, but most of the se depi ct the battle of Qadesh. Thei r m ight have bee n battle re liefs at bot h Per-R amesses in the eastern Delta and at Memphis, but nothing has yet been recovered from th sites . At A bydos, a Syro-Pa lestinia n ca mpaign (bad ly dama ged ) deco rated the outer co urt of the temple of Sety I. Th e outer wall of his OW II temple at Aby dos ca rries sce nes o f the Qadesh ca mpaign . In the The ban region , the temple of Karn ak (Hy postyle Hall , oute r wall) hild sce nes o f Qadesh , later altered , and Syro-Palestinian Wars , Th e pylon and the oute r wes t wa ll of the templ e of Lu xor carry rel ie fs of Qadesh The pharaoh 's temple on the west bank (the Rarnesseurn ) has rel ict sho wing Qa desh and other Syro-Palestin ian co nflicts . In Nub ia, Iii ea rliest temple of the reign , at Beit el-Wali, detail s a Nubi an battle pe rhaps of the reign of Sety I. T here are also more co nve ntionalized scenes of conflict in Syria-Pa lestine and with the Libyans. At DCII the re are sce nes of Syro-Palestinian conflict. A badl y damaged Nub ian battl e sce ne in the same tem ple is closely modeled on that at Be it ,I Wali. Th e reli efs of the templ e of Aksha are badly dam aged , Th e Grvut Templ e of Ab u S imbe l carries sce nes o f the Qadesh ca mpa ign a nd II more co nventiona l Nubi an battle and attack on Libyan s. At Anuu« West there were sce nes of the campaign agai nst Irern .
UATTlH lflD PALETTE •
47
A r.elief fragm ent from a Ram essid e temple , found a t Deir e lBahan, sho ws As iatics under the royal chariot. It ca nno t be ascribed to a ny specific reign . .The major cycle o f battl e reli efs of the 20 th Dynasty is that of the
r~lgn of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu , T hese begin with the Nu111 i1n battl es , agai nst Irern, and a co nflict in Syria-Palestine, co nsidcred by so me Egy pto log ists to ha ve been co pied from reli efs of an earlier reign, Th e most importa nt sce nes show the equipping of the army and the battl e wi th the Sea Peoples, a nd the Lib yan War s . FurIhcr sce nes at Karnak (temple of Amun) sho w the L ibyan War s and the pharaoh 's temple in the precin ct of Mut depi cts the seco nd ca mp:ugn aga mst the Libyans , The.re is hardl y any thing later than the 20 th Dynasty from Egy pt dL',?lctlllg batt~e. althou gh co nve ntional imagery co ntinues (e .g., the relief o f the Victor ious Sheshonq I at Karn ak) a nd has been used to ".Iaim. tha~ cert~in phara oh s fou ght foreign wars (e.g ., Siamun). The Kushite ki ng Piye recorded his co nq uest of Egypt in a cycle of reli efs III the temple of A rnun at Gebel Bar kal (Na p a ta) . Th e invasion of I~gypt by Ashurbanipal , king o f Assyria . was depi cted in reli efs in Ihe palace at Ni n~veh . ?ne reli ef shows the sac k of a n Egy ptia n ci ty lI ud the deportation o f Its peopl e. Gl azed tile decor ation also showed i l,lL'i de~lts of the ca mpa igns, and preser ved frag me nts sho w dead I~gypt Ians an~ Kushites in wa ter a nd beneath Assyrian char iots . Onl y "Ollventlonal Images , such as smiting scenes , surv ive from the Late I'erind . Th e text of the Rosell a Ston e descr ibes statues of Ptolem y V Ih:.11were to be set up in the templ es . Th ese sho wed the pharaoh re,'('m ng w~apons fro m the princi pa l go d of the temple . Similar co nY('UIIOnal lmages of sm iting co nti nue into the Rom an per iod , not ably li t the temples of Esna and Dend era , where e mpero rs co ntinue to be depicted as pharaoh s . II \'ITLEFIEL D PALETTE. A frag mentary ceremonial slate palette of
I'u'rlynastic date that carries a scene of the afterm ath o r battle on its ob\ ('~sc. The field is strew n with the bodies of the dead. so me of who m are ' "'IUg uuacked by vultures and other birds. A lion preys on the body of II lnrger fig ure. The defeated all have stylized c urly hair and beards and 1111'. naked , Some have their arm s tied behind their backs. Standards , Which have been given arms, gras p two captives who ha ve their arm s
BO~ D E~
48 •
•
49
II I ~M
whe re it acco m pa nie s the public ap pearances o f A k he n a te n . It ind udes sta ndard be are rs and a va rie ty o f tro ops: Eg yptians w ith s pea rs and axes , Nub ian s w ith bows or c udg e ls , Asi atics w ith spears .unl khe~esh- s wo rd s . A trumpeter accompa nies the m . Vario us a utobiographica l te xt s re fer to se rv ing in the ro ya l bod ygu ard .
secured beh ind their backs. The standards are surmounted by di vine emb lems , a falco n and an ibis , suggesting th is might be a record of o ne o f the wa rs of un ification . T he palette mi ght have come from Nekheu or the regio n of Ab ydo s; it is no w in the Ashmo lean M use um , Oxford , BERM. T he led ge between the ditch a nd the base of a para pet in a fu r tilicatilln . BETH S HEAN. Tell a/ -H llslI in Jord an 32 °29 ' N 35 °32 ' E . Garrislln town so uth of the Sea o f Ga lilee , o n the we st bank of th e River Jordan Beth Shean stands at a strateg ic point co ntro lling th e route via till' Jezreel Va lley to Dam ascu s . There have been m an y e xcavat ion s hell' and di sco veries incl ude an important ste la of Scty I rel at ing to his Asi atic cam paigns. There wa s an Eg ypti an garriso n in th e town , certai nly until the tim e of R amesses III , in w ho se rei gn it included mercennry troop s o f Pcleset and Tjekker . Beth Sh ean was destroyed by fire in 11 11 20 th Dyna st y, the blame usu all y be ing placed on the " Sea Peoples ." BLEMMYES. A peopl e o f Lower Nubia who po sed a co ns idc ruhl threat to the so uthe rn bord er and the internal security of Eg ypt , pili ticul arl y Upper Egypt , in th e later Roman period . They were in vol ved in co nflic ts with th e Rom an force s and we re appare ntly defeat ed hI Di ocl eti an in 29 7 AD. Pro blem s persisted in the fourth ce ntu ry unul th e Ble mmyes se ized contro l of the Dodekaschoinos around 395/41HI AD . They ar e reco rded as rai di ng in U pper Egy pt in the early li llil ce ntury , causing people to flee to mon asteri es for sa fety. The raid reached Kharga O asis. T he im pe r ial re spo nse m ight ha ve bee n 1 stre ngthened garrison w ith new barrack s o n th e island of Abu (E I, pha ntine) . T he B lemmyes were at tim es various ly in co nflict and II I liance w ith th e other peo ple of north ern Nubia , th e Noubades . Ron uu forces defea ted a joi nt ar my o f Blemmye s and Noubad es in 4 52 III' Lat er th e B lemmye s were defe ated by th e No ubadian ki ng, S ill 1 w ho record s three batt les in an ins criptio n in th e te mpl e o f Kal ab T he lon g-di stance raid s o f the Bl emmye s mi ght have be en made 1'''
II
sib le, or at le ast eas ie r, by use o f the camel. BODYG U ARD. Armed fo rce to pro tect th e ph ar aoh o r h igh o lfi ci nl T he ro yal bod ygu ard is fre q uently depi ct ed in the tombs at Anu u u
III IlmER. A fixed line mark ing the end of a polit y. Because of its geog1 nphy, mo st of Egyp t was not c learly defi ned by bord er s but by looser 1101 ~ t lers a n ~ bo undaries. T he cleare st borde r wa s tha t to the so uth a~alllst Nu.b l3 , w here the cataracts 01' the Nile formed a c lear phys lcal Iltlrder. winc h was.then defended by fortresses. O ne o f the roles of the 11.II:1rao h w.as. to defen d , and ex tend , the bo undaries of Egypt. In the New Kiugdom It IS u.sually A m u n w ho charge s the pharaoh with this and to \I 110m succ ess IS accred ited . S telae and rock inscription s were used to ,II,l:llk borders and ~ou nd aries . In N ubia , Thutmose lief! inscr iptio ns at 1III Ilhos (at the T hird Ca tarac t) and at Hagar c1-Merwa: these defined IIIl' Nile and desert lim its of Egyptian influence at o ne point in his re ia n 1I 1I11 not necessarily the ac tua l riverin e border). The Nubi an inscriptions were parallel ed by o ne set up (perha ps rock-cut) in Naharin whe n the pharao h crossed the river Euphrates . Th e northeastern bord er with Asia IVII S lI1 a~ked by the ca nal and fortress sys tem around Tjaru . T he two '," Iae 0 1 S en us ret ~I1 erec ted in the fortress of Semna at the Seco nd c ut.rruct (both I~OW 111 the Berl in Mu seum) are the best exampl es of bard"1 stelae, Th e fi rst ste la wa s set lip in year 8 . the seco nd in yea r 16. Th e pharao h addre sse s the troop s at the so uthe rn border. I
II;,:Cestablished my border further south than my fathers , increased that which was bequeathed to me . . . /I cowa rd is he who is driven from his border
A~. for any son of ~ine
who shall mainlain ;his border which my has made, he IS my son . . . The Irue son is he who champions Ill S ' ather,. who guards Ihe border of his bcgeller. BUI he who abandons II , who fads 10 fight for it , he is not my son, he was not born 10 me. " ~'lIc sty
li lt' inscriptio n co nc ludes wi th the sta te ment th at th e pharao h had se t III' lin nn:~ge at the border so that the so ld iers statio ned wo uld fig ht o n II Ioch a ll. A l t h o u~ h the Eg yptian word e m ployed (t ilt) doe s mean IlIlm' . and co uld . Impl y " o ne w ithin the fortress temple ' " Iit can a Iso li lt 111I lI~ e ste la Itsel f. Whi ch e ve r was meant , it sy mb o lized the I'hllliloh s pre sen ce .
50 •
110 KIIJO M
T he east a nd west borders of Up per Egy pt and Nubia were m uch mor e d iffic ult to co ntrol. T here were undou b tedl y watc htowers and guard stations at the e ntrance to the Ni le Va lley f~on~ major desert roa ds . In the Rom an period, a series of forts wa s built 111 Kh arga DOl sis and the vulnerable west end o f the Fay um , at Dionysias . It ha. been sugges ted that a series o f sma ll forts pro tec ted the wes tern lim it o f the Del ta and ex te nded a lo ng the coast from Rakote via Knnu Ab u -G ir g , el-Ghar b a niyat , and A la m ein to Zawiyet Um m el Rakham . There are also Roman for ts in the Eas tern De sert of Upper Egy pt. Th e most vu lnerab le border to the eas t wa s that whic h incl uded the W ays of Horus and the fortre ss syste m of T jaru and Pelusion . BOREDOM. Boredom m ust have affl ic ted troop s in many capacit ies it is not abl y reco rded in the te xt of Pap yru s Anastas i IV, reputedl y II lett er fro m a n offic ial in an A siati c garrison . He co m pla ins tluu ever yth ing he bro ught w ith h im has va nis hed, a ltho ugh ther e is II" one to ro b h im ; the trees have no fru it , his ey es " turn lon g ing ly to thl ro ad that goes to Djahy" ; he is plagued by gnats , mi dge s, an d sa nd fl ies acco rd ing to the tim e o f day ; the heat is unendin g and to cap II a ll, the scribe wi th him has a tw itc h and the toothach e . The Scmu u di spatches a lso record the tedi um o f ga rrison life wi th the ir mon otn nou s records of sma ll groups of no mad ic N ubia ns . T he pre se nce "I op ium ve sse ls at Zawiye t Um m c1-Rakh am su~gests that the tro,I~P mi ght ha ve resorted 10 ex tre me way s o f all~vlat ll1g bo~·edom . 1,111 bored c harioteer is a leitm otif o f bure a uc ra tic lomb pamtings . S,
also BU REA UC R ACY . BOUKOLOI. Troops recru ited in the co untryside , es pec ially assoc iato l with the herdsmen o f the Delta. T hey revo lted in 171/172 AD and jo inl'd a wide r rebellion ,led by a priest lsidoros , They we re acc used of killin ' and eating a Ro man ce ntur ion . T he force marched on Alex a nd r ia hili was suppres sed by the governor o f Syria , Avidius Cassiu s. BOWS, 1. SE L F -BO W S. The earlier typ e o f bow co ns isted of a siru pie woode n stave with gut string att ach ed . Thi s typ e wa~ ul~ i versal III the Ea rly Bro nze Age (O ld K ingdom). In western ASia, It wa s It placed by the co m posi te bow . In Egypt , the se lf-bow cO~lti n ued to " w ide ly used , esp ecially by Nubian troop s. The bowstri ngs wert' "I
BO WS. 2. CO MPOS ITE BOWS •
51
gilt attache d by 10 or 12 twists aro und eac h end of the bow and secu red by o ne or more hitch es at o ne end . Good ex am ples o f stru ng " " ws we re fo und wi th the bodi es of the so ld iers o f Menthuhotep II buried at De ir e l-B ahari . T he re were 14 se lf-bows in the bur ial o f Tulankham u n , va ryi ng in len gth . The shortes t was 0 .67 meter and was perh aps mad e for the p harao h as a c hild. Most o f the bo ws we re I; II'ge r, ran g ing from 1.2 mete rs to 1.77 meter s, w ith th ree over 1.9 ureters. The se lf-bo w had a ra nge o f perh ap s 155-1 90 met ers . III I\VS. 2. C O M P OS ITE BOWS. A laminated bow, some times ca lled a "II II I/}(} /l lld bow. Th e form wa s de ve loped in western As ia and re placed lhe self-bow ther e . It was the bo w of the Late Bron ze Age (New King" " Ill!. and qu ickl y adop ted in Egy pt. Th ere is little firm ev ide nce for its usc after the 20 th Dynasty in Egypt , but it co ntinued in use in wes tern " ~ i a unt il the tim e of the Per sian Em pire . Th e co mpos ite bow is d isl i llctiv~ in re~resen tat ion : unstru ng , the bow has a dou ble-curved prolilc, With an inward angle at the grip , but whe n s trung, thi s ang le beru mcs extern al and the who le bow assumes a triangul ar pro file . W hen Ihl' how is d raw n , it displ ays a sweepi ng curve , the ang le almo st co mpletely d.isap pear ing . The co m posi te bow has a woode n core (us ually 'I'h l, whic h was cove red wi th a laye r o f sinew o n the back and a layer " I horn on the face . T his is then covered with a shea th of bar k , usua lly birch. T his covering was decorated , o ften e labora tely. Th e tomb o f TuI ~u l ld mmun produced a co llectio n of around 30 bows of di ffering li t'S, so me prob ably made for the pharaoh as a child (m easu ring 0 .34 uu-tcr) . T he larger spec imens , some e labor ate ly decorated , we re up to 1..1 meters in le ngth . Th e bowstrings we re o f gut (so me o f Tu tunkharn un's in four-strand tw isted gut), which was prob abl y attac hed Ilr ltlllgh an eye . Th e co mposite bow had a range greater than the se lfhuw, with a modern repli ca achieving 230- 260 meters . In the c lassical world . it see ms to have been effec tive up to 175 meter s. Such bows are referred to as part of the gift excha nge in the 1\ III a rn a Letter s co ming from Mitanni , and it was as sumed that , bet'III IS!: o f the materi als e m ployed in their manufacture , a ll co m po site Ill llvs were imp or ted . It is no w certa in that so me we re manu factu red III Egy pt a nd tha t the bark (us ua lly birc h) co uld be im po rte d . Bi rch hili k re ma ins pl iab le for so me time , but even if it dr ies o ut, it ca n be 1I \1'd , if softened aga in . Sc en e s in the The ban tombs o f Puyemre a nd
52 • Im OO K·O r-l GYI'T BUIIIN •
Menkhe perresonb sho w the manu facture o f bo ws in the works ho ps 01 the templ e of Am u n , 81~OOK-OF·EGYPT.Gr eek
Rhinocorula or Rhinocorura , the mod ern e l-A ris h . At the seaward e nd of the Wadi el-A rish, it formed tln boundary bet ween Egy pt and the e mpire of Assyria an d prob ah h th at be tween Egy pt and Babylon und er Nebuchadnezzar II .
53
"l'l:n estima ted at 8 .0-9 .0 met e rs o r 11.0 mete rs . Bastions o r towers were se t every 5 .0 meters and there we re large sq uare corne r to wers, per haps high er than the c urta in wa lls . On the thr ee land ward sides, ' :lIup.arts compris ing a berm and parapets with looph oles prot ected 1I'l: Citadel , Th e dit ch was 7 .3 met ers wide a nd 3. 1 meters de ep lined ' with white gyps um plas ter. T he basti on s had an elabor ate se rie s of loopholes . A s ingle e mb ravure o pened o nto triple loopholes . Th e embras ures were arranged in
B UCOLIC TROOPS. See BO UK OLOI. B Ull E N. M ajor fortress and supp ly dep ot a t the foo t of the Second Cata r a c t. From here , the rive r was na vigabl e w itho ut maj or o bstnn tion as far as the Fi rst Ca taract. Th ere were two fo rtifications: a VII I o ute r e nc los ure wall and the inner fort (o r c itade l). The outer wa ll iru tiall y served as the defen se o f the site while the inn er fo rt was bciu co nstr uc ted. In the first stage , the o uter wa ll was 4 meters thi c k, wirl, 32 rou nde d bast ion s set 22 meter s apart. It was later altered to a lI',iI l w ith towers a nd made more secure by the construc t io n o f the ma~ ~I\ barbi can gate and by a river wa ll co nnect ing it wi th the inne r Iort, Ad d ition al de fen ses were the be rm (dry dit ch ) 6.0 met ers w ide and II me ters dee p that foll owed the sa me line as the wa ll wi th ~a lkll l w he re the to wers , ga tes, and barbi can proj ected . Th e halte red ~ i d,' , "' the d itch were face d in thick mud a nd w hite gypsum plas ter, Th e til ers a nd wa lls had a battered base abo ut I .SO mete rs high. T he area I.. tween the ba se o f the wa ll a nd the be rm was paved in bri c k. O n Iii outer s ide of the berm , the counte rsca rp was topped with a brick WliI fro m wh ich a g lac is desce nded to gro und level. In place s , till: dill I was cut into the escarpme nt, but els ewhere the sc arp and co uun , sca rp we re reve tte d with wa lls o f brick a nd roug h stone . O n the desert side, the main entra nce was throu gh the barb icun brick tower 47 me ters lon g a nd 30 me ters wide . It had projccun squa re bastion s and a batt ered bas e . The to wer was desi gned to 1'" ve nt large numbe rs of troop s entering at o nce. Th e ba rb ican wa s .I, v ide d by three ga teways into two ba rnes (co urts) , the first wi th t squa re basti on s overlooking it, the second with four. Th e inner fort or ci tade l a lso had a surround ing d itch . It wa s a I tan gular structure , enc los ing an area 150 mete rs by 138 meter s \I,t1 its main wall s bein g 5.0 mete rs thick . The hei ght o f the wa lls I,
two ro ws, the lo wer be ing flu sh with the floo r. A ltogether, the bas tion I'''lIld accom mo da te up to I0 or 12 archers , each with a vari ety of an,' Il's to s hoot, e nab ling a deva statin g crossfire o n any attackers. The e ntrance to the inner fort was the west ga te, like the bar bican III the o uter defen ses , a massiv e tower w ith double doors o f wood and II drawb ridge o n rollers. If the outer defense s were breac hed , the lowl:r rampart s co uld eas ily hav e been reach ed , but the defen se o f the "" 'hers in the bast ions wou ld have limited acc ess to the main walls ,iI the fort .A ny attack on the wes t gate faced the same prob lems as III Ihl' barbi cun. a nd eve n if access was ga ined, it led d irectl y onto a \Il1 all ' qua re w ith a ba fll e wa ll formed by a main b lock of the mili1111 ." q unricrs . e na bling the invaders to be surro unde d . l he huilding s ins ide the ci tade l we re laid out on a g rid plan on 1111 ,'" terr aces s lop ing do wn from we st to eas t to ward the river. Two III j;r1 ro;lds created three zo nes with the resid en ce of the co mmandant III Ihl' nor th , w ith the temple (pos s ibly in the Middle Kin gdom , cerIIII II 'y III the New Kin gd om ) . and w ith so me e ntrepo ts and living '1 11 :11 tcrs . In the ce ntra l zo ne, the buildings were mainl y living quar" I' or work shops. T he so uthern zo ne contained residences for the 01'IlI n , . with mor e barrack s or work sh op s ,
The river defe nse s show that there was little fear of attac k. Two 'I""ys proj ected over 21 meters into the river. Th ere was certain ly one ~ " l l'I' gate, perh ap s two . The garriso n a t Buh en may ha ve approache d 2,000 . Th e est imate III ils defense need s, ca lcu lated o n the len gth of wall, would requi re I" III'" e n 350 a nd 700 for the inner fort and 700 to I ,400 for the outer ,I, lcuscs . lluhen was captured by the Ku shit e rul ers of Kerrn a in the 13th IIYII II ,l y and occupied by a m ixed garrison of N ub ian troo ps with , "Yllilan co mma nders. Th ere was ev ide nce for maj or fires in some
54 • BUl l CAMllYSr s (RUGNW 53 0 -5 22 BC, IN [ GYPT f ROM 525 BC) •
parts of the fo rt, pro bab ly associ ated wi th its ca pture . T he for t was I'" occ upied during the Th eb an e xpa nsion, at the end o f the 17th and tlil' begin ni ng of the 18th Dyn ast ie s, in the reig ns o f Kamose and ~h mose . It was ex te ns ive ly re fort ifi ed , but during the later New Kill!' dom , its mi lita ry ro le declined , a ltho ugh it mu st have remain ed all importa nt stag ing po st a nd depot. Fo llow ing the Egyptian wi thdra wal fro m Nubia at the e nd of the 20 th Dy nas ty , Buhe n wa s aban do nr. l un til a peri od of reocc upation in the 25 th Dyn asty. As in the Iortrcs sv at Semna , Kurnma , and Qasr Ibrim , the templ e was re stored h\ Ta h a r qo, a nd Buhen ce rta inly had a garrison a nd se rved as a stag iu ' pos t. T he re is no evidence for later military activity here . B ULL. T he b ull was o ne of the c haracteristic images o f the phuruoh from Predyn ast ic times o nward . The ph araoh as bu ll appea rs tram pi ing and goring a n e ne my (pe rha ps a Libyan ).o n. a s late p~l e tt e " ( )11 the Na r m er Palett e , he appears as a bull de moli shing a fortifl ca tlon Th rou ghout the New Kingd o m , each pharaoh was procl aim ed 0 " Horus , the m ighty bul l." At the battl e o f Qadesh , Ramesses II wn " firm-hearted like a bull rea dy for battle ," a nd in the te xts or III Libyan war of ye ar 5, Ramesses III is de scribed as " like a bull suuul ing o n the battl e fie ld , hi s eyes o n his horn s, prep ared aJ~d rea dy to III tack his assai lants w ith his head ." M ilita ry stand a r d s giv e the 1H1I1 1l o f so me of the platoo ns of the ar my , which often have e l~i t hets 0,1' Iii pharaoh suc h as " Bull of Nub ia ." Th e bu ll was associated wit h , number of go ds , including M o n t h u , BUR E A U CRA C Y, Egypt wa s o ne of the mo st bureaucratic c ivi lII , tion s of the anc ient world and th is ce rta inly ex tended to the arcn u " war. Because writing wa s the ac cess to high office and indl catc.l mem ber o f the e lite, all high offic ia ls we re literate . Ind eed , so me ~" " era ls, suc h as H orem heb, e rec ted statues of themsel ves as scri be . I the O ld Kin gd om , a maj or m ilit ar y ex ped ition was placed undci II comma nd of'Weni , pre suma bly becau se his organizatio na l s kills WI ' o f g rea te r imp ortan ce than those of the co mma nders o f le vies . , T he intimate relation sh ip be twee n military and burea ucracy I S , " phasized by the ter mino logy, in whic h ma ny m ilitary term s and 1111 have d irect pa rallel s in civi l and priestly sphe res. Fo r examp le , II wor d sa for a co mpany or regiment of troops is the same as a pily/.
55
priests; the we re tu is both a c ivi l administrator and m ilitary official; the
"/ilil/a was both the court of magistra tes and co unc il of war ; tnesha and ttcse t we re wo rds applied to both the army and ga ngs of workme n. In the 18th Dyn asty , with the introdu ction of chariots and horses, ,1 '1I;~notry became the second sk ill that defined a member of the e lite . I Ills IS s ho wn by the leng th of tim e autobiographies accord to study III "sc hoo l" a nd time "in the stab les ." Th e sce nes of reward at A urarn a show that recor ds of gi fts d istributed to officia ls were be in t "I'll in tripl ica~e . Simil arly, in sce nes o f the afterma th of battle~ ',<' n hes are .keeplllg records of the severed han ds and pha lluses of the dead ene mies . Th ere are ma ny vers ions of the texts , oft e n kno wn co l,1'.'l" llve ly as "~e a sc ri be," whic h were used as wri ting exerci ses . I hcsc e mnhas lze the easy life of the sc ribe , compared wit h that of all IIIher workers, especially that of a so ld ier.
- CI
'\/\ IIl Y~ES (re igned 530-52211C, in Egypt from 525 IIC), Grea t King " I 1'~rsl3 and : uler o f Egypt. Camoyses was the so n o f Cyrus the Great, 1111' 1 ()~lJ1d~r 0 1 the power o f the Persian Achae me nid dy nas ty. Th e Per11111 b n plre had ~xpanded rapidly with its co nquest o f Babylon and 11,,' ~eo-Babylolllan. Empire and its defeat o f the Med ian king " ',IY.l~es, whos e ernpire stretc hed across north Me sopo ta mia into Ana-
'"11 '1 . Cyrus did not attempt to attack Egypt, under the rule o f Ah m ose II ' ,' Hil ,the cou~ltry present ed the major threat to Persian rul e in western \\1'1 . '. reparati on s for the advance on Egypt invo lved the format ion of " I'<'~' slan navy and the co nso lida tion of Persian co ntro l o f the ea stern ~,II'dl terranean . Th e Persians gai ned control of Egy pt' s main a lly, I ,\'Il/·us . and so ug ht assistance from the A r a bs who co ntro lled the d ifI I, lilt route across the Sinai Peninsula . The new Persian flee t was not " IIl 'y tor action until 526, and the opportunity for invasion came with IIIl' dl'ath o f A hmose and accession o f his so n Psamtik III. • 'l'1i: Egy ptian and Persian ar mies e ngaged in the eas te rn Delta, ncar I d ll.\lun: Th e Egyptians were de fea ted and retreated to M em p h is . IIll' l'crs ian hera ld, who was se nt to seek the city 's surrender, was I llh'd . and Me mp his was besieged . falling after 10 days. Psamti k III ., 1;lke n into captivi ty a nd , acc used o f fom enting a rebe llion, put to
CANAAN • 57
56 •
CAM US
death. W ith the capture o f Memph is, Camby sc s receive d the subrn is sio n of the Greek c ities in Li bya , C yre ne , and Barca. The c ve nts of Ca mbyses' inva sion are reco rded by Herodot os , but he is ex tre me ly ho stile to the Per sian ruler , as are othe r an cient tradi tion s , particu larly those fro m Egypt itsel f. Hero dot o s re por ts a failed atte m pt by C ambyses to inv ade Nubia , whic h probabl y masks. ae tions on the southe rn fro ntier . The ev ide nce sugg es ts that the Persian d id have so me contro l of Lowe r Nubi a , perhaps as far as the Se co nd Cataract w ith the fo rtress of Do r gin a r t i as their base . T here was CC I ta iu ly diplomati c contact w ith Meroe , and the Ku shite rulers sup pli ed troops th at fou ght in the Per sian inva sio n o f Greece . Kush ap pears as the last o f th e satrapies in Pers ian lists and probably repre sents Lo we r N ubia , the ad mi nistrative di stri ct s later known II the Dodeka schoinos and the Triako ntasc ho ino s . Ca mbyses is also reported to have se nt anot her faile d ex pedition to the wes tern Oases . Agai n, the hostilit y to the king in tradition may COl ' ceal a success. II is ce rta in that Kharga Oasis was unde r Persian CIIII trol in the re ign of Cambyses' successor, Darius I, who bui lt the tC11I pie of H ibis and the cha pel w ithin the fortress o f Q~sr el-Ghuei(~l\ . A brie f, but contemporary, Egy ptian accou nt 0 1 the Pers ia n II1 Vll sio n is to be found in the auto biogra phica l inscri ptio n o n the sta tue III Wedjahor resne t , com ma nde r of the navy in the reigns of A nmosv II and Psamti k III . The death o f C ambyse s and acc e ssion of Darius I sa w wi desprea d rebe llio n in the Per sian Em pire, a ltho ug h it is un kn own whether Egypt was a lso invo lved . CA M E L S. T he c ame l was domesti cated in Arabia and first appears III a mi litary co ntex t in the scenes of the war of As h u r ban ip a l , ki n~ III Assyr ia , aga inst the Arabs in the seven th century Be . It was, un til II cently, thou ght that the came l was not used in Egy pt until the Perxi II I per iod . Howe ver, e xcav ations at Qasr Ibrim .identifie d ca~el d~1I1 w ithin a sealed-contex t, whic h d ate s to early 111 the first millenunnu Be. Neve rthe less, dep icti on s o f ca me ls are rare be fore Pto lemaic 11 11" Ro man time s . T he Sele ukid kin gs o f S yri a deployed came l-hiliII troop s , but the y we re used as pack animals for conve yance o f 511 1' pli es and baggage. T he Roman arm y also used ca mel-borne trlllll' the dromedarii.
. It was ass ume d that the acqu is itio n of the camel was a co ntributo ry factor 111 the ex pans ion of the B1emmyes , a peop le of the Eastern Desert of Lo wer Nu b ia , bu t in the light o f the Qasr Ibrim ma te ria l this I11USt now be qu est ion ed . Ne verthe le ss , the cam e l must have made the B le l~ mya n lon g-d istance ra ids into Upper Egypt and Kharga Oasis lcusible . T here are two- and three-dime nsio nal image s o f camels and riders from Meroe , and texts show that the desert routes from the lourth Cataract we re bei ng used ex tens ive ly in the first ce ntur ies AD . C
''' M P' ,Sce nes.o f bailie of Q adesh show the cam p e nc irc led by a wa ll III shields w ith ga teways flank ed by images of lion s. T he royal e nl'; lI n ~ me n t stands at the ce nte r w ith large tents . T here are area s where rh arlots are be ing rep a ired and checked , and don keys ar e bein g give n f lldd~r. E lse w here , a footsor e so ld ie r is be ing treated ; a man is drin k" ' ~ lro~ a water sk in: t ~e re is. a dis pute o ver ratio ns; men are fight II I); , whi le othe rs are sittmg doing not hing and be ing bera ted for it.
t 'I\ N A A ~ .
Egy pt' s nearest ne igh bor in western As ia , so me times inthe looser term Retenu. T he name is Kenaa n in bo th Egy ptran and Hebre w an d Kinakhkhi or Kin akhn i in A kka dia n (e.g., the Ama rna L etters). C anaan comprised the plain betw ee n the Mediterruuca n o n the west and the Dead Sea and Jord an Va lley on the eas t II lId inc luded important tow ns , such as Ga za , Joppa , and J erusalem . ,II, ex te ~lded north as far as the mod ern border o f Israel and Le ba no n. Ill e~'e IS n o~ e vidence for a stro ng Egypt ian presen ce a long the w as t III Canaa n (I~o m Gaza north ward ) in the Ea rly Bron ze Age , perhaps l'II ~ lI1ec ted With the passage o f ships to Byblos. In the later part o f the Midd le Bro nze Age , so uthern Canaan became a stro ng ho ld of the II ,v k s o~ , who h~d a major base at S haruh e n . Fo llow ing the Egyptian ru mp.ugns against the Hyksos a nd the ca pture o f Sharuhe n by Ah II1":' C, the EgyptJa.ns absorbed C anaa n in a se ries of cam pa igns , which ca used massive destructi on o f town s. Th er e is evide nce for de1'" r ta tio n of so me o f the pop u lation. Canaa n was d iv ide d into c ityuucs. a ltho ug h there we re also so me seasona lly no mad ic gro ups , IIl'b as the S h asu . T he Egypt ians insta lled garrisons and im posed 1II'hl control o n the local ruler s . T here is co nside ra b le ev ide nce about l i lt' reg ion in the A m a rna L etter s . In the rei gn s o f Sety I and Illlmcsses II, ther e wa s ano the r se ries o f cam pa igns to re-enforce ~' I li d ed 111
CATARACTS 58
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CA N Al
Egy ptian co ntro l in respon se to Hittit e acti vities farth er north , Th e regio n rem ain ed firmly und e r Egyptian co ntro l th rou gh out the 19th a nd earl ier 20 th Dynasties. T here is evi de nce for the destruction o f major sites and the e nd of Egyptian rule in the reign of Ramesses VI. CA NA L. Althou gh a re gul ar feature o f Egy pt' s irr igati on pattern , ca na ls we re a lso used for de fensive purp ose s and were mad e to faeil itate navigatio n through the First Cataract. The most im portant de fensi ve ca nal was that w hic h gua rded the ea ste rn border , th rou gh Tja r u . depicted o n reliefs o f Sety I as filled with crocod iles and ca lled " the d ividin g wate rs." T he largest ca nal was that thro ug h thv Wadi Tumilat begun by Nekau II and co mpleted or e nla rged by Darius I. Ptolem y \I c lea red the cana l, and Traj an later ex tende d it t" Babylon . A ll ca nals need ed reg ula r mainten ance and c learance I" prevent the m from e ither silting or sa nd ing up . CA RCHEM IS H (K a r k a m is). C ity of north Sy ria on the R ive r Ell phrates . It was the site o f a ba ttle (60 5 Be) between the ar mies "I Nekau II and Babylon , whose forces were led by Prin ce Nell ucbadnezzar. The Egy ptia ns had es ta blishe d themsel ves w ithin thl' c ity. O usted by the Babylon ian s , the re wa s a second ba tt le m::11 Hamath as they retreated so uthward. CATA RACTS OF T H E NILE. Major obstac les to navigation , some ", which served as frontiers between Egy pt and the kin gdom s o f Nuhlu A ll of the cataracts lie w ithin the reg ion o f sands to ne , south of Gc hcl Si lsila in Upper Eg ypt and are po ints where the und erl yin g grunlu rocks break through , impeding the nort hward now of the river and l'll ating rapids and island s . The princ ipal cataracts are nu mbered fWII\ north to so uth, sma ller ones are named . From the First Ca taract to Ih. delta , there are no majo r obstructions to navigation (except san dbanks ! The First Cataract. T he large island o f Ab u (Elepha ntine) sta nd at the foot of the First Cataract and was the site o f an importa nt sr i tlemen t from late Predyna stic times onward . Elep hanti ne see ms ori ' inally to have bee n an Egyptian tradin g cen ter wi thi n Nubia n tci u tor y, but by the time of the un ificati on of Eg yp t it marked Ih so uthern fronti e r. Both Ele phantine and the later mainl and se u lcmcul of Syene (As wa n) a lways rema ined the southern border o f Egypl
territories I ~ il~ g to the so uth ge nera lly co ming und er the rule of desI ~nated o fficials, fro m the beg inning of the l Sth-Dy nasty-s ty led vice ro y . A t the head of the cataract was the fortress of Senmut though~ by so me to have bee n o n the island of Bigga , w ith a port the ma ll1 l~ nd opposite. A m ilita ry road a nd defen sive wall connected Aswan WIth the port. Nu merous inscription s are carved on the ura nire rock s throu gh out the Fir st Ca tarac t reg ion recording m ilitary ea rnl'a1 g~ s. In the R o~ an period , a fortres s was o n the mainland op po site the Island of Phil ae , par t of a de fe nsive net work o f wa tc htow ers throug hou t Uppe: Egypt. A canal was co nstructed thro ugh the cataract near the Island of Se hel in yea r 8 of Senusret I and call ed "The way s of Khakaure (Se nusre t T) are fore ve r." It wa s 150 c ub its I "n ~ (approx imately 80 meter s) , 50 cub its wid e (26 met er s) , and 15 ~' ~ I b l t s (8 meter s) dee p. Th e cana l was c leared aga in in the rei gn s o f .1 hu t m o~e I a!ld Th~tmose III , do ubtless to ea se navig at ion of fleet s uno Nub ia . DIfficulties in keep ing it clear of boulders co uld have led I" the creation of the po rt at the head o f the ca ta rac t. 'I1,e Second Cataract. A ltho ugh the re we re smaller rapids and catar acts , suc h as the "Kalabs ha Gate ," in Lower Nubia , the river was navigabl e as far as Buhen at the foot o f the Second Ca ta ract. Th e p h ara~hs of t~e 12th Dyn asty, not ably Se n us r e t I a nd Se n us r et III established t~lI S ca taract, actua lly an e xte nded series of rap ids and islnuds, as their southern bo rder. T he Second Ca taract is situa ted in the barre n Nubi an ~e se rt , where there is ver y little c ultivab le land on the riverba nks a nd Isl and s. Th e ca tara ct begin s at Semna , w he re the Nile I ~ lorce d throu gh the narrow est point o f its whol e length. T his rocky f'orge was do m inated by the forts o f Semna and Kumma . No rthward lor .a distance o~ 7? ki lometer s, there were islan ds and rapids : W I Ill: ~ l made navigau o n difficu lt, T his who le regi on was controlled by II series ~f s mall fortresses bui lt on the wes t bank and islands at siglIullng d ista nce from eac h ot her and co ntro lling the se parate sma ll "lItar:lcts. Th ese fort s, Ur onarti , Shall'ak, and Askut, have simi lariIb design and were prob ably the work o f o ne architec t. A t MirI.~sa , boa ts were taken fro m the river a nd dragged ov er the great llpway, Bu hen, at the foot o f the ca taract was a major supply and deI'llt lor the go ods brought fro m the south. '11,,' Dal Cataract. So uth o f the Second Ca tara ct lies an inhos pllllhlc region with rel ati vely few anci ent remain s. At Tan gu r north of
01;
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Dal are roc k inscripti on s recording military exped itions , not abl y III Thutmose I II . South o f the Dal Ca tarac t there is more fert ile land notably the islan d of Sa i. The Thin/ Cataract. Th e Thi rd Ca taract marks the northern end III the Don gol a-Napnta Reach of the Ni le . T his was a rich reg ion III arable- or pas ture land a nd was the ce nter of the kingdo m o f KII ~h w ith its ma in c ity at Kerma and, lat er the Kushite sta te , which co n qu ered Egypt (t he 25 th Dyn asty). With the Egy ptian reoccupati ou ut Lo wer Nub ia in the rei gn s o f Kamose and Ah m os e, there were ;H tivit ies so uth o f the Second Ca tarac t, dou btless to sec ure it as a sail so uthern fro ntie r. Th e fo rtress on the island of Sai was built in till reign o f Ah mose or that of Am e n h ote p I. Howev e r, the power o f III. Kerma rul ers co ntinue d and a for tress was built o n the isl and 0 1" 1\1111 b os in the Thi rd Ca ta ract. A rock insc ription of Thutmose I at 1'11111 bos ind icates this as his so uthern border. The Fourth Cataract. T he Fo urth Ca taract ma rked the limit III Egypti an co ntro l a long the Nil e in Nubia in the New K ingdo m . COlli ing fro m the south, the N ile and Atba ra River s join , mo ving nollh ward in a grea t arc throu gh barren desert. T h is stretc h of the river 11,1 num erou s island s, no sig nific ant culti vable land , and w he n thc I i\ I I began to now so uthwest. the crosswi nds and c urre nts render n a v i ~, . 1 tion imp o ssibl e . Th e river beco mes navigable agui u in the reig n 0 1 til mod ern town of Kareima , c lose to the a ncien t ~ i t e s o f Nup a tu all' Gebe l Barkal . Througho ut histo ry, the de sert roa ds crossi ng If, Bayuda bet ween Sa na m a nd M c re e have bee n pre ferred to the rill rou te . T he Fourth Cataract therefore marked a na tura l sou the rn lilill to Egy ptian ex pa ns ion. It is po ss ible that the New Kingdom pharaoh cros se d the Bayuda to Irem a nd M iu , but the location of these tl' lIl to ries so far so uth is still co ntrovers ial. T he desert roads fro m LOll Nu bia, lea vin g the river at Korosko , regain ed the river in the vici nu o f Ab u Ham ed a nd Hagar el-Merwa , where rock insc riptions • Thutmose I and Thulmose III mark an Egy ptian front ier. Egy puu sec uri ty of thi s desert ro ute was to prot ect the go ld min es of Ikuyu CAVA L RY. Th e horses used in the 18th Dynasty see m to have htl sma ll, a nd it is on ly ve ry rare ly that a figure is shown rid ing onc . Sli l dies were not used and the riding of horses see ms to ha ve been l"1I1 fined to scouts or moments of emergency : the Libyan prin ce , '10
CHARIOT ·
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uukht, is sa!d to have mo unted his horse a nd ned M emphis , wi tho ut lisklllg for his chariot. Cav alry d id not become a s igni fica nt fo rce unu l ' h~ La te Assyr ian period . Stephan ie Dall ey ha s c hart ed the in, " ':lslIlg ~s~ .01' cava lry as revea led by the Assyrian te xts . T hese s ugrl"st that initially (e .g ., at the battl e o f Qarqar in 853 BC) one horse II l1d rider w~s acti~lg a long s ide eac h c hariot. In s lig htly later Assyrian ':'/lel S, a pa ll' o f riders accompani es eac h c hariot, but by the tim e o f ~ II l'l:un II cavalry we re o utnum beri ng chario ts . A ltho ugh the records III the b~tt le o~ Qarq ar show that cavalry was bei ng used alo ngsi de I h.uiot s I.n Syr ia, so me wes te rn states , suc h as Israel , had no cava lry ,,' nl]. Thi s was presumably du e to pre feren ce , rat her than inab ility to 1lI ''i lllrC caval~y hOI:ses . Th e inscription o f Pi ye , the principal Egypt1','11 te xt for thi s p~nod , doe s not ind ica te the use o f cava lry by e ither I' typuan o r Kushite forces , A lthough cha rio ts co ntinued to be used '""y were supp lanted by the mor e ve rsa tile ca valry in later wa rfare: l lu- cava lry were an important e leme nt in the army of the Ptolem a ic 1"'1 i.u l, place d o n the wings . Ilan king the phalanx. f
II,\O NNO I' II RIS (A NKH.WE NN EFER) (r eigne d ]97-]86 Be) I 1''',' 1pharao h In the rci <0un o f Ptolemy V , •successor to Ha rOllllop IIriS . . • • • III, 1l'lgn .appears to ha ve beg un in 197, but he co ntinued the reg nal \ 1'111~ III IllS predecessor. Before the end of the year, Ptolemy V' s ar my II "'i1 I1 IL'd co ntro l T he bes and Chao nnophris we nt n0I1h, perh aps as 1.11 as.th,e Lykopolite nom e (Asy ut) . He successfully cut off the G reek .u III)' 111 rhebes . A ltho ugh the region from Thebes to A hu (E lephantine) "s controlled by the Ptolem aic army , it was cu t off from the north . 1IIIIIId 1? 4 . the G reek t~oops in Th ebes gave up the town and we nt up' " '11111. Chaonnophn s still co ntro lled the Theban reg ion in year 14 o f "'"ll'lIly V ( 189/ 188), but by the summer of 187 IJC it was in the hands III I'1 1I1~ IIlY V. Chaonn ophri s had been driven from Th ebes and had ned III Nubia. On the 27 Aug ust 186 BC, Kornan os, co mma nding the ar my 1111 /'llIlemy V, defeated Chaonn ophris and his Nubian support.
0:
It \/lIOT, (Eg yptian: wereryt or tne rkebers Th e int rod uct ion of the 11/111 ' two-w hee led chariot dr iven by horse s was the most rad ical de, IlIpl."Cnt in ea rly v:arfare . In the Ea rly and Middle Bronze Ages (the t , \'I'tlan O ld and Middle Kin gdoms), in fantry do mi nated warfare . In 1I11 llwrn Mesopotam ia (S ume r), four-wheel ed chariots driven by lour
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C1 IA~ I OT
donkeys (or onage rs) are attested fro m Ur. T hey were presum ahl ' heavy, relativel y slow- mov ing vehic les , as they had so lid, rath er thall spo ked , whee ls: a solid whee l of o ak , on e meter in diameter, CIIII we igh over 100 pounds. T hese cha riots see m to have se rved as right ing platforms . Th ere is no ev idence for anything simi lar from Egy pt Th e chariot a ppeared in the Near East and Egypt in the m iddle III the seco nd mill enn ium Be a nd was rap id ly ado pted in all co untries Earlier sc ho larship attributed the appearance of the c hariot and dll mesticated hor se to ne w gro ups arr iving in the re gion. Th ese 11'1'11 thou gh t to be Indo-Eu ropean s pea ke rs and to represe nt a horse-breed ing , char iot-o wning aristoc racy (the "Aryans") , which was tu don II nate the Late Bronze Age . T he Kassi te dynasty in Babylon , the 11111 ria ns of M ita n ni, and, mo re ge nerally, a class ca lled the mu ri yannu wer e all thought to rep resen t these north ern invader s . It is now clcm that the char iot devel oped in Easte rn A nato lia not northern Europe T he supposed racial or igins o f the Ka ssites and I Iurrians can also I" d isco unted, and the mariyannu , a ltho ug h ce rtai nly c har ioteers, 11'1'11 not an ethnic group nor an exc lus ive warrior caste . T he introdu ction of chariotry into Egypt is acc red ited to the Hyk sos . Survi ving exa mples. Th e ev ide nce for the char iot in Egy pt COl li from a numbe r of so urces . T here are numerou s de pic tio ns o f cha ruu in Egyp tian art . T hey appear in te mple re liefs o f batt les and are Iouml in sce nes in private tom bs show ing hunting and official life . T he: are a lso complete examples and nu me ro us fragm ents o f cha riots Sill vivi ng . Eleven compl ete exa mp les , a ll of the later 18th Dyn asty, huv been recove red fro m tombs at T he bes . O ne exa mple, no w in the 1'1 11 renee Mu seum , is from a private tomb , the re mainde r co me from th Valley o f the Kings . T he body of a c har iot was found in the to mh II T h ut mose IV, decorated with scenes of battl e . Co m plete exampk we re in the tom b o f Yuya , himse lf a m ilitary official and father II Quee n Tiye , w ife o f Amcn hote p III. T he largest numbe r o f exu m pies , six in all , co me s from the tom b of Tu ta n k ham u n . Th ese III e lude d ce remo nia l c hariot s and light wa r ve hicles. Frag me nts hal' been reco ve red from the tombs of A mc n hotep II and A me nho tep III Th e larger roya l tombs of the Ram esside period had a room called th " house o f go ld" or " the chariot hal l." Thi s hall is nam ed on a papyru with a plan o f a royal tomb , pro bab ly that of Ramesses IV, now 1'1 served in the Tur in Mu se um .
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Construction. Chario ts are made o f a frame o f bent woo d covered with leather. The heavier ceremo nia l chariots have gi lded leather or woode n panels with co lored g lass and stone inlays. Th e chariots had a w I"y wide whee l track to ensure stability on fast tums . T he chariot in the 1'IIII"el1l:e Mu se um has a narrow er wheel track than the Tutankhamun rx. nuples. The car was appro ximate ly hip-high and fully open at the Il'al". which made it easy to j ump into qu ickly. Th e car was w ide e nough IIIhnkl two people standing side by side : o ne from Tutankh amun 's tom b was 1.02 meters wide by 0 .44 meter dee p. The ax le was made of ash II l1d in one ex ample measures 2.3 meters in length . In a ll surviving c harillls, the ax le is placed at the rear, although in some artistic rep resentaIllIns the ax le and whee l have bee n moved forward , mak ing them ce nlIal lo the body. T he flooring is a leather thong mesh . The pole , usually III elm, was heat-bent and about 2 .89 meters long. The whee ls had fe lIt ",s o f as h, spo kes of e vergreen oak , and spoke lashings o f birch bark. 1I 1l' curlier c hariots had whee ls with four spokes : later c hariots had six'I'II~ C whee ls. Thutmose IV is dep icted in a chariot with six-spoke wlu-cls III battle with Asiatics, who are using c hariots with four-spoke wheels. In the sce nes of Ramesses III's battles, the Libyans drive charl"ls with both four- and six-spoke whee ls . Chariot whee ls, felloes, and 1.'"~cs were made from heat-treated wood . To make a spoke , single I'll'r cs of wood were bent at 90 degrees (for 4- spoke) or 60 degrees (sixI''' ~c ) and g lued back to back. Wet rawhide was bound aro und them at IIIl' nave and then lashed with birch bark lo r waterproofing . Tires were " , leather, Egy ptian chariots were light weight, one modem replica \\'l'ighing 34 kilogra ms. ,I" //uisitio/l of chariots. C ha rio try is first menti on ed in the seco nd ,1'1 :1 o r Kam ose as belongin g to the Hy kso s. Th e earliest de picti on »t u c hariot a ppears to be in the tom b o f Ren ni at e l Kab (Nek heb) o f II,,' rime of A mcn hotc p I. C hariots then begin to appear mo re IreIllH'lltIy in both text s a nd sce nes . T he accounts o f battles , such as the " vtx o r Ah rnose son of E ba na , sho w that cha rio ts we re still rather '"Il ' ill Egy pt in the ear ly 18th Dy nasty and tho se ca ptured we re pre1'lItl'd to the pharaoh . T he ca pture or numerous horses and cha riots III Ihc ca mpaigns o f Thutmose III sugg ests that the Egyptians were 11 11 Irying to increase their numbers. A fragm ent o f a tomb painting ''''111 the to mb of Nebamun (re ign o f Thutrnose IV) sho ws a cha riot dlllW Il by mules or hinni es (t he offspring of a s he-ass by a sta llion) .
CHARIOT WARFARE • 64 •
65
C1 IARIOT
T he A m a rna Letters also document the im po rt of chario ts as pall o f the royal girt ex change system. The surv iv ing letters o f till" arc hive reveal a total o f 3 1 chariots, each with its pai r o f horses, whic h we re se nt to Egy pt as gree ting gifts from Babylon and Mi ta nni . In add itio n there were several very spec ial chariots, suc h as thl' roya l chariot outlined for Assur-uballi t of Assyria, which he se nt as II greeting gift with its two white horses . Some chariots were se nt full ou tli ned; othe rs are specilied as not o utlined . The lav ishn ess of SO IIlI of the royal cha riot equ ip ment is revealed by the det ail ed desc ript ion among the gifts se nt by Tushra na of Mi tan ni to Ame nhotep III at th time of his marr iage to the Mitann ian prince ss , Tadu-H eba . T he cluu iot was gilde d using 320 shekels of go ld . The equi pment included Olll whi p overla id w ith five sheke ls of go ld , wi th kilt/lalli-sto ne mounts The letter detail s other ite ms c lea rly re lated to ho rse trapping so me in leath er w ith lapi s lazuli , and go ld amo unting to 26 she kel and 4 sheke ls o f silver. Ther e we re also neckla ces for the horses II in g 88 sto nes per string and 44 shekels o f go ld ; a set o f br idl es wilh ivory blinkers , and orn ame llts o f go ld amo unting to 60 sheke ls; a Sl' I o f rein s overla id w ith silve r and ornaments of gold totaling (,II sheke ls; one set o f snaffles o f silver, 50 shekels in we ight; on e pUll of gloves trimmed w ith red woo l; on e leath er hail er with allac hmc lll o f klwlalu-ston e inl aid with lapi s lazuli and a ce nterpiece of khilihll sto ne mo unted on lapi s lazul i. and w ith lapi s and go ld ornamc ut fro m the stra ps . The detail o f the a mo unts of precious met al and su uu used was not o nly a sa feg uard aga ins t theft , but a lso an irnp ort uut economic fe ature : co rrespondi ng a mo unts we re e xpe c ted in return E lsew here in th e leit ers arc references to a leathe r c uirass se t 1111 horse s, wit h rings of bron ze , and two hel met s of bronze for ho rses Malll~rac/llre. It was once as sumed that because the spo ke lashiup of birc h bark had been app lied while green, the whee ls and cha riots h,lIl been made in countries where the materials were avai lab le locallv probably in Armenia, somewhere between the Caspian Sea and Trclu zon d . Ho weve r, it is now known that birch bark can be transport ed ulld used . Altho ug h chariots initially had to be im ported an d reserves hiliII up th rough ca ptures , sce nes of cha riot ma nufac ture make it certai n tlll.1 the surviving examp les, and probabl y the majo rity of c hariots in u. I were actua lly manu factu red in Egy pt. A sce ne showing the prescn m tion o f "gifts" to Hatshepsut in to mb 73 at Thebe s shows chari ut
along w~ t h a wide ran ge of other produ cts of royal worksho ps . Sce nes 111 the mid -I Sth Dynasty tombs of Hepu , Puyemre , Qen am un at Thebes ~ h o w the ma nufac ture of cha riots and whee ls in the state (i .e., temple : 1 1I(~ ,pa l ace) works hop~ . A late-1 8th Dyn asty relief in the tom b of Ipuia ' I ~ Suq qa r a shows a s lx-sp~ke whee l be ing made in a royal or tem ple workshop , where o t he~ ~rt l san s are pro du cing stat uary, a ste la, and ' lillie vessels . Th e surv iv mg captio n above one of the c hariots in Th ehall to mb 72 .read s " a great c hariot (we rery!) of shendl'1-wood of Kush decorated w ith gol d ." T his pres uma bly means thai the chariot wa~ made I~ the royal workshops fro m wood from Ku sh , showing an early adaptatio n to non -Asiatic su pplies . A frag me ntary whee l from the tom b III Amenho tep III uses tam ar isk wood , an Egy ptian native , w ith imported e lm . A menho tep II broug ht wood for chariots fro m Mit ann i. lt seems , h ow~ ver: that mu ch of Mit anni was un wood ed and the materi als we re being Imp orted from even farth er north , The c hario t co mprised a num ber of e leme nts that we re eas ily dam aged or broken , ax le, pole, and spo kes, and there is evide nce for the transport o f ex tra char1111 poles and other e leme nts to allow for rep air s in camp. Th e econonuc tablets from Pyl a s in G ree ce rec ord 200 pair s of wile I I r e s and WOO l ? r 100 aX I~s, suggesting that cons idera ble numbers o f spare (',lItS l111gl:t be r~~ mn ed . A pap yru s do cument of the Ram esside peri od ql~ l~ astas lI: Bntlsh Mu seum ~A 10247) note s the visit of an Egy ptian l harioteer 111 C anaan to a chariot re pai r sho p in Joppa . I'IIA RIOT EER. Man y monuments show charioteers o f different ruuks. Fro~ early in the New Kingd om , the e lite were train ed in the ~II t of c hafl~t ry, an d it is poss ible that so me form o f nat ion al se rv ice III the chariot corps wa.s e~ pecte~ . Scenes of ba tt le conve ntiona lly vhuw the pharaoh alo ne 111 his c hariot, the reins tied aro und his waist. III the accoun t o f the ba tt le of Qadesh , Ramesses II spec ifica lly , Ia les th a~ he ~ad no c harioteer wi th him , altho ug h he was accompauicd by his shie ld bearer. I II ~\ R I OT WA~FAR E.
T he Egyptian chariot was a lightweight vehldc. that carried two people, the drive r iketjen o r kedjens a nd the W :~ lTI or (selle~lY) . The. dri ver co uld a lso act as de fen de r, carryi ng the hicld. Eg,Yplian chariot wa rriors we re a rc h er s first but a lso ca rried weapons lor han d-to-h and co m ba t: the khepesh , axe , and spea r . Th e
C lEO f'ATRA •
66 •
CI II O I'S
re liefs of the battle of Qadesh show th e region al di ffer en ce s . in pall dictated by te rrain . T he Hittites used a heavier ty pe of chario t , ap parcnt ly with so lid sides. w hic h carricd three people . Its ax le wa s pl aced at th e midd le of th e body, T his made it a slo we r- mo ving vehi c le th an th e Egyptia n chariot. T he so ld iers it carries are sho w n with the shor t sta bb ing spea r, and th e Hill ite s appear to have used thcu chariots for cl ose co mbat , charging lines o f e ne my infantry . T he reco rd s of balli es ind icate very large number s o f chariots bciur dep lo yed, but whether they were all used at one time re m ai ns unclem Ramess II clai ms that ther e we re 2,500-3 ,000 Hillite chariots at thr es ball le of Qadesh . Ther e has been so me d isp ut e o ver ho w chariots were de ployed III1 baili e . It was once suggested th at chariots we re dri ven to a point. al1l tha t then th e wa rrio r di sm ounted and fired . It is ce rta in th at the Chili iot actually functioned as a moving firi ng platfo rm: nu merou s relici indicate tha t the arc hers fire d while the chariot was being driven . T h. co nstruction of th e Egyptia n cha riot allowed a sm all tum in g circle perhaps e nab ling th e cha rio t to be dr iven in o ne cha rge , ar rows loosed and th e cha riot sw iftly turn ed for a second return cha rge . Ba il ie SCC IIl' suc h as those of Qadesh show th e two ch ari ot line s cha rg ing at ClI\ II ot her. Eve n wi th chariots arrang ed in several lines , th e nu mbers \I po rted in so me conflicts wo u ld have resulted in very long lines , whi. II would have been feasible on ly o n fla t pla ins. As the biblica l narrutiv make s c lear, so ft sand also hindered cha rio ts beca use it " cl ogged lh l ll cha riot wheels and mad e them lumber alon g heavily." CHEO PS, See KH UF U . C HEPHREN, See KH AFRE . C H REM ON lDEAN WAR (268/267 or 265/264-262/261 II C). Na llll 0 afte r Chre mo nides , a politic ian in A th ens , w ho negot ia ted all 111 111 Macedonian alliance . T he resulti ng war beginning in 268/2CJ7 , ve m'lI 265/264 and lasting unti l 262/26 1 saw th e active invol l "i Ptol emy II in Greece . T he Egyptians sent naval forces and eslll lished bases wi th gar riso ns o n the mainl an d , at , fo r eXIlIlIl'1 Methan a in the Peloponnese , w hich was ren am ed Arsi noe . W itl: II I fa ilure of the wa r, C hremonides and his brothe r G laukon Ikd I
67
I ~g y p t. Chremonides later co m ma nd d was de feat ed at the baili e o f Rh ode .e ~he Ptol emaic fleet , w hich s 111 c irca 258 BC during the Seclind Sy r ia n W ar.
C
' IVIL WA R. The nature of the ev idence . . Icrmed iate Period s to times 1" ifi c?nfi nes Civ il wars to th e In. , ' 0 reurn icatron 0 tl PI ' . (whic h IS beller docum ented ) Th " 1 to ema ic period arc in many cases d yna ti ' e CIVI wars 01 th e Ptol em ai c peri od , < S IC wars altho ug h th hy d isaffec ted groups A ll docur ere we re also reb ellions . . oc ume nted civi ! b IIlIIlC period were power stru les betw I .wars the Ptol e. ~g ee n e lite factions: there is no ev idence fo r "popu lar" , upn sll1gs Du ri ng th F' rioi l differe nt nornarchs in M ' j II ' e rrst Int ermed iate Pe. , I( ( e and U ppe E' II val dyn asts Ther e W'IS . . . . I' gypt we re suppo rt ing , . , a maj or Civil d isturb . re ig n o f R amesses XI Th ' . . '. l an ce 111 T h eb es in th e . , . e re W
, ~ le
~fore
. .. t 'IVILlANS. In all mi litary ac tio ns it i I co mmo n pol icy in an cient f ' s t ie Civ il ians who suffer. A . . . war are wa s to c ut d rcqursino n, or destroy ' CI'Op s.' If not t h a t th e ' own .. orchards a nd , Ili g of armies o n th e m I I ' rrnposur on s a nd Ioragov e (e p eted foo d lies . . hattie sc e ne s o f Sety I d R supp res. In the Asi atic an amesses 11 'I tl .' . tow ns w ith the ir occ upants b . . a re ie s ieges 01 forti fied ,, ' urnll1g II1cen se as ' I' I he Egy ptia n co nq ues t o f C . a s ig n 0 sur re nder. . an a an 111 the ea I 18 h D 1I1:lSSlVe de struct io n of se ttl eme nts so me I' I' yI ' I t ynas ty saw ru pied . S im ilarl y in N bi K ' 0 W uc 1 we re not reoc, , II ra, e rma suffe d d . l'ollowi ng m il itar y ra id I . re estructi on by fire. , ' s a m campaig ns b tl ' I I' . II l1 ght be capture d and ! ' k . , () 1 so cners and Civilia ns a e n to Egy pt a I lIIuse so n of Eba na . : as s aves . The te xt s of Ahana , a mo na o the rs list su h . nuihorities also us ed (Iepo-t ti . , c capnves . T he Egyptian , . r a IOn to rem I III IIS. suc h as the Ca nnanit h o ve arger gro up s of civil, ', es w 0 were tra d klllgS o f Assyria a lso used th l' to K lis h . The e po ICy o f deportation ex te nsively.
nspor~e
I.I':O PATRA . See KL EOPATRA.
CYPRUS ·
68 • CLERUCI IS
CLE RUCHS. A Greek term for veteran soldiers give n grants o f land and settled in communit ies , T he po licy wa s begun by P t olemy I , who wished to e nco ura ge Greek settle ment in Egypt. His veterans were mainly of Greek or Macedo nian ori gin , with so me Asiatics (fro m tht" fonner Per sian army) , In the re ign of Ptolemy II , mu ch of the Fayum was brou ght un der cultiva tio n and cleruc hies were esta blis he d th rou gh out the region , Initiall y, the land gra nts we re o nly for the lifetime o f thl' c1er uch , but they soo n became hered itary in practice , legall y formal lzed by the pJrilalltJr ropa o f Ptol emy VI II ( 118 BC) fo llowing the ch'lI war, Fo llow ing th e battle of Raphia (2 17 BC) , there were cleru chu grants to Egyp tia n m achimoi , many in th e Fayum , and in vi llagl' already w ith G reek cl eruch s , There is evide nce for a si mi lar pol in during the pharao nic peri od , suc h as the land grants by the ph araoh Ah m ose to Ahmose so n of Eba na and se ttlements of Lib yan aliiI Asiatic m ercenaries in the Fa yum and Middle Egypt. It is we ll docli mented from the Ro m an peri od , too , COELE SY R IA. T he nam e used for th e Ptol emaic pro vince of " SYlloi and Phoenic ia" in western As ia , The nam e co mes from the Grcvl koile mean in g " ho llo w," Coele-Syria was the regio n be hi nd Ih coasta l plain o f Lebanon , inc ludin g th e Bequ Va lley. the bo rder \l. ing th e Eleu th eros Riv er. It pro vid ed th e PlOlcm ies w ith a bufkr I llill agains t the S e1eu k ids . bu t was the co nsta nt so urcc o f dispu lc bc iwc II the two ki ng do ms , resultin g in th e Syr ia n Wa rs , W ho aClua ll\ ow ne d Coele-Syria was th e subject o f nc goti ati on s in th e winte r ,i1 2 191218 IIC duri ng a tru ce in th e Fo urth Sy ria n War. In 30 1 lie , S, leu kos I had been grantcd the w ho le o f S yria after the battle of Ipso but had tacitl y accepted P tole my I's co ntro l o f it. T he regio n cont III ue d to be disputed in the Fifth and Sixth S yrian War s and w as COll I plcte ly lost to Egy pt in th e reign o f Ptolemy V I. CONSC R IPT ION. E vide nce fro m th e O ld Kingd om shows that le vi were made when an army wa s needed , In th e Midd le Kingdom , 1111 text state s that a le vy of o ne m an in 100 was taken , Doubt less , lit syste m continue d in the New Kingdom , e ven thou gh th ere WII larger pro fe ssion al standing arm y, T he Papyru s Har ris states thut III the reign o f Ramcss es III one man in ten was co nscripte d : thi s 1111 number probabl y re llects spec ific circumsta nces , T he llteruturv d
69
scrib ing the ben efits o f a sc riha l c ' make re fere nce to the w " hi are e r 111 pr eferen ce to a ll o the rs YS :I sold ie r , There is no c l aa vide ich a man can be sum mone d to be er r eVI e nce for a ny t f nat i hur the rec o rd s of careers f ffi ' I ype 0 national serv ice, , 0 0 , ICIa S sugge sts th ibili low ing schoo ling they s t , ': e POSSI I uy th at , fol , pen so me time III the char iot corps , 1 '(
IRNELlUS GA L LUS, CA IUS (prefect of E
tirst Ro man prefect of Egy 30-26 _ p t and Iri n end of A ugr gypt t " lie). T he
f:USI 30 IIC a fter the capture o f A I d . IS us , appo inted 111 A u, • ex a n r ia S ho rt l It d hel lion in th e T heb aid , accordiII1g to Strabo , wa s a re.y a erwar h taxes. T he prefect 's V'I t d ' agamst t e. collectors of c o ry an subse q ue nt ' ti , «-rorded o n a t 'I' I. ' . " ,IC Ion 111 Nu b ia are c n mgu a mscnption ( 111 Lati G k " croglyphic) fo und o n the island of PI 'I 111 , reek . and Egyptian hiincluded Koptos Kel'am'k' (M 111 ae near Aswan . The reb el to wn s , , I e ec arnud) D ' li ( iphieion (the latte r two were reg 'ions of T, heblOSpO IS Megal e , and ) C ' then too k the ar my into L ' N bi , esr, ornelius Gallus o w er U III It IS P ., ibl h lx-cn takine adva ntace (I I' th I 'f OSSI e t at Me roe had eo ' eo e chunge of power i E " 'llk ille nt with the Meroite renr rill gypt. There wa s a presentanves at Ph il' I I' ' II n' slI lt. a 1." 1'11111111.1' (loca l rule r) wa s install ' ae th e ronti er. As II .owc r N uhiu ). ulthouuh his ide tit ,', ed m the Triakontaschoi nos n prince) . In 26 Il l'. Con~elius G ' ll I y IS uncertain (po ssib ly a Meroiti c , .1 us wa s recalled by A .h-\'e1 o pme nts were in I o w N bit ' ' ug ust us . Fu rth er er u 1<1 111 the Pre fectu re of Petroniius.
~ ,
o~
J
Large isla nd of the ea stern Med i II I Phoenicia a nd Asia Minor It , Ite rran ean close to the coasts , " was Importan t ' tl b III the easte rn Medit erranean TI trib In ie sea, , 1e rJ ute of Cypr ' , o rne trad' e Ih" A n n a ls of T h u t mose III , A s a trading ' pa rtner prus itl EIS recorded In uppca rs in th e A L I W I 1 gy pt , Cy pru s m arna etters (as Ahshia) d ei tween pharaoh s and its ki " , , " an gift exch a n ge be, II1g IS recorded It ' uurce of co pper bronze d id , was mo st Im po rtant a s a l'nrt of the island 'was sei ~e~n b ~~ ' la lthOUgh h~rses are also listed , In the early first mill enni um YBC lt~ ast of the ki ngs o f the Hittites , trom Greece ~nd Phoen ic ia T h ~~e were nee: se tt le me nts o f pe oIh\' rulers of Assvr ia In 570/569 e mgs of th e Is land paid tribute to 111 11 and Io nian s~ld~~rs, to hel ~~'h~~Prus ga,ve n,ava l a id , an d Carr e rega in his throne a fter the usurpatio n o f A h m ose II Th P, I , e IS and cam e under E ti, d . tlun when captured by A h m o s'e II'111 560 BC gyp Ian om 1113idi , uuporta nt nav al base cl ose to th S ' ' pro vi mg hi m with an , e ynan co ast. It subm itted to Per sia
I \' I'IUlS .
1'''
CYRENE •
71
70 • CYRFNAICA
in 545 BC and aided the invasio n of Egyp t by Cambyses in 525 III Later , Cypru s bec ame a center of co nflict between pro- and alit I Persian gro ups , reg ularly receiving support and ships from Athcn Th e Athenian fleet was diverted from Cy prus to aid the rebellion III Inaros in 459 Be. Durin g his rebellion against the Per sians , Bvagoruking of Sa lamis, allied him sel f with Hakor (389 BC). Th e island came under the rule of Ptolemies in 3 12 BC and was hd tl by them until it was seized by Rom e in the re ign o f Ptole~lY XII, II was in a vital strateg ic posit ion for co ntro l of the Ptolemai c P OSSl" , sio ns outside Egy pt, and garrisons were installed in man y of its citi« Because of this naval importance , the office of governor , the stratcgu» was usually combined with that of na uarch (admiral). At sevc rol points , members of the Ptolem aic roya l fami ly fled to Cyprus o r wc« sent there as rulers when ev icted fro m Egy pt in dynastic wars. T hc« were so me significant naval battles near the island , not ably the bauk of Sa lamis in 306 BC, at which the fleet of Ptolemy I wa s defeated hi that of Antigo nos Monophthalmos and his son Demetrios. CYRE NAI C A, A region of Libya , bein g the ea stern part of the nu ul e rn sta te , fro m the G ulf of S irte to the G ulf of Bo mba . It is la1'l:\l'l mo unt aino us , wit h a narro w coasta l plai n fro m whic h the k ill I Ak hd ar rises stee ply. The barren co as t of the G ulf of S irte , whr: the Sa hara co mes 10 the Medi terranean , mad e a natural horde with the near est power to the west , Carthage . T his remained a si ~ ni fica ut d ivisio n betwee n G ree k east and Lat in west und e r thc RII man Empire . C yrcnaic a might have bee n occu pied by so me of the Libya n trihlll gro ups who e ntere d Egy pt in the later New Kingdo m , the Libu , till Me shwesh , the SCllcd , but arc haeolog ical knowled ge of th is phase I sti ll scanty. G reek co lonists fro m T hera foundc d Cy r ene (c . 630 III I followed by other setlle ments at A pollon ia , Barce, Euhespcridl (modern Benghaz i), and Taucheira . Th is was known as the Libyuu Pent apoli s. In the reign of Darius I (522--486 BC). the Persian sa t 1'111' of Egy pt sent an arm y in support of the rulin g famil y of Cyre nc, I." sieging and eve ntua lly ca ptur ing Barce . Th e who le of Cy renuu " cam e under Ptolemaic con tro l in the reign of Ptolemy I , the bord « with Egypt bei ng I'araitonion .
I
'YREN E. Greek settleme nt in Lihya founded , accordi ng to traditi on .rbo u t 630 BC . It was soo n fo llowed by a nu mber of othe r towns in ( 'yrena ica . Its territory eventua lly stretc hed wes tward from a border with Egy pt near Paraitonion . Cyrene c.am e und er the rule of a dy nasty of kings, the Battid s , and ' lion ~sta b hs hed relati on s with Egypt. Wahibre se nt an army aga inst II. w h l~ h mut inied and set up Ah mose II as pharaoh (570 BC) . Ah' ~ lI .se ,h l m s~ ~ f e n te~ed ~ n lo di plomatic n~ a rriage with the roya l family, 1.1~ II:g .L adlk e as his Wife . DUring the reign of Darius I (5 22--486 BC) , IIIL I CIS Ian sa~rap of Eg ypt sent an army in suppo rt o f a member of the ru ling fami ly to besiege Barce . ~l11 bassad ors fro m Cyre ne met Alexa nde r the G r ea t at Paraitonion I \ .~_. ~l~) . Soo n after he took ov~r Egyp t, Ptolemy I was invited by a d" ,llIected gro up of the elite actmg out of self-interest to take over the rt ty and the region , which he did in 322/32 1 BC . Ptolem y installed a 1 ~l' lIe.ra l , Op hellas, as go vernor. Th ere was a rebell ion aga inst Egyp tian Oll ie in 3 13 BC , but Ptolemy se nt forces that reinsta led Op hellas. By 308 ' ''.' ~ Op hellas was acting on his ow n behalf, but he made no declaration ,:1Illd epende ~l ce . Involving him sel f in the ca mpaign o f Agath okles of S racuse aga mst Carth age, Ophellas was murd ered . Another reb ellion took Cy re ne out of Ptolem aic co ntro l. Ptolem y I was preoccu.pie? with e ve nts e lsewhere and was unable 10 regain the 1l'lrIlory unt il alter the battl e of Ipsos in 30 1 BC . He then installed his ' ll'pSOn, M ag a ~ , as ru!er. Som etime ea rly in the reign of Ptolemy II , ~'I a~ a s n~ade him self independent and becam e king , e nte ring into al11.:lllce with th~ Seleu kids of Syria . Magas eve n laun ched an attac k o n I:g)'pt , marc hing his a rmy toward Alexa nd r ia , bu t it was forced to u-rurn b~ a r.e volt of Libyans, at Para itoni on . Fo llow ing the death of ~,I a~a s, 111 circa 250 BC, there was a br ief inte rna l strugg le before I re~le returned to the Ptolem aic Empire . This wa s sealed by the urnrnage o f \'vI.agas' s da ug hter , Bere nike , to Ptolem y III. Cyrene wa s , " 1\\' apos s~ss lO n of the ~tolem ies with its ow n go vernor s and a place ' ~' whic h d lspo~ses sed ki ngs ned or were exiled (e.g ., Ptolemy VI; Illllcm y VIII. trom 163-1 45 BC; Ptol emy IX ). In 162 nc .the gover11111': ,.m Egyptian nam ed Ptolemaios "Sympetesis," rebell ed , but the upnsmg was qu ic kly suppress ed . Ptolem y VIII beq uea thed it to his Ptolemy Apion , who in turn le ft it to the Rom a n peop le in his
""l
72 •
I)A~r NARTI
DAYBOOKS • 73
will. Cyrcne suffe red extensive damage duri ng the Jewish re volt ut
Similarly. the structure at Naukratis is probably the podi um of a tern pre. T he archaeo logica l evi de nce at Te ll Dafana included co nsiderable q uan tities o f Greek pottery, but there is no di rect evi dence of a (ireek garrison. Th e pottery ends abo ut 525 BC, the time of the invaviun by Ca mbyses of Persia .
lI5-117 AD.
