1 H.
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iraditional Arts
of Japan A Complete
BATTERSON BOGER
BY
H.
Here
for the
the
Guide
Illustrated
first
time
a
is
book
compasses
that
all
and ceremonies of Japan, giving fun-
arts, crafts,
damental information and a
clear, descriptive picture
of every category for the interested layman, the expert, and the connoisseur. In 170,000
words of readable
and with
narrative,
369 black-and-white photographs, 26 color reproductions, and 40 line drawnigs. The Traditional Arts oj
Japan shows the steps by which the Japanese
and
artisans created their
works, both
artists
utilitarian
and
decorative.
Supplemented by an introduction to the cultural lientage of Japan, a chronological outline history, a tab!
and
prefectures,
'
•''-al
periods,
nipleic
ail.
indispensable guide to tu.
'
i.
of Japanese
maps of provinces '
"-he
text
is
an
-Mfication aiiu a^j^..
of Japanese works of art aiiu ^. to the thinking, symbolism, and technical processes beliuiu
ciation
'"
md
them.
Chapter by chapter, the book presents the following subjects,
•
among
others:
Meaning and mathematics behind
the
great
Japanese gardens •
How
swords and sword mounts were formed
and decorated •
Making of arms and armor
• Structuring
and symbolism
of
architecture,
domestic and public • Firing
and designing of pottery and porcelain
• Steps in the incense
and
tea
ceremonies
•
Weaving and designing of textiles
•
Making of dolls and
• Design • Firing
their role in Japanese life
and use of fans of enamels
{cominuvd on hack flap)
^
i
ijS O
The
Traditional Arts of Japan
The
Traditional
Arts ofJapan A
Complete
Illustrated
Guide
H. Batterson Boger
DOUBLEDAY
&
COMPANY,
INC.
•
GARDEN
CITY, N.Y.
•
1964
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NOJMBER:
64-11726.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
BOOK IS FULLY PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT UNDER THE TEPJvlS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT UNION. PERMISSION TO USE PORTIONS OF THIS BOOK MUST BE OBTAINED IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHER. THIS
DESIGNED BY LIBRA STUDIOS, INC.
PRODUCED BY CHANTICLEER PRESS. INC., NEW YORK. PRINTED BY BRUDER ROSENBAUM, VIENNA, AUSTRIA. DOUBLEDAY & COMPANY, INC. GARDEN CITY, NEW YORK. 1964
Acknowledgments
MUCH
OF THE SUCCESS I may have attained in comwork
piling the material for this
ance accorded
by
art
friends
due
is
to the generous assist-
various stages of my interest in Japanese
me
at
and
associates in the
United
and abroad.
States
number of photographs was selection was made to give this col-
In the course of time a great
gathered, and a careful
wish to record
me by I
my gratitude for the courtesy extended to
various staff
the Metropolitan
members of the photographic
Museum
of Art,
take pleasure in expressing
for the generous assistance
my
service at
me by
staff
Mr.
grateful to
for his helpful criticism
my many Japanese friends and
have so graciously opened to
me
their
given by Mr. Takeo Takamatsu, editor-in-chief of the Japan
eral
who has supplied such beautiful pictures.
Sev-
of the fine photographs of domestic architecture were
given to
me
through the kindness of Mr.
Jiro
Tokyo National Museum. And I am indebted
Redman of the
British
Embassy
to
make
abbot to another for the past
years.
wish to thank Mr. K. Imai of Kyoto, and Yamanaka and for their kindness in
me to use certam illustrations from their collections. the color plates, I am deeply grateful to Mr. John
allowing
As
for
of the Cleveland Museumof Art; Mr. Richard
E. FuUer, director
of the
Seattle
L. Smith, Life magazine;
New York
Art
Museum
;
Miss Dorothy
Mr. and Mrs. Shizuo Nomura,
and Kyoto; Mr. Kazuo Iwata, director of the
Japan National Tourist Association ;andMr. Charles A. Greenfield,
New York.
in
Harada of the
illustrations that selection
assistance
and guidance,
I
gratitude. His suggestions
Tokyo, who,
as a director
importance,
me
years ago. For illustrations
of those to be used has been most
And to Mr. Nagatake Asano, director of the Tokyo National Museum, who was so kind as to read the original manuscript of this work and who so generously offered his difficult.
Mr. H. Vere
use of uncommonly fine line drawings that appeared
many
is due the staff members of Tokyo National Museum, who have given such valuable material assistance and supplied me with so many choice
the
to
of the Asiatic Society of Japan, has graciously permitted
in their journal Transactions
I
down from one
hundred
Floral Art Institute at the
Kyoto, where the Ikenobo method has
My wholehearted appreciation
of special knowledge. I must mention the kind assistance
Travel Bureau,
been handed thirteen
at
;
Services at the Victoria
am most
I
Museum,
have long been indebted to
who
Rokkakudo temple
E. Lee, director
sincere appreciation
and suggested emendations.
stores
owe my deepest appreciation
most
Soame Jenyns, Deputy Keeper of the Department of Oriental
acquaintances
I
A. Pope, director of the Freer Gallery of Art Mr. Sherman
and cooperation given
and Albert Museum, in England.
I
of floral arrangement
New York.
members of the Museum Extension
Antiquities at the British
art
Mr. M. Nishikida of the Ikenobo
to
Company of Osaka and New York,
lection a true aesthetic value. I
of the
trations,
as
which
Finally,
I
was
extend
and
my
deepest expression of
criticism
his supervision
were of the utmost
of the photographic
illus-
are of immeasurable value to the text.
am grateful to Mr. Henry La Farge for his discern-
ing help in the preparation of the manuscript for pubUcation.
Prefiace
THE PURPOSE
of
book
this
promote
to
is
understanding and appreciation of the
a fuller
of Japan.
arts
was
It
developed, and most of the pertinent material was accumu-
during an estabhshed residence in Japan. The writer was
lated,
especially fortunate in having several Japanese collector friends
whose
refined taste enabled
approach and the
him
to cultivate their cultural
aesthetic appreciation necessary to
standing of the subtle beauty of their
The book
well as for the
as
general reader and enquirer seeking to gain a
more
intimate
unique culture that has developed in Japan
insight into the
throughout the centuries.
It
provides a complete introduction
from the earhest
to the arts of Japan, surveying their evolution
times through the period of their greatest development. art
is
meant not only the
every form of
arts
By
of painting and sculpture, but including such aesthetic
expression,
artistic
pastimes as the tea ceremony and flower arrangement, which the Japanese have raised to the dignity of an
given to the popular in the daily
life,
and the many
art.
Emphasis
charm of Japan
the
arts, for
is
found
is
customs, and famihar beliefs of its people,
arts
which play such an important
role in
the subject pact.
is
is
planned
as a
comprehensive guide and
broad in scope, the treatment
is
necessarily
Each chapter presents a particular Japanese
and traces the chief influences which have ment. Such
historical
an appreciation of the
and
affected
its
arts are also
Japan
is
provided. Emphasis
is
so closely connected with religion that
knowledge of the behefs which certain pertinent aspects first
chapter,
which
world. While
ing
like-
little
A
it is
without some
main has followed the
some of the more familiar The fmal chapter is devoted
since
dictates
work
true that contemporary native origin,
its
the
con-
of con-
Western
portraying
much of it, show-
known and
To go
further than the arts of
appreciated as traditionally Japa-
beyond the scope of
this
book, for a definitive
history cannot be written until sufficient time has elapsed to
allow the subject to In less
all
into
fall
proper perspective.
its
have been
their arts the Japanese
satisfied
than technical perfection, whether the
minute
scale or
of heroic proportions. In
branch of Japanese
with nothing
work was on
life
a
that respect each
art merits universal interest.
bolism wliich permeates the
The sym-
and behavior of the Japanese
has been recorded in an enduring
maimer
in their arts.
It is
not a fixed and formal symbolism but rather a fme network associations giving
Japan received the
tions
and
to absorb
this island
garded art
a unique appeal. Although
and guidance in her
art
nation through the centuries has added
own
the aesthetic ideals
created to express native tradi-
of her people. Because the Japa-
artistic sense to assimilate
and nationalize
of Japan displays a
it
initial inspiration
nese possessed the imiate
that
sufficient degree
as a national art
and
as
and adapt,
which they borrowed, the
art
of originahty to be re-
such to take
its
place with the
of other nations in the history of the world.
It is
it reflects.
work beyond
modern times,
evidence of Oriental derivation, follows the precepts
nese, seems
of the
art.
it is
design that are
brief outline of
motifs occurring in Japanese
New York
it
to extend this
of international movements.
of the cultural history is the subject of
also includes
art in the
a rich vocabulary of her
develop-
unique repository of Oriental
formists to international fashions originating in the
form
aesthetic aspects as are necessary for
impossible to obtain an understanding of
the
temporary
from China,
wise placed on the evolution of religious traditions, because art in
There has been no attempt
com-
art
a
periods of indigenous traditions into
of subtle
them. Because the book
of the Shosoin,
culture.
Japanese subjects suggests
art.
designed for the student
is
an under-
to the history
hoped arts
that
tl>is
book may not only increase knowledge
of Japan, but do much to promote an informed
understanding of the people
who
created
it
and thus gave to
the world a great art heritage.
H.
BATTERSON BOGER
Contents
PAGE
CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE TABLE OF PROVINCES AND PREFECTURES THE CULTURAL HERITAGE II MOTIFS IN JAPANESE ART
23
PAINTING
27
COLOR PRINTS
51
I
III
IV
V
SCULPTURE VI MASKS
METALWORK VIII ARMS AND ARMOR IX SWORD DECORATION AND MOUNTS X SHINTO AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE VII
DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE XII LANDSCAPE GARDENING XIII FLORAL ART
XI
CEREMONY XV INCENSE CEREMONY XVI POTTERY AND PORCELAIN XVII LACQUER TOBACCO POUCH AND PIPE CASE, AND HIUCHI-BUKURO XIV
XVIII
INRO, NETSUKE, YATATE,
TEA
XIX
8
lo 13
67 79 91
105
117 129 147 161 173
209 221
227 253
265
TEXTILES
277
XX COSTUME
287
XXI
DOLLS XXII FANS
299
XXIII CLOISONNE ENAMEL XXIV SHOSOIN, THE IMPERIAL REPOSITORY XXV AINU FOLK ART
311
BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX
339
307
315 333
341
I
chronological Outline
PREHISTORY AND PROTOHISTORY c.
7000 B.C. 660 B.C.
300 B.C. first-fourth century A.D. A.D. 220 c.
Jomon
culture (Neolithic age).
Japanese Empire founded
Yayoi culture (Bronze
607 621 623
645
552-794
Empress Jingo invades kingdom of
c.
670 701
Emperor,
Silla;
beginning of Korean influence.
(552-645)
gift of gilt bronze Buddha to Japanese Emperor. Buddhism introduced. Empress Suiko reigns; affairs of state vested in Prince Shotoku. Construction of Horyuji temple, Nara. Prince Shotoku dies. Sakyaimmi Triad bronze icon by Tori. EarHest example of lacquer in Tamamushi shrine. Taika Reform edict issued to reorganize life and government on Chinese model. Gigaku dance drama introduced from continent. Incense burning introduced by Buddhist priests. First period of Chinese influence in architecture.
King Paikche of Korea sends
HAHUKO PERIOD 672-685 668-672
Jirmiiu, first
Ancient Burial Mounds; Haniwa culture.
ASUKA PERIOD 552 593 -628
by
age).
Emperor
Temmu
(673-685)
of Ise Shinto shrines every twenty Tenjo era. Invention of folding fan. Horyuji destroyed by fire. Taiho code. Guild of Needleworkers and Weavers instituted. reigns. Decrees rebuilding
NARA PERIOD
years.
(710-794)
Strong influence of Chinese T'ang dynasty culture.
710
Empress
Gemmyo
establishes
Nara
as
permanent
capital
and
court. Heijo built;
Amida
TnW bronze icon
cast.
and Chronicles of Japan,
Kojiki
724-749 742 745-752
Emperor Shomu, 701-756, reigns. Shinto and Buddhism assimilated; Konkomyo
749 752 751-52 755 756
794 894 897-1185 early eleventh century
980-101
first
sutra written.
Construction of Todaiji monastery, Nara.
Emperor Shomu
abdicates; his daughter ascends throne as
Empress Koken.
Great Buddha of Nara consecrated.
Construction of Shosoin. Empress Koken institutes festival of Weavers' star. Empress dowager Komyo (Shomu's widow) makes initial Deed of Gift of Imperial Treasures to Shosoin. Bugaku dance drama introduced from continent.
HEIAN PERIOD 794-897
8
books written in Japanese.
712, 720
(794-1185)
Jogan or Konin (Early Heian) period. Heian-kyo capital moved to Kyoto. Suspension of relations with China. Native themes make their appearance in secular painting. Introduction of esoteric Buddhist sects and painting. Fujiwara (Late Heian) period. Spread of Amida Buddha cult; raigo ceremonies.
Amida Nyorai, famous wooden icon Emperor Ichijo reigns; flowering of
statue.
brilliant aristocratic society.
C.
1020 1053
II80
794-1185 tenth-twelfth centuries
Tale ofGenji written by Lady Murasaki Shikibu. Construction of Hoodo, or Phoenix Hall of Byodo in temple; sumptuous lacquer decorations. Great age of scroll-painting; Yamato-e style of painting developed. Animal Scroll by Toba Sojo (1053-1140). Hall of the Great Buddha at Nara destroyed by fure. First
period of nationalization in architecture.
Shinden-zukuri style of domestic architecture developed.
KAMAKURA PERIOD Minamoto Yoritomo civil c. 1
191
1252 1274, 1281 1309 1
185-1573
Zen
wars. Penetration of
founded by
sect
T567
Eisai; tea planted for first time; tea ritual initiated.
Kublai
Khan
attempts conquest of Japan.
Kasuga temple. The No plays written and Second period of Chinese influence in architecture.
Scroll-paintings of
(ASHIKAGA) PERIOD
1576 1584 1573-1591
1596-1615 1598
I 624- I 644
1637 1639
(1573-1615)
Death of Hideyoshi, on expedition
to Korea.
Second period of nationalization in
Tokugawa
potters start kilns in
Kyushu, making
architecture.
(1615-1867)
Edo becomes the Shogun's capital. Beginnings of Japanese porcelain. Ninsei, 1 596-1666. Kan-ei era; luxurious mode of Uving develops. Sotatsu, 1 589-1651, painter active 1630. Beginnings of Kabuki, popular drama. Christian RebelUon at Shimabara. Cessation of intercourse with outside world. Revival of Confucianism. Rise of Ukiyo-e art. Development of the woodcut print. Hishikawa Moronobu, 1618-1694; Ogata Korin, 1658-1716. leyasu,
1
542-1616, appointed Shogun.
Genroku
era; prosperity
Kambun
era; feud
1720 1716-1736
Introduction of the
textiles
and dissemination of culture. between the Machi-yakko and the banner knights of Edo. Development of kambun
with bold designs for
Nanga
dress.
Korin, 1658-1716, painter.
school of hterati painters.
Kyoho
era of affluence and extravagant living. Master printmakers: Suzuki Harunobu, 1725-1770; Kitagawa Utamaro, 1753-1806; Saito Sharaku, active 1794-95; Hokusai, 1760-1849; Ando Hiroshige,
1797-1858.
764- I 772
Meiwa
era.
1830-1844
Tempo
era;
1853
Korean knmigrant
glazed pottery.
1688-1704 1661-1673
I
(1338-1573)
Rise to power of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Construction of castle at Azuchi. Construction of castle at Osaka. Tensho era, during which karaori (Chinese weave) textiles were introduced from Ming China. Raku pottery ware began to be produced. Kano tradition in painting continued by Kano Eitoku, 1543-1590, and Kano Sanraku, 1559-1635. Keicho era. Kirym silks for warrior banners. Puppet shows developed, to accompaniment o(jojuri chanting.
EDO (TOKUGAWA) PERIOD 1615 1616
masks perfected.
Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa. New dependence of Chinese models. "Higashiyama" age. Tea cult formalized by Zen monk Shuko, 1422-1502, who built the Dojinsai tearoom at Silver Pavihon. Incense ceremony founded by Shino Soshin. Lacquer by Michinaga Koami. Development of the new Suiboku (monochrome) style of painting, with Sesshu Toyo, 1420-1 506, its greatest exponent. Tosa school of painting, led by Tosa Mitsunobu (1434-1525). Kano school of painting, founded by Kano Masanobu (1434-1530). Goto Shirobei (1439-1512), master metalworker for sword mounts. Hall of Great Buddha at Nara again destroyed by fire.
first
1573-1867
No
Gingakuji, or Silver Pavilion, built by
MOMOYAMA PERIOD 1582
Kamakura. Reconstruction of monasteries damaged during
Zen Buddhism,
Great Buddha of Kamakura, bronze icon.
MUROMACHI 1479
(1185-1333)
estabhshes capital at
Arrival of
MEIJI
economic reforms.
Commodore
PERIOD
Perry.
(1868-1912)
of Provinces and Prefectures THE EARLY TRADITIONAL DIVISIONS
of the
known
as kutii,
Japanese empire were in the form of regions
or provinces, but during the Meiji period the country to be divided into prefectures designated as
Of
the 46 prefectures there are one
to
to,
do, fu,
came
and
(Tokyo-to),
ketu
one do
(Hokkaido), two/w (Kyoto-fu and Osaka-fu), and 42 ken or rural prefectures. In the following table are listed the
names
of the provinces with the names of the prefectures that approximately correspond to the same geographical regions.
Kawachi
MAP OF THE OLD PROVINCES OF JAPAN. Courtesy of Hideo Kasai, Tokyo
PREFECTURE
PROVINCE
PREFECTURE
PROVINCE
Aki
Hiroshima
Kozuke
Gumma
Awa
Chiba Tokushima
Mikawa
Aichi
Mimasaka
Okayama
Hyogo
Mino
Gifu
Hiroshima
Musashi
Tokyo, Saitama and
Awa Awaji Bingo Bitchu
Bizen
Okayama Okayama
Bungo
Oita
Buzen Chikugo Chiuzen
Fukuoka and Oita Fukuoka Fukuoka
Echigo
Niigata
Mutsu Nagato Noto Oki
Kanagawa Aomori and Iwate Yamaguchi Ishikawa
Shimane
Omi
Shiga
Kagoshima
Echizen
Fukui
Osumi Owari
Etchu
Rikuchu Rikuzen
Iwate and Ishikawa
Harima
Toy a ma Hyogo
Hida
Gifu
Sado
Niigata
Higo
Kumamoto
Sagami
Hitachi
Ibaraki
Sanuki
Kanagawa Kagawa
Aichi
Miyagi and Iwate
Hizen
Saga and Nagasaki
Satsuma
Hoki
Tottori
Settsu
Kagoshima Osaka and Hyogo
Hyuga
Miyazaki
Shima
Mie
Iga
Mie
Shimosa or
Iki
Nagasaki
Inaba
Tottori
Shimotsuke
Tochigi
Ise
Mie
Shinano
Iwaki
Suo
Nagano Yamaguchi
Iwashiro
Fukushima and Miyagi Shimane Fukushima
lyo
Ehime
Izu
Izumi
Iwami
Izumo Kaga
Shimofusa
Chiba and Ibaraki
Suruga
Shizuoka
Taj i ma
Hyogo
Tamba Tango
Kyoto and Hyogo Kyoto
Shizuoka
Tosa
Kochi
Osaka Shimane
To to mi
Shizuoka
Tsushima
Nagasaki
Ishikawa
Ugo
Akita
Uzen Wakasa
Yamagata
Kazusa
Yamanashi Osaka Chiba
Yamashiro
Ku
Wakayama and Mie
Yamato
Kyoto Nara
Kai
Kawachi or Kochi
Fukui
^ [
Ishikawi
MAP SHOWING THE PREFECTURES OF JAPAN. Courtesy of Hideo Kasai, Tokyo
11
I
I
OR OVER
centuries
thirteen
The
of recorded
Cultural Heritage
century, there existed narratives in verse and stories of past
history the arts of Japan have served to
events and the circumstances connected with them. These
transmit her customs, myths, legends, and rehgious behefs,
were carefuUy committed to memory and handed down to
.^L.
besides chronicHng the everyday hfe land. This represents
the history of
art.
and scenic beauty of the
one of the longest
aesthetic traditions in
Architecture, sculpture, and painting are
not the only manifestations of
extraordinary legacy;
this
account must also be taken of the picture prints, besides classified as
many
scrolls
and color
other categories usually rather arbitrarily
"minor" or "decorative":
virtu, such as lacquers, textiles, ceramics,
objects
of use and
metalwork, masks,
miniature carvings, sword mounts. Because of the extra-
posterity reciters,
on
these objects, the arts
regarded
Western
as art
of the
furst
Aside from their high
manship,
distinction
many of these
of subjects and
artistic
quahty and exquisite work-
arts offer
associations.
an inexhaustible repertoire
There are scenes of the daily Hfe battle scenes, episodes
the hves of Chinese sages and poets, folklore, legendary
stories,
Buddhist and Shinto gods and symbohsm, scenes from
these treasured accounts the
piled
by means of Chinese
the Japanese language. as the Kojiki,
in A.D. 712
The
partly also
of their motifs, with derivatives and to the earhest times.
fabulous
art,
records
due
to the antiquity
attributes that reach
The stream of
back
consciousness of this
appealing essentially to the taste of noble and
apphed
to
and are known
the celestial deities presented a jeweled spear to the
all
birth to a land. Standing
upon
commanding them
god
to give
the Floating Bridge of Heaven,
they stirred the cool blue waters of the sea with the spear
was named Onogoro-jima, or
until the land appeared. This
land-which-appeared-of-itself,
meaning Sun Origin. From birth to the eight islands
The
first
ancestress
was
chronicles,
now
this
called
Nihon or Nippon,
land the
which
two
gave
deities
constitute Japan,
called
great-eight-islands, as the Japanese often call
of the Imperial family, according to the Amaterasu-o-mi-kami,
Princess
literally
heaven-shining-great-deity, or the sun goddess, daughter of Izanagi and Izanami,
whose radiance was such
sent to dwell in Heaven.
moon
The next
the
was Susano-o-no-Mikoto, brought
god.
much
that she
was
There she ruled with her brother
from
PREHISTORIC CULTURE
exist
were formed from chaos,
universe. After heaven and earth
warrior patrons, resides in the hfe of its traditions descending prehistoric times.
still
and 720 respectively.
Oyashima, or
is
characters successfully
From com-
chronicles begin with the story of the creation of the
their country.
simphcity that their meanings are apt to remain veiled to the
traditions.
written chronicles were
or Record ofAncient Matters, and the Nihon-Shoki,
of such subtle and suggestive
uninitiated Westerner. This
The
first
often abbreviated to Nihongi, or Chronicles ofJapan, compiled
the theater, mythical anunals, heraldic motifs. These subjects are often treated in a style
charged by the Imperial court to keep a
Izanagi and the goddess Izanami,
order.
and occupations of the people, epic
from
between major and
does not hold in Japan, and these works must be
a class of historians called katari-be, or story-
and pure history of the nation's early
clear
ordinary craftsmanship traditionally lavished by the Japanese
minor
by
who were
child a
bom
fierce
misfortune to the
to Izanagi
and Izanami
and cruel deity
earj:h.
It
who
was because' of
of Susano-o that Amaterasu hid herself in
the
offenses
the
Cave of Heaven, throwing
the
whole world into
darkness as the sun disappeared. literature in Japan before
According to the legend, eighty myriads of deities assem-
the introduction of the Chinese characters early in the fifth
bled before the Cave of Heaven to persuade the sun goddess to
Although there was no written
13
come out and bring together
many
and
Yamato court
merry with singing and dancing
sun goddess in
until the
curiosity opened the door of the cave just a bit
going on. At
that instant
hand and flung
the door
Around
back into the world. They gathered
and recited prayers, and even made
light
offerings
one of the
wide open
to see
deities seized
to
make
what was
her by the
come
the goddess
Silla.
whose envoys were
man of
from
He was
classics.
Shinto, called shimenawa. Amaterasu then
said to
Leaving the Plains of High Heaven, he thrust
apart the many-layered clouds with his to the land of Japan.
sword and descended
Amaterasu entrusted to him three
a mirror, a sword, and a jewel or necklace,
as
objects,
tokens of his
divine mission, with her prophecy that his dynasty should flourish and rule forever.
These are the Three Sacred Treasures
understand
all
the books of
and Chinese
script
were known in Japan prior to
official
introduction of the Chinese written language.
culture, but the descendants
Not
of Wani and other scholars from
Korea and China formed a nucleus of learning, and with the
in the Imperial palace in Tokyo, the sword venerated in the
is
whose
this date,
marked the
only did this make possible a more rapid absorption of Chinese
was evolved. The
the genealogy of the Imperial line,
This event took
the arrival of Wani with his assigmnent at court
aid of the Chinese ideograms, a
early chronicles further record
classics.
sug-
who was
over
place in the year 405, and although both the Chinese language
enshrined at the Daijingu shrine of Ise, the necklace preserved
The
with
come on
at Achiki's
Wani was brought
that constitute the Imperial Regalia of Japan, the mirror being
Atsuta shrine at Nagoya.
to
petitioned to reconmiend a
court and instruct the heir apparent, and gestion a scholar' named
as its first ruler.
men
outstanding literary knowledge to remain at the
re-entering. This has since been used as the Sacred
grandson, Ninigi-no-Mikoto, to descend to the land below
skilled craftsmen
the learned
one of these missions was a Korean named Achiki, a student of the Chinese
Rope of commanded her
and
tribute
Among
each of their missions.
was banished to the Land of Darkness, and
a rope across the entrance of the cave to keep Amaterasu
constantly trying to please the Japanese
by bringing
sovereigns
out and cause the sun to shine again upon the world. Susano-o the gods stretched
the end of the fourth century a.d. the
established friendly relations with Paikche,
the Kojiki (712), although the
lost
method of writing Japanese
work
earhest surviving
written in Japanese
book
first
in Japanese
—^now
—was a chronicle compiled in 620.
prehistoric portion
concludes with the Emperor Jimmu, the great-grandson of Prince Ninigi,
660
B.C.
who founded
the
Empire of Japan
in the year
Emperor Jimmu's dynasty has continued
A
generations until the present time.
one
Archaeological evidence indicates that Japan possessed
of the most advanced Neohthic cultures in the world, espe-
making of weapons,
cially in the
tools,
creating unusually intricate designs
on
and
utensils,
and in
pottery. Prior to the
Christian era her civilization had been fairly
but gradually there developed relations and
homogeneous, traffic
between
Korea and Japan, which probably began even before the century
B.C.,
fled to
Korea because of wars
most of them were
men
first
and there appears to have been a constant flow
of immigrants. These were Koreans, and
had
of learning,
in their
Chinese
own
country, and
skilled artisans, potters,
painters, farmers,
and
who
also
weavers, scribes,
speciahsts skilled in
the raising of silkworms. EHj/gre artisans and specialists appear to have
come over
in fairly large numbers,
element of the early population of Yamato,
around Nara was
ARRIVAL OF BUDDHISM
for 124
called, consisted
and a strong as the
region
of foreigners. These
ented immigrants stimulated the cultural
tal-
development of
further impetus to learning and cultural development
was provided by the introduction of Buddhism
stated that although the rehgion
explain and
worthy and
its
conception of deliverance from
architects,
Buddha and
submit the merits of
new
two powerful
gifts
from
this
The Emperor, upon
the sutras, decided to
rehgion to
his ministers for
factions at court.
On
the one
between
hand were the
Mononobe clan, who were the leading mihtary family, and the Nakatomi
clan, the hereditary liturgists;
rival the
Soga family.
presented
When
on the
other, their
the question
was put
who had been appointed O-omi or
Chieftains, favored
him with
Chief
Buddhism; therefore the Emperor
the sacred image,
which Soga
set
up
in
own house. The opposing faction strongly objected on the
mihtary expeditions to Korea and Japan's poUtical relations
his
with the three kingdoms of the peninsula KokuH, Paikche,
ground
14
These
and nuns, besides
consideration. This decision brought about a conflict
of
:
priests
receiving the image of the
was quickly
development were the early
was most
image carvers, and men learned in medicine,
before them, Soga,
this
difficult to
it
followers a beautiful
calendar-making, music, and divination.
brought from the mainland in the form of Chinese learning
importance in
its
all desires.
Paikche were soon followed by
temple
to apprehend,
excellent, bringing to
common
Of great
of Buddhism was
meaning was hard
Japan to such a degree that the high order of civilization
assimilated.
in the year
when the King of Paikche sent an image of the Buddha, with a number of volumes of the sutras and a message recommending the adoption of this new religion. This message 552,
that the
worship of foreign gods would only bring
down
the wrath of native deities,
who had
been worshipped
progress, as
it
was caused by the anger of the native gods, ordered
thrown
the image to be
into the canal at
Naniwa,
now
in
was
who was learned in
Chinese
successfully re-established
of Soga-no-Umako,
literature, the
with the powerful
new
tire
world.
Buddhism, year 587,
for
emerged
it
when
as the great
new
Yomei,
a behever in the
Shinto,
fell ill
dynasty.
The envoys and with great care
his faith in the
new religion. With
leader having a
by the Emperor,
a great impetus
was given to the progress of Buddhism. Soga-
faith
artists,
movement, and
the result
More holy images and
by
culture adopted
was
age of
numbers of missions
staffs
of these
as to their
staff
official
embassies were
rank and learning, the
of subordinate envoys including
numbering
as
many
as five
hundred
the Japanese
was
in a
new
the important aspects of the
of the
a modification
Chinese administrative system, incorporating most of its categories,
other religious articles sculptors,
whole
One of
single mission.
advancement of all forms of culture, with Buddhism
were brought from Korea, along with
buildings are
craftsmen, founders, carpenters, smiths, doctors, and
diviners, frequently
no-Umako, having reached a position of great power in Japan, placed his resources beliind the
its
this great
administrative institutions that flourished under the T'ang
selected
new
Suiko, and in
China to acquire a knowledge of the cultural and
well as in the native
of devotion to the
as the source.
sent to
as
that
in the
607 by Prince Shotoku in obedience
All through the seventh century great
were
religion in the
this expression
a rapid
most ancient wooden structure
in
time the Emperor
At
law of Buddha
and avowed
was founded
It
Buddhism.
another
the Soga family attained the most powerful
position after a brief civil war.
by the
as indicated
preserved images and other treasures of
proved the merits of
pestilence occurred. These trying times
freedom of style
its
have survived the ravages of
that
command by Empress
to a
During the following decade the fortunes of Buddhism
when
to
architecture
and the elements. The most celebrated are those of the
Japan, besides being the
assistance
who had followed his father as an ardent
the pressure of opposing factions
Temple
Horyuji, near Nara, the oldest existing teniple nucleus in
faith
behever in Buddhism.
waned under
medium was confmed
comparison to the Chinese prototypes,
few splendid monuments
called
Osaka. However, with the succession in 572 of the Emperor Bidatsu,
this
quickly showed unusual development in
of sickness spread throughout the land, and the Emperor, believing
most of the work in
the decoration of temples and images.
since the founding of Japan. Shortly thereafter, an epidemic
bronze
official
from the formation of a court hierarchy based on rank distinguished by
titles
and costumes, to
specific
reform and taxation. Travelers returning
workers, painters, temple carpenters, monks, and other learned
details as to land
men. The building of monasteries and the making of images
from China with detailed accounts ofthe splendors ofthe T'ang
advanced with great
capital at
strides, particularly
Empress Suiko to the throne in 593, when
with the advent of
vested in Prince Regent Shotoku Taishi.
Shotoku Japan.
is
At an
their
Buddhism
in
in the doctrines
of
considered the real founder of early age he
became learned
the faith and in the Chinese classics, and as
made Buddhism
Along with
teachings. tellectual asteries,
a
his propagation
were made
for learning the Chinese script
Chinese literature,
as all the
A
written in Chinese. scholars, artists,
and
continuous stream of
mon-
regulated
settled in Japan, creating the
cultural foundations.