-0DABENARTI. An island fortress in the Second Ca ta r a ct standing " I' posite M ir giss a . Th e natu re of the cataract here made landin g din I cult, and the fort was perh aps never completed. Alternatively, II might have bee n a tem porary fort , for add itiona l defen se of Mirgiss« in time s of crisis . DAKHLA O ASIS. A large oasis in the Western Desert , co nnec ted hI desert roads to the Oases of Farafra and Kharga and dir ectl y to 11 11 Nile Valley. Th ere are arc haeo log ica l rem ain s fro m the O ld Kingdom to the Roman period, although the major sites so far excavated h ' long mainly to these two pha ses. A lthough there was an Egy ptiuu governor in the Old Kingdom , the population of Dakhla might hnv. been largely Libyans . In the 19th Dynasty, the Libyan s who we» driven back by the army of M ercnptah from M emphis , appear I" have used the desert routes thro ugh the north ern oases, Dakhla ;1111 1 Kharga , to reach the N ile Valley in Upper Egy pt an d Nubia . DAPHNAE (TELL DAFANA). A fortress on the eas tern border bllill by Psamtik I , close to Migdol and Pelusion, Th e Greek histori III Herodotos states that it was built as a defen se aga inst the Arabs :UIII Syrians and that it was a Persian garrison with G ree k merc enari es II I his lime (mid-fi fth ce ntury BC) . Th e site of Tell Dafana (Tell Dcr!'11 neh ) , on the Pelu siac bran ch of the N ile , was first exc ava ted by W. M Flinders Petrie , who interp reted the site using the literary evi dence " ' Herod oto s and also ide ntified it w ith the biblical Tahpanhes . It W, I thereaft er co nsidere d a typi cal Late Per iod fort, and othe r mon ument with similar co nstruct ion were also designated forts . Th e lowest k:I',1 is a massive co mpartmented wa ll 450 x 200 meter s and 17 mell'l thick . Inside this wa ll, the area is filled with cro ss wa lls creating a " ries o f ce lls. Th is type o f construction is found in the " Palace "I Ap ril's" at Memphis and at Na ukr a tis . At Memphi s, Barry K CIII) proved that the ce llular level was used to suppo rt a stone pavcmc ui
IIAI' UR. Town of north Syria , in the territory of Tunip . It was attacked by.I{amesses II in his ca mpaign of year 8. The attack is depicted in the reliefs of the Ramesseum , the pharaoh 's templ e on the wes t bank at The bes. Dapur is shown as a typical Sy rian fortifie d city with a ce ntral n ladel and other tow~rs . Many of the walls are battlemenled . The EgypII
military activities d uring the siege of Mcgiddo , which was written on leather roll and preser ved in the temple of Am un at Karn ak. It is d l"nr fro.m the insc ribed vers ion of the anna ls that they have been exnuctcd from a more detailed so urce. and the leather roll may have lx-cn a not l~~r ex tracte d text. Both wo uld have rel ied o n a daily ac, llllnt de tatlJn.g a." a~pects of the ca mpaign, and presum abl y. the huII'lIlH:racy: distributinn of rations , orde rs , office rs , marches, sco ut111/' . hoo ty, etc . Th e Scmna Dispatches fall into the category of da ily JI
74
•
D fi R IKI IARGA)
report s, altho ugh in the for m of letters . T he wri ting of the Day Book (perhaps co mpiled from num erou s bu reaucratic document s) wn prob ably the resp on sibil ity of the Chief Ar my Scribes , such as, in til ' reign o f T h utmose III , Tjanuni. DEIR (K HA R GA). A large and impo sing Ro man fort in the northern part of Kharga Oasis . It dates to the reig n of Dioclctian (284-305 Al l) The fort co ntrolled the access to the Oas is by roads from Sohag urul Girga , co nsidered the best and shortest route betwee n Kharga and till' Nile Valley ( 160 kilometers) , T hese roads descend the escarpme nt nellI a spring of good water, controlled by the fort. Q uantities of bro ken pot ter y indicat e a Rom an watering station on the plateau itself , but the wu ter must have been taken from el-De ir. The fort is square , 73 x 73 nn ters. T he walls are mostly of unbu rned brick, banded with burned Il'd brick . They still stand aro und 10 meters in height and 3.60 meter thic k, with circu lar towers at each corner and two semicircular towci o n eac h side, and entrances o n the north , east, and west sides . Th e ill terior of the fort is almost devo id of visible remai ns, except along til south side of the co urt, which has a series of brick rooms. T he south wall is the best preserved and retains internal staircases leadin g to lilt parapet. At the center of the cou rt was a we ll, apparen tly with a COli duit to divert the overflow to cultivate the fields surrounding . A small temple o f mud brick was later converted into a church . In design alll i con struction the fort has strong similarities with others of the same pI' riod at Babylon , Dio nys ias, Tjaru , and Aswan , DELTA. T he Delta was created by the deposit of silt where the Nile It'll the co nfines of the limestone c liffs . Th roughout much of the dynusik period , large tracts of the nor thern Delta were marshlands, with lar 'l sea lagoons . T here were important ancie nt cities in the Delta , not ubl v Sa u (Sais) in the west and Per-Bastet (Bubastis) in the east. New citi . were fou nded later. Of the se , the most signitica nt were the Hyksu capi tal of Ava ris and clo se to it the new reside nce cit y o f the 19th D nasty pharaohs, Per-Ramesses and its port , Djanet (Tani s), T he Grev]. tradin g ce nter of Na uk r atis was built c lose to Sau in the reign "I Psamtik I. Th e princi pal routes for armi es, whether Egy ptian leaviu ' the region of M emphis or those invading, were those that followed the desert edges of the Delta . On the we st , the route ran from Melli
DEPORTATIO N •
75
phis to ~om Ab u Billo , Kom e l-Hisn , Kom Firin, Korn el Abqa' in, EIBarnugi, Nuba riya, perh aps to Rakote (later Alex and r ia) . In the east, II was protected by the net work o f forts from Pelusion to Tjaru , then toward the Wadi Tumilat, Heliopolis, and Babylon . . Most of the documented invasions of Egy pt through the Delta were lrom the east. T he kings o f Assyr ia . Esa r h addon and As h ur banipal, engaged with Egy ptian forces bet ween Tj ar u and Memphi s. The Asxyn ans also camp aigned acro ss the Delta to Sa u. Th e king of Babylon , Neb ucha d nezza r II. attempted an invasion in 60 I BC but was driven back. T he ar mies of Persia entered Egy pt through Pelus ion, in the rel.gn of Ca m byses (525 BC) , defeat ing Psamtik III. Durin g the reb ellion of Inaros ( 463-454 Be) against Persian rule , there was a hattie at Papremis , followe d by the siege of Inaros and the Athenian lorce at Prosopitis . T here was co nfl ict in the Delt a wh en Nakhthor heb se ized po wer, and there were further Persian invasions ,il,! the reig ns 0.1' Ar ta xerxcs II (373 BC) and Ar ta xerxcs III (343 BC) . Ihe ~acedolllan adventurer, Amy ntas , entered Egyp t throu gh Pelu sro n III 333 BC and was followed by Alex ander th e Great the follo wing y,ear. Ptolemy I co nfro nted the army of Antigonos MonopthalIIIC1S. III the ea stern D~lta in 306 BC, and there was another invasion by Antlochos IV of Sy na ( 169/8 BC) . The main disturba nce in the Roman period was the rebe llion of the Boukoloi (17 1 AD) . Furt her invasions from the east came in the later Ro man period, firstly the Pa lmyrene army of Zenobia , the Sasanid armies of Persia , and final ly, the Ar a bs , led by ' Am r Ihn-al 'asi . Th e principal invasions of the western De lta were by the Libyans . Th e Delta figures in Hellenistic no vels as a place where disside nt gro ups , and brigands , sought refuge. III':N (re ig ned c, 2985 II C). Pharaoh of the First Dynasty. An ivory label IIIIm Abydos sho ws Den smiting an Asiat ic enem y wit h a mace, the lext refers to " the firs t time o f smiting of the east." T his might be the same as the "sm iting of the Troglod ytes" recorded on the Palermo Slolle as the seco nd year of a 14-year cycle of an unnamed ruler. The "Asiatics" co uld refer to the Eastern Desert , to Sina i or to Palestine . IlEI'O RTATIO N. Th e forc ible removal of an entire, or a significant proportion, of the population of a co nquered town or state to be resettled ill another region of an em pire . Depo rtation was frequently used in
76
•
DESE RT
their cam paigns in Babyloni a and wes tern As ia by the rulers of i\ ~ syr ia , notabl y Sennaeherib , Esarhaddon , and Ashurbanipal. Depoi tation could serv e several purposes: it co uld remo ve "d isruptive" ell' merits, but more significantly, it co uld provide labor, part icul arly skilled labor, in other parts of the em pire . The Assyrians certainly n' moved some gro ups from Egy pt, including mem bers of the reignin ' Kushite roya l family. The use of de porta tion by the Egyptians is b we ll docum ent ed , but there are references to the Apiru bein g sent from Ca naa n to Kush and Canaanites from Gezer to Thebes. Interpretation of some Egy ptian texts is made mo re difficult by the kingship ideo log ' that claimed the pharaoh 's power co uld tum the wo rld upside dOWII , thereby removing Asiat ics to Nubia and Libyans to Asia . DESERT. Egypt is surro unded by desert and the de fen se of its borde rs on south, wes t, and eas t was a respon se to that. Th e Western , Libyan , Desert has a reas of rocky plateau and sand dun es , with a strin g 01 oases ru nnin g fro m Bahariya in the no rth, throug h Fa rafra , 111 Dakhla , and Kharga . Exc ava tions at Dakhl a have found a fortres of Old Kingdom date , but the evidence of most of the other forts ill Kharga is far later , dating from the Per sian to Roman and Byzantin periods. Kharga con tro lled the desert road from Nu b ia later ca lled the Darb el-A rba ' in, the " Forty Days Road." From Bahar iya, a strin of smaller oases conn ected with Siwa . The Easter n Desert is more mountain ous and was a major source 01 stone and minerals . T here is abunda nt evi dence in Upper Egy pt 1'01 quarry ing ex ped itio ns to the Wadi Harnmamat and use o f the routes 111 the Red Sea ports. Th ere are over 60 small Rom an forts in the south ern parts of the Eastern Desert , protecting the roads to the principal ports of Myos Hormos (now ident ified with Qu seir el-Qad im, ratlu-i than Abu Sha 'ar, as earlier sc ho lars thou ght) and Be renik e , and the quarries at Mon s Porph yrites and Mon s Claudianus . Th ere has been less surve y work in the northern parts of the Eastern Desert , but the ViII Hadriana, running from Antinoopo lis in Middle Egypt to the Red Sea , must have bee n protected in a similar way as the sou thern routes . Th cs. small forts pro vide d protected watering places (hydreulllala) and re~t ing places for the tradin g caravans , as well as bein g bases for policin ' operations . They also played an important role in the quarrying aIII I mining activities o f the region . In so uthern Upper Egypt and Nubia
D IADOCI IO I •
77
I ~gypt had an ambivalent relati on ship with the people who lived in the l.astern Desert , the Madjoy and later the B1emmyes . Until recentl y, it was assu med that desert travel was mo re limited in uncie nt times , and that very long desert journ eys d id not becom e usual until the introduction of the camel. Lon g desert journeys can be made II SlI1g don keys, but these req uire much more baggage and water. In the Sixth Dynasty, Harkhuf certainly used a desert route, and donkey car".van,. to trave l to so uthern Nubia. Recentl y discovered rock inscrip.11.' lIIS IJ1 Ihe Theban region attest a desert road of Middl e Kingdom dale . I he desert patrol of Kamose ca ptured a Hyksos messen ger travel ing III the ruler of Kush . Meroitic texts sho w that the desert roads betw een the Fourth Cataract and Low er Nu bia were being used , and roc k in-criptions to the eas t of Buhen attest a desert road of the 18th Dynasty. I>Csert patrol guards are we ll a ttested fro m the Ptolem aic and Rom an periods by papyri from the Fayum . Fortresses and watchtowers co ntrolled the access to the Nile Valley and the Oases from the desert, In I\ ha rg a Oasis, the fortress of Dush co ntro lled the desert road betwee n 'hl' south of the oasis and Edfu, and Deir co ntrolled the road from the III1r1 h of the oasis to G irga (ancient Tjeny).
111 ':S IlAS.HE~. A cemetery site to the so uth of He rakleopolis (Ihnasya vl-Medina) III north ern Middle Egypt. Th e tomb of Inti of the late Fift h or Sixth Dyn asty cont ain s one o f the few Old Kingdom sce nes u] ~Ja~ t le. It shows an. attack o n a wa lled to wn , ap parently occupied by AS iatICS. The to wn IS sche matic , be ing the co nventional ova l car lnuche shape used for nam es of forei gn places, with semicircular basliClns indicated. The attack ing Egy ptian force is usin g a whee led sea l1111: ladder to asce nd the walls , while sa p pe rs mine the walls with p" inted stakes. Inside.the town, two men are shown listenin g for signs " I 'he sappers , Outs ide the walls , hand -to-hand co mbat with axes I II~es place . Th e whole sce ne has a close para llel in the roughly co numporary tomb o f Kaernh eset at Saqqara. 1II ,\I10 CHOI. Th e successors of Alexa nder th e Great. On A lexa ndn 's dea th at Babylon in 323 Be , his ge nera ls acknow ledge d his inIII IH so n, A lexa nde r IV, and his hal f-brother , Philip Arrhida ios as I, illgs. but partiti oned the e mpire a mo ng them sel ves. At first, the gen1III Is ass umed the Persian sty le "sa t r a p " as provincial gov erno rs .
78 • IJIOCLETI AN
Th ere were num e rou s political and ma rriage alli ance s bet ween the d i adocho i, but breaki ng of po litical allia nce was usuall y accompanied by d ivorce , itse lf leadin g to dynastic riva lries later. The prin cip al ri ' ures in the per iod fro m 323 BC to the batt le of lpsos in 30 I BC wen' Perdi kka s , Antigo nos I Monophthalmos , Antip ater, Kassand ci , Lysimachos , Ptolemy I , and Seleukos I. Ptolem y I seized Egypt. tal, ing Alexa nde r 's body wit h him . In the First War of the Diadochoi (32 1120 BC). Ptolem y I face d ill I invas ion by Perd ikka s . T he sett lement of Trip aradei sos An tip aun co nfirmed Ptolemy's hold o n Egy pt. In the Second War (3 19- 3 1 BC) , Ptole my annexe d Coe le Syria, whic h he lost in the Third W il l (3 14- 3 11 BC), altho ug h he acquired Cy prus . Th e mai n threa t I II Pto lem y I' s co ntro l of Egy pt ca me fro m Antigo nos I Mono phth ulmn and his so n Dem etrio s . Pto lemy and Se leuk os I joi ntl y de fcutcd Dem et rios at the batt le of Gaza in 3 12 BC , Anoth er peace was ag rl'o 'd in 3 11 BC , but Antigonos and Dem etr ios attem pted a nothe r invasion of Egyp t in 306 BC, whic h Ptole my wa s ab le to res ist. Fo llowi ng 11 11 lead of Antigo nos the ge nera ls now beg an to ass um e royal tith: Pto lem y being cro wned in 304 BC . Coe le Syr ia was regained ." , Pto lem y in the Fo urt h War of the D iadochoi (303 -30 I nc) . whi, II culm inated in the battle of Ipsos (30 I uc) . Ptole my was not pres"111 at the battle . and in the peace treat y that followed all or Syria 1t,I gra nted to Se leukos , but for pe rson al reaso ns . he accepted Pll ~lclll ru le over Coe le Sy ria; thi s was 10 lead to the co nstant In cuo n h. tween Ptol emi es and Scleukids in the Syria n Wars . DlO CLETl AN (reigned 284-305 All). Roman e mperor. In Egypt, th re ign o f Dioc leti an is mar ked by the rebeIlion of Domit ius Don n tianus and Aureli us Ac hilleu s (297 AD) . invol vin g a lon g siege II Alexa nd r ia . Dioc let ian was present in person. He then ex tcnsivcl reorganized the ad mi nistra tio n o f Egy pt. Diocleti an was respon slhl for important changes o n the southe rn fro ntier in Lo wer Nuh lu whe re the B1emmyes had been a per sistent prob lem . altho ug h A IIII Iia n had ga ined so me victories ove r them . T he fronti er wa s now I ' mo ved fro m Maharr aqa to As wa n, where a fortress was built al Iii head of the First Ca ta r ac t. A num ber o f other for tre sses ca n Ill" III tribut ed to the reig n of Diocletia n: the rebu ildi ng of Ba byluu Dionysias , Tjaru , and e l-Deir in Kharga Oasis . T he fort al AlII
DIPlOMATIC MARRIAGE •
79
Sha ' ar o n the Red Sea coas t of the Eas tern Desert is no w known to date from this period . 1l1 0 NYS IAS . Fortress at the far wes te rn e nd of the Fay um . the mod ern site of Qasr Qa run . Bui lt in the third century AD, perhaps about 2('() A D , altho ug h often ass igned to the reign of Dioclet ian . Th e lortress is brick-built. meas uring 94.4 me ter s x 80 meters , with square towe rs at eac h co rner and in the mid dle of the wes t side, and w ruicirculur towers o n the south and eas t sides . Sem icirc ular towers ulso fla nked the main gate o n the nort h s ide . T his gate o pened onto a «olonnaded stree t lead ing to a building wit h an aps ida l e nd . Th ere were single ce lls lining the north . eas t, and wes t wa lls . IlIP LO MATI C MARRIAGE. Thi s was often used to seal a peace tn' a ty .y is best docum ented in Egy pt in the later 18th and early 19th I)ynastles by the Ama r na Letters and the Marriage Stela of Ramesses II . The Arnarna Letters show that there were elaborate protocols to be observed . At this time the pharaoh claimed ne ver to send his daughters 10 marry foreign ru lers. as a way of emphasiz ing his position as the first 1II III lllg equals of the Great Kings . It was also necessary to write severa l times, before a da ug hter of a ruler wo uld be gra nted. Th e letters also ,,' \'eal that. like peace treaties, the death of a ruler required a new marIillge to be co ntrac ted betwee n allies . So when Shutt arn a II of M itan nl died . negot iation s were opened for the marriage of Amenhotep III Willi her niece. the daugh ter of the ne w king, Tushratta. The Hittites adopted a di ffere nt po licy to Egy pt and se nt da ug hte rs oil (he con di tio n that the pr incess beca me pri nci pa l wife and queen, IIl1d Ihat the so n of the marri age wo uld become king . ther eb y ex te ndIII ' Ili ttite power. T he unusual requ est o f Ankhes c namun for a Hittite 1'1 iucc to beco me her husband , o n the deat h of Tutankhnmun , was ''''l'ted with d isbe lief by the Hitt ite king . So me fac tio ns at the Egyp t111 11 co urt also o ppo sed it, as the pri nce was murdered on his way to I 'ypt. a n ac tio n that led to the reop ening of hostilities between the I Wo powers. Ram esses II e ventua lly sea led his peace treaty with the l liuitcs by marriage . There is evidence for s im ilar dyn asti c marriages later. In the Th ird hurrm cd iatc Period , the Libyan a nd Kushit e pharaohs estab lished a lIllI lires with other rul ing fa milies and the e lite . Ahm ose II marr ied
80 •
D IVISION I A~MY )
Lad ike of C yr en e, and another G reek marr iage is att ested for Ih., 30 th Dynasty, a lthough the lady's orig ins are un kno wn . Th e num ci o us allia nces of the Ptolem ies, Seleukids, and others of A lexa nder th e G r ea t's successors (diadochoii usu all y result ed in civil war and d ynastic war . DI VI SION (A RMY). T he largest unit of the army, comprising 5,0()() I me n . T here were , by the tim e o f Ramesses II, four d ivisions, nam ed after the state triad of Egypt, A m u n, Ptah, and R e wit h an add itio nal one nam ed after Seth . DJAHY. Ter ritory o f wes te rn Asia that occurs freq ue ntly in records 01 the 18th Dy nasty . It is north of R et enu and pe rha ps to be ide ntified w ith the coast of Lebanon , includin g im por ta nt ce nters such as Tyrv . Si do n, Byblos, and S umur. It was the focu s o f Egypti an m ilit ary al' tivity and as suc h ap pea rs in the autob iographical insc ript io n of Ah m ose -p en -Nekhbet and the A n n a ls of Thutmose III. Ramesses III sta tes that he made his fro ntie r agai nst the "Sea Peoples" in Djahy, alth ou gh here the use is possib ly arc haic. D.JEDHOR (reigned 361-360 li e). Pharaoh of the 30 th Dyn asty, so n 01 Na k h t ne b ef. The nam e is a lso found in literature as Teos , or Tachos, fro m its Greek form , and Dj eh o . Djedhor wa nted to take advamugr of rebellions aga inst the king of Persia , A r taxe rxes II , and prep ared a ca mpa ig n into Pa les tine. In add itio n to the Egyptian force, he had II large army of Greek mercenaries , comma nded by Agesilaos II, kill ~ of S pa rta, a nd a fleet from A thens , commanded by Chabrias . Djcd hor imp osed hea vy taxes to pay fo r this ar my. Th ey mad e so me Sill' ce sse s in Palestine , and Djedho r wished to advance far ther intll Syria . Thi s led to a d isagree ment wi th Agesi laos , who then su ppo rted the rebellio n of Djed hor 's ne phew, Nekhthorhe b. Dj edh or Iledto PCI sia and d ied in exi le. D.JER (reig ne d e. 3050 li e). Pharao h o f the First Dyn asty. A rock ill scri ptio n at Gebe l S he ikh S u leima n in Nubia has ge nerally bee n lilt de rstood as a record of mil ita ry act ivities by Djer. The arc haeologi ca l ev ide nce lor the en d o f the Nu b ian "A-Gro up" c ult ure has bee n reassessed in recent years a nd seem s to ind icate tha t the po werful
DRil l. •
81
Nubian ki ng do m based upon Q us tu l ca me to a sudden end around the time o f Dj er. IH )I)EKASCH O INO S. Greek term for Lo wer Nub ia fro m the Egy ptian border at the Firs t C a ta r a ct as fa r as M a har r a qa (Hiera Syk aminas s, II might, unde r a d iffe rent name, have become an ad ministrative dis.11:ict a~tach~d to Upper Egy pt as ea rly as the 2 1st or 26 th Dyn asty. I here IS eV I ~e nce fro m the fortress of Dorginarti that the persian kings were defendi ng pa rts of Lower Nubia . T he term dodekascltoinos is first IIILlnd in the Ptolem aic perio d . Th e dist ric t was ex tended to become the Triakontasc ho inos but, follow ing d isputes with Meroe, reduced aga in. Allhough largely occ up ied by Nubians and Meroite settlers , it remained und er the co ntro l of Rom an Egy pt until the reign of Dio clet ian , whe n, becau se of prob lems with the Blemmyes , the frontier was redraw n at the First Ca tarac t. A net wor k of watchtowers ex tended trom Lower Nubia , via As wan , to Edfu and across the Eas tern Desert . !lO RG INARTI. Island fort r ess in the Second Cata r a ct near Mirgissa. Dabenarti , and Meinarti. O riginally thought to da te to the Midd le Kingdo m o r late r Ne w Kingdo m , a reas ses sme nt of the arl'haeo log ica l material by Lisa He idorn indi cates it is of the 26t h IlynasttPe rs ian pe rio d . T he fort , ro ugh ly trian gul ar in shape , wa s al'l'ro xlln ate ly 80 met ers by 50 me ters . Its wa lls , up to 8 .0 meters ' hick , were s urro unded by a g lac is and prot ected by buttresses. It is rlilfi c ult to place the fortress into its hi storical co ntex t. Psamtik II launc hed a mil itar y attack o n the heart of the Ku sh ite kingdo m in 593 III '. a nd the Pers ian king C a m byses is reputed to have campa igned in Lower Nubia . Th ere is a lso evi de nce for trad ing rela tio ns be tween I ~gypt a nd K us h. It is possi ble that Dorgin arti had bo th an economic II l1d defen sive ro le in the six th-fifth ce nturies Be. !lllILL. The ev ide nce o f various papyri (no tably the A nastasi pap yri) rla ims that or d inary co nsc ript troop s were beaten into sha pe, whe reas ,' hat for the e.lite cor?s de tai ls at hlet ic and sk illed train ing in wea po ns . I lie Anas tasi pa pyn and s imilar documen ts are preju d iced so urces in thai they emphasi ze the be nefits of be ing a member of the e lite and the hardships o f lo wer ranks . Neverthe less, there was dou btless coerI'ion and bru ta lity in the traini ng o f rec ru its .
82 • OYNASTIC WARS
Th e insc riptio n o n the Sphinx St el a of A men hote p II , from (]j,ll de tai ls his sk ill as a prince and epitom izes the military eth os of Iii e lite o f thi s pe riod . Th e few det ailed recor ds of sc hooling fo r offi cial in the New Kingd om shows that fro m perhaps the age of four or !"i v. they learn ed scri ba l ski lls, but the n fro m the age o f about e ight thn we nt to the " sta bles ." Here , sc riba l sk ills wou ld have been co ntinun l a lo ngs ide th e tech niq ue s of horse mansh ip and char io t ry , 11Ild arch er y. A men ho tep 1I also refers to row ing and run nin g. Th e SCCIII sho w so ldiers e ngaged in drill e xe rc ises in the tomb of Tjanunl II I Th eb es and lpu ia at Sa q q a r a , DY NASTI C WARS. As mo st o f the surv ivi ng Egy ptian " h istorical documen ts were writte n by the vic to rs, there is, hardl y surprisingt , littl e indication o f o pposi tion . Th e SIOI)' ofSinuhe a nd the II, SII'I/('(I,,/I of Amenemha t I both indi cate that Amenemhat I was murde red III so me sor t o f pa lace consp iracy. T he cleares t ev ide nce for late r .11 nastic turmo il is the confli ct o n the death o f Merenptah bet ween Iii ap poi nted Crown Pr ince Sety II , a nd Amen messe , who ap pears " ' have been a member o f the roya l fami ly (poss ibly Set y II ' s ow n SOli I T he " Ha re m co nspiracy" against Ramesse s III , which might hili been partl y succ es sful, sugge sts that there wa s perh ap s more pri vu« opposition to rulers than open r ebellion . Altho ug h it is dan gerou s I" ge nera lize based o n suc h limit ed evidence , the s ma ll , clo sed , 111101 powe rful e lite , the palace e nvironme nt and ana log ies w ith other silll ilar soc ieties, suc h as Assy ria, makes it high ly likel y tha t there w•• cons ide rably more dyn ast ic strife th an we have docum ent ed ev idc n« for. Th e e lite do ub tles s for med fact io ns pro mot ing the intere sts of dli Iere nt gro ups , notabl y w hen it ca me to the cho ice of royal wi ves . Palace- based con spiracy was a fea ture of the Ptolemaic period : 1111 tabl y with the murd er o f Ptolemy IV. Th e strife bet ween Ptolemy VIII E uergetes II and K leo pat ra II led to a full-sc a le ci vil war with nuli tary actio n throu ghout the country, itse lf a llow ing an Egy ptian rch' l pharaoh , H a rsiesi s , to be proc lai med in Thebes . Thi s pro longed 1111 mo il had di sastrou s e ffects on the agricultura l economy o f the co uun v w ith land gran ted to cler uc hs be ing left unculti vated . Th e feud h, tween K leo pa tra III and her son Ptolem y IX Sote r II , who m she dl posed , led to the Syrian W a r o f 103-1 0 I BC , whic h overlapped with 1 Sc leu k id dy nastic war invol vin g her da ughter s, who were married I" the rival Sy ria n rulers. T here was further dynastic co n flict bctwc 'I
[ I.Tr Kri l •
83
l'Iolc my XI. A lexa nd er II , and Kleopatra Beren ike ITI , and between I\leopatr a V II and her bro thers and sisters.
-E10 ( WES H . O ne of the ethnic gro ups listed in the insc ri ption of I\llTnep ta h as allied w ith the Libyans , a nd often listed by historian s II ' one of the "Sea Peoples," a lthoug h in this case c learly a me rce lIary force. Th e na me Ekwesh was equated by some earlier scho lars \~ i l h the "Ac haeans" and hen ce placed aro und Troy. Ho we ver, Ahhiyawa, a wes tern . neighbor of the Hittite E mpire , is c urrently IlItlllght to eq uate wi th the "Ac haeans" (i .e., Mycenaea ns of ma inl and t irccce and Ioni a) . T he Ekwesh are pro ba bly to be located o n the wes te rn coast of A nato lia, perh aps including so me of the island s tha t h.ul Mycenaean settle me nt.
,q .EI' HA NT. T he use of e lepha nts in warfare wa s intro duce d to Ptolerunic Egypt fro m Ind ia throu gh the Sele uk id kingdom of Sy r ia . Ele1'IIIII1tS had first been e nco untered by the army of A lex a nde r the ( ;"cat in the ba ttle aga inst Poros at the River J-lydaspes (lhelum) . T he Sl'Icukid kings recei ved e lepha nts fro m the far ea stern parts of their empire . and the Ptolemi es tried to e mu late them , bring ing e lephants trorn Eastern Afr ica . Th ese were tran sp orted fro m Ptole mais of the "' ephant hunts, a long the Red Sea . T here is a lso evide nce for the huntillg or e lepha nts in the S uda nese kingdom of M ero e . Ptolemy IV deploycd e lep ha nts at the ba ttle of Raphia (2 I7 Be) . There has bee n co nuo vcrsy over which type of e lep hant was avai lable to the Ptolemies 11 111 1 it is now ge nerally accepted , on the descriptio ns of ancie nt wri tI' IS. that it was the sma ller forest , rath er than the bush , e lephant. Th e I" c o f e lep ha nts in war spread amo ng the Hellen istic ar m ies, and to ( 'arth age , where Hann ibal famou s ly use d them in his ma rch on Rom e.
t' I.EI'IIANTINE. See ABU . I I .'I'E K E ~. Bat~ le in 70 I BC between the Egy ptia n-Kushite a nd As syr1111 1 11I'J11Ies . It IS document ed by the A nna ls o r Se n na che r ib and the hihlic:'1 re~ord of ~ King s 20 . Elteke h (Assyrian: A ltaq u) is pro babl y III hc Iden ti fied With Tell es h-S ha llaf, 15 kilome ters so uth of Joppa .
84 • l NVOY5
fAYUM ·
The Ass yrian army was marc hing so uth to ward Ekron, having ca p tured Joppa , when they enco untere d the Egy ptian ar my sent hy Shabaqo ad vancing fro m G aza . Th e bib lica l record states thlll Ta ha r qo led the Egy ptian army , altho ug h he was not reign ing pharao h and was probab ly too yo ung to have participated . T he Egyp tians were defea ted and withdrew to Gaza to recoup . T he battle wu o ne engageme nt during the ca mpa ign of Se nnac herib aga inst Judnh , which also included the sieges of Lachish and J erusalem .
'I'
ENVOYS. In the New Kingdom , the royal envoys we re an import ant e lement in the d iplo mat ic serv ice, maint ain ing contact between th,· pharaoh and his o fficials , suc h as the vice ro y of Kush . Num erou s ill scriptions documen t their tours . T hey also con veyed the lett ers :lIId gift exchange bet ween Egy pt and the western As iatic rul er s do cu ment ed by the Am a rna Letters . ESA RHA DDO N (reigned 6811-669 uc ), Assyr ian em pero r who ill vaded Egypt in the reign of the Kushi te pharao h Ta ha r qo, who had been suppor ting anti-Assyrian rul er s in western As ia . In 679 Il l ' , Esarhadd on marc hed to the Brook-of-E gypt and ca ptured its ruler. taking him to Assy ria . In 677 BC, the arm y ca ptured Sido n and nasserted Assyria n co ntro l along the coast. In 674 BC, the a nnalisik text know n as the Babylonian Chronicle report s the defea t o f the /\ , syrian ar my in Egy pt. T his is not re ported in the othe r sou rces . II see ms that the Assy rians spent 672 BC in makin g preparatio ns For tlu Egyptian ca mpaig n. Th ere are o racle requests to the go d Shama sh abo ut the likel y outco me . Two stelae From Til Bar sip (in Alep po Mil seum) and o ne From Ze njirli (in Berl in, Pergam on -Mu seum) recoil I the campaign . T he army headed for Gaza. then pushed on to Raphln , where there was a batt le. T he Egyp tian-Kushite ar my was FOrel'd back, and three batt les ove r 15 days are reported . The last , o n II Julv 67 1 Be, was o utside M em ph is . T he city was cap tured a nd Taharqn fled . T here was a d eportation of the Kushite e lite From the city til Assyr ia. Esa rhaddo n's co ntro l o f Egypt was short-lived: the Lib yuu dynasts quic kly changed sides and Taharqo returne d . Esarhaddou laun ched a new ca mpaign, but d ied e n route , in Palestin e . ETHOS. T he changes in military techn ology in the early New Kingdom . with the introductio n of the horse and ch ariot , and the co mposite hul\'
85
0:
resulted in a.ne w image the pharaoh as a c hariot warr io r and sportsIn earlier scho larly hterature , this was associated with the idea of 1I1l: ma r iya nn u as a warrior aristocra cy, a view now d iscred ited . The co nsiderable ~k i lls required to become profi cient in char iotry r.ulically cha nged elite ed uca tio n. Thi s result ed in a new etho s re,Ik~tcd most clearly in the text of the Sphinx Stela of Am en hotep II. I hix narrates th~ prin ce 's grea t abilities as a rower and part icu lar ly as all arc her shooting fro m a cha riot. He is sa id to ha ve shot throu gh lour targets of copper placed abo ut 10 meters apart. Thi s incid e nt is 1I 1 ~() depi cted o n a reli ef block . Du ring these activities, the pharao h or prince was under the g uidance and protecti on o f M on th u and the Asiuric de ities , Reshep , As ta r te , a nd Ana th . A simi lar scene depi ctlil t: t~e pharao.h Ay of the late 18th Dynasty occ urs on a piece of go ld 1111 1 lro m chanotry eq uipme nt, 111 :111.
-FM RAS. Site in Nu bia to the north of the Sec o nd Ca taract. Th e earliest 11I rg,c structure is ~ fortress of the 12th Dynasty, prob ably of the reign III Scn usrct I. It IS pe rhaps that nam ed Khesef Medjau in the Rames'~'lIIn Papyri. In t~e ~'e ig n of Tutankhamun , in the late 18th Dynasty, I'ams was the principa l administra tive cen ter of the viceroy with a walled town (but not , apparently, fortress). After a long per iod with no III little occ upation, it became a major town and administrative center III the Meroitic per iod and later the seat of a Christian bishop .
!',\Y li M. Large oas is to the west o f the Nile and co nnec ted to it by the I ~ ahr Yusuf. I~ the ea rlier periods, the la ke (Lake Qaru n or Lake ' :ayum ) occupied much of the basin , but this gradually red uced in ,\ II l: and the 1~lJId ":as reclaimed for c ultivation, most notabl y in the r. uly Ptolemai c peri od . Th e prin cipal to wn was Sh edyt , know n in the "Iolem.aic and Ro man peri od s as Krok od ilopol is (a fte r its patron croco d ile god , Sobek), and Arsi noe. T here is evide nce for land grant s 10. me rcena ry troops in the so uthern Fayum and adjace nt part of the ~ lie Valley. T he place nam es , Per-Baalat , Shasu a nd Pen -shasu , PerK haset, Kharu and Na -khar u, a nd the theophori c person al nam es kexhpu, Baal-her-khepeshef, Baal-Monthu , and Me her-Seth , all indirule the presen ce of Asiat ics . T he re were many g rants of land in the
86 •
fI ~ M lIS IC 272 AO)
Fayum to vetera ns , In the Pto lemaic period, these wer e di stingui shed as cle r uc hs and machimoi. T he Fay um presen ted a con siderab le desert frontier , and there i ev ide nce from the Pto lem aic peri od of desert patro ls operating from so me o f its southern town s . A defen sive wa ll has bee n ide ntified Ill' twee n the Ni le Va lley and the Fayum at Rikka . At the western e nd III Lake Fayum was the Roman fort ress at Dionysias (Q asr Qa ru n). FIRM US (c. 272 All), Accordi ng to the no tori ou sly unrel iable Historla Augusta . Firrnus was a rich merchant in Alexandria, who was prll claimed e mperor, but de feated by A u relia n , Th is br ief incid ent WII ge nerally accepted by historians, but has bee n c ha lle nged by 1\11111 Bowm an . There are records of so me troub le in A lexand ria at thi tim e , bu t not a full re volt. Th e name of Firrnu s give n to the usurp"! by the Historic Augusta might be thro ug h confusio n wit h an o lficiII I nam ed Claud ius F irm us, named in pap yru s doc uments .
fOR TIfiCA TIONS •
87
Th ut mose I suggest that the troop s in the fortress of Sa i in so uthern Nubia wer e graz ing their cattle in the bett er territory o f the Kushite ·~c nemy." Excavations in the fo r tress at Uro narti found woo de n raII IIn to ke ns for loaves of bread , sho wing a highly org anized d istrib uIIIIn of su~pl ies ~y th~ bureaucracy . From the ev ide nce , it app ears Ihat the dai ly baSI C rati on of a so ld ier in the M idd le Kingd om was 10 loaves o~ bread . A qu arryin g text of the 20th Dynasty rec ord s the bread rat ion , supple mented by three j ars of beer, two portio ns of meat , and three ca kes . , There are i n~cri ptions record ing the si nking and clearin g of we lls III desert locatio ns for use o f q uarry ing expedi tions, and dou btless ~vclls associ ated with for tresses wer e care fully maintained . Th e sce ne II I Ihe t~mple o f Karnak sho wing the fortificatio ns of the Wa ys of Hor us includ es sev e n well s. T hey are dep icted as small lakes .
III )l{TI F ICATlO NS. Egyp t had man y for tifi cati o ns , o f wh ic h ' nr lresses were on ly a par t. Not all fort ifica tio ns were militar y, al-
FLIES. T he go ld fly was give n as a mil itary decorati on a nd rewun l presum ab ly bec ause the insect's per sistence sy mb o lized a suhlici va lor. Flies are spec ified as rewards in the inscript ion o f Ah rnus« pen-Nekhbel. FOOD. Th e prejudiced record o f scr iba l did actic lit e r atu re t such a, 11 11 Anas tasi Pap yri) impl ies that so ld iers' ration, we re meager and 1111 plea sant. Th ey claim that the grai n ratio n was not fit for g rind ing, alii I that water was ava ilable only every th ird day, a nd then it was smell, a nd sa lty. O the r pap yru s texts say that the so ld ier was ob lige d to CHI I\ his food and water. As produ cts of elite schoo ls. these literary soum em phas ize the ad vant ages of bei ng a me mber of the e lite and 1111 har shness of life for others , On a long march into Asia , ratio ns co uld have been supplerncnu II by forage , and the re is evide nce that the a rmy di visio ns were sprcml so as to allow the followin g d ivision s a share . A fter the siege and cal' tu re o f Megiddo , the An nals of T hutmose III accounts the numl « I of sacks of wheat take n fro m the harvest o f the to wn' s fields , spcr lf ically exce pting that whic h had bee n cut as forage . A sce ne in 11 11 tomb of Tja n un i, an ar my sc ribe o f the lime of T h utmose IV , show ca ttle be ing herd ed for co nsumptio n by troop s . T he inscript ions II I
I hll~lg h ihcy had the pot enti a l to be . Fortific ation serve d as de fen se
III I IIIl C S of interna l str ife but wa s a lso prot ect ion agains t the a nnua l II l1 l1l d:J IIt,lIl 0 1 the Ni le . Fortifi cat ion s prim ari ly prot ected e lite/ ,',' rl' mo illa l ce nters and ce nte rs o f wea lth . Fortifi cati on s of var ious 1,I'l'e s we re used as prot ec tio n o f the bord ers a nd o ther vulnerable I'ans o f. t.he country. T hey mi ght co nsist of a sing le fo rtress or ..11 :lIn 01 fortresses, networ ks of wa tc htowers . wa lls , and canals A/lho ug h it is co rrec t to say that Egypt had natural defens es ag:lInst Invasion by fo re ign a rm ies , in the for m o f the cataracts (in lhc so uth), a nd the di fficult access alo ng the Via Mari s or Ways of Hurus and the desert , the Nile Valley was ac tua lly ope n a ll of its length to the incu rsio ns o f sma lle r gro ups of nom ad ic o r se m i-nouuulic ~eop l es . T here wer e num erou s vu lnera ble points at the e nds II I wadi s and desert road s. ma ny o f which do ubtless had sma ll watc hto we rs . Th er e i.s ev ide nce fro m d iffere nt pe riod s of mi lita ry nlfic iuls whose fun ction was to o bse rve a nd co ntro l those e nte ring 1111(1 leaving the N ile Vall ey. There were Pto lem aic a nd Ro ma n dese rt pat rol s from the to wns of the Fayum . Severa l hiero g lyph ic signs represe nt walled enclos ures a nd settleiucnts ..A circle div ided into four seg me nts by two c rossed line s is the word lor " tow n" (l1i/lI) . More formal rec ta ngular enc losures with a
88 •
r ORTlfl CATIO NS
sec ond rectan gle in o ne corne r represent religiou s and royal pre cincts (h ii I) . Th e re is arc haeo log ica l e vid ence for e nclosi ng wall s around
so me Pre- and Ea rly- Dy nas tic sett leme nts suc h as Abu and el-K'II> (Nek heb). At Ab u (E lephantine) , the c ircular en clo sur e had a wavy wall. Some sett leme nts of the Ne w Kin gd om in Nubia also had en c los ure wa lls (e .g ., Aksha, Se seb i, Amara West) , as did all of thl' princip al temple and palace co mplexes in Egy pt. Th e re has been 10 11 little arc haeo logica l work in the major cities, suc h as Thebes 01 Memph is , to show whether they had large c ity-wa lls , but ther e an' references to the wa lls of the cities of Th ebes and Sau , a nd the earl ' city of Memph is was ca lled lnbu-hedj , mean ing the "White Walls" III " W hite Fort." Ce rtai nly, sett leme nts within the flood plai n needcrl prot ect ion from the wa ters of the inunda tion , if not for military de Iense . How ever , settleme nt wo uld doubtless have spread outside III the protecti ve wa lls. Massi ve mud-bri ck wa lls do surv ive surround ing man y temp le e nc los ures , such as Karna k a nd Med in et H ab u , and in palat ial complexes, suc h as the palace of A pries at Memphis and the roya l palace in the northern part of the ci ty o f Akhetan-n (Ama rna) . T he elite hou ses at Amarn a also had enc losure wa lls probab ly because they we re used for the storage of large qu antities III fo od stu ffs. T here are Egy ptian wo rds for d ifferent types of forti fied structure a nd in the later per iods Greek and Ara ma ic wo rds , so me of whirl> were equated with the ea rlier Egy ptian. O ne wo rd for a "fort ress' was resit , whic h originally might have meant " watc hto we r" III "guardho use ," deri ving from the verb "to watch ." Its meanin g WII exte nded and ca n be found in Ptolem aic texts equating with Ihl G reek wo rd polis , a town . Resit also equates to the Arama ic woul bvrta . in document s relat ing to As wa n. Th e word tj esm et was P 'I haps or igi na lly a crenellated parapet , but came to mean a rampart . II use re lated to mi litary struc tures and the wa lls surround ing te mpi enclos ures . Th e word khetem (fro m the verb "to sea l") was ge nerulh used for fortresses (such as Tjaru); menenu is also used . Th e wnul nakhtu, a " stro ngho ld" (from nakht " stro ng" ), and be khen (a lso li' ·d for the py lon to wer s at the e ntra nce to temples) are also found alii I presu mably had spec ific mea ning . Th e Semitic term for a tower migdol , wa s ado pted into the Egypti an language and is found rci'l'l
fO RTRESS, ARCI IAEOlO GY •
89
ring to a number of Ram essid e fort resses . Gr ee k word s that appea r in
do~ume nts of. : tolem aic date a re PIll/lak e, a wa tchtower, a nd hy-
paithron , a milit ary ca mp. Unfo rtunately, it ca n be d ifficult to deterurine prec isely what so me of these terms mean . F( lRTRESS, ARCHAEOLOGY. Well-preser ved fortresses of Middle a ~d New Kingd om date survived in Nubia unt il the buildi ng of Ihc High .Da m at Asw an (beg un in 1960). Th ese fortr esses , most ly vurrc und ing the Seco nd Cataract , have been excavated and rvcorded . Th ey fall into a number of different categories . Th ere were largc supply dep ots at the foot of the ca taract (e .g., Bu he n and Mirgissa) , whereas smaller ga rr iso ns on island s and the wes t bank con uolled passage throu gh the ca tarac t (Sem na and K umma) or acted II ' signaling stations (e .g ., S halfak , Uronarti). O ne fort, Askut , ,, 'e ms to have serve d as a protected island gra in supply. FOI:resses in o ther parts of Egy pt have only more recen tly been vxnmined and are predom inant ly of the later period s . Th e ea rliest Iortrcss-ty pc struc tures in Egypt are at Abydos , the Shunet el-Zebib, 11 111 1 the to wn wa lls of Abu and Nekhen . An O ld Kingd om fort has hccn exc avated ~t A in Asil in Dakh la Oasis . Th e wa ll co nnec ting Axwan and the First Ca taract, perhaps to be identi fied w ith Senm ut I, co nte mpora ry with the Nubian fortresses. Th e fortress at Zawiyet I J II II~I el-Rakham and the e nc los ure wa lls a nd Migdol gateway o f ~Il'(h.net Habu are the bes t-preserved exa mples of the New King""111 III Egypt, altho ugh man y of the Nu bian fort resses we re restored 11 11( 1 altered . Rarnesside defenses in the eastern Delt a have been ide ntificd at Deir e l-Ba lah and Haru vit. A migdoJ is know n at Jebel Abul lnssa bet wee n Suez a nd the Bille r Lakes . T he troubl ed T hird InterII Il'd ~ate Per iod saw co nstruc tion of fortresses in Egy pt, not ably at ," I Iliba (Te udj oi) , which mark ed the north ern limit of the territory of ','Il'hes . A massi ve e nclosure wa ll arou nd the to wn of Nekheb (e lI\ nil) co uld also belong to this per iod. II ~llImber of large mud-bri c k structures of the Sa ite 'period were Idl'ntlfied as forts because they shared a massi ve ce llular co nstrue111111 . Flinders Petrie identi fied o ne at Tell Dafan a , whic h he thou ght IVIIS the fortress describ ed by Herod otos as Daph nae , S imi lar co nu nction was found in the Palace of A pries at Memphis and at
rORTRESS. IN DEPICTIONSAN D HX TS • 9 1
90 • rO RTRESS. ARCH ITfCTURE
Na uk r a tis . Re-examin at ion of these sites indicates that the y arc 1,"1 necessarily military, and that the cellular co nstruc tio n was to SUPI"" I sto ne floors . Ce rta in Late Per iod for ts are know n at Tell Qedwa 11111 1 Dorginarti , M igd ol (Te ll el Heir) , and Pelusion . The fort at Qasr.1 G h ue id a in K harga O asis is probab ly of Per sian da te in ori gin. 101 tho ugh the e xisti ng structure co uld be largel y Roman in date . Roman for ts in Eg ypt rec ei ved relat ively littl e archaeologi cal 'I te ntion until quite recently . Ther e ar e ma ny well-preserved 111 1 forts of th ird- fo urt h ce ntur y date , so me certai nly of the reign ' Di oel etian . In add itio n, there are smaller wa tch towers . Th ese II I scattered over the Ea ste rn De ser t prot ectin g ro utes to the Red SI and the qu arr ies at Mon s Po rp hyri te s and Mons C laudianus . Th l ' are for ts in Kharga Oa sis at ed-Deir , e l-Q as r . e l-G ib , el-Sollld ," and Qasr e l-G hueida . In the Fayum . the most im po rtant fo rtu was at Dionysias . Per sian in origin , but largel y Rom an as it III vives; the fortress o f Babylon prot ected the ac cess to M em I'llI fro m the Delta and Wadi Tumilat. 1n Thebes. the Rom an fOl'11i surrounde d the tem ple of Luxor. T he most important Rom an III' was Nikopolis 3.5 ki lo me ters east of Al exandria . but nothin g 01 ,f surv ives . FORT RESS, ARCHITECTU RE. The O ld Kingd om fortress at /II Asil in Dakhla Oasis was a mud-bric k e nclos ure wi th ci rcular COl li I bastio ns (o nly that at the southwest co rner was prese rve d) and SC II II circular bas tio ns along the wall s. T he e ntra nce was in the cen ter " the no rth wa ll and was pro tec ted by projecting wa lls . It appears I have been regul arly pla nned . The Middle Kingdom fortres ses in Nil bi a have ma ny features in co m mon. do ubtless because they were Ii signed , if not by one architect , then as a single defe nsive systr ru They all have mas si ve walls of sun -dried mud br ick , stre ngthened III ternally with timbers and malti ng and lined ex terna lly with baslioll and towe rs . T he evidence of mod els and depictions suggests 111 \ wa lls were crene llated. Loo pholes allowed archers to pro tect III wa lls from attack . Access to the mai n wa lls of the fort was impcl!. ' by a b erm and deep , wide , dry ditc h. T he main e ntra nce s to III fortress were thro ugh gateways of similar design , usuall y cornprisiu three gates and two bartl e courtyards . T he fortresses co nfo rmed I
IIIl' lie of the land on whic h they were built. In the ca tarac t regio n IIII S co uld be an island or prominence , resulting in trian gul a r or ir" 'I'.II I:lrly shaped fort s with long spur wa lls as added pro tec tio n. Irre' 1'I'l·tlve ~ f the overa ll plan, the intern al arrangements were regular 11' ,'11 a mam street and buildi ngs in rec tangular (sometimes truncated ) hlockx . T he larger de pot s , suc h as Mirgissa and Buhen , built on flatIt'l ground, clearly represent the ideal regu lar type. No large for tre sse s of the New Kingdo m survi ve comp let e a nd unal• tere d, exce pt for ZawivJ et U m rn el-Rakh am , s til I l un d er ex cavnuo n . T he Ra rne s s ide fo rt s at De ir e l-Balah and Haru vi t in IIII' eastern Delta are bot h sq ua re wi th corn er towe rs . Haru vit the 1 11I ~er of the. ~orts , m ight ha ve had add itiona l but tre sse s alo ng II Il walls . Dell e l- Bala h .had a reservo ir. Ev ide nce fro m the ga rri1111 tow ns of the Egyptia n Em pire in wes te rn Asia incl ude s the vuinll sq ua re migdol to we rs , identified at Tell Mo r. O the r sites huvc .. large r palati ' al build ings associated with the Esgy p tiJan go ve r1101. Te ll el-Fa r a h so uth, Tell esh-S haria ' A phek , M e gidd . nd I 0, a II t' II I Sflean. The fortresses of Roman date conform to the Rom an sty le . T his usuall y has a gate at the ce nte r of the walls , with co lonnaded stree ts k-nding to the centrall y placed headquart er s (principia). Barracks oc' lillY h.alf o f the m:ea. wi th the co m ma nde r's residence and sto rage ' ~ Ia ~ a z lll e s occupying much o f the rem ainde r. Th ere may be addi","l1al ex t ral~ ura l bui ldi ngs . Man y of the late , larger fort s , have sem icircular bastion s along the wa lls and circular co rner to wer s . Ie t1 n :I~ES~, FO RT. A military structure e nclo sed on all sides with
III"hlJca tlOns , tower s , b asti on s , fortified gates , d itches , glacis, etc . I f ~ I,n.'RESS, I N DEPI CTIO NS AND TEXTS. Th e slate pa lettes and
t vrcmo nia l macc head s o f the Pred ynastic Period depict e nclosur es of It,lIl ~ h Iy square fo.rm w ith rounded corners and bastion s at regul ar inIi 1\ a ls and also Circ ular enc losures wit h triangular salients. Such enI'!"s ures are ~ ho w n bein g attac ked a nd destro yed by the herald ic Igns o f the ki ngs. There is rather little ev ide nce surv iving from the Old K' id S E I ' mg o m. xume
rORTRESS NAMES • 92
•
93
r O RW r SS, IN DEPICTIO NS AND Tr XTS
the Nubian fortresses to the Old Kin gdom , but these are now gcnel ally assigned to the reign of Menthuhotep II or Ame nem h al. I There are scenes of attacks on fortified towns in the tomb of lnu III Desh ash eh and Kaem heset at S aqqara . T he troubl es of the First Interm ediate Per iod may have led to 111 1 increase in fortification : there is certa inly more evi de nce from thl period . Khet y Ill , ruler of H erakl eopolis , encourage(~ hi s son III build fort re sses and towns. To mb paintings of the late First Interm . diat e Period at Beni Hasan show fortified settle ments bein g al tacked . Here , the ve rtica l wa lls have a ba ttered base . Amenem hal I built some so rt of defensive network on the eastern border called till Walls of th e Ruler . T he earliest major exampl es of fortr ess archit ecture to have SUI vived were the fort resse s co nstructed by the Middle Kingdom pharaohs in Nub ia , particu larly the region o f the Second Cat:ml~' l Farther south in Nubia , there was an enclosure wall aro und the clin center of the Kush ite city of Ke r ma . There are no depictions of Ihe.• fortr esses , but they occ ur in administrative docu ment s , such as till Semna Despatches. . T he pharaohs of the New Kingdo m restored the fortr.es; es ol Nil bia , but non e are depic ted in b attle scenes or tom bs ol viceroys . A small guard tower is dep icted in the tomb o f Ma~lU ~t Amarna , p"1 haps protecting the access to the area of the city In the north III south. Th e war sce nes of the Ramesside pcriod show many mOI\ fortified structures in Egy pt and wes tern Asia . A sce ne o f a rniliuu V ex pedition of Se ty I shows the for ti ficati on protect.in g the east~' 11I border around T jar u , which incl udes sma ll forts w ith a crocodi le fille d ca na l. Ramesside texts also refer to this chain o f for ts alon the Ways of Horus . A similar chai n of small forts is thought to huvr ex isted along the wes tern edge of the Delta and the Med iterrallcall coas t as far as Zawiyet Um m el-Rakham . Th e re lie fs depi ctin g th war s o f Ramesses III again st the Libyan s show the pur suit of Ih Libya n army past two Eg ypti.an fro ntier fortresses . Th~ s: encs III battle with the Sea Peoples mclude a fortre ss ca lled M igdol II I Ramesses-Ruler-o f-Iunu ." In most instances , depictions of Egypt ian fort resses are highl y schematic , ofte n be ing littl e more tha~1 II battl em ent ed rectan gle with a door way. It is the accompa ny III
name rath er than a detail ed representati on that identi fies the fortress . Th e~'e ar~ no depictions of fortresses in the Libyan period . The c; ~ m pat g n s 111 Egypt of the Kush ite king Piye are documented by his Victory Stela, but the corres ponding reliefs in the tem ple at Gebel Barka l are almost entirely destroyed . The text of the Victory Stela refers to the prol~n g e~ siege of the city of Khmunu (Herrnopolis) in M I ~l d l e Egypt, With sieges of other towns and forts , inc lud ing Memph is, and to the attack on cities with sca ling ladders . From the later 25th Dy.nasty, the Assyr ian texts refe r to the attack on Memphis and III the city w a~ l s of Sa u, Dj anet (Tani s), and another Delta city. A s,c ~ n e from Nmeve l.l depicts an Egy ptian fortified town be ing attucked by the ASSyria n army, who had a cons ide rable array of siege lowers and engines . A l t hOl~g h fo r~s we re built in the eas tern Delta in the 26 th Dynasty and Pers ian period , and at Dorginarti in Nubia and Kha rs a Oasis in the Persia n per iod , there are no more reliefs or paintings showing them . Fl )RT ~ ES S NAMES. A ll Egypti an fortresses had nam es. T hese usually m.c1ude that of the foun ding , or re igning, pharaoh or the enemy, sometimes comb ined . Of the 12th Dyn asty forts in Nu bia, Sem na was Sek l~~m -K~a ka ure " Kha-kau-re (Senusr et III) is powerful"; K~ m m.a Wa~d lll ~ , off the Bow s"; and Sem na So uth " W ho repels the Se tiu-N ub ians . In the 18th Dy nas ty, Thutmose Ill's garrison lortress III Leban on was ca lled " Menkheperre is the Bind er of the Barbarians." T he "Migd ol o r Menmaetre" (Sety I) is dep icted in the p l~ araoh ' s ~~tt.le sce n~s at Karn ak. A s im ilar fortress of Mere np tah W,IS ca lled Migdo l 01 Sety-Me ren ptah (who is) belo ved like Se th " A fortress o r Ramesses III ca lled "M igdol of Ra messes-RlIler-oflunu" i ~ depicted in thc scene of batt le with the Sea Peoples . A fort shown 111 the scene o f the Libyan Wars is ca lled "Castle in the Sand ." In so me of these cases , the fortr esses might be the same, but renamed for the reigning pharao h. T he fort fou nded by Osorkon I ncar Herakl eopolis was more simply Per-Sek hem-kheper-re " the house of Sek hern-k heper-re " (which wa s the throne nam e of Osorko n I), a de sig nation more typical of tem ples.
94
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GAOINIANS GA RRISON
-GGA BIN IANS. T he Gabinia ns were a force of Roman leg ionaries led hy the proconsu l of Sy r ia, Au lus Gabinius , w ho in 55 BC, at the wi sh 0 1 C nae us Pom pey, rei nsta ted Pto lemy X II (A uletes) . T he expedi tion S('I out from Syria anti marched th rou gh Palestin e to ward Egypt. Marcil A n to nius was a genera l of the ca valry anti se ize d the ga r riso n ill Pelusion . T he Roman force approached Alexa nd r ia where it enga ged the Egy ptia n army, co m manded by Arche laos, the hu sban d of tlure ign ing q u een Berenike IV (da ug hter of Ptol e my XII) . Gabinius all" Anto nius led on two fro nts and afte r a seco nd, naval , batt le on tlu N ile, Pto lemy wa s ab le to regai n his king do m. T he Gab inians well left in A lexandria, an d were de ployed on severa l occasio ns against th population . T hey we re prominent o n the Egyptian sid e against luliu C aesar and K leop a tr a VII in the Alexan d r ian War . GA R RISON. The troops stationed w ithi n a fo r t ress . Ther e were pit' sumably garrisons in strategic towns an ti acce ss point s . key stora f'l centers, and royal residence s from the earliest limes . There is . unlor tu natel y, littl e early docu me ntary ev iden ce. Acc o rd ing to so me of Ihl sc hoo l te xts that ex to l the be nefits of the e lite co ntrasted wi th I,' fort una te members of soc iety, the ga rriso n so ldiers " c lo rhiug is Skill and his foo d the grass o f the field, like any ca u !c." No t , ur p r i s i ll~ h the re fore , being statio ned in ga rrison s. part icu larly tho se in Iorei j-u parts or on borde r s , wa s grea tly di s liked a nti a cau se o f int erminah l bor edom . T here is ev idence that in so me for tres ses pe rmane nt gill risons we re ins ta lled w ith the so ld ie rs a nd their fam ilies (perha ps IiI' ing in extram ura l sett le me nt). T h is wa s certa inly the case w ith th Persian garri so n on A b u anti the Ptol em a ic garrison at Pa th yris . Pharaonic: Egypt. S ma ll ga rriso n f0l1S see m to ha ve bee n localn l at man y po ints wi thin Egypt. T hey might have contro lled the norn bo unda rie s . T here is evidence for the m on the outer approaches II major ci ties . T he " northern" a nd "s outhe rn" fortresses of Memphl for exa m ple, were some d istance fro m the ci ty itsel f, co ntro lling III ces s. The "Place-beloved -o f-Th oth" mig ht be a sim ilar sma ll garri sII" in T hebes. T he earlie st known Egypt ian for tresses outside of the Nil Valley are the Ea rly Dynasti c s ite of En Besor in southe rn Palest ill whic h might have se rved as a defended s upp ly sta tio n for caravu u
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95
;lIId the O ld Kingdom fo ri at Ai n Asi l in Dakh . . la Oasis. T here IS good " Vidence for the Perslan ca-n garnson on A b u' t/ fiji h " .Idiers were mainly Jews an I II . JIl re .. t. century BC , T he } " , ' ( 0 ier wes tern ASiat ICS, / h(// (/o /llc: Empire, Pe nna nent ar ' "rt resses of Lower N b' I' g mons we re p laced in the . u 13 ro m the 12th D ' , y nasty and III the mor e ' " l1 lherly ones (Sa i a nd N t ) r. " , apu a rrorn ea rly III the J 8th D ' ~gy pt "lIl expa nsio n i/110 wes tern A " ynasty, WIth a, they were in NUbi'1, . T here IS ' ,sJa g arnso ns were es tab lished j ust ev ide nce fro m d uor ably the A ma r na L ette d ocumentary sources, " rs , an arc haeology F II ' , /I III I capture of the city by A h I ' 0 oWlllg the s iege m ose , S h a r u hen be ' l!tllllgh it wa s rept aced I' . ca me a ga rnson, al, n Impo rtance by G h Iwlher north in Phoel11'cI'a I d ' az a . t er coasta l tow ns , Ja gam sons a nd ' were po rnts to which IlIlIger range exped itions wo uld 'I b " . sa l e rore march ' ' I d was late r rep laced b)' S u m u r d I ' ing III an , Ullaza . an there migh t hav b " Ihe o ld Irading part ners of B blos I ' e een garnsons III . Y os am Tyre J oppa w .. )' 1;11 11 storage and orga niz at io n of the corv' , as
a
a
V"
Gm [l l:lN •
96 •
GAUlS
not appear to have had a garrison. In Ca ria and Pamph ylia , there was a long Ptolemaic presence, and in Cilicia a number of coas tal stronghold were garrisoned from the time of Ptol em y I ll. On Cre te, there was II garrison in llanos for much of the Ptolemaic period . During the Chrcmon idean War, Thera received a garrison, incl uding a continge nt from Pamphylia: its soldie rs are particularly well documented , One of thl' principal functions of this garrison was defense against pirates . Also C~ tablished at the time of the Chremoni dean War were the bases o n main land Greece: Methana in the pclopo nnese was renamed Ars inoe ; Sikyou and Kor inth were garrisoned from 308-303 IlC. In the north Aegeall there were garriso ns at Ainos and Maro neia in Thrace from the time III Ptolemy 11\. Ephesos was under Ptolemaic co ntrol from the reign 01 Ptolem y Il until 259 IlC . It was recap lured by Ptolem y 11\ in 246 BC ami received a large garrison, being held until 197 IlC . Roman . Garr isons were established at key poin ts by Augus t us , 111 1 iabl y at Alexand r ia (the fo rt of Nikopolis), Babylon , and ASWlllI As in earlier times , the Roman gar riso ns were stationed in ke y pop" lation ce nters , strategic points within nomes, and on the river III desert edges . Th e total provincial garrison was probably betw een l1 20,000 and 30 ,000, with no o ne nom e havin g more than 1,000-1 ,5l1 men . This has been estima ted at 0.5-D.8 percent of the total popul ll tion (ass uming 4 .2 milli on persons). So me garr isons were stationrd for an extended period while others had o nly short visits . T he Not l tia Dignitatum details the places where unit s we re stationed in th later fourth ce ntury AD , T he Ro man garriso ns differed fro m the Cill lier perio ds most obviously in Ihatlhey were largely drawn from 0 11 1 side Egy pt. In the Fayu m , there wa s a major base at Dionysias . A l ' lI hort wa s stationed at Narm out his on the edge of the desert in Iii southern part of Fayum . T his had been wit hdrawn by 346 AD. A cuv airy detachment (cataplr ract) was stationed in the nome capi tal at /\1 sinoe , T here wa s a garri son at Ox yrhync hos in the reign of Diudd ian . Lyko polis in Middle Egypt had a garrison comprising at lea I part of the Sixt h Legio n in 354
AD .
GAULS. Term used for Celtic peop les of ce ntral Europe who mo ved southward , both west and ea st, even tua lly ca using serious problem 10 the Hellen istic kingdoms . One incur sio n sacked Rom e in 390 III There were majo r invasions of Macedon ia and north ern Greece (21
97
11(') and of Asia M ino r (278 BC) h y t lalatia . Ptolem y II and 11 'I S SIICC' were the settled in what beca me . essors use d Ga uls C It dG nuns as mercenary troops. ' e s, an a la-
An important ty 111 ' southern Pal~st .ll1e , lying at the east end of of Horus ci and the Ways c ,consequently 111 as' 1'Ii . lio n. It was ca lled Kedje(t) in Egyptial1' W' JlgAnh icant strategic posi. C . . It1 mo se l 's cam ' . I paign s In anaan 111 pursuit of the Hyk sos S I ga r r iso n, but by the time of mad e ani Egypt ("I I'I wh h . I wa s rep aced by • .• , IC remained a staging and fr ' hy the kings of Assyr ia in the w .t I ~ndtler post. Gaza was captured I . es war march es toward Eo t A I 1al time , an Egyp tia n vassa l ruled the tow n . oYp · t gained it and used it as a bas b f . Th e Egyptian s soon re170 I Be) . It rernai d : . '.~. ,e ore and ~fter the battle of Eltekeh play an importan~n;ol~1 i~ gt~l~ I~~n~ stra~eglc ~enter and con tinued to Wars of the Diadochul and th 1,0 emSalc. period, notabl y during the e ater yrran Wars .
I ;AZ A.
i;~n
T'IJU:~;:s:e:llw~tS
~
"I:ImEL E L-A RA K K NI FE." Th e "Gebel e ' . ,. . nnstic (Na qada II ) dagger Ir U l-Arak Kni fe IS a PredyII carved handl e I' I ~ o m ,?per Egy pt. A silex blade is fitted to licI' with scene~ o;!pPOP'?I.tamus I Vor~. T he handle is decorat ed in re. con ICt and taking o f capt" T . . groups are invo lved o ne with I ' '. , d . ives . wo distin ct "I' Egyptian and Mesopotai " 1<1 It' .111 o ne With shave d heads , Boa ts m an ypes are shown . dnrds. The other side has 'I see e I' " . I' . some ca rry sta n" n 0 aruma s and a hu fi b . .Ian . ties . with aMuum tween two lion .s . T hiIS has" c 1ose slim . an igu. re eThe deco ratio n has similarities with th P d .esopotalm an art. F. I . . 0 er re ynastrc art from Upp ,gypt, SUC1 as the Painted Tomb 100 at N kh er hy the Louvre Mu se um in 1914 ' . e . en . T he piece, acq uired "I' a " Dynastic Race " whicl ' .Fas co nsidered to support the idea , 1ca me rom Mesopotam i d Hgypt T he scen h' mill an conquered . e ,IS more recently been suaz t d d . 1",lween Egyptians " yanseoes eprct co nflict , . •and N u biIllns or L ib So eme to th .. h "llSt doubt upon the aut henticity o f tlie piece . .'
au o n ues ave
1,lm ELEIN. Site in Upper Eg pt, south I' . was Per-Hathor A I gy 0 Thebes , Its anc ient name III' Nubian mer~en:;ge ~lUmber of stel~e foun d here record a colony IIIher body of eV iden~e t I'o ops .~f the First Inter med iate Period. T he ihuc. when it was kno wn ~~
;~~I~'~~:i:.ettlement
here is of Ptolem ai c
98 •
H -GII ARIIANIYAT
EL-GHARBANIYAT. Coas ta l site to the we st of Alexandria and III kilometers eas t o f Ala mein . Mon ument s at the s ite suggest that it 11'11 perhaps the locat ion o f a fOJ1 in the c hai n that Rarnesses II built w. II de fen se aga ins t the Libyans . EL-GIB. A sma ll fortress or watchtower o f late Roman date . in 11 11 no rthe rn pa rt of Kha rga Oasis , A bo ut 15 mete rs x 16 .50 meters with wa lls 2.5 meters th ick . the wa lls still sta nd a bout 15 met er s high. 'I'll fortress wa s or ig ina lly o f thre e stor ies , the lowest a series of vaullt 'li rooms w ith a ce ntra l co urtyard above , and had rou nd corner towr: (now co lla pse d). A lo ng w ith the nearby a nd very s imi lar tower 01, I Someira, it controlled the road , wh ic h led to the no rthern entry/cx u to the Oas is through the passes of Rarnlia an d Yab sa . GIFT EXCHANGE. Roy al g irt exc hange is well doc um ented for III late 18th Dy nasty (Late Bronze Age o f Near East) by the Aml " 'III! Letter s . The scenes o f fore ign tribute a lso relate to g irt exchange , III re turn for val uab le raw material s , most not abl y go ld but a lso iviu a nd ebony, Egy pt rec eived timbe r, lapi s lazul i, co ppe r, and other III" te rials . Prest ige gi rts we re se nt w ith the exc hange of letters, o n ro ,II fes tivals and at the tim e of ro ya l marriage . Not abl e amo ng the , "greeting gi rts" were chariots a nd horses , mil itary eq uipment , alill weapons See ARMS TRADE . GLA CIS, Slope lead ing up 10 wa lls of a fortress tha t exposes uttac kr to fire from the defenses , GRI FFON iakh ekh ). M ythi cal creature wi th a lion 's bod y and ea gll' head . The cres ted gri ffon, similar to that found in Minoan art, first IliI pears on the axe o f Ah m ose I from the bur ial of Queen Ahhotrp where it is desc ribed as " beloved o f Month u" and represent s III pharaoh as a manifestati on of that god. The eag le, however , docs III figure pro minent ly in Egy ptia n art and the later New Kin gd om rel" se ntations , whi ch are co m mo n, are correct ly hie raco-s phin xes , havru a falco n head o n a lio n's bod y. Fo llowi ng Egyptia n conve ntion , thl' usua lly ha ve the lo ng tripartite wig (m issi ng on the axe of Ahrnosc II At the battle o f Qadesh , Ramesses II hu nted his ene mies " lik.. gr iffo n" a nd " slaughtered them unceasin g ly," Ramesses III was '
I IAKO R (AO IO RIS) IREIGNFD 393-380 Be) •
99
g ri f~on who is w ide of step, a possesso r of w ings wh o sees leagues of 1I1111~~I~S as ~ mere) strides ," " his war cry is heard like that o f a g riffon ," and his vo rce was bell o wing and roa ring like (that of) a griffon."
-H IIA( ;AR EL-MERWA. Large roc ky o utcrop cl ose to the point w here Ihe desert road from Low er N u bia regain s the Nil e betwee n the Fourth and Firth C ataracts w ith inscri ptions of Th utmose I a nd T hutm ose III . !hese _de fine Egypt's so uthe rn border alon g the desert roads,'lIld III re lat ion to the go ld- mini ng regi on of Ikayta. Bot h pharaohs left parall el inscrip tion s at the river Euphra tes in Naha r in . "here IS a lso a carto uc he of Ramesses II and a da maged text refer'lIIg to the land o f M iu . IIAKO R (~CHOR IS) (r eig ned 393-380 HC). Pharaoh o f the 29 th Dy,n,asty. ~~I S r~l gn seems to have been interrupted by that of Psh enmut . I hema lllm lllt aryact ion s ofthereign wereagain stPersia .ln 389 IJC ','akor , e~ tabl is hed an anti-Pers ian a lliance w ith Evagoras ruler of Sala miS I ~ Cyprus. T he rebellion of E vagoras had begun in c irca I') , BC w ith s uccesses that had ex te nde d his rule o nto the As iatic II,aillland in Ci licia and Ph oenicia . A late so urce refers to a n a lliance I I('I Weel~ ~I akor and the Pisidi an s (i n so uthe rn Asia Min or) , which would , If It has any ve raci ty, be link ed wi th the ac tiv ities of Eva uo111 \ , At hens .se nt a fleet of 10 ships to the aid o f Evag o ras in 38 7 ~c, lnu the Persi an pea ce treat y o f 387/386 BC severe ly limited Greek invol ve n~e ~t. Around 38 5 IJC , Pers ia mo ved to regain co ntro l of Cyprus 11I 1t! IllIS inv olved an attac k on Egy pt. There appear to ha ve been I( ryptiun ac tio ns in Pho en icia a t thi s tim e in res ponse to the Pers ian il l trcss io n. A maj or Pers ian attack on Evagora s was launch ed in 382 Ill', hut Il ako r co ntinued to le nd practical sup po rt until the e nd of h is ,,'igll, inclUding , in 38 1, 50 shi ps (some modern acco unt s ca ll them trl remes ) . A lth ou gh defeated , Evagoras was le ft in powe r o n favorIlhk terms. A ne w an ti- Pers ian a llia nce was formed between Egy p t, ,11 111 '1:1, and a reb el governo r. Gl os . Hakor hi red the A the nian ge nera l I IlIlhnas to co m ma nd a for ce o f Gree k m ercenaries , bu t the Pers ian I ununnndcr Ph arn ab azos ordered his recall to Athens . The death o f
100 •
I IA RKI lU I
ur., C. 2280 KC)
llakor was followed by the brie f reign of his so n, Nefaarud II , who was de pose d before the e nd o f the yea r by Nakhtnebef. H ARKHUF (11. e. 2280 IIC). Offi c ial of the Si xth Dynasty who se rved the pharaoh s Ne mtye msa f I a nd Pepy II . The inscr iptions carve d Oil the facade of his tomb at Aswan are an import ant so urce of infonn n tion o n the tradin g ex ped itions of the Egy ptia ns into so uthern Nuhln and the politi cal cha nges takin g plac e in Nubia at that tim e. Alth ou gh the texts do not descri be dir ect co nflicts bet ween Egypt and its nei gh bor s, they relat e that the ruler of the Kushite kin gd om o f Yam had go ne to "s mite the Libyans ," and that he supplied an ar med esc o rt (pe rhaps mercen ary troops goin g to serve in Egy pt) for the hom eward jo urney throu gh Low er Nub ia . Th e narrati ves o f the four ex ped ition: also chart the uni ficat ion of three chiefdo ms in Lo wer Nubi a, Wawat , Irtjet , and Satju , into a single, larger , kin gdom . HARONNOPHRIS (HAR-WEN-NOFER) (reigned 205-199 11(') , Re bel pharaoh in the reigns of Ptolemy IV and Ptolemy V. There has. in the past, been confus ion over the read ing of the name of this rul er , Hurgonaph or and Harmachis, ap pearing in earlier literature . The co rrect readin g is now recogni zed as (-Iaronnophri s (in its Greek form ), from the Egy ptian Harwenn ofer. Th e chronology and detail of the rebellion has been clarified in recent yea rs , Th e rebellion was based in Uppci Egy pt and appare ntly had so me support from the priestho od ofThehcs At Ed fu, wo rk on the construction of the templ e ceased between 2071206 and 176 ac . The rebellion broke out in 205/204 Be , at the VCI end of the reig n of Ptolemy IV (or perhaps at the announcemen t of hi death ). It must have gained rapid support , as the Greek so ldiers Iell The bes and wen t to Ab u (E lephantine) . Haronn ophris co ntrolled the n' gion from Ab ydos (includ ing the administrative center of Ptolem ais aml Koptos) to Pathyris . The presumed death of Haronn ophri s took plan ' in his sixth regnal year, after JUly/August 199 BC . It is now clear that thr reg nal yea rs begun by Haronn oph ris were co ntinued by his successor C haonnoph r is (A nkh-wen-nofer). fo llow ing the rebellion , miliuu ' camps were es tablished at Krokodilopolis and Pathyris. HARSIESIS (fl. 131 IIC ), Th eban rebel pha raoh under Ptolemy VIII Euergctcs II . Harsiesis se ized power in Thehes during the time 01
II AT II ()I~
•
t () I
lhc civil war (dy nastic war) betwee n Euergetes II a nd his sis/l'\ Kleopa t r a II. Until Jul y 131 BC, Th ebes was under the co ntrol of I ~II crge tes 11 , but by Oct ob er the same yea r, either Kleopatra II or li ar sicsis hel ~j it. B~ 10 November 131 BC, Euergetes II had rcga illcd c~ lI1 tro l o f t.he CIty, and Harsiesis had been ex pelled, fleein g \IOI'th , Iwo demotic papyri fro m Kara ra in Middle Egypt record him . IIc I~vcen 13 Novemb~r 131 BC and Janu ary 130 BC , Th ebes was hd d hy k lcop at ra II , Nothing furthe r is kno wn of the rehellion . IIARS IYO T E F (r eig ned c. 380 IIC). Kushite king of Mcroc . Il arsiy " ,tel reigned for at least 35 years , but it is diffi cult to place him pre cisely, A number of factor s suggest he re igned in the first half of lhc fourth century BC. Har siyotef left a large stela with a lon g text writlen in Egy ptian hierogl yph ics , in the temple o f Amlin at Ge be l lIarkal (N a p a ta) now in the Nubi a Mu seum , Aswan. Th e inscripti oll reco rds milit ary actions led or se nt by I-I arsiyotef in his regnal ye urs .t, 5, 6, II , 16 , a nd 35 . Th e ca mpa igns of yea r 3, 5 , and 6 were against Ihc ~eded who occ ur in other Meroitic texts as nomadic peop les of the Eastern Desert. [n yea r II , the army marched into Lower Nuhia alld attacked Aq na , perh aps to be ident ified with Mirgissa. It then advanced o n Aswan, where ther e was so me sort of battl e with another arm,y led by Braga and Sa-amani-sa . ln yea r 16, the army we nt against Mekhuf, a n o therw ise un identifi ed reg ion . In years 18 a nd 23, the Rehrehsa , appare ntly a nom adi c gro up. who are nam ed in o ther I\u~ hi te texts , att ac ked Meroe itself. In yea r 35, the army went against the de sert land s of Mekhty. How any of these events, parti cularly those in Lower Nub ia a nd Aswa n, re late to eve nts in Egyp t ill Ihc 30 th Dynasty is , at present , imp ossibl e to know. IIAI{-W EN-NOFER. See HARONNOPHRIS . IIAT HOR. Godd ess, with many as pec ts . Hath or was the dau ghter of the sun god Re. In her violent man ifestati on (as the " Eye of Rc" ), she is identified with the lion ess-headed god des ses , Tcfnut and Sa kh nll'l. This form was also later assoc iated with the warlike Asiatic goddesses Axtur te a nd Anath when they we re introdu ced into the Egyptian pallthcon . Hath or IS asso c iated with foreign land s fro m the ea rliest times , particularly the min ing region s of Serabit el-Khad im in the Sinai a nd
102 •
I IAT511EP5U T (REIGN ED C. 1472 - 1458 ac)
later at Timna . T he Egypt ians equated ll athor with foreign goddess . ~ and as such, she became the image of " the Lady of Byb los ." HATSHEPSUT (reigned c. 1472-1458 II C) . Regn ant q ueen , mill therefore , correct ly, a pharaoh . Daugh ter of T hu tmose I , she wa s till' Great Roya l Wife of T h utmose 11 and acted as regent in the earliest years o f T hutmosc III before as suming full pharaon ic sty le. Duriup the core ign with Th utm ose Ill , there were perhap s as many as 1'0111 ca mpaigns in Nu b ia . T he first, sho rtly after her ass umption o f II Il' kingship, was probabl y led by Hatshep sut in person . T he others , to ward the close of her reign , appear to have bee n comma nded by Thill rnose III. One of these reached Mi u . A major trading expedition WII, sent alo ng the Red Se a to the land o f P u nt , in the Ethio pian highl und , Th e reliefs recordi ng this show a sig nificant ro le played by co ntin ge nts of the army . Th ere is no di rect evidence for any Asiatic ca lli paign s d uring this period , and the military activities of T hutmose 111 \ sole reign were direc ted to that regio n . HATTUS1L1 III (reig ne d c. 1264-1 239 BC) , Great King of the 1111 . titcs . As a local ruler in the reign s of his bro ther M uwatalli aud nephew Ur hi-teshu b (Murs ili III) , Hattu sili fought campaigns in II Il' north ern part o f Asia Minor , regaining co nside rable territor y. He then dep osed his neph ew and ascend ed the thron e . Ram esses 11 co nsid ere d lend ing his suppo rt to the exiled Urh i-Teshub, but he eventually signed a peace treaty with Hatt usili in 1258 BC, sea led by diplu matic ma r riage . Both the Hitt ite and Egyptia n versio ns o f this all' preser ved . T he pea ce was no doubt in respon se to the increas iur power of Assyria , follo wing the fall o f M ita n ni. HELMET. Egy ptian troop s are rarel y depi cted wearing helmets. ul thoua h for mercenaries and fore igners they are frequ en tly an identi fying" featu re . Helm ets are , ho wever, dep icted in various scene showing the manu fact ure of military equi pment and also as part 01 the "foreign tr ibute" presented to the pharaoh . Helmet s also occur ill so me of the Amarna Lette rs as part o f the arms tra de . Till' pharaoh's khepresh or " Blue Crown" is o ften called a war hel met ill the literatu re , and although it may be worn in ba ttl e sce nes , it is nol the o nly cro wn to appea r in those . Indeed , pha raohs are o ften show n
-
I-I1ERAKONI' 0 1l5 •
103
in batt le wea ring the doub le ostrich plume s and ram's horns , which should alert us to the nonfact ual aspects of the sce nes . T here are depictions of Egy ptians wea ring helm ets in the battl e re liefs of Ramesses 111 at Med ine t Hab u. In the sce ne o f distributi on of weapons , there are helmets the same shape as the lap peted wig , and in the scene of the storming of Dapur, archers in long coat s wear the more typ ical conica l helm ets . In several scenes , the pharaoh 's charioteer is show n with a con ical hel met ove r his lappeted wig . A similar type of helmet , mad e of faience , wa s worn by the mummy of 1-101'l'samti k (no w New York , Metrop oli tan Muse um of Art). The Hitt ites wore 3 pointed , co nical helm et ; the Sha rd a na a rather nail er one with horn s and a spike and ball (or disk) o n top , and so melimes with cheek g uards. T he PeIcse t (Philistines) are show n with a icuthered or horseha ir crest. A papyru s apparently de picting Myce uaea n troops seems to sho w the famou s boa r 's tusk hel met. IIER AKLEO PO LIS, Th e Greek name for the Egyp tian to wn of Nell //( ',1/1 . the modern Ihnasya el-Medina in Middle Egypt. It stands at a ' I ra t c ~ i l' poi nt ncar the entrance to the Fayum . It must alway s have been au impo rtant ce nter, but o nly frag ments o f its history are so far known . II was Ihe sea t o f the rulers of Dyn asties 9- 10, the last of whom was o verth rown by Mcn th uho te p II in his wars of reun ification, l lerakleo polis migh t have bee n attac ked or besieged during these actions. In the later 20 th Dynasty, Li bya ns were settled in the reg ion, :lnd the city came to prom inence aga in durin g the T hird Intermediate I'eriod . Oso rkon I fo unded a fo rtress , Per-Sekhernkheperre, near the city. probably to its north . In the late Libyan peri od , when Lower and Middle Egypt was di vided between fo ur Libyan pharaohs with the Kushite king , Pi ye , co ntro lling T hebes and much o r Upper Egypt, l lcrakleopol is was the ca pital of a kingdom . Its ruler , Peftjauawyhasr, ackno wledged Piye's suze rainty, and when the coa litio n led by Teluukht marched so uth, he refused to yield the to wn. Herakleo polis endured a lengthy siege , but was relieved by Piye 's army as it marched north to Mem ph is . Il Jo: RMO PO LI S. See KHM UNU. IIIJo: I{AKO NPO LI S. See NE KHE N.
104 •
JIO REM I JEll (REIGN ED C. 1323 / 13 12- 12 95 uc) •
HITIlHS
HITTITES. Th e kingdom of Hatti in ce ntral Anatolia, with its ca pital al Hattusa (Bogazkoy) , becam e one of the great pow ers of the Late Bro nze Age and Egypt's major opponent for co ntrol of north Syria in the la\l'1 18th and 19th Dynasties. Hittite histo ry is divided into "Old Kingdon!" c . 1650-1500 Be, " Middle Kingdom " circa 1500- 1430/ 1420 BC, and "Empire" 1430120-1 200 BC. T he d irect co ntacts and conflicts with Egy pt came under the "Empire ," and the dates for the Hittite Great Kings of this period are achieved large ly through synchro nisms with till' Egy ptian and other wes tern Asia tic po wers (notab ly Mita nni and Bah)' Ion ). The first co nflict came in the reign of Akhe na te n when S UI' pilulium a I detached Egyp t's north Syrian vassal: Am urru , and. t l~erc ,i some evide nce that the Egy ptians ca me into co nflict with the Hittites m the succee ding reigns. A chape l at Karn ak of the reign of Th ta nk ha nllln carried a sce ne of an Asiatic batt le , and in the co ntempora ry to mh III H ore m he b at Saqqa r a , Asia tics (incl uding Hitt ites) are dep icted II t r ib ute bearers. Fo llowing the death of Tutankhamu n, his wido« An khesenamu n sought a Hittite prince as her husband . Th is was agai n I the policy operated by Egy pt in d ip lomatic ma rriage and was appal ently opposed by some co urt faction s beca use the prince was rnurder«l ell route to Egy pt. The campaigns of Sety I and Ramesses II broupln Egyp t into d irect mil itary co nflict with the Hitt ites . Sety I attempted II I regain co ntro l of Qadesh (year 5 or 6) and succee ded in ca pturing Ihl city, but it soo n returned to the Hittite control. W hen Ramesses II asce nded the thro ne , the Egy ptians co ntrolled Ca naan wit h much of the Phoeni cian coast a nd the Beqa Valle y. III the ca mpaign o f year 4, Ramesses att acked Arnurru, which o nce a lalll became an Egyptian vassa l. In reta liation, the Hittite king , Muwut ulll (reigned 1295- 1271 ), moved to recapture A rn urru. He asse mb led 111 1 army from Hatti and 16 provinces and allies, total ing 2.500 c hariul and 37,000 me n. As Ramesses had set his eye s on Qadesh , co ni h' I was inevitable. Despite the claims in his numerou s inscr iptions el'l\ brating the battle of Qadesh, Ramesses achieved no significa nt gain Althoug h Ramesses II bro ug ht his armies into north Syria aga in. II . years 8- 10, his late r cam pa igns we re d irec ted much farther so uth. Shortly afte r the battle of Qadesh , the king of Assy r ia , Adud-nruu t I, attac ked Han igalbat , the re maining fragment of the o ld kingdo m " ' Mitanni, and co nquered it. He then wro te to the Hittite king seck in ' II I liance and ex pecting to be treated on an equal le vel as a G rea t Kin
105
Muwa talli spume d him . On the death of Mu watall i (c . year 8/10 of Ramesses II), he was succeeded by his so n Mursili II , but Mursili was ~oo n d e~osed and rep laced by his uncle , Hattus ili III. With a new king JJl Assyna (Shalma nese r I), the king of Hani galbat mo ved to rene w his a lli~nce with Hatti and to shake off the Assyr ian yoke. Inevitably, Assyn a attacked , and Hanigalh nt was absor bed, leaving Assyria d irect ly border ing the Hitt ite e mpire, with no interve nin g buffer state A peace treaty was finally conc luded bet : een Ramess~s II and the Hittites , and is record ed by two tablets in Babylon ian cu neiform lound at Hattu sa (Bogazkoy) and a ste la a t Karn ak . It was sig ned in yea r 2 1, Ist month of win ter, day 2 1. A lso found at Boga zkoy were 26 le tte rs fro m Ramesses to the Hitt ite king and 13 to Pud ukhepa , the quee n. Ra messes II 's chief wife , Nefert ar i (Naptera ), wro te to Pud ukhe pa a nd the Hitt ite king , as did the Q uee n Mot her , Mut -Tuya , and. the C~own Prince , Se th-hir-k hepeshef (Sho utak haps hap) . T he If ~ ttl te c r~s~s en ded in yea r 34 when Ra messes married the da ught e r of Hanusil i. Th e Marr iage Stela survives in versio ns at Karn ak Elephantin e , Ab u S imbe l, and Ama ra . ' ! he e nd of tl~e Hittite e mpire is ob scure . The last Gr eat Kings guined co ntro l of part of Cyprus but suffered from the attac ks o f the i\ ss y~ia ns o n the ir eas te rn bo rders. Hattu sa itse lf was destroyed in a mass ive co nflagm tio n, a nd it was o nce co nve ntio na l to asc ribe the end o f the Hitti te e mpire to the inv asion s of the Sea P eoples and other gro ups . Th e fragme ntat ion of the Hitt ite Emp ire is para lle led by 1 ~ le co llap.se of o ther great po we rs at the end o f the Late Bron ze Age . Smalle r kingd om s replaced the m, and there were " Neo-Hittite" states in Anatolia and no rth Syria, nota bly at Carche m ish and Tarhunta ssa some ru led by scio ns o r viceroys of the royal ho use . ' !lOR-AHA (r eigned c. 3080 II C) , Pha rao h of the F irst Dyn asty. A woode n label from A bydos appare ntly shows a bo und cap tive and a n-ctang u lar fortified structure, altho ugh the o ppon ent is not spec ified . !I0R EMHEB (r eig ned c. 1323/1312- 1295 II C) . Last pharaoh of the IXlh Dynasty. Hore mheh 's origi ns are obsc ure, and he does no t c laim directly related to the royal fami ly. He fi rst appears in the re ign 01 I utank ~al11un as o ne of the most impo rta nt offic ials in Egypt, therefore his caree r must have begu n in the reig n of Ak hena ten . His
101::
106 • HOR LMHEIl lrL. c. 1410 - 1380 lie) tomb at Sa qqa r a , decorated in the reign of Tu ta nk hamun, accredits him wi th some 90 titles and the ir variants , ma ny o f them milit ary, Hor emheb was ce rta inly re spon sib le for the m ilitar y ac tivi ties in Asiu an d N u b ia that are known from Tutan kharnun 's re ign , and he might have led some of the m in person , Scenes in his tom b at Saqqara s how Horernheb introducing de feated Asiatic ru ler s a nd thei r tribu te bearers into the pre sen ce o f Tutankhamun. T hes e inc lude Hittites brin gi m, team s of h or s es , There are a lso scenes of the army selli ng up cam p, After the short reign of T uta nkhamu n 's successor, Ay, Hore mheb hi m se lf asce nded the th ron e as pha rao h , There are rath er few records fro m the reign, which m ight have lasted as long as 28 years (a ltho ug h some Egypto logists favo r a shorter re ign of aro und 10 ye ars) , T he re ign s 0 1 Hore mheb and his successors , Rames se s I and S ety I are often seen as the c ulm ination of the rise of the military in the 18th Dy nas ty, HOREMH EB (fl . c, 1410-1380 li e), M ilitary offic ial bu ried at T heb es (IT 78 ) who a lso le ft rock inscript ion s at Ko nos so a nd Se hel in thl' region of Aswa n a nd the First Cataract. Horernheb was a roya l sc ribe, scribe o f Recruits , and ge ne ra l in the re igns of A m c n h ote p II , Thutm ose IV, a nd A m e n hote p III , T he pa intings, sim ila r in co ntent and sty le to those of his e lde r contemporary, Tjan u n i, show the As i atic tr ibute. incl ud ing large q ua nt ities of weapons a nd ra nks 0 1 horse s , Sq uadrons of troop s, so me Nubia n, are shown, w ith trum pete rs and a double-ended drum , On e scene shows the enro lling o f recruits in the a rmy, HORS E. T he Hyksos are gene ra lly accred ited w ith int rodu c ing the ho rse int o Egypt, a long w ith the chariot , in the mid-second millen niu m Be , Bo th horse a nd chariot ra p id ly be came a sig nificant fac to r in the wa rfare of the Late Bron ze Ag e , T he skills req uired for bo th mean t tha t they were co ntro lle d by an e lite, known th rou gh out the Near Eas t and Egypt as m uriyann u . The ma in sources o f hor ses were north Syrla . T he horses o f this period we re small an d not w ide ly used as cava lry: thi s m ight have bee n because of difficulties caused by the lac k o f sad d les, Occasion all y, riders are depicted , but they a re as sume d to have been scouts an d messen ger s rath er than sold ie r s , T he tomb o f the fut ure pharaoh Horcmhch at Saq qara does show armed riders , Capture fo llowing battle played an important ro le in the early
IIYKSOS • 107 acq uisitio n of horses by the EgyPtians , After M idd T I ' d 204 cgl 0 , iutmose III seize , 1 Iiorses. T he trade ' in horse s soon became ve ry irnpo r ta nt , T Ii e A m arn a Letters reJer to horses se nt to Egypt fro ki I' ' " m many lIlgs 0 western ASia as part of the gift exchange that accompanl'ed I I tt 0 ne ' " ro~ ee~, g ift of a chariot was specified as drawn by w hi t I II ' " I e lOrses, . orses ap.. , were h Mit pea r m the sce nes , ,o f foreig n trib ute fro m S yna • anm' was one o f the prin c ipal supplie rs , The Hittite bri I . h . s n ng iorses III t e Saqqara to m b of the genera l, later pharaoh Horen h I I tl " d ' I ' , m en . n te pen o 10 lo wm g the en d of the New Kingdom Israel II d , , • n e r S 0 Io mo n see ms 10 have ga me d contro l of the trad e in horses T I . ' , . . te re IS so me eVIidence i hut horses were bred in K us h and were ex t d t A 'L por e 0 ssy r ra, arger breed s of horses we re availab le to the A ssyrian s b: bl . • , pro .1 y I'rom t h e . . Iranian h' ighla nds,, and Ura rt u ' a nd th is led to a n 'mcre . I I' ase( use 0 ca\'ai, ry during the e ighth and seve nth ce ntu ries. IJC . Th e sa t rap ' 0 I A Ir meilia se nt 20,000 hor ses, pe r year to the G reat , • K 'mg 0 I' Pe rsJa. Because the Eg yp tia ns used sta llio n s rat he r than geldings, check rowe ls were attached to the rei ns to dis tract " quarre Iso me tea ms , .. I hese we re wooden rod s with a cent ra' l .spike d diIS k 0 I' co pper, 1I0 R US, Th e god most cl osely associ ated w ith the ki zshl II r., d . h " mgs I p, ge nera y I , icte uep wrt a falco n s head . Horus Was the 1' 1. d avenge r 0 li S m ur ered ' , , , lath er, re sto rer 0 /, divine ,o~der, a nd therefor e war like by nature , Hod b ' rus was a lso a deit y presid ing over fore 'lg n I· d ' . . . an s an ecm ne a ss imiluied WIth so me loca l de ities. So in N u b ia I th . I' d " ' " te was e presl( mg euy of the MIddle K ingdo m fortre sse s o f Buh , en . M 'Jam (A mib a ) , a nd Kubban. A later form was " Horu s Lord o f F hi , , . ore 'lgn L and s." I n this gUise , he was an Image of the a ll-cOn(lue l'I'llg di vi h i d ' , me p arao 1 a n assoc iated With M o n t h u , II< )ST (A R M Y ), D ivision o f the a r my com pris ing two compa nies eac h of five platoo ns (500 men ) ,
H KI II YKS O S, A Greek term derived from tile Egyp t' " ' " Jan eqa- W SIII , Ru ler"of Fo reign Lan ds . ,the Hy ksos (k now n as. tlle " s Ile p Iler d kimgs " III ea rlier lite ra tu re) rul ed lrom the ci ty o f A\' ' . th D I aris m e eastern e ta " ' l over Egypt ex te nde d as fa r as tl b ' I . h I U I,heir ,co ntro . le 01( er w it t le pper' , ligyp tian kin gdom ruled fro m the T he b es Obi t 'I ' jec s carry ing t ie nam e
108 •
I IYPAITI IRO N
IN FANTRY •
o f the I-/yksos pharaoh Khy a n have bee n found in Crete und Meso potamia . On this ev idence, early Egyptologists proposed a va, t " Hy ksos empire" : this is now regarded as fallac ious. However, excn vations at Te ll e l-Daba have found Min oan- style paintings , wh ich an' indicative of cro ss Mediterranean contacts in the late 17th--early I ~ I h Dynasties. T he Hyksos kings maintained a diplom atic correspondence aliiI extensive tradin g par tnership with the kingdom o f Kush , whic h till doubtedl y for med the basis of their wea lth. Th ere are ind icati on s thai the African trade from Kush bypassed the Th eb an kin gdom and went through the Delta . It might have been to regain co ntro l of thi s trudc that the Theb ans bega n to ex pand. T he ev idence suggests a largely peaceful coexiste nce o f the Hyksos in the north of Egypt and prince dom of Th ebes , unt il the later 17th Dynasty when Se qenenre Tao uml Kamose began to ex pand their power. Kamose launched a majo r offensive, attack ing Ava ris itse lf: he migh t have bee n killed in battle . T here was then a lull in the co nflict, probably because of the youth of Kam ose 's successor , Ah m nsc I, Ahmose too k Avaris and dro ve the Hyk sos from Egypt. T he vilificn tion of the Hyksos in the historiographi c record bega n in the reigu ul Hatsh ep sut (in an inscriptio n at Speos Artemidos) . HYPA ITH R ON. A Greek term fo r a " military ca mp" that is found ill docum ent s of the Ptolem aic per iod written in Egy ptian dem otic script (as hapitres) . It was used spec ifically at a military center III Kro kodilopolis in Uppe r Egy pt, which was und er the authority 01 the (epi)strategos of the T hebaid . A subdiv ision of the hypaithron 01 Kro kodilopoli s was at Pathyris .
-1IK AYTA (lKAY T JA). Nubia n terr itor y, pro ba bly in the go ld- mi ning region s of the southern pari of the Eastern De sert , the Wadi s Alluqi and Ca bgaba . It was the focus o f the militar y ac tio n o f Akh ena tcn , which e nde d with the capture of 145 live Nubia ns and 36 1 cattle. T he dead numbered 80. so me killed in battl e , so me exec uted oy im palemen t.
109
(NAROS (fl. 463-454 uc ), Ruler of Marea in the western Delta who lead a rebellion against the Persian phara oh Ar taxe r xes I. He was probably son of Psamtik IV , who rebelled aga inst Xe r xes . The name is the Greek form o f the Egyptian Iretenh orru . Inaros allied himself with Amy r ta ios (I ) the rule r of Sail (Sa is) . lnaros appea led to Athens for help (c. 460 BC) and an Athenian fleet was diverted fro m Cy prus (459 BC) . T his appea rs to have sa iled along o ne of the Delta branches of the river, probably the Canopic, to M emphis . Th e c ity itself was ca ptured, but the Wh ite Ca stle Fortress was held by the Persians and loyal Egy ptians . A battle was fought at Paprernis in the Delta , where the satrap Achaimenes was killed . Be fore invadi ng Egypt, the Persians tried to instigate a war in Gr eece itse lf , by encouraging S pa r ta to inva de Attika. Th e Persian arm y was se nt to Egypt und er the co mmand of Megabyxus, satrap of Sy r ia (perhaps in 456 BC) . Memphis was recaptu red and Inaros and his Greek support blockaded at Pro-sopitis in the Delta . Th e siege lasted for 18 months , ending with the complete dest ruct ion of the 200 Athenian vesse ls. A lew Gree ks managed to esc ape and made thei r way back to Athens via Cyrene . An Athenian re lief ex ped itio n of 50 ships was destroyed hy the new satrap o f Egypt in the Mend esian Branch of the Delta (454 BC) . lnaros himsel f was captured and cruc ified , but the Persians insta lled his so n T hann yra s in his place . Th e rebe llion itse lf see ms to have bee n co nfined to the Delta , and ev idence from Upper Egypt suggests that it rem ained loyal. INFANTRY. Th e bulk of the Egy ptia n army was. at all times , infa ntry imenfat or menfytv . /n the Old and Midd le Kingdom s , the army was entire ly infantry. T hey ca me in co ntinge nts armed with self-bo ws or with sp ea rs, and with a xes for hand-to-hand co mbat. With the introduction of horses and ch ariots fro m western A sia at the beginning of the New Kingdo m, an elite chario try cor ps was formed. Th e chariotry played a signi fican t role in the battles of the New Kingdo m, but the infantry retai ned their importance co ming into play after the initial co nfrontatio n o f the chario try. Th e ar my of the Old Kingdom was mainly levies , w ith some mercenaries (o ften Nu bia n a r che rs ). Th e army o f the later New Kingdom had large co ntinge nts of mercenary infantrymen: Li bya ns , She ke/esh , Pel eset , and Sha r dana . T hese broug ht their o wn types of weapons and armor .
110 •
I ~EM
IREM. Kush ite kingdo m, perh aps located in the Don gol a Reach of th Nile around Kenna , or, as mor e recentl y advocated , mu ch farth "1 so uth, in the Bayu da Desert or the Berber-She nd i Reach o f the riv"1 Irem is document ed fro m the 18th to 20 th Dynasties as a sig nific.uu power a nd potenti al threat to the sec urity of so uthern Nubia . Calli paigns were se nt agai nst Irem in the re igns o f Sety I, Rarnesses II , a nd Ramesses III. See also K USH . IRON. The earliest surv iving iron wea po n from Egypt is the dagger Irnm the tom b of Tutankhamun , but a n almos t ident ical item is descrihnl in the Amar na Le tt ers ,IS a gift from Tushratta of Mitanni to Amen hotep III . Th e same letter incl udes some other iron weapon s: a marr arrowheads, and spea rheads . Iron did not become commo n unt il 11 11 first millennium Il C . The asce nda ncy of the Late Assy rian Empire hll often been attributed to the use of iron wea pons, but might have h ," ' 11 as much becau se of superior military organiza tion and training. A gro up of iron tools and weapons wa s found by Flinders Petrie III Thebes - in assoc iatio n with what ap pears to be an Assyrian hel met and was attributed by him to the Ass yrian sack of the city in 663 Il l ' , ISHKH UPRI (67Inc ). Site of a battle bet ween the inva ding armies " I Esarhaddon , king o f Assyria , and the Egy ptian- Kus hite forc es 1111 de r Ta ha r q o . It is recorded only in the Assy rian records , where its 10 catio n appears to be somewhere in the Eas tern Delta or on the Wu,\' of Horus . It might perh aps be ide ntified wi th a place o n the Pelu si.u branch of the Nile, near Faqu s. ISIDOROS. Priest, leader of the rebellion of the Boukoloi (a lso known as the " Buco lic War" ) durin g the reign of Marcus Aur eliu s (c . 172 AI ' I Isidoros supposed ly gave the llesh of a Ro man centur ion to his follow ers. Th e rebellion eve ntually spread to cover the greater part of till country and lasted for several years . During it, Rom an troops were ,iI feared and Alexa nd r ia nearly fell. T he gove rnor of Sy ria, Caius Avid ius Cass ius, brought troops to crush the rebellion but was unable to e ll gage in baltic, He did , however ,manage to bring the rebellion to an curl ISRAEL. Kin gd om of western Asia at first under the rul e of Saul David , and So lo mo n, unit ed wi th Judah , but followi ng the sc hism
lUll us Al.EXANDER. TI B I~ I U S Ill, C. 46 70 AD)
•
111
ruled from the ne w ca pital of Sa ma ria. Th e o nly referen ce to Israel in Egyptian texts is in the "Israel Stela" of Merenptah , actually a r~cord of that phara oh 's rep ulse of a Libyan inva sio n, Unde r Solomo n, Israel was important in the trad e in horses. Th e kin gd om came to an end when Sa ma ria fell to As syria in the rei gn of Sh alma neser V or Sargon II (722/72 I BC) .
" I S,I{~ EL STELA" OF MERENPTAH. Monument al stela (now in ( .uro Mu seum 34025) ori gin ally ca rve d for Amenhotep III , but later re move d to the temple of Merenlltah, where its verso was invc ribed :-v ith a text recount ing the defeat o f an invasion of Egy pt b a large I?rce o f L~byans, A seco nd steJa set up in the temple of Ka:nak ca rn es a d up lica te text; a prose version was also inscribed in the templ e. The te~t is poeti c and highl y laud atory. Th e stela acq uired its n.une becau se It car~',es the o nly refer ence to Israel in any Egy ptian trxt , T his referen ce IS, howe ver, in the final hymn of praise in which Israel app ea rs simply as on e of a list o f defeated states, lncfud inc 0 «'an a a n , Gezer, As hke lon, a nd Yanoa rn. II' IJ US ~EM ILIANUS rn, 262 AJ) . Th e prefect of Egy pt in the reign ,".1Gall.,enu s . /-Ie was proclaim ed emperor by the mob in Alexandria. I he I~nnclpal. acc?unt o f the rebellion is cont ain ed in the notori ou sly I lI l rc l mbl~ Historia AII!?lIs(a . Ae mi lianus struck his ow n coi nage in Alexandria . He. was success ful against the B1emm yes in Upper I:gypl , butl~yalJ st forces land ed in A lexa ndria and warfa re in the city 1'lI uscd co ns lde r?ble de vastati on . Shortly after ward , the Palm yrene lorccs of Zenobm occupi ed Egypt. II" , II ~S
A L~XA1'I1I)ER. TIBERIUS rn, c. 46-70 All). From an aflluent "'~vlsh family of Alexandria , Tiberius lul ius Alexander abando ned Ju-
dlllSIl1 and rose in the ranks of the Roman provincial ad ministration. /-Ie Was procurator of Jud aea (c. 46-48 AI.) a nd then serve d in Armenia beInrI' be ing appointed prefect of Egyp t. A Je wish rebeIlion in Pale;tine III (,c> AD led to widespread trouble and there were clashes betwee n I ir c~'ks and Jews in A lexandria. lul ius A lexande r sent the army into the "'WISh quarter to suppress the violence . In the crisis follOWing the death " l lhe emperor Nero (68 AD), luiius Alexander supported Vespasian who WliS III the east, proc laiming him empero r at Alexandria on I July 69 AD.
112 •
IULIUS CArSAR, GAlUS (100 · 44
HC)
JOPPA • 11 3
IULiUS C AESA R, GA lUS (lOO--44nc ). Rom an po liticia n, ge ne ral, and dict ator. Fo llow ing earl y po litica l and mi litary successes , Caes ar rose to a posit ion of supreme power share d w ith Pom pey and C rass us . C ras sus was killed in Parthi a in 53 BC, and in 49 BC Caesar invaded Italy, thereby provoking the Rom an C ivil War. Th e follo wing year, Pompey ned to G reece and Caesar wen t in pursu it, defeat ing him at Pharsalus. Pompey now ned to Egy pt, where the youn g king Pto lem y XIII had him murdered , On his arrival , Po mpey's hea d was offered to Caesar, Caesar now took decisive action in the disput e between Pto lem y and his sister , Kleopatra VII , whom Caesar chose to support , Thi s resu lted in the Alexandrian War. Follow ing the resto ration o f Kleopatra, Cae sar left Egy pt, ad vanc ing throu gh the eastern provinces before return ing to Rome, where he was murdere d in 44 Be.
I'tolerna ic possess ion of Coele Syria, but eve ntua lly became part of the Sc leukid kingdo m, before the es ta blishme nt o f an indepen dent kingdo m under Herod . It remained a foc us for the Je ws a nd had c lose co ntacts with the co mmunity in Alexa nd r ia.
.r1':W~SH, R EVOLT. T he revolt beg an in Cyr ene in 11 5
AD, in the rei gn Fraj a n . Th ere was massive destruct ion in the ci ty. Th e re volt quick ly spread to Alexa nd r ia and o the r parts o f Egy pt, Cy p rus, and lIaby lonia . Accordi ng to Euse bius , the re vo lt was w ides pread in Egypt outside Alexandri a; it was led by Loukou as a nd was ve ry viokill. There are re ports (pro ba bly g rea tly exaggerated) o f G reek s beillg killed and ea ten. Th e Rom an troop s we re defea ted a nd retreated III Alexa ndria leaving Egy pt ope n to the rebe ls. Th ere was destruct ion ill the Fayum , Oxyrhy nc hite , Lykop o lite , and Hermop olite nom es . Ou inius Marciu s Turbo , co mmander o f the imperia l fleet based a t I\lise num (nea r Na ples) , was g ive n the task of suppress ing the rebel Iious , which was ac hieve d in 117 AD.
II I
-1JERUSALEM. Ci ty in C a n aa n, later the cap ital of Judah . It appears in the Amarna Letters, when its ru ler so ught Kushite troop s Irom Am e n hotep III. Th e biblica l reco rd of the Book of Kings reco unts thl' sack of Jerusalem by the pharaoh Shishak in the re ign o f Reh oboum (c . 92 5 IJc ). Th is ruler is ge nera lly ide nti fied with Sh eshunq I in lit erature, althoug h there have recently bee n di sse nting voices . as thl' bibli ca l nar rati ve o f the campaign bears lillie re latio n to the triumphal nam e-list of the Asiatic co nquests of S heshonq I at Karn ak, in which Jeru sal em does not appear. In the re ign of Hezekiah 0 15-687 BC) , short ly afte r the bat tle of E ltckeh, Jeru salem was besieged by a di vi sio n of the Assyrian army, although Sennacherib himsel f stayed al Lachi sh . On th is occasion, the Assyrian env oys wa rned Hezeki ah nol to re ly on the Ku sh ite pharaoh (ac cord ing to the biblical record , Taharqo) . Th e ne xt major Egy ptian interferen ce was in the reign 01 Ne ka u II . Nekau deth roned Jeh oahaz and installed Jehoi akirn in 6 ()1) BC . Jeru sale m , and the kingdo m of Judah , eve ntua lly fell to Ncb uchadnezzar II , king of Babylon , on 16 March 597 BC. In 588 !lC , Jerusalem was agai n besieged by the Babylon ians , and Wahibre led an ex ped itiona ry force to reli eve it bu t was forced to withdraw, In 5Xh BC , Je rusalem fell to the Babyloni an s, follow ing which there was a mass deportation of Jews to Babylon , Jeru salem was part o f till'
,II ';\\'S. A co mmunity o f Jewish mercenarics was stationed o n A b u (1:iL'phantinc) during the Persian period. documented by a large nurnher of rext x in Ara ma ic, There we re othe r gro ups through out Egypt Ihal are kno wn from co rrespo nde nce . Jewish mercen aries also serve d ill Ihe Ptolemaic arm y. The act ions of A n tiochos I V when he ca ptured lcrusnlem in the Six th Syrian War pro voked the Macca bean rebellinn ( 167-1 64 BC). Ptolemy VI a llowe d the Je wish high priest , On ias IV. to se ttle in Egypt w ith a large gro up of followers , O nias was later appo inted to a command in the army , and his so ns Che lkias a nd Ananias were ge neral s in the Sy r ia n War of Kleopatra III. T he re is ev idence for Jewi sh se ttleme nt in the Fayum (one village bein g named Magda la) and these m ight have bee n vete r a ns , Th ere wa s a substan . I,~a l civilian Je wish population in Alexa nd r ia, which from the ea rly tirst-century AD was o fte n invol ved in violent clashes w ith the G reek s. The major incident was the Jewish revolt of 115-11 7 AD . I(
WI'A . (Mo de rn Jaffa) Coasta l c ity of Pa lestine . Joppa occ upied o ne III le w natural harbors o n the coast. A ltho ug h co ntac ts w ith Egy pt
began much ea rlie r, it was prob abl y d uring Thutmose Ill's ca mpaign s that Joppa ca me und er Egy ptian co ntro l. Th e tow n occurs in
1 14 • JUDAH
the top ographi cal list o f Thutmose III in the temp le o f Karnak , ill II I was ca ptu red in his first Asiatic ca mpaign of yea r 22-23. T he 1'/111 Dynast y " Pa pyru s Har ris 500" (no w in the Briti sh Mu se um , I:A 10060 ) ca rries a sto ry re latin g the capture of Joppa by the arm y II I Thut mose III in a precu rsor of the story o f the Fort y T hieves . In th i ~ 1 the pharaoh 's ge ner al Djehuty man aged to ge t his 200 so ld iers illtll the ci ty by hidi ng them in baskets . T hutrnose III is not pre se nt and il the re is a ny ver aci ty in thi s tale . it co uld refl ect a later rec a pture II I the c ity. A go ld bow l with the name o f Dje huty a nd the tit les " O Wl see r o f northern foreign lands" and " O versee r o f the Army (Gc u e ral)" is in the co llec tion o f the Lou vre Mu se um , altho ug h its all thent icit y has been qu esti o ned . Joppa becam e an important Egyptia n gar rison and supply depo t ill the later Ne w Kingdom. It is mentione d in the Amarna Letters (I ~ A 294 and 296 ) as having Egypt ian granaries , and it app ears to have be\'11 di rectly admin istered , rather than having a vass al ru ler. A 19th Dynasty doc um ent (Pa py rus Anastasi I), in the form of a satirical letter , record the visit of a young office r to a chariot repair shop in the ci ty. J UD AH. Kingdom of western Asia, initially under Saul , David, a III I So lomon, united with Israel. It was ruled from Jer usalem . In the reign of Rehoboarn (c . 925 BC), it was invaded by the pharaoh Sh ishak , USII ally ident ified with Sheshonq I, who sacked Jeru salem . In the 25th Dy nasty, the Kushite pharaoh s supported oppos ition by Judah and neigh boring states to the aggression of Assyria , Whe n Hezeki ah rebelled agai nst Senn acherib. a jo int Egyptian-Kushite army came to his aid, co nfronting the Assyrians at the battle of E lte ke h (70 I BC) . Sennucherih then besieged Lachish (which was sacked) and Jeru salem . Hezekiuh yie lded and once again paid trib ute , losing some of his territ ory, EgYPI interfered in the politics of the kingdo m in the reign of Nekau II . On hb way to co nfront the armies of Ba bylon at Carc hern ish, Nekau defeated a nd killed Josiah at the battle of Mcgiddo . He soo n after replaced Josiah's son, Jehoa haz , wit h Jeho iakim . Jehoahaz was taken to Egypt, and Jud ah made to pay tribute . The kingdo m of Jud ah was brought til an end by the cam paigns o f Ne buchadnczzar II , the fall of Jeru salem , and the depor ta tion of the Jews to Babylon , in 587 . J ULIUS CAESA R, See JULI US CA ESA R .
KAMOSE I~ [ I G NFD C. 1555- 1550 He) •
115
- K1':r.· KAB . See NEK HEB , I( " DESH, See QAD ESH .
I\" M BAS UD~N. Local ru ler of Lo wer N ubia record ed in the insc ripIIIIIl o f the king of Meroe , Nastasen . Th e Mero itic king se nt a forc e II I' a rchers aga inst hi m and captured his ships, la nds , and ca tt le . The text refers to places called Kar atep a nd Tala udy ; the precis e location s III' w l~ ich ~re u.n cert ain . Th e ep isode is rather ob scure . Ea rlie r Egy p.",'I ~)g ISts Ident ified !
I( " MO SE (r eigned c. 1555- 1550 IIC). T heban ru ler o f the 17th Dynasty. Karnose co ntin ued the war against the H yksos rulers of the Ildt a that had been beg un by his fa ther. Tao. Event s o f the war are narrated in texts of the two Kam ose Stelae a nd the Carnarvon Tablet ~o . I. TI~ese also allude to a mi litary ca mpaig n in K us h against the Kerma kingdo m . Two fragm ent s of the First Kamose Ste la were di scove red at Karn ak in 1932 and 1935 ; the Seco nd Ste la wa s also discove red , intact, at Karnak . Th e Second Stela laun ches into the midd le II I' a speec h witho ut any preamble and is clearly the co ntinuation o f another inscr iptio n. A ltho ugh the two Kam ose Stelae re late to the same eve nts , they do not form a pair and a nother, now lost, mon ument is ass umed to have ex isted as the prologue to the Second Stela . The text 01' the First Stela relates close ly to that o f the Carn arvo n Tab let u.urut ing the co unci l o f war, the anno uncem ent of the pharaoh 's deciS ll lll to attac k the Hyk sos, and the storm ing o f Nefrusy . Th e Seco nd Sieia reco rds the adva nce nor thward to Ava ris a nd the attack o n the city, with references to the letter exc hange bet ween the Hyksos and
116 •
K A ~ IMALA IN INTl l/ l lGHT l 1CENTlJRlrS Be)
Ku shit e ru lers in wh ich a pin cer attack on Kam ose is proposed . Tl u te xt of Carnarvo n Tablet No . I relates c losely to that o f the fragnu-ni o f the First Ste la , and it incl udes the council of war in whi ch lilt pharao h anno unces his intent ion o f laun ch ing an attack on the l lyks» ruler o f Avaris and the beginning of the co n flict with ac tivities in lilt reg ion o f Nefrusy in Middle Egy pt. Kam ose may ha ve been killed III battl e , as there was, appa re ntly, a cessat ion o f host ilities du rin g lilt c hildhoo d of his successor. Ahmose I. K ARIMALA (n in t h/e igh t h centuries II C). Ku sh ite queen . Her IHIIIII has a lso been read as Kadiin alo a nd Katimala . Karimala left a hlll' \ insc ription o n the facade of the temple in the fo rtress of Scmna . '1'111 te xts are ve ry difficult to read but a llude to rebellion o r civil war ill Nubia led by Makarash u, apparentl y again st the unn amed king wit" was the hu sband of Karimala . KARl\1 A 8 U-G I R G (30054 ' N 29 °56 ' E) . A s ite o n the weste rn cd)', of the Delta . about 20 ki lome ters so uth o f Alexandria and 50 kilo met er s so utheast of el -Gharbaniyat. Some monument s o f Rarnessc II were found here , a nd it is poss ible that the site was the locati on III a fortress , part of the cha in ex te ndi ng alo ng the coast as far as Zn wiyet Umm el-Rakham , built as a defen se again st incursions of 1111 Libyans . KASHTA (reigned c. 750-736). King of Kush , wh o ent ered Upper Egy pi and was recognize d as pharaoh in Thebes . Th e detail s an d chrono lo ' , o f the reign are obsc ure . It see ms that Kashta succe eded Al ara as kill ~ in Ku sh and had suffic ient milit ary and eco no mic streng th to invade Egypt. T here are ve ry few co ntemporary monument s that nam e him , al thou gh a fragment o f a stela was discovered on the island of Ahu (E kphant ine). Most of the references to him are slightly later. Th e inscrip tion s o f Piye , who ap pears to have been Kashta 's direct successor. make it clear that Thebes and Upper Egypt acknowl ed ged him as kin g at hi ~ accession, and Kasht a mu st therefore have brought the reg ion undci Kushite rule and installed a garrison there. At Th ebes, Kashta installed his daughter Ame nird is as hei ress 10 the politi cally significa nt religiou s o ffice of God 's Wife of Arn u n, which was held by the Libyan pri ncess She penwe pet, daughter of O sorkon III.
KERMA •
11 7
I( ,\ SSITES. Ruling dyn asty o f Babylon (S h a n ga r) in the Late Bron ze ~~e, fro m c irca 1595 -1 155 BC . Th e ki ngs eng aged in lett er exchange , gilt exchange , a nd diplomatic marriage wi th the pha raohs o f the later 18th Dyn asty. not abl y Am en h o tep III a nd A k h en a ten , dOCHmc nted by the A m a rna Letters. The gifts excha nge d included horses and chariots . Earli er scho lars hip claimed that the Kassit es wcrc. another Indo-E uro pean hor se- breeding aris toc racy, like the l Iurrian s who co nquered Mitanni . a nd that their co nques t o f Bab yIon was sim ila rly lin ked to their military supe riority in the use of the last. two- wh eeled ch ariot. As with the Hu rr ian s , thi s idea is no w re[cered . Th e Kassit es appear to ha ve been a peopl e of the Zagros mountai ns o f weste rn Iran , a ltho ug h they are attes ted in Bab yl oni a in the O ld Bab ylonian peri od (c . 1900-1 60 0 BC) . I\EIIENET. A term for a type of ship . It der ive s fro m the Egyptian nam e lor Bybl os , Keb en. The usage o f the word in texts o r Late Period date lias ca used co ntro versy becau se so me sc ho lars und erstand kebenet to mea n warshi ps of a non -Egypti an ty pe , identify ing the m as Greek '.'·i rcm~s . Th~ term is used in the text of a ste la from Abu (E lepha ntine) 01 the reign o f A h m ose II. Th e admira l Wedjahorrcsne ca rries . among ot!le r titles, that of Overseer of the kebe llet-vesse ls o f the King. II recurs 111 the cana l ste lae of Darius I and in severa l texts o f Prolemaic date . In one o f the se , the word was written w ith a de ta iled hicrog lyphic sig n show ing a Hell eni sti c warshi p. Ho we ver, kebenet a lso see ms to refer to cargo vesse ls and m ight sim ply be a term spec ifyi ng large sea-goi ng shi ps rather than riveri ne ves sel s .
1\ ERMA . Sit~ so uth of the Third Ca ta r a ct in Uppe r Nubia . Capital c uy of the kingdom o f Kush . Kerma may ha ve a lso e m braced the s ite 01 (o r .Iater been nam ed ) Pnubs , o n the island o f Ta bo . Archaeol ogica l e vide nce shows that the site was im portant from the time of the Egyptian O ld Kin gd om . Some sc ho lars identify it wi th Yam , the desuuun on o f the ex ped itio ns o f H arkhuf. A s a trading partner the pharao hs o f the 12th Dyn asty probabl y suppo rte d it , but its power gre w and the Ku sh ite kings began to ex pa nd their contro l into Wawa t. T hey captured a nd burned fort resses such as Sernna and IIlIhe n, later p lac ing garrisons in them . T he Ku shite k ings established trading rel ation s w ith the H yksos rulers o r Avaris. Kamose
11 8
•
KHABBASI I (REIGN HJ C. 338 -33 5 Bel
and Ahmose I attempt ed to co nfro nt the power o f Kush befo re II I tacking the Hyksos, first gaining control of Buhen and then found in ' a new fortress at Sai. Kenn a was app arentl y burned at the time of 1111 ca mpa ign of T hu tm ose I, although rece nt exca vation shows thai II was ex tens ive ly reb uilt and rema ined an important ce nter. KHABBAS H (reig ned e. 338-335 uc ), Last indi genous ruler of Egyp l Khabba sh es tab lished himself as pharaoh o ppos ing the power o f 1" '1 sia, probably at the begi nning of the reig n of Darius III (336-332 III in Egypt). Little is know n of the rebellion or the reign . Khabha. h was appare ntly crow ned at Memphis. Ptolemy I found it pol itic I" acknow ledge him as a legit imate pharao h and confirm o ne of his d,' crees in his "Satra p Stela" and this remains the major histo ricnl so urce for the reign . A lthough principa lly conce rned w ith land do nn tion s for the temple o f Buto, it alludes to upheaval at the time of till invasion of Ar ta xer xes III and to a tour made by Khabb ash to in spect the water ways o f the western Delta to prevent attac k by th Persian fleet. Khabb ash was incor rectl y ident ified in some ea rlier iii erature with the Lo wer Nubian ruler Kambasuden , who wa s d,' feated by the Meroitic king , Nastaseii. KH AFRE (reig ned e. 2558-2532 IIC). Pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty and bui lder of the Second Pyram id at Giza , A fragment of relief sculp ture dep ict ing a bound prisoner was reported from exc ava tio ns in Iht' pharaoh 's pyramid temple , but is inadeq uately published and its COil text unknown. Another fragment of rel ief, which probably co mes from a private tomb at G iza of this reign , or that of Khufu, shows a gro up 01 live archers using self-bows . Th e arrows are detailed , show ing tlufeathering and attachment to the butt. T he archers wear the cross band o n the torso , which are typical of the military in the O ld Kingdom, The fragment belongs to the earliest ba ttl e scenes to have survived . KHARGA OAS IS. Th e largest oasis in the Lib yan Desert of Upper Egy pt. It stands o n the Dar b el-Arba' in, the Fort y Days Road , the Illil jor route for trans-Saharan trade in the med ieval and early modern pe riods.Although it is unli kely Ihat the full1en gth of the Darb el-Arbu'i n wa s operational as far as Darfur and Kord ofan in anc ient times, then' were connections with the Ni le throughout Nubia.
KHASEKH EM WY (RI:IGNW C. 2600 Be) •
119
Most of the evi de nce fro m Kharga Oasis co mes from the later histor ica l phases , fro m the Libya n period onward. At the southern end "I' the oasis, the Roman fort re ss of el-Q as r controll ed the road from the so uth, but that of Dush related to the rout es to the Nile Valley and lidfu, T he temple in the main town (Hibis) is of Persian dat e as is the small or iginal chape l within the fortress of Qasr el-G h ue id a , which domi nates the so uthern access to the to wn. The many monument s of the Roman per iod incl ude the grea t fortress of ed-Deir , bu ilt in the reign o f Diocletian , which co ntro lled the road ac ross the d esert platea u north o f Hibis to Girga (a ncient Tj eny) . Another road north "I' Khar ga ran di rectl y to As yut (20 I kilom eters) and co uld leave the dep ression through either of two passes , Rarnlia or Yabsa . Th ere are numero us we lls and c ult ivated areas w ith many sig ns of Roman-Byzantine settle ment in this part of the oas is . Th e road is guarded by the fort o f Qasr el-La be ka and two sma ller fo rts or wa tc htowe rs , So m eir a and el-G ib , situated about two kilome ters apart. Although under Egy ptia n co ntro l for muc h of its history, Kharga Oasis might have been occup ied by Libyans as much as I ~g ypti an s . During the problem s at the end of the 20 th Dynas ty, there were ce rtainly mo vem ent s of Lib yans through the ot her oases of the Western Desert , into Kha rga and fro m there into the Ni le Valley o f Upper Egyp t and Nub ia . I\I IAS EKHEMWY (r eig ne d c. 2600 IIC). Last pharaoh of the Second Dynasty. Statues fro m Ne khe n (Hiera ko npo lis) depi ct the king wea rillg the White Crown of Upper Egypt and have figures o f fallen enelilies ca rved aro und the bases . Th ese are sig nified as " no rtherne rs" and the figure 47 ,209 is given . Th e evi dence , obscu re as it is, has suggested to so me Egyptologists that there wa s so me sor t of major civil war du ring the reig n, perhaps with a religio us background involving fo llowers of the gods Hor us and Seth ; others are more circumspect. An alternative inter pretation regards this as an ex aggerated record o f action in nort h Sinai and Palestine . A frag me ntary ste la o f the king suggests the subje ctio n of Ta-Set y, which is a name for Nuhia and for the first nome of Upper Egy pt. Because of its simi larities 10 the S h unet el-Z ebib at Abydo s , a large mud brick enclosure of this reign at Nek hen was sugges ted by ea rly archaeo logists to be a for tress , but is prob ab ly a templ e enc losure .
12 a
•
KIIII'fSIl
KHEPESH. Th e sickle-shaped sword. Although it is similar in shape til the scim it a r. the khepes h was heavie r and sharp along its outer rather than inner edge . It was therefore used as a slashing or crushing weapon , The nam e der ives from its resemblance to the sty lized foreleg of an ox (the Egy ptia n word lo r which was khepes h) , A goo d exa mple of till' weapo n was found in the to mb ofTu ta nkham un . With a full length III 59.7 ce ntime ters, the khepech, as we ll as its h andle , is so lid cast ill bronze ; the handle grips are of ebo ny. A sma ller exa mple, 40.6 ce ll timeter s long , is suggested to have bee n made for Tutankharnun as II child. It is also so lid cas t with attac hed wood en gri ps and has a sharp cu tting blade . A nu mber of other good e xamples survive. T he khe pcsh is frequently see n bein g present ed to the pharaoh by vario us de ities, suc h as Am un, Re , and M onthu , and wielded by him over gro ups III foreig n captives . T he khepesh was in ge nera l use through western Axiu and can be see n as part of the wea po nry in the Asiatic t r ibute prescu tu l to Akhc na ten in the to mb of Meryre II at Amarna. KHEPR ESH. T he " Blue Crown" so me time s called (particularly ill o lde r literature) the "war c row n" o r h el met. Tall a nd bu lbou s , 1111' khepresh is usually co lored blue, but ca n also be show n ye llow. It is covered with small ce ntered ci rc les . whic h ha ve been interpre ted as metal or faie nce d isks attac hed to a cloth or leather body , It is olt cn but by no mean s always , wo rn in hatt ie sce nes. and is no lV reeo f' nized as a sy mbo l o f the phar aoh 's tem pora l rille a nd leg itimacy. KHM UNU. Important cit y in M iddl e Egy pt. o ften referred to by its Greek name, Hermopo lis , the mode rn e l-Ashmunein . Relativel y little is know n o f the city's history, altho ug h it was an importa nt religio n: ce nter situated in an ag ricultur ally rieh part of the co untry . In the Sec ond Interm ed iate Peri od , Khrnunu was the so uthernmo st city COli troll ed by the H ykso s rulers of Ava r is . T he inscriptions of Ka mose re fe r to an attaek by the Th eban prince a nd his army on the to wn 01 tort of Nefrusy , whie h was close to Khrnunu. In the reign of Takeloth II , the high priest of Am un and Crow n Prince Osorkon was active in the city. Osorkon 's insc ripti on is nol explic it, but he states that he "c lea nsed " the city. an act that usuall occurred after vio le nt ca pture and bloo dshed . Th is occ urred while the prince was advancing so uth to cr ush a rebellion in Th ebes , It there fore see ms probabl e that Khm unu had sided wi th the T hebans .
KlEOPATRA II
tc. 185- 116 Re)
•
121
In the late Libyan period, Khmunu gai ned its ow n pharaoh , Nim lot. Th~ southern frontie~ of Nirnlot's kingdom was in the reg ion of Tje ny ( ? l rg~I), s? uth of which was the terr itory of Thebes, co ntro lled by the Kushite kings Kashta , and his successo r, P iye , to whom Niml ot owe d allegiance . Nim lot 's northern neighbor was the kingdom of Herakleopolis, When Tefnak ht of Sau marched so uth with his coa lition of DcIta dyna sts, Nim lot defected . Piye 's army under the command of his I-:cnerals, Lem ersekn y and Purem , engaged the coalition some where in the vicinity of Khmunu . Thi s might have been see n as a cr ucial battle by both sides because Nim lot , the pharaoh Iuput of Tent-remu , and pbarao h Osork~~ of Per-Bastet were present with many of the Delta dyuasts. The coal ition was defea ted; some of the dynasts were killed in battle, ~he army ned north , and Nimlot retreated into Khmunu . Piye now ,'.a me 111 person to Egypt to finish the work his army had beg un. Klun unu was put under extended siege , while parts of Piye 's army cam paigned farther north. Eventually, through the intercession of Nimlot's wile with the Kushite royal women , Piye accepted Nimlo r's surrender. I( II l/ F lJ .(reig ncd c. 2589-2566 IIC). Pha rao h of the Fo urth Dyn asty, .unl bu ilder 0 1 the G rea t Py rami d at G iza . A fragmen t of relief depict ing a group of five archers using self-bo ws has been attri buted to fhis reign . or that of Kh afre. T he rel ief probab ly comes from a pr i,'ale tom b at Giza beca use the sty le d iffers from that of the roy al pyramid comp lex . T he relief is very det ailed , showi ng the co nstruelio n of the a rrows . Th e arc hers are certa inly sold iers rath er than hunters because they wea r the cross bands on the tor so, whic h is ch aracteristic in the Old Kingdom . T he fragment is the earl iest hattie scene to have survived , but its co ntext is unknown , I,II YAN (reigned c. 1590 IIC). H yk sos ruler of Ava r is in the ea stern Delta. Becau se a number of objec ts carrying his name were found in widely scattered sites in the Aegean and western Asia (e .g., Knossos und Baghdad) . it wa s suggested by so me ea rly Egy ptolog ists that a " Ilyksos Em pire" had stretc hed o ver part s of the Aegea n and into western As ia . T his idea is no w totall y di scredit ed . I I,EO PAT RA II (c. 185-116nc). Daught er of Pt ol em y V and wife, first 0 1 her bro ther Ptolemy VI Philometor, then (fro m 145 BC) of her other brother Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II . Euergetes later married Kleopatra's
122
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KOS. BATI Lr. o r (SPRING 255 sc) •
KI.EOPATRA 1II1C. 158 -101 eCI
daught er by Philometor, Klcopatra III. In 132 BC, Kleop atra II begun a d yn astic war and was recog nized as ruler in Thebes . She had Sil l' port from ce rtain elements in the popul at ion of Alexa nd r ia, notahl\ the Jews . Euergetes II was ex pelled from Alexa ndria the Iol lowinj year. but had retu rned befo re 15 Jan uary 130 BC, and was pre pari ng :111 expedition against Kleopatra . The civil war ca used serio us proble m throughout the co untry. A nativ e rebel. Harsiesis, took ad vant age uml seized power in T hebes . Her month is (Armant) was the last stro nghold in Upper Egy pt to sup port Kleop atra. A form of reco nci liation WII reached and an am nesty decree (philanthropai was anno unced by 11 11 three rulers in 11 8 He. Followi ng the death of Euerge tes II in Jun e I I" HC, Kleop atra II co ntinued to rule alongside her da ug hter and Ptolenn IX Soter II, but Kleop atra II, loa . is last docum ented in 11 6 HC . KL EOPATRA III (c. 158-1111 IIC). Daught e r of Ptolem y VI Phil om etor a nd K lcopatra II . Sh e married her uncle P to le my V II I Euergetes 11 (by whom she a lready had a c hild) . Her life \VII mar ked by d ynastic wars , First ly w ith he r mo the r, Kleo patra II a nd later w ith her so n. Ptolemy IX So te r II . Forc ing him o ut 01 Egypt in fa vor of her you nger so n. Ptolemy X Alexander I , led III tima te ly to the Sy ri a n War of 103- 10 1 HC . Kleop utr a III dil'd shor tly aft er he r return from the cam pa ig n . Sh e and Pto lem y X all last record ed togeth er o n 14 Oc tober 101 , a nd by 26 Oc to be r I()I the king was assoc ia ted wi th Kleop at ra Bere nike Ill. A ncien t sources say t hat Kleop at ra was murder ed by he r so n in o rde r III gai n the suppo rt of d isa ffected mi litary o fficers, a nd pe rh ap s Ill' cause of her support of the J ew s and des ire not to up se t the Je wish c iv ilian popu lati on . KL EOPATRA VII PHI LOPATOR (c. 69- 311 IIC). Daug hter III Ptolemy XII . Fo llow ing the death of her fath er , she ascended lilt th rone w ith her bro ther Ptolemy XII I . but he soon ousted her alld forced her to llee. First to Upper Egypt and then Syria . The events 01 the Roman C ivil War now broug ht the two chief riva ls to Egy pt. Tilt ge neral Po mpey was the First to land a nd was exec uted on the ordci of Pto lemy. W he n lulius Caesa r arrived in Egyp t in pur suit of Porn pey, Ptolem y tried to ga in fa vor by sendi ng him the e mbalmed head Howe ve r, Caesa r c hose to su ppor t Kleop atr a's c laims to joint m it-
12 3
The result was the A lexa nd r ia n War , in which Pto lem y XII I was ~ illcd . T he opposi tion at the Alexandrian cou rt to Kleopatra see ms to have bee n because of her pro- Roma n sy mpathies . Caesar now in' tailed Kleop atra a nd her yo unger broth er , Pto lem y XI V, as joint rulers . Kleopat ra had become Caesar's mistress and bore him a so n. I 'iolcmy XV Caesar (or Kaisar ion ). Caesar restored Cy prus 10 1\ lcopatra. She late r joi ned Caesar in Rom e and was there when he II' IIS assassinated in 44 HC. l lcr later m ilitary ac tivities were c lose ly linked with those of her l.ucr husband , the Rom an ge nera l and triumvir, and Caesar's po litical Iu-ir ..Mar~ us A nto nius (Ma rk A nto ny ). Kleopatra supplied troop s for Ihe mvasron of Pa rth ia . Antoni us d id not, however, gra nt all of 1\ lcopatr a's territori al wishes , leaving Herod in cont ro l of Judea. T he rvlutionship with A nto nius ultim ately fue lled the co nllic t between hilll and Caesar 's other heir, Ca ius Octa vius . late r the e mperor A u. J.: lIstIlS. T his led to the civ il wa r and co nfro ntation o f their forces at rh,' bau le of A ktion (3 1 BC) . Th e foll o win g year, Oc tavius marc hed lIll A lexa.n ~ ri a , whic h was ca pt ured . Anto nius and Kleop at ra comIIII lied suicide and Egy pt becam e a Rom an provin ce. I
(m. Defe nded sett le me nt of Midd le Kingdom da te at the foot of the Sl'cond Ca ta r act in N u bia . O n the wes t bank of the Ni le. Ko r stands ,15 ki lo~eters so~ th of the fortress o f Bu he n , to whic h it was pro buhly :lJlcJl I? ry, It IS no rth of the fortress of Mirgissa , and op pos ite ll..rg m a r tl. A large " ad ministrative bu ilding" carefully o riented north-south mig ht be a tem porary roya l palace used by a pharao h o n military ca mpaign . T he settle ment was defended by an e nclosu re wall with roun ded bastion s and loopholes simi lar to the first outer enr losure at Buh en . It is prob ab ly ea rly 12th Dyn asty in da te .
l OS, BAT T LE O F (s p r ing 255 lie ). Na val battl e in the Aegean that ',II IV the Egy ptian lleet of Pto lemy II , co mma nded by Patro klos , deIl'aled by Antigonos Gonatas, King of Macedonia . This, wi th the sea hattie near Ephesos, effective ly mar ked the e nd of Egy pt's naval lngcm ony in the Aegea n a nd eastern Med iterranean . Th e battl e prob II hly took place in spring 255 BC, late in the Second Sy rian War , althoug h some sc ho lars ha ve suggested that it was in 26 1 BC, to ward Ihl' end of the Ch rem o nid ca n War.
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LIBYA PALETTE •
KRO KO OII O PO LIS
KROKODlLOPOLlS (EL-RIZEIQAT). Small town in Upper Egyp' south of Thebes . Milit ary camps were establish ed at Krokodilopolis alII I Pathyris after the rebellion of Haronnophris and Chaonnophrls That at Krokodilopolis was a hypaithron. K U88AN. See QUB AN . KUMMA. Small fortress at the head of the Second Cataract, standi ng Oil the east bank of the Nile opposite the larger fortress of Semna, with which it formed a unit , commandi ng the narro west point on the rivet Kumma was part of the defensive network at the southern border hllill by Senusret III. Kumrna was roughly rectan gular in plan , with oul"l wa lls of mud brick on masonry found ations, some six meters thick Th ere was a river-gate and main fort ified entrance. Its acco mmodation suggests a garrison of between 40 and 100 men , but wall length su ' gests defense needs of betwee n 175 and 350 men. Additional troop could have been sent ove r on a daily basis from Se mna. Kumrna was J'l' occupi ed durin g the New Kingdom and aga in in the reign of Taharqo K USH. Kingdom in Upp er Nubia . In the ea rl iest record s, Kush is, spec ifica lly, the nam e of the area aro und Kenna . By the New Kill!' dorn , Kush was used as a ge neral term for the who le of Nubi a Ill' tween the Second and Fourth Ca ta r acts. Thi s wa s d ivided into two part s; the north ern , between the Second and T hird Cataracts was tluEgypti an pro vince of Kush , under the co ntro l of the viceroy and hi, deputy (the idnll ) , w ith a fortress at Sai and later admini strati ve CCII tel's at Soleb , Sesebi, and Amara; the region between the Third and Fourth Ca taracts was probabl y left as a buffer zone , under the all thority of the viceroy, the Overseer of Bo wm en of Kush . and variou local princes . Ku sh became an eve n more gene ralized nam e for th" who le of Nu bia south of the Firs t Ca taract and is found as such in As syrian, Persian , and biblica l texts .
-LLIEU. Ethnic group, o ne of the major tribes of the Libyans . The Lihu first appear in texts of the 18th Dynasty, but are first prom inent as op
12 5
ponents of Egypt in the reign of Merenptah . Th ey were the major elernent in the Libyan invasion of year 5 o f Merenpt ah and a lesser one in the Libyan invasion s of years 5 and II of Ramesses Ill . In the Third Intermediate Period, the Libu appe ar to have been settled in the western Delta , notably around the city of Sau (Sais). The 111 lers of Sau were entitled Chiefs of the Libu as well as Chiefs of the Meshwesh (Ma), I.IIIYA. A term used for the de sert regions wes t of the Nile Valley and the Med iterranean littor al as far as C yrenaica. One o f the traditi onal enemies of Egypt. Egypt ian term inology for the Libyans changes over time, with so me archaic term s such as Tj ehenu continuing alongs ide co ntemporary names of ethnic or tribal gro ups , such as I.iIJII and M eshwesh , Th e early peoples o f Libya were nom adic or scmino rnad ic , probably pastoralists . O ur archaeo logica l kno wledge of Libya in the Bron ze Age is still very limit ed . In the Iron Age, Phoenician and Gree k co lonies were es tablished on the north Africa n coast. In Libya . the most impor tant o f these wa s Cyrene. Wahibre is reported to have aided a native Libyan attack o n Cyre ne , wh ich failed and resulted in a rebellion of the Egyptian troops, the procl amation of Ahmose II , and the dethron ement o f Wahibre. Ahmose II had the support of Cyren e and co ncl uded a diplomatic marriage with the roya l famil y. In the reign of Darius I , the satrap Aryand es sent an expeditio n against Barca , which invol ved a nine-month siege . I' tolem y I gained co ntro l of Cyrenai ca, which with so me phases of inde pendence rem ained a part of the Ptolem aic kingdo m unt il l'tolerny Apio n bequ eathed it to Rom e in 96 Be. I.II1 YA PALETTE. Al so called the "Town s Palette ." Fragmentary cercmonial slate palette of the Predynastic Period o r early First Dyn asty 1I0 W in the Egyptian Mu seum, Cairo , One side shows " heraldic" animals , includi ng a lion , falco n, and sco rpion using hoes to destroy fortified enclo sures . Th ere arc also two standards with falcons . Seve n enclosures are sho wn, square in form with bastioned walls . Inside the enclosures are hieroglyphi c groups. It is assumed that the animals represent "clan" or " triba l" gro ups, and that the whol e is a record of one pari of the unification process record ed on other near-contemporary votive objects , such as the Gebel el-Arak Knife, the Scorpion Mace head . and the Na r m er Palette.
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LIBYANS
LIBYANS. "Libya ns" were o ne o f the tradi tio na l ene m ies o f Egypt 11 111 1 appea r to have been a lmos t a ny desert-dwell ing, nom adic or SC Il Il nomadic populati on , whi ch lived to the wes t o f the Ni le valley . CO li flict betwee n Egypt and Liby ans is s ugges ted (if not fully attested ) 11 \ the " Li b ya Palette ," the re liefs in the pyram id templ e of Sah urc.uu.l o f Menthuhotep II at Deir e l-Bahari. The archaic nam es Tjemeh allli Tj eh enu are used through out the dyn ast ic per iod , but, from the 11)111 Dyn asty o nward. spec ific tribal g roups are na med: the Sep ed , 1111 Libu, and the Meshwesh . These groups became a g rave threa t III Egypt. Set y I included sce nes o f his Lib yan Wars in th e cycle of hi ca mpaigns de picted at Karnak (T he bes) . A string of fortresses III co ntro l Lib yan mo vements to ward Egypt was built in the reign II I Ramesses II . Stret c hing westwa rd fro m Memphis alon g the western edge o f the De lta to Rakote and on thro ugh Kar m Ab u-G irg . 1'1 Gharbaniyat , a nd Alamein to Zawiyet Umm el-Ra kham ,t he Iou see m to have lasted o nly for thi s re ign . Perhaps forced by famine III find new graz ing land s . Lib yan gro ups invad ed Egy pt in the rei gn 01 Merenpta h and Ramesses III. Rume sses III se ttled Libya n sold iers in ga rrison towns . probah lv around Bubasti s . The te xt of a ste la from Deir e l-Me dina a lso rcfci to the v ictories o f these yea rs and suggests that Ram esses might hav. force d assim ilatio n, Late r in the 20 th Dynasty, ther e were Lib yan inc ursion s into Up per Egyp t par tic ularl y aro und T he be s. A stat ue of Rarnesses VI sho ws him lead ing a Lib ya n capt ive . The Lib ya ns domi nat ed Egypt du ring the Th ird Interm ediate Period . with the dyn asty founded III' Sheshonq I. The Libyan dy nas ts o f the Delta presented a majol so urce of oppos ition to the attempts o f the kings of Kush and Assyrlu to contro l Egy pt. Psarntik I . probab ly a descend an t of Libyan d nasts, led ca mpaigns aga inst the " Libya ns" ear ly in his rei gn. Lall'l referen ces are more specific about locations . Th e prin cipal wea po n of the Lib yan s was the bow . O nly OIl< Lib yan in the bailie reli efs o f Set y I ca rries a sword (of no n- Egypti an ty pe) . but the batt le relie fs of Ramesses III show o the r we apons iuul chariots . T hese weapon s we re c learly the result of the arms tnult' and are prob abl y to be assoc iated w ith the presence of sma ll group of the Sea Peoples . prob ably mercenary so ld iers. who foug ht ala n' side the Libyans .
LIBYAN WAR 01' SHY I •
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LIBYAN WA R OF MERENPTAH (year 5 c. 12 ()811 2()7 lie ). Th e princi pa l records a re the text o f the Israel Stela from the pharaoh 's temp le o n the west ba nk at T hebes . the ste la fro m Karn ak w ith a du plicate text . and the record on the east wa ll of the Courde fa Cachette between the main tem ple and the Sev enth Pyl o n. Th e Libyans we re do minated by the L ib u , led by Mari yu , so n o f Didi. T hey had pen etrated Egypt . along the wes tern fringe of the Delta and a ba ttle . last illg six hours, was fo ugh t. The invasio n was appare ntly meant to have been sy nc hron ized w ith a re be llion in Nubia and wa s allied wi th groups of the Sea Peop les. The cas ualties o f the spec ified gro ups are re latively sma ll, co mpa red with Lib yan cas ua lties o f 6 .359 : Ekwes h (2.20 I). Teresh (742) . Shekel esh (222) , Lu kka and She rde n (200 ?) . This suggests that the Sea Peop les are, in thi s case. m er cenary lroops. The Libya n mo ve ment is specifica lly stated to have bee n caused by famine in Lib ya . I.IIIYAN WA R OF SETY I. Altho ug h co nflict with Libyans is documcnted from ea rliest times, the major Lib yan Wars occ urre d in 19th I)ynasty. Th e first to be recorded by prominent battle scenes is that of Sety I , formin g part of the cyc le o f rel iefs o n the nort h outer wa ll of the Hypostyle 1-1 '1 11 at Karn ak (T hebes) . There are four sce nes. The tirst shows Se ty in his chariot. his forwa rd foo t on the cha rio t pole, the reins tied around his wai st . c harging and a bout to kill the large figlire of a. Li~yan c hief. Sety wears the khepresh and gras ps his strung bow, wie lding the k hepes h-sword for close combat. T he c hief, possihly o f the Meshwesh , wears the feather and ph all us shea th. Th e roya l chariot charges into the melee o f wo unded so ldie rs who carry bo ws . only o ne has a shar p sword . In the seco nd sce ne , the ph araoh has descc nded fro m his chariot and , tra mpling over falle n Lib ya ns. gras ps the chi ef and is about to kill him with a short stabbing s pear. Set y wears the lappeted wig . Th e third sce ne shows the triumphant return. The pharaoh . wearing the khepres h, dri ves his chariot. hold ing the reins along with his bow. khepe sh, a nd whip. Th e char iot is decorated with the heads of Liby ans . Before him . the pharaoh drives two lines II I ca ptives . the ir ar ms tied at the e lbows . T he fina l sce ne sho ws the prese ntatio n of ca ptives to the Th eban god s, a long with boo ty o f e laborate vessels and two tusk rhyta , a ll o f typi cally As iatic typ e . Th e texts IISC o nly the genera lized term Tehenu and are otherwise uninform ative
12 8 • I IU YAN WARS 01 RAMI:SSIS III (YEAR 5 C. 1180 Be; YEAR 11 C. 1174 Be)
abo ut locale and enemy. T he pharaoh is likened to M on thu and 110rus and is described as " like Ba al when he tread s the mountains." LI BYAN WARS O F RAME SSE S III (year 5 c. II SO IIC; yea r II e, 1174 IIC). Th e L ibyan Wa rs of Ramesses III are recorded by relicts o n the nor th ex terior wall and in the firs t courtyard of the pharaoh 's tem ple at Med ine t Hab u on the we st bank at T he bes . T he first in vas ion was an allia nce of the Mesh wes h , the Libu, and the Se llC11 T he scen es show the pharaoh setting out, with heralds and musicia ns (tru mpeters), and, in its ow n chariot , the standard of Am un. The Egypti an army inc ludes Egy ptia ns with khepesh and sh ields ; Nu bian s with throw sticks (or cudge ls) , sp ea r and axe ; Nu bian arche rs : mercenari es from Asia and the Sea Peoples (mixed con tinge nts 01 Shard ana and Peles et ). T he battl e scene includes the typical mello,' and a fortress called " the town of Ram esses who has repulsed 1111' Temeh." T he aftermath includes the military bureau cr acy co unting the seve red hands and pha lluses of the enem y. In o ne sce ne . the pile of genitals sho ws pen is and testicles , rather than the pha llus alon e . The seco nd Libyan War of yea r II (c . 11 74 Be) was led by Meshesher, chief of the Meshwesh. The scenes sho w the hallie . in Ihl' wes tern Delta , in which the Libyans use chariot s and foreig n weapons T he chariot s, notably, have whee ls with four spokes . The Libyans wei" defeated and routed . Pursued hy the Egyptian army. they Ilcd pasllwo fortresses , one called the "C astle in the San d : ' The inscr iptions sial" that , in this pursu it, 2,275 Libya ns were killed . The scenes of the pres entation of ca ptures to Ramess es III include the severed hand s and phalluses , ca ptives , and a large array of wea ponry, including long, sharp swords of Asia tic type . LITE RATU RE. A wide variety of literary source s ca n be used fo r till' study of warfare , military ma tters , and civil unre st in Egypt. Egyptian Pharaonic. Historical Texts . Earlier Egypto logists gen cr ally trea ted historica l texts as basically factua l accou nts , but ac know ledge d they wer e preju diced throu gh bei ng written by the vic tor. Occasio nally. this led to the text being read as mean ing till' op posite o f what was said . So, for exa mple , in the Dream Stela 01 Tanwetam ani , where it is sta ted that when the pharaoh asce nded the throne " no ne stood up aga inst (him)," it wa s understood that he actu
lITERATURr •
12 9
ally faced serio us oppositio n. A more so phisticated text criticism now se~s all offic ial roya l stelae as part of the liter ary genre of ideal kingship and roya l self-j ustification in whi ch the idea l mers es with the historical mom ent. It is also recogni zed that the da te at the beginning of a ~ex t doe s not necessarily have any bea ring o n the date o f the produc tio n of the monu men t or , unless stated, of the events reco rded . Ilowever, such inscriptions do contain historical " facts" and have value for the reconstruct ion of events . Histor ical texts are , in fac t, surprisingly few. Hardly anyth ing survives from the O ld Kingdom that deals with mili tary matters- a few references, not all o f which can be as signed to spec ific reign s , are to he found in the Palermo Sto ne , otherw ise there are o nly brief texts o n labels and ste lae . T he Middl e Kingdo m is eq ually sca nt in offic ial documents. T he doc ume nta tion from the New Kingdo m is far richer with the Stela e of Kamose and other complementary texts: the Tumhos Stela of T h utmose I; inscripti ons of T hut mose II ; the An nals of Th ut rnose III : the Amada Stela of Ame nhote p II ; the Sp hinx Stela , ~f A me n~l.ote p " is more co ncerned w ith ethos ; fragmentary inscriplions 01 I hutmose IV and Amcnhote p III relate to actions in Nuhia : the trug mc ntary stela from Buhen record s Akhena te n's ca mpaig n aga inst lkayt a: the battle scen es of Set y I carry so me textu al informatio n: the Amara Ste la and its para llel texts record Sety I' s war with Ircm : the riche st arra y of materi al rela tes to Ramesses II and the baili e or Q a desh : the Israel Stela and its parall el texts reco rd the Libya n War of M er enp ta h ; and the Libyan Wa rs of R am esses III arc recorded by inscription s at M edinet H abu . Re lati vel y few compara ble roya l " histor ica l" inscriptions ex ist fro m the post-New Kingdom . Th e triumpha l rel ief o f Shesh onq I at Karn ak shows the pharaoh presenting cap tured cities to Am lin but lacks any acco mpanying narrat ive text. Th e stelae of the Kush ite kings Piye , Ta nwe ta mun i, Harsiyotef, and Nas tasen are mode led o n New Kingdom types and co uched in the same terminology. The stelae recording the campa ign of Psarntik II into Nub ia also be long to the genre of hisiorical inscript ions. Private insc riptio ns, o ften referr ed to as "autob iogra phica l," are a~l~.) t he r valu able source but , like royal texts, are formed within a specIIIC con~ex t , ~suall y .funerary. T hey act as ju st ification . and placing the indivi dua l In relatio n to the ruler, and also emphasize soc ial rank .
13 0 • lITlRATURE
Nevertheless, the inscriptions of Ahmose son of Ebana, Ahmose pen-Nekhbet , Amenemhab, and o thers provide infor mat ion o n mil itar y acti vities that is otherw ise lost. The text s acco mpanying tomb sce nes of m ilitary o fficials suc h as Tjanuni and Horemheb giv« som e info rmatio n o n m ilitary organi zat ion. Poems and hymn s. Th e local phar aoh , Peftjauaw ybast of Herak leopolis , sang a paean in hon or of the Kush ite pharaoh , Piye , after hi besieged to wn was reli eved in the war aga inst Tefnakht. Hymn s ill hon or of Senusret III have allusions to military co nques t and might but are couched within the typi cal phraseol ogy o f royal j ustification T he Poet ical Ste la of Thutmose III a nd the " Poem of Pent a were" Oil the battl e of Qadesh a rc simi larly non specific in term s o f det ail. Leiters ami administrative documents. T he Se rn na Despatches is II colle ct ion of detail ed reports of 12th Dynasty date , recording activiticv in the region of the Second Cataract fort s. Th e best single so urce froII I the New Kingdom is a co llection of papyru s docu ments known as the Anastasi Papyri and Saltier Papyri. Some of these are scribal exercis ' in the fo rm of letter s from various m ilitary officials. T hey are assumed to be copies of, or mode led on , actua l texis. Th ey are thus subject 10 tlh' usual problems of inter pretatio n. Th ere are letters abo ut the Madjuy and their employ ment in building works at Memphis , details of equip men t and supplies for a campaign in Syria , and co mplaints abo ut bon' dom from garrison officers in Syria. T he archive of letters of the scri uc Dhutmose-Tja roy and his so n Butehamun from Thebes are important in reconstructi ng the eve nts of the civil war in the time of Ramessrs XI. The archive includ es letters written while Dhutmose was aCCOlI 1 panyin g a mil itary ex ped itio n in Nubia agai nst the Viceroy Panehcsy The Wilb our Papyrus detail s the landh oldin gs of mercen ary so ld iers ill M iddle Egypt and the e ntra nce to the Fayum in the 20th Dynasty From the Per sian period , there is an ex tens ive arch ive in Ararn uh recordin g the activ ities of the garrison in As wa n made up of meru nuries , mainl y Jews and other Syro-Palestinians. Graffi ti and rock inscriptions. Th ese are so me of the most inform ati ve so urces becau se the y are situated in the places where the arm y and offic ials we nt. G ra ffiti and inscription s vary e nor mo us ly in till' amount and type of informati on they co ntain. So me are leng thy, PCI haps taking the form of a stela with a sce ne at the top , usu ally show ing the pha raoh smiting an enemy, and with a narrat ive text. Other
lIT1:RATURE • 131
are simply a per son al nam e , or gro up o f nam es a nd titl es, scratc hed
o n t~] Ihe.r~cks. Som e sites have a large number of gra ffiti indicatin g their religiou s and strateg ic import ance : the island of Se he l, near Aswa n, in the First Cataract, has hundreds of rock inscription s. Many of these were wr itte n by local priests , but there is a significant group carve d for the viceroys of Kush and their subo rd inates o n their way int.o NU bi.a . O ne se t of 19th D yna sty gra ffit i relates to a si ng le lour of JII s~ect lOn.' and the indi viduals nam ed left furth er inscri ptions elsew here m Nub ia. A lso on Se hel are records of the clearan ce of the ca na l through the ca tarac t. O n the mainl and close by, the mil itary road fro m Aswa n to the po rt near She lla l has records of the army go JIlg sou th. A number of po ints at the e nd o f desert patrol routes in NuIlia ca rry inscripti on s . At Tangur near the Dal Ca tarac t, g raffiti reco rd the mi litary ex pedi tions of Se nusret III and Thutmose III. Th e island ' :~. "Ium bos in the Third Ca tarac t, and Hagar el-Merwa beyond the Fifth Ca tara ct, we re othe r places where officia ls left graffiti a nd kings carved boun da ry inscript ion s . Fe wer sites in As ia are so far known to carry Egy ptian lexts . Thutrnose I a nd Thutmose /II state that they left bound ary inscript ion s ncar the Euphrates, but these ha ve ne ver been ident ified . Th e narrow pass at the Nahr el-Kelb in Le banon is one place where insc ripti on s a re preser ved . Here , Ramesses II le ft two insc riptio ns (o f year 4 and perh aps ye a r 8) . S imil ar monument s were carved later for Esarhaddnn (reco rd ing his defeat of Taharqo), Nebuehad nezza r, and the Rom an e mpe ror Cara calla . Literal)' text~. Som e stories ha ve a spec ifica lly milit ary co ntex t, whereas other~ ~nclude references and allusions to actual (pre sumably) events or to military ethos. The story of Sinuhe beg ins with allus io n to the murd er of Amenem ha t I and later de tails Sinuh e 's hand -to-hand com bat and the weapo ns he used . Th e "Instructio n of Ame nemhat I" begins with a prologue deta iling the pha raoh 's murder and includ es advice o n the co nstruction of fortresses. Th e narrat ive o f the ca pture of J oppa by a ge nera l of Thutrnose JIJ is ass umed to have so me basis in rea lity. A nother small fragment of a literary text descr ibes King ThutlIlo~e III in the mid st of battle (perhaps M egid d o) . Th e Pedubast Cy d e IS set 111 the late Libyan period , altho ugh it ca nno t be used as a historical source. and has stro ng influe nces fro m G ree k literature. Western Asiat ic texts. From the New Kingd o m, the princip al foreign texts are the Arna r na Letters. mostly written in the Ak kad ian langu age,
132 • l ITERATURE
rec ord ing eve nts in westem Asia in the reign s of Ame nho tep III, Ak hc na te n, and Tutankhamun . A s im ilar group of letter s and histori ca l narrati ve s was pre ser ved in the archives of the Hittites at llattu sas. So me other histo rical material comes from the arc hives of Ugarit ill Syri a , notab ly re lat ing to the Sea Pe oples. T he texts fro m the royal palaces of Assyr ia are a valuable source for detail abo ut rel ation s with Egy pt in the Thi rd Intermedi ate Period and 26 th Dyn asty. Th ey suff ci from the usual problem s o f ancie nt " historica l" te xts. The Royal A nnab from the pa laces we re carved on re liefs, and stone slabs in various edi tion s, and also on clay prisms. As the reign ad vanced , the eve nts of thr earlier yea rs co uld be epitomized and drasticall y ab brev iated. In som r cases eve nts recorde d by o ne text are co m pletely omitted in later vcr sions. In ad di tion to the annals, a mass o f other clay tab lets incl udin g or acles and prayers to the sun go d have been preserved . Ma ny o f these al lude to the co nflicts with Egy pt in the reign o f Taharqo and the actions of Assyrian officials figure prominentl y. A large number o f Vassal Treaties wi th the ru lers of we stern As ia also surv ive . A similar group 01 mater ial surv ives for the acti vities o f the Kings o f Babylon , addin ' some detail to their relation s with Egy pt in the 26th Dyn asty. Egy pt also appea rs in some texts from Persia , but the events and co nflic ts of thl' Persian period in Egy pt are more fully do cumented by inscr iption s and archi ves from Egy pt itse lf and by the Greek narr ative histories. Greek and Roman texts. T he nar rati ve histor ies in G ree k prov ide II large amount of inform ation on Egypt , a ltho ugh this has to be treated with co ns idera b le ca ution. The earliest and most fam ou s, a ltho ug h not necessarily the most re liab le , is the accou nt o f Herodot os, which h a~ stim ulated a hu ge c ritica l lite rature . Herodoto s includes accounts 01 the m achimoi ; the invas ion o f Nubi a by Psamtik II ; the exped ition 01 W a h ib re agains t Cyre ne ; the Persian co nq ues t of Egyp t by C a m byses: and the rebellion of Inaros . Other Greek histories , such as that 01 T hucy di de s, incl ude further incid ents in the rel ati on s bet ween Egypt and the Persian Empire . The encyc loped ic works o f the Hell en ist ic an d Roman per iod s-many writte n in G reek, by Di od oro s, Strabo , an d Pliny, a mo ng o thers -extrac t fragments fro m other wri ters . A I thou gh subject to nume rou s erro rs of tran smission , the se so urces ca ll add detail and a le rt to us to ev ents that are otherw ise und ocument ed . Ptolemaic and Roman Egyp t. T he roya l inscrip tions tha t surv ive fro m Ptol e maic Egypt are of tradit iona l typ es , writte n vario us ly in hi
L1TERATlJRI
•
1:13
erog lyphic, Gree k , and dem oti c (a late c ursive script used fo r w riting the Egyptia n langu age ) . S o me inscriptio ns, suc h as the decree o f the priests o f Memphi s of th e re ig n of Ptolemy V (the " Ros etta Ston e" ), are wri tten in a ll three sc ripts . T he Rosetta S tone and the Decree o f Phil ae a llude to the suppress ion o f the re bell ion o f Upper Egy pt led by C h a o n n o p h ri s a nd Haronnoph ri s . Th e " S atra p S te la" of Pt ole m y I qu ot es from a documen t o f the re ign of Khabbash referring to the invasion of A r taxe r xes III. T he pr incipa l so urces for recon stru cting the events of the Ptol ema ic period are the histori es writt en by Gree k and Ro man autho rs, notab ly that o f Pol yb ius. A lthoug h Pol ybius 's subject is spec ifica lly the rise o f Rome , his wo rk co nta ins infor mation on Pt ol em aic dyn astic a ffa irs and wars , inc lud ing a de ta iled account o f the battl e of Ra p h ia. Ptole maic Egypt a lso fig ures prominen tly in the works o f the Roman histori an, Livy. Plut arch 's live s of va rio us Hell eni st ic ruler s and Ro man ge ne ra ls, not ably M arcu s A n to n ius (a nd hen ce Kleo p a t r a V II ) , were co m pi led fro m ea rlier so urces . A rr ian wrote the best-p reserved (a nd ge ne ra lly cons ide red most re liable) narra tive o f Alexa nd e r the Great's cam paig ns . He com piled his accou nt from a nu m ber of early Il ellen isti c works , includ ing one written by Pto lem y I. T here are co nte m po ra ry accounts o f events in Egypt, a ltho ug h with a utho ria l bia s, writte n by Ro man s who took part . lulius Caes a r's "Civ il Wa r" g ives an acco unt of the ev ents leading up to the Alexa n d r ia n War , and a n ac co unt o f the war itself was appa re nt ly wr itte n by o ne o f C aesar 's ge nera ls . S trabo narrate s the con fl ict between Rome and M eroe in the ea rly years of the re ign o f A ugus tus . Archives o f papyru s doc uments are very rich in inform ation on individua l so ldiers and thei r role in Pto lemaic Egy pt. S uch docu ment s from the Fayum detail the lives and landh old ings of c1eruchs , and similar material is known from Upper Egy pt, notably P a thy ris . Some literary works, suc h as those o f' Th eokritos in praise o f Ptolemy II, are not strictly historical. For the later Roman period , there are fewer inscri ptio ns, althoug h the represent ation s of Roman emperors in templ es co ntinue the pharao nic trad ition s o f the uni versa l ruler, Most informatio n on eve nts co mes from literary so urces, histori es, and papyrus docu ments, and the ev ide nce of coins. Imp erial biogra phy, in the form of the notoriously unrel iabl e Historia Augusta, co ntinues to the time of Co nstanline. Of more va lue is the history wri tten by Am mianus Marce llinus (the
MARCIl
134 •
•
135
LU KKA
surviving books cover ing 354-378 All ) and the Notit ia Dignitatum " k tailing the Roman garrisons throughout Egypt. L UKKA. In Egyp tia n texts , the name ap pea rs as Ruku but sho uld proh ably be vocalized as Lukka . T hey are to be ide ntified with the inhuh itant s of the " Lukk a lands" 01" Hittite tex ts and those 01" class ical 1.'1 cia in so uthwestern Asia Min or . Some served in the Hittite army ill the batt le 01" Qadesh and they appear as Libyan allies (probahl mercenaries) in the record o f Meren pta h 's Libyan War of year They are therefore includ ed in the " Sea Peoples ." The name Pa-LI/AII occ urs as that 01" an o fficial of the re ign 01" Ramesses III .