(552-645),
named
Nara, marks the
after the seat
initial stage
by Chinese
the
was
monks,
now
art
a complete system of municipal government. it
had been the custom for the Emperor
new
palace
transferred with each
new
reign,
no
myo was
that the first
in accordance
of the Asuka
seat
established in the province
kyo, which was
the in-
permanent
later called
towns or It
cities
was not untU
new
city
was
with a plan based upon the Chinese
Gem-
laid
out
capital
of
Ch'ang-an, with palaces and mansions erected on a magnificent scale in the Imperial "inner city." itself
was metalwork. Painting showed
great
of Yamato and called Heijo-
Nara. The
apphed
there
site,
of court and government
period was principally sculpture in bronze and wood. In the arts
at the
on some new
the year 710 during the reign of the Empress-Regnant
of the Imperial court near
The
An important fea-
developed, such as had been the case in China.
of refmement and greatness of
culture.
and regulations, which
Taika Reform edict issued in the year
usually in one of the Imperial domains. Because the capital
Asuka period
Buddhism and
a code of laws
time of accession to erect a
most important nucleus of Japan's
The beginning of
Japanese art with the introduction of fluence exerted
priests,
by
Until this time
and studying
from Korea
efforts
ture of the Taika edict was the provision for a capital to be
Buddhist sutras or scriptures were
specialized craftsmen
on which
and to complete the great
645, and the Taiho code completed in 701.
of Buddhist
and religious houses of charity. Buddhism provided
new medium
to carry out reforms
finally resulted in the
of the moral and in-
advantages of Buddhism, he built temples,
scale
effected, inspired
to create even greater things for Japan.
work of compiling
Regent he not only
basis
countrymen
were
During the second quarter of the seventh century
the religion of the court, but also issued a
code and organized the government on the
Ch'ang-an and of the stupendous
the most magnificent undertakings
of state were
affairs
httle
was
also
on
a
grand
scale,
The
plan of the city
symmetrically arranged and
15
i
ij
y
(J
classified in the
by broad,
Chinese manner in a great rectangle intersected
straight avenues.
Chinese culture exert
So strongly did the influence of
itself in
every phase of Japanese Ufe that
not only were the temples and palaces in the style of Chinese architecture, but even religious texts
were read in Chinese;
and poems, chronicles, and official documents, and even court etiquette
and costumes were modeled
after
T'ang precepts.
Hall was of enormous proportions, originally 284 feet long,
166 feet wide, and 152 feet high. Twice ashes as the result of conflicts in
1 1
80 and again in 1567, and each time
it
to
lords,
was carefuUy
Although its present dimensions are only about two-
restored.
the size of the original building, the height remains
tiiirds
152
was reduced
it
between powerful feudal
and
feet,
which
it
enshrines
is
wooden building under a The seated figure of the Great Buddha
the largest
it is still
single roof in the world.
53 feet high.
THE NARA PERIOD construction of Buddhist temples in and around
The
continued
at
many
the capital, as the
an almost
being
Nara
as
Nara remained
moved from nearby
locations, such
frantic pace as
long
Kofukuji temple from Asuka. The
latter
became one of
the seven great temples of Nara and, at the height of its prosperity as the tutelary temple of the Fujiwara family,
many
as 175 buildings
within
its
precinct.
three-storied for
its
Among
as
the other
Nara period
principal architectural survivals ot the
had
is
the
pagoda of the Yakushiji monastery, outstanding
delicate
and graceful proportions. The Nara period was
RECONCILIATION OF BUDDHISM AND SHINTOISM The
erection of a great
image of Buddha in the Japanese
capital presented a difficult situation
profound
problem
effect
on
the rehgious
w^as to find a
way of
which was
assimilating
Shintoism, for the great image was to national worship with counterparts in
to
have a
of the Japanese. The
life
Buddhism and
become an
all
object
of
the provincial tem-
presenting in substance an affront to the native gods
ples,
the golden age of Buddhist art and architecture in Japan, and
worshipped by the people since remote antiquity. Foreseeing
although most of its buildings have been destroyed by
this,
other destructive elements, a great ures have been preserved. chiefly of bronze,
The
art
number of their
of the Nara period consisted
mural painting of Buddhist themes. increasingly Japanese in style, with
being erected in the new its
capital,
Its
many
great monasteries
each having numerous build-
compound.
Symbohc of sect
some
became
architecture
this
golden age in the Imperial city
and well known
much thought
the Buddhist priests gave
of reconciling the two
would be
faiths
for
its
is
the
of the
chief object of worship,
the Daibutsu or Great Buddha, the largest bronze
and allow Buddhism and
universally acceptable
was achieved by Gyogi,
a
distinguished Buddhist priest
the idea of syncretizing
them
as different
Buddhism and Shintoism by defming
forms of the same
belief,
image
in the
at Ise, to
of the Emperor Shomu, and
its
Great Hall was
completed in 752. For generations the Todaiji not only con-
one of the seven great temples of Nara, but
also
was
the center of Buddhism, the state reUgion during
those times, with various provincial temples as
its
branches.
Following the example of the Chinese Sui and T'ang Emper-
who had
set
up
as
an Imperial
at the
threshold of the shrine,
a Buddhist temple and a shrine for
Taoist rites in each provincial capital, an Imperial edict in 741
Gyogi
received an oracle from her sacred lips proclaiming her desire to unite
and harmonize the principles of the two
the Buddha.
ors,
and
solemnly request her opinion. After seven days and
seven nights of prayer
command
as
named
who became patriarch of the Hosso sect. He conceived
obtained recognition of the native deities
stituted
problem
Shintoism to coexist in perfect harmony. This reconcihation
world. Construction of the Todaiji was begun in 745 by
regarded
to the
and developing a doctrine which
emissary he journeyed to the sacred shrine of the sun goddess
Todaiji, or Great Eastern Monastery, headquarters
Kegon
or
wood, and dry-lacquer images of divine
personages, religious articles in fme metalwork, and
ings within
fu:e
art treas-
faiths,
and
as manifestations
of
The overwhelming ascendency of Buddhism over Shintoism culminated in the creation of Ryobu, or
Double Aspect
Shinto, the theory that the Buddhist pantheon
in general represents the indestructible parts of the gods,
while the
pantheon are their
deities in the Shinto
partial
appearances or incarnations. Shinto, or
Way
of the Gods,
is
the native cult of Japan,
combining nature and ancestor worship in a pantheon of
prescribed the erection of a temple and a seven-storied pagoda
"eight milhon gods," wdth the sun goddess Amaterasu-o-mi-
together with a monastery and nunnery in every province.
kami
The Todaiji was conceived on a stupendous scale. Its compound wall enclosed an area more than two rmles square, with numerous subordinate buildings, the largest and most magnif-
Shrine, of the Daijingu shrines at
icent being the Great Hall, or Hall
16
of the Great Buddha. This
as its principal deity,
country
itself,
enshrined in the Naiku, or Inner Ise.
Shinto
is
as
old as the
having gradually evolved from an unorganized
worship of nature and the
spirits
of legendary times. This early
of the dead in the dim past
cult
had a pantheon of many
nature gods and goddesses-
mountains
—of the sea, rivers, winds,
—besides many deified
no founder, no
creed,
and no teachings;
it is
and
fire,
historical personages.
has
It
simply the
Way
of the Gods, and a Shinto shrine has no image venerated in but
karni or deity
its
such
as a mirror, a
is
represented by a symbol of some kind,
sword,
Most Japanese
object.
gem,
a
a tablet, or other similar
are both Shintoist
and Buddhist with-
home
out contradiction, and almost every Japanese Shinto family
altar
it,
god
or shrine where a
has
its
symbohcaUy
is
oracle reconciling the
the edict announcing that a
was
two
Buddha image would be made Although the
issued in the following year.
Great Buddha was completed in 749, the dedication
ceremony took
image were touched
occurred in 742, and
faiths
was not
it
place, at
casting
of the
until 752 that
which the eyes of the
to symbolize bringing
it
to
life.
The
title
of Emperor, and reascended the throne
Empress Shotoku.
To
wooden pagodas called hyakumati-
one-milhon-pagodas)
(literally,
to
object of dedicating
them
stories,
of her peni-
as a sign
each four and a half inches high, with the base three
and
a half inches in diameter,
was placed
in each.
from
A
copy of the Dharani
a
sutra
milUon copies of this sutra were thus
copper or wooden blocks, to save the
either
them by hand. The
trouble and time of writing
sutras
and
pagodas were dedicated to ten large Buddhist temples,
their
a
be made, with the
to
Buddhism
to
These small pagodas were of three, seven, and more
tence.
and
as the
express her joy and thanks the Empress
ordered a million miniature
printed
venerated.
The
him of his
hundred thousand being presented
the year 770.
Of the original
more than
to the Horyuji temple,
to each
of the temples in
one hundred thousand presented ten thousand are
still
pre-
served there after almost tu'elve cenmries.
occasion presented a fabulous spectacle of Oriental splendor
amid
were performances of the ancient
great rejoicing; there
gigaku (dance-drama), and a maigre feast
court for 10,000
priests.
was provided by the
of the eyes of the Great Buddha was performed
of the Empress Koken, and her Imperial
Shomu. Many
who had
parents, the
articles
used
"eye-opening" ceremony
at the
the Imperial Repository,
a
treasure house a short distance behind the
Hall of the Great Buddha.
The Shosoin was
built
about 751
or 752 to preserve several thousand objects of art and other
belongings of the Emperor
daughter, the
Shomu, donated
at his
death to
Komyo-kogo and their Empress Koken. Preserved for more than a
the Todaiji temple
by
his consort
thousand years, these treasures of the eighth century, the period of Japanese culture, constitute a collection
classical
v^dthout parallel in the history of
art.
In the closing years of the eighth century the Heian period
in the presence
ascended the throne in 749,
former Emperor and Empress
are preserved in the Shosoin,
famous wooden
THE HEIAN PERIOD
The solemn ceremony of the opening
Included in
this great
(794-1185) began with the foundation of a
Heian-kyo, meaning later
to
Nagaoka,
new
building of the
when an
present
site
edict
series
of Kyoto. The reasons for
known
were attributed
site
was
selected
deity at the
Kamo
shrine, to the
for
that
it
is
textiles,
life
and
and
a
in popularity
and pros-
remarkable cultural progress was taking place,
Nara period was marred by dynastic intrigues and quarrels
of succession causing continuous of one of these
conflicts for
specimens of the
art
strife. It
power
of printing
In the year 758 the Empress
in the
Koken
was
a direct result
that the oldest surviving
world were produced.
abdicated in favor of the
Emperor Jonin; but a few years later, in
764, a revolt occurred.
This was successfully suppressed by the former Empress
Koken,
who
its
sun goddess
at Ise,
The new
ancestors.
new
local tutelary
and to the
site,
nestled
among surrounding mountains, was remarkable
natural beauty and an abundance of crystal-clear streams
that offered ideal spots for fme mansions with gardens
Like Nara, the
new
capital
was
laid
and lakes.
out on the plan of
Ch'ang-an, capital of the Sui and T'ang dynasties in China.
art.
Although Buddhism was growing
the
size
gives a remarkably complete picture of eighth-century
Japanese
perity
and household
of such great variety and
to a
Emperor had
and the move announced to the
tumes used
documents,
was probably due
to vengeful spirits. After the
picturesquely
collection
it
removal to the
sudden change in
consulted with persons skilled in the art of divination, the
ornaments, weapons, musical instruments, masks and cosin dances,
but
its
this
of misfortunes within the Imperial household which
tombs of the Emperor's
The
had moved
from Kyoto, where the
continued until the begiiming of
city
assortment are sutras, temple and altar appointments, personal
utensils.
capital called
ear her the capital
five miles
was issued ordering
plans are not officially
new
of peace and tranquilUty, which
became Kyoto. Ten years
from Nara
793,
capital
banished Jonin to the island of Awaji, deprived
Its
plan was in the
form of
a rectangle, crisscrossed
with moats of water running alongside. houses already existed portant being the
at
Kamo
by roads
A number of religious
or near the
new
shrine, the
Gion or Yasaka
and the Koryuji temple, better knoMTi
site,
as the
the
most imshrine,
Uzumasadera.
In 805 the celebrated
Kiyomizu temple was founded and
on
the
a cliff halfway
the old
main
up
hall
Otowayama, with
the materials
of the former Imperial palace
constituting the nucleus of the
at
built
from
Nagaoka
new buildings. One of the most
important, from a historical as well
as
rehgious standpoint.
17
was the Enryakuji temple,
by Dengyo-
established in 788
To
Daishi, the distinguished founder of the Tendai sect.
new
protect the to
come from
capital
from
evil spirits,
the northeast, the
which
Emperor
ordered
the Enryakuji temple buildings to be located
on the summit
of Mount Hiei to
of Kyoto. The
kimon, literally meaning devil gate, or northeast,
by many Japanese
considered
is
and intimate picture of life
which
presents a
Heian court.
at the
In this era of luxury and abundance the feudal system began
are supposed
Kammu
close the ''kimon" direction
Pillow Book, a charming and lively novel clear
to develop,
and the
political history
of events having
a series
of the period
drastic effects
on
great clans, the Fujiwara, the Taira, and the
in reality
Minamoto. The
between these powerful
struggle to the death
is
the fortunes of three
rival houses
to cast an evil spell, so that they will not
created a warrior class which, under the stress of the turbulent
build a house in that direction, nor sleep in that direction, nor
times, formulated a code of behavior pecuhar to feudal Japan.
move
The
in that direction,
and
on the northeast
a gate
side
of a
wall around a dwelling must always be securely closed to
keep out the Oni or
devils.
Even
as late as the begiiuiing
of the
stirring events
these great clans,
northeast of Edo, to close the kimon gate of the Shogunate
Taira,
In the opening years
of the
iiinth
the largest cities in the world, with a population of over half
many fme mansions having handsome
a million,
beautiful gardens, great tUe-roofed temples,
presented a constant pageant of the everyday Aristocratic
life
and
streets that
of the people.
Heian times was marked by gaiety and
the nobles residing in palatial residences and en-
festivities,
joying
in
life
and
gates
the privileges and pleasures their birth
all
and wealth
could command. In the northern center of the city was the
rise
of courage and art
and
and
of
fall
loyalty, left a
literature. After
1160
the domination of the house of
which had wrested power by military strength from
the Fujiwara clan.
century Kyoto was one of
with the
this period,
Emperor came under
the
by order of the Tokugawa regmie.
of
epic stories
deep impression upon Japanese
seventeenth century the Kanyei-ji temple was built at Uyeno,
capital
its
The whole of Japan was convulsed with when the Minamoto
war, famine, and pestilence until 1185,
clan overthrew the Taira clan after protracted warfare, at the
great sea battle of
Dannoura. From
was governed by
successive dynasties of powerful mihtary
dictators
who
that time
onward Japan
wielded Imperial power but never usurped
Imperial dignity.
by the military
The
life at
court continued to be respected
classes for its social
and
and the throne was always occupied by
aesthetic traditions,
a direct descendant
of
the sun goddess.
great enclosure with fourteen gates containing the Imperial buildings, the
most magnificent of wliich was the Great Hall
of State, resplendent with red-lacquered balustrades and greenblue roof
Here
tiles.
also
were the
taining the groups of buildings
residence
itself.
series
making up
The
as the first
Shogun
in 1192. This
jugation of Eastern Barbarians, gave him complete control over
that
made
secular artists of the time,
gave the interiors a native charm and
elegance. Landscape pamting
became very popular and great
in the applied arts such as
metalwork,
all
mihtary forces in the country. The privilege of having
retainers hold the posts
of high constables and stewards
charge of the collection of taxes paid in
dations of virtual rule over the entire country.
up
Shogunate government, was originally
from foreign influence and flourished
control over the warrior groups, with the
as
never before with a
truly native vocabulary and a typical Japanese expression. This
was prompted by the suspension of
with China, for in the year 894
it
discontinue the missions to the T'ang court.
abounds
in literary masterpieces
ment, and
a large
freedom of official
was decided
to
The Heian
era
of great elegance and refine-
number of celebrated works were
Japanese and were Japanese in subject.
An
written in
interesting feature
of this epoch is the appearance of several women prose writers,
among them Lady Murasaki
Shikibu, 975-1031, authoress of
the famous Genji Monogatari or Tale ofGenii, and Sei Shoangon, circa 1000, authoress
18
of the Makura-no-Soshi, or Miscellany or
merely
as its
set
commander, and did not mean
government had been abandoned by the
by securing economic and became
politically
iTuhtary
was
By
as
in
hakufu, or
an organ of
Shogun
to act
that the reins
of
court. Nevertheless,
dominance the Shogunate
supreme, although the court
certain negative authority as well as prestige.