-MMACE. On e of the ea rliest wea po ns 01" wa r and symbo ls of till pharaoh ' s migh t. Numero us mace hea ds in different sha pes and \III usu al sto nes sur vive fro m the ea rl iest period s. T he ce re mo nial mal'!' head 01" kin g "Scorpion" atte sts the significance 01" the object , ami II is the wea po n [avored in all early ima ges 01" the king smiting his " II em ies (e.g ., the Nar mer Palett e; Label of Den ) . In the New Kill ' do rn , the mace is freq uently (but not always , see e .g., the pylo n II lid s at Med inet Habu) rep laced in such sce nes by the khepesh altho ugh it rem ai ns an essential royal attribute. MAC HIMO I. Acco rding to Herodotos (II 164), the Egy ptians wen: dl vided into seven classes, 01" whic h the military (the machimoii II l1d priests ranked highest. T he milit ary class was divided (by place of 11I1 gin) into the Kalasirians, who numbered , at their most nu meron 250 ,000 men and Hermotybians , at most 160 ,000 . They were I"orh It I den to follow any other trad e or cra ft, had an exclus ively military l'lllI cation and training, and were heredit ary in the male line . T his wank« cla ss had certa in privileges , and only the priestly class had similill Each man was granted 12 arouras 01" land , free of tax. A thou sand fllli. each group serve d as the king' s bod yguard , with gra nts 01" food, Thl description 01" a military caste does not fit the evidence lro m the Nl Kingdom , altho ugh it has inOue nced interpretation 01" the ev idcru However , the term recurs in pap yri from Ptolemaic Egy pt and il h..
been assumed that H ~ rodotos 's account reflects a Late Period development that cO ~l t ll1ued II1to the Ptolem aic period , T he ev idence actually sc~ m s to be lar less clear. Alt hough some writers have taken Ptolem aic references to ma chimoi to refer to the Greek standing army, the e videuce from the papyri was argued by bo th Jea n Lesquier, and by Berna rd Gren fel l and Ar thur Hu nt, to mean the native Egyptia n military c.aste . It has bee n argued further that, followi ng the battle of 1~~I Plll a ,. these Egy pt ia ~ machimoi we re settled as c1eruchs , rece iving grants 0 1 land , notably 111 Fayum villages , such as Kerk eosir is. ~ IA I>.J O Y.
Th e na,me or ig inall y ind icated an eth nic group fro m Nu bia . ldenti ficati on With the modern Bej a o f the Easte rn Dese rt has been 't lgges.ted , o n a similarity o f nam es . Fro m the Midd le Kingdo m onward , It refe rs to an o ffic ial group of quasi- mi litary nature in Egy pt, a lll~ apparently mostly of Egyp tia n origi n, who are ge nera lly described as " po lice" in the liter ature . T hey are de picted in the to mb reliefs at Am arn a . T he sma ll num bers o f Madjoy who appea r in texts II l1d ~o~le of thei r assoc iations, suggest that they were some type or specialized force . A sma ll number was att ac hed to the protect ion of the roya l I~ ec ropol i s at T be bes and resided o n the west ban k. The Mal~Joy migh t also have had a ro le as frontier guards , in the fortress III Se n.m ut and .t ~ e Wadi Tum ila l. Fifty Madjoy too k par t in the '111~rrY lllg ex ped itio n of Rarn esses IV to the Wadi Ha mrnamat. T he ulfice of. "C hief of the Madj oy" in the later New Kingdom was o ne III the high offices of state. Me n hold ing the title are o ften fou nd ~ ,.ve rse~ i n ~ b Ui ld~ n g work s in which numbe rs of troop s are e mploye d . I here IS little e vid ence of them after the 20 th Dynasty.
1,\ IIAR RAQA . T he modern nam e fo r the tem ple and front ie r to wn of llirra Sykam inos (Ho ly Sycamore), which mark ed the so uthern lim it III the Dode ~asch oi n os and the political border betwee n Egy pt undn , Ptolematc. and Ro man ru le and the Kushit e kingdo m of Mer oe until It was Withdrawn by Diocl eti an to Aswa n. I,\RC II. T he cam paigning of the Egyptian a r my in Asia and Nu bia luvulved very lon g marches, mostly throu gh terrain co mpletely di fit'~ C ll t to that o f Egy pt. Within Egypt, rive r travel was the norm , and Ihl' see ms to have appl ied to co nveyin g the army into Nubia also .
13 6 • M ARIYAN N U
Th e inscr iption s of Inyote fiqer in the ea rly 12th Dy nasty, and of T h utmose I in the 18th , imply that the river was the mai n artery. Ho we ve r, T hutmose I see ms to ha ve reac hed Kurgus and Ha gar elM er wa in the region of the Fifth Ca ta r act by the desert road , rather than the Nile route , a nd the cam pa ign of Thutmose III to Miu prob ably foll owed the sa me ro ute. T he ca m paign of Sety I against Irem also went acro ss the desert. For so me o f the Asiatic cam paig ns, troops were take n by ship to Byblos or Tyre , when the actio n was dire cted at north Syr ia, Cam pai gn s fa rther so uth ge nera lly invol ved a march along the Ways of Horus to Gaza , a nd then throu gh Palestin e . In 605 RC, the army of Ne kau II marc hed as far as Car che m ish on the Eup hra tes and thu s eq ualled the ma rches of T hutmose I a nd T hutmose III. In thi s instance , Nekau foug ht battl es at M egid do and Harnath , whic h lie along the main north-south rout e . With the lim ited evidence avai lab le, it is suggested that the army marched at ap proximate ly 22-24 kilometer s per day. T he deta ils 01 o ne specific march are known. In order to achieve his preferred place of battl e , Ptolem y IV mad e a force d march from Pelusion to Raphiu in five da ys. To cover the di stance of 180 kilometers requi res an av erage dail y march of 36 kilomete rs . T his was in Jun e , with an army of around 70 ,000 , accompanying baggage , and ele pha n ts . Altho ugh var ying inte rpretation s have bee n offered , the tex ts 01 the Qadesh ca mpa ign of Ramesses II see m to indicate that the Iom division s o f the army ma rched se para tely, in two parall el gro up, T his wo uld have en sured that the rear division s camped at di ffere nt sites to those in the van a nd hence woul d have had access to un tou ched for agin g . MARIYANNU. It was o nce tho ught that the term was of Indo-Iranian origin describ ing an elite cas te of horse and cha r iot-owni ng so klici T hese peop le were supposed to re present an Indo-Aryan aristocnu: that introd uced horses , two-wheeled chario ts, and co mposi te bows inl" the Near East at the beginning of the Late Bronze Age . Th ey were aiM supposed to have bee n the ruling elite of the Hu rrian kingdo m of MI tanni , the system , and possib ly the cas te , spread ing into the other kin doms , even Egypt. The theory is now ge nerally d iscredited and nuu recent research has shown t hat lll ariywlII lI is a Hurrian te rm that seem
M EfJIN ET HABLJ •
137
10 have been ge nera lly applied to those who were tra ined as chario t warriors, eve n if the horses and c hariots were supplied by the state .
~ IA S K H UTA , TELL E L- (WA DI TUMI LAT). For t r ess of 26th Dynasty date , 2 10 meters by 2 10 meters with walls 15 meters thick. It has
s i n~ i l ar cel.lular co nstruction to Tell Dafana (Da ph nae), Mi gdol (Tell elIklr,.50 kilometers to the north-west), and the Palace of Apries (Wa hibre) III t~e northern part of Memphis . It is identified by most Egyp tolIIglStS with Per-Alum , the clas sical and biblical Pi/h om , Heroiinpolis of I'l0Ie mai~ texts: It sta nds at the eastern end of the strateg ica lly signific.mt Wadi Turnilat by the canal of Nekau II and Da rius I.
~ I E J) I N ET H AB U. Modern na me for the temple co mp lex of I{amcsses III on the we st ban k at Thebes . Th e templ e , in co mmo n with si milar struc tures , was e nc losed within a massi ve mud-brick wull, whi~h also ho used the ad ministra tive bui ldings of the te mple l'sl:Jlcs, with houses for officials a nd priests associated wi th the tern I'k , Tow a rd the end of the 20 th Dynasty, the situa tion in the T heban Il'gion, with bands of Libyans a nd unrest , ca used the wo rkers on the royal to mbs to rem o ve from their vi llage in the foothills close by, to lit" pro tection of the te mple enc losure . Eve n th is did not prov e suffil'il'lll, and letters indicate that ma ny vi llagers cro ssed the river to the , ~ ,a i ll ci ty of T he bes. At Medinet Habu, the enclosu re wa lls are par11l'1I1:lrly we ll preser ved , stand ing in places 16 mete rs high and 10 .5 uu-ters thick at the base . Th e stone-bui lt eastern entran ce to the whole 1' lIl'1 osure too k the form of a Syria n for tre ss-tower (M igd ol). :I'ltc te,m ple is a lso imp ortant for the rel ie fs recording the ca mI'l1lgllS 01 Rarnesses III . T hese co mmence o n the ex ter ior wes t wall 11 11l' rear of the templ e) wit h the ca mpaig n in Nu bia , a nd co ntinue 1I 10llg the northern ex terior wa ll with As iatic ca mpaigns and the 1.I".I'an ~~rs , culm inating wit h the battle wi th the Sea Pe opl es, Relid s deplctlllg the second Libyan War decorate the First Court. Th e I ulumns of the. court ca rry co nven tiona l imagery of universal roya l "Olllllllo n, which co m pleme nt the " histo rical" scen es , On the , uhunns o r.the so uth co lon nade, Ram esses IIJ is sho wn sm iting forI I rn ru ler s In fro nt of dei ties . and the bases of the co lossa l statu es of IIII' pharao h, wh ic h do mi nate the nor thern co lonnade , depi ct the royal 1I11 11 1C clutc hing captive rul ers .
138 •
MEGIIJ[JO
MEGIDDO. Town in northern Ca n aa n, ca lled Mkt in Egy ptian text s. Meg iddo , the mod e rn site of Tell e l-M utesc llirn, stands at the so uth wes tern co rner o f the Plain of Esdraelon (Jez reel Valley), guard in ' the entra nce to the Wadi Ara (Naha l Iron ) through the Car mel Rid ge Megid do was strateg ically situated on the Via Mar is and was , in COI l seq uence , the site of so me signific ant ancient battles . Th e most im port ant battl es invol ving Egy ptia n forces were those of the reign 01 Thutmose III (see Megiddo, battle of [c. 1456 II C]) and Nekau II (see Megiddo, battle of [609 IIC]). Alth ou gh Megiddo had co ntacts with Egy pt fro m early tim es, il d id not co me und e r Egyptia n contro l unt il T hutrno se lII 's first Asiuti. campaign in year 22- 23 . Foll owin g its ca pture, Megidd o rem ain ed 111 1 Egyptian vas sa l an d figur es pro mine ntly in the Am a r na Letters lEA 242-246,365) . Its rul er, Biridi ya , ex presses co ncern a bo ut the thn',l1 posed by the ruler o f Sh ech ern to the to wn and requ ests Egy ptian mil itary prot ecti on , in anothe r lett er ask ing spec ifically fo r 100 archer Meg iddo rem ained an important Egypti an base throu gh out the 11 111 , a nd 20 th Dynasties . Excavatio ns at the site ha ve recovered lall" quantities of Egy ptia n materi al , includ ing an o bjec t with the 1);111 11 a nd titles of a roya l en voy of the reign o f Ramesses III. Th e lal<' I Egy ptian royal nam e is that of Ramesses VI. a nd the end 01 Iii. Egyp tia n dom inat ion of Canaan is att ribu ted to his reign . Me gidd o appea rs in the top ographi cal list of Sheshouq I at K,II nak , and a sma ll frag me nt of a ste la with the kings nam e was liuuul at the site . Th e destru cti on of Le vel YA/IYB has been attributed II Shcs ho nq's ca m pa ign. Megidd o was an important ce nter o f the kin dom of Israel unt il it was captured by T iglat h-pileser 1II of Ass yd ll From thi s time o n, its importance decl ined, altho ug h it maintu im stro ng contacts wit h Egypt . and large qu ant ities of imp o rted EgYl't ian obj ects have been found in the later archa eo log ical levels. '11i c ity decl ined fur ther during the Persian peri od a nd wa s aband ruu abo ut the tim e of Alexander the Great. MEGIDDO, BAT TLE (c. 1456 IIC), On his first campaign in wesl'" Asia, Thutmose III co nfronted a coa lition of the rulers of Ca na a n ,Ill ' Syria led by the princes of Qadesh and Megiddo. The battle i- I ported in the kin g's annals in the temple at Karn ak and the text III stela from Ge be l Barkal, Th e an nals report the co unc il in which II
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genera ls prop ose that the army sho uld use one o r the longe r routes, but the pharaoh chose the narrow road through the Ar una pass, which gave an e.lement ?f surprise. The ar my defeated the enem y chariot force outside the city, but a seve n-mo nth siege follo wed. Th is includ ed build illg a wall , using tim ber from felled orchards, and diggin g a ditch , the who le called " Me nkhe perre encircler of the Asia tics ." Th e city 's field s were harvested and so me give n to the soldiers . The annals detail the ('aplures of peopl e and goo ds. Thi s includ ed 924 chariots, so me decor.ucd with go ld; horses; coats of mail; and 502 bows. Durin g the siege, fl U people ca me out of the city because of hunger and were pardoned .
~ I E( ;n)DO, BATTLE (609 lie ). On their way to co nfro nt the army of lIal.lylon at Ca r chem ish, the Egy ptian fo rces of Nekau II e ngaged lnsia h, king of JUdah , at Megiddo. Th e bibl ical record (2 Kings 1\:29- 30; 2 Chr? n: 35:20-24) states that Josiah was killed by Egy pt111 11 arche rs, but It IS unclear whether th is was o n the field o f battle or whether he was executed at Neka u 's orde r. II':INAR TI. Island at the Second Cataract , though t to be the site of a flll'lr·css . Meinarti stands bet ween Dorginarti and Buhen . Th e ex "' I I ~ i~e rema ins included quantit ies of Ptolem aic-Rom an pott ery. II,,· site Itself might be of New Kingd om date , but there are few signs '" ind icate a Mid dle Kin gd om struc ture. II\I\II·HI.S .. (Gr~ek form of the Egy ptian Men-n o/ er .) One of the principil i ad n~ 1I1 lstrat l ve a nd royal residence ci ties of Egy pt, its foundation, " the lortress , lubu -hed], the White Walls, or the White Fortress , is IIIIl' 01 Ihe eve nts a.s so:iated with the es tablishme nt of the united Egy pt111 11 " ate at the beg inning of the First Dynasty. Its impo rtance must have II l1ld~' Memphis a .focus '"?r military atte ntion in times of civil war, dy111"'''' wa r , and foreign invasion , altho ugh only a few specifi c sieges II ldha llles are docum ent ed , and all belon g to the later period s. Ihe largest numb er.of record s of sieges and attacks o n the city belong I" IIIl' troubled late-LIbyan and Kushite period s (24th-26th Dyna sties, " I I. (J -(,50 fl.C). The forces of the Saite ruler Tefnakht occ upied Mem I'h l ~ dlll'lng his marc h sou th into Middl e Egypt. Tefnak ht stocked the II I' with supplies, ga rrisoned it with his best troops, and ensured thaI "" II'lllls we re strong . Follo wing his siege of Hermopol is (K hm unu )
14 0 • MINI S
and relief of Herakleopolis, the Kushite king Piye advanced o n Melli phis . The narrative of Piye 's " Victory Stela" clai ms that the king's gell erals sugges ted d ifferent method s of takin g the city, but Piye 's ow n \VII followed with success. T his involved breachin g the walls where the ca me close to the waterway s by sailing ships up to them and using till" masts as scaling ladders . Later in the 25th Dynasty, in the reign 01 Taharqo , the king of Assyria. Esarhaddon , ca ptured the city alii I looted it. Taharqo's successor, Ta nwetamani, regain ed co ntro l of tlu: city, poss ibly follow ing a battle there with the ruler of Sau , Ncka u I. Memphi s wa s ca ptured by the G reat Ki ng of Persi a , C a m hyses , and was attac ked in the anti-Persian re volt o f Inaros. Th e Maced on ian adv enturer, Amyntas , gained a temporary victo ry ove r the 1" '1 sian satrap outside the ci ty but fail ed to take it. Memphis ceded it, role as premi e r city to Alexa nd r ia and as a strateg ic point for CO li trolling the Della to the for tress of Babylon. Far less surv ives of the monument s of Memphis than of Thebe but there are fragme nts o f relief sc ulpture relatin g to mi litar y m atn-i fro m the pyramid co mplexe s of O ld Kin gdom pharaoh s and N,:II Kingdom mi litary offi cia ls buri ed in the vas t necro pol is of Saqqurn MENES. See MENI. MENI. Acc ordi ng to the Egy ptia n kin g lists , Men i (in G ree k: Mcnc I was the founde r o f the united Egy ptia n state and Memphis. Egy pto l og ists have identi fied Men i with Na r mer , but he co uld be a 11'/' e nda ry figure co m bining a number of early kings , MENTHUHOTEP II NEBHEPETRE (reigned c. 2055-2004 lie) . 1.11 cal ruler of Thebes who reun ited Egy pt circa 2040 Be. He is recog uiz« l as the founder of the Middle Kingdom . In ancien t king lists, he appcm with M eni and Ahm ose I as one of the three found e rs or re-fou nders 101 the Egy ptian state. The reunification of Egy pt, built on the campaign of his predecessors Intel' I and Intel' II. took 40 years and culminated III his defeat of the ru lers of Herakleopolis. He also led cam paig ns jlllt' Nubia , Sinai , and against the Libyans. He was perhaps respon sib le II" the first stages of fortress build ing at Buhen and the Second Ca ta ruet and def enses at Nekhen and Gebel Silsila. In one of the king's calli paigns, a large num ber of his soldiers were killed and taken hack t. T hebes , where 60 of them were buried in a co mmunal to mb. The lxu!
Mm CENAR ll:S •
1.11
iI'S had wounds, which showe d that cause of death in most cases was hy arrows, and sugges ted that the sold iers had lost their lives in an attack Oil a walled town or fortress. Some of the bodi es had suffered post1II00~em s:avenging by vultures. The decorati on of the templ e attached III his burial place at Deir el-Bah ari (wes tem Thebes) included battle ~I·cn~s ,. unfortu nately, mostly very frag me ntary and without surviving uiscnpnons. The frag ments include figur es of slaughtered Libyans, bowmen with feathers in their hair (ei ther Libyan or from Sinai), and captive Syria n wo men with their children in baskets o n their backs. A broken piece of text refer s to the Amu and Mentju , ge nera lized and arrhnic term s for the peoples of Sinai and so uthern Ca naa n .
~ lIm CENA RIES. T here is ev ide nce for me rce nary troop s at all periods of Egy ptian history from the First Inte rmediate Per iod onward II 11d it is reason abl e to assum e that the y played a part e ven ea rlier. The hcst-doc ume nter] ea rly mercen ar ies a re the Nubian troops attes ted 1111111 G ebeJein and M iddle Egy pt. In the New Kingd om. use o f mer rv nary troop s see ms to ha ve increased , even thou gh there was a larger standing army . A fragm ent ary papyru s of later 18th Dynasty dille see ms to show Mycen aeans, who might be mercenaries . Th ere is 1II0re ex plicit ev ide nce for various gro ups from western Asia and Lihya ns ; these include the Shekelesh, Shardana, and Pe leset. NuItialls con tinued to fig ure promi nentl y, too . Som e of these mercenarb were gra nted land as veterans , no tably in the so uthern Fayum uu ainly Asiatics) and M iddle Egy pt (the Sharda na) . From the 26 t h Dy nasty on ward , Egy pt recei ved more troop s fro m II Il' Gree k wo rld . Psamtik I e mployed Ca ria ns, Lydi an s , a nd Ioni an " Il'ekS . and garrisons were es ta blis hed a t Te ll Dafuna (Da p h na e) 111 11 1 Na uk r a tls , Nam es of Greek me rcen aries fro m var ious to wn s in weste rn Asia M inor ar e ca rve d o n the co loss i at A bu Simbel record III ' the ca mpaign of Psamtik II into Nubia. Th e ind ep enden ce uiu vcments aga ins t the rul e of Persia brou ght large r Greek arm ies III I:gy pt, AtI!e ns le ndin g support to Inaros . Lat er , an army led by /\ I'l'silaos . Ki ng of Sparta. played a dec isi ve ro le in the d y nasti c li lli' Ihat brou ght Nakhthorheb to the thron e , Also from the Persian I"" iod. a large a rc hive of pap y ri d isco vered o n A b u (E lepha ntine) " !'ords the affairs o f the ga rr iso n, mostl y Jews a nd o ther wes te rn \ ' i:l lics , this time e m ploye d by the Pe rs ian au tho riti es . Th e large 1'llIdlllg a rmy o f the first Pto lemi es wa s made up of G reek o r
14 2 • M m [ N I' TAI I IKr IGN LlJ c. 12 12-1 202 , C)
M acedon ian mercenaries , but afte r the battl e of Raphia (2 17 1H' 1. many more Egy ptians were enrolled. Je ws , too , appea r in the arm fro m the tim e of Ptolemy VI. Th e Gauls we re ano ther gro u p e m p loy ed , no ta bly by Ptolemy II . M ERENPTAH (reig ned c. 1212-1202 BC). Pharaoh o f the 19th Dy nasty, son a nd successor of Ramesses II. There are two majo r miliuu actions documented in this reign, Th e Libyan War of yea r 5 was pl't I voked by an invasion of the Lihu. T hey we re accompani ed by gro up of the Meshwesh , Seped , and "Sea Peoples ," the last pro bably II mercenaries . Th e con flict is recorded o n the Israel Stela. Th e Libyun invasion was apparently intend ed to co incide with a rebellion ill Nil bia, whic h was suppressed. Th e Libyans , driven by famine , were CII ter ing Egy pt fro m the wes t. T he Rarne ssidc fort resses at Za wly ur Um m el-Rakham and Ala mein had ei ther ceased to funct ion by thl tim e or we re unabl e to withstand the ea stward move men t of Libyan Altho ug h not docum ent ed , there must also have been military activi ties in Palestin e preced ing the king 's fifth year. The paean at the clld of the Israel Stela suggests that the Egyptians had regained conuul over Ca naan , As hke lon, Gezer, Yanoa rn, and Israel. MEROE. City and kingdom o f Kush , situated o n the banks of the Nile III the central Suda nese savannah. The ear liest archaeo logical evi dem I from the site belon gs to the early first millenn ium BC, but it is likely tluu there was an important center at, or near , Meroe, from much ear lier. Meroe 's histor y is co nve ntio na lly di vided into two hislo rirul phases " Napatan" (c . 100 0- 300 BC) a nd "M eroit ic" (c . 300 BC- C. ,11111 AD) after the two princi pal cities , Na pata and Meroe . Th e ea rly Meroiti c state (ca lled variou sly Napatan, Kingdom " Klish, or Kurru kingdom) conquered Egypt in the mid-seventh ce uuu Be in the reign of Kashta . His successors, P iye, Sha baqo, Shebltq« a nd Taharqo ru led there (as the 25th Dynasty) unt il the Assy ria n inv« sions and rise of Sa u under Psamtik I forced a Kush ite withdrawa l III the reign of Ta nweta ma ni. The Napatan kingdom co ntinued , and II end is mar ked by the last burial. that of Nas tas en, in the pyram id CCIII ter y at Nuri , near Nap ata , Although a fairly full sequence of rulers I know n, relative ly fe w historical eve nts can be placed in the per iod ii, tween 650 and 320 BC. T he army of Psamtik II , inc ludi ng Greek allil Ca rlan mercenaries , invaded in 593 BC, fight ing at P nubs and pcrhup
M [KQ[
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sacking Napata. Th ere is evi de nce from I-Ierodotos, and circ urnstantial ly from Meroe , that Kushites were serv ing in the army of the Great King of Persia, which attac ked Greece in the reign of Xerxes. Inscriplions of later Napatan kings, written in Egyptian hiero glyp hic , reco rd their military actions agai nst various desert-dwellin g groups who Ihreat~ned the settleme nts of the Thi rd-Fourth Cataract reg ion, and, occasionally, Mero e itself. Of these , the most important are the inscr iptions of I-1arsiyotef and Nastasen , both of whom led their armies ;1110 Lower Nubia , as far as the Egypt ian frontier at Aswan. Nastase n ~'on rl:on led a n oppone nt named Kambasuden , who was inco rrect ly It lentlf!ed by so me scho lars with the Egyptian nat ive ru ler Khabbash . There were doubtl ess military act ions on the Egy ptian- Mero itic Iroutier in the early Ptolem aic period , altho ugh the activ ities of !"nlemy II see m to have been essent ially peaceful and to have reIIpened ex tensive trade . Th ere is so me indication of Kushite if not specifically Me roite, suppo rt fo r the rebellion of Haronnophris and ( 'ha nnnoph r is in the T hebaid in the reig ns of Ptolemy IV and V . Mcroi tic expansio n in Lower Nubia might have ca used co nflict in the Il'ign of Ptolemy VI. Fo llowing the Roman annexa tion of Egy pt in 30 1II ', Ihe Rom ans apparently tried to install a client king (tyrannos) in the Ilndckaschoinos . Thi s failed . In 25 BC, the prefect, Ae lius Gallus, lnuuched an ex pedition to Arabia, taking nearly half o r the forc es statioucd in Egy pt. A ne~ p~efect, Cai us Petronius , was installed. Shortly III ILT. an armed Meroite force attacke d the reg ion of Aswan (inc luding l'hilae and A bu). In the succeed ing co nflict, Dakka was the Meroite hl'adquarters . Th e army was led by the Kanda ke (reigning quee n, or qlll'en mother), perhaps Amanirenas. The fortress of Qasr Ibrim was nttuckcd . The Rom an army led by Pet ronius c laims to have marched as Iill as Napata . Peace was co ncl uded at the treaty of Samos and the Iron11(" was drawn at Maharraqa (Hiera Sykam inos). A peaceful period , usued with muc h trade in the first and seco nd centuries AD. The later thi:d century witnesse d the beginning of the various prob1"1I 1S that co ntnbuted to the fragme ntation of the Meroitic kingd om : the " (' 0 1. Aksum; the incursions of the peop les from the surround ing relnus mto the NIle Valley, notably the Noba and the B1emm ycs . The Itkll llnyes became a major force in Lower Nubi a and frequ ent ly ra ided 11110 lJpper Egy pt. The e mperor Aurel ian had so me success es again st 111"111 , hut Diocletian withdrew the frontie r to Aswan , Th e Meroite iii 'dom finally frag me nted sometime in the mid-fourth ce ntury.
144 • MI 511Wl SII
MESHWESH. The mo st prom inen t tribe o f the Libyans in the late r New Kingdom . T he name Meshwesh is later abbrev iated to Ma . There we n: movem ent s of different tribes of Lib yan s , ofte n jointly, along till' Mediterranean coast in the reig ns o f S et)' I and Ramesses II. The Egy p tian s tried to accommoda te sma ll groups and se ttled the Meshwcsh around Per-Bastet (Bubas tis), em ploy ing them as m ercenaries , PCI Bastet later becam e the ir m ain ce nter. In the Third Interm edi ate Period , the Meshwesh dom inat ed Lo wer Egypt. T he hered itary c hiefs , and grc.u chiefs , of the M a ga ined pr inci pa lities in the eastern and cen tra l de lla, but owed so me a llegiance to the pharaoh s w ho ruled from Tani s a III I Bu bastis . Sheshonq I was a great c hief o f the Ma before he bccam r pharao h . T hese great chiefs still fig ure prom inently in the record of til co nflict of P iye and Tcfnakht , and in the co nflicts be tween Taharqu and Tanwetamani an d Assyria , but the ir power seems to have been cu rbed by Psamtik I, prob abl y during the first decad e o f his rei gn , MIGDOL. Se m itic wo rd fo r a fort ified to wer, w hic h was ado pted illill th e Egyptia n la ng uage , probab ly early in th e 18th Dyn ast y. It is fo und in a num ber o f fort ress n a m es o f the 19 th a nd 20 th Dynast ies . It wn spec ifica lly the name o f the fortress at th e archaeologica l s ite o f Tell e l-He ir. Migdol is a lso th e term ap pli ed to th e ma in Eas te rn G ate 0 1 th e tem ple com plex o f Med ine t Hahu at T he be s . M IG DO L (BAT T L E 601 uc ). B attl e c lose to the fronti er fo rtres s III Migdol (Tell e1-Heir) in w hic h Ne k a u II o pposed Ncbuchad nezzm II ki ng of Baby lo n . T he batt le is re corded by the Bab vloniun Chrou ide and by the G reek Histo rian He rodotos (11.159) . It took place ill the mon th of Kisiel' (November-December) 60 I BC . Ne buc had nezzm had advance d a lo ng th e Ways o f Hor us , a llowing Ne kau to mobili» h is tro op s and ma rch to meet hi m . T he ba tt le seems to ha ve bee n II sta lemate . Ne buc hadnezzar w ithd rew, but was pursued by Ne ka u w ho recaptured Gaza . There we re Greek mercenaries in Ne kau ' army . Following th e cam pa ign , the pharaoh ded ica ted his armo r ill the te m ple o f A po llo at Did yma (so uth of M ilct os in Io nia) . MIG DOL ('f E L L EL-HEIR). Fronti er fortress, pa rt o f the netwru l protec ting Egy pt 's ea stern border, betw een Pe lusion a nd T j aru , III th e b ibli cal book of Ezek ie l (29: 10 a nd 30:6) it is paired wi th Syc m
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(As w an) den oting the limi ts o f Egy pt. Fo llo w ing the sack o f Jerusa lem by the Baby loni an s, man y Jews n ed to Egypt , so me tak ing up th ei r residen ce in M igd ol , perha ps as m er cena r ies . M igd ol was the s ite of a battl e be tween the army of N ek a u II and the invad ing forc es o f Neh uchad n ezzar II king o f Babyl on . A m edi e va l lort re ss was on the same s ite . M igd o l has bee n ide ntified by E liezer Ore n wit h th e arc haeo logical site "1'.2 1," w hic h is o ne kilo me te r no rth of l'e ll e l-He ir, It is sq ua re wi th a m ud- brick e nc losure wall 200 meter s o n eaeh s ide and 15- 20 met ers wide .
~ II RG ISSA . Large fortress o n the wes t ban k of the N ile ,near the foot of the Sec o nd Ca taract. Mi rgissa stands near o ne o f the mo st diffi cult pas' ages throu gh the ca tarac t and was o ne of a g roup of cont ro lling fort s. ()n the islands in the river were Dabenarti , Meinarti , and Dorginarti. It was part o f a signa ling netwo rk that co nnec ted w ith Ask ut and the 1(1I1s at the head of the catarac t. A slipway o f timber, plaster , and m ud allo wed ships to be taken from the wate r and pu lled aro und the most diflicu ll part of the rapids. They cou ld then sa il to the supp ly depot at Buhen . T he fo rt res s is a large rec tang ular struc ture , sha ring many featurcs in co m mo n w ith the other co nte mporary f0I1s in the region .
~ 1I '1'A NNI. H urr ian ki ngd om of north Syria , usua lly called in Egyptian Il'xts Naharin . T he e vide nce for its polit ica l histo ry, c ulture, and so ciety is still ve ry lim ited . M itanni was Egy pt' s main rival fo r control " I' nort h Syr ia in the 18th Dyn asty, bu t was also a maj o r so urce o f ho rses and of the wood (e lm a nd as h) and bark (b irc h) used in th e Illallufacture of chariots . If not from M itann i itse lf, these com rnod itil'S came from the regions to its north . T he Hum ans occupied the far no rth o f Syri a and Mesopo tami a probably fro m prehistoric times but did no t bec om e a pol itical forc e 1III Iil the Late B ronze Age . Ea rlier scholarship saw them as a migrating truup fro m farther no rth o r ea st that arrived in th is reg ion around the 17th/l 6th centuries BC . It wa s a lso sugges ted that the M itann ian kings were esse ntially leaders of an I ndo-Iran ian (A ryan) warrior ar istocracy with a Hu rrian subject popu lat ion . As suc h, they were ide ntified with the chario t-o w ning m ariya nnu . Many sc ho lars now reject this view. Archives from N uzi (Yorghan Tep e) and A la lah (M ukis h) , both subjl'l'I c ities, shed some light o n Mit anni 's po litica l histo ry. At tim es ,
146 • M ill
M itanni had co ntro l o f Alep po and Emar (Te ll Meskene) , Assyr ia (probably o nly briefl y), C ilicia , and Ugarit on the Syrian coast. The main ce nters o f the kingdo m of Mitanni, Was hshukann i, and Taide arc know n only from te xtual so urces and have not been ide ntitied with .11 chaeologica l sites , A me nhotep I and Thu t mose I directed ca mpaign toward Mitanni a nd cla imed to have left inscrip tions o n the ban ks 01 the Euphrates . T he e ighth campaign of Thu tmose H I , in year 33 , WH' directed against Mitanni , and, acc ordi ng to the autobiog raphica l in scri ptio n of A rnenemhab, invo lved three batt les. T he ev ide nce i , richer from the re ign o f Sausht atar (c. 1430/ 1420 ), a co ntemporary 0 1 Amcn hotc p II, onward . T he vass a l-treaty of the later king Shattiwu/ n states that Saushtat ar had conquered Ashu r in northern Mesopotam ia, and other so urces ind icate that he co ntro lled Nuzi and A lalah , Ug.uil on the nort h Syrian coast, and Kizzu wadn a (Cilicia). One of the A marna Letters det ail s Egy ptian-Mi ta nnia n rel ations, show ing th at from the time of T h utmose IV , the two powers had been allied throug h d iplo matic m a rriage: T hutrn o se IV married tlu dau ght er of Artatarna , h is so n A menhotcp I II mar ried first thl' da ugh ter of Shutt arna and the n the daught er of Tush raua . Mita nni suffered at the hands of the rising power o f the lIillik_ Problems bega n with the reign o f Tushratta . and the Il ittites suppor!l'd a ri val claimant to the throne. Artatarna II. T he territ o ry seize d hy AI tatama II in the eas tern part o f Mi tann i soo n alt er lcll into the hHnd s 01 the Assyrian s . T he Hitt itc king, Suppiluli uma I. seized so me of Mi tann i's wes te rn territory and sacked Washshu kanni. Tu shratta was Illlil dered by one o f his so ns and another so n, Shattiwaza, fled to S uppiluli urna , T he Hittite king now installed Shattiwuza as a vassal ru le r in wluu was left o f his kingdom and gav e h im o ne o f his daughters in marr iage As allies of the Hitt ites , troop s from M itanni fought on the Hittit e sid in the batt le of Qadesh . Hittite he lp was unabl e to prevent the risin . power of Assyria completely absorb ing the kingdo m ( 1250 IJc ). MIU. Te rritory of Kush. Miu ' s e xac t locat ion is uncert a in , altho ug h II seems pro bable th at it lay in the Ber ber-Sh end i Rea ch of the Nile , 0 1 per hap s in the Ba yuda Dese rt. Miu is nam ed in the insc ription s on tlu great rock at Hagar el-Merwa , near the Fifth Cataract, suggesting that its borde r (probab ly no rthern ) lay nearby. Miu was important in the later 18th and 19th Dyn ast ies . Thutmose II I led his ar m ies then
MlI WATAl Li (Rf IGNED 1295-1 2 71 Be) •
14 7
in a show o f stre ngth and the pharaoh hunted a rhinoceros . Th e c hildrcn o f its ru lers we re se nt to be raised a t the Egy ptian co urt.
~ I ()NTH U. Falc o n-hea ded so lar go d c lose ly associated wit h H orus . Monthu was ident ified with the warrior phara oh fro m the Middl e 1\ingdom , if no t ea rlier. T he falcon-headed s phinx (hieraco-s phinx or J.: r iffon) was a lso eq uated wi th Mon thu . T he pharaoh is often descr ibed as appea ring as Monthu in batt le and in huntin g . O n o ne o f the ceremonial fan s fro m his tomb, Tuta nkharn u n is show n hunt ing ostric hes, and o n his retu rn from the hunt , he has spro uted the wi ng plumes of Mo nthu . On the cha riot of Thutmose IV , that phara oh is shown with Mo nthu behind him in the c ha riot, g uid ing his arm as he looses his bow aga inst the As iatics . Th e image is intended to show thc assi milation o f the warrior pha rao h and go d.
~ It lS IC l ANS. Mi litary mu sicians are dep icted ac compa nying re ligiou s fl·sliva ls. suc h as thc Opet a t T he bes (e .g., in Lu xor temple ). Th ese trumpete rs and Nu hian d rumm ers playin g the large doub le-ended tl llt tll . Tr um peter s arc see n with co ntinge nts o f the army in the tom bs of Tj a n u ni a nd Horcmh eb at Th eb es . Tru mp eter s a lso appear wi th tlil' ar my in scenes o f the ba ttl e and cam p at Qadesh and in the li hyn n Wa rs of Ra me sse s II I at Med inet Habu . Two such mi litary 1IIIIllpCts we re rou nd in the to mb o f Tuta n k ha m un. It see ms tha t 1111')' were used to give a rhyt hmic code , probab ly on a sing le pitch . A Nubian play ing the doubl e-end ed drum is a lso de picted in a militaly co ntext in the tomb of Horemheb a t T heb es. ;I ll'
Il IWATALLI (reigned 1295-1 271 IIC). Great King o f the H ittites . l Indcr Mu watalli. the H ittites retain ed co ntro l of wes te rn An ato lia II l1d perhaps increased it. Th e king a lso re newed the ag ree me nt wi th Aleppo. Hittite interests in north Syria had resu lted in co nflic t w ith 1111' Egy ptians in the rei g ns o f Horcmheb and Sety I , o ften wi th the l'ily o r Q ades h as its focu s . In the first years o f his re ign , Ramesses II sought to reassert Egyptian autho rity in the reg ion . and Mu wat all i Il'lal iated . Th e c ul minati on wa s the ba t tle or Qadesh ( 1274 BC), which both sides claimed as a victory. It was Mu watalli , ho we ver, who was ab le to sec ure Qadesh and A murr u and to gai n co ntro l o f the I uuuasc us area. See also QADESH . BATTLE OF (c . 1274 BC) .
14 8 • NAHARIN
NASTASEN IREIGNrD MID-LATER 4T1 1 CENTURY Bel •
-N NA HA R IN . T he nam e frequ entl y found in Egyptia n texts for the llu r ria n kingdom of Mitanni in north Syri a . It is a West Semi tic word mea ning " river land ." NA H R EL-KELB. The " Dog Rive r" south o f Byblos a nd 15 kilometers nort h of Beirut in Lebanon . Where the river e nters the Mediterranean, it lea ves on ly a narrow road , along which many ancie nt armie marched . T he cliffs served as an ideal place for inscript ion s , not abl for Egypt , by Ramesses II, Esa r hadd on , a nd Neb uc had nezza r . NAK HTHO RHEB (NECTANEBO II) (reig ned 359/358-342/341 IIc ). Pharao h of the 30 th Dyna sty. A gra ndso n of Na k h tnc hel', Nakhth orheb was serving as a mi litary o fficer acco mpany ing his 1II1 c1e , the pharaoh Djedhor , o n the Syr ian ca mpaig n, whe n he was pro claimed pharaoh by his father, Tjahep imu , who had been left as regent in Egypt. Immediately, a rival claima nt appea red in Mendes (pe rha p a memb er of the family of Hakor o f Dynasty 29). Nakhth orh eb nturned to Egy pt, accompan ied by Agesi laos , the King o f Sparta, wh« wa s the lead er of a Greek me rcenary force , but the new pharaoh hl' ca me besieged in a Del ta town . T he ad vice of Agesi laos led to the dl' feat of the riva l cla imant and ensured Nak hthorheb 's position . In 351/50 BC, a fter an internal dynasti c strugg le, A r tax e r xes I II wa s suffic iently in contro l to lead an attack on Egypt. Thi s failed, uml as a result muc h of the Leva nt (and perhaps As ia Mino r also) rebelled agai nst Per sian rule . Howe ve r, in a second atte mpt in 343 BC, Egypl fell aga in to Pe rsia and Nakhth orh eb ned , rep uted ly to Nu bia . NA KH T NEB E F (N E CTA NE BO I) (r eig ned 379/378-362/361 Ill ') . Pharaoh of the 30 th Dynasty. Before his access ion, Nak htnebef WII a genera l. A stela set up by the pharaoh at Herm opol is carries a vei led reference to a m ilitary co up . In 373 ac , A r taxe rxes II se nt a n an uv co mmanded by Pharn abazos and an Athenian, Iphi krates (CO ll i mand er of Gre ek mercen aries), from Ac re . Having fail ed to CIII<'1 Egy pt via Pelusion, they breached the Me ndesian barrier. A dis put bet ween the co mmanders gave Nak htnebef the advantage and he WII ab le to surro und a nd bes iege them . Th e Pe rsians were the n forced III retreat by the inunda tion .
14 9
NAI'ATA. Fortress , later town , in Uppe r Nu bia in the regi on of Ge bel /lar kal near the foot o f the FOUl1h Cataract. It is first referred to in the ye ar 3 inscr iption o f Amcnhotep II , where it is stated the pharaoh had the b~dy of an As iatic prin ce hun g fro m its wa lls as a warn ing to the Kushites . It IS ge nera lly assum ed that Napata is to be identified With the fortress of Sema-khasut, built by Thutmose III in the sa me regio n. To date , no arc haeolog ical remains ca n be assoc iated with either. Napa ta was late r used to designate the region that incl uded the tem ples of A n~ u n at Ge bel Barkal, bu t mos t scholars have supposed that the tow nsite lay so me d ista nce away fro m the reli g ious ce nter, pe rhaps at Sa na m A bu Do m. Napata was a major ce nter of the kingdom s of Ku s.h and Mer oe . Th e town was o ne of the principal ce nI ~'I"S . and b~ n al place , of the Kush ite kings who co nq uered Egypt: Kushta, Pi ye , S ha ba q o, Sheh itq o , Taharqo, and Ta n weta m a ni. I'sam~i k II might have sac ked it during his ca mpaign of 593 Be. A f11'1' IhIS, ~eroe becam e the main roy al reside nce , but the kings , such as Ha rs lyotef , were still c rowned and buried at Napata unti l the .k alh of Nas tasen . T he Ro man e mpero r A ug us t us clai ms that Naputa was dest royed d uring the campaign led by the prefect, Petron iu s (25 Be). altho ug h it see ms unlikely that they advance d so far so uth. NAI{ M E R (reigned c. 3100 IIC) . Narmer was the first pharaoh o f the First I )Y II;~sty. The ~armer Pa lette, foun d at Hierakonp olis (Nek hen). shows I h~ king wean ng the W hite Crown o f Upper Egypt smiting a prisoner \.V I I I ~ :1 m~ce. A subsce ne shows two slain enemies and a rectangular I"'·hhcahon . On the ob verse, the king , now wearing the Red Crown of I"," ver E.gypt and preceded by standard bearers, approac hes two row s ,,' decapi tated enemies . At the bottom of the palette, a small sce ne depicts the king as a bull crus hing a nother e nemy, its head lowered at the buttressed ~vall of another fortifie d structure . The who le grou p of scenes Is , "~ua lJy IJIterpre~ed as ev ide nce for the unification of the two part s ,,' ' ~gypt: Narrne r IS the first pharao h to be dep icted with the crowns of ""Ih .Upper and Lower Egy pt. He is usually equated with the pharaoh l\.h·1II ( Greek , ~enes) , who stands at the beginning of the Egyptian ',lng-lists as the lou nder of the state, a nd of the city of Memphis .
\.~· I'AS EN (reigned mid-later fourth century
King of Meroe. 'I I,' rC.lg_n mar ks the end of the Napatan period in the history of Nubia. II I' d ifficult to place Nastasen prec isely. He le n a large granite stela in II C).
NAVY .
150 •
15 1
NAUKRATIS
the temple of Amun at Gebe l Barkal (Na pata) dated to his eighth yeui Th e scene , which decorates the upper part , is in a style typical of thl' 30 th Dynasty and early Ptolem aic period in Egypt. Th e text, in Egypt ian hieroglyphic , records various military activities, the first apparcntl shortly after Nastasen 's coro nation at Napata . ~astasen con fronted t~II' army and ships of Kambasuden , somew here III Lower Egypt. Earli ' 1 Egyptologists inco rrec tly identifi ed Kambasud en with Ca~lbyscs allli later with Khabbash. Neither is possible , The other actio ns arc 11111 dated and might have taken place in subsequent years . The a~my \~II sent aga inst the " rebels" of Mekhi ndeqei'i(t) and ca ptured us dlll'l Iyoka. Th ey also seized Luboden . chid of Reba.la, a~d lka~akaro, wh« wa s rich in gold and cattle (a total of 806,323 IS claimed III the text) Ot her razzias were dir ected again st telTitories named Irrasa , Makh sh erekhti, Mayoka , Sarasara , and Tamakheyti. The only places tHlnll'd that can be co nlident ly located are Maha (ce rtainly Abu Sirnbel) :11111 Mediye (probably Medja) . Nastasen might have taken advantage of 111\ troubled situation in Egyp t duri ng the period from the end of the 3(11 11 Dynasty and reconquest by Artaxcrxes III (343 Be) to the satrap y III Ptolemy I (323 Be) to gain some co ntrol of Lower Nub ia. NAUKRATIS . De lta to wn of 26th Dynasty date . A Greek tnulill co lon y, supposedly fou nded in the reig n o f Ah mose II , ;~lthough II chaeolog ical evidence indicat es it co uld have been ear lier , p~r1H1I' under Psamtik I. It wa s suggested that the Great Tem enos III Ih so uthern part of the site, with the massive brick ~t~uc\ll~e insidl: II known as the Great Mound, might have been a military installutiou Thi s is similar in co nstruc tio n to other Late Period monument s , ~Ih I as Tell Da fana (Daph nae) , that had been iden tified as militar y ill ~I i11 lations . Recent research , however , proposes that the Gre at Mouml ! a templ e co mplex of Ptolem aic date. NAVY, Th e river was the main transport route in Egy pt and the aS~1I atio n of boats w ith mil itary actio n is found in art works fro m the 1'1 dynastic Peri od onwa rd . Amo ng the ea rliest such depicti on s arc II sce nes in the Painted Tomb 100 at Nckhcn , o n the Gebel el-A) I Knife , and the rock insc ription of Djer at Gebel Sheikh Su leim nu I Nubia. In these cases , the ships were used for moving troops . 'I I" was generally the ca se with internal co nflict in Egypt throughout II dyna stic period . Howe ver , fighti ng from ships also took place . 'I"
is less we ll documented , but certainly was significant in the attac ks hy Kamose and Ahmosc o n the Hyksos ca pital of Avaris and in I'i~c's campa ign thoug h Middl e Egypt. T he record of Piyc 's war de' cn hes the method of his assa ult o n Memphis , using the masts of the ships as sca ling ladders for mount ing the city wall s. .The development of Egy ptia n sea-go ing ships might have bee n stimulated by co ntac ts with wes tern As ia, which was the main source " I' the timber used in such large vesse ls. Th e term kebenet der ives Imill the name of tl~ e .port of Byblos , Egy pt' s main Levantine trading partner. However , It IS uncert ain whether the vesse l was an Asiatic ~ Y l'e or whether the name alludes to the town as a source of timber. II:e Am a rna ~eue~s incl ude o ne req ues ting the king of Alashiya (( ypr us) to bui ld ships for the Egypt ian navy. I ~gypti a n dep iction s o f sea-go ing ships show little difference between ca rgo vessels and those used in war. Th e Egypt ians used trans1',,11 ships for takin g the a rmy to western Asia, thus avoid ing the long 1~ lllIT h along the Ways of Horus . Sce nes in the pyramid temp le of :-illhurc at Abusir (F ifth Dynasty ) show a sea-borne fleet bein g used tu co nvey the ar my to Syria . Th e inscri ption of Weni (Sixth Dynasty) 1II II Iarly refers to troops bein g taken to Palestine by ship . Seve ral of 11 11' major campa igns of T h ut mosc III in northern Syri a invo lved the III Ill Ybeing take n by shi p to o ne of the port s , Byblos or Sum ur, which I ere developed as Egyp tian bases . Farther south, Gaza and Joppa W" ll' unp ortant Egyptian-co ntrolled port s . I \l! ~p tian action in Nubi a ex ploited the Ni le route, despite the dif1 " '"lt l ~s for navigation posed by the ca taracts . Rock dra wings of I 1'l'l'ttan vesse ls are found in the regio n of the Second Ca taract in the l'II'dynastic Per iod , although there are no indic ation s that these were II l'd tor I~i litary , rathe r than trading , purp oses . At the beginnin g of III,' (l id Kingdom , however, the Egypti ans were taking their arm ies 11\' h" al into Nubia, as is shown by the Gebel Sheikh Su leim an in,d plion. T he fleet was certainly important in the wars of Se nu sret I 1111 1 Amc ncm h at I , whi ch exte nded Egy ptia n rule ove r Lo wer Nubia . ' ''.l 'k i ns~ription ~ f Inyotefiqer tell s how he sai led through Lo wer uhiu III his flagship " the Great Oa r," slaughtering the populatio n, . 1I IIIg the harvest, and cutti ng dow n the trees . I Ill' pharao hs of the ea rly 18th Dyn asty also used the fleet in their uhiuu campaig ns . Ahmosc son of Ebana tell s how he was o n the "'111 1 Jlagship taki ng T hutm ose J in his attack on Kc r rna and o f his
NEIMR UD 1(R[l GNED 399 /398 -394 /393 Be) •
153
152 • NAVY
bravery in the pharaoh 's presence when the ship was towed through the cataract. Although there was lighting of SOlt S from ships, perhaps usinfl archers in attacks on towns such as Avaris , the fi rst predomin antl y naval baitIe recorded is that of Ramesses III aga inst the Sea Peoples . T his en gageme nt is depicted in a series of large reliefs o n the north external wall of the pharaoh 's temple at M edinet Habu. The ships used by Rarnessc In 's navy do have some structural deve lopme nts, such as long, low hull with raised bulwarks to protect the rowers and a raised gangway so thai the whole length of the ship could be used as a lighting platform h marines runnin g its length . Th ese could be Egyptian developments and are not necessarily a foreign influence. Some of the ships have prow with large ligureheads in the form of a roaring lion's head , but they lII" not early examples of battering rams: the construction of the ships i conventional , and they could not have withstood ramming. T here were ce rtainly signilicant changes in naval warfa re in till Late Period. Thi s was the culminatio n of a period of co nsiderabk naval deve lopme nt and marit ime ex pans ion by the Phoen icians and Greek s, and Egypt was itself focu sed on its Medit erranean coast. Dill ing the Late Period , Egy pt developed stro ng contacts with the Grce world , notably through the foundation of the tradin g center III Na ukratis . Th e introd uctio n of the Greek trireme has been attr ibuted to the 26 th Dynasty, although some autho rities thin k that it was nlll used in Egypt until Ptolemaic times . T he dispu te cen ters o n the ternu nology and mean ing of kebenet-vessels. Nekau II reput edl y engag '.I a Phoen ician fleet to circumnav igate Afr ica and began the cannl throu gh the Wadi Tumilat connecting the Nile with the Red Sea . Th e invas ion of Egy pt by C am by ses, the kin g o f Persia , in 5" BC , included a large Phoeni cian fleet. In the later co nllicts bet WI' ' I Persia and the Greek city states , naval battles beca me co mmo n, th first taki ng place at the island o f Sa lam is , near Ath ens. A much lar~'l type of wars hip , the quinquereme , was now developed and becam the characteristic ve sse l of the Helleni stic navy. Th e "Satra p Ste la" II Ptolem y I record s that the king brou ght ships from Phoeni cia , but ill tel' 200 BC, none o f Egy pt's warships were Phoenician built , or hllill of Phoeni cian woo d , the region bein g under the control of the S. leukids . T he timb er Egy pt used for ships now came mainl y from II ow n possession , Cy p rus .
Ptolemy I and Ptolemy II ga ined co ntrol of most o f the eas t ,~ k d l t e rra n e a n , ~a k~ n.g Egypt , for the first tim e , a major naval pow er.
I hey acqulre.d sig nifica nt naval bases throughout the Aegean and a!" ng ~h e Ioni an and A siatic co astline , and eve n on mainland Greece . 1,.gYI?t s n a v ~~l hegemon y ca ~ne to an end late in the reign of Ptolem y II with co nsiderable losses 111 the Second Syrian War and defe at at the hattIe of Ko s (c . 255 BC) . Ano ther nava l defea t, that of Marcus " " l.(lIlius and Kleopatra VII at the battle of Aktion , led to the fall II I I:gy pt to the Romans under Augustus. T he presence at Aktio n of II,,· Ptole ma ic fleet o f quinqueremes is suggested to have been a co nI' ihntory factor in the defeat. NEill J C H~ DNE Z ZA R II (reigned 604-562 IIc ). King of Babylon, As ", " w,n pm.lce , Nebuchadnezzar led the Babylonian army to victory over till' I:gyptllln forces of Nekau II, which had established themselves in C 'urchernish (605 BC? and gained a furt her victory over the retreating III IllY ncar Hamath. HIS father, Nabopolassar, died during the campaign 11 111 1 Ncbuchadnezza r had to return to Babylon to ensure his own sue, "" ion. In .the follow ing decade, eight out his nine campaigns were in western AS Ill , to prevent Egy pt regainin g a position . In 60 1 BC, he took Ii" army as far as the Egy ptian frontier, where a battle at Mi gdol reIII1l'd 111 heavy. losses for both sides . A peace treaty might have estabII Iu-d the frontier between the two powe rs at the Brook-or-Egypt. Neb", hndnczzar ousted those Levant ine rulers who had Egyptian support, , 111'1IIIcd ~erusale~l, and deposed Jehoiachin (598/97 Be) without any I I' '1'11:111 mtervenn on . A fragment o f an Ara maic letter, discovered at uqqura , IS from one of the Levantine princes seek ing military aid from " I' 1'1. Wa h i b r~ gained Nebuchaclnezzar 's assistance in an attempt to " tore hun to his throne but was killed d uring the ca mpaign. 1 C' 11 0 , See NEKAU . I I "(''' NE BO I. See NA KI-lTNEBEF. I I ''I'ANEBO II. See NAKHTHORH EB . I I'" '' IW I) I (reigned 399/398-394/393 IIC). Pharaoh of the 29th u vuusty. In 396Ilc ,Agesilaos, king of S pa r ta sought an alliance , but
154 •
N l.m USy
thi s was re fused . Howe ver, the fo llow ing yea r, Ne faarud su pplied th, Sp art an (leet , w hic h was at Rh ode s , with equipme nt for 100 trireme a nd 500.000 measu re s of co rn . Th ese fell into the han d s o f the Pel sian com ma nde r, Kon on . NEFR USY. Town or fortress in M iddl e Egy pt, near Khmunu (l lc: mop oli s) . Th e preci se location of Ne frusy is unc ert ain , but it appeal to have co ntrolled access fro m the north or so uth to Khmunu . It rip ures tw ice in accounts of milit ary act ivit ies in M iddl e Eg ypt. Durinj the Second Interm edi ate Period , the Hyksos rul ers of Avaris COli trolled the Nile Va lley as far as the territor y of Khmunu . T he insc rip tion s of Kamosc rec o unting his wa rs with the Hyk so s begin wi th Ih" Th eb an advance north into the region of Khmunu. Kam ose sta tes thlll he se nt his Madjoy tro ops to be siege "Teti so n of Pepi" and his l Iyk sos for ce within Nefru sy. Tet i was presumabl y a local vas sa l ( pcrhup the ruler o f Khmunu itse lf) of the Hy ksos. In the late Libyan per iod the pharaoh Nimlot ruled Khmunu as a vassal o f the Kushit e kill!' Pi ye. With the advance of Tefan kht of Sau and his coa lition ann N imlot defected and had the wall s o f Nefru sy pull ed down . Thi s SUI' gests that the town wa s a defe nsive o ne co ntro lling acce ss 10 Khmuu u NEKA U I (reign cd c. 67(,-664). Rul er of Sau in the we ste rn Della . I IIis assu med to have be en a de sce ndant o f the ea rlier Sui te rulers . Tl'l' nakht and Bakenranef', w ho oppo se d Ku shit e ex pa nsio n into Egy pl Ne ka u m ight have been install ed as a n Ass yrian vass a l by Esarhml don , Th e list o f Egy ptian rul er s fro m the beginning o f the re ign III Assurbanipal ca lls him king o f Sau and "Mirnpi" (M em p h is) . I It was usuall y an a lly of the Assy rians but joined wi th S ha rru ludari aml Pekrur in seeking help from Taharqo in their rcbellion . Foll owiu ' their de feat , Nekau a nd the other Delt a dyn asts were taken to N in ev eh, but unli ke them (ma ny of w ho m we re executed) , he was se lll back to Sa u, and hi s so n Psamtik I set up as ruler o f Athr ibis (l lut hery-ib) . Nekau w as de fe ated, and pro babl y ki lled , in baili e with Taharqos successor, Tanwetamani . NEKAU II (reigned 610-595 lie). Phara oh o f the 26th Dyn asty, so n 01 Psamtik I. S ho rtly a fte r hi s accessio n, Nekau co ntin ued the Cal li pa ign initiated by Psamt ik I in weste rn Asia . T he bibl ical Book 01 Kin gs (2 Kin gs 23:29-35) records Ne ka u's inte rfere nce in the a fluh
N EKAU II (REIGN ED &10-5 95 Be) •
155
III' Judah a nd the im me nse power he was able to exert in wes te rn Asia . Le~ding hi ~ army to the aid o f A shu r-u ball it II, king of Assy r ia , Nckuu killed JOSiah o f Jud ah e n ro ute at the ba ttle o f Megiddo (609 11(' ) . Josiah wa s succeeded by his so n Jeh oahaz, but three month s later, Nek au repl aced him wi th his brother Jeh oi akim . Jeh o ahaz was iakc n .to Egy p.t and Jud ah forced to pay tr ibute . Th e co lla pse o f the Assyr ian em pire had c rea ted a power- vacuum in wes te rn As ia , and Nekau c l ~arly tri~d to take advantage o f th is . In 606 Be , the Egyptia n almy bes ieged Kirnuhu , near C a r ch cm is h ; later the sa me year, the Hahylonian forc es we re defeated at Qurarnati . T he Egyptians were, however, de feated by the Babylon ian s, led by Crown Prin ce Nehuchadnezzar at C arch ern ish in 605 , He then defeated a second I':gyptian ar my at Harn ath .
T he death o f Na bo po lassa r and acc es s ion of Ne buch adn ezzar II hl'llught a bri ef respite for Egypt, while the ne w king conso lida ted his I'lIIve r in Ba byloni a . Nebuc had nezza r laun ched h is attack o n Egypt in (oil I li e. Th ere was a hatti e c lose to the fortress o r Migdol , but there were hea vy casua lties on both sides and the Ba byloni an s wi thdrew . ~l' ~; 111 ':ollo\\,cd the Bab yloni an ret reat a nd wa s able to recapt ure (, al.a . I'oll o wln g the co nfro nta tio n, Ne ka u dedi cated his a rmor in Ihe Ic mpl e or Apo llo a t Didyrn a , o n the Ion ian co ast o f As ia Min or. It '<... ,ll S likely that Nekau had e mploye d m ercenaries fro m thi s region. 'I he co nt inued ac tivit y o f the Babyloni an a rmie s in western As ia deInred Nckau fro m further ca mpa igns . , 111 Ihe.l ater part o f his re ign, Nek au pro ba bly laun ch ed an ex pe di 11011 agai ns t Ku sh . A fragm entar y inscript ion from Aswan re fers to II llcc t sai ling int o Nubia . One can o nly s pec u late that the Ku shite ~i l1gS had taken adva ntag e o f Nek au's As iatic a mb itio ns to ma ke advuncc s into Lo wer Nub ia , or even Uppe r Egy pt. A par t from so me Iu llow -up c.~mpaig n s by his succ e ssor Psamtik II, Nekau 's reign ruurks the fina l atte mpt by the 26 th Dyn asty pharaoh s to re build I:gypt's o ld em pire and influen ce in we ste rn A s ia . Ne ka u's co ns id rr uhlc successes were fi na lly frustra ted by the m ilit ar y supe riority of Ihl' Baby lo nia ns . Nek au is also sup pos ed to ha ve co m m issioned a l'hocn ic ian flee t to c ircumnav igate Africa . Further naval interests nrc shown by the c utt ing o f the canal a long the Wadi Tumilat to the lhod Sea. Th e ca na l, whi ch might not ha ve been co mp leted , adde d a turt her de fe nse o n th e ea stern border . w ith the fo rtre ss a t Te ll e lI\l11sk h ut a . T he ca na l was e n larged by Darius l.
15 6
•
N[KHEB
NEKHEB. To w n o n the eas t ba nk o f the Ni le in Uppe r Egy pt , the III cha eo log ica l site o f e l- Kab . It stands o ppo s ite Nek he n . It has massi"l de fen sive wall s of mu d brick, 540 mete rs by 570 met er s and 12 ml'h' I thick . T he wa lls have no co m er to wers o r bastion s and are buill usin the pan -bed ding techn iqu e , to giv e stability. T he date o f th e walls is 111 1 ce rta in and vario us dates have been proposed . Th ey co uld have bCClI llI1 early Th ird Intermed iate Peri od de fen se , mark ing Nekhe b as the south ern border o f the territory o f T hehes and para lleling Te udj oi ill 1111 no rth . It has also bee n suggested that the walls we re built during Ihl re ign of Taharqo - as a de fens ive measure ag ai nst the high Ni le f1 0lld (the site sta nds w ithin the flood plain )- o r in the re ign o f Neklu ho rhct. T he tombs o f the early 18th Dyn asty carry the im port ant autohl« graphica l inscriptio ns of A h m ose so n of E bana and Ah mose-I'eu Nekhbet, w ho too k pa rt in the cam pa ig ns of A h m ose I against Ihl H yksos , and those of A m en hote p I and Thutmose I. NEK HEN (H IER A K O N PO LI S). To w n o n the west bank of the Nih in U ppe r Egy pt, th e modern arc haeol ogi ca l s ite of Kom e l-A h mar, III th e Predynastic Period , Ne khe n wa s the seat o f the earlies t kin gs 111 U ppe r Egypt. Excavatio ns her e produ ced so me im port ant moun m ents o f the pe riod of the un ificat ion o f Egy pt, suc h as th e ma c, " ' Ki ng " Scorpio n" and the Na rme r Pal ette , w ith its sce nes o f COli qu est. T he Pred yn ast ic Pa inted To m b 100 ha s so me o f th e earlit' I scenes of co nflic t. A t the entrance to a wa d i is a large rect an gul ar de fen sive enclosun o f the re ign o f Khasekhemwy . S imilar to the S h u net el-Z e b ib at Ahv dos, it was thou ght by ea rl ier arc haeo log ists to be a fortress . T he I' ll closure has o ute r and inner wa lls , origina lly plaste red and paint '01 wh ite , 2.34 me ters and 4.87 mete rs thi c k re specti ve ly. T he wa lls, whi h we re nich ed , survive to a hei ght o f 11.0 meters . It is no w thou ght th,ll the structure , like the Shu net e l-Ze b ib , was a va lley te mple for a roY1I1 buria l o r cenotaph situa ted farther a long th e wa di . Ne vert hel ess , ju st a the arc hitecture of com pa rab le New K ingd om temple en clos ures (SUI h as M edinet H abu) resembled co ntem po ra ry m ilitary insta llat io ns , 11 11 Kh asekhe m wy enclosure mu st be sim ilar to early de fen sive structure Nekhen wa s defe nded by M en th u hotep II duri ng the troubl es tluu led to the reunific at ion of Eg ypt a t the e nd of the First lmermcd i.u, Peri od . Ther e is no lat er ev ide nce for a mi lita ry ro le fo r th e to w n ,
NO TITIA D IGN ITATUM
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15 7
NII\ILO T (fl . 720 Be). Lo ca l rul er o f Khmunu (Hermo po lis) , w ho asSlimed full ph ar aoni c sty le . He was a n a lly of the Kushite king and ruler o f Upper Egypt , Pi ye , but c ha nge d his a llegiance w he n Tefuak ht , ru ler of Sa u , ad vanced wi th his army into M iddl e Egypt. Nimlot had the walls of an o utly ing to w n , Ne fr usy , pulled down to sho w Tefnak ht that he was not hosti le to him. N im lo t was lat er besieged wi thin Kh m unu by Piye and h is army . After his ca pitulatio n , Nim lot was c has tised for the treatmen t of his horses during th e s iege . II is uncl ear w hether thi s is the sa me Nim lot w ho is referred to in the Assy rian list o f the rul ers of Egyp t in 667 as "La mintu" o f Khrnunu , Id os t Egypto logists ha ve ass ume d that he was a successo r (perha ps I'ralldson) o f Piye 's a lly .
NINE BOWS. T he " N ine Bo ws" sig nified the trad ition a l e ne m ies of I:gypt. In Egyptian, th ree is the p lura l, and nine is a usu al way o f ind icati ng p lura lity . T he e ne mies we re peopl e s o f N u b ia , Libya , the Ill'serts , and weste rn Asia . T he nine bows we re use d as a mot if o n the pharaoh's foo tstoo l so that he could sit w ith his ene mies ben eath his "'1.'1. T he mot if a lso a ppe a rs pa inted o nto the floo rs , across wh ic h the pharaoh mi ght walk , and o n his sa ndals . T he bo ws co u ld be rendered ill huma n form as the ac tua l ene m ies , wi th the ir arms bound be hi nd their bac ks. NI\'. Loca lity in Sy ria, pro bab ly in th e no rth ern pa rt of the Orontes Valley. A very dam aged te xt re fers to U pper Ret e nu , N iy, a nd el eph a n ts . T bis ca n pro ba bly be asc ribed to the re ign o f Thutmose I II III I wa s perh aps associated w ith the pharao h 's ex pe d itio n to Nahur in . It was a prec urso r o f T h u t m ose Ill 's expedi tion or year 33 whe n that ph ara oh a lso hunt ed e lepha nts in Ni y, an eve nt a lso iccord ed by Arnenernhab . (I T ITIA D IGN ITATUM. A Ro man reco rd of a ll o f the civ il and milirury o ffices of the e mpire as they were in 39 5 AD, preserved in fo ur later ,·opies . Th e surv iving ve rs ions are more det ailed lo r the western than Ihe eastern em pire . T he Notitia co nta ins de ta ils or the units co muuuided by the ge nera ls and the forts . It thu s pro vides a va lua ble so urce 1111: the m il.itar y in Egy pt in the later Ro man Empire. T here were major II II lis (L eg ions) at so me of the key stra teg ic po ints , s uch as M em p his ,
15 8 •
NUBIA
NU BIA •
Babylon , and Koptos . It shows an incr ea se in troop s stationed ill Lower Egy pt , perhaps agai nst invasion from the east (R h in ocoln rn , Pelusion , Busi ris , Nai thu). Th e unit s in so uthern Upper Egy pt WCIl ' c learly a defense against the 81emmyes. They we re placed at Phil nr (Fi rst C a ta ract) , Aswa n and Ab u (E lepha nt ine) , S ilsila, and KOIII Orn bo . A lae (cava lry unit s) we re stationed in both Kharga Oasis alld Dakhla O asis in the We stern Dese rt. Unit s were stationed throu gh out Upper Egy pt (e .g., Thebes , Hermonth is [Arman t] , Abydos) , Middl « Egypt (S peos Artemidos, Thmou , Kusas), and the Fayu m (NIII mouthi s, Arsi noe , Dionysias). See a lso Ar my, Roman period. Nu m A . T he region immed iatel y to the so uth of Egy pt, stre tc hing lru II I the First to the Fou rt h Cat a r a cts. It is d ivided into two part s, Low ' 1 Nubi a be ing the re gion fro m the Fi rst to Second Cata rac ts and Uppci Nubi a from the Second to Fo ur th . Nu merous nam es are emp loyed 1111 the who le region a nd its parts, reflec ting internal poli tical c hanur th rou gh out the 3,000 yea rs o f rel at ion s . Egy ptia n mil itar y act ion III Nu bia is first docu me nted in the Fi rst Dy na sty , in the reign of Djl" O the r ca m pa igns foll ow ed in the Ea rly Dyn asti c Pe riod and Old Kingdo m , w hic h appear to have forced the small sett led population to take up a nom ad ic lifesty le in the surro und ing reg io ns . A mu]r u ca mp aign is known fro m the reign of Sneferu , but thi s mi ght hal" been di rected so uth of the Second Cataract. T he ev ide nce fro m Iii Fi fth and S ixth Dyn asties shows that a settled populatio n had I. turned to Lowe r Nu bia and that there were three pr inc ip al "c hid d oms" ther e . T hese are nam ed in te xts as: Wawat , Irt jet , a nd Sutj u A no ther Nubia n "c hie fdom" was Yam , whic h lay so ut h of the Se cond Cata ract , but its exact locati on is sti ll di sputed . T he intern al pro ble ms of Egypt du ri ng the First Interm ed iate Pcril,d a llo wed the N ubian states to develop wi tho ut ex terna l interfercm, During this period the re is cons ide ra ble evidence for Nubian n1l'I'I" naries bein g em ployed by the local rul ers of Egypt. A part iculnrl large bod y of ev ide nce lor the m comes from G ebelein , in soutlu-u Upper Egypt. By the ea rly M iddl e Kin gdom , the Uppe r N ubia n pllU ci pa lities of Kush and Sh aat (S a l) had e merged , and Lower Nubi a WI' pe rhap s un ited under one ruler w ho ass umed a pharaonic sty le . The firs t of a ne w series of Egy ptian cam pa igns in Nub ia wa s I ,I by the ru ler of T he bes , Men t h u hote p II, who mig ht al so haw ,
159
tahl ished so me of the fortresses that became imp or tant in the 12th Dynas ty. T he first ru le rs of the 12th Dyn asty, A men em h a t I and Sen.us r et I , ca m pa ig ned extensive ly in Nub ia , red uc ing the w ho le rerntory as far as the Second Cataract. Th ey prot ected their ne w so uthern border wit h fortres ses at As k u t , Buhen , Kumma , Mirgissa. Semna , Shalfak , and Uronartl , and others at the stra tegic poi~ts of A n iba a nd Quban fart he r north . In the 13th Dyn ast y, Egypt aga m frag me nted, and con tro l of Lower Nu bia was lost to the Kusl!ite kingdom of K erma. Som e of the fortre sses suffered damage hy lire. The Kenna kings es tab lishe d g arr isons in so me of the tortresses a nd there is ev ide nce that there we re Egy ptia n commandIT S wo rk ing for the Ku shite s. A t the end of the Second Intermediate Peri od , it was again the prince s of Theb es who moved to reunite Egypt. Be fore attacki ng the II~ksos 111 the Delta , they se t abo ut securing contro l of Lo wer Nubia . II IS po ss ib le that Ta o II led a campa ign. but there is clearer ev ide nce Irom the reigns of Kamose and Ah m os e I. The auto b iographical inSCription of A h m os e s on of E b a n a records the de feat of A a ta, who might have been a local ruler in Lower Nu bia . A hmose I led hi s ar my south of the Se cond Cataract , de feated the ru ler of S han t, a nd estab,Ii.' hed a ne w fortre~s o n t.~le island o f Sa i. F urt her military actio ns by I hu tmose I es tab hshe d Iirrn Egyptia n co ntro l over Lower Nu bia and des troyed Kenn a . Th ese we re foll o wed up in the joint re ig n of Hatsheps u t and Thutmose III, but Upper Nub ia so uth o f the Th ird ( 'alarac t retai ned its independe nce until the so le re ign of T hutmose III. who es tab lished his new border at the Fo urth Cataract. There w~re ~ew. major mil itary actions in Nub ia in the later 18th DylIasly. T he ind icat ions are that the ca mpa igns o f the reig ns of A khen utcn, Amcn h ote p 11, A men h otcp III, and Thutmose IV were di/('cled aga ins t the peopl es of the Easte rn Desert, rather tha n the Nile Valley. Furt her ca mpa igns are know n fro m the re ign of Tu ta n kh a m u n /('l'llrded by re liefs in the cha pe l at Gebel Si lsila and the Mernphit e IIIII I /) o f Horemheb.
III the New Kin gd om , the who le o f N ubia as far as the Fo urth 'ntarac t was brou ghlunder Egy ptian co ntro l and p laced und er the auIhorily of the vice r oy of K us h , an d the Oversee r of Bowme n of Ku sh 111 11 1 div ided into two province s. Wawat and Ku sh . In addi tion , the re were many ot her prin c ipal ities, so me of them wit hin the Vicerega l C
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NUBIA
do mai n and o thers o utside . Of these, the most signilicant we re h " '11I and Miu . Th e locat ion of both is uncert ain , but curre nt op in ion sill' gests that they lay outs ide the Egy ptia n-co ntro lled provinces of Iii, Ni le Valley , pro babl y in the Berber-Sh endi Reac h of the river. Egy ptian co ntro l o f Nubi a ap pea rs to have rem ained fairl y stahl. throu ghout most of the later New Kin gdom . Mil itary ac tio ns in tli. reig ns of Sety I and his successor , Ramesses II , were di rected again I Irem . Th e reign o f Merenptah sa w a rebellion in Low er Nubi a , oI l' pare ntly timed to coinc ide w ith an invasion by Lihyans. lrem WI again the princ ipal thr eat in the re ign o f Ramesses III. The Egyprinn abandoned Upp er Nubi a in the late 20 th Dyn asty, red rawi ng their luu der at the Second Ca taract. In the re ign of Ramesses XI , part o f tli. army fro m Nub ia wa s ac tive in T he bes and Uppe r Egy pt. T his wn foll ow ed by militar y co nflict between the viceroy, Panehesy , and tli' ge nera l and co ntrolle r of Upper Egypt, Pa ian kh , in Lower Nubia . 'I ii ge ne ra l historical c ircumsta nces , a nd the a lleg iances o f the prot a 'II nists, rem ain obsc ure but are best c ha rac terized as civil war . Th e lilll of Qasr Ibrim might have bee n fort ified during th is per iod . By Iii end of the c ivil war, and the death o f Rarn e sse s XI , Egypt a ppears I,' have lost co ntro l of the who le o f Nu bia . Fo llow ing the end of the 20th Dyn asty is a peri od (or whic h tlw III chaeol ogical e vide nce and histori cal recon stru ctions have become I subject o f deep controversy . It is likely that there was a vio lent prm',' of state form ation. Some hint of the eve nts is foun d in the inscriptuu of Karimala at Semn a. T h is alludes to reb elli on aga inst a Kushit c hili and civi l wa r. T he res u lt wa s the e merge nce of a powerful , and appal e ntly unifi ed , state co vering (eventually) the whole of the region 1'1111 11 the Third Cataract into the ce ntra l S udanese savanna h aro und M"I "" This kingdo m conq uered Egypt in the reig ns of Kashta (c . 750 II IJc ) and Piye (c. 736- 7 12 IJc) and ruled there until 656 IJc (the 25 th (I nasty) . Th e last two decade s saw the inva s ions o f Egypt by the unuu of Assyr ia (in the reign s of Taharqo and Tanwetamani ). Th ere w, I Egy ptian invasions o f Nubi a in the reign s o f Nekau II , Psamtik II and , perhaps , Cam byses. Th e Meroitic king Harsiyotef and Nnstu I I too k the ir armies to Lower Nubia a nd as far as Aswan . Th e Kush ite k ingdo m continue d until the fourth ce ntury AD, III Iii Ptolema ic per iod , the region bet wee n As wa n and the Second Cuu u.» wa s more inten siv ely c ultivated and sett leme nts increa sed, T he nlllih
NLJ KI IASS[ (NLJ KI IASI ISI II)
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16 1
ern part , fro m Aswan to Maharraqa . was ad min istered by Egy pt w ith the name Dodekaschoinos. For a period , this was ex tende d even farIher.so uth, a~ the Tr iak ont asch oin os, but was rega ined by Meroe. Fo llowing the fall o f Egypt to the Ro mans under A ug ust us there was confl ict between Meroe and the ar m ies of the Rom an prefect lir st Co rnelius Gallus then Petronius, Once a peace treaty between the two states was agreed , a pe riod of pro sperity beg an that lasted fo r the lirst two cen lU~ies of Rom an rule in Egy pt. Th e major Mer o itic ce nter III Lo,:,e r Nubia wa s at Faras where the viceroy re sided . Later, ten\Ions increased w ith the a ppearance in the N ile Valley of the Blemmyes . Th e se are re vealed in the incre ased number o f units in so uthern IIpper Egy pt in the Notitia Dignitatum and co nflict in the reig n o f the emperor A u r elia n. Sh ortl y a fter, the e mpe ror Diocletian was forced 10 redraw the fro ntie r at the First Cata rac t. Nubia was at a ll times occupied by b lack people s. ge nera lly relcrrcd to tod ay as Kushit es (to di stin gu ish them fro m the mod ern Nu " ian-lang uage spe ake rs) . In Egy ptian text s, they can appea r as Nelit'sY~1 an d lun tiu-S et iu , and more spec ifica lly accordi ng to the ir locatio n, suc h as the Madjoy (peoples o f the Easte rn De sert ) . Th ere were se vera l documented movem ents o f population into the N ile VaJley (and pro bably man y that are und ocumented) , not ably those of the Noba and the B lemmyes . I Il( HASS E (NUK HA S H S HE). Regi on o f north Syria, eas t of the I Imnl es, be twee n Aleppo and Qatna . It was sig nifica nt in the Late Ilm nze Age , the Egyp tian New Kingdom . Th e territory stood o n the nuirgins of Egypt ian influ en ce in north Syri a. It was ori gin all y subject 10 Ihe king o f A leppo but becam e a vassal o f the kin udom o f Mitanni. 'I.'he A~nals. ~f Thutmose III record the ph:raoh' s ca mpai gn ill'wnst M itanni 111 his ye ar 33 and the foll owin g yea r 's attac k o n Nukhasse. Th e Am a rna Letters (EA 51) indi cate that Thutmose III lor pnss.ibly: a lthough less likel y, T h u t m os e I V) se t up an Egy ptia n I'lissal kin g m Nu kha sse . T he military ex pedi tion o f yea r 7 of Amenlink" II crosse d the Oron tes, and althoug h there was no pitch ed batI ll' , I he pharaoh o rde red the deportation o f 15 ,0 70 people of Nukhasse . In the reign o f Tu sh ratt a of Mit ann i, a dispute arose with Iii.. v.assal ki l~g Sarrups i, who the n a llege d ly so ught he lp from Suppllnliumu , King of the Hittites , who se nt a n army. Th ere was a battl e
162 • O CTAVIAN
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in which both M itann i and the Hittite s c laimed victory , but the result was thai Nukhasse became a Hillite vassal. Howeve r, Tu shratta WII abl e to send boo ty of a ca ptured ch a r iot to Amen hotc p II I , recorded in the A marna Lelle rs (EA 17) , Othe r letters in the Amarna arc hive ill' fro m other kin gs of Nuk hasse: Addu-nirari, A kizzi o f Qatna , and Ak: tesh ip o f Niy , w ho so ug ht to become vassa ls o f Egy pt. T he re was press ure o n the coasta l town of Ugarit, whic h Ih('11 so ug ht he lp fro m the H ittites . In respon se , Suppi luliuma and III arm ies invaded Nuk hasse . T he resu lt was a H ittite c laim o n terr il" ries in north Sy ria a nd , ulti matel y, wa r wit h Egy pt. Fo llow ing 11 11 breakup o f the Hittite Empire , the N ukhasse land s bec ome par i 01 what are know n as the " Neo- Hittite" ki ngd oms .
-0O CTAV IAN. See AUGU STUS. OM E NS AN D ORA CLES. T he ev ide nce for the use of o me ns a nd 01 acl es in Egyp t begin s with the New Kingdo m , but the practi ce cOlild be co nside rably o lder. Oracles we re used fo r offic ia l ap po intment and some ph ara oh s attribute thei r e leva tio n 10 the oracle of a 'od (us ua lly Amun ). H atshcpsu t so ught the orac ular pro nounce ment " I Amu n o n the best route for an expedit ion to Punt. Th e use of onu II lar co nsultation might there fore be ex pected in the co ntex t of W ill fare . T here is , ho we ve r, lillie d irec t ev ide nce for it. Pharaohs stal, that a god (usua lly A mun) co m manded the m 10 " co nq uer" (a s '1'11111 mose III di d); or they pra yed 10 a god during bailie (as Ram esses II d id at Q adesh ), but ther e is no re ference to requ ests to oracles for lid vice o n strategy or whe n to ca m paign . Ge nerally, the conduc t of W ill and its successful outcom e , was the respo nsibi lity of the ph aruuh even if he had d ivi ne aid . Whet her , in pract ice , ph araoh s did 5l', 1 o racu lar adv ice is a d iffere nt issue . T he ev ide nce fro m Ass yria during the La te As sy ria n Em!,11 (ninth-seventh ce nturies BC) is very di ffere nt. A huge number o f 111 ,1 cle and ome n te xts s urv ive . T hese are mo stly addressed to the 51111 god Shamash and see k adv ice on the best time to laun ch a camprupu whe re it s hould be direct ed ; a nd w hether it wo uld be successful, VI ,
163
spec ific requ ests a re co m mo n. Th e responses were mainly g iven Ihroug h di vinati on and ex aminatio n o f the en trai ls o f sacri ficed animal s , A n imp ortant gro up o f de ta iled o me n texts re lates to the co nduct o f the wa r of Es arhad d on with Ta ha r q o . OSORK ON (fl. c. 850-785 IIC). High priest o f A rnu n a nd c rown prince, son of the pharaoh Take loth II . A series of inscriptio ns ca rved dllring his po ntifi cate records benefac tion s to the go d, but a lso the viulc nt suppre ss ion o f unrest in Khmunu (He rmopo lis) in Midd le Egy pt and in T hebes . T he pri nce, who wa s also a ge neral and Go vvruor o f the So uth , see ms to have resid ed at the fortress o f Teudj oi on the border of Uppe r and Lo wer Egy pt. The oppon ents O so rkon faced are never per so nalized, but are ge norally assumed to rep resent a civil war and ap peara nce o f a riva l ruler ill Theb es . Th e first r eb ellion was in year I I of Take loth II w he n the land " had fallen into turmoil. " O sorkon supp ressed Khmunu before advanc ing on T he bes . T he text Slates that various " irregularities" were judged a nd the gui lty exec uted and burn ed . The "ca tac lys m" r.u nc In yea r 15 whe n the "c hildren o f reb ell ion . .. stirred up strife" II I both so uth a nd north . Thi s see ms to have co ntinued for severa l j ears. O so rko n we nt to Th eb es in year 25 of his father 's re ign , in a Il'Iig ious capac ity, hut ren ewed host ilit y bro ke out. Eve nts are now daled by the reig n o f Shesho nq III , which o ve rlapped that of Take loth II. A rter a long pe riod in whic h noth ing is record ed , Osorkon and his 11I lIIhe r the ge nera l, Baken ptah , aga in appea red in T he bes a nd "o verthrew eve ryo ne who fo ught ag ainst them ." T his was in ye ar 39 o f S lies l~onq II.!. Sho rtly a fter, Shesh onq III died , and , in a ll pro babi lity, rill' I " gh Priest O sork o n now asce nded the th ron e , as O sork o n III ,
-pI' \ I.ERM O STONE. T he name g iven to fragme nts of a broken rnonunu-nt (o r per hap s two sim ilar mo nume nts) o f blac k basalt that Il'l'llrded anna ls of the kings fro m the first to the fifth Dynast ies . The 111I f:Cst fragment is in the Pa lermo Mu seum; wit h a further five fragnu-uts in the Egy ptian M use um , Ca iro , and o ne in the Pe trie Mu seu m II I lI nive rs ity Co llege , Lo ndon. Unfo rtunate ly, the monu ment is too
164 •
I'A N E H f SY l n . c. l 0119 ~1 069 RC)
badly dama ged to provide a co mplete so urce for this earl y peri od 01 Egyptian history. T here are references to mi litary action s in the reign of Sneferu and so me in reigns of kings who can not be identified. PANEHESY (11. c. 1089-1 069 IIC). Viceroy of K ush in the reign 01 Ramesses XI. He brou g ht troops from Nubia to T hebes to suppres so me major c ivil disturbanc es . Th e eve nts are record ed in a series 01 pa pyru s letters and o fficial docume nts , which , as is so typical 0 1 Egy ptian mater ial, do not reveal the whol e picture . Con sequ entl y there are varying interpretations of the evide nce . The arrival o f Pumhesy and his troo ps followed the " suppression" of the hig h priest " I Am un , Ame nhotep . Th ere was con siderabl e loo ting , notab ly III Medi net Hab u , and most of the villagers res ident there ned to tlu west bank . Panehesy held a series of trials and executed people. At a later stage, Panehesy led the army fart her north into M iddl, Egypt and per hap s into the Delta , where there was possib ly a ballI ' It was probab ly duri ng his abse nce in the north that so me of the royul tombs in the Valley of the Kings were violated . Panehesy is often a sumed to have been working on beha lf of the pharaoh, at lea st im tially. However, he returned to Kush , and a new power appeared III T heb es, the General Herih or , who also ass umed the titles of hiI'II priest of Amu n and viceroy . A se ries of letters records a military :II tion aga inst Panehcsy by Herih or's succes so r, Paiankh . Th e army "I Paiankh certainly established itself in the for tress of Q uba n , II I though Pan ehesy is ass umed to have held Aniba, as his to mb w, built there, and his name is undam aged . It may have been during 1111 ca mpaign that Qasr Ihrim was fortified . T he outcome of the co nlllu is unkno wn . T he return of Paiankh and his army to T hebes I recorded in the last year o f Ramesses XI, but neither he nor Panch ,' \ are atte ste d afterward . A recent reor dering of the re levant docu ment by Karl Jan sen -Win keln places Paiankh before Her ihor. PANION (200 IIC). Ba ttle in the Fifth Syrian War betwe en the anu k o f P tolemy V and Antiochos III. Th e battle took place at Pan ion (I ltll 1 called Caesarea Philippi) at the nor thern end of the Golan Heights II l1d the foot of Mo unt Herm on , o n a level site (the Banyas plateau) ',I leered by Antioc hos III . Th e Se leuk id force s incl uded elepha nt s . Tli Pto lemaic army, comm anded by Skopas , had regained co ntrol "I
I'A RAITON IO N •
165
Coele Syria, which had been seized by Anti ocho s the previou s year
a~d then marched north from J erusal em throu gh Galilee . An account 01 the ba~t1e was written by Polyb ius (16.18- 19) allowing so me re-
c,onstructlon of th~ course of the battle , which , because of the topo graphy, took place III two aren as . The Se leuk ids were ultimately victorro us and Sko pas retreated with 10,000 survivors to Sidon , I'AIJREMIS (459 HC). T he site of a hattie in whi ch the forces of the Egyp~ ian prince In a ros c las hed with those of the Persian satrap, 0cha llne nes , who was killed. Herodotos claims to have visited the site of the batt le . Papremi s is the Greek fo rm o f an Egyptian placename (perhaps Pa-pa -remt wy} in the De lta , It has been ident ified with Pe lus io n at the entrance to the eas tern Delt a , but also with a site 10 the ea st of Darnanh ur in the western Delta. I'ARAIT O NIO N. Front ier town, the modern Mers a Ma truh . In the Ptolem aic and Ro man periods , Paraitonio n (Latin, Paraetoni um ) marked the bo rder bet ween Egypt and Cyrena ica . In the late New Kingdom , it see ms to have served a similar function becau se close to Mersa Matruh is the Ramesside fort ress o f Zawi)'e t Umrn elRakham . Th e fort stands in a strateg ic posit ion contro lling the coas ta l ro utes . Mer sa Matruh has a large natural harbor. Excavation s on Bates's Island in the harbor have fou nd ev ide nce of tradin g co n.t;.lctS betw een vesse ls from Cy pr us and Crete and the loca l Libyans . I hese ~an be dated to the late 18th Dynasty. A ltho ugh there is no direct evidence , the to wn might have bec ome sig nificant in the Late Period , when co ntac ts bet ween Egyp t and Cy rena ica inten sified . Alexa nder the Great is repu ted to have met with amb assadors from Cyr~ne here , while on his way to the Oasis of Si wa . Th e de sert roads lor Siwa leave the coa st at this point. Parailonion was occ upied by the lorces of. Maga s of Cyre ne during his rcbellion aga inst P to lcmy 11 . i\ long with Cyrene, it returned to Egy ptian control, and at so me unk,now n po int was pro tected by a city wa ll. Follow ing the battle of Aktinn, Kleopatra VII and Antoni us landed here , and it was here that Cornelius Gal/ us destro yed the remai nder of their fleet. The to wn \~as again occup ied by Vespusian. In earl y Byza ntine times , Parait o111011 ~ecame the ca pital of the Eparc hy of Lower Libya and was rctorrified by the emperor Ju stinian (reigned 527 -565 AD) .
16 6
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I'AT I IY ~ IS
PATHYRI S. G reek na me for Gebelein in Uppe r Egy pt, fro m th,' Egy ptia n Per-H arbor. Fo llow ing the r ebellion of Haronnophris alld C h aon nop h r is in the rei gn o f Ptolemy V , a military ca mp was e~, tabl ished at Pathyr is . It wa s a subd ivisio n o f the h ypaethron " I Krokod llopnlis . A substantia l papyru s archive records the fami ly III a G reek cava lry officer, Dryton , w ho served here fro m circa 152 III T he e nd of Pathyri s as an important cen ter see ms to be asso cia ted with the reb ell ion in T he be s suppressed by Ptolem y IX Soter II ill his year 3 (88 IJc) . Pathyris an d Apollo nopo lis Megale (Edfu ) had rr mai ned loyal to the Ptol em ies , but Pathy ris was pres umably capturr. l by the rebe ls and then suppressed by So te r, after whic h it becau u subord inate to Hermon this (Armunt) . PE A C E T REA TY. Forma l and legal documents o f re latio ns bet ween states- ac tua lly between the ru lers -are attested from the Lall Bron ze Age (Ne w Kin gdom) and pro bab ly began mu ch ea rlie r. T ill A m a r na Letters refer to agreeme nts mad e by the predecessors " I A rne n hote p III and Ak henaten wi th the kingdom of Mitanni uiul othe r territ ori es o f Sy ria a nd the Le van t. Tr eat ies mad e by the killl' of the Hittites w ith va riou s vassa ls survive , as do copies in hllih Akkad ian and Egy ptian hie roglyphic of the peace that fo llowed II" Egy ptian- H ittite Wars o f the reign o f Ramesses II , Ma ny peace treaties (and other treaties) were formally ratified hI d iplomatic m arriage . A ll forms of relation ship in the Late Bronze A," (and probably into later times , as indicated by the Victor y Ste la of I'i,\'I" were regar ded as lasting for only the lifet imes o f the relevant part ies: " the A marna Letters see k to renew goo d relation s on the death of AII II'II hotep III. Th e stela of Kamose record s a letter from the Hyk sos ruler ,01 Ava r is to the king of Ku sh , which asks why the new Kush ite king hlld not written to him of his accession, and see ks to renew the relat iou shq of the two co untries, T he ste la of Piye ends wit h the oa th of fealty SWOIII by Tefna kh t in the temple of Neith in Sa u in the presen ce o f the dill r lector priest and a ge nera l. Th is cont ain s all o f the e leme nts o f a writu II treaty and was equ ally binding in a simi lar way. T here are many exa mples of treat ies between the kings of Assy rlll notably Esa r had d on, and thei r vassals in western Asia. Th ese cOIII llI1I threat s of retrib ution and the invoca tion of numerous de ities as g W1I 11I1 tors, A form al trea ty probably negotiat ed the tran sfer of pOWCI II
PEl USIO N (TElL El FARAMAJ •
167
T hebes from the Kush ites to Psamtik I. T his was sea led with the installation of the Princes s Neitiqert as heiress to the most powerful priestly office in the c ity. Numero us peace treat ies tried to reso lve the territorial disputes of the diadochoi and of the Ptolem ies and Seleukids , A treaty was agreed o n Sa rnos between the represe ntatives o f Mcroe .md the e mperor A ug ust us , following the co nflict on the so uthern border and the military actions of Cornelius G a llus a nd Petronius . I'lm UHAST C YC L E. A series of stories preserved in pap yru s docurncnts written in the de motic script. T he surviving texts date from the l'tole maic-R ornan peri ods but we re se t in the late Libya n period (sevrut h ce ntury BC) . T he stories refer to real historical figu res , but also ind ude i nn ~lences from.Greek,mytho logy and hero ic lite rature . A lthough Ihc historica l co ntext IS the nm e of the Kushit e pharaoh s a nd the invavio ns by the armie s of Assyr ia unde r Esar had d on , there are anac hrouistic re ferences to the Medes, Per sia, and India betray ing the later writing, or ada ptation, o f the cycle. Th e princ ipa l stories , in various de,'rces of preservation are : Inaros and the GrilTon; The Co ntest for the lv ncfi ce o f A m u n ; Th e Cont est for the brea stplate o f Inaros; Egy ptians lind A mazo ns ; and Nan ferka so kar and the Babyloni ans, Th e Greek intIncnce is notab le in epi sodes , such as the heroic single co mbat for the hrcustplate o f Inaros, re flec ting the co ntests in the Iliad , I' EI,ES ET. T he Ph ilist ines , T he Peleset ap pear as bo th e nemies (wi th rhL' Sea Pe o ples) and as mercenaries in the Egyptia n army in the 1\'1I,: n o f Ramesses III. T hey are ident ified by the ir characteri stic headd resses , which a re perh ap s made of horseh ai r. T hey we re the pl'ople of the southwes tern Asiatic coast, bet ween Gaza and Joppa ,
"1-:1 :I'AST.
Light skirm ishing infantry of the Ptolemaic army , Th e n-un was o rigi nally used of Th racian s , derivi ng from pella, a s ma ll, li)'ht shie ld . Th e pe ltast's pri nci pal wea po n wa s the javelin . Th e term Is co nsiderably less prec ise in the acco unts of the Hell eni st ic peri od , II l1d peltas ts are often fou nd inc luded among the phalanx, indicating II differe nt definit ion .
I' I,LI /SION (TE LL E L FA RAMA). Fro nt ier fortress 0 11 the eastern horr le r . Pelu sion (Pe lusiurn in Latin ) was pa rt o f the chai n of defen ses
168 •
1'[1'1' II IREIGN W C. 2278 -2 184 Be)
that protected the access to Egy pt along the Via Ma ris or Wa ys of 1111 rus . It was once incorrect ly identified with Avaris and Per-Ramesscs, and its Egyptian name is unk nown. It was the scene of battles w lu-n invading and Egy ptian armies clashed. Th e we ll-docum ented invn sions all belong to the later period s of Egyptian history. T he armies til Assyr ia under Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal passed this route Oil severa l occasions. T here was co nflict here when the Babyloni an kill • Nebuchad nezza r attempted to restore Wahibre. Th e army of CUIII byses of Persia defeated that of Psamtik III at Pelu sion in 525 III bringing Egy pt into the Persian Empire. It was the site o f furth er II I tempted Persian invas ions by Artaxerxes II against Nakhtne bef ill 373 BC , and by A r ta xer xes III in 35 1/350 BC . Artaxerxes Ill's seco nd invasion in 343 BC was success ful, and the defeat o f Nakhthorheh brought Egy pt briell y back into the Persian Empire. T he garrlsun yie lded to the Macedonian adve nturer, A myntas , in 333 BC and III Alexa nd er the G reat the followi ng year. ll ere , Ptolemy I fended 1111 the invasion of Antigonos I Monopthalmos in 306 BC , but that of All tiochos IV in 169 BC was successful. T he Roman general Marru Antonius seized Pe lusion when he and the Gabinia ns reston«l Ptolemy XII (Auletes) in 55 BC . In 47 BC , it was ca ptured by Mithn dates of Pergam on and his army, march ing to jo in Ju lius Caesar al ii" time of the Alexa nd ria n War and conflict between Ptolem y XIIl alid Kl eopatra VII . Pelu sion appears in the Antonine Itinerary on Ih ro ute Pelu sion- Magdo lo (M igd ol)- Sile (Tj a r u). It has rece ntly b""11 the subject of archaeo logical survey and excav ation . PEPY II (reigned c. 2278-2184 IIC) . Pha raoh of the Sixth Dyn ast . buried at Saqq ara , near Memphis . T he re liefs in his pyramid tel1ll'l, show him smiting a Libyan chief , but thi s is co pied directly from ih temple of Sahure at Abus ir and ca nnot be co ns ide red " histo rical Other fragme nts of relief show the ca pture of ca ttle and refer to a 1111, 1 aga inst the peopl e of the eas tern border. Two kneeli ng limestone II ' ures , probabl y from the tem ple , depict ca ptives with their ar ms bmuul at the elbo ws behi nd their back s. Th e figur es have no inscription s IIl1 d the ir ethnicity is not distin gu ished . PETRONlUS, CA lUS (fl. 25-22 IIC). Rom an prefect of Egyp l al' pointed by A ug us t us as successor to Ae lius Ga llus (Prefec t 2(, 'I
I'IYE (REIGNED C. 736 -712 8e)
•
169
when the latter was sent on an ex pedi tion to Ara bia. Gallu s took nearly half of the Rom an force stationed in Egypt: about 8,000 of the 16,800 in the three legions and 5.500 auxi liary troops . An armed Me roite force attacked the region of Aswan shortly after Ga llus's departure . Thi s might have bee n part of a local upri sing aga inst Rom an rule in Lo wer Nubia . Statues of Augus tus were pulled dow n and pris oners taken. T he succeeding eve nts are unclear, and the authority of the con tempora ry account of Strabo has bee n questioned . Strabo claims that Petron ius led the Rom an army into Nubi a, reach ing Napat a . Th e king of Meroe , Teriteqas , see ms to ha ve led or sent military aid to the rebellion . Pctr onius apparently fortifi ed Qasr Ib r im o n his return northward, and this was he ld by the Rom ans unt il the events of 22 HC, whe n the Kand ake (ruling queen) led the Meroite army northward. Th ere seems to have bee n no co nflic t and a pea ce treaty was co ncl uded at Sa mo s the foll o wing year (2 1 BC) . BC)
I'IIALANX . Th e main infantry eleme nt of the Hellenistic army. It consisted of lines of soldiers with long pikes. Th e use of the long pike , the sarissa , was developed in Macedon ia by Phi lip II and used with great effect by Alexander the Great. The phalanx continued to be the mainslay of his successors, notably the Ptolernies and Seleukids . Details of the equipment used by the phalanx are unclear, although it is thought that the long sarissa was favored : this cou ld be six meters in length . The depth of the phalanx cou ld be varied accord ing to the numbers avai lable nnd the nature of the site. The deepe r the line , the more difficult it was III maneuver. At the battle of Raphla , Ptolemy IV had 45,000 infantry available and they were probably arranged in a ph alanx 32 lines deep . The phalanx was generally placed at the center with the light infantry (such as peitast s) o n the Ilanks and the ca valry on the wings. I'll IL1ST JNES. See PELES ET.
I'IYE (reig ned c. 736-712 IIC). King of Kush , acknow ledge d as ruler of Th ebes and Upper Egy pt. /-Ie was probably the immediate successor tlr Kas hta, who had established Kush ite contro l ove r Upper Egy pt. The g reat " Victory Ste la" o r black granite (Cairo .IE 488 62) , dated to l'iyc 's year2 1, was disco vered in the templ e of Amun at Ge bel Barkal (Sudan) in 1862 . Carryi ng a text of 159 lines. it recount s the co nflict
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between Piye and the coa lition of princes led by Tefnakht , the rule: of the Delt a city of Sa u , and the rebellion of Piye 's vassa l, Nim lot III Khmunu (Herrnopolis). T he inscription is an import ant record of thl po litica l geog raphy of Egy pt in the late Li byan peri od , and of the Cll il duct of the ca mpaig n, with many references to sieges and pitched bal ties . Piye was in Nu bia when the news o f Nirnlot 's adva nce south ward was bro ught to him. At first he ordered his army based in Th cb« to res pond, but when they failed to defeat the coa litio n Piye took II seco nd arm y to Egypl. Although Piye ad vanced nort h throu gh Egypl , ca pturing the great cities of Khmunu , Ni nsu (H er akleopolis), Melli phis , and other sma ller centers and fort resses , he did not defeat l'l'I nakht in a pitched battle, Piye recei ved the submiss ion of the lilill pharaohs, Nim lot, Osorkon , luput , and Pe ftjauawyba st, and o f all III the other Libyan dynasts at Hut-hery-ib (A thribis) . From there , III launched an attack aga inst Te fnak ht, who sued for peace . Tefuakln swo re his oath of fea lty in the tem ple in Sau in the presen ce of till chief lector priest and a general. Th ere was presumably a wriucu peace treaty also . The date of the war with Tefnakht within Piye 's reign is uncertain Mo st earl ier Egyptologists assumed that the Victory Ste la was set up IlI1 Piye's return to Napata, and that the campaign took place in the kin];' regnal years 19 and 20 . A number of factors sugges t that the ca mpaign mig ht have been earlier. perhaps in year 4 . Another stela from Gel'" 1 Barkal indicates that Piye had been active in Egy pt prior to the calli paign of Tefnakht, and it is certain that the Kushites were acknowledged as rulers of Thebes and Upper Egypt and maintained garrisons there, PL ATOON. An army unit of fifty men , com prising five sq uads, und" 1 a co mmandi ng o fficer ca lled " the greates t of fifty." PNUBS. To wn in Ku sh . south of the T hird Cata r ac t. Pnubs is nan ml in texts from the time of Pi ye and the 25t h Dynasty o n to the Mero itu period . It was o nce identified with the site o f Tabo o n the island II I Argo , but might be the late name for the site of Kerma , which i clo se to Argo . Pnubs was the site of a battle between the army III Psamtik II and the Kushites in 593 BC. POE M O F PENTAW ERE. Th e name given to one of the accounts of till victory of Ramesses II at the battle of Q adesh. It survives in ei ~ 1 1 1
PORPHYRIO N (218 Be) •
1 71
copies . inscrib ed o n the wa lls of the pharaoh' s templ es at Aby dos, Karnak, Luxor, Ab u Simbel, and the Rarnesseurn , and on papyri . " Poem of I'en~awere" is, in fact, a misnomer: o ne version of the text (Papyrus Saltier III) was copied by a scribe named Pentawere in the reign of Merenptah . The "poe m" is di vided into three sectio ns, the two o uter lines in prose and, most scholars agree , the ce ntral one metrical. " O ETI CAL STELA OF THUTMOSE III. A granite ste la from the temple of Am un at Karnak (T hebes) no w in the Ca iro Mu seum (340 10 ). It is a record of the phara oh 's victo ries and ex pans ion of the empire and as such relates to the A nna ls of T hutmose III. Th e co mposition is not a histor ical nar rati ve but sets the victories within a myt hologica l co ntex t. Th e pharaoh 's deeds are explained as a revelalion of the will of A mun-Re , T he text di vides into three part s, the cenIral o ne being a metri cal " poe m" in which the hieroglyphic sc ript has been cleverl y used in a sy mmetrica l co m position. I'OLI CE. In Egy ptian, the term for the pol ice force is M adjuy , and it seems likely that these peopl e of the Eastern Desert were origi nally used as a spec ialist force . By extens ion, the term was retained for peop le serv ing in this " po lice" force . The co mmande r was ca lled the "Chief o f the Madjo y" and was a very powerful offic ial. A valuable so urce of information is the to mb of Maim at Arnarna in Middl e E,gy pl. .M a ~ u served Akhena ten , and his to mb has scenes show ing hix du ties 111 the city. His troops have a standard bearer and are d.rcs~ed in the usual style of so ldie rs . One sce ne show s the provisionmg of a small g uard post . in which an As iatic m ercenary is shown. Mahu takes instructions fro m the vizier and is show n bringillg priso ners to his ho use . Th e Madjoy were probably responsib le fo r the intern al security o f import ant to wn s. In Rarnesside papyrus doc" ~ ne nts . the chief o f the Madjoy in M emphis was co mmandi ng so ldiers who were used to bring stone for templ e build ing in the city. 1'( IMO ERI UM. A road that allows ra pid mo vem ent of troop s around the walls . It is found in fortress architecture, notably at Buhen. 1'0 I0'HY R ION (2 18 HC) . Battl e of the Fou rth Sy r ia n War between lite fo rces o f Ptolemy I V and Antioc hos Ill. T he batt le was part o f Autioc hos's att em pt to regain C oele Sy r ia . Fa iling to break throu gh
1 72
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PRIHCT
the Ptol emai c fortresses that guarded the Mar syas Vall e y, the army too k the difficult a nd na rro w coasta l rout e . Th is was easy fo r the Ptol e maic forc es to de fend , but Tyre and Acre in th eir rear had de fect ed to Anti och o s, a long w ith the Ptol emaic mer cen ar y o fficer, Th eod oto s the Ae to lia n. The Ptol e ma ic fo rce was near the Pur ph yri on pass (Ras Nebi Younes so me 25 kilometers so uth 0 1 Beirut) , w ith a seco nd defen se line a t Pl at an o s (Cap Sak hre) fivI' kilomete rs farther on , a nd a Ptol em aic fort ress at Sidon . The Reman histori an , Pol yb iu s (45 . 1-46.5 ,6 1.3- 62 .6) det ails th e di sp o siti on 01 th e troo ps , w ith arch ers and slingers o n the stee p northern slope , a nd troop s prep ared for hand-to-h and co mba t on the sha llowe r we stern slope . T he oppo sin g fleet s a ppro ac hed eac h othe r nearby, T he Scleu kid s uccess was sa id to ha ve res ulted fro m Theod otos, wh o led a co nti nge nt up the mountain sid e and overca me a Prole mai c troop , the n d escended e nabli ng th e o ther fo rces to breal th rou gh the pass . PREFECT. C hief officer, mi lita ry and c ivil. of the Rom an ud rn inisun tion o f Eg ypt. Unlike the othe r Rom an pro vinces. whic h were go l' er ned hy a se natorial lega te , an o ffic ial o f eques tria n ra nk ruk d Egypt. Thi s emp has ized Egy pt's ro le as a per sonal po ssessioll of Ih. e mpe ror, not the Roman peopl e. Th e prefec t was rcspon vihlc for 11 11 sec ur ity of Egy pt; hen ce the largest garrison wux at the po litica l cc n tel' of the co untry, A lexa nd r ia, rath er than its suu tcg ic ce nte r, Hah ) Ion . Th e first pre fect , Cains Corne lius Gallus , a friend o f A ugus tn was appoi nted in Aug ust 3D IIC . He suppressed a rebellion in Upp , Egy pt in 29 BC a nd then took the ar my into Lower Nu b ia , whl'l Meroe see ms to have bee n trying to gai n adva ntage . Ga llus's SUI ce sso r as prefect , Ae lius Gallu s , was soo n se nt o n an ex pedi tio n II Arabi a . T he next prefect , Cai us Petronius, was also invo lved in ill tivit ies in N ubia after the Me ro itic Kand ake (q uee n) , prob ahl Amanirenas , es tablis hed her ar my at Dakk a . Th ere was a Roman n sa ult on Qasr Ihrim , where the Rom an ca mp has been identified " " a headl and o ppos ite . In the re ign o f Nero , Tiberiu s lulius A le xa nde r was respon sible for suppress ion of confli ct between the G ree ks 111 1 I J ews in A lexa ndri a and later p rocla imed the ge nera l Titu s Fla vin Vesp asianu s e mperor. A later prefect , lulius Acm ilia n us, was pi" c laimed e mperor by the Ale xandri an mob .
I'SAMTIK I (Rrl GN l'IJ 664 · 6 10
BC)
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173
PIUMIS. The Latin name for the fortress of Qasr Ibrim in Lower Nubia . I'ROSO.P IT IS. Greek for m o f the nam e of a n isl and in the Delta where the prin ce Ina~os .rebelling ag ain st the ru le of Per sia, along w ith the lIeet se nt to aid him by Athens , was besie ged by the forces of the s:~trap. ~he siege lasted for 18 mon ths (456-454 BC) before the flee t 01 20Dships was ca p tured and l naros se nt to Per sia, where he was executed . Pro sopitis lay between the Ca no pic and Sc bc nnytic branches 01 the NIle .
"SAMTIK J (r eig ned 664-610 BC) . Rul er of Sau (Sa is) who later reunited the Whole o f Egypt a nd is recogni zed as the first phar aoh of the 26 th Dyn asty. Li ke his father, Nekau I , Psamti k was origina lly a vassal o f Assyria , be ing installed by Ashurbanipal as ruler of the Ill'lla to wn .0 1' Hut-hery- ib (Athribis) w ith the Assyri an nam e Nabu '~ Iezzl-balllll . On the death of his father . prob a bly in battl e w ith the '~ l lSllIte pharaoh Tanwetamani. Psumt ik ascende d the thron e in Sa u . I :c ~"tl\~' ,ng.:all\ve,a llla ni's flight after the invasion o f Ashurba nipa l, I ,,, n ll l ~. hc l a me the ac ~ now ledged ru ler of the whole of the northern p,all 1I1 I:gypl. Succeed ing e ve nts are un kno wn, but by his year 9, the Ku-hitcs were prep ared to cede Thebes and Uppe r Egy pt, which was IIII:i1l1ed Iilploma liea lly a nd form al ized whe n Psamt iks yo un d'II ').!I ller ."I.as se nt to Th ehes to be ado pted as the e ve ntua l successo~ 11I Ihe re ligio us o ffice of God 's Wife of A m u n . There are .some large ga ps in the record for the rem aind er of this \ c"y Illng relg.n. but it is clear that Psamt ik ultimately quashed the I" III'IT o f the Libyan dyn asts o f the Delta and reasserted that o f the so le pharallh. In yea r II, he was fightin g in the wes t aga inst the Libyans , I,", It IS u.nclear exactly how strong the Libyan threat was . 1 (,)~ 'C .01 the most IInportan~ as pec ts o r the reign is Psamti k's fore ign J olicy and use of mercenaries. Th ese we re mainl y fro m the ci ties o f 1 " I II:~n G reece and Car~a . Psamt ik a lso sought he lp from Gyges of L _ dill , in wes tern An atoli a. T he "Babylo nian Chronicle" (the anna ls ~f Ih,' kings of Babylon): refe.rs to the a llied Egyptia n-Assyrian army in 1"" 01 the Babylom an king, Nab opol assar , o n the Euphrates . Egy pt , " illS to have cho.sen to bolster the rump-state o f Ass yr ia in oppos i" " " III I/~e ex~and m~ power ? f Bab ylon . Ha ving reu nited Egypt and I ' uupo scd the a utho rity o f a s mg le pharaoh, Psamtik I appears to ha ve
""I
PTOLLM Y II PI IILAIl /l1'1lO S (RLIGN ED 285-24& Bel •
174 •
r SAMTIK II (RLIGNED S9S S89
175
acl
atte mpted to re-exert so me co ntro l over wes tern Asi a . Thi s suppo rt fOI Assyri a , and ex pans io n into Pale stin e, co ntinued in the reig n of hb so n and successor, Nekau II. See a/so KU SH . PSAMTlK II (reign ed 595-589 IIC) . Pharaoh o f the 26th Dynasty. I k co ntinued the pol icies of his predece ssor Ne kau II. In year 3 , Psamtik launched a campaign agai nst N u b ia , th e mo st im port ant eve nt o f th,' rei gn . It is me ntioned in Herodotos (2.16 1), and recorded b y a gro up o f gruffiti at Abu Simbcl. as we ll as thr ee o rric ial ste lae from Ta nis, Karn ak , and Aswan. Th e Abu Simbe l gra ffiti we re carve d by me rcv naries and tell us that the ar my was di vid ed into two part s; the Egy pt ian force was led by Amas is (Ahmose, not the later pharaoh ) and th,' Greek mercenaries by POlasimto. Various ind ivid ua ls len the ir nam e and place s of ori gin , whic h include Teo s, lalysos , and Kolopho~. It i unknown whethe r the ca mpa ign was a res po nse to any Ku shit e at tempt to invade Egypt. Th e inscription s state that there was a l~attl.I " at Pnubs , althoug h whet her the army went on to sac k Napata I S still a po int of co ntroversy. Psarntik also invo lved him se lf in the affa irs 01 we stern Asia maint aining some sort of treaty a llian ce wit h .Judllh (nn w under Zedekiah , un cle of lehoi akim , insta lled by Nc b uch ml nezzar) . A te xt of yea r 4 o f Psamtik record s an ex ped itio n to Kluu (S yr ia) , but thi s does not appea r to ha ve been military. PSAMTIK III (reigned 526-525 IIC) . Last pharaoh of the 26 th Dy nasty with a very b rier rei gn of six months . As the rei gn ex te nded over the Egy ptia n New Year , Psam tik was asc ribed a fu ll year and II part in the rec ord s. T he rei gn was do minated by the inva sion of Egy pi by C:nnbyses , ki ng of Persia . T he re w as a batt le. at Pel usion , ~h, Egyptian arm y h avi ng large contingen ts of sold iers fro m Io nian Greece and Caria . T he Eg yptians were defeated and wit hdrew t" Memph is, whic h was captured . Herodotos recount s how Psam ti Ill ' s life was sp ared , in itiall y, but he was later put to dea th a fte r th " d iscovery" of h is role in a plot. C a m b yses ign ored thi s reig n, back dati ng his ow n ru le in Egypt to the death o f Ah m ose II . PSAMTlK IV (fl. c. 486-4711 BC). Psamt ik was a rul er of the wcs tcin Delt a . He pro babl y did not aspi re to the Egyptia n royal titles , al though there are s ma ll monuments of various obsc ure rul er s ca lk"
/ >.wlIll!k du ring the tim e of Pers ian rule . Psamtik might have led the re bellion that broke out at the e nd of the reign o f Dari us I and was , u p p re ss~d by Xerxes (4 86/485 BC) . Psamtik 's so n, Inaros , led a rna,or rebe llio n agai ns t Pers ian ru le o n the death o f Xer xes .
I'TO LEMY I SOTER (367/366 IIC, satrap 323-305, p haraoh 305-282 11('), Macedonian general who served Alexa nde r the G reat. On ~ Iexander' s deat h al Babylon in 323 BC , Ptole my se ized Egy pt, acting tirst as satrap for Alex ander IV and Philip Arrhidaios, then , follo wing lite precedent o f t~le other.diadoC/lOi (the "S uccessors") , proclaiming IlIlIlse l.fking (a nd 111 Egy ptian co ntexts, pharaoh ) in 305 BC. Short ly afI'T taking Egypt Pto lem y sent a m ilitary ex pedition to Cyrene, wh ich became part of the rap id ly ex pandi ng Pto lem aic Empire. In 32 1 BC , he u-pulsed the invasion of another of the d iadoch oi, Perd ikkas. Th e major monume nt from the early yea rs is the so-called "Satra p stela ," which u-I crs to the co nq uest ofCyrene and to the reign o f the last Egy ptian opp~ lIIe n t ?f the Persians , K habbash . Th e ste la also refers to Ptolem y 'S 1' II' I O~'y 111 31 2 BC at Gaza and his acqu isition of kehenct -vessels . Jn 306 11< ', Egypt faced an invasion fro m Antigo nos I Monoph thalmos (the t luc Eyed). T he wars o f the diadocho i and their changes of allia nce , mnuy sea led by d ip loma tic mar riage , saw co nsiderable ga ins o f terrililly by Pto lemy. His ar my occ upied Pa lestine and Cocle Syria, wh ich was 10 becom e a focus of the Syrian Wars between his successors and the Scleu kids of Sy ria , Ptolemy brought c ities along the coast o f Ioni a \ lI l' h as Miletos, Hal ikam assos , and Kn idos under Egy ptian rule . His ....nlrol of the Island League based on Delos , and of the island of Sam os nuulc Egy pt the principal sea power. Ptolem y was invo lved in main land I hcccc, supporting Athens aga inst M acedo nia (events bet ween ' ~" I 287 BC) . Ptolem y was the only one o f A lex ander's successors to dll' a natura l death . I' n II ,EM Y II PHiLADELPHOS (reigned 285-246 IIC). T he reign o f
l'tnlcm y I! sa w the cons olidation of Pto lem aic over seas territories by wur a nd d iplom acy, Pto lem y' s po licy in ge nera l seems to have bee n to Iii, lip pr?b l e ~n s for M acedonia , ac ting as the champion o f the Greek I Illes a~a llls t Its as p i~·at io ns . In the First Syrian War o f 276 BC, Egypt IV II\ de feated by Antioc hos I. Sh ort ly after , in 274 BC, Antioc hus co nI mp l.uing the invas ion o f Egypt , formed an a lliance w ith Mag as of
176
• PTO I.EM Y III EUrRG ETES IIRUG NHl 24(, -221 UC)
Cyrene, who married his daughter, Apama. Magas moved on Egypt, ca pturing Paraitonion , and nearly reached Alexandria . His adva nce was aided by a mut iny by Ptolem y's Gauls . Magas was forced to ntreat by a rebellion of the Libyans . Th e ste la from Pithom ('1\'11 el-Maskhuta) reco rds an inspection of the to wn 's defen ses in 27·1 Egy pt suffered an invas ion by the Arabs , and by 269 a proteciinp canal and wa ll had been co nstructed . Th e First Syrian War cam e to uu end in 272, leaving Pto lem y in possession of Cilicia wes t o f the Ca l cydnus; the eas tern coas t of Pamph ylia with Ph raselis , and perhap Aspendes; and Lycia south of the Mi lyad . In Caria and Ion ia , he Cllil trolled the cities of Caunu s, Hali kam assos, My nd us, Knidos , awl prob ab ly Miletos; in the Aegean , he held Samos , Th era and the ( 'y clades, Samo thrace, and Itanos in Crete ; in Coele Syria, he retuinc.l the Marsyas Valley. He acq uired Aradus and Ma rathus. thereby 1l1 i1 ~ ing all o f Phoenici a Egy ptian. Egy pt was aga in invol ved in main land Greec e betwee n 267- 261 BC , du ring the Chremonidean War . Till Second Syrian War (259-253 BC) agai nst Antiochos II brou ght M' I backs , including the loss of Mil etos and Sarnos. At the naval batt le III Kos (prob ably in spring 255 BC) , the Egy ptian Ileet co mmanded Ii\ Patroklos , was defeat ed by Antigo nos II Gonatas , king of M acedon About the same time , the fleet co mmanded by Chremo nides was III feated by the Rhodians, at the naval batt le of Eph esos . Thi s elllit'd Egy pt's command of the sea and protectorate ove r the Island Leugu. Th e peace treaty co ncluded in 253 saw Milctos, Sam os, Ephcsn Pamphylia, and C ilicia pass to the rule of the Seleukids . Ptolemy II was also ac tive on his so uthern frontier in Nubia . Then are no record s of milit ary ac tivities, but he certa inly reopened cxteu sive tradin g w ith Meroe , and there are re port s of ex ped itions far 111' the Ni le into so uthern Suda n. PTOLEMY III EUERGETES I (reigned 246-221 lie). The diplu matic marriage of Ptolem y 1\1 with Beren ike daught er of Magus III Cy rene renewed Egypti an co ntro l of the north Afri can coast far iill" Lib ya . Th e Thi rd Syrian War (246-24 1 BC) aga inst Seleuk os II dillII inated the reign. Pto lemy III marched from Antioc h to Se leukeia '" the Tigri s . T he ge nerals o f the ea stern sa trapies ack now ledge d lIilil and one inscription claim s that he co nq uered Asia from Ba by lon Ii , Bactria. An uprising in Egypt forced Ptol emy to return to Egypt ( I I
PTO I.EM Y IV PI i1l 0 PATO R (REIGN ED 221- 205 BC) •
17 7
BC) . He cl a i l~ed that he took back boot y and 2,500 statues of EgyptIan gods , wh lc~ had. been taken by Ca m byses . Thi s could be propaganda to ~stabh sh his support of the Egypti an peopl e in respo nse to the rebel ho n . In any case, the removal of statues to Persia is more ~kely to have bee n an action of Artaxerxes III than Cam byses . In -46 o r 245 BC, the Egyptian fleet comma nded by the king 's halfbrother , Ptolemy Andro machos, was defeat ed by Antigo nos II Gonatas of Macedo n at the batt le of Andros . In 24 1 BC, peace was es tablished between the Se le uk ids and Egypt. T he war ended with Egypt gaining significant to wns in Syria and Asia Minor, allhough xo me were lost aga in .
!n 229/228 BC , Ptolem y established a military alliance with the Aetolian League . of northern Greece . Thi s was an anti-Macedonian move . In southern Greece , the rapid rise of Sparta under Kleomenes III dielaled a change of Pto lemaic policy. Ptolem y 11\ cea sed subsidies to the I~ ehaean League , which had become pro-Macedonian, and supported 1\ Jcomenes: A~hen~ .received assurances of Ptolemaic support. At first ' liecessfu.J III h!s mlht~ry actions, Kleom enes was later defeated by the Macedo nian king Antigo nos III and ned to Alexand r ia . The end of I'rolcrny's reign saw a renewed Seleukid threat to Coele Syria . "TO L EMY IV PHILOPATOR (reigned 221-205 II C). The accession III' I'lo leJII~ IV, age d ~bollt 20 , came shortly after that of the equa lly ou ng Antioc hos 1/1 III Syria (reigned 223/222-1 87 II C) and the 17year old .Philip V in Maced on (reig ned 22 1-1 79 BC) . At the begin ning III Ihe reign , there was an attempted co up in Alexandria . Kleomenes III, king of Sparta , an ally of Ptolemy Ill , had been defeated by Autigonos 11\ of Macedon and had ned to Egy pt. Ptolem y IV impri sOIK'd Kleornenes , who mana ged to esca pe and started an upri sing . II ~I ~ soon co llapsed and Kleomenes committed suicide (220-2 19 BC) . I he Fourth Syrian War began in 2 19 BC when Antiochos 111 at1 1I1' ~ ed Coele Syria , ~tolemy enro lled native Egy ptians in the army, Winch, had been previou sly domin ated by Greeks and Macedonians. Ihi' v l~tory of this army at the batt le of Raph ia (2 17 BC) was to have oI l1l1l1atlc r~p.e rcussio~s in Egy pt toward the end of the reign. Ptolem y IV was politi cally acuv e in Greece and was instrumenta l in the peace "" 111 )' at Na upak tos. He later tried to medi ate in the war bet ween l'hilip Vol' Macedon and Rome .
178 •
I' TOl fM Y V fI' II'I I A N f S I ~nG NED 2 0 4 - 1 8 0 Bc )
Th e later years o f the rei gn saw major opposit ion to Ptole maic rule in Egy pt itsel f. Th e " native revolt " beg an in the Delta, supposed ly begun by the Egyptia n military caste (m a ch im oi) . Thi s was fo llo wed so me what later by the rebellion o f the Thebaid, wh ere an Egyptian ph araoh , Haronnophrls, was procl aim ed king . A ltho ug h he surv ived an assass inatio n atte mpt during the Syrian War , Ptolem y wa s mill' dered in a palace co up invol vin g the famil y o f his mi stre ss , whose b roth er, Agatho kles, seized power. Ptolemy ' s death wa s kept secre t for se vera l months a nd the queen , Arsinoe, was murdered to prevent her becomi ng regent fo r her infant so n . Th ere we re rio ts in Alexan dria, an d eventua lly Agathokl e s and his relati ves were killed . PTOLEMY V EPIPH ANES (r eig ned 204-180 lie). Ptolemy asce nded the throne as a min or, with Upper Egypt in rebellion . Sh ortly aftc: wa rd , A ntioc hos III a nd Philip V o f M aced on mo ved to divide 1111 Ptol em aic E mpire be twee n them , o n an east- wes t line . Th is resulte.l in the Fifth Syrian War (202- 195 Be) , Th e war e nded w ith a pcnrr treaty sea led wi th the diplomatic marriagc (w inte r 194 /1 9 3 II c) III Raphia , o f Ptol em y to Anti ochos's daughter , Kleop atra I. Coeh Syria was her dowry, but rema ined in the hand s of A ntioc hos . Afll'l the death o f Antioc hos III in 187 BC, Ptolem y V be gan plan s to rcguru Coele Syria . In 185 , the e unuc h Ari stonikos was recruiting soldiers III Greece . In 183/1 82 , A ris to nikos led a naval ex ped itio n to Syria , III 180 BC, Ptol emy was po ison ed by his ge ne ra ls. PTOLEMY VI PHILOMETOR (reigned 180-164, 163--145 111 '1 Ptol emy VI Phil ometor began his rei gn as a min or, assoc iated with hi s sister-w ife, Klcopatra II. The Six th Syrian War beg an in 1 /11 Be. Th e regent s se nt an e mbassy to Rome see king suppo rt for Egy pl cl aim to C oele Syria . In 169 II C, Ptolemy VI's uncle , the Seleu kltl kin g, A n tioch os IV , invad ed Egy pt throu gh Pelusion and qu id I gained co ntro l of mu ch o f Lo wer Eg ypt. Ptolemy VI we nt to mak e II I ag ree me nt directl y with h is uncle , but the A lex andria ns immedi uul proclaimed hi s yo unge r brother, Ptolemy V II I Eucrgetes II , as kill alongsid e Kleopatra II. Wh en Antiochos IV returned to Syri a ill 111 1 tumn 169 , Ptol em y VI returne d to A lexa n d r ia and all thr ee sibliu we re pro claimed as co ru lers . In resp on se , Anti ochos IV invtuk Egypt again in sp ring 168 BC , tak ing Memphis and mu ch o f 1.11\\
I'TOl f M Y Vl 1i W [ RGfTfS II (Rfl GN fO 169- 163. 145-11 6 RC) •
179
Egypt and se nd ing a Successful expedi tio n to ca pture Cyprus . He seems to ha ve attemp ted to es tablish a Sel eukid protectorate in the ~mme o f Ptolem y V I. A ntioc hos marched o n A lexa ndria, but Rome l ~lIervened . Ca ius Popiliu s Laen as for ced A ntioc hos IV to leave I ~gypt , and Cy prus was returned . In about 165 BC, the rebellion of Dionysios Petosarap is spread from ,1\/exaJ,l dfla to the countrys ide and was followed by an upri sing in the I hebaid . Rega ining c~n trol of the Th eba id was relat ively easy, although It 100~ a long s iege to ca pture Panopol is (Ak hmi m) . Th e later years o.f the reign were mark ed by dynastic di sput es between the broth ~'rs, Phll om etor was forced to lea ve Egypt in 164 nc , but was res tore d II I 163 nc, whe n Euergetes II went to Cyrene. Th e a id o f Rom e was IIIl~V :sou~h t reg ularly in both, internal and ex terna l affairs. Following the rebellion o r the Jews against Ant iochos IV the l e w ish I ' I . 't () '" I d" " ug 1 pn es , 1I1" S .se lt e III Eg~pt WIth a large following . Onias , and later his so ns. I l ~el kJas and Ananias, ~erv~d as genera ls in the Ptolemaic army. Io ward th~ end of hi s reign , Phil om etor again bec a me invol ved in ,:venls In Syria . Th e Seleuk id family was e ngag ed in dynastic wars l," lllpo unded by th,e s uccesses of a usu rper nam ed A lexander Balas . 1.llIlometor lent his suppo rt (se a led by marri age to hi s dau ght er 1\ 1~llpatra Th ea ) to A lexande r Balas , but used this as an excuse to re,'~a llll C~ele SY,ria . Th e Egyptian army and navy arr ived in S yr ia in 1, 17 /lC, a nd Phll.ometor IIlstall ed garrisons, FollOWing an ass ass ina11t'1I a llel~ pt, Phil om et or c ha nge d his s upport to Balas 's rival , a Se1~',lI kl(l prin ce. Demetrios II. The co as ta l c ities as far as Sel eukeia in I rena no w ~en t over to Phil ometor, and the ne w a llia nce was sea led h Ihe mafl'l~ge o f Demetri os II and Kle opatra Th ea , w ho left Balas . Ilhllugh Phdometor aspired to the Seleukid c ro w n him self, he did 11,,1 Wish 10 ant agonize Rom e so he y ie lded 'It to De tri k ' uu l v r' ', me n o s, ee p mg , It l~ Coe le Syria (145 BC) . Alexander Balas now atte mpted to regain YI I;, hut wa s defeat ed by Phil om etor a nd Demetrios at the river I 1l lIllparas . ~~ar AI~tioch , fled , and was kill ed . Phil o met or him sel f :It S lal:llly 1Il1ure.d III ~he battl e. dying a few da ys later, As a result, I Ildl' Syria re ma ined III Seleuk id hands . III I. E M Y V III E UERGETES II (reigned 169-163,145-116 ne) . tuu n 169 /lC, Euerge tes II was coruler wi th his brother Ptolem VI l'h llullIctor and his s ister, Kleopatra II . He reign ed for a year ;rter
18 0
•
PTO l EMY IX SOTlR II IREIG NED 116 107. 88~0 Be)
Ph ilo mctor wa s ousted , but himsel f we nt to Cy r ene when Phil o mc tor was restored . Followi ng Philometo r's death ( 145 BC) , Euergetes II returned to Egypt, ma rrying his widowed sister, Kleopatra II. I'" soo n murdered her so n and marr ied her daught er, Kleopatra III. 1'11\' troop s we re recall ed from the last three Ptolem aic bases in th,' Ae gean , Itunos, Th era , and Meth ana, redu cin g Ptolemaic influ ence (0 Egy pt and the Dodekaschoinos, Cyrenaica , and Cyprus . Th e 1'01 lowin g decades were marred by dynastic wars . Kleopatra II began II rebellion in 132 BC and was recognized in Thebes . Th e populace 0 1 Alexand ri a was di vided in its support and there were milit ary actio ns throu ghout the country. Toward the end of the trou ble , a rebe l king. Harsiesls , seized po wer in T hebe s . As c1eruchs were ca lled up to serve . land fell out of cultiva tion, resul ting in agricultura l problem s parti cularly in the F ay u m . The wa r ca me to an end in 124 BC and a form of reco nci liation wa s ag reed with amnesties iphilant hropa ) pro claimed in the names of all three rulers. PTOLEMY IX SOTER II (reigned 116-1117, SS-SfI li e). Follow iup the death o f Ptolemy VIII Eucrgctes II. his widow , Klcoputru III chose their elder son , Sot er II, to rule w ith her. She lorc ed him out 0 1 Egy pt in 107 He. He we nt first (0 Cyrene , but was ejec ted fro m there and Iled to Cy p r us , where he ruled fro m I06!10 S li e . In IOJ 11(', hi, aid was sought by the Palestini an c ity of Pto lcmui s. which was he ill ~' besieged by the force s of the Jewi sh High Priest . Alexand er Junnuc us Thi s wa s the beginning of the Sy r ia n War ( 1113- 1111 IIC) , partl y a le i ritori al and part ly a d yn astic war. So ter II returned to Cyprus when' he co ntinued to rule until he was recalled to Egy pt in 88 BC. I'" rei cuned there until his death in 80 Be. T here was, during this period, a major rchellion in T he bes. PTOLEMY X ALEXANDER I (r eigned 107-SS IIC). Foll owing the ex pulsion of Ptolemy IX Soter II, Kleopatra III recalled her youn ger son Alexander I from Cyp r us and assoc iated him with her as king . II playe d a lead ing role in the Sy r ian War o f 103- 101 BC, cornmandi nu the fleet .H e fled Egyp t followi ng ajoint rebellion by parts of the ar my and the Greek populatio n of Alexa nd r ia incensed by his pro-Jewish at titude . He tried to re-enter Egypt with a Syrian army, but aga in ned , til Lycia . He was killed in a sea battle o ff the coa st of Cyprus .
PTOLEM Y XIII (REIGNED SI - 47 Be) •
181
PTOLEM Y XI ALEXANDE R II (re ig ned SO li e). With the death of Pto lemy IX Soter II , his dau g hter Kleopatru Berenike III became queen, but after a few month s the Greek popul at ion of Alexa nd r ia de manded that she see k a co rege nt. Th e Roman dictator. Luciu s Co rnclius Sull a , insisted that Ptolem y XI Alexander II , the son of I'tolemy X Alexander I , be installed as co ruler with his cous in (and step-mother), who now became his wife . After 19 day s, Alexand er had Kle opatra Ber enik e murdered . Th e enraged A lexa ndrians dragged him from the palace to the gy m nasium , where he was torn to pieces . It was later clai med that he had bequ eathed Egy pt and Cy prus 10 the Rom an Republ ic . PTOLEMY XII NEOS DIONYSOS (re ig ne d S0-5S, 55-51I1c ). Co mI ~u lll ly ca lled "Auletes" ("Oute- player") , he was a so n of Ptolemy IX Snter II . Auletes genera lly follo wed a pro-Rom an po licy. In 58 BC , I{mne attacked Cy prus . and Auletes made no mo ve either 10 defend It or send aid to his broth er who was ruling there . As a result , his "!tlther co mmiued suic ide and Cyp rus was lost. Th e Alexa ndria ns \~ ere cn ragcd and forced Aul etes to nee. He went to Rome for support. 1:\ l'III U.Ji ly. Aulctcs wa s restored by the go verno r of Syria, Aulu s ( ;;dliniLi s. who en tered Egyp t with a large military force , the cava lry, l'Oll1 l11anded by Marcu s A ntonius . Ga binius left a unit o f Ro man le!' iollaries (the Gabinians ) in Alex a nd ria to support Auletes,
"II ILEMY
XIII (re ig ned 51-47 li e). Son of Ptolemy X II Auletes luul brother of Kleopatra VII . T he will of Ptolem y X II named Rome li S the guaranto r of a joint rule by his chose n children, but soon a fter his acces sio n, the 12-year o ld Ptolem y XIII was o usted by his sister, who reig ned alone fo r 18 month s . In autumn 50 BC, Ptolem y was reinstated alongs ide Kleopatra. How ever , the ev ents of the Roman ( 'ivil War soon invol ved Eg ypt. In 49 BC , the son o f the Rom an genn al Pompey landed in Eg ypt seeking ass istance fo r his father who It ad retreated to the eas t to build up his for ces for the war w ith Iulius ( 'nesa r . Th e Alexand ria n co urt wa s und er ob liga tio n to Pom pey as l'io lcm y XII had estab lished a pol itical friends hip wi th him. He wa s therefore supplied with 500 cavalry fro m the Gabinians and 50 warhips. Short ly after, Pto lemy forc ed his sister to flee Alexa nd r ia IIirst 10 the The baid, then to Syri a ) and enjoyed a pe riod of sole rule.
182 • PUNT
QAlJrSII. BATTLE0 1' «;
In defi an ce o f Ptol emy XII 's wi ll, Pompey a nd the Roman se nate in the east recogn ized Pt ol emy XIII as so le legitimate kin g. Caesar and his army pursued Pompey , defeat ing him at Ph a rsalos in north ern G ree ce (48 BC) . Po mpey, wi th 2,000 so ld iers, ned to Egypt fo r aid . He arrived near Pelusion , whe re Ptolemy XIII and his army ha d advanced to pre vent Kleopatra's atte m pt to re ga in her thron e . Po m pey se nt en voys to th e ki ng , bu t wa s exec uted on the or ders o f Ptol em y, w ho wi shed to gai n favor w ith the v ictor ious Cuesal', who had foll o wed in pursuit. However, C ae sa r ch ose to su ppor t Kleopatra 's c la ims to j o int ru le . C aes ar a lso named their younger broth er, Ptol e my X IV, a nd siste r, A rs inoe, as joi nt ru lers of Cyp r us , althou gh they did not lea ve A lexandria . C yprus rema ined a Ptol emaic possess io n until a fter the batt le of A kt io n . Caesar ensu red that K leopat ra was reinstated , but Pto le my was po p ular in A lexandria, and when his co urtiers recall ed the army fro m Pclu sion and stirre d up ant i-Ro ma n feelin g in the city, a nat ionali st move ment soo n deve lop ed. T he resu lt was the A lexa nd r ia n War . Duri m: thi s, Ar sinoe joined Pto lemy XITT with the Egyptian army and wa s uc claimed queen . Mithridates o f Pergam on , leadin g an arm y to relieve Caesar, ad vanced a long the co ast fro m G aza toward Pelu sion . It in eluded cavalry fro m the Nabataean kingdo m o f Petra and 3,000 Jewish soldiers . Pelu sion wa s c aptured. Caes ar and his army joined w ith thl' new force and Ptol em y XITT was killed in the subsequent battle . Kleop a tra wa s reinstated as q ueen . w ith Ptole my XIV as co ru ler. Arsinoe was disp layed in Caesar's Roman triump h , then held in captivity in Ephesus until her murder by Marcus Antonius , at Kleopatru's request. P UNT. A co untry o f eas t Africa . situated on the wes t coast of the Red Sea . The Egy ptia ns se nt ex ped itions to Punt fro m the O ld Kingd om til the e nd o f the New Kingd om , and althou gh the ge nera l geogra phical locat io n was do ub tle ss the same , its political nature mu st have c ha nged . Earli er sc ho la rship identified Punt w ith the Horn o f Afri ca, but it is now beli ev ed to lie fart her north so me whe re in eastern S udan and no rtheast Ethiop ia . Exca vations in thi s regi on , in the Gash Dell a , ha ve iden tified archaeo logica l remai ns that m ight po ssibly eq uutr w ith the Punt o f the L at e Bron ze Age (Ne w Kingdom ). Eg ypt' s rcln tion ship w ith Punt was based on trad e . prin cipall y in ince nse and other prec ious co m mod ities . Ex pe d itions sa iled a lo ng the coast o f the Rrtl Sea and then trave led some way in land. T he mo st de ta iled infor matio n
1274
Be)
•
183
co mes fro m the temple o f Hatshepsut at Deir e l-Ba hari (T h eb es) , whic h has fine reli ef sc ulptures o f her exp ed ition . In th is co ntinge nts III. the army are shown. Punt co ntinues to be re ferred to afte r the New Kingdom. but in ideolog ical or myth ol og ical , ra ther than histori cal contexts . Th e ki ngdo m of Meroe co ntro lled the east A frica n trad e in the later first mill ennium BC, a nd Aksum ca me to dominate mu ch o f the sa me geogra phical area as Pun t in the first ce nturies AD .
-Q() A.J>ES H . C ity of north Syria. ge nerally identifi ed wi th the arc haeo log il ,d site o f Tell Nebi Mend , on the Orontes Ri ver . Th e name is o fte n spe lled " Kades h" in Egy ptolog ica l litera ture . T he Sem itic name qadosh IlICanS."a sanctuary" and was rendered into Egyptian hierogl yph ic usIIIg a sign now genera lly transcribed as qd . Qa desh has a stra tegi c po sitio n , con tro lling the Beqa Va lley. It first appears 111 Egy ptian text s as the lead er o f a coa lition of a bo ut 33 0 town s 0.1' C a n a a n and Syria that o pposed Thutmose III at the battl e III Megid do . After Thutmose Ill 's vic to ry, Qudesh still opposed his adva nces, a ltho ug h its rul er ack no w ledged Egyp tia n a uthority w he n Am cn h otcp .11 a pproache d the c ity o n his first As iatic ca mpaign . Oade sh remained an Egy ptian va ssa l until the re ign o f Akh cnaten when the H.ittite~ beca me ac tiv e in the reg ion , destab iliz ing the king: dum o f Mlta nni. Qadesh a nd its ru ler oc c ur in a nu m ber of the " ma r n a Letters. Th e H itt ite ad vance led to open wa r with Egypt, lind Qa desh becam e a focu s for the c am pa igns o f both S ety I and I~a m~sses II . Sety I's attac k on the c ity is depic ted in his battle relief s In the temple o f Karn a k (T he b es) . Despite his success, Qadesh 1I:ld ~'e veI1ed to Hittite co ntro l by the accessio n o f R am esses n. Th e vuy IS fa mou s as the s ite of the battl e in year 5 o f Rarnesses " betwee n ~he E~ypti.an an d Hittit e armies (see fo llow ing e ntry) . Despite t!IC c la ims o f a victo ry by R amesses ll , Qa desh re ma ined und er H itIlIc .controlunt il it wa s destro yed in the 12th century. T his is usua lly uttributed to the Sea Peoples. I
i\U ESH, BAT TL E OF (c. 1274 nc ), Battle in ye ar 5 of Rarnesses II hctween the Egy ptia n ar my led by Ramesse s II and the Hittites undl'r M u wa ta lli . A llho ug h the o utco me wa s incon cl usi ve , Ram esse s "
184 • Q ADESI I, IlATTI E o r «; 1274 Rei Q ARQAR (ilATTI E, 853 Rei •
cl a imed it as a great victory, and a pict orial and literar y account was carved in many of his templ es . Rel iefs depict th e battl e in the templ es of Abydos, Karn ak , Luxor, the Ram esseum , and Ab u S imb e l. T here we re ce rta inly co m parab le battle sce nes in the temp les o f Mem p h is and ot her northe rn ci t ies th at have no w been de stro yed. T he pict ori al accounts are accom pan ied by two litera ry accou nts kno w n as the " Bu lle tin" and the " P oem of Pentawere ." The poem e mphas ize s the hero ic ro le of the pha rao h , and is an express io n of k ing shi p ideology, but fra med w ith in th e histo rical co ntex t. Th is surv ives in papyrus co pies as we ll as te m ple inscri pt ion s . T he Bulle tin , fo und a lo ng s ide th e pict ori al acco unts, is ra ther more fac tua l, but still gives the lead ing ro le to the ph ar aoh . T he se Egy ptia n accoun ts a re supp le mented by the equa lly b iased Hitt ite account o n tabl ets from Bogazkoy. Th ere is a large Egypto log ica l lit erature o n th e so urce s and recon stru cting th e course of the batt le. In hi s firs t years of re ig n , Ram esses II con tinued Sety I 's cam pa ign s , w hic h had re asserted Egyptia n a utho rity o ve r C a naan into Le ban on . In year 4, Ram e sses had so me succ es s in regain in g co ntrol of Amurru , w hic h led the H itt ite king, Muwatalli, to re ta liat e . He as se m b led an army from Hatt i and 16 o f its pro vin ces and a llies . He pili a tot al of 2,500 ch a r iots and 37 ,000 me n in the fie ld . Ram esse s II march ed his arm y north th rou gh G a za , Ca na an . alld Ga lilee int o Leb an on and the n u p th e Beq a Va lley. The march to n], one mo nth . The fo ur ar my di visions were nam ed after the principal dei ties: A m u n, Re , Ptah , a nd Se th. Ramesse s we nt a head w ith the d l vis ion of Arn un, forded the Orontes , and began the advance to wnu l Qa de sh . Two " spie s" were capture d by the Egy ptians and sa id tluu th e Hittite s we re at A lep po , w he n , in fac t, they we re al read y 01 1 Q ad esh. Th e d ivision o f A mun arrive d a nd se t up camp w he n 11'1" more Hitt ite spie s were captured and the truth reve aled . M esse nger we re se nt to hurry the arrival of the d ivis io n of Re , w hic h wa s th c losest, probably about hal f a day 's march away, a nd the di vi sion "I Ptah , w h ich was a little fa rthe r be hind . The di visi on o f Se th 11111 , have bee n more th an a full day 's march behind. T he Hittites launched thei r attack w hile the chariotry of the di visinu of Re wa s co mi ng across the plain and Ram esses and the d ivisio n ,,' A mun were sti ll un prepared . Ra messes was able to mu ster the cha riou and engaged the ene my. A rel ief force , the "Ne 'aren" arrived and 1'1 I
185
able to join in , an d remarkabl h E ' dr ive the Hittite ch~riotry b~c/;~ t~e ~~~~~ans ~ere ~~e~tually ab le to rived to ward the end of the battl e and was ab l t e dl.vl~lon of Ptah ar. . ' , ., e 0 j om m mo . o pe ratIOns: capturing priso ners and booty and , . pp mg-up co untll1g the dead. The account o f the fo llowin dav i g a,y IS ope~l to more than o ne inte rpret ation . M an y scho lars h , a ve uncerstood It 1 h If re su med th e ba ttle , but th at the arrni .0 mean 1 at Ra.me ss es read ing o f the tex t propose s tl IR es d Isengaged . A d iffere nt , 1<1 a me sses act ually t k . unation of so me o f hi s o wn so ld ' 'h I 00 ' part in a decon the preceding day. Negotiatio;l:r~O; ~a~ad aba ndo ned the confl ict refuse d to yi e ld his clai ms to Qades h p e we re o pened . Ram esses o pen host iliti es aga in Th e E ' . and A mu rru but agreed not to ' '. g yp tHI!lS re turn ed home lea vin g Muwat' /J' f , a I ree to secure hIS c t I f Q ' insta lled a new va ssa l ru ler, o n ro 0 adesh a nd Arn urru, where he
I)AR QAR (BATTLE 853 fie) In 853
Assy r ia , defea ted a' coa l itiOl~ of the Br~'1 ShaJ~aneser III , tI~e king of II00dad -idri. king o f Dam asc us. S hal mane:~ 0 weste rn ~s la Jed . by w the terr itory o f U rhilina (l rk huleni) k ' t: l , as a tle mp tlllg to bri ng . , mg 0 a rna th under A ss . , II /,era ll1 ly. T he forces o f th I' , . ' . y nan . e coa ItIon are de ta iled o n tl " K kh 1I 10 no " th" and it is 'I va luab l f te ur I ios o f chariots ca~al~y ' , d e ~olfl rce o r our understand ing of th e ra, ,a n III antrj: at thi s ti me.
Damascus Harnath Israel
lrqata Shianu
Chariots
Cavalry
Infanlry
1,200 70 0 2,000 10 300
1,2 00 700
20,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000
III ;I( ld ition to these g rou s th
''',,11 so me of the coasta f c'i tie~r:,~e~e~~aller co ntingelllS of infa ntry camels. fro m a ruler of the Arubs , o ne of the earliest reco rd Lc ore s 0 ca me ls used In war. T here was a
Q ASK IBKIM II'KIMIS) •
186 • QAKQAR (ilAn l E, 720
187
Be)
co ntingent of " I ,000 men from Musri" Egypt. Th is is the first known Egyptian intervention in western Asia since the campaigns of Shes houq I and "Sh ish ak" more than 70 years earlier. It is notab le that the Egypl ian force was small and not assoc iated with a named ruler. Whichever pharaoh was responsible for sending this assistance (Egyptologist s all' divided on his identity) clearl y hoped that the massed army of the COOl II tion would be sufficient to keep the Assyrian s from further advance into westem Asia, but wa s unwilli ng or lacked the resources to supplv greater strength. A later record of Sha lmane ser III . the "B lack Obe lis" " (London, British Museum ), lists and depicts the tribute of the west II' ceived by the Assyrian king. T his include s the tribute of Musri , and it i clear that following the battle of Qarq ar and Shalmaneser III's later vi tories over the coa lition in the ca mpaig ns of 849, 848, and 845 sc .tln pharao h felt the need to bow to Assyria n superio rity. QARQAR (BATTLE, no IIc ), T he second b attIe of Qa rqar was III 720 IlC. Shortly after his accessio n, Sargon II ma rched wes t to Sill' press the rebellion that had broken o ut on the dea th of Sha hnmll:M'1 v. Sargon defeated Yau-b i' di o f Ham ath at Qa rqar, befo re rno vuu so uth to engage Egy ptian forces at Raphia . Q ASR. Southernmost fort ress in K harga O as is, stand ing whe re III. Darb el-Arbain (Forty Days Road), the great ca rava n ro ute fro m 1):11 fur. en ters the oa sis bas in . T he wa lls sta nd 9 meters high , enc losiu an area of 30 x 20 meters . Th e associated pottery is Rom an , althollfdl not yet more close ly dated . Wheth er the fort was bui lt to con tro l lrllli along the d esert road or prevenlmi litary attacks from the so uth , Cll1l not be det ermined witho ut exc avation . In Medieval early Mod r 11 tim es. there was an Ottoman garr iso n in the same region . QAS R EL-GHUEI DA . Qa sr el-G hueida stands in a commanding I'" sition o n a hilltop south o f the town o f Kharga . The large . square I ' l l closure, with walls some 10 meters high , is now filled with buiklin and a temple comp lex. Th e original small chapel dates to the reign "I the Persian pharaoh Da ri us I (52 1-4 85 BC) , and was con sidcrunl enlarged in the Ptolemaic period . T he Ro man garrison at Kluu (Oa sis Mag na) is refe rred to in the Notitia Dignitatum . and undonlu ed ly this fortress is a co ntend er for its headquarter s.