The
his
foun-
rice, laid the
lacquer, and textiles. All the arts began to free themselves
relations
com-
wall panels, sliding partitions, and coffered
works
progress was
Yoritomo Minamoto
mission as Sei-i-Taishogun, or GeneraHssimo for the Sub-
series
were decorated by the great
in splendid
the
of large apartments connected by
of a
zukuri, consisting galleries.
The Kamakura period (1185-1333) begins with the rise of Minamoto family to supremacy and the appointment of
the Imperial
These great houses of the nobility developed
the distinctive Japanese style of architecture called shinden-
ceilings
THE KAMAKURA PERIOD
of enclosures con-
its
still
retained
and
cultural
social
the end of the twelfth century the feudal system
fully developed,
with more than 260 provincial feudal
houses hereditarily governed by the daimyo, or local barons,
appointed by the Shogun.
When
Yoritomo died
in the last
year of the twelfth century, he was succeeded by his first
two
sons,
Yoriie and then Sanetomo, but Sanetomo was assassinated
:
by
nephew, the chief priest of the Hachimangu
his
the year
which brought
1219,
Minamoto.
A
shrine, in
of the
to a close the rule
council of regency was formed and presided
over by Hojo Tokiniasa, the father-in-law of Yoritomo,
was
power behind
a
the
Shogun and
responsible for
With
the Kaniakura administrative policies.
Sanetomo
to the office
sole regent,
many of
the succession of
of Shogun, Tokiniasa had become the
and from that time on for over a hundred years
power of
the actual
who
cessive regents
was controlled by suc-
the Shogunate
the appearance of a code of ethics for the samurai called
Way of the Warrior, corresponding to chivalry
hushido, or the
Although samurai
warrior,
man
it
actually
or knight.
is
usually translated as
means one who serves, in
But
reality the gentle-
was armed with two
since the samurai
swords, and guarded, protected, and loyally served his lord, the term eventually ethical
came
to
mean
warrior.
The unwritten
—or man of the military the —with principles of virtuous
code of the hushi
conduct,
its
its
high sense of obligation, and
devotion and
tradilion
of
and strengthened the
fostered
self-sacrifice,
its
national spirit of the Japanese people and contributed
much
moral standard. The military families of the
to their high
Kaniakura age constituted a desire to cultivate the arts
new
social class
whose strong
and to emulate the cultural
the aristocracy brought on a period of vigorous
development. Paradoxically, the warlike
kura age had a stimulating
effect
upon
spirit
life
of
artistic
of the Kania-
the arts of peace, for
not only were works of art demanded by the feudal families as a
symbol of culture and
success,
artistic activity
even
period also played an important role in
the development of the arts and provided a place of refuge for scholars
and
artists.
A
leading sect was
was introduced into Japan in a meditative
wisdom and
this
epoch.
Zen Buddhism, which Its
atmosphere and encouraged
monasteries offered a
type of practical
subtle simplicity necessary for the pursuit
creative expression.
of
Within the walls of the Zen monasteries
many famous landscape
own
liis
gardens were created, and also land-
other Buddhist
1141-1215, leader of the Rinzai
who
sect,
and Dogen, 1200-
had studied in Cliina under
noted Zen philosophers. The principles ofZen were enthusiasti-
by
the military caste in the Kaniakura era, and
sects,
scriptures, the
upon
entirely
and practice
discipline,
the teaclungs of
tries to
supreme
Zen appealed
Zen
worship of images, or ceremonies, but
comprehend
it.
The
the
and
is
it
belief that the
and many other similar
spirit,
and nature,
Japanese. Their appreciation of art
many of their social conventions
ment, and
as
have effected the outlook on
principles,
to the
did not depend
it
the effort of the individual to
pervaded by one
is
self-
terminology of the
since
tind beauty in every aspect of
universe
much in
must work out
meaning of the universe. Zen accepts the world
as
of the
life
their refine-
well as spiritual
illumination are attributes of Zen.
A
of the Kaniakura regime of feudal
characteristic feature
warriors was
its
simplicity, vigor,
the influence of Kyoto, with the
and cultivated
society,
had
and
a certain austerity,
glamour of and
a strong
to the simple provincial soldier.
At
its
but
aristocratic
persistent attraction
first
the
manners and
behavior of the vassals was rigidly controlled according to the frugal and simple
of the
attractions
began to
life
of Kaniakura, but with the increasing
social life
of Kyoto, the power of the regency
The gradual adoption of metropolitan
decline.
and manners continued
to raise the standard
families despite legislative measures taken
rulers to stem
By
what they
called a trend
tastes
of living of feudal
by the Kaniakura
toward extravagances.
the second half of the thirteenth century troubles har-
assed the
a series
Hojo regents from abroad,
now
in relations
with China,
ruled by Kublai Khan, and internally, from
of catastrophes. In i257asevereearthquakecausedwide
destruction in the Kaniakura region, and in 1259 a serious
famine and relations
a great
learning, there
priests
Kublai Khan sent letter,
in 1274 a
in
off^
official
to Chinese centers
relations in the year 894.
his first
envoy
of
exchange of envoys since
But
in 1268
to Japan carrying a threaten-
which was followed by others during the next
five
of wliich were refused by the Japanese regents. Then
Mongol army of fifteen thousand
thousand Korean ships
and students
had been no
the Japanese broke
all
plague spread through the country. In
with China, although Japanese ships were contin-
uously carrying
years,
1250, head of the Soto sect,
by austere mental
salvation
temper and ideals of the feudal warrior,
ing
priests
simple and practical qualities, there was
realization. In contrast to the difficult
of mind and love of nature. Zen was founded by two
cally practiced
its
introspection and meditation in order to attain
scape and figure paintings in harmony with the Japanese temper
Eisai,
to
to appeal to a warrior, for each believer
which was
during times of strife. this
Zen
but also the inherent love
of beauty of the Japanese people fostered
Buddliism in
Owing
caste, as
samurai was often called
and Zen monks were favored
as the state religion,
guests at the Imperial palace and at the houses of the nobility.
upon
of the Hojo family.
This was the era of the formation of the samurai caste, and
in medieval Europe.
peared
sailors
and
troops with fifteen
auxiliaries sailed for Japan
m 450
and landed on the shores of Hakozaki Bay near Hakata
Kyushu, where they were met by
soldiers
from the
local
found their strongest adherents among the powerful feudal lords
estates.
and samurai. Zen flourished to such an extent under the
well-trained
patronage of these lords and the Shoguns that
firearms of the Chinese, they fought with such fury that the
it
almost ap-
Although the
local soldiers
Mongol bowmen and
were no match
for the
the missile machines and
19
to retreat to their ships with high
Mongols were forced from
casualties
the fierce Japanese swords.
The
knew
bafuku
Khan would make another attempt at the conquest and by the end of 1280 they had learned the Mongols
that Kublai
of Japan,
would
of 1281 two
attack in the following spring. In June
one from southern China with
great armies sailed for Japan,
about a hundred thousand Chinese, and the other from Korea with about
On the 23rd
thousand Mongols and Koreans.
fifty
of June the ships began to arrive
in separate divisions
and put
Muromachi period was
distinguish the
in the Kitano district
origmally the
of a court noble but was greatly improved
by
spent the latter part of his
life
out
its
garden in 1394, and
his will, his
son turned the
Pavilion, situated in the section of
and on the water
their small fighting boats inflicted
wide and
general destruction on the more unwieldy ships of the Mongols.
The
more than
battles lasted for
typhoon
arose,
with the wind and
ships into the narrows,
when
fifty days,
a terrific
tide driving the
Mongol
where they were wrecked and
their
yama.
of four thousand ships was destroyed, with only two
It
was
period
originally built
Yoshimasa, in the year 1479,
ment from
is
the Ginkakuji, or Silver
Kyoto known
as a
country
the Shogunate. Yoshimasa
versed in literature and a patron of the
arts,
Because so this
with lands taken from the enemy
clans.
had so impoverished the whole country compensate the
to
planned
vassals for their
Hojo regents from
pressed the
war all
services,
the
allies
were unable
and
quarters.
difficulties
Kyoto nobles
Kamakura with
and by the summer of 1333
Kamakura had been captured and destroyed by regent
its
But the Mongol war that they
well-organized campaign against
a
the aid of powerful feudal lords,
crisis after
always rewarded
fire,
while the
Hojo Takotoki with over two hundred of his family
and loyal
retainers
The throne was then occupied by
surrender.
Godaigo,
committed suicide rather than submit
who assumed supreme
of his ov«i
But
ministers.
the
to
Emperor
authority with the assistance
there remained in the
background
number of feudal warriors who had supported him, and among these was Ashikaga Takauji, a powerful Minamoto a
vassal.
con-
a
many masterpieces of art appeared in
those days,
period of art history has been called the Higashiyama Age.
scapes, executed
it
which was
tributing factor in the great cultural accomplishments of the age.
Among the great painters of this age was
The Kamakura regime had survived each
to a life
he was well
a political failure,
army surviving
intermittent civil wars because
villa for his retire-
was addicted
hundred escaping and not more than one-fifth of the invading the holocaust.
Higashi-
as
by the eighth Shogun, Ashikaga
of luxury, and although he was
crews became easy prey for the Japanese. Almost the entire fleet
obedience to
Buddhist temple called
Rokuonji. The mother outstanding expression of elegant simplicity in architecture in this
fiercely,
from
Golden Pavilion and
after his death, in
villa into a
prepared, having constructed a stone wall over ten feet high
The Japanese fought
was
It
there in retirement
the cares of state. Yoshimitsu built the laid
of Kyoto.
second owner, the third Shogun, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu,
its
who
villa
strong forces ashore near Hakata, but the Japanese were
along the coast for several miles.
the Kinkakuji, or
Golden Pavilion,
reflect the
Sesshu,
whose land-
with a few rapid strokes and washes of ink,
Zen philosophy
There also arose during
in terms
this
of the utmost
simplicity.
period a distinctive Japanese school
of painting called Kano, founded by Kano Masanobu and
his
son Motonobu, after the traditions of Chinese masters, from
which they created time
when
a style
with true native character.
definite Japanese standards
of
taste
It
was
a
were being
formed, particularly under the influence of Zen culture with principles
its
of simplicity and
And under
restraint.
the pa-
tronage of Yoshimasa the cult of the tea ceremony developed into a refmed social gathering based
upon
a prescribed eti-
quette and conducted for the appreciation of aesthetic pleasures.
The prototype of the classic tearoom upon which
ceremonial tearooms are based
is
the one in the
all
later
Togudo,
a
small building near the Silver Pavilion used by Yoshimasa for
ceremonies and incense
his tea
parties.
While the Ashikaga family were devoting themselves life
to a
of spendthrift luxury rather than to the duties of govern-
ment, the provincial domains were turned over to constables cases preferred living at the capital.
The con-
stables in turn delegated their duties to local barons,
who were
who
THE MUROMACHI REGIME
in
many
of office and cause new feudal One of these, toward the end of the was Oda Nobunaga in Owari province,
able to usurp the rights
The
installation
inaugurated the
of Ashikaga Takauji
Muromachi
as
Shogun
in 1338
period, ushering in an age of
elegance and profusion in which the arts flourished as never before, even
though
structive warfare.
Kyoto palatial
in
was
also an era
name
is
of protracted and de-
derived from that quarter of
which the Ashikaga Shoguns
established their great
mansions and gardens and indulged in a luxurious
mode of 20
it
Its
living.
Among
the
many
cultural features
which
chieftains to rise to
Muromachi
power.
period,
who gained power with the help of the neighboring provinces under restore
his control. In
1568 he entered
become more nominal than in
1
Kyoto intending
the powers of the Shogunate, but real,
since the office
to
had
he overthrew the Ashikaga
573 and devoted himself to the task of unifying the country
by force of arms.
5
With
the gradual collapse of the Ashikaga Shogunate and
inability to enfore
its
waning power
its
country was plunged into
lords, the
against the regional
a struggle for the re-
distribution
of feudal power. This was so widespread and pro-
tracted that
where there had been 260 daimyo or feudal houses
about a hundred years
by the year 1600
earlier,
but about
all
ten or twelve of these had disappeared and in their place other
had
families
power. The
risen to
were so far-reaching
With
and
social
changes
was refashioned.
that the entire country
breakdown of former
the
political
and groupings, and
alliances
the elimination of the weaker feudal houses, the conflict turned
Momoyama period; black,
the
woodwork is
and red lacquer, and the
embellished with gold,
and sliding
walls, ceihngs,
doors are covered with paintings. Great screen painters flour-
Momoyama era, such as Kano Eitoku, Kano Sanraku, 1559-1635, both of whom
ished during the
1543-1590, and
worked on of design
of overwhelmmg splencompound of the Nishi-Honganji temple in Kyoto
dor. In the
there
is
with boldness of stroke and brilliance
a large scale
in decorative compositions
a beautiful building called
inally a pavilion in the
Hiunkaku which was
orig-
grounds of Hideyoshi's Jurakudai, or
Mansion of
Pleasures, that illustrates the quiet elegance
some of the
palace buildings, in contrast to the gorgeousness
preme dominance of
of others.
was
After
master Sen-no-Rikyu further refined the tea ceremony and
into a rivalry
between
few groups, culminating
a
in the su-
the Tokugawa Shogunate after 161 5. Nobunaga had banished the Ashikaga from Kyoto in
was more capable of conquering
1573, he
houses than anyone had been before, and
he could have unified the country. But
came
to an
end
in 1582
when he was
was possible
by one of his
passed to
Toyotomi
who
Hideyoshi, one of Nobunaga's illustrious generals,
up the
task
where
his
master had
making himself master of the
left off,
that
raised
took
and succeeded
in
entire country.
it
also
during
this
period that the famous tea
to the dignity of a national art
under the patronage of
Hideyoshi.
A series of events occurred at this time which were of major
chances suddenly
his
assassinated
The power of leadership now
generals.
the other feudal
all it
It
of
importance to the applied 1
592 and again in
force to Korea.
arts, especially in
ceramics.
Once
in
597 Hideyoshi dispatched an expeditionary
Although the operations of the second were
successful, they
Hideyoshi.
1
were terminated
1598 by the death of
in
When the army returned to Japan, its commanders,
mostly the local daimyo of the island of Kyushu, brought
back hundreds of expert potters and
THE MOMOYAMA PERIOD
on
their
much The
short period
from 1573
and Hideyoshi flourished, after the site in
is
Kyoto where Hideyoshi
called Fushimi. Also associated
on
place
1
which Nobunaga
with
this
built a
period
famous is
576.
It
castle
Azuchi, the
Biwa where Nobunaga
the shore of Lake
other great stone castle in as
to 1615, in
known as the Momoyama period,
built an-
was an era of prosperity such
had never before been known and the general
taste
tended
toward grandeur and splendor. Following the example of Azuchi,
became the custom
it
castles as the center fiefs.
One of the
of the
finest
local
for provincial
government
daimyo
to build
Osaka
in 1584,
Some
idea
more than seven lines
may
granite blocks, the
task
of building the walls of this
be gained from the
two
in 1594,
and many
to this castle are
now
all
at
of the immense
castle, built at
palatial structures said to
preserved.
One
forms the Shoin, or State Hall,
temple are
still
size
measuring 98 and 75 square
largest
yards respectively. Hideyoshi's Fushimi
yama
and upon
his
was marked by
death there ensued
who should be his successor. The politMomoyama era resolves itself
history near the end of the
ical
into a allies
trial
of strength between Tokugawa leyasu with
on the one
other.
A
side
and
a
group of powerful
families
appointed Shogun by the Emperor, but
with his
on
his
the
great and decisive battle was fought at Sekigahara in
1600 in which leyasu was victorious. Three years
his victory at the seige
of Osaka
it
later
was not
castle, that
he was
until 161 5,
he subdued
remaining enemies and became supreme ruler of Japan.
Kyoto. Fushimi and
excellent examples
THE EDO PERIOD The Tokugawa
miles in circumference and
of outer walls each with deep moats.
o( the herculean
colossal structure
fighting and intrigue
a furious dispute as to
artisans to establish kilns
career of Hideyoshi
in their respective
the Himeji castle, also called the Hakurojo or Egret castle. But of all these strongholds the greatest was built by Hideyoshi
at
The
and most beautiful surviving examples
is
surrounded by two
domains.
many
is
Momo-
be related
the building
at the
which
Nishi-Honganji
other similar structures
of the architectural beaury of the
until 1867
or
Edo period extends from
and represents
a
the year 161
250-year rule by the powerful
Tokugawa family, who established their military headquarters at
Edo, the present Tokyo, making
country.