() A.SR IBRIM (P RIM IS). Hilltop fortress in Lower Nubia . Qa sr lbnm . s ~a nds o~pos ite the f:ortress-town of A nib a (Miam), althou gh there IS no evide nce for M idd le o r New Kin gdom fo r tifi ca tion of the site . A ll of the New Kingdom stonewor k found o n the site was brought from A rrib a, ma inly from the tem ples . T he earli est phases of the fo~t ific~tion s have been excava ted only recentl y. T here were seven Identified phases of rebuild ing , the last be ing contempo rary with a te~ple of the Kushite pharaoh Ta ha rqo (680-665 BC) . Radiocarbon e ~lden ~e sugges ts a date of 920-800 BC for phase 3. Th e earl y construcuo ns include a terrace of sto ne and a substantial mud -brick defen sive wa ll with stone inner facing . A circular to wer of cut sa nd~ I o n e was later bui lt o ver the entrance in the defensive wa ll and wa s itse lf later encased in a polygona l bastion of mud brick . This wa s followed by the work associated with Taharqo. Follow ing the Kushit e withdrawal from Egypt (656 BC), there is no clearly dated evid ence kno wn from Qas r [brim until the exten sion of the enc losure wa lls in lhc Ptolemaic and Ro man periods. There is evi de nce for a num ber of temples , and Ibr irn's prim ary lunction a~ a f~rtres s has no w bee n ques tioned . However, it ce rta inly !,I:lyed a Significant role in the Rom an con flict with Meroe . AccordII ~ ~.. IO S ~ra bo the Ro man prefect, Ca ius Petron ius , captured " PrernIllS (I~ n m) on his ma.rch to Na pata and aga in on his return , installing II J.:a r n son and supplies . It is possib le that he had intended [brim as 11 ~ 1' new s~ u t he rn frontier between Ro man Egyp t and the Meroi tic ~, I II )! d om . instead o~ the Pto lema ic frontier at Maha r raq a (Hiera S -kaminos). A ~e roltic ad vance north ward may have captured [brim: II ,~ oreed P~tro IllU S to ret urn to Nubia . Recen t excavat ions have iden1 I II L'~1 co n s l derab l~ new evidence relati ng to this phase and show that '" liler Ideas that It was a Roman military outpos t until circa 100 AD ",,' wrong . The Ro man pottery ev idence is ent ire ly cont emporary with 1'.'lnlllllls' expedit ions . A significa nt site o n a headland down river of l" Ii Il,1 ~v as disc o vered a ~d survey ed in 1990 . The site has two dry tunc enc!osures, one with a cleared area, interpreted as a parade Illllllld with emplace me nts for military standards . Lo w stone walls " " I 'l" S I~d a layo ut o f tented barrack block s. Fo llowing the Mero itic ,I. put.uron t.o A u~ust us , ~he front ier was re-estab lished at Ma harraqa . 11 '","1 remained m Meroit ic occupatio n thro ug hout the later Roman I" I!lI d and became an important Christian center, with a cathed ral, and
RAKOTC • 18 8 •
18 9
QASR FL·LAAr KA
can be d ep i cte~ in the traditi on al pharaoni c sty le, sm iting her e nemies , alld t~ ere I ~ eV l de ~ce fro m ~ om an write rs that o ne of them (probably III be. ide ntified With Am a m r cnas) led her armies into battle, With the exceptio n of the fem ale pharaoh Hatshe psut , there is no l'.v l d e n c~ for ~i l i t a ry a~ tiv i tie s led by Egyp tian queen s o f the preI to le rnaic per iod. Despite this, a distin ctl y vio le nt imag e of quee nvhip was develop ed in the later 18th Dynasty. Tiye, the wife of Amenhote p III , and Nefertit i, the wife of Ak he na ten , were bot h de-",Ic led as a fema le s ph inx trampl ing the fem ale e nemies of Egypt. 1,Iye . IS s ~ow n as a for m of the god dess Tel'nut in her te mple at Scd cll,~ga In ~ l~ ~ia , with the . ~p i t h e t "G reat of terro r in the fo rei gn lauds . Nefe rtiti IS. shown sm umg the fema le ene mies of Egy pt with " khcpesh . Th ese Images we re mod ified to a more co nventio na l pas'1ve. l o r~ for. later qu een s who accompany or watc h their husband s I'l'I"lonm ng Violent ac ts , An ostracon de picts a queen in a c hariot in ru mhat with a c h.a rio~ -bo rne male . but there is no acco mpanying text e luc idate Its histori cal or myth olog ical co ntex t. An ac tua l ro le for IIYl'm dipl omati c a ffairs is attested in the Amarna Letters and letIt',, Irnm thc royal archive at Hauusa show that the w ife a nd moth er " 1_Ra messes II were e ngaged in a sim ilar dipl omatic co rres po nde nce \~ 1111 the Wile 01 the king o f the Hittites, Peaceful relati on s bet ween 1'.)'Yl't and the Hittites was co nfirmed when Ram esses II entered into II d iplomatic marriage with the daughter of the Hittite kin g .
in ea rly modern times, the site of an Ottoman gar rison (with Bosnian troop s). See also MER O E. Q ASR EL-LABEKA. Rom an fortress in the north of Kharga Ouslco ntro lling the Darb el-Arba in (Fo rty Day s Road ). Rou ghl y 12 I11l' ters square, with circ ular corner to wers , the de sig n is s.imil.ar to ot h~'1 forts in the region, suc h as Someira and e l-G ib . Th e lo rt IS part 01 II group of related rui ns wi th a temple e nclosure , to mbs , a nd aqueducts Q ASR Q ARUN. See DlO NYSI AS , Q UBAN. Fortress in Nu bia standing at the mouth of the Wadi el-A llnql, the princip al go ld-mining region of Nubia . It wa s founded in the e.'n l 12th Dynasty by Scnusret I. It was a large rectangul ar struct ure smu lar in plan to the co ntemporary forts of Aniba and Mlrgissa. Th e II' main s were already suffering con side rable destruction in the 19th ccn tur y AD and relati vel y little excavation was carrie d out before the hll;11 loss of the site, Its history and archaeo logy is, therefore. less wrl ] known than that of the Second C ata r act fortr esses . At the end of 11 11 New Kin gdom , Quban appears to have been occupied by the Iorccx "I the general and high priest of Am u n , Paiankh . when he d irected hi campaign against the viceroy of Kush , Panchcsy . in the la,t year, "I
I,.
the reign of Ramesse s Xl. QUEENS. Seve ral wo me n ruled in Egy pt: Neitiqe rt at the end of the ( lit! Kingdom ; Sobekne feru at the end of the 12th Dynasty; Hatshepsn! (and perhaps Smen khkare) in the 181h Dynasty; and Tawosret 'II the ('1111 of the 19th Dynasty. These wo men , however , assumed full pharuunn titul aries and regalia and shoul d be prope rly regarded as pharaohs , Ih Eg yptians having no concep t of a queen-regnant. The wom e n of tlu Ptolemaic family we re active in political life and some , such as Klenpu tra II , Kleopatra Ill, and Berenike Ill , were regnant queens, Kit-II patra VII assumed the full pharao nic style , but was always depicted II a woma n (co ntrary to Hatshepsut). These Pto lemaic queens became II I volved in d ynastic wars in Egyp t and Sy r ia , and in civil wars . So uth of Egy pt , the re were fem ale ruler s in the Kushite kingdom III Meroe. Th ey used the d istinctive title Ktkl. fro m whic h we deri ve Iii G reek for m , Kandake, more usuall y found in literatu re . Th e Kundn'
I
1I IN()UER EM E (G reek : pente res] , La rger than the trireme , the 'llllllljue re me was a c harac teristic ves se l of the Hellenisti c navy , with IllI lT banks of oa rs. It first appea rs in the navy lists o f Athens in 325 ": ' and . ~as ad.o pted ~y the Rom ans (o n the model of capture d I II llhagll1 la n ships) du ring the Puni c Wars . Th e size of such vessels uuulc them d ifficul t to ma ne uver. It has been ass umed that the use of 11.-11 large and unwi e ldy ships at A ktion, fro m Kleopatra VII' s llrvt , was a co ntributory factor to the defeat of Marc us Anto n ius .
-R\ I\ OT E. .T he nam e (Raqode in hie rogl yphi c , Rakote in Co ptic . I IllI klltlS III Greek ) of a co astal town , and perh aps fortress , in the
190 •
RAM ESSrS II IREIGNED
RAM ESSES III (REIGNED C. 1184- 11S3 IIC) •
c. 12 79 - 12 12 DC)
we stern Delta stand ing on a spur o f land between the M editerraneall Sea and Lake M areot is . Rakote wa s th e site chosen by Alex a n d e r till' G rea t for his new c ity , A lex a nd r ia . No pre-Ptol em aic arc haeo logl ca l rem ains have been e xcava ted here , but it is possible that R akou: form ed par t o f Ramesses 11 's defe nsive net work a long th e ed~c 01 the western Delt a and coast , includi ng Alamein , e l-G h a r b a lllya t , Karm Ab u -G ir g , and Z a wi yet Um m el-R a k h a m . RA M ESSES 11 (reign ed c. 1279-1 212nc ). Pharaoh o f the 19th Dynast . so n o f Se tv I wi th whom he was assoc iated w ith man y o f the attr ibute of ki ngship (except his ow n regnal years) . Ram e sses was active ~ n SOIlU o f his father 's milit ar y campaigns and m ight have been so lely 111 COlli mand of an expedition to N ubia. For a pharaoh whose monument s pili mote him as great warrior, there is remarkabl y little de tail abou t mall\ o f the ca mpa igns , and even the chro no logy of some is unc ert ain . The first ca m pa ig n Ram e sses II led as pharaoh was In year 4 . III ar m y marched alon g the co ast o f Can a a n and Lebanon to l~'q ata : ~ ' turning via Bybl os , Tyre , and the Nahr cl-K elb (n? rth ofBe lrllt ), I h fo llow ing year, the pharaoh att empted to. reg all1 , Qadesh . Oil Ih O ro ntes and foug ht w ith the Hittites . Despite the II1conclu slv e 0 11 1 co me of the battle , Ram e sse s ce lebratcd his " victor y" in tempJ, th rou gh out hi s k ingdom a nd in a litera ry account known as the I'UI'III o f Pcntawcre . The camp a igns o f the foll owin g yea rs we re di rected littl e farther so uth . in Edo m , Moab , a nd the Negeb , and there wa s II' atte m pt to regain Qadcsh . T he ex ped itio n o f yea r 8 e nsured E ' '1'1 ian co ntro l o f the coastal c ities o f Tyre , Si do n , Be irut , and Byb los I, ye ar 10 , the pharaoh le ft a rock-cut ste la at the Nahr e l-Ke lb , pro" I bly o n the return from T u n ip and Dapur . . Around year 18 or 20 , the death of the Hitt ite kin g , Muwatalll , l to a cha nge in relatio ns bet ween Egypt and he r pr incipal riva l. III \ 1 0 2 1, a peace treaty was agreed. rec orde d b y two tab le ts 111 Babykun cune iform found at Hat tusa (Bogazkoy) and a ste la at Karn ak . I )Ipl matic co rres ponde nce bet ween Ramesse s II , his mothe r, ch ief \\ II and crow n prince , and members o f the Hitti te roy a l fami ly rcvvul easing of the s itua tio n . In year 34, Ra rnesse s entered into a ellpl m atic ma rriage w ith the daughter of Hattusil. T he events and ca mpa ig ns in weste rn As ia are th ose most d l " I docum e nted, but the re were als o militar y actions o n the wester n "
191
so uthe rn frontiers. The re is ev ide nce for a string o f fortresse s a lo ng the co ast fr~ m A l am~ i n to Z awiyet Um m el Rakham , acti ng as a defe nse. ag al.ns t the Libyans . No surv iv ing insc ri ptio ns reco rd mi litary actions 111 th is reg ion. It is sig nifica nt that the arc haeol ogical evI d~ n ce sU:Elges ts that the se forts wer e in use for a lim ited period , a nd It IS ce rta m that Ram e sses sett led so me Li byan s in the eastern Delta , aro und Per-B aste t. It is quite possib le that the Egypt ian s we re unab le III ha lt the ~astwa rd movem ents of Libyans, w hich co ntinued to pose a problem 111 the reig n of his so n Mere n p t a h . T he eV~d e nce f~om Nub ia is equa lly sketc hy. An early campa ig n, prob ab ly 111 the re ig n of Set y I, is recorded in the tem ple at Bei t e lWa h: T he re wa s a r ebellion by the most powerful o f the so uthe rn Nubian ~ tates , Irem , around year 40 . T he military ex ped itio n se nt to crus h thi s was led by the vic eroy and two o f Rarnesse s ' so ns . I t M mS S ~S
1.11 (reig ned c. 1184-1153 IIC). Ph ar aoh o f the 20 th DylI asty., Hi s re ig n wa s mark ed by the invas ion s of the Sea P eoples and ~ he Libya n ,,:ars ,. T~l e .m ilitary exped itions o f the rei gn are depi ct ed III a cyc le 01 reli ef s III the pha rao h 's temple at M edinet Habu (Thebes ), A reli~f s ~lo w i ng a ca m pa ign in Syria includes the s iege o f Arza wa and 0 1 l u m p and the capture of an unnam ed Syrian fort ress, IhT ause these are not menti on ed in other texts, doubt has bee n ca st 11 11 Ihc ir. ve rac ity, so me Egypto logi sts go ing as fa r as to state that they 1I1l' co pied from now lost re liefs o f the rei gn of Mere n p t a h . T he aro ha\'o log ica l e vide nce from we ste rn As ia shows that Ram esses III d id 10' estab lish ~gy pti a n authority th rou gh out C a n a a n. In co nseq uence , II,,· hattie re liefs ca n be assu me d to have so me bas is in historical relill y. T he rea lity o f a N ubian campa ign has a lso been doubted and II II' relie fs recor~ing it in ter preted as e ither a p iec e o f symbol ism (to , lI l1~ p k t c the uni versa l co nq uests o f the king), or as cop ied from an o ," IICf phar aoh 's ~ampaig n . A ltho ug h the Nubi an re lie fs are bad ly oI '"l1l gcd . the spec ific loca le , Irern , had been a pers iste nt th reat to the 1I 11 1 ~ I Cfn te rritor y of the vice roy s ince the re ign of Sety I and was to lIl1 ' II I1 IC to be so . T he re fore , so me mi litary act ion, eve n min o r seems '1 " I1t· plaus ible , if not likel y. ' II", most s ignifica nt militar y e nco unters o f the re ign , a nd tho se I ' II gre ate st pro mi ne nce at Med inet Habu , were the Li byan Wa rs o f " II , and II and the battl e w ith the Sea Peo ples in year 8.
192 • RAMESSr S IV IREI GN W C. 1153- 1147 IICI
Ramesses III might have been assa ssinated in the " harem co nspiracy ," whic h is documented from the record s of subseq uent trial s. Th ere is no ev ide nce for a dynastic war , a lthough had the plot ac hiev ed all of its go als, such a co nflic t might have broken out. Amo ng those impli cated in the co nspiracy was the Chie f of Bo wm en of Ku sh , the head of the arm y in Nubia. RAMESSES IV (reigned e. 1153--1147 IIC). Pharaoh of the 20th Dynasty. A lthough no military actions are documented for the reign , thc inscriptions carved in the Wadi Hammammat , in the eas tern desert of Upper Egy pt, are an im portant reco rd of a qua rrying ex pedi tion, detailing the numb er s of people involved and the role of the army. Th e inscr iption o f yea r 3 lists the members of the ex pedition se nt to quarry stone, unde r the co mmand o f the high priest of Amun. T hese include num erou s dignitaries and scriba l sta ff and the deputy of the army, scribes of the army and of the dep uty, various office rs, 50 char ioteers , 5 ,000 infantry, and 50 Madjoy . Th e whole totalled 8,362 per so ns . An additional 900 dead are reco rded . RAM ES SES VI (reigned c. 1143--1136 IIC). Th e archaeo logical evide nce shows that the Egyptian empire in western As ia came to an abrupt end in this reign. There is evidence of destruction by fire at impo rtant gal'rison towns, such as Megiddo , Beth Shean , and Gaza. Th e destruction is often attributed to the Sea Peoples and the Philistines. A statue of tlupharaoh shows him bringing a Libyan ca ptive, and acco mpanied by hi, pet lion , possibly alludin g to an action against the Libyans. There b some evidence for infiltration of the Nile Valley by Libyans, particu lady in Upper Egypt , but it is unclear whether these were forceful. RAMESSES IX (reigned c. 1126-1108 IIC). A letter of the high pries: of Am un addresses Nu bian troops from Ik ayta who are accompany ing gold-wa shin g teams in the Eastern Desert. It reports successe aga inst the Shasu , who ca me from a plac e ca lled Mu qed o n the Red Sea, and states that these Shas u had previously attacked " the land 01 Egypt ," presumably indicatin g the Nile Valley. RAMESSES XI (reigncd c. 1099-1069I1c). Last pharaoh of the 20th Dy nasty. His reign saw the "suppression" of the high priest of Amun , Amenh otep, anarchy in Thebes , and ended with civil war in Egy pt alld
RAI'I IiA !BATTLE. 720 BC) •
193
Nubia . The viceroy or Kush , Panehesy, brought his troops to T hebes,
wl~ere he restored order. Later, Panehesy led the army farther north into MIddle Egypt, perhaps as far as the Delta. Th ere are some indicat ions that a battle took place . Panehesy eventually return ed to Nubia and a new po wer is found in Thebes, the Ge neral Herihor, who also assumed the t it l~s of.high priest of Arnun and viceroy of Kush. The appeara nce of ~enhor III Thebes is marked by a new dating system for the reign , which ~ow ret~/Il1S to yea r one of " the Renaissance," eq ual to year 19. Following Henhor 's death , his successor as high priest and general. Parankh , launched an attack aga inst Panehesy. The army of Paiankh marched into Nub ia and gained control of the fortress of Qubnn. Panehesy see ms to have held Anihn, It might have been at this time that Qasr Ihrim was fortified . The outcome o f the con flict is unknown . Th e return of Paiankh an~ his army to Thebes is recorded in the last year of Ramesses XI, but neither he nor Panehesy are attested afterward . I{ A.I' H.IA. Coastal to wn of Palestine . the Egy ptian Repeh and Assyrian Rapikhu , between the Brook-or-Egypt (R h inocolur a, modern elI\ris h: 36 kilometers) and Gaza (32 kilometers). Site of co nfro ntations bet ween Egy ptian and invadin g armies. Th e first major recorded battle .was that between the forces of Sargon II of Ass yria and the Egy ptian command er, Ree. Later Assyrian invasion s of Egyp t went throu gh the to wn , notabl y that of Esarhadddon in 67 1 11( '. but this was witho ut battle or attack . Th e army of Nebuchadnezzur II also passed through Raphi a, having capture d Gaza , before co nImntin g. the army of Nekau II at Migdol. T he most sig nifica nt battle al Raphra was that betwee n the arm ies o r Ptolemy IV and Antioc hos Ili on 23 Jun e 2 17 BC, during the Fourth Syrian War, IIAI' HlA (BAT~LE, nO.II C). In 720 /lC, the king of Assyr-ia , Sargon II . marched hIS army mto Syria defeatin g the king o r /-Iam ath at Qurqa r and recapturing S imirra . Dam ascu s , and Samaria before moving south to ward Ga za. Th e Egyptians had restored the ruler of ~ ia/.a, Khan~lIlu , to I~i s position. No w he engaged the Assy ria n army '" hallie , WIth the a id o f an Egy ptia n arm y und er the co mma nd of I{ l ' 'e . T he Egypti an force was defe ated , and Sargon claims to have Ili ken Khanunu " ~i t h his ow n hand ." Khanunu was taken ca ptive to Asxyria , and Raphi a was looted and " des troye d ." Th e Assyrian s now , oiliro lled the Brook-or-Egypt and access to the Via Maris o r Ways
19 4 •
KAI'I IiA IBAIT l r . 2 17 BO
KEB r l liON. KIVOIT •
of Horus. T hey placed the reg ion und er th e contro l of the local bed uoui n , probably A r a bs . R APHI A (BATTLE, 217 Be) , A battle of the Fou rth Sy r ia n W a r between the ar m ies of Ptolemy IV and A ntiochos III , o n 22 June 2 17 Be. A detai led acc o unt of the batt le is given in the h istories o f Po ly b ius (a lthough there are still di fferen ces o ve r its interpret at ion ). P to lemy IV 's arm y arr ived a t the site of the ba ttle after a for ced march , w hich covered th e 180 kilome ters fro m P elusion in fivr days , in order to arrive at a s ite th at he co ns idered favorable . I k seems to have wa nted to av o id the narro w Ji rad i Pass , w hi c h i, flanked by the sea d unes and desert sa nd, and w hich wo uld have I'll vo re d the Se leuki d ele p hants and hind e red th e Egyptia n in fantry , T he c hosen s ite was su ita ble for him to use a ll o f his tro o ps . Th e Egyptian infantry vas tly outnum bered that of Antioc hos , w hich was red uced bec ause o f ev ents in the east of his emp ire. In ca val ry nu mber s , the side s we re almost eq ual: Ptol emy had 5 ,000 and A ntill chos had 6,000 . Th e Ptolemaic army altogether numbered 70 ,000 . Ik sides the G reek infa ntry and cava lry were 20 ,000 nat ive Egyptian troop und e r the co m ma nd o f So sib ios . Pto lemy 's othe r troo ps incl uded Thrn clans and Ga latians (Ga uls) , and Cre ta ns. A ntioc ho s had 62,000 ill fantry at his di sposal, incl udi ng 10 ,000 Nabataean A r a bs . Bo th sid,' had a large number o f elep ha nts. The Se leuk id elephan ts, nurnbcriu 102, were from Indi a . T he 73 Ptolem aic e le phants were A frican and 111101 bee n brou ght fro m Meroe or Ethiop ia. Thi s was the first tim e that III Pto le ma ic arm y had used e lepha nts . Th e Se leuk id phal anx (heavy ill fan try) was posted in the ce nte r w ith the cavalry o n the w ings and liflll infan try o n the flank s bet ween the phalanx and cavalry. T he right will was the stro nge r, wi th an adv ance block of cavalry led by A ntioch« himse lf. Ptolemy and his g uard face d Anti ochos direc tly. T he Ptol cnuu phalanx wa s numerically superior (45,000 ). It wa s placed in the cc111 an d form ed a dee pe r line (perha ps 32 deep) th an its Se leukid 0 PPOIll'1I1 A ntiochos ga ined th e first advanta ge whe n th e 60 e le pha nts Oi l II righ t w ing c ha rge d the 40 o n Pto lem y's left. Pto lemy 's w ing /1 11 way and Antioc ho s led a succ ess ful cavalry attack , w h ich he pursue: Ptol e m y success fu lly le ft his cavalry an d return ed to the fie ld to p so na lly lead a co unte rattack wit h the in fan tr y. T he Pto le ma ic ri 'I w ing successfu lly pushed throug h th e Se le uk id le ft. T he Ptol cn m vic tory was pro babl y caused in part to A ntio c ho s 's abse nce fro II I II
19 5
fiel d in pursui t of Ptol emy and his cava lr '. . . had managed to li . . y , not re alJzlIlg that the klllg s rp a way. This success ~ {/ E . (M a ch im oi) s ho wed them tl . " or ie gypuan tro ops Egyp t, there was a proJonged1~~b~;I,n power and after the re turn to ron .
li E. So lar god of lu nu (H li
ti
li e ca n be see n prese~ /'opo IS), usu all y depi ct ed w ith a falco n head . g phar ao h in t~mple re liefslllT , we~pon s, usu all y .the khcpesh , to the . re name wa s combi ned ith , such as A m un (as A mu R ) .. WI o t ier go ds Ile-I-Iarak hty). T h'e phar:~he w~: ~an l l.~~tatiol.1S of the sun god (~ .g., lI1a nifest ation as a s p h inx the " II e~ltll led with Re-I-Iara kht y in his , ce es ua co nq ueror.
IIEB EL LION R E VO' 'T I . , L , n an c ient Egy pt " b I/' " l'Cl llllllitted against the ph ar aoh h ' re e Ion wa s an ae t uon w 0 re prese t d d ivi Many rec ords of militar ' . . n e cnvme rul e on ea rth, lite Ne w Kin gd om , y ca/.mpa lg ns by pharaohs , parti cularl y d urillg , are pre ac ed by tl II l1d the pharaoh 's an gry ie anno unce me nt of a re bel lion " rag ing like a leopard ") 1responsl~ to It (he is usuall y desc ribed as , . n act ua ny the accessio n f I WII S a no rmal ti me for rebe llion b ' sub' 0 a. n~w p 1araoh only of Eg ypt but mo st " y '. jeer ru lers . ThI S IS tru e , not , ancienr e mp ire s Th e As ' 11I1'cd re bell ion by the ir provi . syrrans co ns lantly rovmces , or vassal ru le S . were actua lly di . ' . rs. omet lmes th ese COOl' mat ed . there I S eVIde nce ~ di I 1Il'Iwec n the reb e l king of B b I " . or Ip omatic contacts . a y o n and the king of Jud h . I . fl lll'l ron o n o ne fro nt as sis ted bid s f . a , so that d is"";1I 1t of the G rea t Ki ng f P . ' . o r IIldependen ce o n ano ther, Th e ' "'hl' lIion o f many o f th 0 el ~ la was a lso freq ue nt ly fo llo wed by the , e pro vlllces of the em ' . . Ilil/llest fro m th e center U ' II pil e , pa rtIcu la rly those IIII' lives of bot h partie s's suha y, a p eace t r ea ty was va lid o n ly for , , 0 w en a phanoh or sub ' e t I . 11 " lI ly was no lon ger va lid , " .I c ru er, di ed , the i
I )lIring the pe riod of the E t" N" w Kingdom ther e were c gyp la? Empi.re in western A sia , in the -, lreq ue nt rebell " b , II statcs . particularl y th o se II t . Io ns y vas sa l ru lers and . . ra were 111 north Syr! d , I I" 1'l'l"Iphery o f the kingd /. "I" ra a n we re o n o ms 0 IV itanni and the H'II"I N ,lIl1ollg these was Qadesl hi h . ' J J es . otab/e • I , W IC oCc up Ied a strateo ! . . \ '" t'llllstantly c ha ngi n n II . ' . egic posuron and , e a egiance In N u b ia to it 1111 " 'lTito ries o n the peripi /' , 0 , I was ge ne ra lly iery, sue 1 as I r em and M ' th b 11," , re he llio n , in the re ig I Me ' IU , at re e lled. n 0 IV erenp la h was ap I 11 01 \'" been coordi na ted with the Li b an : . p~re l~t y meant 10 " " IIIl'ls betwee n vassa l rul e y. IIlvasJOn , IIldlcat ing close rs .
RETABA, TEl L [ L- • 19 6
•
REBELLION , RrV O I T
There are hardly any indi cations of rebellion or revolt against an y pharaoh by the Egy ptian peopl e , but thi s is because of the nature o f the ev ide nce . Most oppos itio n to pharaohs was pro ba bly palace-centered , and took the for m of d ynastic war . Altho ug h there is ev ide nce for co n flier bet ween different region of Egypt. not abl y in the lntermedi ate Pe riods, the se are also motivated by elite factions , rather than bein g civil war in the true se nse . Eve n later , revolts and reb ellions focu sed around spec ific disaffected (or ambitio us) indi viduals and gro ups , rather than be ing large-scale pol iticall y and philosophically mot ivated uprisin gs. Although the rekhyt people ge nerally were one of the grou ps that the pharaoh had to contro l , there is re lative ly little ev ide nce fo r rebel lion s by named indiv iduals wi thin Egy pt. This is ce rta inly a manifes tati on of Egyptian ideology . O ne of the few instances is the record 01 the re be ls Aata (w ho mi ght have been a Nubian local rul er ) and Tell an , who oppose d Ah m ose l. In thi s case , Teti -an mi ght re present 11 fac tio n o pposed to the T he ba n atte m pts to re unite Egy pt. Presumabl y. mu ch o pposi tio n was suppressed vio lently an d left unrecorded. Some phara oh s are known to have co me to pow er as a re sult of rr bell ion again st the rei gning monarch , and ther e were probably muu than we actu all y have ev ide nce for. Inevit abl y, the victor became " lc gitimate" ruler, and most o f our ev ide nce comes from non -E gypt ii111 late sources. T he only we ll-doc umented earlier instan ce is that 01 Amenmess es, appare ntly a so n o f Sety II , who seized power follow ing the death of Mer enptah and reign ed for several years . Thi s miplu have been concurrently with his fath er , but co nfined to Upper Egy pt Sh esho nq I prob abl y used force to gain the thron e becau se he is ~1I 11 re ferred to by his Lib yan title at Thebes in his second year. Ahmosv II was procl aimed pharaoh by the ar my in a reb elli on against Wahilll' Ahmose might have been a mem ber of the royal fami ly. Pe rsian rnlr III Egy pt saw many reb ellions in which local dynasts ass ume d Egy pllll i royal style: Pedubastlll (in the reign of Darius I) , Psamtik IV and 111 so n Inaros , Amyrtaios. The 28 th and 29th Dynasties were a pCII" I whe n riva l dynasts as pired to the th ron e , and vio lence freque ntly II co mpanied the access ion . Dynastic problems persisted th rou gh out II 30th Dynasty whe n Nekh t hor h eh was proclaimed as ruler by hi~ I ther , the brother o f the rei gn ing phara oh, Djedhor . T hey were freqw I I in the later Ptolemaic peri od , in the rei gn s of the queen s Kleopatrll II Kleopatra III , and Kleopatra VII , and their ass oc iated kings .
197
ayed Nimlot rest rul erplof KI''1 I'arge part .In many reb elli ons . The rebelli on o f Self-inte , ununu , against Piye . . preac h o f a large coa lit ion arm o f Lib was prompted by the a paway in Kush S' '1' I ' Y 1 ya n rul ers , while Piye was far . . imt ar y, 111 the later years o f Ku sh ite r I . the Lib yan dyn asts o f the Delt a ield It ' . u e 111 Egypt, armies entered Egypt but sub 'Y t d ec .0 the Assynans w he n the ir , nu te to Taharqo : d T ' whe n they regained contro l. an anwetamam A se nse o f nationalism did develo . I . . riods and mani fested its If ' I P 111 t ~e Persian and Ptolemai c peEgy pt under Ch~onno~~ri~n ~:r;~belhon.s o f Thebes and Up per Roma n feel ing played a s'lgn'lfi' t n~phns, and Harsiesis. A ntiW . . . ican part 111 the AI x dr] ligious differen ces fue led the rebelli on of the ; . ar. Repncst Isidoros, and the Jewish revolt . ou 001 , ed by the Jew s led to c ivil distu rbances and . '. ~on ll icts bet~een G reek s and period of Roman rule . Th e city, for ;~~ts I~ Alexa~dna thro~lghout the ern Med it g, t e most Im po rtant 111 the easterranea n , was also the ce nter fo .. I . ing to the imperial purpl '1'1 r ge ne l.'1 s and officials aspirI . e. ie emperor Vespasian the ci ty by the Prefect I I' A I . , was proc aimed in II IUS exa nder bu t tl < 'nssius , lulius Aemilianus " F ir m us " ' te of Av idius und Aurelius Ac hille us (in th . , ?nd o! Dornitius Domitianus . e rergn of Diocletian) all failed .
a~ rJ~n,
att~~pts
IlEI\IIYT, A term used fo r the eo Ie o f E wing . It is possible that in th~ P:ed ?ypt, re presented by the laprrk hvt signified a popul at io n of tl yn~t ;c or Ea rl7 Dyn asti c Period , e lu-nd o f king S cor p io n sho I Ill e. ta , or LI.byans . The mace ws ueac apwings han g i fr vunnounted by the e m b lems f tl . ' . ng 10m sta nda rds o ie names 0(distri cts),
1I 1':SII EI'. God origi nating in S ria
;?
IKlh Dynas ty. He is us ua lly ~lo;n ~~s introdu ced IIltO Egy pt in the Ilin depictio ns he still wear tl S I~ II1g an axe or mace . In Egypt, s ie ynan sty le of b db ' P'f'yptian white crow n w ith a 0aazelle hea t I allac Ileu, I atear ' the ,I' ut With d I the uc.uners . He is referred to on the "S Jhinx S . " ro nt an on g II'l'lln lin" the pharaoh 's I" I. tela o f Amenhotep II o . ex p o its as a pnnce a d I' I ' istic ethos of the per iod I tl ' an orrn u anng the rnili. u. n ie record o f the L'I , W h ' .1 J) an ar o f his year , Ra messcs III de scribes hi I ,', hep." . s c nriot-wamors as " powerful as II'
.
.
"II
1'''IIA, TE L L EL -; R'am es sid. e fortress in the Wadi Tumilat.
199
SAl lURE (REIGN W C. 2487 - 2475 ac) •
198 • RIH NLJ
RETE NU. A term found fro m the Middl e Kin gd om o nward fOI Syria-Palesti ne. It is specified as Upper Ret enu , a region coverinr northern Palestine (C a n aan) , and the later kingdo ms of Israel and Judah , and Lo wer Reten u, Syria . In Egyptia n (and Eng lish trnn scriptio ns), the name ca n appear as bo th Retenu and Retjenu. R EWARD. Reward was given on the field of batt le and after a ca mpai gn Reward cou ld take the form of go ld jewelry (go ld flies being speciti ca lly ment ioned) , slaves (people ca ptured du ring the campaign), cap tured chariots and othe r military equipment, and land . The autobio graphica l inscri ption s of the 18th Dynasty, notably that of Ah m ose SUit of E bana, provide good evidence for the practice . Ahmose so n III Ebana fought in the N ubian campaigns of Ah m ose I , Amen hotcp I and T h u tm ose I, from which he record s bringing eight hand s o f siallt ene mies, He also took male and fema le captives , some o f who m Wl'11 given to him. others were exc hanged. Wh en he capt ured a charilll horse , and so ld ier, he gave them to T hutmose I and was rewarded 1'01 II with gold . It is significant that the pharaoh kept the chariot. as lhcy Wl'll probably still quit e rare in Eg ypt at this time , Ahmose was rc wan kd with gold on seven occasion s. As for slaves, he was given a lotal o f I" ca ptives: one male from Avaris, e ight persolls (sex ullspccificd) pll' sumably Nubians (five were in excha nge for two warriors ca ptured I, ( II the spec ified women ca ptives, three were tro m A\'aris. lwo we re Asialh four Nubia n (two we re in exc hange for two mule ca ptives givc n III 11 11 phm'aoh ). He was also given five arurue or land in his home tOWIi II I Nek he b. A text in the tomb of an orticial named Mose , of the reign III Ramesses II. records a len gthy legal dispute arisi ng among the desccn darns of another so ld ier who had bee n gra nted land by Ahmose I. The Wilbo ur Papyrus provides evide nce for veterans settled With small landholdings in Middle Egypt in the 20th Dyn asty. T he policy II settling veterans co ntinued into Pto lemaic and Roman times, especlnll in the F ay u m, whe re Greek eleruchs and Egyptian machimoi Wl'O give n land . Ramesside hattie sce nes (e .g., Qadesh; and the scen es , I Medi net Habu of Ramesses Ill' s war s agai nst the Libyans) d' pl sc ribes makin g multip le records of the severed hands and pha lli or tli defeated . T his not only provid ed an acc urate record of the slain, 111 1 was no doubt also related to the dist rib ution of rewards. RHINOCOLURA. The Greek name (in so me sources Rh iIl OCOl'lI rt1 ) Ii the modern town of e l-A rish , at the end o f the Wadi el-Arish in nlll
Sinai. Rhinocolura stood on the Wa ys of Horn . d i , the same as the town of the Brook-ol'-Egypt that tl Sh b twee E d h . renner en gy pt an t e em pire of Assy r ia , and later Egyp t and Baby lonia .
m:r~ne d ePlfOba~ IY
IIOPIMI E. ' A lthough .Rome Iia d Ien g-standing . . eco nomic co ntact s with . 0 emm.c Egypt . It d id not beco me actively involved in its pol itics un~I1 theI r\eE lgn of Ptolemy V I. W hen the Sele u k id kin" A ntioc hos IV mvac cc " Inl f of th gy pt ' the ?overnment appealed to Rome tob interve ne o n be: di e young king Ptolemy VI, which it even tua lly did . With ex IMn II1g Roman interests in the eastem Mediterranean a d I c , n a most conslant d ynastic wars in Egyp t the tw . 0 powers we re drawn ever clos er TI f the R that of S ie.: rrst A Rom I Gan force . . to enter Egyp t wass tnat o r tne rcom an Iega te of. , Yl la: u us abinius , who reinstated Ptolem y XII A It O . occas ro 1 th I . u e es . n this nd of Mar u s A n t onms ' R , ,' If , e cav a ry was und er the co mmaano o r ivrarc A O1l1
Civil ~'
a~ed
t~~ AJexan~e~pat~ a.~,
~,.
'I .IIS nto nhlu s, led to further co nflict, culm inating in the battle of lUll ant l t e fall o f E ' tt A ,,or the Roman E . .g:,p I 0 ugustus. Egypt then became a province mprre anc was placed under the rule o f a prefect.
-5\ !lURE (reeigne i d c. 248 7-2475 lie ). Ph araoh of the Fifth D .
' ill S pyramid te mp le at Ab usir nea r Mem hi s wa . . ,' Iahorate r r f I w hi P s decor ated With e. ie s, 0 w rich only fragments survive Th ese sh a chief of. the Libyans; par t of the' o'r S1,I. II1C u II1g two Syn an bears' so ldiers runni . of " ship; and chiefs of the Nu bia ns . The -Iuplicuted in the temple of Pepy II Th yan c lie was . . . . e ~cenes suggest the fore ign 'l' lations of E" t duri I Ih " . d A ,:,yp unng this lelgn a nd hint at militar y activi tie s in , ) .1
:::I ;~'a~h ~m;tidng
yn
boot~ t~~b:~:
scen~ th~nri:ccomIP.a?lI1g
sUb~tantial
b~~~~:~~~~s~
Pun~ b~l:
200 •
SA l
SAl. Island in the Nile betw een the Second and Third Cataracts . Sai was the seat of the Kushite kingdo m of Shaat, document ed in Egyptian record s from the Sixth Dynasty to the M iddle Kingdom . It may have been absor bed by Ke rma , to which it appears to have been vassal. II also served as a north ern buffer zone betwee n Kenna and the Egyptian Middle Kingdom border at Semna. There is a large cemetery of the Kerm a culture on the island . An Egyp tian fortress and settlement was es tablished here in the early 18th Dynast y. The names of Ahmose I and Am enhotep I sugges t that the fort was founded then , following thl' Egy ptian recapture of Buhen and the Seco nd Cataract. Initially, the ea rly 18th Dynasty pharaohs appear not to have aimed at conquerin ' Kerm a . Th e inscriptio n o f Thutmose I impli es a relati vely peace ful phase durin g which the garrison pastured their cattle in the lusher tcr ritory of Kerma. Sai must have formed the main base from whic h thl' attacks on Kush were launched in the reigns o fThutmose I, T hut rnose II, Hatshepsut, and Thutmose III. In the later 18th Dynasty, new town s were built a little to the south of Sai , at Sedeinga , So leb, and Sesebi. T hese were foundations of Am enhote p III and Akhenaten, which focused o n large temples . In the 19th Dynasty, Set y I found ed :I fort ified town near Sai , at Amara West. Sai was presumably abando ned by the Egy ptians at the end of the 20 th Dyna sty, as was Amara. SAIS. See SAU . · SAKH M ET. Belligere nt lioness-headed goddess , ide ntified with the " Eye of Re" (hence w ith Hathor and Tefnut). She was the person i fication of divine rage . She was the wife of the god Ptah of Memph is, but in the 18th Dyna sty was also eq uated with the goddess Mut , co n sor t of Am u n . In the temple of Mut in T hebes were mo re than 7011 statues o f Sakhm et. Many of these ca rry epithets revea ling the god dess's fearsom e nature: " fla me of Mut ," "s miter of the Nubians ." 1\1 the battle o f Qadesh , Ramesses II was ide ntified with a num ber 01 belli cose deities, notably Monthu , Seth , Ba al, and the griffon , allli he is also likened to "Sakhmet in the mom ent of her rage ." His cue mies wa rn that Sakhmet is with him and that her fier y breath bum those who approach him . T his association goe s back to the M iddk Kingdom when the wrath of the pharaoh again st reb els was " like till raze of Sakhme t" and Sinnhe said that the fear o f King Am enem hnl '" " throughout the land s like Sakhme t in a year of plag ue." I was
SA RGO N II
•
20 1
SA NAK HT (fl,c, 2686-2667 nc), A pharaoh of the Third Dynasty. A frag me ntary sandstone relief fro m Wad i Maghara in Sinai record s Sa nak ht. Th is dep icts the king smiting a no w-lost figure and presum ably relates to a ca mpaign in the vicinity of the turq uoise mi nes . SA.PP.E RS. Men are shown with large stakes undermining the walls of a fortifie d settlement in the late Old Kingdom tomb of Inti at Deshasheh and the contemporary tomb of Kaemheset at Saqqaru. Th e reliefs of the attack on Lach ish by the king of Assy r ia, Sennacher ib , in 70 I Be show a similar, if more sophisticated, attempt to underm ine the walls. fleca use Egyptian fortifi cations were of unbu rned mud brick, unde rmining was possible , although most fortress wa lls are ex tremely thick . SAQ QA RA . Th e main necropol is of the c ity of Memphis standing o n Ihe desert plateau ove rloo king the Ni le Valley. Th e site is dom inated hy the pyramid co mplexes o f ph araoh s of the Th ird , Fifth, and S ixth Dynas ties . So me of these (User ka f', Unas , and Pepy II ) contained scenes depictin g sold iers and military ac tion. T he late Old Kingdom lomb of Kaemh eset is one of the earlies t to depict an attac k o n a fortress . with scaling lad der s and sapp ers und ermining the wall s . A IllImbe~ of tombs of military offic ials of the late 18th and ear ly 19th Dynasties have been excavated, and more will doubtl ess be identi fied as this ar~a o f the site is ex plored further. One of the most significa nt of these IS the tomb of Horemheb , which was prepared for him belore he became pharao h . Datin g from the reign o f Tutankhamun , \:'l~ n Hore~heb was the leadin g ge nera l, the tomb has important relic/ deco ration showi ng the rewa rd fo llowi ng mi litary actio ns in Nu hia and in Syria agai nst the Hittites . C lose to Horemh eb 's tom b is Ihal of his close co ntempora ry, Ramose . Th ere is also the to mb of the urmy scribe Huy, who lived in the early 19th Dynasty. Sc ulptured ,".J ()~ k s from New Kingdom tom bs were found near the pyram id of lct i and include sce nes depi cting the manu facture of arrows and Ih-i11 exercises (fro m the tomb of Ipu ia). An GO N II (re igned 720- 70S IIC). Emperor of Assyria , At Sargon's accession, rebellions broke out throughou t the empire. In Syria, Yau-bi 'di killg of Hamath led the rebellion of Arpad, Damascus, and Samaria, but Sil rgnn swiftly marched his armies west, confro nting the coa lition at the hilllic of Qarqar (720 li e) . He then moved south recaptu ring the rebel
202 •
SATRAP
cities and advanced on Gaza where the Egyptians had restored their vassa l, Khanunu . He continued toward Egypt, defeating an Egyptian army, led by a general, Re 'e, at Raphia (720 IIC) , which was looted and destroyed . Sargon did not adva nce farther in this campaign, but in 7 16 BC, he installed an Arab lead er of one of the tribes of north Sinai in Ihc "c ity of the Brook-of-Egypt," giving him some control over the Wa~s of Horus. In the same year, the Assyrians record tribute of horses paid by an Egy ptian ruler ca lled "Shilkanni," who must be the pharaoh a s orko n, probably of Per-Bastet (Bubastis) . Sa rgon received further trihute of horses arou nd 712 BC, from till' rulers of Egypt and Guza , T hese rulers were ce rtainly Libyan dy nast, of the Delta. So me time after 712 BC came the rebell ion o f Yarnuui, ruler of Ashdod . T he date of this is still uncert ain; most scholars as sumi ng the period 7 12-7 10 BC , but in the light of a recently published rock insc ription at Tang-i Var (in Iran ), a date as late as 706 BC ha, bee n proposed for the subseq uent eve nts. As the Assy rians approached Ashdod, Yamani ned to "M elu hha" (K ush) , but was extradited by till' ruler. T he incide nt is important beca use it is the first recorded direct co ntact betw een the Kushite rulers and Assyria . Th e identit y of the Kush ite king is still unclear: it could be Piye, Shabaqo, or Shebitqo . T he eve nt must have take n place before Shabaqo had de feated Tel'nakht o f Sa u and brou ght all of Egypt und er his rule , after which till' Kushites appear to have become hostile to Assyrian ambitions . SATRAP. Th e term used for the Governor of Egy pt when under the mil' of the Great Kings of Persia (525-332 BC, with interrupti on s) . TIll' Sa trap was respon sible fo r hoth civil and mil itary matter s. Th e firsl sa trap , Arya ndes , was appointed by Ca m byses. Accord ing to a lall' literary trad ition , Aryundes was drive n o ut of Egy pt follo wing till' death o f Ca mbyses (522 BC) , perhaps when an Egy ptian prince (pos sibly Peduba st III ) attempted to make himsel f pharaoh. Arya ndes wns restored in 5 18 BC by Darius I and sent a military exped itio n agai nst Barca in Cyren aica . Acc ording to Herodotos , Ary and es was exc cuted by Dariu s I in about 496 BC, being repl aced by Pherend atcs who mig ht have heen killed in the rebellion of 486-85 BC . On his accession , Xerxes I (486-465 BC) suppressed the rebelli on and installed his broth er, Achaim enes , as satrap (c. 486-85 BC) Achaimenes purs ued a more suppressive policy, and his re ign (c
SATRAP '
203
48.6/85-459 BC) saw further bid s for independ ence hy local Egy ptian pnn ces . Psamtik IV , the ruler of the far western Delt a , led o ne rehc ll~on (pe r!Japs 486 BC or c. 470), followed by the much larger rehellion of hIS so n Inaros , whic h broke o ut at Xe rxes death (465 BC). Inuros and Amyr ta ios ( I) receiv ed aid and mercenari es from At he ns. They had so me successes, ca pturing Memphis. Ac ha imenes was killed at the battle of Papremi s , but the rebels were besieged for J 8 month s at Prosopitis , befo re being ca ptured. Foll owine the de ath "f Ach airnene s , Megabyxus, satrap of Syria , command ed the Persian lorces in Egypt. Th ere were other Egy ptian princes operating antiI'~rs ian po licy with support from Athe ns, another Psamtik and Amy r lam s (2) of Sau (pro bably the later pharaoh). The next docum ented satrap. also a mem ber of the roya l famil y, was Arsames, appo inted by Ar taxer xes I (c . 428 BC) , Arsames supporte d Darius II in the brie f dynastic war that followed Artaxerxes ' death (424 lie ' j, Evidence from the archive of the Jewi sh mercenaries o n Abu (Hlephantine) indicates that Arsarnes was abse nt from Egyp t for an extrudcd period (c . 410-407/406 BC) , apparently so me of the time being spent on his estates in Babyloni a. Arsa rnes appea rs to have died before the great rebellion on the death of Darius II (404 BC) , which ga ined indeJlende nce for Egy pt under the pharao h Amy r ta ios. T he satrap headed the administra tion fro m his main res ide nce in Memphis. Distri ci governo rs tfratura ka i were subord inate to the salrap, but also officia ls who repor ted on his act ions: satraps frequcutly attempted to make their satra pies kingdo ms, and them sel ves ~ illgs. Such moves usually took place o n the death of the Grea t King , when d isputed succession and rebelli on through out the e mpire were uxnnl. In Egypt, o nly Aryandes seems to have bee n deposed for asuming too roya l a sty le. The satrap was also respon sible for the garrisons that are well docllmented in the Persian period . Th ere we re Jewish mercenaries at /\1," (Ele pha ntine) and other Asia tics at As wa n . Other garrisons were III Pclus io n and Marea in the wes tern Delta . Th e fortres s of Babylon \VIIS co nstructed at thi s time . With the reco nq ues t of Egypt by Ar ta xerxes III a sa trap , Pheren dlli t's was aga in appo inted (343 BC) . His succe ssor, Sabaces, was IIIit'd foll owin g the Per sian clefeat at the battl e of Issos (333 BC) . When the Macedo nian adve nturer, Amy ntas, entered Egypt later in
204 • SAU
the sa me year, he c laime d that he was the new satrap appoin ted hy Dar ius III. Th e real appoi ntee, Mazaces, defeated A my ntas hili yie lded Egypt to Alex a nd e r th e Great. A lexande r made a number 01 appo intments in Egypt. placing the civi l and military under differe nt officials . He ac know ledged Kleome nes as satra p of Egy pt. Follow in ' Alexander 's death a t Bab ylon (323 s c ) , Eg ypt wa s sei zed by the gen era l Ptole my (Ptole my I ), w ho put Kleom e nes to death and ass umed the title o f satrap him se lf. Pto lem y reigned as satrap for 18 years, ac know ledg ing the nominal authori ty of the Maced oni an kings A lexa n del' IV and Phi lip Arrhidai os, before followi ng the example o f thl' other di adochoi and proclaiming himse lf king (305 uc ) , SA U. Cit y of the western De lta , stand ing on a bran ch o f the Nile . It i ~ gc nerally kno wn by the Greek form of the nam e , Sais. Of anc ient ori g in. it came under the rule of Li b yan dy nas ts in the T hird Intermed i ate Pe riod a nd was the seat of Te fna k ht , who expa nded his powe r III M em p h is and into Midd le Egy pt, pro vo king the ca mpaign o f Piy« Tefnakht 's success or, Buk cnranef', assumed royal sty le and the lat"1 rul er o f Sa is, Nekan I , was a vass al of Assyr ia . Ho we ver , whcn Nekau change d sides , the A ssyrians invaded the De lta and attacked Sa u, flaying the rebe ls a nd hangi ng their sk ins from the wa lls . An other As syrian text states that the heart s o f the rebe ls were impa led on stakes around the c ity. Nekau's so n Psamtik I reunited Eg yp t and th rew off the Assyria n yoke, estab lishing the 26 th Dyn asty. Durinr th is period, Sau wa s one of the main roya l residences and the k i n ~ en co uraged the G reek tra ding ce nter at Na u kratis nearby. SCALING LA DDER. Scaling ladders are found intermittent ly III Egyptian military records . T hey a ppear in the O ld King do m sce nes II I a ttacks on wa lled sett lements in the tombs of Inti at Deshasheh alitI Kaemheset at Sa q q a r a ; be ing used agai nst Eg yp tia n to wn s in tlu ea rly Midd le Kingdom to mbs at Be ni Hasan ; and in Ram esside ill tacks on the tow ns of Sy r ia . The Vic tor y Stela o f Pi ye refers to sCill ing ladd ers in the attacks o n the wa lled town s of Middl e Egy pt. In lilt attack on Mem p his, the masts of the ships we re used as a form III scaling ladder to brea ch the wall s . T he rel ie fs showi ng the attack hv the arm y of Sen nacherib , king o f Assyria, o n Lac hish (70 I s c) :II II show sca ling ladders.
SEA PEOr LEs • 2 0 5
S(:~ MJ TA R. A curved swo rd, w ith the cu tting edge on the inner side . I he Egy ptians did no t use the true sc im itar, a lthough the term has bee n applied to the kh epesh , whic h was a simi lar shape but was a heavy slashing wea po n. ' SC O R P IO N .(reig.ne d c. 32 00 DC). The nam e used in Egyptological litcrat u re to Identi fy a king of Up per Egypt of the late Predyn astic Penod (now called Dynasty 0), who ded icated a ceremonia l mace head nt Nekh~n . Thi s carries sce nes inc ludi ng the roya l sta ndard s wi th rckhy~ birds han gin g fro m them , suggestive of defeat of peoples in the unifi cat ion of Egypt. SEA PEOP.LES. A term app lied to a number of ethnic groups who were involved 111 co nflict w ith Egy pt in the 19th and 20th Dyn asties. Th e Sea Pcoples. ha ve also been associated with mass move ment o f pop ulatio n and major destruction of si tes througho ut A nato lia and wes tern Asia at the end of the Late Bronze Age (c. 1200- 1J 50 s c ). The peoples in.\'~~I ved were the Pele set , Lukki , She ke lesh , Wes hesh , S har d ana , l'[ekker , Teresh , and E kwesh . Some of these peoples are known indcpe nden tly from a variety of Egyptian sources from the late 18th D _ 1I:1~ty onwa rd . So me of the nam es ca n ce rtai nly be assoc iated with sp~ cific places (such as the Pelese t a nd Pale stine), others have ge nera ted more controversy (and are noted in the appropriate entries here). How we choose to understand the geographica l associatio ns of the names is Itll.ldame ntal to o ur interpretation of the nature of the Sea Peoples l'IJl sodes. For ~xample , the name Shan/alia (or Shenleni is ge nera lly nrcc pted as being co nnec ted with Sa rdin ia: but whether the Shardana r. uue from the island we call Sard inia or whether they went there from the eastern Med ite~ranean after these events is cen tral to the problem. . In ~gypt , the ev ide nce comes from the inscr iptions re lating to inva~ Ions 111 y~ar 5 of Me~enptah and yea r 8 of R3messes III. The gro ups .1I.lvo lved JI1 the II1vaSlOn of year 5 of Meren ptah we re the Shardana, lcrcsh , Sheke lesh, Ekwesh , and Luk ka , The majority of the force were however, Li by a ns and the Sea Peoples were less than a third of the to1IIIIIu~llber. In this instance , it see ms most likely that the Libya ns were the prune movers , acco mpanied by the other groups as m ercen a ri es . ln W il l' 8 of Rarnesses III, the Libyans were not involved and the invaders Were the Shardana, Teresh, Sheke lesh, Peleset , De nye n, Weshes h, and
206 •
SEKH EMKl lrT (REIGN ED C. 1&48 - 1&40 BC)
Tjekker. T he prese nce of ca rts carryi ng wo men and children has sugges ted that this invasion represents a movem e nt o f population in searc h o f so mew here to settle by both land and sea. Th e scho larly view of the Sea Peoples that de veloped in the late 19th and ea rly 20th cen turies , and which ca n be found in many histori es, was that of invasion s from the north displaci ng populations in Anatolia who were then forced so uthward into Syria and Palestine . The effect was to de stab ilize the Hittite Em pire and cause massive destructio ns in major sites along the coast, such as Ugarit. T he co llapse o f Mycen aean G reece is also attributed to the same ultimate ca use . T he reassessment by Robe rt Drews suggests that man y of the peopl es came from the places whose names they appea r to carry, and that they were mercen aries, pi rates, and ra iders, rather than a mass population move men t. SEK HEM K HET (re ig ne d c. 2648-2640 II C) . Phara oh of the T hird Dynasty. A re lief from Wadi Maghara in S inai shows Se khernkh ci smiting w ith a mace . T his is one o f a se ries of reli efs o f the Third aml «o urt h- Dynasties that record Eg yp tian ac tivities in Si na i. related III the turquo ise min es . A ltho ug h co nve ntional roya l images. the y pel hap s ind ica te some mil itary ac tivities . SELEUKI DS. On the deat h o f A lexa nder th e G re a t 'II Bahylun in 32 \ IIC , the ge ne rals recogni zed hi s hal f-brother and infunt "1Il as his k g itima te heirs , but in actualit y partitioned the e mpire among Ih.e lll se lves . T he succee d ing two decades saw the pow er strugg les 0 1 1111 diadochoi (" Succes sors") fo r contro l of parts o f, or atte mp ts to n: un ite , the em pire , Th e co ntest c ulmina ted at the ba ttle o f Ipso s in 311 1 BC. Thi s left Sele uko s I as " King o f Sy r ia ," altho ug h his e mpi re ill tuall y stretched as far as Indi a . T he he irs of Se leuko s I , most w ith the na mes Antiocho s and S(' leukos, co ntrolled parts o f Asia Minor, north Sy r ia , Meso pot an uu and Per sia , w ith their major citi es at Sardes in Lyd ia , Anti och nea r Ih mo uth o f the Orontes , Babylon , and S usa . T he re we re frequ e nt Cll il flict s wit h the Ptole rnies for co ntro l of Coele Sy r ia. which had hl'I'II occ u pied by Pto lemy l. Th ese Syrian Wars culminated in the Egypl ian vic tory at the batt le of Raphia . A ltho ug h the Syrian question WII la rgel y reso lved by the marriage o f Ptolemy V with Kleop at ra I. tlu co mplex intermarriages of the ir descend ants , various Kleo pau u
SEMNA
•
207
w ith riva l Se le uk id king s, resulted in d ynastic wars . T his was furt her ;~gg:a vated by the co nflic t o f Kl eopatra III and Ptolemy IX in the Syn a n War o f 103-10 I BC. The Sel eu kid Empire lost its easternmost provinces to the Ind ian ruler C hand rag up ta M aurya and G reek a nd Maced oni an adv enturers who es ta blished sma ll ki ngd oms in Ba ktria . Later, the Parthian s, the I~ew p~wer in Per sia, remo ved the central part o f the empire fro m the Sc leukids . T~le Seleuk ids used eleph ants in thei r armies , a prac tice that was cop ied by the Ptolemi es .
SE~I A - KHAS UT. Nubi an fortress , so mew here in the vic init y o f ( rd ): ' B a~kal and the Fo urt h Ca ta r act. It was built by Thutmose III a~1l1 IS referred to. on a stela later erected in the te mple of A rn un at Ge bel Bar kal. T his text states that the fortress had a chape l ded ica ted to the god A mun. No archaeo log ica l rem a ins tha t ca n be associated WJl.h.the fo rtr:ss ha ve ye t bee n identi fied in the reg ion . T here is a pos" hllity that. like most 01 the fortresses fa rther north in N u bia , Se rnakhavut stood o n an island , l lowe ver, such a theor y ca n o nly be conIII'111ed hy survey. It is ge nera lly assu me d that Se ma-khasu t is idcnticu! wilh Napata in the inscri pt ion o f ye a r 3 of A m en h otep II :II Anuula . T he fortress nam e mea ns " Des troying the forei gn lan ds ." ,' /':I\INA,. Nubian fortress at the head of the Sec ond Ca ta r a ct , co ntro lIllig. With Kumma a nd the o utpos t o f Semna Sout h, a narro w cha nnd rlll~ n i ng throug h a rock y go rge at the head of the ca taract. Semna slood In a co mma nd ing posi tion o n the west ban k of the Nile at a I'O,lIIt that mark ed Egypt '~ sou thern fro ntier in the Mid dle a nd early New Kingd om s . It stoo d rn o ne of the most desol ate part s o f N u hia a l . t h ~ so.uthern e nd o f the Batn e l-Hagar (Be lly of Rock). Se mna was within s lgn a l ~ ng ? istance o f the island fo rtress of Urona r ti a nd par t III a co mmurnca uo n network goi ng to M irgissa. Sem na ~as built by Sen us ret III . It had a n L-s haped plan dict ated hy Ih: e m inence o n which it was built. T he 1'011 was surrounde d by a I~ r~, d itch on the. north , west , and. so uth sides . O n the east. the rocky I xcarpment sloped dow n to the river. Th e massiv e mud -bri ck wa lls II,X meter s thi ck, were built o n mason ry found ati on s and had proje ctIlig to we rs . The north a nd south ga tes, of co nve ntio na l desi un w ith tuner and o uter gates a nd space between , stood a t ei the r e nd o f the
208 •
Sf MNA
" ma in stree t," w hich itself formed part o f the pomoerium. Th e ex tern al access to both ga tes was uphill. Th e o nly othe r ga te was the much s ma ller wate r gate that gav e acce ss , down 131 ste ps between de fen sive wall s , to the river. Th e ma in wa lls were over I0 mete rs high , althou gh no whe re preserved to their o rig inal height. Th ey we n' bu ilt o n a foundati on o f gra nite rubble and in place s on th e natural bedrock . Th e wa lls we re o f un baked mud brick strengthe ned w ith timbers . Th ese timbers ran through the wa lls both parall el to the faces and th rou gh the thickness . As in so me othe r Nubi an fort s, so me 01 these st rengthe ning timber s had burned (perha ps during an attack I, resulting in the firin g of the mud bri cks o f a large area of the wes t c nd of the for t. Th e wall s have ba stion s at the corners , ga teways and otlu» defen sive po ints . Th e accommod at ion at Semna is dominated by barrack-style COl li plexe s of three rooms , and held the larg est garrison so uth o f Mil' gissa . Th ese co mp lexes co uld have housed bet ween 4 and 10 me n each , allowin g a ro ugh es tima te of between 2 16 and 540 for the west w ing a lone (the excavato r, George Re isner, gave a rathe r co nserva tive maximum of 300 men for the who le fOI1). A recent assessme nt o f tilt defense need s o f a fort , a t o ne man per meter of wa ll. pro vid e s a much higher figure , 800 men. E ven if th is wa s nec e ssar y for full defense that ca pac ity may o nly have been reach ed occas iona lly. If we allow I to 2 meters of wa ll per man , Se mna wo uld have required abo ut
S[NUS~ET I (REIGNED C. 1965 - 1920 Be ) •
209
mcnt, the Semna Dis patches (Londo n, British Mu seum), deta ils the ob serv atio ns made of peopl e passing the fort in the late M iddle Kingdom . A sma ll o utpos t, Semna South , stoo d on the wes t bank abo ut one kilome ter to the south of the main fort, contro lling the access to the narrow rive r gorge . Su rrounded by a sto ne g lacis 10 meters w ide, it had an oute r g ird le wa ll o f mud brick four meters wid e and a dry dit ch ~ .50 meters w ide , Insid e this was the main e nclos ure w ith square baslion s. Th e walls , 12 meters wid e at the base , were bu ilt o n a n artific ial terrace cut into the a lluv ium, A ll of these defense s e nc losed an interlIal area mea suring 34 meters by 33 meters , but without any penna'lent structures . Th ere might have been spur wa lls in the rive r to make the cha nnels deeper and therefore eas ier for navigati on , and to direct ships toward the narro w roc ky ch ann el. Se mna South also pre vented allY e ne my troops landing c lose to the main fortress . .... ENMVT. Th e nam e of a fortress in the region o f Aswa n and the First ( 'ata ract . It has o ften been equ ated with the large is land o f Bigg a, at I he head o f the cat aract, and there is e vide nce that the island had that u.une in the Ptole maic a nd Rom an periods . Ho we ver , it has recentl y bee n suggested that the earli er fort ress of Senmut might ac tua lly be a II:IIne for the who le reg ion enc lose d by the wall that ran from Aswan to the head of the catarac t, and wh ich probably dates to the j oint re ign or Am e n em h a t II and Senusret II . I':NNACHERIB (reigned 704--681 IIC). Empe ror o f Ass yria , o f the Sargonid dy nas ty. Senn acherib ascended the thron e on the death of his luther, Sa r gon II. In respon se to the " re bellion" o f Hezekiah o f .luduh , Se nnacheri b led the Assyrian armies wes twa rd in 70 I Be. IIczckiah soug ht help from Egypt , and an arm y was d ispatch ed , ac"'~ld l ~lg to the bibli cal nnrrati ve , und er the command of Taharqo. Th e 1l'Ignlllg pharaoh was probabl y Shabaqo. Th e Egypti an force was deh'ated at the battle o f Eltekeh and withdrew to Gaza. Sennach erib 's IIl1 l1y div ided , o ne pa rt besieg ing Lachi sh and the other Jerusalem unIii Ilc zekiah c~pitulated. The later yea rs of Senn acheri b's reign ~ere tucoccupi ed With events in Babylon, a llo wing Egy pt und er Shebitqo li nd Taharqo to ex pand their influ en ce in Sy r ia and Palestin e .
I \ N lJS I~ ET I (rei~ned ~. 1965-1920 IIC). Pharaoh of the 12th Dyn asty. MUSI bg y pto log lsts th ink that there was a joint rul e bet ween Se nusret
2 10 • SENUSRfT II (RUGN ED C. 1880 -1874 Be)
I and his father Amenem ha t I , lasting for 10 years. T his would haw inc luded so me of the majo r mili tary act ions in Nu bia . Se nusre t I co ntinu ed the Egy ptian ex pansion into Nubia beg un by Menthuhotep (I and A menernhat I. T his began with the conquest o f Wa wat, as far a ~ Gir gawi, foll o wed by the journey through the southern part of Wawat by the Vizier Inyotefiqer to " pacify" the country and a final advance to Buhen and the Second Cataract. Senusret I was responsible for tlit' co nstruction of so me of the Nub ian fortresses: Kubban , Ikku r , aml A niba, between Aswan and the Second Cataract, and Buhen . Th e Nil bian ca mpaig ns are record ed by the rock inscrip tions of lnyotefiqci and ot hers at Girgawi , and by inscriptions of high officials from vari ous parts of Egy pt. Among those who took part were Arneny, the no marc h of Ben i Hassan in Midd le Egypt , and Siren put I of Aswan . Two stelae in the Florence Mu seum also record the victories . Se nusrct I wa s also active in the amethyst mines of Wad i el Hudi in Lower Nil biu , the Wadi Harnmamat and desert route to the Red Sea . A frag mcut of a battle scene was recovered from his pyram id co mplex at Lisht. SE NUS RET II (reigned e. 1880--1874 Be). An inscription of the olf cia l Hepu, dated after Se nusret Il's year 35, is carved on a rock Oil which the wall from As wa n to the head of the First Ca ta r act is COli structed . T his sugges ts that the wa ll was built at that time . S E NUS RE T III (r eig ne d c. 1874-1855 li e). Pharaoh of the 12th Dy nasty. Se nusret III con so lidated the Egyp tian expansion into Nuhln and co ntro l of Wa wat and the Second Ca taract. T here was an ad vance south of the ca tarac t into the territor y of Kus h, but th is wa s 110 1 fo llowe d up . The eve nts are docum ented by rock inscriptions from Aswan to Dal , by private ste lae of offic ials, and by two stelae from Se m na , now in the Berl in Mu seum . Th e first ca mpaign was in year 8 . T his established the boundary at Sem na and saw the co nstruc tion of a fort there . T he canal through the Firs t Ca taract at Sehel WII cleared for shippi ng. A seco nd ca mpaig n mig ht have taken place ill year 9. A third exped itio n in year to went so uth of the Seco nd Ca tarac t. It is reco rded on its return jou rney at Da l, but there is no n-I erence or indication o f military actions (a lthoug h doubtless large COli tingents of the army acco mpa nied it) and it might have been peu« Iul , or a show of stre ngth south of the border . Year 16 saw th
SETY I (REIGN ED C. 1294- 1279 Be) •
2 11
co mpieuon o f the fortress of Urona r ti and the se tting up of the secstela <11. Se mna . A rock inscription at Uro narti and a private stela of the officia l, Saseret, record a military actio n in year 19. Sen usre t w mpleted the co nstructio n of the Second Ca tarac t fort s , most no(ably those pro tecting the narro west point of the river, Sem na, and Kllm m a: T he t':o stelae in Berlin defin e Se nusre t's attitude toward (he frontier and Its defense . There was one Asi atic campaign, doc umented by the stela of So bekh u no w in the Manchester Mu seu m (3306) . Thi s invo lved an attack o n Shechem. A fragment of a battle sce ne was recovered from the pyram id co mplex at Dashur,
OI~u
SFI' E D L' . . , • . ibya n tribal group. T he Sep ed were associated with the M es h. wesh, and the Libu in the Libyan War of year 5 of Ramesses III, SE(J ENENR E, See TAO . SESOST RIS or SESONCHOSIS LEG END. Th e legend of the world conq ueror Sesos tris appears in a numb er of Greek and Rom an sources II IS clearly based upon Ramesses II and his throne name Usemlaetre : SET H. Bell igerent dei ty ass ociated with d eserts and storms . Se th was the SO~l of the goddess Nut, from whose body he violentl y ripped his entry II1to the world. He was depicted with an animal's head with a IOllg snou t :tIlt.1 tall , stra ig ht, flat-tipped ea rs. The Egyp tians had an a lll b ~ va len t attitude to this de ity, although he was favored in certa in ~hst ncts and at ce rtain periods. Se th became associ ated with the Syrran thunde r god Baal , and texts w ill ofte n pa rallel the two , so in a litl"r::ry fragm~n t rela ~ing to Thutmose Ill 's Syrian Wa rs, the horses of ~ 11l: pharaoh. s enemies become Baal and Se th. R amesscs II , however, Is himse lf like ned to "Seth great-of-strength, Baa l in perso n" at the hattIe of Q adesh. Other inscripti on s o f the pharaoh 's rage in batrle al.Iude to Seth as " the so n of NUl" without act ua lly naming him Ihrough the equa tion with Baal , Se th bec ame associ ate d with the 'oddesses Ana th and Asta r te .
1o;'~:Y .I (~e!gned
c. 1294-1279 Be). Pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty. Sety II.IS .1 military officer and governor ofTjar u in the reig n of Horemheb. Iloremheb appears to have appo inted an elderly military official as his
•
SIiABAQO (REIGNED C 711-695 BC) • 21 2
•
2 13
SETY I (REIGNED C 1294 - 1279 sc)
successor. who asce nded the throne as Ramesses I, although it seems certain that he took a longer view and intended the throne for Sety and his sons. In his first year Sety led a campaign against the Sh asu . T his involved a march from Tjaru to Gaza along the Wa ys of Horus . T he rul er of Hammath sent troops to occupy Beth Shea n. In response , Sety sent divisions against Hammath , Beth-S hean (where a stela was set up). and Yenoam . all of which were captured . The effect was to secure the Esdrae lon plain and north Jordan Valley. Sety was now probably able to occupy Ga lilee and the coast as far as Tyre . In succeeding campaigns, Sety led his armies to Yenoam and Damascu s, and along the Sea Coast throu gh Tyre , Sidon, Byblos, and Sumur. The third or fou rth campaign involved an engage ment with the Hittites . In year 4 or 5 Sety led his army wes twa rd aga inst the Libyans. T his was the first major offe nsive recorde d against the Libyans for a considerable period of time . T his action marks an Egyptian respo nse to the eastwa rd movement of Libyans, a process that co ntinued in the reign of Ramesses II and culminated with a Libyan invasion o f Egy pt in the reign of Merenptah . Th e import ance that Sety accorded to his Libyan campaign is indicated by its inclusion am ong the other wars, which were depicted in relief on the nort h exterior wall of the hypostyle hall of the tem ple of Am un at Karnak (T hebes) . In year 5 or 6 , Sety I directed a campaign agai nst Q adesh . This was part of the continuing host ility betwee n Egypt and the Hittites , ",,:hi~h had begun late in the reign of Akhe naten and had come to conflict 111 the reign of Tutankhamun and also, perhaps , that of Horemh eb . T Il<' a r m )' was prob ably transpOlted by ship to the Phoeni cian coas t, from where it marched inland . Qadesh was captured and a stela set up within it. The city seems to have co me under Hittite co ntrol again shortly after and a peace treaty may have bee n drawn up . However. hostilities bro ke out again ear ly in the reign of Ramesses II. In year 8 , atten tio n was directed to the sou th , when lrem in Nuhin reb elled . Two ste lae , from Amara and Sai, record that the army ieu the Nile Va lley and crossed the desert. Fo llowi ng a battle, they rc turned with captives and booty. Th e text is typically imprec ise, and II numbe r o f altern ativ e locations for lrern , and hence direction o f thr expeditio n, have bee n sugges ted . Argum ent s have been made in I'll vo r of the oases to the wes t of the Nile in the Abri-De lgo Reach, till' Bayuda Desert itsel f, or the Berber-Shend i Reac h of the Nile .
T he reig ~ of Sety I marks a return to a much more active military involvement In western As ia following the relative peace of the later 18th Dynasty when Egypt was recognized as pre-em inent. This is a direct resulto f the. co llapse of the kingdom of Mitanni and the expa nsio n of the I-Ilttlte.s .Into north Syria . The battle reliefs at Karnak vividly depict the ~xped l t lo n s and are some of the most impo rtant of such scenes to survive . The temple of Rarnesses II at Beit el-Wali in Nubia also has sc~ ne s showing Nubian, Li ~yan , and Asiatic wars. Beca use the temple W,IS const n~c ted very early In Rarnesses's re ign , these military actions can be ascribed to the period when he was active as crow n prince . SETY II (reigned c. 1202-1196 BC). Pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty. son of M.erenptah . Although Sety is attested as crow n prince in his father's reign. there was a dynastic war following Merenpt ah 's dea th, in which Amenmesse seized power in Upper Egyp t. It is still not entirely c lear w ~e ~h e r the four-year reign of Amenmesse precede d . or was entirely IV.I~ h In , that of Sety. No de~ a il s of t~e inc ident are know n, although it ~eems to have been e ffective , part icularly in T hebes and in Nu bia . Sety II suppressed it, and the usurper 's monument s were rein scr ibed . SII ~BA Q O
(reign.ed e. 711-695 nc ), Kus hite pharaoh o f the 25th Dynasty (the m~~e IS often spelled Shabaka) , Accordi ng to the GraecoI~ (~m an tradition, Shabaqo invaded Lower Egypt and defeated the Suite pharaoh Bakenranef (Bocchoris) in battle . then put him to death. Dated con temporary monumen ts show that Shabaqo was acknow ledge d throughou t Egy pt in his second regnal year. T here are ho weve r, no mscnpn . . .on s recording the milit ary activit ies that mu st' h ,~ ve es tablished h i ~ a~lt h ority . In Ku sh and Upper Egypt, Shabaqo IV,IS the successor of P iye , T he text on a large co mmemora tive scarab III Toro nto (Roy al On tario Mu seum) can be rea d as the reco rd of milIt ,~ry .acti? n in S ina.i , ~ut othe rwise there are no know n military texts III this rergn. The biblical and Assyrian sources reveal that Egy pt und.er S h~ baqo beca me actively invo lved in the poli tics of wes tern Asia . I ~a rl y III Shabaqn 's reig n, Yarnani, the ruler of Ashdod who had rebelled aga inst Sar gon II , was ex tradited to Assyr ia , and it was undoubt ed ly Shabaqo who later supported the rebellion of Hezeki ah of .I,lIda h ag.a inst the Assy rians. Altho ugh it see ms un like ly that Shabaqo himsel f led the army, an Egypt ian-Kushite force was se nt to
2 14 • SI IALI AK
I-I eze kiah 's aid a nd e ngaged the Assyrians at the battl e of Eltekeh (701 Be) . Thi s c ha nge o f polic y was und oubtedl y connected with all increase in Egy ptia n influ en ce in western Asia , and perhaps also with the c hange o f ruler in Assyria itse lf. SHALFAK. Fortress o f the Second Catar act. Part of the defen sive net wor k of Senusret III . Th e fortress is simil ar in plan to Uronarti arul likewise d ictated by the topography of the site . Th e fort was situa ted on the wes t bank, and its defensive spur wa ll had to we rs on the desert side . Internall y, it was regul arl y plann ed . Its garrison accommoda tion was been betw een 60 and 150; its defen se need s 180- 360 or 220 -4 HII incl udin g the spur walls . It was within sig naling di stance of boil: Uro narti, to the so uth, and ano ther island fortress , As k ut , to the north SHANGAR. Th e nam e for Babylonia as it appears in the Amarna Let » tel's , with its ca pita l at Babylon (Karduniash) . At the tim e o f till' Amarna Lett e rs , the Late Bron ze Age of the Nea r East, Bubylouin wa s ruled by the Kassites (c . 1595-11 55 Be) . SHARDANA. On e of the Sea Peoples who also appear as merccnaric in the Egyptian army of the late New Kingdo m. In docu me nts of thl 20 th Dynasty they are found settled as veterans in Middle Egypt. II I the region of Herakleopolis. The name Slum lanu ( or Shell/ell) is !ll' lI e ra lly thou ght to relate to that of Sa rd inia . Th e usual intcrp rctution I that, followi ng the rep ulse of the Sea Peoples in year 8 of Rumessv Ill , the diffe rent groups were forced back into so uthern Pa lestiuv So me group s, such as the Peleset (Philistines) settled there , but oth ' 1 sai led west . and settled in new hom elands (e .g., the Shard ana). A II l' lI inte rpre tatio n, by Ro bert Drews , suggests that the Sh ardana act ualh ca me fro m Sard inia-and sho uld be rega rded as pirates, mercenaric and ra iders- at the close of the Late Bronze Age . In Egy ptian relicl from the tim e of Ramesse s II and Ram esses III, the Sh ardana huv. disti nctive facial feat ures and wea r a horn ed helmet. Th ey CaITy ShillI' swo r ds , spears, and a round shie ld. Bron ze figures with si mih» horned helm ets a nd weapons have been found on Sardini a , leudiu we ight to an assoc iation of the Sharda na with the island . SHAR UH E N. Ci ty of C a naan, its identit y with surviv ing arc hacu l« ical sites is still not abso lutely certai n: Tell e l Far' a , Tell e l Ajj ul, alld
511EBITQO (REIGN ID C. 695-690 ' el •
2 15
Tel Harer, all bei ng prop osed . Th e ev ide nce from the who le reg ion ~hows that there was a rapid process o f large-scale and highl y o rga nI ~ed urban settle me nt in the Middl e Bron ze 11-/11 period s. All the s~ tes , large and sma ll, co astal and inland , we re fortifi ed . Th ey were situated at ~ n average of 10 kilom eters apa rt , whic h is a high den sity lor .the en vironm ent al co nd itions . Sha ruhen became the chi ef cit y of a kingd om flank ed on the north by the kingdom of As hkelon and on the eas t the kin gdom o f Heb ron . Th e kingdo m of Sharuhen was closel y con nected wi th the Hyksos kingdom of Ava r is . The autobiog rap~ ica l text of Ahmose son of Ibana states that after the ca pture of ~vafls , Ahmose I pur sued the fleein g Hyksos, who took refu ge at Sharuhe n. T here was either a siege lasting three yea rs, or three consecutive ca mpaig ns , before the ci ty fe ll. Sharu hen is later me ntioned in the list of town s ca ptured by Sh eshonq I. SIIASU. A term used for nom adic peoples. Bedouin , of the eas tern border o~ Egypt. Sinai. Ca naa n. and the Negeb. It is found in Egyptian texts fro m the IRth Dynasty to the Kushite period . Unlike more mod ern com parnhle grou ps , they did not have the camel as transport or pack allllna ls. /\s with other pop ulations that were not permanentl y settled and t h;~t co uld not there fore be co ntrolled by the ce ntra l au thori ty te.g.. the Libyans ), they were co nsidered a threat and ofte n associated in the bureauc ratic mind with cr im inals and malcontents . Nom ad ic ~ rn u p s are attested as entering Egy pt along the Ways of Horus in the O ld Kingdom . in order to pasture their flocks duri ng times when their own water sources dried . The texts locate the Shasu in Transjorda n, Moab, and Edo m. TlI1l11 a, the copper m ining region of Sinai was also part o f the Shasu land s. Seasonal movem ent s and raid s were poss ible along a numb er of routes into north Syria and toward the coas t. Of I~lese, .that thro.ugh the Jordan and JezreeJ Valley s was co ntrolled by the ligyptian garrison at Beth -Shean . M ilitary action s by phar aoh s agai nst the Shasu are docum ent ed for the reign s of Scty I and Ramesscs II . A text probably of the re ign of Merenptah reports that the Sh asu had heen given co ntrolled e ntry through a fron tier fortress to the we lls of the Wadi Tumilat. Th e re were settleme nts of Sh asu in Middle Egypt at Spermeru , 111 the 20 th Dyn asty, and at Atfih, See a/so ARA BS. SIIE BITQ O (reig~ed c. 695-690 nc ), Kush ite pharaoh of the 25t h Dynasty (the name IS often spelled Shabaraka). Because of uncertaint ies
2 16
•
511[ KU [ 5' 1
abo ut the precise length of his reign , it has been proposed that he was the pha raoh who was respon sibl e for se nd ing an ar my to the aid of 1·lezekiah of Judah , whi ch confronted the army of Sennacherib , king of Assyria , at the battle o f Eltekeh in 70 I Be. Howe ver , it see ms more likel y that this was his pred ecessor Shabaqo. Th e bibli cal record co n fuses the issue further by attributing the ac tion to Taharqo. Shebitqo adopted an imperialist titul ary, altho ug h there are no firml y docu men ted campaigns during the reign . He is also shown being present ed w ith the khepesh-sword by the god Amun in reli efs at Thebes . An in scriptio n of the rei gn of Taharqo sta tes that She bitqo summo ned him to Egypt, along with oth er princ es and the army . SHEKELESH. Ethn ic group who served as mercenaries in the Egy ptian amlY. Also one of the Sea Peoples. Their nam e associates them with Sici ly. Earlier Egyptolo gists assumed that they eve ntually setlied on Ihr island , although it has more recentl y been sugges ted that they cunufrom Sicily as raiders and mercenary troop s in the Late Bronze Age , SHERDEN. & eSHARDANA . SHESHONQ I (reigned c. 945-924 li e). Lib yan pha raoh of the 2211d Dyn asty, Apparently rel ated to an earlier Libyan pharaoh , Osorkuu (known in lite rature as "Osoc hor" or " Osor ko n the e lde r") , and d(" sce nded fro m a line of increasi ngly po werful and influ ent ial Lib yuu c hiefta ins, Shes ho nq I esta blished a new dynasty. His ce nter of pOW"1 was in the eas tern Delta, at Per-Bastet (Bubastis), where Libyan s hlld been sell led in military e nca mpme nts during the rei gn of Ramessr II . It took so me tim e for Sheshonq to asse rt his autho rity over till whole of Egy pt because he is stiII described as the "Chief o f the Mn,' a Libyan trib al titl e, rath er than by royal titl es , in a n inscripti on of III seco nd year at Karn ak , His high est know n reg nal yea r is 21 , Th e prin cip al military record of the rei gn is the large reli e f o n 11 11 so uth ex terior wall o f the great hyp ostyle hall in the templ e of K:II nak (T hebes) , Thi s de picted Shes ho nq o n a vast scale , smi ting his " II ern ies before an eq ually large figure of the god Amun , who gra sp the lines of loop s that co nta in the names of ca pture d town s a nd CO li II trie s . Altoge the r, 154 to wns a re named , ma ny of wh ich ca n conli dentl y be identified . It is, ho we ver, mor e difficult to recon stru ct th, ac tua l co urse of the ca mpaign. Th e top on ym s fall into severa l di still' I
SllfS Il ON Q I (REIGNED c. 94 5 -92 4 Be) •
2 17
grou p~, a nd it has been co nc luded that , aft er a coastal march Ihrou gh Rup h ia and Gaza , the army split into two or more div ision s, o ne marchin g throu gh southe rn Judah and the Negeb , the other through Isra el. Th e so uthern army might have split into eve n smaller unit s: it certainly "captured" Sh a r uhen . T he north ern arm y march ed alon g a well-used rout e throu gh Gezer, Aij alon , Beth-Horon 10 Sh echem , Tirzah, Succoth , and eve nt ually up to Beth Shean , Taanach a nd Megidd o, before turning back so uth to Aphek . At Megidd o, Sheshonq set up a stela , o f which only a sma ll Ira s me nt survives. Thi s is the on ly archaeolog ica l ev ide nce that co nfin; s the ca mpaign, alth ough att empts have been made to ident ify destru clion 1 vels at s i te~ throu gh out Palestin e with it. The equation o f des.tructlo n le vels With eve nts record ed in literary so urces is al ways di fficult: and rarel y acc ura te , relyin g as it does o n the interpretati on s and p~·em l ses of.the excavato rs . [t is also likely that man y of the town s capllul a.ted .wlth ~he m i.n~m um o~ forc e bein g required (es pecially if they received little m ilitary ass ista nce from the Israelit e or Judaean ~ i ngs): .S hesho n.q 's ~a m pa ign is ce rta inly the most agg ressi ve Egyptl a~l Illllr.tary action III wes tern Asia since late Ram essid e tim es (the reign of Ramesscs VI , if not that of Ramesses III ), but does not appear to ha~e had a ny lasting result s, St atu es of Sheshonq I and two of his Immediate successors suggest that Egy ptian tradin g relatio ns with /lybl os co ntinued , but the intern al politi cs of Israel and Jud ah with the i n~erven l io ns of Dam ascu s and Assyria , (a nd perh ap s also tile ine tf ec t l ~en:s s of the pharaoh s them selv es) pre vent ed further Egypti an co nso lidatinn of Sheshonq 's e xped itio n. It has been wide ly assumed that Sheshonq I led o nly o ne Asi atic campaig n and that this cam e late in his rei gn . Th ere are very few dated recor~s of e vents in th is reign and there is noth ing to preclude a much earli er date for the campaig n. It is also possibl e that the Karnak record in fact includes se ve ral different ac tio ns . If we a re to assume that the Karn ak Jist is of one sea so n, the n Shes ho nq must ha ve had enorm?l~s ,military reserves to be abl e to se para te his army into so man y di vision s . A series of more co nce ntrated expedi tions, over perha ps three seaso ns, wo uld ha ve e na bled him to dire ct the whole of his army again st the fortifi ed cities of Isr ael. T he ca m.paign of Shes hon q I has ge nera lly bee n identi fied by Egy ptnlogi sts WIth that of the "S hish a k, king of Egypt " record ed in the biblical record (I Kings , 14 :25-6; 2 Chro nicles 12:3-4) , Shi shak is said
7
SIAMU N (REIGN LD C. 978- 9S0 lie)
218 •
•
219
SH IELD
to have ca ptured Je rusalem in the firth year of the reign of Reh ob oam . w hich ca n be dated qu ite co nfidently to 925 Be. C lose exami nation n\ the two records shows that the ca mpaigns are ce rtai nly not the sa me . Ne vertheless , the equ ation of " Shishak" with Sh eshonq I is still gc n erally recognized and has served as a chro no log ica l fixed- point. S H IEL D. The shield (in Eg yptian ikem ) was use d as a defense aga inst most weapons in han d-tn-hand co mba t a nd aga inst arrows . It con i pri sed a woode n fram e w ith anima l hide stretc hed o ve r it. Thi s was frequentl y o x hid e , indi cated in depi ction s by the co lor ing and pal tern ing and in writing by the use o f an ox hide in the spe lling of till' word . Sce nes of the tribute of Nu bia dep ict shields covered with more e xotic animal skins , prob abl y chee tah and giraffe . Shield s w ith ox hid e we re also part o f the Nubi an tribute, leather worki ng be ing II pro d uct o f Kush . Most shie ld s we re wo rn attached to the left arm and we re Oat along the base , with a poin ted , arce d , o r se micirc ular top . Some shields tall enoug h to conceal a man are shown in Middle Kin gd om sce nes . C ircular shie lds we re used by the Sha r d ana , th.. Hittites. and the Ass yrians . In chariot wa rfare, the shield was cal' ried by the dr iver of th e chariot. Ramesses II nam es his shie ld-bearl~1 at th e battle of Q ad esh , and in th e scenes of the ba tt le , the Egy pti,nl camp is surrounded by a palisade o f shie lds . Fou r functio na l a nd foiu ceremo nial shields we re fo und in the lomb of Tu ta n k h a m u n . TIll' ce re mo nial shields hav e gilded o penwork sce nes in woo d , show in r, for e xample , the pharaoh as a v ictorious sphinx or slayi ng lion s . TIll' fu nctio na l shields were covered with cheetah and ante lope skins . Tu ta nk ham un's ceremonial sh ie lds were betwe e n 0 .83 and 0 .89 meter and the function al o nes abo ut 0 .79 met ers hi gh . There is e vidence th at figure -o f-e ight shaped shields , used by the Hittites , were also manufactured in Egypt , but the rules af fec ting depi cti on o f Egyp tian mean s th at the y do no t appear in sce nes o f battle . SH ISHAK . Pharaoh of Egy pt referred to in the biblical record ( I Kin ' 14 : 25-6; 2 Chro nicles 12: 3-4) . Shisha k is said to ha ve invaded .J". dah in the year 5 o f king Rehoboam , ca ptured .Jerusalem . and taken the furnishings of Solo mo n's te mple and palace as tribute , instead III destroying the c ity. Th e eve nt ca n be acc urately dated to 92 5 III Shishak's arm y co mprised 1.200 cha r iots , 60 ,000 paras iim (taken til
mea n " ho~se men " ) . and a num ber o f fore ign troo ps: Libyans , S ukiirn, and Kuslutes . If parasiim is rea lly to be understood as " ca va lr y," it is ,~ n unex ~ect edl y large nu mber at a time whe n char iot war fare was still favo red III Egy pt. and the ar mies of Assyr ia depl oyed o nly s ma ll numbers o f ca valr y, mainly as outriders. Reh oboam had fortified 15 c ities I~ Judah , all o f which were ca ptured in Shishak 's advance. Egypt olog ~st~ have always identi fied Shishak with Sheshonq I and re lated the biblical record to that o f Sh eshonq 's Asiatic ca mpaign recorded at Karnak. So me d issenting vo ices point ed out the funda me nta l differences betwe.en the campaign of Shesho nq I as document ed by the Karn ak inscn puon and that of ~ h i sh ~k in the biblica l narrati ve . Th e campaign of Shes honq I was ce rta inly directed toward the Negeb region o f Ju dah in the so uth and to ward the k ingdo m of Israel , rather than to cen tra l Judah. Of the to wn s ca ptured by Sheshonq I, onl y Ai ja lon is found among those that fell to Sh ishaq . Eve n if " Shishak" is to be ident ified With Sheshonq I, it is ce rta in that the bibl ical account and the Karnak inscr iptio n record two completely different ca mpaigns . SIIUNET EL Z EBIB. Early Dyn astic monument at A bydo s , a lso kno": n as the "M iddl e Fort." It is a large rect an gular enc losure w ith ~n as~lve wa lls of mud brick, ori e nted to the ca rd ina l po ints. It is sirn" ~r 111 design to , and probably close ly co nte m porary wit h, a mudb n~k struc ture o f the re ig n o f Khasekhemwy at Ne k hen (H ierakonI~oli s ) . Both structures were th ou ght by ea rlier archae o log ists to be lo ~ tress es , but. are n o ~ th ou ght to be reli g iou s , rath er than military, ed ifices, associa ted WIth the buria ls o f the Ear ly Dyn astic pharaoh s . NeveI1.he less , the architect ure mu st have c lose si m ilarities to early de fen sive structures . S I A MU ~
(reigned c, 978-950 BC) . To thi s obscure pharaoh . an Asiatic ca mpa rgn has been attributed on sca nty ev idence . A rel ief bloc k fro m Ta nis dep i ct~ Siamun sm iting a figu re of which only the hands are prese r~ed . Sia rnun .h a~ been ide ntified as the unn am ed pharaoh who , accord ing to the biblical acco u nt o f I Kings 9: 16 . ca ptured G ezer, and gave It as a ~ o wr~ to his dau ght e r w ho marri ed So lo mo n, king o f Isr ae l. Th e Tani s reli ef fragme nt is c ited in suppo rt of the bib lica l record . It is c laime d that the fore ign figure hol ds a double-h eaded a xe rem iniscent of a typ e used in the Ae gean a nd weste rn Anat o lia and
220 •
SIEGE
that it there fore rep resents a Philistine or o ne of the Sea Peoples . /\ ~ a res u lt , it is stated that S iamu n purs ue d a war in Phil isti a and was all a lly of Israel. Th e equation of Siamun wi th the unnamed b ib lica l pharaoh is based so lely o n th e as sum ptio n th at the da tes calc ulated for the rei gn s of Solo mon a nd Siamu n are correc t, wh ich they proh ab ly are no t. In conseq ue nce , Siarnuu's militar y activ ities and pol iti ca l involvement wi th Israe l are un su bst an tiated . The rel ief is mos: probably a co nve ntional sm iting sce ne . S IEGE. A ttacks on fo rtificat ions are de pic ted in the late O ld Kingdom in the tomb of Kaem hese t at S a q qa r a and Inti at Desh asheh . These em p loyed sca ling lad ders and s a p pe rs to underm ine the wa lls . Sim ilar attacks on fortified to wn s appear in the late First Interm edi ate 1\ , riod and early Mi dd le Kingd om to mbs at Ben i Hasan. Physical evi de nce o f att ack co mes fro m the fortress of Buhcn ill Nu b ia . Such attacks may have followed sieg es, but the di rect evi dence for siege is in the literature . In his pursuit o f the Hyksos , Ah mose I besieged S ha r uh en for th ree years, or in three campa igns. T h u t m nss III besieged M egiddo for e ight mon ths, Piye laid siege to Khmunn , w hile his vas sal , Pe ftjau awybast, wa s h imsel f besieged wit hin Herak leopolis . Th ese , and other siege s rep orted duri ng Piye 's campa ign, were relat ive ly short, pro bably lasting between days and month s . The len gth of a siege was di ctated by pract ical factor s o f how 10111' the occupa nts co u ld wit hsta nd , de pendi ng on food supplies stonx! wi thin the city and access to wa ter. Tcfnakht prep ared for Memphis It, be place d unde r siege by Piye , ens uring that the wa lls were in good 0 1 der, the gar r ison eq uip ped , and foo d brou ght into the c ity. Hczekiah t Il Judah prep ared for the assau lt on Jerusalem by Sennach erib by COli structing the Si loam tunn el to gain access to a good wa ter supply. Tlusce nes o f Se nnac herib 's assault o n Lachi sh , foll ow ing the siege o f till' c ity, show the use of siege towers, sappers, and batte ring ram s. Resi tan ce by the besieged inclu de s the usual weapo ns and a rai n of light,," torc hes bei ng thro wn down o n the attacki ng army. S ieges we re apparently accom pan ied by int en si ve diplom ati c :1\' t ivity in volvin g ro yal e nvoys to e ncourage cap itu la tio n. /\1 Jerusalem , in an atte m pt to encourage internal op pos itio n , S,' II nache rib's en vo ys broke protocol by us ing Hebre w to address th, popul ation gathered on the wa lls directl y, ra the r than the d iplo nu ui.
SINAI •
22 1
langu age . At Khmunu , the royal wome n of both s ides ac ted as intermediaries be twee n the bes ieged Ni ml o t an d Piye . S ILE. See TJ AR U.
S I~ A I. ~
mou.nta ino us .pe ni nsu la ly ing im med iat el y east of E gypt. It ro ug hly tnangu lar III sha pe, fla nked by the north ern bran ch e s o f the Red Se.a, .the G ulf of A qaba, a nd the G ulf o f S uez . Th e northe rn coa sta l plain IS sandy a nd was d ifficult to cross in ancient tim es . Th e <:nast. road , the Ways of Horus , or Via Mari s ra n fro m the Egypt ian I r~lI1tler fortre~scs o f Tja r u (Te ll el- He bwa ) a nd P elus ion to Brookof -Eg~pt (R h m oeolu r a ) a nd Gaza. T he d iffic ulties of th is road g.a ve Egyp.t s~me prot ecti on from in vas io ns , but not comp lete se cun ty, and significant battl es occurred a lo ng its route . T he so uthern pa rts of the .pe nins ula have so me important mi ne ra l reso urces , notab ly turqu oi se a nd coppe r. Si nai was inha bited by Bedouin A r a bs alld ~h a~,u. ~hese. grou ps e ntered Egypt, so metimes seas onally , and the fo rtifica tio ns , III the Wadi Tumilat m ight have been , in part intended to contro l the m . ' IS
The .Fi rst Dyn asty ph araoh Den mi ght have bee n ac tive in S ina i, and ev idence from the rei gn of Khasekhcmwy, at the end of the Sec~ lIld Dyna~ty, has also been interpreted as re ferrin g to military actio ns In the regi on ..Rock inscripti ons o f the Ol d Kingdo m at the turqu oi se ~l1lnes of Wadi Mag hara usu all y depi ct the pharaoh in the ac t o f srnitIII~ :.111 "e ne my," a lthou gh there a re no det ailed records o f military acI~ v l t les . Do ubtles s any min ing ex pedi tion wa s accom pa nied by conI:nge n ts of the a r my . T he ph a ra oh s a tte sted are S a n a k h t , Sckhem k het , and Sneferu. "
~I~e phar~oh M~~th u.hotep ~I
led one or more ca mpaigns int o a fte r hIS re ulllftcatlOn of Egypt. Durin e" the M iddl e K mg ' rd om, : ~ct l vl ~y was re ~ewed at the turquoi se mi ne s of Wadi Maghara and Sc ra blt,e l-Khad lm , A defe ns ive sys te m, ca lled the Walls of the Ruler was bl." lt by A men em h a t I to de fend the Egy ptian border. Th ere is ex te ns ive arch~eological evidence for the New Kingdom defen ses of '.he ~or~~r reg ion , n~tably at ~jaru . Egyptia n m ining ac tivi ty was conce nu dte~ at Serabi t e l-Khad im for turq uoise a nd T im na fo r copper. The e~ lde n~e from T imn a spans the 19th and 20 th Dyn ast ies I rom the reign 01 I~amesses II to that of Ram esses V. S 111<11 ' ,
222
•
SINUl lf
M o st o f the later ev ide nce rel at ing to Sin ai is co nce rne d w ith thr coas ta l roa d, rather than the pe nins ula prop er. A scarab o f the Ku sh itv phar ao h S h a baq o suggests mil itary ac tio n agai nst the S has u. Th e Assy r ia n e mpe ro rs, Sa r go n II, Esarh a d d o n , a nd As h u r b a n ip a l, in vade d Egypt a nd e ngaged Egyptian ar m ies at Gaza and R aphia . T he Baby lo nian k ing, Neb uc h a d ne zz a r II , a lso invaded Egypt using lh b ro ute , as d id the armies o f Persia , the M aced on ian adv e nturer Amyntas , a nd A lexa n d e r th e G r eat. A long the coast, the Pto le mies co n fro nted invasion by the di adochoi , a nd va rio us Se leu ki d ki ngs 01 Sy ria , mo st imp or tantl y w he n P tolem y IV re pu lsed Ant iocho s III 111 the batt le of Raph ia (2 17 BC) . SIN UHE. Th e Tale of Sinuhe is a literar y work o f Middle Kingdom date , surv iving in num ero us copies . T he narrat ive beg ins wi th the death 01 Am e nem ha t I , while his so n and co rege nt, Se n usret I , was on a mil itary ca mpa ign aga ins t the Li b yans . T he narrat ive tell s that Si nuhc i, w ith the ex ped itio n and overhears the plotti ng of one o f the princes he flee s . T he rem ainder of the tale recounts his time abroad and even tual ret urn to Egy pt. Si nuhe spe nds his time w ith se minom adi c tent dwelle rs in R et enu . Th ese wo uld be co mparable w ith, a lthough till' ' are not ca lled, the S has u. S inuhe becomes comma nder of troops 1'01 the rul er o f Retenu. He has to fight with the c ham pion o f Retenu , Si n uhe lists the weapon s he uses: the se lf-b ow tp edj eti , dagger (bages/ll, javelin (Ilywy), and axe tminb). In the combat, they begin with haul axe and s h ield and e nd w ith bow and a r row . Ha ving s lain his o ppo nent , S inuhe shouts his war cr y , the n tak es his go ods a nd his ca ttle. S L ING . A sim ple but e ffec tive we apo n for tiri ng stones. T he s ling i shown being used in assau lt o n to wn s in the ea rly Middl e Kin gdom to mbs at Beni Hasan . Exa m ples foun d in the to mb of Tu tan k ha m un we re made of linen . Despi te its rare appeara nce in b attle sce nes , II was probab ly widel y used . At the s iege o f Lac hish, the army o f Sl'n n a cherib , king of Assyr ia , inc lude s so ld ie r s usin g the sling. As lin shot fro m the Ptole maic and Rom an peri od s could be mad e o f IClld and carried inscr ibed messages for the unfort un ate rec ipien t. SNEFER U (r eig ne d c. 2613-2589 lie ). Pharaoh o f the Fo urth Dynusr v T here are so me indi cati on s that this re ign might actua lly have bee n III'
SOCIAL ADVANCEMEN T •
223
to 48 years . T~e Pal~rmo St~ne record s a ca mpaign in N u b ia agai nst the Nehe~yu , .111 which the king ca ptured 7,000 peop le and 200,000 ca ttle. ThI S might ha ve been into the Eas tern Desert, where there we re sel~ i nomad ic cattle herders or so uth o f the Seco nd Catarac t, into the reg io n later know n as K us h . A roc k-c ut scene of the king s miting an ene my was carved at Wad i M ahgara in Si na i, pro bably in rel atio n to the turquoise mines . Th e king is also known to have co nstruc ted a large fleet, includi ng sea-going vess e ls built w ith ced ar from Le banon . li e built a forti tied de fen se o n the eas tern border ca lled the "walls of the So uth land and o f the No rthland called the Hou ses of Sneferu " T his mig ht be a precurso r o f the Walls of the Ruler and the de fe nse with a canal of the Ne w Kingd o m know n fro m the 12th Dyn asty, .'it m E K H U (fl.c, 1860 BC). Mi litary o ffi c ia l whose caree r under Sen us -
re t I II is document c:d by a stela now in Manchester Museu m (3306) . So bekhu was a warnor of the roya l bodyguard and co mma nded se ven men o f the Kin g's Resid ence . I le later became a fo llower (Shemsu) of the ruler with the co mma nd or 60 me n. He finally rose to be an invtructnr o f re ta iners wilh a co ntingent o f 100 men "as a re ward ." He -crvcd with the pharaoh o n both Nubian and Asia tic campaigns . SOC IA L A I>VANCEI\ IE NT. S till a conlrovers ial subject in Egyp tology , I here ,IS a s~ mng ly held view that the Ne w Kingdom military service enahled ind ividuals to ga in soc ial advanceme nt. The ev ide nce see ms to ind icate a very c losed e lite , but neverth eless, both milit ary and scribal tal~ I II S might have led to soc ial adv anceme nt, as in other soci eties . Even 111 closed elites . ability plays an important role , and with only a very limItc~1 number o f top j obs , it must have been significant in an official' s apporntment. R ew ard was a refl ection of, but a lso an aid to , advance me nt There is good ev ide nce for the award of plots of land to so ld iers who ' eve n if originally of qu ite hum ble origi n, might thereby have acquired enoug h economic power to gain entry to the scriba l c lass . T he son of a soldier, Ah m ose son of E ba na also began his ca reer as a sold ier, rising 10 beco me a crew co mma nde r. Active in many ca mpa igns , he was rewar~led With go ld, s laves , and land . His tom b at Ne k heb was at least partially decorated by his grandso n, Paheri, who was a scribe of the treasury and mayor of the towns of Nek heb and Es na . It co uld be that Ahmose was the founder of the fami ly fortun es .
224 • sa l /) I[ ~ SOLDIER. A ltho ug h there mu st have bee n so me men who became full time so ld iers in the Old Kingdom , the bulk of the a r my was COli scri pted for spec ific pur poses. The Egyptians emp loyed mercenaries from a very early da te, and these always formed a sig nificant prope r tion of the army. The firs t merce nary troop s attested are Nu b ians; latci large numbers of Libyans and As iatics, not abl y some of the Sea Peopl e , such as the S h a r da na, were recrui ted . In the La te and Ptole rn uic Pe riods, G ree ks from the Aegean and A natolia , and J ew s , also se rved , Egyptian literature compares the hard life o f the foo t so ldier with that of the bureaucracy who had the po we r to co nscript levies ami had a re lat ive ly easy life . Ce rtai nly tra ining and drill wa s rigorous . but it was poss ib le to ac h ieve so me wealth thro ug h reward after II b a ttle , incl ud ing parcel s of la nd . Veterans (in the Ptol e maic period , ca lled cleruchsi were a lso g iven lan d and th is perhaps led to sociII I adv ancement . The Greek writer Herodotos de sc ribes the rniliuu ' caste , ca lled the machimoi , of the Late Pe riod, a ltho ug h there is 11\1 evidence of it in earlier period s . Eve n thou gh Egy pt had a large fleet and n a vy , it was ord inary so ld iers that foug ht on the ships , SOME IRA , S ma ll fo rtress or wa tc h tow er o f late Ro man or Byzantim da te, in the northern part of K har ga Oasis. The fort sta nds on 11 11 plain about two ki lometers south o f the a lmost ide ntica l tower of " I Gib . 1t is ro ug hly square, 14 mete rs each side, with round corn er tow ers (now co llapsed) and an entrance on the so uth s ide . T he inter im I inaccessib le, bei ng a mass of fa lle n br ickwork . S PA RTA . Ci ty and kingdom of so uthern G ree ce . Sparta wa s the donu nant ci ty of the Peloponnese and main po litical rival of A th ens. It wn at times suppo rted by Persia - and as a mon arch y was co nside red pil I Persian - comp ared wi th Athens ' usual anti-Persian posi tion , S pallll had d irect invol vem ent w ith Egy pt in the reign of Nefaa r ud I. In .I"" BC, the Sp artan kin g , Agesilaos II , so ug ht an allia nce wi th Ne fuuu ul prior to lead ing the G reek army aga ins t the Persians. T his was relu s 'II but in the fo llow ing year, Nefaarud supp lied the Sparta n fleet , whk h wa s at Rhode s, wi th eq uip me nt for 100 trirem es and 500 ,000 1111' " sures of corn . Nak htne be f ent ere d into an anti- Persian a lliance wllh Sparta and Athe ns . Agesilaos II co mmanded a large force of (In', • mercen ar ies when Dj edhor invaded Palest ine in 360 BC bu t lent Iiis 11111 to the r ebellio n of Nak hth or heb later the same year.
In th
. SP/I INX • "" " e rei g n of Pt I '- , Kleomenes III (re ] 0 emy III , the rap id rise of S parta I ' re igned c 235 2 maic policy o n mal I " - 22 BC) d ict ated a cha nge I' ,: lJdc r Egy t b r In ant G reece Kleo 0 lo/ c _ pt , ut ,oll o Wing hi s def . men es wa s s upportcd A lex a nd r ia . A t the b . . ea t by the M acedon ian kin g he 11 hy tempted a coup in Al:g l n n l ~~ of the ~'eign of Ptolemy 'IV I c,d 10 cOlTl mitted suic ide (220 xandlJa , but this colla psed and KI ' tc a t-219 BC) . eOl11cnc s ,'W EA R , A Slabbing weapon the . rn ct ed on the lat e Pr e I . ' . spear (111 Egyp tia n hem \') is r . t y ndst lc Hun ter 's Pa lette and . : Irst dcsurvive It beer . arne a pri . ,, man y flin: b l used by chariot w . Iln cl pal weapon of the infantr y b I adcs r arnors A lar d ' u was 'II . ~gypt i an spea rme n for . . ' ge woo en mod el of a can tin" , so In the 12th Dynast med a co mpan ion to o ne of N u b ' ge nt 0 / C . ' Y tomb o f M I ti Ian areh c ,11m M use um) . T he bla .ese I I at Asy ut (the se are no w i rs with a tang for athch ade , leaf -sh ap ed , was of copper alloy (b n thc New Kingdom T he mem . B lades w ith socke ts are com mo n r ro n;-.C) sho rt. Battle s~enes ~ooden handl e of the spea r cou ld b ~OI11 thc stabb ing wea p'o n' S, IOW the Short- hand led spear be' e o ng Or . ' II I C ose co nn ' t C1 ' ' /I1g used as usmg a sho rt-ha nd led st b bi IC . ia not warriors are a /so sh" a lan ce) is also sho wn. Th e ~i ~;gh spear. T he lon g-h andled spe,; r ~t7 n t co nflici be tween S in uh g I- ro wm g spear (ja ve lin) appears ' re reign of Sety I 'I . e ant the cha mp io n o r Retell F 111 thc " qUIver for jav I' . u . ~ ro m II CIla riot. Th e Pto len . . c e Ins IS shown attached t IC o/ tl in M acedonia the ldlc.arm y used the cx tre me ly lon g Pike Ie/roya l , san ssa T his c eve 0 llc I row s of so ld iers alld . .. . wa s organi;-.ed in the ph I c , , IS a co J I . a aux r lhut of ea rlier per iods TI mp e te y di ffere nt mili tary format' 0 Ptolemy IV at the b ';11 Ie phala nx was used with not a ble ' ' ,I~n to s uccess by a e of Raphia (2 17 li e) .
.~ I'II INX, So lar image , uS11'I1l
. . body. The sp hinx was th: i Y com buu ng a human head w ith a lio '. l quero r, T he sphi nx co uld Image of the pharaoh as the ce les ti'I' . 1 S /.:ril~ ) hi a so ha ve a falco I d ' , COn_ . on '. w ich Usually ide ntir d . . ' n lea (hieraco-sphinx . sphinx) , Identified with Am re It with M on th u; or a ram -he'Id c .' 01 l IO members of the roya l famil ~n , Fema le sphinxes co uld represe n't fc(n . 1,llc associated with the goo d y dnd usually wo re a wig with tw I male sp hinx was (he ve~s Hatho~. In the later 18th DY/1'~t~n~ ~l~~"s
'Icfn ut. Tiye , queen or
I~:~l~n~:;~fes:;:ion p
gOdd~ss 'If':~l(~'~
o f the. , was depi cted as a fClllalc
226 • SQ UAD SYRIA • 227
sphinx in the temple at Sedei nga in Nubia , where she was worshipped as the "Great of Ten'or." Nefertiti wife of Ak he natcn was also depicted as a fema le sphinx, trampling the fema le enemies o f Egypt. SQUA D. T he smallest unit of the a r my , comprising 10 men. Five squads form ed one platoon. STAN DA R D, M ILITA RY. T he standard was a square or rec tangular plaqu e carried on a pole . It is show n as carry ing a scene that is relevant to the name of the part icular troop. The police also had standa rds. Royal standards acco mpa nying the pharaoh CatTy images or emblems of deit ies. These are usually the can ine Wepwawet and falco n Horus. SUP P ILU LIUMA I (reigned c. 1344-1322 nc ), Great King of the Hit tites . The reign of Suppi luliurna saw Hittite expansion into north Syria, at the expense o f M ita nni and Egy p t. Evide nce for eve nts co mes from a number of source s, notab ly a later text ca lled " the Deed s of Suppiluliuma ,' several peace treat ies , and the Ama rna Lettcrs . The ca mpaigns we re not initially success ful, and the king of M itanni was able to send a cha r iot as gi ft to Ame nhotep III from the captur ed booty. Later actions involved the sack of the capita l of Mitann i and ca mpaigns aga inst Nukhashshe, A murru , and A leppo . T he result was that form er allies of Mitanni became vassals of the Hittites and , in some cases , we re ruled by l!ittite princes. T here is some indication of hostilit y late in the reign of Ak he na ten and ind ication s of co nflict in the reig n of Tu tankha m un. Hitt ite ca ptives and tribute are show n be ing presented by the ge nera l, Horemheb , to the phara oh in his tomb at Sa qqa ra . Following the death of Tutankhamun, the pharaoh 's widow appa rently sought a Hit tite prince in diplomatic m arriage . Sup piluliuma at first did not be lieve the req uest, but a prince , Zannanza, was eve ntually sent III Egy pt. He was, however , murdered en route . Th is led to the renewa l of hostilities , which came to a head in the succeeding reigns of Sct y I and Ramcsses II and the Hittite kings M u wa ta lli and Mursi li II. SU PP LIES. Large amounts o f foodstu ffs and equipment we re needed for the arm y, either when it was on ca mpaign or stationed in a fron tier for tress . Textua l and pictorial ev ide nce shows that when the army
went on camp'Jigll it . , , I was acco mpanied by mill . b k ers, who were responsibl e f tl I . ers, a ers, and brewThere were also butchers. Ca~~e t~ a~~~ e rations of bread and beer. the tomb of Tjanun! Su I' k .mpany the army are show n in , . pp res ta en with the I supplemented by forage and b I . ar.my wou d have been Y quered territories Spares for ch ~ 1; se izure 01 harvests from conhorses, and mate; ials and person~;~~f~r(~oles an.d whee ls), fodder for wca pons all accompanied the ex edi t i~ ie re~al.r and manufa cture of personnel wou ld have been a p d n. With in the fortress , these , ccom mo ated al .I h ' the Second Ca tar ac t , the island I' ongs rr e t e garnson . At served as a main gra in res ortress of Ask ut seems to have erve storage for a b whereas the large forts o f Buhen and Mir i a num er .01' the forts, ply depots and might have included th g ssa were equipped as supe support services. SWO R D. The Egy pt' d larger vers ion (Ovelra4nOsw c ort' (ca lled tnesu and /lek ell) was basica lly a en Imeters) of the I and thru sting in close c b S (agg er, used for stabbing om at. Word s wer ' I f (bro nze) and only much late [ I T e mac e 0 co pper alloy . I . , r 0 Iron he CUlt' was a later intro duc tion Th E ."" mg 01 s ashmg SWord the sick le-sha ped khep~sh : ,J gyp.tlantype o f the slashing Sword was peafl ng in the New Kingdom. SYRIA. A loose term for the region of we . . with the modern states of S ' d stern ASia largely coincident yrra an Lebano n. 1'1tere are numerous names for d ·/'r ' . . I ierent regi on s and st t . . Nukhashshe N' DI' h . . a es, mclu dlllg Am u r r u , IY, lJa y, Takhsy Tuni D ' apu ~, Hamath, A leppo, Damascus , Syria embra ced dilTer; nt re along the coast high steppe th a g ons of forested mount ains ,. ' , e rontes Valley and d I he trad ing cities ofTyre Bybl B ' .' esert to the eas t. , os, eirur Ugant a dS was t, are know n under the name Ph '. ,' .un umu r along the with Egypt from the Earl D' . ' oel1l~1a and some had co ntacts y ynasuc Period Th e E ' . W~1t rol over much of Syr ia in the New . ' gypna ns gained pargns of Amcnhotcp I 1'1 t KlI1gdom , through the cam • IU mo se I T h ut JII hUlcp II , but their influen ce I I' . m osc , and Am en am co ntro 01 the 11 1/ . tested by the ki d . " 01 tern parts was conII1g oms of M ita nm and th H ittl periods. EgY/Jl' s attempts to ' . fl e I rtes. In the later regain 111 uence ' S " hy Assyr ia and Babylon M" . b . 111 yna were oppose d , .1) 0 1 attles lor co ntro l of Syr ia were li.nght at Q ad esh Q' , , a rqa r, and Ca rchc n ' I S . the rule of Persia from who m : liS I. yna later came under , om U was taken by Alexa ndc r th e G rc at.
f'
228 •
SYRIAN WARS IPTO l[ MAICl
Follow ing his death, much of Sy ria became part of the empi re of the Se leu kids , although Coele Syria was ma inly ruled by the Pto lemies and was the focus of dis pute s in the Syria n Wars . SY R IAN WA RS (P TOLEMA IC). Th ere was reg ular contlict between the Ptolem ies and the Seleuk ids for co ntro l of Coele Sy r ia , which had been se ized by Ptolemy I. First Syrian War (274-27 111(;) . Started by Ptol em y n . In res ponse, Antioc hos I mobilized to invade Egy pt. Ptolemy en sure d the de fenses of the eastern Delt a , but circumstances ca used Antioc hos to abandon his plans. A pea ce treaty retained the status qu o , Second Syrian War (260-253 IIC). Agai nst Antioc hos II. In 259/258 BC, Antioc hos gained contro l of Milet os and Sam os, and later, follo wing the de feat o f the Ptolemai c na vy at sea , Ephesos. A secon d naval defeat at the battle of Ko s (255 BC) ended Ptolem aic control o f the Island League . Ptolemy II led his army into Sy r ia in 257 BC, bu t the progress of the campaign is unknown. Peace was co ncluded in 253 BC and sea led by diplomatic m arriage. Ptolem y II yielded no territory in Syria , although Antioc hos made substantial gai ns in Anatolia . Third Syrian War (246-24 / II C). Also known as the Laodicean War, thi s began as a Se leukid d ynastic war. On the (suspiciou s) death of Antioc hos II , his former w ife, Laodike , proclaimed her son , Se leukos II , king . In respon se, Ant iochos 's seco nd wife , the Pto lema ic princess , Berenike, proclaimed her ow n you ng so n, and soug ht the help of her brother Ptol em y III who had j ust ascend ed the Egyptian throne. Ptolemy sa iled to Syria , where Beren ike co ntrolled the heart of the kingdom , the cities of Se leukeia in Pieria , at the mouth of the Oro ntes , and Antioc h . Arri ving in Antioc h , Ptolemy found that Berenike and her so ns had been murdered. Instead of retu rning to Egy pt , Pto lemy III marched thro ugh Syria to the Euphrates . T he king 's record s of the wa r (the Adulis incr iption and a papyru s from G uro b) claim he conq uered Bak tr ia. Ptolemy was forced to return in 245 BC , because of a rebellion by the native Egy ptians . Se leuko s II moved to rega in the lost terri tory , was soon recogni zed in Babylon , and then throu ghou t the kingdom. A late source says that Sele ukos atte mpte d to invade Egy pt, but this is un substant iated . Ptolem y III and his army were active in Asia, but there were also co nflict s in the Aegean . Ptolem y 's half-b rother, Ptolem aios Androma-
SYRIAN W ARS IPTOI[MAIC) •
229
c1~os , lost the naval battl e of Andros aga inst Anti gonos Go natas , king of Macedon , (perhaps in 246 BC) , but in the same year, Ephesos was recaptured and rem ained a Pto lema ic possessio n until 197 BC. At the end of the war , Ptolemy III could claim that some territory had been gained or rec laimed . One o f Ptolem y 's most important gai ns was the vita l port of Se leukeia in Pieria , close to his new territories in C ilicia and Pamph yl ia and the old o nes of Cypr us and Coe le Syria. T his effective ly gave Egy pt co ntro l of much of the Medit er ranean coast from the weste rn border of Cyre na ica to Th race . Fourth Syrian War (219-217 BC). The amb itious young Se leukid king, Antiochos III (reigned 223/222 - 187 BC) , planned to restore the empire of Se leukos I and pursue old cla ims to Coe le Syria . The prologue to the war began in 22 1 BC , when, despite threats to his rule in Anatolia and in the east of his empire, Antiochos took adva ntage of the problems attend ing the access ion of Ptolemy IV to mo ve on the provi nce. In the Beqa Valley. Ptolemaic forces under the commander-in-chief of Coele Syria, Theodotos, held Gerrha and Brochoi and prepared for attack by erec ting a blocka de with rampart and ditches. Antiochos suffered great losses but failed to adva nce . He withdrew with news of defeats in the east of his empire, gra nting Ptolemaic forces a reprieve. In 2 19 RC , hostilities were o pened when Antioc hos III reasserted Seleuk id contro l over Seleukeia in Pieria, cap tured 27 years before by Ptolemy III. T heodotos, who had fallen from favor through intrig ues at the Alexa ndria n court, no w offere d to give Coele Syria to Antiochos. The Se leukid army marched south, tak ing Tyre and Ptolemais (Ake) and seizing 40 vessels of the Ptolemaic /leet . Antiochos' s adva nce was slowed by local resistance , forcing him to lay siege to a num ber of towns . Antiochos failed to capture Dora and Sidon, and a truce was agreed by both sides for the winter 219/218 Be. The four-mo nth break in the war allowed preparations for an Egyp tian response. Most significantly, this involved the formation o f a force of 20,00 0 native Egy ptian soldiers, trained as a Macedonian phalanx . A t the end of the truce in 2 18 BC, Antioc hos 1II retu med to the offensive , but Ptolem y IV held back until his prepa rations were co mplete . The ar my's progre ss along the coas t was shadowed by the fleet. A Se leukid victory by sea and land at the Porphyrion pass near Be irut enabled Antiochos to march on Philadelph ia (Rabbat Ammon, modern Amma n) and from there to Ptolemais (A ke), where they wintered (2 18/2 17 BC) .
230 •
SYRI,\N W ARS (PTOL EMAIC)
Anti ochos continued his march alon g the coast toward Egy pt, bill Ptolemy IV wa s now prepared. On 22 June 21 7 BC , the two armi es clashed at Raphia . The Ptolem aic victory forced Antioc hos to ret reat , With the possi bility of increased dy nas tic problem s in A nato lia, An tiochos soug ht a swi ft resolution. Ptol emy IV apparently co nceded Seleuke ia in Pieri a, whi ch was expensive to hold , but added further pressur e by a raid in Syri a in late summer 217 Be. Foll o win g Raph in, A ntioc hos III evacuated Co ele Syria and Leb anon but rea ssert ed his authority ove r the eas t of his e mpire and over Anatolia . Fifth Syrian War (202- /94/3 II C). Shortly after the accession 01 Ptolemy V as a minor , Antiochos III of Syria a nd Phi lip V of Mace don moved to divide the Ptolemai c Empire between them sel ves, Philip V was to take Cy rene , the Ioni an coast of As ia Minor , and the Cyc lades; Antiochos was to have Egy pt and Coe le Syria. In 202 Ill ' , Antioc hos III began the march so uth. Ca pturing Dama scu s and much of Palestine in 20 I, he ad vanced on Gaza. Th e Ptolem aic command er in-chi ef of Coe le Syria and Phoeni cia , Ptolem aios so n of Thraseas, we nt ove r to the Se leukid side . An tioc hos established garrisons a nd rc tired lor the wint er of 201 /200 Be, but the Ptolem aic army, with new recru its from Greece. under the co mma nd o f S kopas, an Ae tolian , rc occ up ied much of Coele Syria d uring the wi nter of 200 BC. O n the Macedonian fro nt, Phil ip V took Sa mos in 20 I BC, foll owed by the capture of Ptolemaic pos session s in Thrace . In 200 BC , RIIIIII' moved to support Ptol emy to prevent the forma tio n of a large an ti Rom an state and to prevent the alliance between Macedon and Syria , Rome attac ked Philip in 200 BC, but Anti och os was still free to attac k Egy ptian territory. The two ar mies came to co nfro nt eac h other in ti ll' su mmer of 200 BC . Skop as ap pare ntly marc hed north from Gaza to Jeru salem, Sa ma ria, and throu gh Galilee . Adv ancing farth er north to ward Dam ascus , the Pt olem aic force e ncountered the Seleu kid arm o n the slopes of Mount Hermon , at P anion . An account of the bautc is given by Polybius (16 : 18-1 9). Th e Ptole maic force was defeated Skopas and 10,000 surviv ors too k refu ge in the Ptol em aic stronghold of S ido n, hop ing to be evac uated by sea. The Egypti an navy was til' layed , Sidon bes iege d, and Skopas and the army we re force d to SUI render , a fter which they we re allo wed to lea ve (200/ 199 BC). Anti ochos gained co ntro l o f south Sy ria (198 BC) before turning III As ia M inor, where he ca ptured Ptolemaic possessio ns in Ci licia, Ly
SYRIAN W AR (SIXTH 170/ 169-1 68 Be)
•
23 1
c ia, a~d Ca ria ( Ka~nos. Mynd os , a nd Halik arn assos) , a nd Ioni a (Ephesos) 111 197 BC . Direct Roman inter venti on in Macedon (the Second Mace do nia n War) c ulmi nated with the de fea t of Ph ilip V at the batt le of Kyn oskeph alai ( 197 BC) . Th e Syria n Wa r e nde d wi th the Peace of Lysimachei a (late 196 or ea rly 195 BC) . at whi ch Rom e repr esent ed Pto lemaic Egypt. Antioc hos III, howe ver, deli vered a dipl om atic co up: anno uncing agree me nts with Pto lemy V and the forthco ming marri age between Ptol em y and his dau ghter, Kleop atr a I. Thi s too k plac.e at Raphia , Th e princess receiv ed Coe le Syri a as her dowry, but ~ n t lochos III act~ally retain ed co ntro l of the territory. Th e Fift h SyrIan War e nded with Egypt's loss of Coe le Sy ria and the coastal bases in Anatol ia, As a resul t, the importance of the remai ning Ptolem aic possession , Cy prus. increased e normo us ly. SYIUAN ~AR (SIXT~, 170/169-168 lie ). Connict between Ptolemy VI a nd his uncle Anllochos IV ove r ow nership o f Coele Syria , Th e re~en ts for Ptolem y VI ente red into the war to regain CoeJe Syria witho ut the appropriate preparat ion s . Both Ptolem aic and Seleu kid envoys were sent to Rome Where the senate att empted to be co nciliatory witho ut takin g sides because it was prep aring for war wi th Mace do n . It was Ant ioc hos IV of Syria who moved first, marc hing past Gaza a nd defeatin g the Ptol em aic arm y bet ween MOUn! Kasios and Pelusion , whi ch was bes iege d . Ant iochos IV qui ckl y took co ntrol o f large parts of Lower Egypt. Ptolem y VI went to see Antioc hos in person in his ca mp, bu t the A lexa ndr ians imm edi ately hailed his brother, Ptolem y VIII, as so le king . In respon se , Anti ochos besieaed Alexand r ia, and the governme nt sent an e mbassy to Rom e seeking help (su mmer 169 BC) . Th e ann ual inunda tio n made the attack o n Alexa nd ria eve n more di fficult , and A ntiochos left Egy pt in the autumn of 169 BC to deal with matt ers in Syri a or Palestin e . Ptolem y VI no w returned to Alexa ndria, where he was associated with his bro ther and sister as joint rul er. In response, A ntioc hos IV marched back to Egy pt in spring 168 BC, ga ining Memphis and much ~' l ~_ower Egypt. A n exp edition se nt to Cy prus successfully ca ptured II ./0 1' the Se leuk ids . A ntioc hos was acti ng as king of Egypt a nd he might have been crowned at Memphi s . In June 168 BC , he marched Oil Alex andria, Victorio us in the Mac edonian War , the Rom ans now interve ned, se ndi ng Cai us Pop ilius Laenas to Egypt. In luly 168 BC,
232 • SYRIAN WAR 1103- 10 1 IlCi
A ntioc hos was fo rced to leave Egypt, sailing fro m Pelu sion , and Cy prus wa s returned to Egy ptian rule . Rome 's intervent ion had saved Egypt as an indep enden t kin gdom , but the royal fa mi ly increasingly re lied o n Ro man support in their dynastic d isp utes . SY R IAN WA R (103-10 1 uc ), Partly te rritor ial, but pr incipally a d yn ast ic war , of Kleopat ra III and Ptolemy X Alexa nder I agai nst Ptolemy IX So te r II . T he confl ict also invo lved the rival Sc le uk id kin gs , Antioc hos Cyzice nus and Antiochos Gr ypus (bot h of whom had marri ed daughter s of Kleopa tra III), and the Jewish high priest a nd king, A lexa nder Iann aios . Docu ment s from Pathyris re veal that troop s fro m Upper Egy pt we re being mo bilized by Jun e 10 3 uc . Th e war began whe n Iann ao is moved to co nquer Ptolem ais (A ke) in the late wi nter of 103 IJC. Its inhabit ants appea led to Soter II who ar rived fro m Cyprus wi th an al111Yof 30 ,000 , but the city re fused to ad mit him. Ian naios proposed to Kleop atra III that they launch a joi nt 'II tack on Soter [I. Soter II now divided his army, part of it layin g sic!.:!' to Pto le mais, which was captured. Soter marc hed with the remainder of the army into Jud ea to punish lann aios , defeatin g him at the hall 11' of Asop hon near the River Jordan . He so ught the aid of o ne o f the twn fe uding Seleuk id kings, Antioc hos Cyziceuu s, whom he had suppo rt ed in the past. Kleo patra took mo ves to neu tralize the riva l Sc leuk id . An tioc hos Grypos, send ing her daughter Kleopat ra Selene to he hi, will' Kleopatra III a nd the arm y, unde r the co mmand o f the Je wish ge n e rals Che lkias a nd Ananias , set ou t for Palestine by land . A lexander I, co mma ndi ng the n eet , left a little late r. Kleop atr a a nd Ananias iJ'd their forc es to Ptol e rnais . whic h they besieged , while C helkias went in pur suit of Sote r II, on which mi ssion Che lkias was killed . Iannaiu ca me to a n agreeme nt with Kleopat ra , whic h had the add ed ad van tage fo r her of crea ting probl em s in the future for Cyzice nus. Willi both his mother a nd brother in Pa lestine , Egypt lay open to Soter II who now struc k for Pelusion . A lexande r I, who wa s lead ing a fo rr to Dam ascu s, turned back in ord er to repul se his broth er 's ad vanoin whic h he was success fu l. Soter 's a mbitions thus ca me to an e nd , a nd he return ed to Cy pru Wary of Rom e 's reactio n, Kleo patra dro pped he r a mbition of regain ing Coele Syria or of makin g Juda ea a pro vin ce . She insta lled a gnl r ison in Pto lernais and ret urn ed to Egy pt so metime in 102 BC, leal ing Iannaios to e xpa nd his po we r fur ther.
TAH ARQO IREIGN [IJ 690 -64 4 Be) •
233
-TTACT I CS. The ev idence for the tactics e mploye d in Egyptian battles is very limited for the pharaonic per iod . Th ere are acco unts of the battles fou ght by Thutmose III at Megiddo , a nd Ramesscs II at Q adesh , which give so me idea of the e vents leadi ng up to and d uring the battle . Both battles have bee n recon structed on the ev ide nce , and even thou gh the sources are recognized as highl y prejudiced royal apo log ia , they do appear to have some basis in the histor ical moment. One tact ical move at Thutr nose Ill 's siege of Qadesh is described in the autobiog raphical te xt o f Am enem ha b : the prince o f Qadesh sent a mare into the Egyptian c ha riotry to ca use c hao s among the stallion s. Th e Victory Ste la o f Pi ye also g ives so me idea of m ilitary o pe rations , aga in wi th a n e mphas is o n the wis do m of the king (a nd do ubtless owi ng something to the ea rlier acco unts as a literary crea tion) . T here is more ev ide nce fro m the Ptolem aic per iod for the battl es of Ra p h ia , Pani on , and Ak tio n . T here is con sid e rab le ev ide nce for Roma n tactics , eve n if not re lated d irectly to eve nts in Egy pt. The 1'0 1'malizcd natur e o f Egy ptian hattI e scenes allows only the broadest co nunc nt-, to he made o n the use and d isposition of chur iots , inIunt r y . and the pursu it o f siege a nd storming of fortresses . The co nlIatio n of nu merou s d iffere nt eve nts spread over tim e, into one ima!!c, furth er com plica tes interp retati on . rAIIA RQ O (reigned 690-664 nc ), Pharaoh of the Kush ite 25t h Dynasty, lIi s nam e is oft e n spe lled Taharka . Taharqo supported the uuichinutions of the wes tern Asiatic rulers ag ainst the amb itio ns of Assy r ia , which e ve ntua lly led to direct co nflict. Esa r ha d d o n marched his arm ies toward Egypt in 679 Be. He captured the Brookor-Egypt and too k the rule r to Nineve h, where he was pu blicly huuriliated . Taha rqo mig ht ha ve responded wit h a n acti on in so uthern Palestine as Esarhadd o n re turned to atta ck S ido n in 677 ne. An unrc rtain entry in the anna listic text known as the Babvlonian Chronirl« indi cates that Esa rhaddo n's army was defeated in' battle in Egy pt ill 674 IJC, pro bab ly in the reg io n of the bord er at Tj aru . A major assallit o n Egy pt was laun ch ed in 67 1. T he Assyrians marched past (;aza , engag ing Taharqos a rmy at Ishkhupri. Three battles were IOllght as the Assyrians pushed toward M em p his . Th ere was batt le olltside the city, which was then sto rmed . Resistance fro m the peop le
234 •
TANW rTAM AN l tREIGN rD 664- 656 Be)
and troops within Memphi s result ed in grea t ca rnage . Taharqo fled south , bu t many peop le , includ ing members of his fam ily, we re deported to Assyria. T he Libyan dynasts o f the Delta initially acce pted Assyrian rule but soon sent messages to Taharqo , who rega ined Memp his . In 669 BC , Esar haddo n and his arm y set out for Egy pt again, but the king died in Palestine granting Egypt a resp ite. Esarhaddo n's successor, Ashur banipa l, marched on Egypt in 667 BC . He marshaled the princes o f Sy r ia and Palestine to accompany him . The Egyptian army was defeated at Kar-ban iti (an Assyria n name for an unidentified place) , and the Assyrian ruler captured Mem phis. Perhaps wound ed in battle , Taharqo again fled south: the Assyria n, now followed but had to return when the Libyan dynasts rebe lled. T he Assyrians attac ked Sau , and other Delta tow ns , flay ing the inhabitants. The dynasts were taken to Assyria , where many were executed . Taharqo 's position in Egyp t was made difficult by the se lf-interest of the Libyan dyn asts of the Delta , who co nstantly cha nged the ir allegiance . T he princip al anti-Kushite and pro-A ssyr ian ruler was Nek a u I o f Sau , although even he joined with other dyn asts in the re belli on again st Ashurbanipal. T he det ails of the co nflict between Taharqo and the Assyrians are docum ent ed in official Assyrian in scriptions , includin g a rock-c ut stela at the Na hr el-Ke lb and records of omen s responding to req uests to the sun god Shamash. Although it is ge nerally thou ght that the Assyrian fighting machin e was better equipped and trained than that o f Egyp t, Taharqo showed remarkable ability in assembling new forces and some success in open battle . T Ill' interna l political intr igues o f the rulers of the Delta and weste rn Asin played a significa nt role in the succes ses and failures of both sides . TA NWETAMAN I (re igned 664-656 uc ). Las t pharaoh of the Kushltr 25t h dyn asty. His nam e ca n be rendered as Tanutamun or Tantamani. A rter the death o f Ta ha r qo and his accession, Tanwe tamani led his army to Egy pt. T he coa lition o f Delta rulers fled to their hometo wns and Tanwetarnani regained co ntro l of Mem phis . He supposed ly de feared Nekau I o f Sau in battl e . Ashu r banip al mustered his army, and in 663 BC marched to Egy pt, acco mpanied by Nekau's SOli , Psamtik I , who hoped to be insta lled in his father 's place . Ashurba nipal appears to have received little oppos itio n, and he pursued Tall
TEFNAKHT (RLIGNED C. 727-72 1 Be) •
235
weta~ani from Me mphis to Thebes , which was sacked . Ashurb anipal withdrew, but the T hebans still ack now ledged Tanwetamani as pharaoh. In the north , Psamti k I ascended the throne in S au and Egypt wa~ divided bet ween the two powers. Ashurbanipa l now faced ~rob le~s m o~her p~~s of t~e Assyria n Empire , and Psamt ik began to co nsolidate hIS posruon . HIS succes ses ended with a Kushite withdrawal from Upper Egypt , achie ved through dipl omatic means in the year 9 of both pharaohs . TANW ETAM ANI, DREAM STELA O F. Stela foun d in the temple of Am u n at Gebe l Barkal (Suda n) in 1862 and now in the Nubia Mus: um, Aswan (Ca iro JE 48863). The 42 lines of text describe the kmg 's acce ssion and his contlic t with, and victory ove r, the Libyan dynasts of the Delta. TAO (reigned c. 1555 IIC). Ruler o f T he bes in the 17th Dyna sty, with the t1~rone name Seq enenre (by which he is called in some books). He led his army against the Hyk sos , and a literary work names his opponent a~ Apepy . There are no detai ls o f his military actions , although his body has wounds ca used by axes and spea rs . It was asslll~ed that he was killed in battle , but ~e-ex am i nat i on of the body suggests that he might have surv ived a first violent attack , but died later, perhaps also throu gh violence . T here is no ce rtain record o f milil:,lry ac tions in Nu bia , although these might be expected as a de fense 01 the Theban rear before ca mpaigns in the north . The wars agai nst rhe Hyk sos were continued by his so n Ka m ose . 'J'EFNA KH T (reigned c. 727-721 RC), Ruler o f Sa u in the wes tern Delta . ~e began to expand his power, firstly gai ning acce ptance in l\I~m pllls , then advanc ing on the towns of M iddle Egypt that were :l~ lted to t~l~ Kush ite king Piye, who contro lled T he bes and Upper I ~¥ypt. Pe~ tJ auawybast , the ruler of Herakleopolis , was besieged and ~ lIn lot . king of Khmunu , went over to Tefnakht' s side . In the ensuIIlg co nflict with the army of Piye , there were battles near Khmunu :l~ld t h~'oug hout Middle Egypt. With the fall of Memph is and the cap~tll lal lOn of the rulers to the Kushite king, Te fnakht fled to Sau . He dIdn ot g~ to Hut-hery- ib (Athribis) to pay hom age but swore an oa th III fea lty In the prin cip al templ e in Sau . T his was in the prese nce of
TII W FS • 237 2 36 • H FNUT
Piye ' s
gen~ral
and a c hie f prie st. A p eace treaty was pro babl y also
co nc lud ed . See also KUSH . T E F NUT. T he " Eye of Re," T he sun god Re-H arakh ty se nt fo rth hh. burni ng eye, in the form of hi s da ug hter Hathor, to destro y man kind , T his vio lent as pec t of Hathor ass ume d the form of a lion ess . The IlIlh Dynast y Queens Ti ye and Nefert iti we re identified w ith Tefnut II va nquis he rs o f Egy pt's fe ma le e ne mies a nd were there for e dep icted as a fe ma le sp h inx . The vio lent lio ne ss was a lso give n the nurur Sa k h met , " the power ful o ne." TENT. T he re is re markab ly littl e ev ide nce surviv ing , and no k now n ex a mple s are pre served (or recogni zed) . T he tent mu st have bee n u~cd regul arl y as temporary acco mm odation for the pharaoh and officials in routine progr ess aro und Egyp t (a ttes te d in a te xt of Ak he na te ul . as we ll as o n military campaig n. There are sce nes o f mil itary tents ill the tomb o f Horemheb (later pharaoh ) at Saqqara and in the picto rial re presentations of the E gy ptia n camp at the battle o f Qadesh Th e ro yal tent w as a grand affair w ith wood en pol es and full equi pped w ith foldin g bed s , headre sts , tabl es , and stoo ls. 'I'hu tmosv III capture d the tent of the pr ince of Megiddo , whi ch had se ve n pok ~ o f mery-wood, decor ated w ith silver. T ERE SH (TURSHA ). A siatic ethn ic gro up . They are listed amo ng th,' Sea Peoples and were a llies of the Li by a ns in the Karn ak inscrip tions of Merneptah , whe re more th an 700 are acc ounted s lain in the wa r of year 5 . A te xt from Deir e l- Medi na o f the re ign of RameSSI'~ III cl aims ,tha t the Teresh and the Peleset jo intly attacked Egy pt arul were dere~ted. T heir place o f o rigi n is still debated , bu t a co nnec tio n with Tyrse nia (Tyrr he nia) o n the so uthe rn and weste rn coasts o f Hal see ms possib le . The relativel y small num be rs invo lved in the m ilitar ' actio ns lends support to the idea th at thi s was not a mass migration but that many of these gro ups we re m ercenaries. TEUD .JO I. T he mod ern arc haeo lo gica l site of e l-Hiba . Teudjoi, mean ing "T he ir walls," wa s a fortress in nort he rn Midd le Egy pt , built ~ '\' the high priest o f A m u n Men kh e perre in the 2 1st Dyn asty. Teudjm marked the northern limit o f the territor y o f Thebes and formed a dl'
fens e aga in.st a ny thr eat fro m the prince s of Herakleopolis . Teu dj oi w a~ the resid en ce o f a numb er o f ge ne ra ls a nd princes in the troub led TI~ l rd Int er medi ate Pe riod , most notab ly the crown prince and high 1~f1 e st o f A rnun, Oso r k o n. It was also kno wn in docum en ts as 1/111 , :,T he Camp s ," and T~!lIlet , "T he C rag ," so me times mor e spec ifica lly T he Cra g of A mun. T he nat ural de fen sive features of the site were used adva.ntage, ~ nd so me 600 mete rs of mud brick wa ll, 12 .6 meters th ick , still survive to a he ight of 10 me ters .
'?
T HEBES..A?re~k na.me. for the principal roya l reside nce , burial place , and ad ~ llllstra li ve city III Upper Egy pt. Ori ginally ca lled Waset, it first r:)s~ 10 rmport ance under its loca l rulers during the First Intermed iate I en od . One o f these (Inte l' I) appears to have rebe lled aga inst the p~mraoh s o f Herakleopoli s and adopted so me roya l sty le. Expans ion by his success or, Inte l' II, brought Upper Egypt as far as Tjeny north o f Abydo s und er Th eban contro l. C ivil war co ntinued , invol ving the rulers o f M iddle Egypt, but the Theban pharaoh Menthuhotep II evenI ~~all.y cru s.hed op position and reunited Egy pt (the Middle Kingdom ). S ll~ il ~ rl y, 111 the Second Intermed iate Period , Waset had its ow n rulers, da ~ m ll1g descent from earlier pharaoh s and using roya l sty le. However. their realm was co nstra ined by the power of the Kushite kingdo m o f Ker m a to the south and the H yksos in the north . Wars laun ched against h( ~lh by ~ eq e nenre , K~mose , and Ah m ose eventua lly reunited Egypt maugurauug the most Important phase o f the city 's history. As a roy ,.t1 buria l p lace and ancestra l home , T hebes wa s lavish ly endowed With temple s to Amun , whos e imp ort an ce had ove rta ke n Ihat of ~he local god , Mon t h u . Du rin g the late r New Kingd om , ,Mem p h iS al~d the Delta c ities we re more im port an t - e ven thou gh I hebes rem ained the roya l burial place a nd e ndowme nts co nt inued to he made to A mu n. Th ebes was a ppare ntly the ce nter of the rebellion " ~ A m e n m ess~ aga inst Se ty II. In the 20 th Dynasty. the Th eb a n re~ I o n su ffere d fro m incursion s o f Libyans , and during the re ign of Ramesses Xl there was a major civi l wa r invo lvi ng the vice r oy of Kush , Panehesy . Unde r t h ~ Libyan pha raohs were period s o f T he ba n reb e llio n. most notab ly du ring the po nti fic ate of the crown pr ince and high prie st o f A lI UIll , Osorkon . At so me po int in the m id-e ighth ce ntury Be , Th ebes II l1d Uppe r Egy pt we re occup ied by the Ku sh ite king K ash ta . Th e
23 8 •
T1 ll:Bl S
city was sacked by As hu r ba n ipa l, king of Assy ria , duri.ng his c~ n . flict w ith Ta nwe ta mani. T he impo rtance of T hebe s dec lined du ring the Late Period beca use the principal politica l and population ce nters were in the nor th, and Thebes was no longer a royal burial place . The loss of Nubia as a territor y probably also affected the city 's imp ortance. A furt her blow to T heban prestige was dealt when the Pto lemies estab lished a new admi nistra tive center for Upper Egypt at Ptolem ais [-I ermi ou , but the city co ntinued to be a focus of rebellion s thro ug hout the Pto lemaic period . T he Th eb an king s Ha ro nno ph r is and Chaonno phris led the ma jor rebelli on o f Uppe r Egy pt in the reign of Ptolem y V. Later , till' civil and d yn asti c war between Ptolemy VIII E ue rgetcs II and Kleopat ra II saw thei r armies taki ng and retaking the city , while an other Th eba n rebe l pharao h, H arsiesis , also tried to impose his OW II rule . In the rebellions , the cities to the south, Pa th yri s and Apo llo nopol is Megale (Ed fu) , rema ined loyal to the Ptolem ies . T here wus furth er unrest in Thebes in 123-1 22 BC and furt he r dyn astic troubl es affec ting the c ity between 10 1 and 88 Be bet ween Ptolemy IX Sot er II and Ptolem y X Alex a nde r I. W hen Egyp t fell to the Romans in 311 BC , Co rneli us Gallus , the p refect appointed by Aug ustus , had til suppress rebe llions in the Th eban region. By this time, the c i t~ had decl ined to be little more than a co llection o f vi llages and a tourist ill tract ion, but the Roman emperors continued to add to the temp les II I Amun , and a garrison was stationed in the town. With the inc reased problems on the southern horder because o f raids by the Blemmyes . a for tress was bui lt aro und the temp le of Luxor. Th e monuments and discoveries in T hebes have sup plied much ill form atio n on warfare in Egypt. T he walls of the temple of Arnu n III Karn ak carry battle sce nes , notab ly the wars of Sety I. T he An nal of Thutmose III are inscribed aro und the princ ipal sanctuary , and till pharaoh's Poeti cal Stela was found nearby. Other reliefs and ill scriptio ns record military activ ities by Karnose, Ram esses II , Mere nptah , and Sheshonq I. The templ e of Amun at Luxor also ern ries reliefs of the wars of Ram esses II. T he so-called " mortuary" tem pies on the wes t bank a lso have cycles of reli efs, the best-preserv ed being in the temples of Ramesses II (the Ramesseum ) and Ramcssv III (Med inct Hab u). Numerou s fragment s have been excava ted from other temples such as that of Menthuhotep II. T he hundreds III
THUTMO S[ I (REIGNED C. 1504- 1492 Be) •
239
private tombs include those of importa nt military offi c ials, suc h as Userhet, .H~remheb , and Tjanu ni. Private and roya l tombs have been a princ ipal source of well-preserved mil itary equipment, such as ~eapons and ch ariots , the bigge st collection being from the tomb of I utankh amun . Th ebes has also bee n the finding place of so me of the best-preserved literature relating to mil itary ac tivities. Identifying actual military sites in Thebes is difficu lt beca use most of the anc ient city lies beneath the mode rn town of Luxor. The Roman fOl:t arOl~nd the templ e of Luxor is well preserved , but no p.haraolllc fortifi cation s have been discovered , although texts refer to city wall s . Massive defensive brick wa lls , prob ably erec ted by Na kh tne bef, surrounded the temp les. Th e " Place-belove d-of-T hoth" migh t be a sma ll garrison fort in Thebe s. It is docum ent ed from the 19th Dynasty onward . Its officials have co nnection s with the main T heban temples and are also called Chief s of Soldiers. It perhaps stood near th~ later cu lt ce nter ofThot h at Qasr e l-Ago uz on the west bank of the river some distance south of Medinet ll abu . As such, it would have co ntrolled acce ss along the valley from the south. In the later Ptolemaic period . a garrison was stationed at Med inet Habu.
'I'I.I ROWST I ~ K. A commo n weap on used in warfare and for fowling . f he th ~owstl ck ~ppears on the Hunter 's Palette of the late Predynaslie Period and 111 the battle scenes in the ea rly Midd le Kingdom tombs of Khety aJ~d Khnumh otep at Ben i Hasan. In the temple of IIatshe ps ut at De ir e l-Bahar i (T he bes) a co ntinge nt of soldiers is shown on ceremonial duty, some ca rrying throwsticks, the others a~es . A co ntingen t in the tom b of Tjan uni is also armed with throwsticks. There were 21 throwsticks in the tomb of Tuta nkham un probably for fowling , rather than war. ' 'I'lI lJTMOSE I . (re igned c. IS04-1492 li e ). Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty. He continued the Egyptian expansion into western As ia and Nuhia . The reign began with a ca mpaign into Nubia. which is documcnted b~ a number o f sources . There are rock inscrip tions at Tum bos (al the Thi rd Ca ta ract), Tangu r (south o f the Seco nd Cataract) , and at " swan, where the canal of Senusret III was cleared . The autobiographical inscription of Ahm ose so n of Ebana refers to the pulli ng of the roya l barge through a cata ract, although opinion is divided as to
240 •
TlI UTMOSE II IRUG N W C. 1492 - 1479 RC)
whi ch it was. Thutmose laun ched an offensive again st Kerma , proha bly usin g Sai as his base . Th e ev ide nce from Kerma shows that it wa, burn ed abo ut this time. and it has been ass umed that this campaign mark s the end of the kingdom of Kush . Recent excavatio ns haw show n that there was ex tensive rebu ilding work and the creation of II new "royal" ce metery, suggesting that , althoug h the Kushite ruler WII defeat ed and the capital sac ked , a vassal was installed . The royal record of events sta tes that a Kushite ruler , perh aps the ruler of Kenna him self, was killed in battle and his bod y hung upside down from the prow of the roya l flagship for its ceremonial return to Thebes . lnscr iptiou at Hagar el-M er wa alles t the presence of the army at the point where the desert route s regain the Nile near the Fifth Cataract. It is more likely that the army used the desert routes than the river , which is al most unnavi gable from the Fourt h to Fifth Cataracts. Thi s inscription paralleled that which T hutrnose I set up at the Euphrates and was situ ilarly co pied by Thutmose III. Th e inscriptions define the limit 1I1 Eg ypt's frontier across the desert in relat ion to the power s of th Berber-Shendi Reach of the Nile (pe rha ps Miu and Irem ). AlthOlIt' 1i Kenna was attac ked. the border see ms to have bee n cstahlished at tli ' Third Cataract and a fortress built o n the island of Tumhos . Th e ca mpaign in Asia too k the army,,, far as Nuh ur !n (1\ l ita llllll It is prob abl e that Thutmose 's arm y was co nveyed by the llcct III II ' bios, rather than marching th rough Pa lesti ne and C a naa n. In, n ip tion aI ev ide nce suggests that the army ma rched from Byb los til Surnur, ac ross the mountains o f Le banon , into the Orontes Valko ' Fro m ther e , they adva nced north thro ugh the Sy ria n ste ppe 10 IVII tanni . Th e pharaoh set up his ste la at the Euphrates (" the river which goe s south in go ing north" ), a n act whic h mar ked the farthes t limit 1I1 Egy ptian milit ary ex pansion and which was co pied by Thutmose III THUTMOSE II (reig ned c. 1492-1479 II C). Pharaoh of the Igth J) nasty. so n of Thutmose I. At his accession . a " re bellion" bro ke out ill Kush . Thi s was led by the sons of the ruler of Kush . Th e rebellion I recorded in the access ion inscr iption of the phara oh . Rebellion 0 1'11' 11 occ urred at the change of ruler, partl y because any peacc treaty wn regarded as va lid on ly for the lifetim e of the sig natories and becau se II was alw ays a point of weakn ess. Th e report of rebe llion was also as", ciated with the pha raoh 's role of re-establi shin g orde r in the univci
T1 IUTM o Sr Il I IR[l GN ro C.1 479 _1425 RC) •
241
and w~s a symbo lic act as we ll as dem onstration of act ual power. The ca.mpmg n ~ s recorded by the inscripti on of Ahmose-pen-Nekhbet. The l~:gn furnis hes the first .evide nce for Nubian princes being taken to Lgypt as hostages to be installed later as Egyptian vassals. T1.'.UTM O SE III (r eig ned c. 1479-1425 HC). So n o f Thutmose II , I hutm ose III ascended the thron e as a min or , with Hatsh epsut as rege nt a~d later co ru ler. Th ere were proba bly as many as four campaig ns into Nubia in the core ign with /--Iatshepsut , Thutmose IIJ leadIIIg a t I.east two in per son . On e ex ped ition, recorded by a stela from a:l~1 rel iefs on the py lon of the templ e of Ar ma nt, was directed agai ns t .1\.' III , where a rhino cer os was hunt ed . Inscripti on s on the rocks at Iilngur, sOl.n h of the Seco nd Cataract , attest the yo ung pharaoh 's prese nce With the ar my. In his so le. reign . foll o wing the death of Hatshepsui Thutmose /II e:lIl1 p:~ I ~ned III western As ia almos t annually. There were a total o f 17 l'~ ped il ions from yea rs 22--42 ..His predecessors, notably Amen hotcp I. nnd Thutmose I. had csta blished Egy ptian influe nce as far as the h lphr:ltes a nd N a ha r in. but the intensive military actions of ThutlIIose I" es tahlished Egy pt as the dominant power. Th e battl _ , f ' . . • CS, cap IlIl e, 0 c u res. a nd tnbute bro ught large numbers of horses charl t ' I I .. . , • 10 S, ,lI ll o t ter milit ary euurpment, as we ll as human captives, raw rnater i:lI s. a nd har vests. The As iatic ca mpa igns are detailed in the Annals of I hutmos« 1/1 carved in the hall surro und ing the sanctuary of the tem ple o f Anll~n at Karn ak (T hebes) . These are. for temple record s of military action. remarkabl y factu al a nd are stated to have been epitouuzcd from the Da y Books of the campaign. So me sec tion s of the inserrptlo ns ha,:,e been damaged , makin g interpretation d ifficult. Th ere arc :~ Iso two lists of cities ca ptured and further texts on the seventh py_ ./C,"1 at K~rna k . There ~re , how ever. no depiction s of the campaigns. ',lie P o.ctlcal Stela ~ttnbl~ tes the victorie s to AITIlm . A utobiographica l II xts 0 1 a num ber 0 1 sold ie rs and officia ls add a little more detail. Veterans from e~rJ ier Asia tic ex ped itions, such as Ahmose-pen _ N,'kh bct, ended their caree rs in this reign . while a ne w generation, such 1I~ ~ rncnemha b , ~gan theirs . The army scribe Tjanuni , who might have been re.sponslble for so me of the later entries in the Day Book s, 111, 0 began his caree r under Thutmose IIJ. The viceroy of Kush Nehi M'ems to have undertaken so me military actions in Nubia during the
242 • T1 IUTM0 51 IIl lREIGNrD C. 1479 -1425 Be) TJANUNI •
years of Asiatic expans ion. In addition to the " historica l" accounts , so me events are narra ted in po pul ar literature . O ne papyru s sto ry has an account of the capture o f J oppa , and a fragm ent ary papyru s in the Egyp tian Mu seum , Turin , probably dating from the 20t h Dynas ty, is part of another literary work relating to the pharaoh 's Sy rian Wars . The passage s surv iving re late inc idents du ring a battle (perha ps M egid d o) in whic h the pharaoh is protect ed by three form s of the god Mon th u: Month u ,lord of Armant, at his right han d ; Monthu , lord o f Djert y, at his le ft hand ; and Mo nt, lord of T hebes , in fro nt. T he pharaoh also liken s him sel f to Mo nthu and his ene mies' horses to Se t h and Baal. T he first cam paign , in ye ars 22 -23 , cu lmi nated in the Battle 01' Megiddo . T he ar my se t out fro m Tjar u an d ma rched to G aza , where the fea st of the coronatio n to ok place (be g inn ing the new regna l ye ar 23). Fro m Ga za , the march a lo ng the coasta l plain passed Yeh e rn (c . 135 ki lomete rs) . A divi s ion might have broken o ff and capture d Joppa ell ro ut e , T hutmo se heard tha t the prin ce o f Qadesh was at Megiddo , w ith the prince s of Na h a ri n , Kharu, and Qode. The pharaoh cho se to tak e the army th rou gh the shor t , but mo re difficu lt, Aruna pass. The battle at Meg iddo was fo llowed by a le ngthy s iege . T hutmose marched far ther north and ordered the bu ildi ng of a fo rtress , be fore the ret urn to Egypt and fes tiva l o f v ictory at Thebes. T he next s ig nificant cam pa ign was di rected aga inst Q adcsh itsel f', On th is ca mpa ign , the a rmy sa iled to, and from , Sum ur, At Qadesh , the or c hards we re cut down and the grain harve sted . T he inscription o f Amene m hab record s eve nts in thi s ex ped itio n . T he ca m paig n 01 year 33 marked the ulti mate foc us of the pharaoh 's plan s, the attack o n M it a n n i (Naharin). Aga in , the e xpedit ion sa iled to Sumu r before mar chi ng inland , carry ing the ir boats w ith them . T here wa s a ba ttle in Na hari n, apparen tly a n Eg yptia n v ictor y. Th is wa s fo llowed by the capture of Cu rchernis h , the crossing o f the Euphrates , and the settin I up o f a bo unda ry ste la ne xt to that of Thutmose I. Na harin paid 1I t r ib u te of 5 13 s laves and 260 hor se s . T he pharaoh e ns ured that then' we re su pplies for the harbors . T he inscri pti on of A me nemhab says th at the re wer e three battles in Nahar in . T he 10th cam paign o f ye ar 35 was provoked by the " r e b ellio n " 01 Na harin . T here was a bail ie . Th utm o se carried 0 1'1' as booty two suits o f bronze a r m or . T he army c aptured 180 horses and 60 c ha riots , I t in la id co rse lets, 13 su its of bronze ar mor, a nd five bronze helmets
24 3
Th e 13th cam pa ig n , in year 38 wa s f II . co m prisi ng 328 ho rses 52 ? '1.' ~ 9 0 o~ed by the trib ute o f Syria . ' - s a ves . c ha n ots of -, pai nted chariots , bron ze spears sh i ld b Sl ver a nd gold , 6 1 wa r, addi ng cons idera bly t~ tile ~la~ ' ~ws , an d othe r weapons of Cyp r us inc luded copper a nd hor s:S T~~hl ~ arsenal. .T he tribute of was aga ins t the S has u : this ex edi ti _ th camp~lgn, III ye ar 39 . em ha b. T he Sy rian tribute th:r f~,tll~:~~ ~Iso menuonen by Amen17th ca mpa ig n . in ye ar 42 ret urned to lfJc.luded 229 hor ses . Th e s itio n around Qadesh and Tunip , co nsolida te the ph araoh 's poTh ese ca mpa ig ns estab lished E t . h gy p as the rival to Mit a nni in ,. ro ug I e normous wea lth in b and tr ibu te). T hutm ose states tl t h I oot~ a nd annua l le vies (tax per Rctenu to Arn un -h ia e mat e a g Ift of th ree c ities of Up. w ose te mp le rece i d · I' ca mpa ig ns Ihro ugh boo ty a nd tribut ive tax ro m them . Th e supplies o f hor ses an d c hario t . I e en.sured that the king had la rge In ye ar 47 Th .' S .
Syria They b -
apa
3.
TII UTMOSE IV (re ig ne d c. 1400-1390 . nasty, so n of A mcn hote p II T I " Phara~h of the 18th Dy re ign is a Nu bia n ca rnpa ! . I' ie ~nl military ac tIon kno wn for this 1g n M , recorded by an inscript ion on the island of Konosso 11 ° pty.e, . , . ea r 11 ae (A sw an ) T I -. ., probab ly directed aga inst the Id _ _ ' . u s ex ped Jllon was . go -m mlng re I' h ' g ions 0 I e Eas tern Desert. T he ph 'Jr'loh 's d i I , c Ip o rna trc contac ts -1/ h . Ianni are refer red to in th A ' WI lt e kingdom of M imade a diplomatic m a r .e llJ~r,na L e.tt ers . T hese re vea l thaI he nage Will a M ita . sca ling a p eace treaty betw I anman pr incess. probab ly . ' e e n t ie tw o ru lers Pr I' cha r iot were reco vered from h - t b . " ,lrt,S 0 the pharaoh's ; : om . ":I1h decora tion showing a batlie with Asiat ics, In the s iol with (he god Month~e~l~- ~l~~ose IS ~hOW~l stand ing in his chare 111 im , hel pin g him to draw his bow .
II:!.