Edo
Tokugawa
the military
it
leyasu's policy
and administrative
the de facto capital of the
was not only capital, distant
to
make
from the
dangers of court intrigue, but to effect a readjustment of the country's various institutions
by making
it
cultural center as well. In the social structure
the nobles occupied the political
most exalted
power and economic
the economic and
of the Edo period
social
rank but lacked
influence because the regu-
21
lations
governing the functions of the Emperor and the court
had reduced
nothing more than an office of
their status to
The
Imperial formahties and ceremonials.
The
the hakiifu as their central authority.
divided into provincial domains or
by about two with
entire
and
Plain.
a conspicuous part
was the famous
district
which were governed
or
choiiiri,
with the
steadily increasing prosperity
steady
commerce was
maturity under the
on from the
carried
in
Osaka the Shin-
of
as
they do
reality.
Along
of the townspeople and
their so-called plebeian culture, the great progress in learning
sciousness
A
of Shimabara and
to the present day, an astonishing illusion
broadened the national
Tokugawa.
Tokyo
and in Kyoto there
whfle the puppet shows succeeded in producing,
groups being subject to the rule of the military. Thus the full
pleasure quarters of
ingly accomplished acting of the Kabuki, or popular drama,
and industry, while the provuicial
its
The
this city life
country was
landowners and peasants followed agricultural pursuits, both
feudal system of Japan reached
of
machi. This era also wimessed the development of the amaz-
The townspeople,
retainers.
in trade
were
with
affairs,
hundred and seventy dainiyo or feudal lords
their families
were engaged
fjefs,
on the
warriors,
other hand, controlled the political and economic
Yoshiwara or Reedy
The
spirit.
spread of national con-
was not limited to domestic
affairs
;
there
were more
and more discussions and deliberations on pressing questions of relations with the outside world which, together with the
beginning of the era with Portuguese, Dutch, English and
many
other problems and social changes, began to have their
Chinese traders, continuing until the so-called Christian re-
effect
on
bellion
of Shimabara and Amakusa in Kyushu
in 1637
internal conditions.
At the advent of Emperor
trig-
Meiji,
were
who
ascended the throne
so exhausted they
no longer
gered Japan's cessation of intercourse with the outside world
in the year 1867, the bakiifu
in 1639.
possessed authority to carry
on
country. In that same year the
Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu
During the more than two hundred years was
in
complete seclusion,
that the
branches of the
all
arts
country
enjoyed
a
period of striking activity and progress, especially during the
Genroku era, from 1688 era under the
to 1704. This
was the most prosperous
Tokugawa, when luxury and extravagance
reached a high point and the culture of the townspeople with their
growing wealth gravitated around the
ing World, or Ukiyo, as theaters, restaurants,
it
was
called.
arts
of the Drift-
This was a world of
and various fugitive pleasures
in
which
the samurai and sons of rich merchants mingled with courtesans, actors, dancers, singers,
prints
and
jesters.
The wood-block
its
pleasure-hunting citizens
22
district
on the
outskirts
of Edo
to the
Emperor, bring-
ing to a close almost seven hundred years of rule by the military class and
marking the end of the feudal system. The
Meiji period begins with the Restoration of 1868
Emperor
issued the administrative principles
commonly
called the Imperial
of that year the Emperor
Oath of Five
visited
the
Articles. In July
Edo and changed
Tokyo or Eastern Capital, in contradistinction known as Saikyo or Western Capital, and in the to
when
of sovereignty
the
name
to Kyoto,
following
year he settled in Tokyo, which became the capital of the
life
country. However, the ancient capital of Kyoto, teeming with the historical and religious traditions of centuries, has remained
gathered to see the plays and dances and other forms of enter-
tainment in the great
government
who
and popular novels of the time chiefly depicted the
of this Drifting World with
relinquished the reins of
the administration of the
called
the cultural center of Japan's arts
atmosphere
still
lingers there.
and crafts, and an Old World
Motifs in Japanese Art
II
C
^^ INCH
Wi,^^ of creative expressed
THE mtroduction of Chinese
assimilation. In
a
shown
Japanese have
branches of the
all
art the
arts
they have
genius for inventiveness, culminating in the
when
MOTIFS FOR THE DECORATIVE ARTS
power
a remarkable
Edo
The innumerable minous
treatise
motifs of Japanese art
reached a truly national character.
The Japanese
manner.
aesthetic sensibility, in particular, rises to such a
high level of
prodigious development of the applied
period
it
refinement that their arts are replete with beauties often too subtle for casual Occidental perception. teristic
of Japanese
art
is
that
leaves so
it
allusion or a slight suggestion
cultivated Japanese, for
it is
is
A
principal charac-
much unsaid. A remote
often sufficient to satisfy the
held that true beauty can be dis-
covered only by mentally completing the incomplete. This
quaUty of
aesthetic appreciation
of Zen Buddhism ceremony, It
floral
owes much
to the principles
in such cultural pursuits as painting, the tea
arrangement, and the
can be characterized
as austere
art
of garden design.
without being
simple
rigid,
without being crude, something subtle and quiet. In Japanese this is called shihumi
in everything.
and constitutes the
One who
smallest incidents
of
of beauty
cannot conceive greatness in the
life is said
garden rock without moss
real essence
is
to be
devoid of shihumi
;
a
considered lacking in shihumi; a
painting that shows everything instead of leaving something
unsaid or possessing a hidden philosophy
The
artist will
a distant
and sometimes
aspects
nature
of is
life
and the
contour
a simple
and personal
prints,
and
articles, in
illustrated books.
netsuke carver patience and
as
is
a
whole
utilize the
decorative themes
on
a
were small articles of household
use, such as netsuke, into,
boxes, and other small
opened
sword mounts, lacquer
addition to paintings, color
The miniature
sculpture of the
often so full of detail as to present marvels of
skill,
and under the brush of the lacquer
artist
the
inro was transformed into a thing of astonishing beauty, while tsuha
and other sword mounts present the most exquisite
metalwork ever produced. The introduction of
illustrated
books early in the seventeenth century provided another tile field
for the imaginative treatment
of motifs
lore, the artists frequently writing the texts
and illustrating the
legends, traditions, and other subjects they recorded. illustrated
books were intended
as
fer-
in ancient
Many
models for the use of pupils
An
With
the development of color prints
from wood blocks
still
symbol
another avenue was opened for recording not only folklore,
expression of the infmite
legends, and other Chinese and Japanese themes, but an ob-
essential character
and symbolism
of Japanese motifs
great variety of objects. These
arts
and craftsman to
or craftsmen in the applied arts, and by the end of the eighteenth
achieved by simplifying
aesthetic qualities
vast storehouse
artist
century books of design were being produced in quantity.
mountain with
eloquent use of empty space.
until after the sixteenth century that a
which enabled the
field
a volu-
summary
without shihumi.
is
a single flower or tree suffices as a
of the inner essence of nature.
was not
fill
in a
whole sky with one stroke
often represent the
of the brush or line,
new
It
would
and can only be discussed here
its
An is
and emotion of
profusion and
of such
appreciation facilitated
by
by an
a
knowl-
jective study
The
of the people and the customs of the times.
Japanese have always lived so close to nature that they
have developed
Through
a
profound appreciation of
their belief in Shinto
its
qualities.
and the teachings of Zen
edge of the myths, legends, and meaning of the decorative
Buddhism, an emblematic
motifs that inspired Japanese
animals often appears in some legendary symbolism handed
art.
association
of
specific plants
and
23
down from
early times.
Some of the combinations of plants
and animals most frequently associated together
in art are
plum blossom and dragon,
deer and maple, boar and lespedeza,
plover and waves, swallow and bamboo, tiger and bamboo,
and peony, peacock and peony, quail and
lion
group of emblems,
which the
in
association
more
of the animal-guardians or messengers with
that
tive Shinto deities.
deer
is
Among
Another
millet.
is
strict, is
Hie shrine
Edo
of the
country keeps
was such
feudal lord, deity
the
is
god of war because Minamoto Yoritomo,
sidered a
a devotee
became erroneously
many
is
the great
Of
associated with militarism.
hardly a village or a hamlet that does
how
grow
to
shrine has a pair of sculptured stone or
front of it, as the fox
is
is
Every
rice.
wood
a deified
who
Ugatama-no-Mikoto,
to have taught the Japanese
said
Inari
foxes placed in
The many red
the messenger of Inari.
before the entrance of these
torii often erected in enfilade
picturesque red-colored shrines represent donations from believers.
resting
The on
gateway
torii,
a pair
set
up
usually consisting of
approach to
two wood
wood
of slightly splayed
at the
posts,
is
bottle.
The fox
an animal with a dual character, for with the
is
They
as evil.
aro reputed to have demoniacal powers, such as
sorcery and witchcraft
art
is
—every
moving when
the sun shines
hi the
Creatures, which include the
who
pass
through them.
extremely rich in
is
stories
of
and
water, and often
in the
Many
stories
all
manner of disguises to way-
aimoy wayfarers. He
monk
ing the role of an itinerant
a peculiarly
is
often depicted assum-
dressed in a
kimono and
Especially popular
is
A
popular role of Tanuki
hind legs with his
24
as
is
they walk across paddy
standing
by
a greatly distended belly
fields.
the roadside on his
which he
strikes
with
shown
it is
in
their respective
of a
in the tail
which there
lives for ten
thousand.
long, flowing
tail,
hundred years old;
said to its
grow when
origin
A
is
it
is
The most
more than
probably due to the
ponds become covered with
is
one
is
a
five
fact that
a weed-like
made
peasant's mino or raincoat
symbol of longevity and good luck, the
tortoise
plays a conspicuous role in Japanese art and legend.
One of
of reeds.
the most famous tortoise legends
fisherman
the story of the
named Urashima who rode on
and was taken
several
is
hundred
to
Ryugu,
or Dragon-Land, the undersea
from which he returned
years, to find everything strange
and
This legend popularized the tortoise motif, which
used
as a decorative design
young
the back of a tor-
on the
clothes
after
different.
is still
much
of Japanese children.
drum, or most often
a greatly distended
Thus, since early times an over-all pattern of hexagons derived
depicted in most of the carved
wood or sculptured
from
forepaws
scrotum,
as
on
down
presentment of the sacred tortoise, or minogame,
paradise of the Dragon-King,
of night
scaly
live in the heavens,
the kame or tortoise, of
toise
astray in the dark
huge
a proverbial saying that while the tsuru or crane lives for
empty and then laughing at their misfortune or leading people ;
as
represented calling
sword of Japan was found
begging for alms or causing fishermen to draw up their nets ;
or
kirin
about dragons that lived in them, and tradition holds
growth which resembles the
is
it is
throughout Japan have
lakes
One of these
Tanuki the badger. Gifted
and shapes, some
the clouds or ascending into the sky; very often clouds.
tortoises kept in
is
more com-
or phoenix, the
dragon has the miraculous power to land,
animals that possess particular characteristics or are sacred.
with magical and supernatural powers, Tanuki
is
one of the Four Sacred
with sharp claws, others winged or with horns. The
reptiles
thousand years, the tortoise
and thus symbohcally purify those
Ito-o
are represented in various forms
common
represent the three crowings of the rooster,
It is
pegasus, the kame or tortoise, and the ryu or dragon. Dragons
have three
lay, deceive, or
with the
rain,
mythical fauna of Japanese lore, none
monly represented than the dragon.
legendary story of Amaterasu. Therefore most Shinto shrines
mischievous creature that takes
wedding pro-
amid the
MYTHICAL LORE
dragon.
ideo-
torii specifically allude to
legendary animals
of persons
particular subject in
bride being carried to her husband's house.
The
a rooster perched in the
Japanese folklore and legend
A
a fox.
the familiar foxes' wedding, portraying a
cession
that the Imperial
Shinto shrine.
a
crossbars
on which
torii, to
locality has stories
have been bewitched by
said to
the simple
gram for torii means bird perch, and the entrance of the cave
cooUe
of the Hachiman shrine that
not have an Inari (rice-bearer) shrine, dedicated to prehistoric princess called
a
in the other a sake
con-
also
Shinto shrines, the Inari are the most popular and
most numerous. There
and
a purse
shrine throughout the
number of them. Hachiman
a large
in
Oyamakui, an
consecrated to Hachiman, a
is
Hachiman
deity of peace, and every
its
Sanno-Sama or
period, dedicated to
The dove
ancient Shinto deity.
and carrying in one paw
creature and messenger of the deity of rice, foxes are regarded
Tokyo, which was the most popular shrine
in
the capital during the
coat of lotus
a
flower on his head that looks like
a lotus
the animals in this category, the
the messenger of the
is
hat,
most frequently represented wearing
is
with
exception of the Inari fox, a well-disposed and benevolent
the messenger of the Kasuga shrine in Nara, dedicated
The monkey
Tanuki leaves,
their respec-
to Takemikazuchi, a brave general in the legendary age
gods.
stone images of him. In these carved or sculptured images,
like a
tortoise-shell
markings has been widely used in
textiles
and
porcelains.
The motif evolved from
formed by the head,
from one of the
projecting
toise-shell pattern
is
may
may
feet
more
in a
hexagon
the stylized
of the
tortoise, each
Frequently the tor-
six corners.
worked
example, the hexagon ders or
and four
tail,
elaborate manner. For
display a series of decorative bor-
by
usually accompanied
longevity, of longevity,
is
which he
depicted as a
accompanied by Hotei
is
tall
a deer.
and
old
Of
life,
symbols of
tortoise as
who
also stands for
man in the dress of a scholar, good
the seven gods of
He
probably the most popular.
and symbol of a happy
center a floral motif
a crane
a god. Jurojin,
is
portrayed
is
as fat
luck,
of children
a lover
and with
gen-
a
Because of its graceful figure, one of the most popular bird
erous allowance of his prominent belly showing, joyously
symbol
laughing, whether alone or surrounded by children. In one
designs in Japan
the crane, and, like the tortoise,
is
it is
a
of longevity. The combination symbol oitsunikanw, or craneand-tortoise,
is
a
popular motif, while the
one thousand cranes,
is
seinlm-siini, literally
symbol of good luck and
a
The Japanese
frequent pattern of kimono fabrics. is
is
is
a
carp, or koi,
another design motif used in various branches of the applied
arts. Its greatest
popularity
symbol
as a
in the shohu-no-
is
sckku, or tango-tio-sekku, the Boys' Festival held
day of the
fifth
made of paper carp for each
month
on the
fifth
each year. At this time, huge carp
or cloth are attached to masts and poles, one
boy
emblematic allusion
in the household, as an
to the perseverance
of the
and attempting to leap
swimming
koi
against the current
hand he usually holds holds
a Chinese fan
bag over
a large
and with the other he
the Precious Things or Takaramono, or receptacle for playful children.
of twenty
objects, each
the representation of
which he uses
The Takaramono
endowed with emblematic meaning,
which
is
fairly
common, such as an ingodown of
the gods,
and so
cious Things
is
bag with the Pre-
forth. Included in Hotei's
the cargo of the Takarabutie, the treasure ship
who
of the gods of good luck
are usually represented along
with the TakaraDiouo. In religious art the Buddhist pantheon contains a countless
number
host of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and a bewildering
of other
RELIGIOUS MOTIFS
is
In the category of religious subjects that play such an
portant role in the field of art, the most interesting of all
assemblage of household divinities called
shichifukujiii
prominent place
a
human
worship and, being endowed with
failings
a pleasantly
humorous,
carrying
a tai fish
and
is
a
the
is
Daikoku
is
hand
a
and endless
Of
way.
the deity of
magic mallet
that
produces everything desired, and holds a large bag over left
messengers are said to be mice. Bishamon
who
keeps
in full
and
his
shoulder. Images of Daikoku are usually black and placed
in the family kitchen to insure a plentiful
evil
and the devil under
armor carrying
a
supply of food. His is
the
pagoda-shaped shrine
a partisan in his left ; the latter attribute
god of dignity
He
control.
in
and
is
represented
liis
his
he
sat in
right
hand
armor
are
among member of the
humorous treatment in Japanese
makers of dolls; the dharuma the
form of
a roly-poly,
the white serpent. gevity,
regarded
is
shown
as
Fukurokuji, meaning an old and bearded
bald head, sometimes unbelievably tied a
book which
as the
contains the
goddess of music,
attributes are the
dragon and
fortune-fief-lon-
man with a very high To liis long staffs is
tall.
life limits
of all persons, and he
theme
without arms or legs and in
one of the most popular. Other
is
Niwo
or
Deva Kings, ;
is
always depicted standing enveloped
in flames;
and the Shi
Tenno, representing the Four Kings of Heaven or Four Guardians,
each for a cardinal position of the heavens. Bishamon, for
the north, as
is
Hindu or Chinese god of wealth,
also seen as the
one of the Twelve Deva Kings, and
good
luck.
a brush,
Komoku,
and
a red fan
with a spear and
a
for the west, ;
is
as
one of the gods of
represented with a book,
Zocho, for the south,
in a suit
white fan and Jikoku, for the ;
carrying a sword and a green fan.
The wind
of armor
east, in
deity
armor,
is
often
depicted carrying on his back a large bag, which he can open
a
is
a perpetual
two wooden guardians standing at the temple gate Fudo, who
to let out wind,
and beauty, while her
doll,
is
extending even to the
art,
frequent Buddhist subjects include the
the gods of war. Benten, the only female
group, carries a lute and
who
where, in the temple of Mien-Pei,
meditation for nine years without moving, finally
responsible for his being often erroneously included
culture,
to China,
name.
to his Indian
of the rank of dharuma,
for
the kitchen. Standing or sitting on straw-covered bags containing rice, he carries in his right
went from India
monk
popular
symbol of fishing, depicted
a fishing pole.
represents a Buddhist
losing the use of his legs. This long retreat
in
if irreverent,
multitude one of the more popular
or seven
by the painter
inclinations for enjoyment, they are portrayed
these seven personages, Ebisu
im-
Of this
subjects.
Daruma, or Bodhi Dharuma according
He
and carver in
as a
a collection
is
exhaustible purse of money, the sacred key to the
waterfalls.
gods of good luck. They occupy
away
shoulder in which he stows
his
and the thunder deity often
number of drums, which he can
According to
carries
strike to
on
make
a legend, little children are told to
his
back
thunder.
keep their
fronts carefully covered because the thunder deity
is
always
aiming for children's navels. Within the category of malevolent influences
name of on/,
is
a large
group of
devils
the representation of which
is
having the generic
common. Oni have
sharp claws, squarish heads, sharp teeth, and
two horns, and 25
—
on the
day of winter, with the ceremony called
last
or setsuhun, they are expelled
oni tsuina
from the houses by
casting
vast field of religious motifs
more
is
clearly
compre-
hended when one realizes that it embraces a very great number
such
as
happy omens, the hun-
the eight
dred antiques, the vajra or thunderbolt, the Buddhist jewel in a leaf-shaped halo
of flames, and the many Taoist and Con-
the flower
rites,
mournful occasions and therefore
lotus
is
is
is
associated with
seldom seen
as a
whole realm of Japanese symbolism there
In the
more interesting than form of animals
motif in
use or decoration.
articles for secular
of symbolical ornaments having Buddhist, Taoist, and Confucianist significance,
The white
symbolic of death, and since most funerals in Japan are conducted under Buddhist
roasted black beans.
The
for articles used in the Buddhist service.
is
nothing
the horary and zodiacal characters in the
that are used singly
and
in combinations.
Besides the solar,or Gregorian calendar adopted in 1868, there
two
fucian immortals. In the sacred wheel of Buddha, or Buddhist
are
Wheel of Law,
dar which was introduced into Japan along with Chinese learn-
the eight spokes represent the different stages
of the Noble Eight-fold Path, which
are: right beliefs, right
means of livelihood, right
aspirations, right
acts, right
en-
deavor, right mindfulness, right speech, and right concentration.
Seen everywhere are the left-handed swastikas, called
meaning letter-ten-thousand or
which
creation,
ancient calendars
in use in Japan, the lunar calen-
still
ing in the sixth century, and the zodiac calendar, also of Chinese origin. For a variety of reasons the farmers prefer, and still
which they follow
use, the old lunar calendar,
sowing of seeds because
it tells
for the
the climatic changes of the four
the
seasons better than the solar calendar. Since the adoption of
symbol of Buddhism, and the tomoye, the disc-shaped Shinto
the zodiac calendar along with Chinese learning in ancient
symbol of creation consisting of three intertwining forms
times, each year in history
manji,
is
re-
and each day of the year has had
sembling commas, taken from the Chinese sign around which
zodiac sign assigned to
are arranged the Eight Trigrams or pa kua.
custom of dividing the years into is
named
after
of twelve, each year
cycles
one of the animals of the twelve Oriental
of the zodiac. These animals are arranged
NATURE SYMBOLISM
following order:
Since practically everything in
meaning, beautiful plants,
it
Japan
given symbolic
is
follows that because of the Japanese love of nature,
and thoughtful
A
and flowers.
attributes
have been applied to
symbol of longevity
is
chrysanthemum which, when represented with is
emblem of the
the official
teen. nioti
number of petals must be
The Empress of Japan
A
tree.
prominently in
all
plum. The pine green and love,
and
its
because
its
the arts a
and three leaves of the
kiri
or
of three lucky symbols that occurs is
the shochikubai or
pine-bamboo-
symbol of devotion, because
it
is
ever-
needles are usually in pairs, representing conjugal
it is
for devotion
is
set
other families or
greater or less than six-
has an elegantly designed crest or
consisting of three flowers
paulownia
sixteen petals,
Imperial family called the kiku-
When used as a crest or badge by
no-go-moti.
societies, the
trees,
the kiku or
also a
symbol of longevity; the bamboo stands
and strength, and the plum
fragrant flowers
come out
for perseverance,
in the early spring after
are the ten trunks,
cycles
senior junior,
name from Komo-Hana-no-Sakulegendary princess to whom Mount Fuji is dedi-
ya-Hime,
a
cated; although
it
has
no
particular attribute,
it
expresses the
beauty and charm of the Japanese countryside. The lovely flower that is
is
the hasu or lotus, invariably seen in
form on the 26
emblematic of purity, wisdom, and Buddhahood
altars
its
of Buddhist temples,
natural or artificial
as well as in designs
boar. Correlated with these
a reciprocal set
of zodiac
signs, so
and each day of the year has one sign
names taken from the
their
in the following order
:
wood
senior
"five ele-
and junior,
fire
and junior, earth senior and junior, metal senior and
and water senior and
From
junior.
ancient China the Japanese adopted
that survive to the present day,
many
traditions
one of the more important
and meaningful being the "five colors." The proper order of sequence of the five cardinal colors
and black. Each one of the significant
manner
is:
yellow, blue, red, white,
five colors
is
mutually related in a
to the five directions, the five seasons
time, the five virtues, and the five elements. quential arrangement of each set to
of the
five colors, as well as
Direction
at its
its
often each, with
ments"
Time
blossom, which derives
making
of each set. The ten trunks are an arrangement of the years into
withstanding the cold of winter. Seen often enough to be conthe sakura or cherry
signs
in the cycle in the
ox, tiger, hare, dragon, serpent, horse,
that each year in history
sidered the national flower of Japan
is
rat,
monkey, cock, dog, and
sheep,
a
In accordance with the Chinese
it.
tue
—
—center,
east,
conform
The proper
of se-
to the sequence
with one another,
is
as
follows:
south, west, and north. Seasons of
doyo (each season has doyo consisting of eighteen days beginning), spring, faith,
ments
summer, autumn, and
humanity, decorum,
—earth, wood,
fire,
justice,
winter. Vir-
and wisdom. Ele-
metal, and water.
The symbolism
attached to these important sets of five Oriental subjects has
had
a
profound
effect
upon
the cultural and legendary tradi-
tion of Japan, and their general or abstract principles are found associated in life.
many
respects with
all
phases of Japanese daily
Paintim
Ill
JAPANESE
PAINTING had
its
beginning in the
Asuka period (552-645) with the stimulus provided by the introduction of Chinese learning and the spread of Buddhism. These
from the
new
flourishing arts of the Asiatic continent.
The
art
were accepted by the Japanese
and were adapted, modified, and
in order to
Since
conform
Buddhism gave
literature,
it
in
own natural
to their
some
built
to
ideals
cases rejected,
art
and
these
great monasteries
were
of mountains and were designed
conform with the beautiful and impressive natural sur-
The
often remote mountain
basic
in prin-
Among
sides
place for scholars to retire
of these Buddhist paintings are extant and
preserved in ancient temples and monasteries.
on the summits or
roundings.
aesthetic expression.
and encouraging
Many of these
life.
ideas
followed that the earUest paintings had religious
Many
and contemplative
and read the
afforded an ideal
sites
works
sutras or create
of art. Although Buddhism long remained the chief inspiration in art, traces
of secular
art
began to appear
as early as the
ninth century.
With
the vital incentive to the development
of culture by inspiring high
subjects.
court,
to acquire
elements of Chinese ciple,
came by way of the Korean
which Japan began
the channel through
devote themselves to a solitary
retreats for meditation or to
the prosperity and luxury
which developed
in the
begmning of the Fujiwara or Late Heian period (897-1185), there occurred a distinct trend
away from
the assimilation of
the T'ang style to one of greater Japanese inspiration.
movement became more
firmly established and
As
this
more purely
on the doors and panels of the Golden Beetle
Japanese in expression, even Buddhist subjects were frequently
miniature shrine in the Treasure Depository of the Horyuji
painted in a natural landscape setting of trees, rocks, and
are the paintings
temple near Nara. They are
among
the finest examples of the
plants.
The
great houses of the Fujiwara aristocracy contained
spacious apartments
Asuka period.
whose
ceilings, sliding doors, partitions,
and wall panels were embellished with beautiful paintings by a
THE EARLY CHINESE INFLUENCE
new
class
of secular
their increasing
Buddhism continued painting for
to provide the principal themes for
the next seven hundred
years,
throughout the
Asuka, Nara, Heian, and Kamakura periods. Because the Buddhist monasteries
were the
their great walled
received
its
centers of culture,
compounds
inspiration
it
was within
that this religious painting
and was produced. The monks derived
their creative
impulse from great Chinese examples and placed
the emphasis
on representations of Buddhist
Buddliist Paradise.
The
divinities
and the
artist-monks of the various
mon-
asteries created these paintings for use in their religious services
and to spread the
faith.
Within the monastery buildings were
enshrined the images, paintings, and other treasures for the edification
of teachers and
artists.
But Buddhist
art did
not lose
strength or animation, because the great monasteries, with
men of learning who came
to these
power and wealth, expended enormous sums
to construct fine buildings
works of
and decorate
their interiors
with
art.
In Buddhist art the iconography a careful interpretation
of the great
of the text of the
divinities
scriptures.
From
was the
very beginnings of Buddhism in Japan, images of the Yakushi Nyorai or Healing Buddha occupied the central great temples.
Next
Compassionate
One who
liever,
alleviates the sufferings
and Miroku, the Buddha of the next world
salvation to the believer,
people
at large.
many Kamwn or
altar in
in importance, the Bosatsu
of the be-
who brings
were the most popular among the
Very few examples survive of the numerous
paintings and tapestry hangings
which decorated the great
temples of Nara in the eighth century,
when Buddhism 27
Right:
Horokaku matidara: The Buddha and
Attendant Divinities. Color and gold on Fujiwara
period,
Institution, Freer
Below:
Two
ekvetith
century.
Gallery oj Art, Washington, D.C.
Nika Byakudo,
or
White Path Crossing
Rivers, an allegory of the Jodo
Amida Buddha believer
if he
about
successfully
passion or the river with
sect,
showing
soul of the true
to greet the
walks the White Path
without falling into the river of
greed. Color
silk.
Smithsonian
many
and gold leaf on
fire representing
reptiles representing
silk.
Kamakura period
(1185-1333). Seattle Art Museum.
was the
state rehgion.
One of
the
few
is
the exquisite httle
figure of Kichijo-ten, goddess of beauty and fecundity, in the
Yakushi-ji,
from the end of the Nara period.
imbued with is
Still
completely
the classic perfection of Chinese prototypes, this
no provincial
interpretation but one fully informed with
the worldly grace of the T'ang civilization.
At the beginning of the ninth century a new type of religious painting followed the founding of the esoteric Buddhist sects
of the Tendai and Shingon,
in
which
their
complex sym-
bolism was rigidly represented in pictures and images. The
2H
But with
the triumph of the Fujiwara family
and suspension
of relations with China, there came into being such works
near Kyoto. There, the mandara
portrayed on lotus
one
the
feels
seats
—
is
—a
celestial
hierarchy of gods
treated in so familiar a
way
that
iconography had by then become
esoteric
thorouglily assimilated by the Japanese
artists.
During the course of the eleventh century the new called Jodo,
Nyoirin Kannon.
and gold on
color, silver, silk.
Ink,
which proclaimed
Merciful One, opened a
century. Smithsonian Institution,
Freer
Gallery
ofArt, Washington, D.C.
faith in the
way of
the descent of
who
Amida, of
liever at the time
sect
the
common
new iconography of faithful be-
death to Paradise in the Western
his
the Phoenix Hall, called
Uji, the central building
a
promised to take the
Heavens. The most complete is
Buddha Amida,
salvation for the
man. The doctrine offered the painters
Heian period, twelfth
as
mandara of the Daigo-ji pagoda,
the large eleventh century
monument of the cult of Amida
Hoodo,
of which
Byodoin temple
at
fdled with paintings.
It
in the is
contains nine versions of the descent of Amida, in one of
which, instead of the esoteric images of the previous century, the divinity
surrounded by music-making attendants, or
is
below them
raigo;
a naturalistic landscape suggesting the
is
A more
region of Kyoto.
personal image
is
tury triptych in the Hokkeji a red lotus,
at
Nara.
Amida Welcoming
of an eleventh cen-
the Faithful to Paradise, in the central part
The
divinity, seated
on
seen in a perfectly symmetrical composition
is
gazing directly
at
the spectator's eyes: the unmystical face and
the delicate drawing of the brilliant red robe create a devo-
(Emma-
Suyaiiiadeva
and
ten) ants,
Two
Attend-
and (below) Ya-
tional icon
Such
of deeply moving
paintings,
spirituality.
which were intended
maraya (Emma-o) and
the
Two
departure from the material world.
Attendants. Color
and gold on
Early
silk.
Kaniakura period,
hour of
century.
played
his death,
a
profound role
A
later,
at the latter's
more humanized
conception of the same theme, and one of the largest of such
thir-
scenes, teenth
to establish a spiritual
the compassionate divinity and the believer at
bond between
is
the early thirteenth-century Descein of Amida across
Smiththe
Mountahis, in the Zenrinji at Kyoto.
The golden-bodied
sonian Institution, Freer
Gallery ofArt, Washington,
celestial
behind
D.C.
two
apparition of
a
Amida emerges,
like a
moonrise, from
mountainous, typically Japanese landscape, in which
small Bodhisattvas and
some
tiny
attendant
figures
symmetrically arranged combine earthly and heavenly motifs. In
some of these paintings one sees
scape at sunset,
Japanese painter adhered to this mystical
all
divinities
and theological conceptions. of
imposed on him by
iconography of Indian origin, with
of numerous and varied
a feeling
the details
trancjuil
To
its
pantheon
symbolizing divine power
certain divinities he imparted
beauty and serenity unruffled by cares,
the
Land of Perfect
Amida's
at the
Amida,
Among
Western
the esoteric paintings
of highest religious importance
presentations of the universe in
its
two
cycle and the material cycle, understood
influence, graphic
is
also expressed
moment of death by
of colored
silk
in the
Bliss; the attendant figure
the compassionate Kannon.
spiritual uniting tie
while others appear imposingly powerful and dynamic.
were the mandara produced under Shingon
left is
the lovely Japanese land-
which suggests Amida's Paradise
the
among
The
Paradise.
idea
at
of
a
pious Buddhists
custom of holding
five strands
fastened to the joined hands of an
in order to
West,
kneeling
image of
be drawn up by the Buddha into the
But
in contrast to these enchanting scenes
depicting the infinite beauties of a paradise designed to attract the Amidists did not neglect to frighten
aspects, the spiritual
people to the
by the
people with hideous graphic representations of the nether
initiated only.
faith,
29
^1
Ahove:
Toba Sojo, 1053-1140: Detail from
called the
Caricature of Birds and Beasts, or Animals
the scroll-painting at
Play,
painted in ink on paper. Kozanji temple, Kyoto.