I'.I ANUN I. Mi litary offic ia l buried at T I b graphica l text in his tom b h te es . Th e damaged autobiosays I at he served T h t III hlllep II . and T h u tm ose IV H - ' . u rno se , Amen . IS man y tJlles a nd varian ts inclu de
TUMIlOS • 245 24 4 • TJARU rr ru [I -IIEBWA)
those of Royal Scribe , Overseer of the Scri bes , Scribe of the (Great) Arm y (of the King), Overseer of Scribes of the Army, Scribe of Recruits, Scrihe of the Palace Guard , and Ge nera l. These titles reveal that there was no significant division hetween the military and the bureaucraC)' in the Egyptian New Kingdom . Th e paint ings in Tjanuni's tomb depict the presentation of horses as part of the tribute and the enlisting of neferu-recruits in the army, with drill exercises . So me army musici ans are depic ted : two trumpeters and a Nubian dr ummer. Amon g other military gro ups, with their sta ndar ds , are perha ps Libyans with two feath ers in their hair , carrying throwsti ck s . T jAR U (TELL EL-H EBWA). Fort ress on the eas tern border of Egypt, protecting the Ways of Horus and the route acro ss nort!, Sinai to G az a and Pa lestin e . Now ide ntified with Tell el-Hebwa, II was formerl y suggested to be the nearby Tell Abu Sefa . Duri ng the reig n of Horemheb , the future pharaoh Sety I was governor of Tjaru. Th e defen se is depicted in the hattie scenes o f Sety I at Karn ak as two forts on either side of a crocodile-infested canal. Th e surviving arch aeolo gical rema ins are the found ations of the fOl1 ress of the reign of Diodetian ove rlaying a much larger co nstruction, probabl y o f the Persian period . Diocleti an 's fortress is very similar to others of the period in Egypt , notably the well-preserved el Deir in Kharga Oasis. It is a slightly stretched rectangle with walls of mud brick about fou r meters thick . T he inner length is 160.2 meter s on the north and south, but 99.7 meters on the east and 101.2 meters on the west. As at Deir , roun d towers are at the corne rs. Towered gates are at the middle of both north and south sides, with semicircular towers between the co rner towers (on east and west), and between the gates and corner towers. An inscr iption in Lati n records the Ala I T hracum Maureta na, although the Notitia Dignitatum names the Ala I Aegyptiorum here . Tj EKK ER. Asiat ic ethnic group. Listed among the Sea Pe oples . In the late 20th Dynasty, they are closely identified with the port of Dor ill Palestine . T R I BUTE. A term used for the foreign produ cts depicted in temple and tomb sce nes, although these ca n act ually belong to a number of dif
~e re n t
eco nom!c c.ateg.ories: gift exchange bet ween rulers , taxes on Items of trade . In Egy ptian ideo logy, all were d epl c~ed as i1t ~l ~y were .the tribute offered to the pharaoh by subjects , even. If the p~lItl c a! reality was di fferent . A goo d example of the ideo loglc.al rel atl ~n~h lp be~ we en war and tribut e is found in the te mple o f S.elt e ~ - Wall III Nubia , where a large scene shows Ramesses II l ead~ ~ g his so ns.and chariotry aga inst a flee ing Nubian infantry. The Nubian VIllage IS s h~w n sc hematica lly with one hut. Th e balanc ing hal f ~f the .wall ~Ie p lc t s the Nu bia n tribute , brought to the pharaoh , wh.o IS depicted In full majesty: this includes natural products such as .IVory, ebo.ny, and incense , the produ cts of long-di stance trade', wild a n ~ ma ls , skins , and produ cts o f manufacturing ce nters such as s h ~e lds, bows , and furniture . None o f this tribute co uld have been acqu ired from. the d e ~eated village , but the scene e mphasi zes the cause (wa r) and elfect (tribute), T here are many fine sce nes of tribut e and of the ~ew Year gifts to the pharaoh (the products of the roya l work shops) 111 tombs at Thebes , notably that of Qenam un . These have some good depi ct ions of wea pons and a r mor. co n ~ ro ll ed t~ ~TItOn e S ,
T RIR E ME. T he standard type of Greek warship o f the fifth ce ntury uc to the fourth century A D . It was notable for its bronze ram at water level on the prow. Triremes were rowed by oarsmen in groups of three . ~o me sc ho la ~s .sugges t t hat t he trireme was developed from an EgyptI"~' or Phoenician type of vesse l of the sixth centu ry. Larger warships with oa rsmen in groups o f four or more (polyremes, quinquerem e): were deve loped from the fourth century onward . T he Egyptian term keben et has been understood as indicating triremes of the Greek type. T lJM B? S (19° 42' N 30° 23'E). Island site nea r Third Ca ta r ac t of the Nile 111 Upper Nu bia . T here are three roc k inscr iptions of Thutmose I and de~ ud ed rema ins o f a massive mud brick enc losure that co uld he the rums of a for tress built in his reign. Th e enclosure some 75 meters by 3S meters is or iented east-west and has mud-brick walls in I~laces 3.5 m~ters thick and surv iving up to a height of 4 met~rs . Some parts 01 the wa lls are built on rough stone found ations , elsewhere they stand d irectl y on the granite bou lders that form part of the Island . Tum ~os ~ n d the Th ird Ca taract seem to have marked the southern limit 01 Egyptian ex pansion in the early years of the 18th
246 •
TUN I!'
Dyn asty, with the main military stro ng hold on the island o f Sai. Thut rnose I certa inly laun ch ed a major o ffens ive aga inst Ker ma, which lay immed iatel y south of the Thi rd Catara ct. W he n Egyptia n co ntrol was e xte nded over Kenna and the rest of Uppe r Nubia , Tumbos ceased to have a significa nt ro le in the defensive (or offe nsive ) net work and the re are no ind icati on s of prolon ged occupation a t the site , Later roc k insc riptio ns and ac tiv ity seem to be co nnec ted w ith ex ploit ation of the g ranite qua rries near by. TUNIP. Cit y and state of Sy r ia . The exact location is uncertain , but it lay to the wes t of the Oro ntes River and nort hwest o f Q ad esh . It see ms til have had some coas ta l territo ry, although mostly lay in the Leba non range and the plain to the east. It figures qu ite promin entl y in the latl'! Asiat ic campaig ns of Thutmose III. presu mably because of its prox imity to Qadesh. It see ms to have bee n a vassal o f M itan ni at this tim« Tunip might have been the ultimate goa l o f the ca mpaign of Thutl11OM' Ill 's 29th year, but was not captured until the exped ition of year 42. II figures in the Am a rna Letter s when its cit izens wrote to th e phara oh (pro bab ly A k he na ten), app aren tly requ esting that the so n of thei r dl' ceased king be sent as ruler. The letter alludes to the city's capture h, "Manak hpirya" (i.e., Me nkhe perre - Thutmose Ill ) and a lso complain that , althoug h they have been wri ting for "twe nty year s" (i.e ., a Ion time), thei r requests are never dealt with . Later letters state that the 1111 tite king is on ly two days marc h away from the city . Tunip ap pears III the battle rel iefs o f Ramesses II and Rarnesses III. TUTANKHAMUN (reigned c. 1336-1327 IIC). Pharaoh of the Inll 18th Dyn asty. Although there is no e vide nce that Tut ankhamu n CO li ducted a ny military campaigns him se lf, it is likel y that there WI' I ca mpaigns in bo th Nu bia a nd As ia duri ng his rei gn. Re liefs from d ism antl ed cha pel at Karn a k (The bes) , Gebe l S ilsi la (the Spcos " H o r e m he b) , a nd in th e tomb of the ge ne ra l (l at er ph a raoh Hore mh e b at Saq q a r a sho w ep iso des in a military actio n aga inst Ih Nub ian s. Re liefs from the Karnak chape l and the Saqqara to mb I I Horemheb show an Asi atic battl e and tribute being brought by d feated peop les, inc luding Hittitcs . It is likel y that the cond uct I these actions was under the co ntro l of. and ve ry po ssibly led in I" f son by, Horemheb . Scen es o n a painted che st sho w ing th e king in h
URONA RTI • 11101 fighting
247
As iatic and Nubian battl es are probably sy mbo lic
r'l~ they are parall eled by sce nes sho wing him hunting wi ld an tland as a trium ph an t s p hinx . .ilJnkhamun's su_bstantia lly intact tomb in the Valley of the Kings ~J!IIIlant ~s .the lmd mg place of the largest number of co mp lete ~lt survlvmg from ancient Egypt. T he re was a considerable mUl of other mil itary pa raph ern ali a and weapons , includ ing 14 &mdat least 29 (pe rhap s 32) co mposite bows , more than 400 ar~!lIIl arrowhe~ds , e ight s hields (fo ur with ope nwork designs are d /yceremol1la l) , d.aggers (o ne with an iro n blade), two kh ep~ords , a leather CUirass , s wo r ds , two fragm en tary plaited linen l~ngs , 13 cl ubs of varyi ng shapes. throwsticks and boo merangs IITIofthese we re ce re mo nia l, other s for use in fowling rathe r than ·,III!. Most of these ite ms inc lude d full-s ize examples and so me tt~rl clear ly mad e for the pharaoh as a boy.
-uM ~reigned c. 2375-2345
HC). Last pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty, 'll'\.nSaqqa r a , near M emphis. A fragment of relief from the cau se~lms temple shows a battle, with bearded enemies, either Asiatics 'Il!m , being shot by archers using self-bows , or engaged in hand,·drombat Anothe r frag ment of re lief shows starving Libyans, and ,mU of famine appears to have fo rced nom adic peoples on Egy pt's Ilhtn to the country, possibly resultin g in co nflict
II!\~rI. Island fortress in the Sec ond Cataract , within sig naling rlJllofSem na and S halfa k . Per hap s beg un in the reign o f Se n us-
lliwas completed by the reign of Sc n us ret III. Like most island 'a,.JiOvcrall plan was dic tated by the top ography, but with an inplan. In th is case, the res ult was a roughly triangular for t 11.')I1 I1'~lI s . The spur wa ll o n the north ran for 230 meters , with I,~ OO ItS north ern side . Th e nort h side of the island was flatter ~J."'I\here and the poin t fro m wh ich attac k was most likely. T here ~I;rond spur wa ll on the so uth side o f the fort. The main gate Ill'l ered gatehouse , was in the wes t wa ll. A gate in the eas t wa ll hiliallw ay and the water ga te . Th e acco m modation at Uro narli IlmlOO
24 6 •
TUNI!'
Dyn asty, w ith the main mil itary stro ngho ld on the island of Sai. Thill rnose I certa inly la unched a major offensive agai nst Kerma, whic h lay imme d iate ly so uth o f the Third Cata ract. Wh en Egy ptian co ntrol was ex te nde d over Kenna and the rest of Upper Nubia, Tumhos ceased to have a signi fica nt role in the defensiv e (o r o ffens ive) net wo rk and there a re no indi cati on s o f pro lon ged occ upation at the sill' , Later rock inscription s and activi ty seem to be co nnec ted wit h ex ploitati on of the granite qu arries nea rby. TUNIP. Cit y and state o f Syria. Th e ex act location is uncertain . but it lay to the wes t o f the Orontes Ri ver and northwest of Qadesh . It seems Ie I ha ve had so me coa sta l terri tory, although mostly lay in the Leb anon ran ge and the plain to the eas t. It figures quit e prominentl y in the lall'l Asiatic campaign s of Thut mose III. presumably because o f its pro x imit y to Qadesh. It see ms to have been a vass al o f M itanni at this time. Tun ip might have been the ultimate goa l o f the ca mpaign o f Th utrnosc Ill 's 29th year , but was not captured u ntil the expedit ion of year 42 , II figu res in the Am a rna Letters whe n its ci tizens wrote to the pharaoh (proba bly Akhenate n) , apparent ly requ esting that the so n of their de ceased king be sent as ruler . The letter alludes to the city 's capture hy "Manak hpirya" (i .e ., Menkhep erre - T hutm ose III) and also co m plains that, a lthoug h they have been writing lor "twe nty years" (i .e., a lOll!, time) , the ir requ ests are neve r dealt wi th. Later letters state that the Hi ttite king is only two days march away fro m the city. Tunip app ears ill the battle rel iefs of Ramesses II and Ramesses III . TUTANKHAMUN (reigned c. 1336-1327 IIC). Pha raoh of the late 18th Dyn asty. A ltho ug h there is no evidence that Tut ankharnun COliducted any military campai gn s him self, it is likel y that there well' ca m paigns in both N ubia and As ia during hi s rei gn . Re lie fs fro m a di sm antled cha pe l at Karn ak (T he bes) . Geb el S ilsila (the Speas of Horemheb) , a nd in the tomb of the ge ne ra l (later phar ao h) Horemheb at Saqqara sho w episodes in a mi litary ac tio n agai nst the N ubian s . Rel iefs from the Karnak chape l a nd the Saqq ura to mb o f Hore mh eb show an Asiatic battl e and tri but e bein g brou ght by defeated peop les . incl ud ing Hittites . It is likel y that the conduct of these ac tions was und er the co ntrol o f. and ve ry possib ly led in perso n by, I-Iorem heb . Scen es o n a painted c hes t showi ng the king in his
URONARTI •
247
ch a r iot figh ting As iatic and Nubia n battles are probab ly sy mbo lic bec au se they are paralle led by scenes showi ng him hunting wild a nirnals and as a triumpha nt sp h inx . . Tutankhamu n's sUbst~ n t i a lly intact to mb in the Va lley of the Kings 1J~portant ~s .the findi ng place of the largest number of complete chario ts survrv ing from anc ient Egypt. Th ere was a co nsidera ble amo unt of other m ilitary parap hern ali a and weapons , inc lud ing 14 se lf- and at least 29 (pe rha ps 32) co mposite bows , more than 40 0 arro ws and arrowheads, eig ht s h ields (fo ur with o penwork design s arc probab ly ce re mo nia l), daggers (o ne wi th an iro n blad e), two kh epesh -swords . a leather c uirass , swords . two fragment ary pla ited linen cord slings , 13 cl ub s o f va ry ing sha pes. t h m ws t ieks and boom erangs (so me of these were ce re mo nia l. othe rs fill ' lise in fOW ling rathe r than wa rfa re). Most of these item s includci! full-size exa mples a nd so me that were clearly mad e fo r the pharao h as a hoy . IS
- ulINA~ (reigne d c. 23 75-2345
IIC). Last pharaoh o f the Firth Dynasty, buried at Saqqara.nenr Memphis . A fragm e nt o f relief from the ca useway o f his templ e shows a ba ttl e , with bearded e nemies. e ither Asiatics or Libyans . being shot by archers using self-bows. or e ngaged in hand to-ha!ld combat: Another fragm ent of rel ief show s starving Libyan s . a nd a period o f famin e appears to have forced nomadic peoples o n Egy pt's harde r into the co untry, possibly resu lting in conflict.
l/R?NA RTI. Island fortress in the Second Cataract , w ithin signa ling d lstan~e o f Sem na and Shalfak . Per hap s begun in the re ign o f SCJIIISret I, It was completed by the re ign of Sellllsret III. Like most island forts, its overall plan was dict ated by the top og rap hy, but with a n inte rnal grid plan. In this case, the res ult was a rough ly triangular fort with spu r wa lls. The spur wa ll on the north ra n for 230 meter s . with hast ion s on its north ern side . Th e north si de of the island was flatt er than e lsewhere and the poi nt from which attack was most like ly. T he re W:IS a second spur wa ll on the so uth side of the 1011 . Th e main gale , with to wered gateho use, was in the west wa ll. A ga te in the east wa ll led to a stairway and the wa ter ga te. Th e acco mmo da tion at Uro narti
WAU. •
2 48 •
lI SrRKAF \RlI GNW
2 49
c. 2494 - 2487 DC)
suggests a garriso n o f between abo ut 11 2 and 280 men. Its defen se needs were bet ween 250-500, or betwe en 375-750 , if the spur wa lls are taken into acco unt. USERKAF (r eigne d c. 2494-248 7 lie). F irst pharaoh o f the Fifth D ynasty b urie d at Saq q a ra. nea r M emphis . Frag me nt s o f the re lie f d~c oratio n fro m his pyra mid templ e surv ive . One of th ese shows runrung troops who ori gi na lly accompa nied a sh ip. Some are dre ssed in ~i\ls . the othe rs in an apron w ith thre e hanging piece s o f c loth . There IS no explic it evi de nce for mi litary acti vities .
-VVICEROY OF KUSH . T he Egyp tian title was " King's Son o f Kush ." T he first viceroy was appo inted by K amose and the o ffice co ntinucd until the e nd o f the 20th Dy nasty. Egyptolog ists o nce ass u med that the office ceased w ith the probl em s in Upper Egypt and Nu b ia in the re ign o f R amesses X I, but there is now e vide nce from exc;l " atin ns at Ab u (Ele phantine) for its continua nce. Th ese o lTiciah o f the T hir d In termed iate Per iod combined the dutie s o f viceroy wit h ot her n: hg loll' and civi l positi on s assoc iated with As wa n . It is likel y that the IiiI
-w WAD I EL ~ UDI. A s ite of a methys t qu arries in the Eastern Desert near As wan With a fortress o f Rom an date . WADI TUMILAT. T he Wadi T um ilat ru ns fro m near the apex of the Del t~ toward the Red Sea. Ramesside document s show that Shasu bed.Ul n ca me a l? ng it in the dry seasons w ith their herd s and flocks . Its Importan ce incre ased w ith the co ns tructio n of a canal by Neka u II, comp leted ? r e nlarge d by Darius I, re ne wed by Pto lem y II, and exte nde d by Trajan . T he canal was 45 meter s wide 5 mete rs deep d . b r " an wa s naviga Ie tor 84 ki lome te rs from Per- Bastet to the Red Sea . T he lo",:n o f Per-Atum (Pithom) , kno wn as Heroiinp olis in the Ptolem aic peri od ( t h ~ modern site o f Tell e l-M as k h u ta) , wa s a major entrepot [rom the tim e o f Neka u II thro ugh the Rom an peri od . \VA.H I ~ R E
(A r RIES) ( rc ig~led 589-570 lie). Phara oh of the 26 th Dynasty, In 5XX/5 X7 II C, Wahibre attacked the towns of Tyre and Sido n, \I 11Ich to the expanding Neo - Bab . n Esmprre . • •had become subject • ' c y Ioma \~ h "e Us e mpe ror . Nc h uc had nezza r II . wa s besieging .Jerusalem : h lllo\\' lI1 g the full ~ f Je rusale m . Neb uchad nezzar invested Tyre , and many .le ws took re fuge in Egyp t (notab ly at As wan ). Wahibre was dethroncd hy Ahmose II in a reb ellion of the army fo llowing a r '1 d . . L"I 'II e ca mpuign 111 I rya (pro bably directed agai nst Cyrene). Despite thi Wahibre still h:ld support througho ut Egypt and in 57 0/569 Be tempted to regam his. th ron e w ith the ass istance of ships [rom Cyprus and troops fro m C~n a and Ioni a . Wahibre was defeated in ba ttle and 1~ed to wes tern ASia . Howeve r, he still see ms to have had support in I ~gypt a nd persuaded Ne buc hadnezzar to invade Egypt in a seco nd atte mpt to rei n st ~te him , in 56 8/567 Be. Wahibre was killed , perhaps in hattie , and buri ed by Ahmose II in the roya l necropo lis at Sa u .
~~~
WALL. De fe ns ive wa lls, o the r than those arou nd fortresses and settJemcn ts , we re bu ilt at a number of place s in Egypt and Nubia. Some are know n o nly from tex ts, but frag ments o f othe rs surv ive. T here was a l~a ll bet ween the fort resses o f Sc m n a and Urona rti at the Second t a t a ra ~t ; a wa ll between the to wn o f As w a n and the por t area at the I ~e ad 01 the : Ir.s t Cataract , perh ap s deli m iting the who le reg ion as Scnm u t. A Similar wa ll is rep ort ed between the Ni le Valley and the
j
WAWAT •
250 •
251
WA i l S OF TH E RU I [ R
Fayum running from Riqqa to Philadelphia. The Walls of the Ruler are kn o wn from the sto ry of Sinuhe: the y formed part o f the eastern defen ses of Eg ypt and , as such , probabl y rel ated to oth er s in the re gion that dat e b ack to the tim e of Sneferu . Th e P.alermo StOl\l' records the "buildi ng o f wa lls o f the Southland and 0 1 the Northland ca lled the House s of Sn eferu ." S uch fortifications mi ght have com bin ed lon g wa lls with dr y dit ch es, canals , watchtowers , and larger garrison fortre sses . . Wall s were built of unburned mud bri ck , stre ngthe ned With layers of timb er and matting . They could hav e towers and ba stion s on till' ex te rnal faces . En clo sur e wa lls of town s , such as Nekheb , or tern pie s , we re ge ne ra lly wi tho ut additional ex tern al feature.s and ~cn' built in interlocking sections of undulatin g bri ck work, T his technique (us ua lly ca lled pall -beddillg) gav e strength to the wa ll whe n it wa~ situated in th e 1100d plain , pre venting it from bre akin g whe n the wa tel' table e xpa nded . WALLS OF THE RULER. Th ese are referred to in the tale o f Sinul... as a defen se " to repel the A siati c s and to cru sh the Sand -f arer s ." Th e co uld be a later devel opment o f the " wa lls of the So uthland and o f till' Northland ca lled the Hou se s o f Sn e feru" re ferred to in the Palermn Stone . They mi ght ha ve been repl aced by the fortresses and defcn sive net work , incl uding a canal , w hich ex tended from Tjaru . WAR. A prol on ged di spute between nation s or, in the cas e o f civil wur: rival sec tio ns of the population. Battle is o ne e le me nt in wars , hnl break s in d iploma tic and trading co ntac ts are a lso im port ant factor~ Although the term "war" is often used in Egyptologic al literature (II, in the " Li b ya n Wars" o f Set y I and M erenptah ) , it might not Ill' strictly applica b le in many cases of Egy ptia n hostil ities before th Ptolemaic period. In most instan ces , Egy ptian campa igns invol wtl sieges, battle, and lesser skirmishes , but we re not necessaril y pro lon ged and w ith the diplomat ic breaks that c haracter ize later wars Th e Syrian Wars of the Ptol emaic period we re prol on ged militar y ill' tion s with man y indi vidual battl e s. as we re the wars o f the diadoehnl WAR CRY. De scripti on s o f battle bein g relatively rare , there is little firm ev ide nce fo r aspects that are known from othe r soc ieties, such a
t1~e war c ry. How ev er, a few te xts sho w that th is was a part o f battl e . Sm u h e gav e a g~eat wa r cry a fter he had defeated the c ha mpion o f Retenu . Text s 01 Ramesses Ill's mil itary ac tio ns desc ribe his war cry: he bellowed and roared like a griffon ,
WATC H T? W E R. Th e best evidence for wa tc htowers is fro m the Roman period, although they probably exi sted earlier. Th os e pre served In the Eas tern Desert are usu all y built of stone, measuring so me 3 o r 3.5 meters sq~a re, a nd the sa me high . Access was by ladd er , and the low ers were 111 SIght o f each other. At Aswan, three wat chtowers stood bet ween the to wn and the fortress at the he ad o f the cataract ;1I~d form ed part of a network ex te nd ing from Dendur in Lo we r Nuhill to EMu . Th ere is e vidence for a sys te m of towers at the ap ex of the Delta , fro m Abu Raw ash probabl y to Babylon . WAWAT. Ori ginally the name of a chie fdo m of Low er Nubia , acquirmg more ~e ne ra l ized meaning . It is fi rst encountered in texts o f the late O ld KlI1 g~ om . Wawat was the most northe rly o f thr ee chiefdo ms betwee n the First and Second Cataracts. Th e text s of Harkhuf show that Wawal had e xpanded conquering Irtjet and Satju. From then on '.Vall'{/( was the na me given to the who le region be twe e n the F irst and Seco.nd Ca taracts. It was the name give n to the ad mi nistrative provmce during the New Kin gdom , w he n the viceroy maintain ed his headquar ters at Ani h a o r Faras . , :rh ere was, litt le ~i sturban c~ in the region during the New Kin gdom , 'II MIt from mcur sion s o f Libyans into the oases in the reign of ,Ra.m es,ses II , and a n atte mpted rebellion in the reig n of Merneptah . I h,ls W,IS supposed to I.lave take n plac e at the same tim e as the Libyan \~.lr but app arentl y failed . M an y arch aeologist s thin k that Wawat was IV l l h o u ~ se ttled po pulat ion during the who le period from the e nd of the New Klll g~om to the M:roitic period . This , ho wever, see ms unlikely, li,nd there IS evide nce from different peri od s ('01' garri . t he ,rnSOI1S III I CII·tr~sses . Qasr Ibrim might have been forti fied in the trou bles of the reign of ~a~lesses XI. Ce rta inly, tro op s were sta tioned there and II I,Bu he ?, MI~glssa, a nd Semna in the reign of Taharqo . Th e fortr ess III Dor gin a r t i was pro ba bly bu ill in the Persian period . Altho ug h Wawat rema ins as a rather arc ha ic des ignation in Ptolenunc texts , the distri ct controlled by the Ptolem ies and Rom ans was
252 •
W AYS OF IIO RUS
know n as the Dodekaschoinos , o r, when enlarged, the Tria kon tascho inos . The for mer had its bo undary at M aharraqa . There wus milit ary acti on in the regio n in the re ign of A ug us t us when the pre fccts Co rne lius Gallus and Caius Petronius brou ght the ir a rmies here in the co nflict with Meroe . WAYS O F HORUS. T he name of the route fro m Egypt along the coa st of no rth Sinai , th rou gh Rhinocolura . Raphia , and G az a to Ca na a n and western As ia. The difficulti es of the road ser ved as a natural pro tec tion to Egy pt, but thi s was increased with a defen sive net work 01 fortresses. Th e ev ide nce co mes from literature and archaeo log ical re main s , whic h have bee n understood in relatio n to the sche matic representation o f the fro ntier in the reli ef sc ulptures of the wars 01 Sety I on the ex terior wall of the Hyp ostyle Hall in the temple 01 Karn ak (T h ebes). A majo r study by Alan Gardiner has been modifi ed by more rece nt excavatio n a nd resea rch , but the ident ificat ion 01 so me sites wi th the ir Egyptian names rem ains unce rtain. A canal is depi cted in Sety l' s rel ief. pro bably co nnec ting the Pelu siac branch of the Nile with the Biller Lake s . T he most imp ortant fortresses known fro m the docu ment ary ev ide nce were the grea t Iron tie r co ntro l points of Tj aru (a lso Tje l, or Sile) , Migdol , and Pclu sion . Also close to the borde r was Daphnae. Tjaru was ide ntified by Gardiner a nd others wi th the site of Tell Abu Sefa, but is no w sug ge sted to be the nearby site of Tell Hebwa. Thi s w ho le reg ion has re ce ntly becom e the focu s o f survey a nd excavatio n. At Tell Qed wa , excavatio ns in the fort ha ve proven it to be Sai te in origin . It had wa lls with ce llu lar co nstruction, so me ex terna l tower s , and a moat. Th e fortress was rebui lt aft er a massi ve co nflag ration . At Tell e l-He rr, a fo rtre ss of Per sian date und erlies a late r fort . Th e nam e 01 Ramess es II has been found in the excavations at Tell Borg , although it is not yet iden tifie d as a fortre ss . Two roads ran along the coast. One of these went from Pelu siou alo ng the narrow stretc h of land that separa ted Lake Serb oni s from till' sea : it was quick but treacherous . On this rout e lay Mount Kasios, whic h has been identi fied with two possible points . Th e inland ro ute was certai nly that in regular use . It cros ses an inhospitable, almos t wa terless de sert, and ar mies invading Eg yp t sought the aid of the local Ar a bs in cross ing it. From Pelusion to Rhin ocolu ra (Br oo k-of-E gy pt.
WElJ JAI IORRESNE
n . c. 540 -5 00 He )
•
253
mod ern el-Arish) is abo ut 120 ki lome ters , on to Raph ia 45 kilometers and to Gaza a nother 34 kilome ters , tot alin g aro und 200 kilome ters . ' WEA P O NS. Th e Hunter 's Palette and sim ilar late P redynastic and Early Dyn astic monuments (e .g., the Narmer Palette) show the range 01 ea rly weapons: the se lf-bo w, spea r, mace , axe , dagger and th ~owstick . "!'he sling was undoubtedl y used e xtens ively as 'we ll. With fe w ~dd l t l~n s , these re main ed the princip al weapo ns throu gh out the dynastic peri od . Th e co mpos ite bow wa s introduced in the Second Inter~ediate Pe riod. The dagger was enl arged into the sword (perhaps aided by de vel opment s in me tal techn ology) , and the sickleshape? kh ~pesh introdu ced . Th e spear was adapted as a stab bing and throw lllg (javelin) weapo n. Most wea po ns were manufactured in the state wo rkshops. wheth er allached. to the temples or palaces . as these were the storehouses of the preciou s metals and o ther mater ials req uired , 1110st of which were the p.roduct of foreig n trade (or t r ibute). The value of the materials as with tool s , ensured that the bureaucracy kept careful co ntro l o f wea po ns . Th e di stribution of weapons to the army is depi cted in the scenes of the battle with the Sea Peoples at M edinet Habu . Other weapons were the prod uct of the interna tio nal arms trad e . T here was rela tively lillie di ffe rence in the ra nge of weapo ns ava ilable to Egypt and her e nemies. o r in the techn ology. It has been assum,ed ~h at t~le de v~l opment o~ iron wo rking gave an adva ntage to the ,lI'I11Ies 01 ASSYri a, but this I S not cert ain. Assy ria does app ear to have had far more sophisticated mach inery for siege warfare . Perh aps lis g reatest asse t, ho we ver , was effic iency and tra ining . Assyria was able to mob ilize.its arm ies a nd send them to re be llio us di stant regi on s at remarkably high speed . \\,EDJA H O R RESNE (fl . c. S40-S0n lie ). Offic ial of the Late Period whose sta l.ue . no w in the Vatic an Muse um, carries a long a nd valuab le m~ toblOg ~aphica l .insc riptio n . It was or ig inally se t up in the te.mple In Sau 111 the re ig n o f Darius I. Wedj ah o rre sn e is o fte n desc rib ed as a "colla bo ra to r" becau se he se rve d as comma nder of the na vy under the pharaohs A hm ose II , and Psamtik Ill , and then unde r the co nq ueri ng king of Pe rsia , C a m byses , end ing his ca ree r und er Darius l.
254 • WESHr Sl 1
ZENOIlIA (Sr PTIMIA) (REIGNED 267-272
WESHESH. One o f the Sea Peop les, an element in the invasion of year 8 of R amesses III. WO MEN. Wom en rare ly appear in sce nes of ba ttle, and when they do , it is usuall y as enemies besieged in towns or as captives in the aftermath o f ca mpa ign. Wit h the exce ption of the violent imager y of queens in the New Kingdo m and at Meroe, wo men are not usuall y shown righting . The scene in the tomb of Int i at Deshash eh show s wo me n inside the fort ress that is being attacked hel ping the wo unded . In Eg yptia n lit erature , wome n, as wives and moth ers , are left bereft when the ir ma le so ldier relat ives are killed . T his view of wo me n ill re lation to war as genera lly passive victims do ubtless has so me truth , but is also influe nced by the image of women and their role projected in the Egyp tia n monument al and literary reco rd, which wa s essen tiall y a male product. An active ro le in war is attes ted for some roya l wo me n, notab ly Hatshepsut , members of the Ptole maic fami ly (Kleopa tru II , III , VII ), and Am anirenas of Meroe. Whether e lite and nonelite women accompanied military cam paigns as wive s. workers, or camp-followers is undocument ed .
- xXERXES. G reat King of Pe rs ia a nd ph araoh of Egy pt (reig ned 486-465 Be). Acco rdi ng to Herodo tos (Boo k 7), rebellion had broken out in Egypt shortly before the dea th of Darius I. Th is mig ht have bCl'1I led by Psamtik IV , the ruler of the far western Delta (although his [(' bell ion co uld have been later, c . 470 BC). W hen Xer xes succeeded hi father as king, he prepared the army for an invasion of Egy pt. T he n' bellion was suppressed and Xerxes installed his bro ther, Achai mcnc as satrap (c . 486/485-459 BC) , Achaimenes followed harsher policiv than his predecessors and was eve ntua lly killed in the rebellion "I In aros , so n of Psamtik, wh ich broke out at Xerxes' dea th (465 uc) .
-zZAW IYET UMM EL-RAKHAM. Fo r tress, 25 kilome ters west ,,' Mer sa Matruh . Recent excavatio ns have indicated that the fort 11'11
AD) •
255
c~n~ i derabJy larger than the 80 x 100 meters that were cleared by Lahih Habach i, It was probably the farth est west of a cha in of for~resses bui lt in the reign of Ram esses II , ex tending from M emp.llls along. the edge of the Delta and the coa st at approximately 50 k Jlo~eter interva ls. Others in the line stood at Alamein , Gbar~alllyat, Karm A bu-G ir g, and Rakot e (la ter Alexa nd r ia) . The I ~rtress appea rs to have been built to co ntro l the mo vemen t of L Iby a ns along the coa st beca use it stands at a co ntro lling point and had a large well within its wa lls. The fort stands close to the later tow n of Parnitonion , which mar ked the western mos t limit of Egy pt In the Ptolemaic period . ZENOBIA (SEPTIMIA) (r eig ned 267-272 A D). Ze nobia (the Aramaic lorm of the name is Bath Zabbai) was the wife of Sep timius Odaenathu s , who made himsel f king of Palm yra in circa 250 AD. Odaenathus estab lished himself as pro tector of the east ern frontier of the Roman Empire aga inst the threat from the Sasanid Empire in Persia and was honored by the Roman emperor , Ga llienus (25 3-268 AD), with the titles dux and corrector totius orientis, Odenaethus in practice ruled the whole eas tern provinces from Egy pt to Asia Minor, but always ackl:,ow ledged the sup~riority .o f the Roman emperor. Following the dc.alh o f Ode n.aethus, In a family dispute (267 AD) , his widow. Zenobia, sC l z~d ,r,ower In the name of their son, Sept imius Vaballathus . Her rule ~vas initially tolerated by the emperor s Gall ienus and Claudius " Got hreus (268- 70 AD) as long as she maintained the fronti er. , Zeno bia mov~d to .establish an independe nt empire. taking Egy pt .lIId much o~ ASia ~ 1Il0r. Zenob ia was invited into Egypt by Timagcnes early In the reign of C laudius " (268 AD), bringing an ar my of 70.000 under the co mma nd of Zabd as , Followi ng Ro man resistance , the Palm yre nes Withdrew, leaving a garrison of 5 ,000 , but these, too , were forced o ut by the Ro man genera l, Probu s, Zab das and Tim a/,cnes ~et urned, but were defeated by Prob us , who attempted to cu t 11 /1 their ~etreat near the fort ress of Babylon . Ho wever. Timage nes lIad ~u pe[Jor local know ledge and the Pa lmyrenes ultimate ly gained the victory . Probu s co mmi tted suicide . Between 270 and 272 AD, Ze nob ia and Vaballathus are named as the !'"wcr holders in Egyptian doc uments . On the death of Claudi us II in )7( ~ AD, Vaballathus was given increasingly exalted titles and dec lared " Zenobia to be the ju nior co lleague of the new emperor, Au relia n
256 •
l rN OBIA (S[ I'TIM IA) IR[ IGNrD 267 -272 AD)
(270-75 AD) . Howe ver, his positi on in the we st co nso lida ted , Aure lian led his ar mies aga inst Ze no bia, who now procl aimed her son Augustus and herself Augusta (272 AD) . Aure lian de feated her armies at Antioch and Ernesa, then besieged Ze no bia within Palmyr a , wh ere she was cap tured . Her life was spared . In spring 273 AD, Aur elian was bac k in the east to deal wi th a fur ther rebellion in Palmyr a and ano the r, appare ntly rel ated , in Egy pt whe re the Palrnyren es a llied them sel ve s w ith the Blernruyes, confln ing Roman au thority to A lexa nd ri a . In Upper Eg yp t, Palmyrcn e a r ch ers we re stationed at Koptos . Aure lian for ced the Palmyrenes and ad here nts into the Bru ch ei on , a suburb of A lex a nd ria , whe re thcy were bes ieged a nd e ve ntua lly for ced by hun ge r to ca pitu late . A urc lian destroyed the walls o f A lexandria .
Appendix: Dynastic list
1\/1 dates before 690 BC are approxima te Some . p,haraohs or dy nast ies were co nte m pora ry with ea ch other 0 I ' I , ionary . . n y p iarao 1S wh o appear 111 in Ith e dict are included . '
PREDYNASTIC PERIOD C. 5000-c. 3100
BC
EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD C. 3100-2686
BC
I )YNA S T Y " 0" c . 3 /50-3050 "Sco rpio n"
BC
I'IRST DYNASTY c . 3050-2890 Nanner c . 3 100 BC I\ h a c. 3080 BC I licr c. 305 0 BC Iljl'f c. 3000 BC l lell c . 2985 BC
BC
'HCO N D DYNASTY c . 2890- 2686 " "Il'p-sek he mwy c. 2890 BC 1'l'Iihsen c . 2700 BC l'Iiasckhem wy c . 260 0 BC
BC
OLD KINGDOM C. 2686-2181 IIIIR I) DYNA STY c . 2686- 26 13 BC uuakhte c . 268 6- 2613 BC N"ljer- khct Dj oser c . 26 67-2648 BC khcmkhe t c . 2648-2640 BC 257
BC
APPENOIX • 259
258 • AI'P ENDIX
FOURTH DYN ASTY c. 26 13-2494
MIDDLE KINGDOM C. 2040-1795 BC
Sne lru c. 26 13-2589 BC Khufu c . 2589-2566 BC Djedefre c . 2566-2558 BC Khafre c . 2558-2532 BC Me nkaure c . 2532-2503 BC She pseska f c. 2503-2498 BC FIFTH DYNASTY c. 2498-2345 Userkaf c. 2494-2487 BC Sa hure c . 2487-2475 BC Ne feri rkare c. 2475-2455 BC Ne fere fre c. 2448 -2445 BC N iuserre c . 2445-242 \ BC Djedkare-lses i c . 24 14-2375 BC Unas c . 2375-2345 BC
ELEVE NT H DYNASTY 1I (contin ued) N.ebhepetre Menthuhotep II 2055-2004 BC S ank h-ka-te Men thuhotep III 2004- 1992 BC Ncb- tawy-re Me nthuho tep IV \992- 1985 BC TWEL FT H DYNASTY c . \985-1 795 Ame ne mhat I 1985-1 955 BC BC
BC
Senusret I 1965-1920 BC Amenernhat II 1922-1 878 BC Scnusret II 1880- 1874 BC Se nusre t III 1874-1 855 BC Amenernhat III 1855-1 808 BC Arnenern hat IV 1808-1 799 BC Se bekne feru 1799-1795 BC TH IRTEENTH DYNASTY c. 1782- 1650
SIXTH DYN AST Y c . 2345-2 18 \ Teti 2345-2323 BC Pe pi I 232 1-2287 LlC Nemtyemsaf 2287-2278 Pepi II 227 8-2 184 BC
BC
BC
F IFT~EN TH DY NAST Y (Hyksos) c. 1650-1 550 Apepi c . 1585-1550 BC Khamudy c . 1550-1535 BC
BC
SllVENT EENT I-I DYN AST Y c. 1580-1 550 T . ao c . 1560 BC
fiRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD C. 21 8 1- 2000 SEVENTH/EIGHTH DYNASTIES c. 218 1- 2 125
BC
Kumose c . 1555-1 550
BC
BC
BC
BC
NEW KINGDOM C. 1550-1069 N INT H DYNASTY c. 2 160-2 130 TENTH DYNAST Y c . 2 130-2040
BC
BC
ELEVENTH DYNASTY c. 2125- 1985 Int er 1 2125- 2112 BC Inte f II 2 \ \2-2063 BC
BC
I ~I GH T E E NTI-I DY NASTY c . 1550-1 295 BC Ahmose 1550-1 525 BC i\ mcnhotep I 1525- 1504 BC 'Ihuunose I 1504- 1492 BC 'lh utmose II 1492- 1479 BC 'lh utrnosc III 1479-1 425 BC (so le re ign fro m 1456)
BC
Be
260 •
APPENDIX • APPEND IX
Shebitqo c. 695-690 BC Taharqo 690-664 BC Tanwetamani 664-656 BC
Hatshepsut 1472- 1458 BC Amenhotep II 1427- 1400 BC Thut mose IV 1400-1 390 BC Amenho tep III 1390-1 352 BC Akhenaten 1352-1 336 BC Tutankham un 1336-1 327 BC Horemheb 1323-1 295 BC
LATE PERIOD 664-33 2
NINETEENTH DYNASTY c . 1295-11 86 BC Sety I 1294-1 279 BC Ramesses II 1279-1 213 BC Merneptah 1213-1203 BC Amen rnesses 1203-1200 BC (o r entirely within the reign of Set y II) Set y II 1200- 11 94 BC TWENT IET H DYNASTY c . 1186-1 069 Rarnesses III 11 84-11 53 BC Ramesses IV 11 53-11 47 BC Ramesses VI 11 43-11 36 BC Ram esses IX 11 26-11 08 BC Ramesses XI 1099-1 069 BC
26 1
BC
THIRD INTERM EDI ATE PERIOD C. 10 69-656 TWENTY-FIRST DYNASTY c . 1069-945 Osorkon " the elder" 984-978 BC Siamu n 978-959 BC
BC
TWENTY-SECON D DY N AST Y c . 945-7 15 BC Shes honq I 945-924 BC Osorkon I 924-889 BC Oso rkon II 874-850 BC Take loth II 850-825 BC Osorkon III c . 800-785 BC TWENTY-FIFTH DYNASTY c . 750--656 Kashta c . 750-736 BC Piye (Piankhy ) c. 736-7 12 IIC Shabaqo c . 7 11-695 BC
BC
BC
TWENTY-S IXT H DYNASTY 664- 525 Psamtik I 664-610 HC Neka u II 6 10-595 BC Psam tik II 595-589 BC Wahibre (A pries) 589-570 BC Ahmose II (Arnasis) 570-526 HC I'samtik III 526-525 BC
BC
BC
TWENTY-SEVENTH DYNASTY (PERS IAN KINGS ) 525-404 Cambyses 525-52 1 BC Dar ius I 52 1-485 BC l'edubast III (rebe l Egyp tian dynast) c. 500 BC Xerxes 485-465 BC Artaxerxes I 465-424/423 BC Darius II 423-404 BC TWENTY-E IG HT H DYNASTY 404- 399 i\ myrtaios 404-400/399 BC TW ENTY-N INTH DYNASTY 399- 379 Ncfaarud I ca 399/398-394/393 BC IIakor 393/392- 381-380 BC l'shenmut 380/379 BC Ncfaarud II 379 BC
BC
BC
TIIIRTEE NTH DYNASTY 380-34 1 HC Nakhtnebef (Nectanebo I) ca 379/378-362/36 1 BC Iljedhor 36 1/360-360-359 BC Nckhthorheb (Nectanebo II) 359/358-342/34 1 BC SECOND PE RSIAN DYNASTY 343- 332 BC Auuxcrxes III 343-338 BC Khubbash (Egy ptian independent phara oh) c. 338 I)arius III 336-332 BC
BC
BC
262
•
APpr NDIX
APPEND IX •
MACEDONIAN KINGS 332-305 BC A lexa nder III the Great 332-323 Philip Arrhiduios 323-3 17 BC A lexa nder IV 323- 305 BC
BC
THE PTOlEMIES 305 - 30 BC Pto lemy I Soter 305-282 BC Ptolemy II Phi lade lphos 285-246 BC Pto lemy III E uergetes I 246-222 BC Pto lemy IV Phi lopator 222-205 BC Pto lemy V E piphane s 205- 180 llC Pto lemy VI Ph ilometo r 180-1 45 HC Kleopat ra II I 80- 116 BC Pto lemy VIII Euergctes II 169-1 63,1 45-1 16 BC Kleopatra III 145- 101 ll C Pto lemy IX Sote r II 11 6-1 07 BC Ptolemy X A lexande r I 107-88 llC Pto lemy IX Soter II (restored) 88-80 BC Kleopatra Berenike III 80 BC Pto lemy X I A lexander II 80 BC Ptole my X II Neos Dionysos ("Aulete s") 80- 58,55-5 1 BC Kleopatra VI (58-57 BC) a nd Berenike IV 58-55 llC Ptolem y X III 51--47 HC Kleopatra V II 51-30 HC Pto lemy XIV 47--44 BC Pto le my XV Kaisarion 44-30 HC
ROMAN EMPERORS 30 Bc-3 95 Augus tus 30 Bc- 14 A D Tiberius 14- 37 AD Ca ius (C a ligu la) 37--4 1 AD C laudi us 4 1-54 AD Nero 54-68 A D
AD
Vespasian 69-79 AD Titus 79-8 1 AD
Trajan 98- 117 AD Hadrian 117-1 38 AD Antoni nus Pius 138- 161 AD Marcus Aureli us 161-1 80 A D Septimius Severus 193- 211 AD Caraca lla 198- 217 A D Macrin us 2 17-2 18 AD Elag aba lus 2 18-222 AD Philip 244-249 AD Vale rian 253-260 AD Ga llienus 253-268 AD C la ud ius II Got hic us 268-270 AD Aure lia n 270-275 AD Dioc letian 286-305 A D Co nstantine I 306-337 AD Julia n 36 1-363 AD Theodos ius I 379-395 AD
BYZANTINE EMPERORS 39 5- 64 2 Justinian 1 527-565 AD l'hocas 602-6 10 AD l lcraclius 610-642 AD
AD
263
Select Bibliography
There are three distinct phases of military history covered in this vo lume : Pharao nic, Helleni stic (Ptolemaic), and Rom an , eac h of which has , for a variety of reaso ns, received different depths of treatment by sc ho lars. There have been rem arkabl y few gene ral stud ies of warfare in the pharaonic period , and with the excep tions o f the batt les o f Megiddo and Qadesh, and the wars of T hutrnose III and Se ty I, literature has generally treated military act ivities by pharaohs within the overa ll context of their reigns. Other specifica lly techn ical as pects, such as the fortresses and weaponry or textual sources, have all bee n subjected to more deta iled stud ies. Therefore, many of the work s cited here are in acade mic journ als and inevitab ly include a large number in French and German, and some in Italian . By the nature of the surviving ev ide nce, warfare in the Hell enistic and Roman periods has been the subject of far more stud ies than the pha rao nic peri od . For the Ptol em a ic arm y, some more ge nera l stud ies of Greek a nd Hell en istic wa rfa re have been inc lude d , but lor the Rom an period the bibliography has been restri cted to works that de a l spec ifically w ith Egyp t. In the to pograph ical sec tio n, sites are listed as they app ear in the diction ary: sma ller sites , suc h as so me o f the fortres ses in Kharga Oasis , will be found in the e ntry for Kha rga rather tha n se parate ly. T his applies especially to sites that are de scribed o nly in co llective articles rat her than receiving ind ividua l stud ies .
CONTENTS Ge nera l Wo rks on W ar fare in Egypt and the Near East Historica l At lases
265
266 •
SELECT BIBIIOGRAPIIY •
SU .ECT BIBIIO GRAPI IY
H istory Egypt: Genera l Egyp t: S pecific Peri od s a nd Rei gn s (Re la ti ng to Mil itar y Actions , Includi ngTe xt s) Roman Egypt Byzan ti ne Egypt Topographica l Egy pt an d th e W ider World Im pe riali sm D ipl o matic Rel ation s Nubia Libya a nd Li b yan s Ncar East Je w s a nd Je wi sh R e volts The Sca Peop le s G ree k a nd Roman World Military Eq u ipme nt and Warfare Weapon s and O ther Mi litary Equipment
Curto , Sil vio . The Military Art of the Ancient Egyptians, Tur in: Edizio ni d ' arte Fratell: Pozzo , 1971. Gurian, Y. IVaI' ill th e A nci ent H'tll'ld: A Social Histo rv, London: Chatto & Windus, 1975 . Gnirs, Andrea . "Ancicnt Egypt. " In Kurt Raaflaub and Nathan Rosenstein, cds. , IVaI' and Society ill th e Ancient and Medieval Ilb rids. Cambrid gc, Mass ., 1999, 73- 107. Lloyd. Alan B" ed . Battle ill Antiqu ity. London: Duckworth, J 996. Shaw. Ian. Egvptian warfare and lVeap ons . Princes Risborough: Shire Egyptology 16 , /991 . Yadin, Y. The Art of warf a re ill Biblical Lands, London. 1963.
HISTORICAL ATlASES I\l' i- Yon ah, Michae l. and Ephrai m Stcrn. Encyclopedia of/vcboeotogtca t Exca vations ill the Holy Land. 4 vols. Oxford : Ox ford Un ive rsity Press , 1977- 78. Ha ine s . John. an d Jarom ir Malek . , Itlas (if A ncient Egy pt. New York: Facts on File. reprinted 200 I. Cor nel ]. Timolh y. and John Matthews. A tlas of the Roman World. Ox ford: I'haidon. 1')X2 . Munley, Hil l . 711t' 1'('ngll;1I Hist o rical At las of Ancient Egvp t . London: Penguin .
The Arm y The Arm y: P haraon ic The Ar my : Ptolemaic The A rmy: Roman So ldi ers : Vet erans and C lc ruc hs So ldiers : R oman Na v y Soc iety A rt Eco no my C iv ilia ns E thos
1996 .
Morkut. Rober t. 71,,' Pengu in Histo rical A /las of Ancient Greece. London: Penguin, 1996 . Roaf'. Michae l. Cui/ura l A tlas (if M esopotamia and th e A nc ient Nea r East . Ncw York: Facts on File. 1990 .
HISTORY
Egypt: General
Lite rature L ite rary Texts M us ic a nd M usic ian s Natio nali sm
GENERAL WORKS ON WARFARE IN EGYPT AND THE NEAR EAST
. Adcoc k, F. The Gree k and M ac edonian Ca lifornia Press, 1957 .
267
I
\It. 0if nW . HI
•
Berkeley'. Univcrsity o f
Gardiner. Alan H. Egypt ofthe Phara ohs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 196 1. Grimal, Nicolas. A Histo ry of A nci ent Egypt. Oxford : Blackwell, 1992. Kemp . Barry J. An cient Eg.\1J1. An at om y ofa Ci vilizat ion . London: Routledge , 1989. Shaw. Ian. cd . The Oxford Histo ry ofAncient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press , 2000 . Trigger. Bruce G oo Bar ry J . Kemp . David O 'Connor. and Alan B. Lloyd. AII cient Eg-"I'/. A So cial History. Cambr idge : Ca mbridge University Press , 1983.
268 • SIUCT Illlli lOG RAI'l IY
Egypt: Specific Per iods and Reigns (Rela ting to Military Act ions, Including Texts) Predynastic and Early Dynastic Dreyer , G unter. " Egypt's Ea rlies t Histo rica l Eve nt." Egyptian A rchaeology. The Bull etin of the Eg.'1't Explo ration Society; 16 (2000), 6-7. Fai rscrvi s, W.A . " A Revised View o f the Narme r Palett e ." Jou rnal of the American Research Center in Egypt 28 , 199 1,1 - 20 . Midant-Reynes, Bcutrix. The Prehi story of Egyp t: From the First Eg yp tians 10 the First Pha raoh s . Oxford: B lack we ll , 2000 . Millet , Nicho las . "T he Narme r Macch cad and Related Objects." Journal of the American Research Cente r in Egypt 27, 1990 ,53- 9 . Spe ncer , A . Jeffrey. Ea rly Egypt. The Rise of Civilisation in the Nile Valley. Lond on : British Mu se um Press , 1993 . Wilkin son , Toby A .H . Ea rly Dynastic Egypt . Lond on: Ro utled ge , 1999 . Williams , Bruc e B. "Security and the Prob lem of the C ity in the Naqada Period." In For His Ka: Essays Offe red in M emo ry of Klaa s Haer. C hicago: O rie ntal Institut e , Studies in Anc ient Orie nta l Ci vili zat io ns 55 , 1994 , 27 1-83 .
SEI [ CT 1lllll 10 GRAI'I IY •
269
Fra nke , Detlef. "Zwischen Hera kleo po lis und Th eben : Neue s ZlI de n G rabcrn vo n Assj ut." Studien zu r alriigyprischen Kultur 14 ( 1987), 49 - 60 . Goed.icke, Hans . "Ankhtyfy's F igh ts ," Chroniqae d 'Egypt« 72 ( 1998 ),29--4 / , Vandicr, Jae(!ues . Mo 'alia : La tombe d 'Ankhtifi ct la tom be de Se bekllOrep. Cai ro: lnstitut francais darcheo log ie orie nta le, 1950 .
Midd le Kingdo m: Dynasty 11 Baines , John , "T he Stela o f Khuso bek : Private and Royal Mi litary Na rrative Gorg, cd ., Form and Mass: Beirrage zur Literatur und and Values ." In Kw lSI des alten Agypten, Fests chrift [ii r Ge rha rd Fecht. Wiesb adc n, Ge rmany, 1987 , 43- 61.
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Brova rski, Edward , and Wi lliam J . M um ane . " Inscriptio ns from the Time o f Nebhe pe tre Mentu hotep II at Abisko ." Serapis I ( 1969), 11- 33 . Darnell, Jo hn C. "Ne w Inscriptio ns of the Late Firs t Intermed iate Period from the T heban Western Desert and the Begi nnings of the No rthern Expansion of the .. Elev enth Dynasty." Jou rnal of Nea r Eastern Studies 56 ( 1997),24 1-58 . Fisher, Hen ry G . " Inscr iptions from the Co ptite No me ." Rom e : Anale cta Orientnlia 40 , 1964 . - - . Varia NOI'll. New Yor k: Me trop olit a n M useum of Ar t Egyptian Stu dies 111, 1966 .
Old Kingdom And reu, Gui llemette . Egyp t in the Age of the Py ram ids. Tran slated by Da vid Lort o n, Ithaca , N .Y.: Co rne ll Un ive rs ity Press , 1997 . Heick, Wo lfgan g . Die Be ziehungen Agyptens l U vord era sien im 3. Will 2. Jahrtausend 1'. ClII: 2nd cd . Wicsbuden , Germany : Har rasso witz , 1971 .
First Intermedi at e Period Bcckcrath , Ju rgen vo n . " Die Dyn asti c der Herakleopol iten ." Ze itschrift f iir dgyp tische Sprache Will Alte rtumskunde 93 1966 , 13- 20 . Bro var ski, Ed wa rd , " Ahanakht of Ber sheh and the Hare Nome in the First III ' tennediate Peri od ," In W. Kell y S impson a nd Whi tney M , Davis , cds, Studies in An cient Egypt, the Ae gean, and the Sudan. Essays in Honor of 0 0 11',\ Dunham. Bosto n: M useum of Fine Arts, 1981 ,1 4- 30 . Edc l, Elmar. Die lnsch riften del' Grabfronten del' Slut Griibc r in Mineltigypt en aus del' He rakleopolitcnz eit , Opladen Westdt. Ver I., 1984 . Faulkner, Raymo nd 0 , "T he Rebell ion in the Hare No me ." Journal of Egyp ! ian A rcha eol ogy 30 ( 1944), 6 1- 63. Fisc he r, Henry G . "T he Nub ian Mer cenar ies of Geb ele in d ur ing the Firs t Inter medi ate Period ." Kush 9 ( 196 1), 44-80 .
Iluycs , W.: . "Career of the .G reat Stew ard Hen en u under Nebhe pe tre Men tuho tpc . Jou rnal of Egvptian A rchaeology 35 ( 1949 ), 43--49 . Peer , T . Eric. The Ste la of Sebek-khu, the Ea rliest Reco rd of all Egyptian Campa tgu II I ASia, M m~e h es te r: S herratt and Hug hes , 19 I4 . l'oscncr, Georges . "A propos des gra ffiti rl'Abisko" A rchiv O rienta lni 20 ( 1952), 163-6. Schulman, A lan R, ' T he Batt le Scen es of the Midd le K ingdo m ." .1011m al of the Society for th e Studv of Egvptiall Antiquities 12 ( 1982) , 165- 83. Winlock . Herbert E , The Sla in So ldie rs of Ne b- Hepe t- Re M entu-Hotp«, New York: Me trop ol itan M useu m of Art , 1945 .
Middle Kingdom: Dyna sty 12 Altcnmtlllcr, H . and A .M . Mo ussa. " Die Inschrift A mene mhets ' II , in Mem ph is ." Studien zur altiigvptlschen Kultur 18 ( 199 1), 1--48. Ilcrlev, Oleg . "L cs pretendus ' c itad ins' au Moyen Empire." Re vue d'Eg\1)tolo~ie 23 ( 197 1),23--48 . • Del ia , Rob ert 0 , A Study of the Reign of Senwosret III . U,M .I. Dissert ation Infor ma ti o n Ser vice . Unive rsi ty M icrofilms Internation al. Ann A rbor, M ich igan. 1989 .
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Gocd ickc , Hans. " Egyptian M ilitary Ac tions in Asia in the M iddle Kingdom ." Re vue d 'Egyp tologie 42 ( 199 1), 89-94 . Lcp rohon , Ron a ld. The Reign ofAniene mhatI, Toront o: Univcrsi ty of To ront o , 1980 . Malek, Jarom ir, and Stephen Quirke. "M e mphis, 199 1: Epigraph y." Jo urna l of Egyptian A rcha eology 78 ( 1992), 13- 18 . (T he inscription o f Am enemhat II.) Ob som er, Claud e . Sesostris Ie I' elude chruno log ique et his tori que du regnc. Conna isan ce de I'Egyple ancienne 110.5. Brussels: Co nnaissa nce de l' Egyptc ancicnne, 1995 .
Ahmo se I Berg , D.A. " Early 18th Dynasty Expans ion into Nubia." Jo urnal of the Society fo r the Studv of Egyp tian Antiquities 17 ( 1987), 1- 14. Habachi, Lab ib. 'T he First Two Viceroys o f Kush and Their Farnil " K I 7 ( 1959 y. USI ), 45-62. 1= Habach i Sixteen Studies 0 1/ Lower Nubia . A nna tes du Service des A ntiquites de I' Eg,I/Jte, Cahier 23 ( 198 1) , 65-89 1. Il arvey, St ep hen. " Monume nts of Ahmos e at Ab ydos.' Egvptian Archaeologv. . The Bullet in (}f the Egypt Exp loratiOIl Society , 4 ( 1994) ,3- 5 . Vandersleyen , C1au.de. ~es guerres d 'Amosis fondateur de la X VIII" d vna stie . Brussel s: Fondat ion Egyp lologiqu e Re ine Elisabe th , 1971 . .
Second Intermed iate Per iod Bcckcruth, Jurgen vo n. Unt ersuchungen zu r politischen Gesch ich te de l' zwe iten Zwischen zeit ill Agyp lell. G luck stadt , Germany: J.J . August in , 1964 . Bielak, Manfred . " Die Totcsurnstandc des Pharaos Seqenenre ( 17 . Dynastic) ." Annalen des Na turhistorisch en Museums \Viell 78 ( 1974 ) , 29- 52. - - . " Egypt and Ca naan du ring thc Middle Bronze Age ." Bulletin of ttu: America n Schools of Orie ntal Resea rch 28 1 ( 199 J) , 27-72 . Bourriau , Jan ine . " So me Archaeo logical Notes on the Kamosc Te xts ." In A nthony Lcah y and John Ta it, cds .. Studies 0 1/ A ncient Egypt ill Honour of H S. Smitl.. Lon don: Egy pt Exploration Soc iety, 1999 , 43-48 . Dever , William . " ' Hyksos ,' Egy ptian Dest ructions , and the End of the Pa lcstinian M iddle Bron ze Age ." LevantTi ( 1990 ), 75-8 1. Gardiner, Alan. "T he Defeat o f the Hyksos by Kamose . Th e Ca rnarvo n Tabler, No .1." Journal of Egyptian A rchaeology 3 ( 1916),95- 110 . Hoffme ier , Jame s. " Reco nsidering Egy pt's Par t in the Te rminat ion o f the Midd le I3ronzcAge in Palestine .' Levallt 2 1 (I 9l!9l, 1l!1- 193 . - - ."Some T houghts on William G . Dever 's ' Hyksos, Egy ptian Destruct ions, and the End of the Palestini an Middle Bronze Age.''' Levant 22 ( 1990), l!3- l!') , Orcn , Elieze r D., ed . The Hyksos: New Historical and A rchaeological Perspertives. Philade lphia: T he University Museu m, Unive rsity of Pennsylvania , 1997 . Ryholt, Kim . The Political Situa tion ill Egyp t during the Second Interm ediate Period. Cope nhage n: Museu m Tu scul anum Prcss. ' 997 . Save-Soderbergh, Torgny. " A Buhen Ste la from the Second Inte rmediate Pe riod (Khartoum no .18). Jou m al of Egvp tian Archaeology 35 ( 1949), 50- 58. - - . "T he Nub ian Kingd om of the Second Intermed iate Per iod ." Kush ,I ( 1956) , 54-6 1. S mith, II .S ., and A .L. S mith . "A Reconsiderat ion of the Kamose Te xts." Zeitschrift fii r dgvptische Sprachc III/d Alte runnsknndc 103 ( 1976) ,48-76, Wei nste in, James, " Egypt and the Middle Bron ze IIC/L ate Bron zc IA Tran si tion in Palestine ." Levant 23 ( 199 1l, 105-1 5 .
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Hatshepsut Ilabachi , Labib. "Two G raffiti at Sehe l fro m the Re ig n of Q uee n I latshepsut." Journal of Nea r Eastern Studies 16 ( 1957), 88- 104 . Re incke , Walt er F. " Ein Nubie n Fcldzug unter Kiinig in Hatschepsut.' In Erika Ende~fe lder, Karl-He inz Priese , Walter F. Re ineke , and Steffen Weni g , S.. cds., Agvpten und Klish . Schriften zur Geschichte und Kultur des Alten Oriellis 13 . Berlin -GD R 1977 , 369- 376.
Thutmose /II Faulkner, Ray mond O. "T he Battle of Megiddn .' Journal of Eg \ptiall A rchaeology 28 ( 1942),2- 15 . - - . "T he Euphrates Ca mpaig n of Tut hrnosis II I ." Journal of Egyp tia n Ar. chaeolog y 32 ( 1946) , 39-42 . P ' Nelson, Harold . The Battle of Megi ddo , Chicago : University o f CI . 1913 . ucago rcss, Redfo rd. Don a ld B. "A Bron ze Age Itinerary in Transj ordan (Nos. l!9- 10 1 of Tuthmos is Ill's list of As iatic toponyms)" Journ al ofthe Societv f or the Studv
S pal i ~ger,~ n,~hony. "A Ne w Re ference to an Egyptian Ca mpaig n o f Thut mose -
1/1 111 ASIa. Journal ofNear Eas tern Studies 37 ( 1978),35-4 r. -. . "S o me Addi tional Rem ark s on the Battl e of Meg idd o .'· Gottinger Miszellen 33 ( 1979) ,47-54.
-.: "Some . ~otes on the Battle of Megiddo and Re flections on Egypti an M ilitary Writi ng .' Mitteilungen des Deutschen Arcltliologisclten Ins titurs Abteilung Kai ro 30 ( 1974) , 22 1-29 . ' - - . " A Critic ial A nalysis o f the 'A nna ls ' o f Th utrnose III (S tiiekc V-V I)." Jou rnal of the A me ric an Resea rch Cente r in Egvp t 14 ( 1977) . , 4 1-54 .
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Amenhotep \I · Peter Studies ill the Reign of Amenophis II. flil desheimer . 9R7 Der M anue Iian , Ag\'plOlogische Beitriige 26 , Hildeshcim, Germ any: G~rst~nberg ,! " . : I t M "Un fon etionnaire preposc aux marches mendlon a les a I epoque Dewac 1 er , . 1 I 1'/ ,( , , de d ' Amenop his 11: (Pa)- Hekae msasen:' Cahier de reche rc les ae 11.\ / U e Pamnlogie et d 'Eg\'Plologie de Lille 4 ( 197 6), 53-60 . . ' Ede l: E. " Die Stelen A menophis 11 aus Karn ak und Memphis." Zetlschrifl ties . Deutscnen Paliislilla-Vereills 69 ( 1953 ), 98- 176. l ·\S I V to Canaan ." Malamat, A . "Campaigns of A menho tep 11 and T u t 1mOS , Scriplll Hierosolymitana R ( 196 1), 2 18-3 1.
Thutmose IV Bryan, Bet sy M . The Reign ofTlllIlmose IV. Balt imo re: Johns Hopk ins University Press , 199 1. h .r.. 1V t Ca naa n" Mal am at , A . "Ca mpaigns of Amenhote p 11 and Tut mOSIS 0, . Sc rip ta Hiero.\Olymillllll/ 8 ( 196 \) ,2 18-3 1.
Eato n- Kra uss . M ariann e . "Tutankha mun at Karn ak ." Mitteilungen des Deutschen A rcluiologischenlnstituts, Ab teilung Kairo 44 ( 19R8), I- II . Sc hulma n, Alan R . " Exc urs us on the ' Military Offi cer' Na khtrn in ." Journal of the American Research Cente r in Egypt 3 ( 1964) : 124- 126 . - _ . "T he Berl in "T raue rrc lie f " (no . 124 11) a nd Som e Offici a ls o f Tut' unkhamun and Ay." Journ al of the Ame rican Research Center ill Egypt 4 ( 1965 ), 55-68.
Horemheb Kruchtcn . J . M . Le D ec ret d 'Horemheb. Traduction. commentaire ep igraphiq ue. philologique et instituti onal. Brusse ls: Editions de l ' Universite de Bru xell es (Public avec Ie concours de la Fondation Universi tai re de Belgique). Unive rsite Libre de Bru xellcs , Facu ltc de Philosop hic ct Lett res LXX XII , 1981. Red ford , Don ald B. "New Light on the Asiatic Ca mpa igning o f Horernheb." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 2 11 ( 1973 ),3- 17.
Dynasty 19 Amenhotep III
Sety I
. D " MRJ-MSW und del' N ubie nfeldz ug Amenophis' Ill. im Jahr e 5 ." De II 1 el, . , . _ 3 . B II . I !)IISc!len KII IIIII II ( 1984), 788. . SI//II/'en '- ur " lliiu\, ,' , -rd: Z "Les deux eampa gnes d ' A menho tep III en Nubie." u re . uueun ac t opoza a , . " 8 153-1 64 I'/ lIsliIU'f l"lln('ais d 'arc!u!ologre o rientale 88 ( 198 ) , .
Albright, William F. "T he Sm aller Beth Shan Stela of Se thos I ( 1309- 1290 Be) : ' Bulletin of the America n Schools of Oriental Research 125 ( 1952) ,24-32 . Faulkner, Raym ond O . 'T he Wars of Scthos I." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 33 ( 1947) , 34-9 . Murnane , William J . The Road to Kadesh: A Historical Interp retation of the Battie Reliefs of King Sety / at Karnak , Studies ill Ancient Oriental Civilization (SAOC) No. 42 . Ch icago: The Oriental Institute of C hicago, 1990 , 2nd ed . 1995 . Verco uttcr, Jean . "Unc ca mpag ne militaire de Seti I en Haute Nubie. Stele de Sai S.5 79. " Revue d 'Egvp tologie 24: 20 1-208 , 1972 .
Akhenaten Alan R " So mc Oh servat ions on the Military Back groun d of the S c h u Iman , . ' . 1 C, . ' Eg)'!)1 3 • . d ." I ournal 01 the Ame flcall Researc I entet III A marna Peno . ( 1964), 52-8 . ' . 1979 ' .' ri _ _ "T he Nub ian War o f Akhcnaten ." L'Egyprologle ell axes IJI /O .. .' d 1 I II' 299 - 3 16 . Par is'. Ce ntre Nationa l dc Recherche SCIw ires e reC lerC IeS.. entifique , 1982 . . ' . duri the S ' 1 M " Reco ns ide ring the Egy ptian Empire 111 Palestine unng ic e:~~~~1<1 Period ." I;aleslille E.\p IOl"lllioll Qua rterly 104 ( 1972), 123- 33 .
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Ilamell, John C ; and Richard Jasnow. " On the Moab ite Inscriptions of Ramcsscs II at Luxor Templ e." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 52 ( 1993) , 263- 74 . n c wachtc r, M ic he l. " Nubia: No tes di ver scs II. §6 . Un co mma nda nt rnilitair e du rcguc de Rarnses II: Le " C he f des arc hes de Kou ch " Nak ht min ." Bull etin de I 'lnstitut fra ncais darch eolog ie orie ntale 79 ( 1979) : 3 11-3 17.
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Ga ba l!a, G A . " Mi nor War Sce nes o f Ra messes II at Karn ak ," Journ al of Egy ptian A rch aeology 55 ( 1969), 82- 8 . Gardi ner , A lan I I., a nd S . La ngd o n. "T he Tr eat y Alli ance Be tween Hat tusili, Ki ng o f the Hittites , a nd the Pha raoh Ra messes II o f Egy pt." Journal of Egyptian A rchaeology 6 ( 1920), 179- 205. Kitchen , Ken neth A . " Some New Li ght o n the Asiati c War s of Ramesses II." Jou rnal of Egyptian A rchu eology 50 ( 1964) ,47-70 . - - . Pha raoh Triump hant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II . King of Egyp t . Warm inster, G reat Brita in: A ris a nd Ph illips , 1982. S pa linge r, Antho ny 1. "Trace s of the Early Ca ree r o f Ra messcs II." Journal of Nea r Eastern Studi es 38 ( 1979), 27 1-286. - - . " H isto rica l Ob se rvat io ns o n the M ilit ary Rel iefs o f Abu Simbe l a nd othe r Ram ess ide Temples in Nub ia ." Journal of Egyptian A rchaeology 66 ( 1980), 83-99. Youssef, A .A .H ., C hristian Le blan c , a nd M . Ma her. Le Ramesseum 1\( Les bat ailles de Tounip et de Dapour: Cairo: O rga nisation Egy ptie nne de s A ntiqui tes, 1977 .
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Merenptah Singer , Is rael. "M crncpia h's ~am paign to Ca naa n a nd the Egy ptian Occu patio n o f the Southe rn Coast al Plain o f Palestine in the Ra mess idc Pe riod " B II . I A . .. . II e ttn ()f tne mertcan Schools of Oriental Resea rch 269 ( 1988), I_ IO. Von. Del' .Way , Th om as . Go ttergericht and :heilige n" Krieg im alte n Agy pte n: die I~schfl.ften de s M erenpta h zum Libye rkrieg des J ah res 5 . S tud ie n zur Ar~hao loglC und geschichte A ltagy piens 4 . 1992 Hei ldebe rg : Heidel ber One ntve rlag . ge l'
Sety " - Ame nmesses Dodso n,. A ida n. " A me nmesse in Kent , Live rpool , a nd T hebe s ." Jou rnal of Eg vptian A rchaeology, 8 1 ( 1995 ), 11 5- 128. K rauss, Ro _ ll , a I .. . lf. I " Unters uchunge n zu K on ig A rncnmcssc . Tei l I ." S Iur.I l'U, I '-..i /agl 'ptl.l'c ten Kult ur 4 ( 1976) , 16 1- 99. - -. . "U nters uchu nge n ZlI Koni ,g Amcnrncsse Tcil 2 ." StIIIIten ' ZlIr a I lagl11.. " , " tisrh en Kultur 5 ( 1977). 131- 74 . .
2: The Battle of Q adesh Breasted , Jam es H . The Hottle of Kadesh : A Studv ill the Earliest Known Mili tary Stra tegy. Ch icago: O riental Institute , 1903 . Broadhurst , C live . " Re ligious Co ns ideratio ns at Qadcsh ." III A lan 13 . Llo yd , ed ., Studies ill Pha raonic Religion and Society ill Honour 0 / .1.(;11'.1'11 ( ;ril ~ fiths. Lo ndon: Egy pt Ex ploratio n Society, 1992. Desro chcs-Noblcco urt , C hristiane , ct al. Gra nd 1£'11//,1<, d',lh oll S;II/h<'!: La Bataille de Qadech. Cairo : O rga nisati o n Egy pucnnc des Antiquitcs. 197 I. Fa ulkne r, Ray mon d O . "T he Batt le o f Qadcs h." Mittei lungen des Deutsch cn Archiiologischen lustituts, Abteilung Kairo 16 ( 1958), 100- 11. Gard ine r, Alan H . The Kadesh inscript ions of Ramesses /I . O x ford : G riffith Institut e , 1960 . Gocdic kc, Hans . " Co nside ratio ns o n the Battl e o f Kadesh ." Journal of Egyplian A rchaeology 52 ( 1966) , 7 1- 80 . Go cdickc , Han s , cd . Perspectives on the Battle of Kadesh, Ba ltimore : ll a lgo , 1985 . Kuen tz , C harles . La bataille de Qadech : lnstitut Francasi s d ' A rcheologie O rient ale , Memoires 55. Cairo. 1928- 34. Kuschke . A , "Das Te rra in del' Schl ach t bei Qadcs und d ie Arunar sch wc ge Ramscs ' II." In Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paltistina- Vereim 95 ( 1979), 7-35 . Tcfnin , Rol and . " Image , ec ri turc, rcc it: A propos des re prese ntat ion s de lu bata ille de Qadcsh ,' Giittinger Miszellen 47 ( 198 1), 55-76 . Von Ocr Way, T. Die Textilberlief erung Rameses ' II Z/ll ' Qadesh- Schlacht-i-A nalys c tII ,,1Struktun Hildcshcirn: Hildcshcimcr agyptc logischc Bcitriigc 22, 1984.
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Third Intermediate Period Cnm inos , Ricard o ~ . The Chronicle of Prince Osorkon, Analecm Orientalia , 37 . Rom e: Po rificium lnstitutum Bibl ieum , 1958 . James , Peter J ., in co llab orat ion w ith 1.J . Th orp e , N ikos Kokkinos, Ro bert Mork ot, a nd Jo hn Fra nki sh. Cell/llries of Da rkness. A Challenge /0 the COII~'~~I;~JIIal Ch ronologv (}f Old Wo rld A rcha eolog», Lon don : Jon ath an Cape , Kitche n. Kenneth A . The Third ~1I/:rll1ediate Peri od ill Egypt (1I 00-{j50 Be). Rev. ed . War mi nster, Grea t Brita in: A ris a nd Philli ps , 1995 . lcahy, Anthony. "T he Lib yan Pe riod in Egy pt." Lihyall S/Ildies 16 ( 1985),5 1-65 .
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MILITARY EQUIPMENT AND WARFARE Weapons and Other Military Equipment General Bonn et , H . Die Waffell del' VMke r de.' Alten Orients, Leipzig: J.D . Hinr ich -
Peleg , J. , J . Bararn, a nd ED . Ore n. " Analysis of Bronze Arrow heads o f the Saite Period from the Nile Delta Regio n." M etall ography 16 ( 1983), S 1- 98. Western , A .C., and W. Mel.cod . " Woods Used in Egy ptian Bows and Arrows ." Journ al of Egyptian Archacolog v 8 I ( 1995) 77-94 .
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Camels Bullict , R.W. The Camel and the Wheel . Ca mbridge , Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975 . Kuhrt, Arnelie, 'T he Exploitation o f the Camel in the Nco-Assyr ian Empire." In Antho ny Leahy and John Tait, cds .. Studies ill Honour of H.S. Sm ith . London : Egyp t Explora tion Soc iety, 1999, 179-1 84 . Rowley-Co nwy, Peter. "The Ca mel in the Nile Valley: New Rad iocarbon Accelera tor (AMS) Dates fro m Qasr Ibrim." Journ al of Egyp tian A rchaeology 74 ( 1988) , 245- 248 .
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Chariots and Horses Barclay, Haro ld B. The Rol e of the Ho rse ill Mall '.I' Cultu re . London: J .A . Allen , 1980 . Crouwc l, U .K., M .A. Littaucr, and P. Raul wing, cds . Se lected Writillgs all Chariots and Oth er Ea rly Vehicles, Riding and Ha rness . Leiden: Brill, 200 1. Dalley, Steph anie . " Foreign Chariotry and Ca valry in the Arm ies o f Tiglathpilcscr III and Sargon 11." Iraq 47 ( 1985),3 1-48 . Iked a. Yotuka. "Solomon's Trade in Horses and Chariots in Its Intern ational Sell ing." In Tomoo Ishida , ed ., Inte rnational Sympo sium/o r Bib lical Studi es ( 1979, Tokyo ). Stndies ill the Period of David and Solomon and Other Essays . Winona Lake . Indiana: Eisen brauns, 1982, 2 I 5-238. Kammcnh uber, A . Hippologia Hethitica . Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz. 1961. Littauer, M .A., and J .H. Crouwe l. IVlleeled Vehicles and Riddell Anima ls ill the Anci ent Nca r Eas t, Lcidcn: EJ .Brill , 1979 .
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Music and Musicians
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Ca iro: Gove rnmcnt
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Nationalism
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.
About the Author
Robert Geo r ge Mor kot (B .A ., Universi ty College , Lo ndo n; Ph D ., Univers ity Co llege Lo ndo n) studied at the University of London and the Humboldt- University in Berlin . He is curre ntly a lecturer at the U niversity of Exe ter (Sc hoo l of Education and Lifelong Learning). Dr. Morkot is an anc ient histori an spec ia lizing in north eastern Africa , fro m Lib ya to S uda n, wi th pa rtic ular intere st in the externa l rel at ions of Egypt, the later phases of ancient Egy ptian history, a nd in the European study of Anc ient Egypt. He is author of The Penguin Histori cal Alias (l An cient Greece ( 1996 ), The Black Pharaohs: Egypt's Nubian Rulers (2000) , and The Empi res ofA ncient Egyp t (2000). He wa s, w ith Pet er Jam es , 1..1 . T ho rpe , Nik os Kokkin os , and John Fran kish , a coauth or o f Centuries of Darkness ( 1991 ), a controversia l rea ssessment of the chronology of the Late Bron ze and Iron Ages . He has publ ished pap er s o n imp eri ali sm and the Egy ptian Emp ire in Nubia, a nc ie nt dese rt routes, and econo mics in a nu mber or academic journals and co nference proceedi ng s.
3 15