Left:
A
raigo showing Amida Buddha descending from
Western Paradise
to receive the
departing soul.
used in the so-called raigo ceremonies
and color on
silk.
in
Buddhist temples. Gold
Fourteenth-fifteenth century. Seattle Art
i
the
The painting was
Museum.
-^
y
i
A Section from the
Jigoku Zoshi,
or
Hell
Scroll, traditionally attributed to Mitsu-
naga, depicting the fate ofvarious sinners.
This detail shows Buddhist priests
who
disobeyed their vows being driven into the "Shrieking-sound Hell" by horse-
headed demons. Color on paper.
Kama-
kura period, about 1200. Seattle Art
Museum.
30
world, the world of future punishment imagined
as
below the
earth.
According to Buddhist teaching, the six realms to which
spirits
of the dead can transmigrate are those of the infernal
hells, all
of ghosts, of beasts, of demons, of humans, and of deities,
of which are vividly described in the religious paintings of
painters
o( the Fujiwara period were
learning, equally able to
men of
great
produce masterpieces of religious
for Buddhist monasteries,
and secular
art for
is
one of the great accomplishments, with no counter-
who
has
A
skilled calligrapher
is
essentially an artist
gone through the most strenuous training
art
the aesthetic
of the written character
is
Japanese philosophy of
taste.
essential in
order to understand the
Each stroke of the character
beauty of a thought or a stanza of poetry; the abstract patterns
of the strokes communicate
feeling.
The fmished
of
painting was the practice of calligraphy,
literary composition, paralleled the pictorial art
powerful influence on
pictorial art. Calligraphy in Japan, as in
Example o/fukinuki-yatai Kasuga
shrine.
a
(roofless house); detail
from
Kamakura period (1183-ijjj). Kasuga
the
line in calligraphy
was
a
fuUy developed
art
expression
which, in
of narrative
scroU-painting toward the end of the Fujiwara period.
Kasuga Gongen Reigenki,
shrine,
is
meticulously placed and must be so drawn as to reflect the
appreciation of the nobility. Closely associated with the art of
which exerted
in brush-
work, design, and composition. Consequently, an appreciation
the time.
The
China,
part in the West.
a picture scroll depicting the history
of the
Nara.
31
"^>^ii£^
Example of the kzsumi incidents in the life
technique,
from the
of Tenjin-Sama,
to
KitAnoTemmnn-guEngi,
whose
Kitano shrine
spirit the
NARRATIVE SCROLLS
by Nobuzane Fujiwara, 1176-1268, a picture is
dedicated.
above with the roof omitted, permitting an unobstructed picture of the interior.
Scroll-painting, called e-maki, or makimono, which received its
inspiration
from
of illus-
literature, originated in the idea
trating historical accounts, stories, ratives.
A makimono
is
illustrating
scroll
Kitano shrine. Kyoto.
poems, and popular nar-
a horizontal hand-scroll having pic-
is
The term
numogatari-e, or story-picture,
given to scroll-paintings of pictures alternating with text,
thus serving as a visual realization of the literature.
most famous extant examples of this gat ari scroll
of the great
literary
style
is
One of the
the Genji
who was active
tures of successive scenes arranged in chronological sequence.
The work is
There are two kinds of makimono, one having continuous or
during the middle of the twelfth century. Actually
successive illustrations,
and the other having individual pic-
tures alternating with portions is
text.
The
rolling
to fifty
this
scrolls
famous novel written by Lady Murasaki
century.
The
it
consists
with excerpts from the fifty-four chapters of in the eleventh
story portrays the elegant and romantic atmos-
to facilitate
phere of the Heian court life and the dramatic passages through the seasons of the year of the courtship and sorrows of Prince
It is
to left like the text. to the realistic,
paintings:
affixed to a rod at
Ranging
one end
in treatment
from the
poetical
many different themes are represented in scroll-
religion,
romances, children's
events, popular customs,
great
of paper
scroll
from ten
attributed to Fujiwara Takayoshi,
and unrolling, and the pictures are viewed from right
feet in length.
A
of a
generally about twelve inches deep and
of two
Mono-
romance of the Tale ofGoiji.
number
stories,
famous views, and
historical
historic places.
of Japanese scroll-paintings are executed in a
Genji,
who
is
deeply in love with Murasaki-No-Ue. All of
these scenes are pictorial device
viewed obliquely from above o( fukinuki
In contrast to the rich gatari scroll,
which
and
in the usual
yatai.
brilliant colors
are in perfect
of the Genji Mono-
harmony with
its
delicate
peculiar perspective called fukinuki yatai, or roofless houses.
brushwork, many scroll-paintings are in black and white.
This unique style of illustration gives an oblique view from
outstanding example of the
32
latter
is
An
the Caricature of Birds and
Right:
A
painting
Zcii
hy
1420-1506:
Sesshu,
Daruma
(Dharma) and His Disciple Eka (Hui-K'o). Dhartna, an Indian Buddhist
priest,
the reputed founder
is
of
the
Zen
sect.
Sainenji
temple, Aichi prefecture.
Quail, hy Tosa Mitsuoki, i6iy-i6gi.
Tokyo National Museum.
P Beasts, or
Animals
at Play, a
nique of independent
line. It
man-priest, the abbot
Toba
+t
•^"
'«--'-
notable achievement in the techis
generally attributed to a noble-
Sojo, 1053
1
140.
I^i
this scroll are
depicted animated and spirited rabbits, foxes, monkeys, and frogs frolicking at a picnic. There are four of these
and witty
scrolls,
of human beings. the activities of
amusing
believed to represent a satire on the behavior It is
surmised to be a pictorial caricature of
members of the upper
doubtedly recognized by the
Although many of the
were
artist's
classes,
who were un-
contemporaries.
scroll-paintings
of the Heian and
religious in subject, the principal usage
was
for the illustration of literature. Creative writing in Japan
was
later periods
closely associated
produced
scroll literature
and
much of it was
solely for that purpose. Picture-scroll art reached
zenith in the
Right:
with
Kamakura period
Kakemono,
Mincho, 1352- 1 43 1
in the :
(1185-1333), which
Suihoku
style, attributed to
is
Kitsuzan
Hermitage by the Mountain Brook,
paper. Konchi-in monastery, Kyoto.
its
noted
ink on
'^.
Detail from a makimono by Sesshu, 1420-1^06: Landscape,
for a
its
great
number and variety of makimono. These portray
wide range of subjects and present
feudal
life in
medieval times.
and the
lives
A
a graphic illustration
number of
of important
priests
Shiiito
and holy men. Most
of the famous temples and shrines have preserved among treasures a
makimono which
the rehgious trate
life
records
its
stories
and
battle scenes,
beautifully embellished sutras or scriptures. living
and fashions
is
on paper. Collection of Motomichi Mori,
Yaniaguchi.
but harmonious colors, in contrast to paintings done with
weaker colors or
in ink
monochrome.
In
many of the
paintings with illustrated narratives the transitions
scroll-
from one
scene to another and the passage of time are described with characters written in a beautiful, often very expressive callig-
raphy inserted between the
which naturally contain the
pictures. shifting
Sometimes the
stories
of scenes and the passage
which
of time resort
to a device technically called kasumi,
peculiar to the
Yamato-e style of painting. The literal meaning
The mode of
a purely Japanese
manifestation called Yamato-e, as distinguished
light color
scrolls illus-
from popular literary works.
in the picture scrolls
and
and many are
in dress are colorfully depicted in these
priceless records, as are the scenes
The technique used
their
sacred beginning or
of its founder. Other Kamakura
romantic military
of
religious scrolls
famous Buddhist temples and
depict the history of shrines
i)ik
from
the var-
o( kasumi
means a
is
mist or light fog; but in scroll-painting, kasumi
a special treatment
of space between pictures to signify
change of location or passage of time.
of several long
streaks, or
it
may
It
consists
of a pattern
be a well-balanced semi-
circular form.
The kasumi
ious styles of Chinese origin.
is
design
is
taken from the natural atmospheric
formations which are so typical of Japan's moisture-laden
cli-
mate, with long horizontal sweeps of dense mist cutting across
THE "YAMATO-E" STYLE
the sky.
A beautiful example o{ kasumi in the Japanese country-
side occurs at twilight in the springtime,
Yamato-e,
literally
Japanese painting,
is
the most distinctive
Japanese style of painting, without counterpart in any other art.
The
earliest
known mention of the word
text in the fourth year
Almost
all
style, in
which human
Yamato-e
is
in a
of Chotoku, corresponding to a.d. 999.
scroll-paintings
were executed
figures, houses, trees,
in the
Yamato-e
and other objects
are outlined with hair-thin lines and filled in with bright
34
form of white Scenery of
by
this
nature
the artists of the
screens.
reflects a feeling
Occasionally the kasumi device
quillity.
when it is seen in
streaks lying heavily at the foot
Yamato-e
the
of a mountain.
of solitude and tranis
seen in other
school, such as
works
on folding
The Yamato-e painters received their inspiration from
the things closely associated with the everyday lives of the Japanese.
A n ^
«^
•t.5>
-If
11^
*
i % t
>.^
4-
•''•
*.
-T
^
-
^
,
*
.
t-
'-;:. -
••'
f-
^^« «-/..
* «
/T.^
^^ *;
•"
1
"i'
"-
>;•
'
'f
/
,
''
'Jf.
i^'
.
>
i*.
fi
.'
n
*-
•>
<
;ft,V
1-
r
,i
/^.
Kakemono by Tcmho Shiibun, c. 1415-1460: Before the House of a Recluse, ink oti paper. Seikado Collection,
Kakemono by
Tokyo.
Sesshu, 1420-1306:
Winter LandMuseum.
cape, ink on paper. Tokyo National
35
Otic
of forty-nine
I4j6-i5^g,
that
kakemono
depicting landscapes, flowers, color on paper.
>
A
o
O O'O
•-
kakemono by Kano Masanohu, 1434-1530. The
Mao-shu, a Chinese Confucian in color
scholar,
subject
is
Chou
viewing lotus flowers. Painted
on paper. Collection of Tomijiro Nakumura, Tokyo.
Kano
hy
Motonohu,
were originally mounted on fusuma
and
birds;
ink and light
Keiun-in Monastery, Kyoto.
•n-
THE ZEN INFLUENCE In the
Kamakura period
Japan, and
among
its
the
THE SUIBOKU STYLE
Zen
sect
of Buddhism arose
in
prosperity and progress was especially significant
the warrior
class.
The
Zen upon Japan
influence of
and her people has been so pervasive that
it is
actually a fun-
damental part of her culture. The word Zen means meditation,
and Zen
differs
from other Buddhist
sects in
not relying upon
Suiboku painting gives an
entirely different value to the
meaning of line. In Suiboku painting
line
is
an
essential ele-
ment, marked by great individuality. In contrast to the simple
contour
lines
of the Yamato-e
style,
which may or may not
enclose color, the line in Suiboku varies with the slow or
rapid strokes of the brush.
The
line thus
becomes the
essential
formal doctrines or the worship of icons. Instead, followers of
element of expression, with infmite variations in the tone of
Zen
are supposed to erdighten themselves
black taking the place of color.
tion
and meditation in penetrating the meaning of the universe.
by
intuitive cogni-
Suiboku
art
Because images of Buddhist divinities did not form an all-im-
harmony in
portant part of Zen teaching, their religious art consists chiefly
in accordance
of
chinso, or portraits
painting
is
of great
priests.
Another form of Zen
the doshaku-ga, or a painting illustrating the deeds
of famous Zen
priests
or portraying certain natural scenes or
subjects associated with the pursuit
of enlightenment. With
the spread of Zen in Japan there appeared a
nese paintings of the
Sung and Yuan
which was adapted by Zen outlook and
taste.
artists
demand
These painters usually
own
this
bamboo, and
the beginning of the as suiboku,
new
Suiboku did not follow any prescribed conventions of composition, the artists
were able to convey
their spiritual thoughts
and present a visual conception of the unity of the individual with
all
nature.
The inherent Japanese sensitivity
From
developed in
of the fourteenth century Suiboku
by
the
fusuma by Kano
art
to the beauty
was greatly stimulated
work of Kitsuzan Mincho, who was
the head priest of
the Tofukuji monastery in Kyoto. Landscape lar subject,
and
at
about
this
became
a
popu-
time poetic inscriptions were
beginning to make their appearance on the hanging picture scroll,
of sixteen
black,
preciation as well as spiritual enlightenment. In the latter part
some
Muromachi period (1338-15 73), known
set
by
with the teachings of Zen Buddhism. Since
the spirit that permeates everything, heightened aesthetic ap-
or black painting.
Landscape and Flowers, four of a Tenkyu-in monastery, Kyoto.
a spiritual
colors
of
specialized,
style
all
particular
religious or secular subjects.
dependence on Chinese models, a
who saw
of nature, coupled with Zen teachings about the universe and
producing only certain kinds of flowers, others devoting themselves to trees,
artists,
black and white and described
Chi-
for
dynasties, the style
to their
The development of Japanese
was due to the Zen
or kakemono.
Eitoku, 1543-1^^0; painted in ink on paper.
The
as
where
origin in China,
its
the fourth century.
It is
a vertical scroll, often
on
kakemono, or hanging
traditional Japanese
with
edges to frame the painting.
heavy paper to over to give
narrow
stiffen
of
strips
on
The whole
and to
is
roll
it
The
its
folded
attached
two
several
has a-rod, usually tipped
A
up.
poem
shi-ga-jiku
The
fifteenth centuries.
of the painting or complimentary remarks about the it
was the custom
frequently and replace or occasion,
to change the
designed to hold
it.
that single night
of each year.
Special preparations are
mono
having pine
made
in every household,
time are hung in the tokonoma. For the
throughout the year which
symboUc
and kake-
trees or other pictures characteristic
call for a
subject, large houses
have a few hun4red hanging
many
kakemono
of this
occasions
depicting a
with numerous rooms often
scrolls stored in the
godown.
SHUBUN, SESSHU
artist
In the early part
of the
fifteenth century
painting received a great impetus
Suiboku landscape
from the work of Tensho
or
kakemono
with one appropriate to the season
it
was rolled up and placed
it
union on
was fashionable among Zen
around the fourteenth and
work. Since
a joyous
The most important occasion in Japan is the New Year Festival, which is celebrated on the first three days of the year.
or verse
written characters frequently comprise a poetical description
his
Way, have
particular kind of
on the upper part of the
inscribed in calligraphic characters
painting proper.
is
which hang down
called shi-ga-jiku, or shi-jiku, has a
kakemono
mounted
backed with
in turn
this fold are
silk called fiitai,
with ivory, which serves to
priests
records as early
or paper
of silk brocade around
The bottom of the kakemono
inches.
silk
The top of the kakemono
it.
strength,
it
strips
m
mentioned
it is
a painting
had
scroll,
The box was then
many
or store house, along with the
box
in a
especially
stored in the
other
godown,
kakemono and
household possessions.
The kakemono
is
hung
the tokonoma, where
enjoyed. are
its
in a special place in the house,
appropriate times for changing the
The
caUed
*^-,.:
beauty can be most appreciated and
on ceremonial occasions and with
kakemono
new
the advent of the
seasons of the year. Especially important occasions for the
kakemono
display of symbolic
Herb
Early
March, the
Festival in January, the
the Iris Festival in
Chrysanthemum
which has grown
Iris,
a wealth
days are the
festival
Peach-Blossom
May, the
Festival in
are the Peach-Blossom,
and
are the go-sckkii, or Five Sea-
These popular family
sons' Offerings.
Festival in
Star Festival in July,
and
September. The most popular
and
around each of
Star festivals,
of interesting
traditions, legends,
The Peach-Blossom is popularly known as Dolls', Festival, when ceremonial dolls in traditional and
stories.
or Girls',
ancient costume are displayed. Since peach blossoms
sym-
bolize happiness in marriage, pictures are chosen that are re-
presentative of feminine charms
depicting
The
young
girls
and beauty,
kakemono
especially those
in classical literature.
or Boys' Festival,
Iris Festival,
playing a
famed
is
appropriate for dis-
depicting the deeds of a traditional Chi-
nese or Japanese hero or other epic subject taken from classical literature or history. larly
known
as
night of the seventh places
where
occasions and
38
two
Star Festival,
month by
7. It is
owes
lovely
which
is
more popu-
the lunar calendar, but in
the Gregorian calendar
the night of July
that
The
Tanabata, was originally fixed for the seventh
its
is
used
it is
most
celebrated
on
the most romantic of all the annual
inception to an ancient popular behef
stars, set far
apart
on
either side
of the Milky
^fcX^..^^^|
Shubun. As a
priest in the
Shokokuji, a
Shubun studied painting under same temple. He
raised the
Zen temple
in
Kyoto,
Josetsu, another priest in the
Suiboku
highly developed form and was the
of painting to
style
its
was perfected
of this Chinese school
Yamaguchi
to be appointed as official painter to the
Shogun. Active from
his life.
about 141 5 to 1460, he
as
is
regarded
as
founder of
this school.
extant paintings are traditionally attributed to Shubun,
well as
some
large folding screens.
The
principles
Zen
painting and a graphic illustration of the
vision of the
universe are reflected in the great works of Sesshu, a pupil of Shubun. Sesshu, 1420- 1506,
was born
province,
now Okayama prefecture, and at
to Kyoto,
where he became a
He
is
priest in the
of Zen in
who was in Bitchu
an early age went
Shokokuji temple.
considered to be the greatest master of the Suiboku
school,
under whose leadership
Plum Tree and
this
black-ink type of painting
Birds, set of four
went
to
return about a year later he went to the Unkokuji temple in
first
Many
into a truly Japanese style. In 1467 he
China, where he studied landscape painting, and upon his
prefecture,
where he remained most of the
rest
of
While studying in China he achieved great proficiency
in landscape painting
and was determined to make the natural
With
scenery of China his master.
his ability to
understand
the elements of this Suiboku style in China, and with his
appreciation of nature as seen through the eyes of a
he became the foremost black line in Sesshu's
artist
work
which he interpreted both
is
Zen priest,
of the Japanese landscape. The
the expression of great talent, in
line
and color in various tone de-
The works of Sesshu include many subjects numerous extant examples which bear his sig-
grees of black.
and there are
nature or are attributed to him. His landscapes of the four
fusuma by Kano Samaku, 1559-1635;
color on paper.
Teiikyu-iii monastery,
Kyot 39
jH^**
m^
Fishing with Cormorants, one of a pair
of six-panel screens
by
Kano Tan-yu, 1602-1674;
<'"/'"'
"" paper.
Okura Shuko-kan Museum, Tokyo.
seasons and his folding screens with flowers and birds are exquisite
works
that reflect his
Zen outlook upon
the world.
Appreciation of art and the other branches of cultural activity
had been the chief pastime of the aristocracy
since the
period and continued on through the Kamakura and
machi
THE TOSA SCHOOL
eras. It
is
therefore not surprising that
appointed the chief
artist
also held the position
The
prestige of the Chinese style of
tinued to exert
its
Muromachi period
Suiboku painting con-
family were also court this
For the
first
sixty years
of
this
period the Ashikaga Shoguns were involved in warfare
and
in
numerous
However, arts
intrigues
among
class
wealth, creating a resent their
in a far greater
The
:
one
style
newly acquired
is
for
riches
and turmoil, the
than ever before.
power and
risen to
works of art
that
would
with colorful beauty.
their origin in the
rep-
Two
Muromachi
the Tosa school, and the other the Kano.
of painting of the Tosa school
the Yamato-e.
Muromachi
way
of feudal lords had
demand
famous schools of painting had period
the local feudal barons.
despite a country torn with strife
began to flourish
The new warrior
The
era
is
in the
leading master of this school during the
was Tosa Mitsunobu,
143 4- 1525, the son
favors and commissions
40
fact that
from the
of
nobility, gaining prestige
many of them belonged
A
bureau.
great
artists
to noble families.
official
bureau of painting
Other members of the Tosa
and
in turn served as heads
depicting the history of certain temples in
Kyoto were
work of Mitsunobu. These scrolls were executed in the Tosa
of Yamato-e with precise contour
style
of
many of the most famous scroll-paintings
with serene and subtle
colors.
famous Kitano Tenjin shrine
Among
in the
the
typical
lines filled in
the treasures of the
weaving quarter of Kyoto
are fourteen scrolls of the illustrated history of the shrine.
Two
of these
scrolls
century,
fourteenth
were done by Tosa Yukimitsu and three are
1617-1691. Talented painters of
manner of
Tosa Mitsuhiro. Tosa-school painters enjoyed innumerable
from the
of head of the
force during the opening years of the
Mitsunobu was
of the Shogun's government and
in the hiiperial court in 1469.
(13 3 8- 1573).
Heian
Muro-
the beautiful
and rare
history of Japan.
this
by
Tosa
school created
scrolls depicting the religious
in the
Mitsuoki,
many of
and secular
The popularity of the Tosa school gradually power of the monasteries and
declined with the diminishing the nobles
way
who were its patrons.
to the
Kano
Its
school, although
place of prominence gave its
style
contmued
to in-
fluence subsequent schools. In conformity with the established
f>iiiwr.ftmfmm
r"
Spring and Autumn, a pair of six-panel folding screens
hy
Kano Hisanohu,
active
early
in
the
eighteenth century. Color on paper. Author's collection.
Japanese tradition of inheritance by a chosen
member of the
work appealed
two
schools of Tosa
interpretation of nature.
family, or
by recourse
to adoption, the
and Kano became allied
to each other
with the marriage of the
of the military
to the taste
The Kano
for
its
beautiful
school became firmly
estabhshed both aesthetically and socially by Masanobu's son
Kano Motonobu, 1476-1559, who revived the lyricism inMotonobu lived in Kyoto and served the Ashikaga Shogun as court painter. He was a
daughter of Tosa Mitsunobu to Kano Motonobu.
herent in the Japanese tradition.
THE GREAT KANO DECORATIONS
skilled painter in black
He improved The Kano
school had
its
period, and in the succeeding
beginnings in the
Momoyama
Muromachi
and white
as
to Suiboku the traditional elements
by the Tosa
well as a superb colorist.
Kano
the technique of the
school by applying
of the Yamato-e
Motonobu was
era attained a pre-
interpreted
eminent position in Japanese painting which continued to the
excelled in
end of the Tokugawa Shogunate. The paintings of the Kano
landscapes, figures, and flowers-and-birds,
school perfectly reflect an indigenous style which played a
in a
The
the
decisive role in shaping the typically Japanese assthetic.
great influence of the that
Kano
school was also due to the fact
many of its painters were officially active either in the of the Tokugawa government or of feudal lords. These
service
positions, together
with the
social prestige
of this new hereditary
service, insured the continuing success
academy of
painting.
The founder of
Masanobu, 1434-1530, who was born cratic family.
He
derived from such
the school
in
was Kano
Kyoto of an
aristo-
studied painting under Shubun, and while
treating the traditional Chinese subjects, gave a purely Japanese inflection to
Suiboku
art,
freeing
it
from Zen mysticism. His
all
school.
style as
a master
who
the categories of painting, including scrolls,
which he produced
charming native manner. The third illustrious member of
Kano family, who
also contributed greatly to the art
of the
Momoyama period,
was Kano Eitoku, 1543 -1590, a grandson of Motonobu. Although Motonobu had a brother and three sons
who
preceded Eitoku, they did not achieve the
fame. Eitoku was the most distinguished painter of the
yama lords
latter 's
Momo-
period, serving as painter to the great military feudal
Oda Nobunaga and
The
style
Hideyoshi (Plate
of the Kano school
Yamato-e and the Suiboku and precise black brush
was the contributing
styles.
is
i).
combination of the
Yamato-e with
lines filled in
factor
a
its
dehcate
with dense rich colors
which produced the
detail
and
41
i^nHuniiuua
harmony. The Suiboku
effective color
style
embodied
the
monochrome paintings with forms of Zen expression, hi Kano the two styles
strong black brush strokes of their simple
were
blended to produce impressive compositions
skillfully
of great splendor with high color fdling the spaces within
heavy black
lines.
The
subjects include landscapes, figures,
and scenes of everyday
birds, plants, flowers,
monumental decoration
typifying the
life.
Kano was
Momoyama
period,
an age of luxury and splendor in which the Zen principles of simplicity gave
way
and colorful
to a rich
of painting.
style
These beautiful and vigorous paintings were produced with gold backgrounds on folding screens and on the wall panels
and
sliding doors
of great houses. The paintings
of the feudal families and
spirit
rative
reflected the
their desire for colorful
deco-
appointments that were inspired by nature. Especially
remarkable was the development of domestic interior decoration for the great private military strongholds, the castles
both
built
as fortresses
and
as residences for
the feudal lords.
These castles were impressive structures with high and massive stonework, white-walled donjons, and surrounding moats.
The
first
of these great
in 1576 at
the in a
citadels
was
Azuchi on Lake Biwa.
built
by Oda Nobunaga
All the panel spaces within
many roomswerelavislily decorated with paintings. Withfew years almost every feudal domain had
which created an urgent demand
its
great castle,
for paintings to
till
the
proper interior spaces.
The splendor of the interior as
decorations of the Azuchi castle
well as of Osaka and Fushimi castles and the Juraku mansion
built
by Hideyoshi may
still
be appreciated,
as
many
sections
of them today form part of certain famous temples in Kyoto.
The magnificent
buildings of the Nishi Honganji temple in
Kyoto, for instance, were formerly the residence of Fushimi castle
and
are representative of ihe taste
part of the interior
is
of this period. Every
elaborately decorated with gold or with
black or red lacquer, and the ceiling panels, sliding doors, and
wall panels were painted by masters of the school.
The
beautiful Nijo castle in Kyoto,
Kano family which
example of the splendor of these times, was
Tokugawa Shogun to his visits to
treasures,
Kyoto.
with
the greatest
built
its
a striking
by the
first
on the occasion of
well-preserved buildings are veritable
their interiors entirely decorated
with some of
works of Kano Tan-yu and other members of the
Kano family
From
Its
serve as his residence
is
or
or Kano-school
monly
applied as a collective term to include the paintings on
wall spaces, sliding doors, and screens.
It is
because of the
peculiar interior appointments of Japanese domestic architec-
ture that the paintings of greatest importance appear in these
forms.
The
sliding doors, called fusuma (Plate 3), are
movable
made of a wooden frame covered on both sides with heavy paper. They are generally in sets of four and serve as partitions between rooms or between a room and a corridor. partitions
FusHina are fairly wide, and the obverse and reverse sides form
artists.
early times Japanese secular painting has been chiefly
an important part of the interior architectural surfaces for
work
paintings.
produced on kakemono has been reserved for the tokonoma.
especially
with the rich and colorful paintings in the
Religious paintings were used for the same purpose in Bud-
the
Kano
school executed in sequential compositions.
used for the decoration of interior panel spaces, while the
dhist monasteries. Therefore
it
was only natural
for the great
houses of the nobles and feudal chiefs to have the architectural spaces filled in with paintings.
42
The name Sho-Hcki-Ga
is
com-
These /»5»»U3 are beautiful decorative appointments,
The splendor of the Momoyama period can be
style
further wit-
nessed in magnificent paintings on large folding screens.
were
just as
of
They
important to the sumptuous interior decoration
Above:
One of a
pair of six-paiwl screens by Taii'araya Sotatsii,
1589-16^1, depicting a scene
front the
Tale of Genji;
color on
paper. Seikado Foundation, Tokyo.
Right:
Pink and White Plum Blossoms, by Ogata Korin,
1658-1716. One of a pair of two-panel Collection of Yoshitaka
screens: color on paper.
Tsngaru, Tokyo.
43
HHHUBUHMMla
1
^auaimtma^uu^^
Pine Trees in Snow, a pair hy
iiiidifefiiUiM
of six-patiel screens
Maruyama Okyo, 1733-1795;
ink and light
on paper. Collection of Takakimi Mitsui, Tokyo.
as the sliding
doors and wall panels.
hyohu, appeared in great
sequent
Tokugawa
The
numbers during
folding screens, or
period, and their exquisite beauty con-
sumptuous surroundings and
tributed to the
and the sub-
this era
afduence of the owner (Plate
4).
reflected the
The dimensions of the
usual
type of six-paneled screen are about five feet high and twelve feet long, affording a
most
suitable space for the bold
splendid decorative compositions of the
Kano
school.
and
Many
of the greatest works of the Kano family were executed on screens.
On
plum
were magnificent
matching or related design, or
extends across the
full
screen, a
ground, which produces strong colors.
a rich
The manner
in
screens
abstraction greatly enhances the principal subject, undisturbed
by any unnecessary ancient pine tree
is
details.
A
subject such as a gnarled
treated independently
in a portrayal so impressive that
physical shock.
It
of its natural
monly sition
called genji-gtiino, or
thought since one cannot
tell
a
whether the pines are reaching
remote mountaintop. The com-
of a pair of screens may be executed
ently or as a sequential subject. In the one
either independ-
form it
is
represented
of
golden clouds. The gradual tran-
from one hue or shade of gold
mellowness and
a feeling
which nature
to another gives a
of three-dimensional depth. Kano
is
and elegant manner. Even
this
period of Japanese
interpreted in such a vigorous
in his
day he was considered the
of the times, enjoying the patronage of
greatest painter
Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, and he and
his followers held the
highest artistic and social positions.
Among
setting,
has almost the effect of a
causes a natural inward impulse to deep
out over the sea or are on positions
it
and
large leaves
gold are applied produces a beautiful gradation of tone com-
painting, in
Kano compositions on
Many
and elegant contrast with the
Eitoku was the fountainhead of
majestic
by
a gold-leaf back-
which the rather
brilliantly
Many
in the other
length of both screens of the pair.
trees, fan-
colored birds.
and
continuous design which
of the most beautiful screens are executed on
with blossoms, ancient pine
trees
are executed without a naturalistic background. This sense of
44
a
rock formations, and an endless variety of
landscapes, tastic
a large scale, boldly depicted,
by an independent design on each
great 1
other
works
members of the Kano family who produced
are
Eitoku's
who became
son, Kano Mitsunobu, Kano Takanaobu, 15711618,
oldest
565- 1608, and his second son,
official painter to the
Imperial court. This office
had formerly been held by members of the Tosa family when Tosa had been the favored school.
When
the
Tokugawa
Shogunate assumed the supreme rule and selected Edo
as
the
;
seat
of government, many Kano-school
live
and work. The
seat
of the Imperial court and center of traditional culture, and
city
artists
went there
and culture was established around the Shogun's court. This
to
new
of Kyoto nevertheless remained the
which developed with the many changes of the
order,
had
times,
its
beginning in the
Momoyama
period and was
the removal of the centralized government, did not hinder the
fully
progress of the arts in Kyoto, hi this era they flourished and
"Within the framework of this feudal system the
reached greater heights.
The two most
distinguished
members
the redistribution of
of the greatest paintings of the time, were Kano Sanraku,
Kano
1559-1635, and his son-in-law
With
power
Sansetsu, 1589-1651.
demand
for decorative paintings for the
Kano
school.
huge new
was therefore only natural
a position
fiefs,
and
of the seventeenth century.
new
and the spread of
traders.
order
of provincial powers,
shift
The
rise
financial
of the merchant
of wealth provided an ever-expanding
demand for works of art, and stimulated a greater appreciation
now was as great Momoyama period or pos-
of them. The influence of the Kano school
houses of the daimyo afforded ample opportunity for continuance of the
many
to the merchants
class to
the rapid development of the city of Edo, the ever-in-
creasing
in these early years
was established mainly from the
who produced some
of the Kano family to remain in Kyoto,
advanced
as
that
it
had been
in the preceding
With
the patronage of the Shogunate, the
sibly
greater.
one member of the family, Kano Tan-yu, 1602- 1674, should
Kano
school was securely established.
have become the most famous and most
was only sixteen or seventeen years of age when he received
of the Edo period his
father,
It
Tan-yu studied painting under
(Plate 10).
Takanobu, and
influential artist
moving
after
honored by an appointment
as
to
his
Edo he was
lasted for
highly organized feudal system.
fifty years
The new
tremendous proportions and with
it
a
city
new
Lundscupe with Figures, by Ikc-iio-Taiga,
1
under
Other
Edo
just outside
castle.
Kano-school painters of the Edo period
were Kano Naonobu, younger brother of Kano Tan-yu;
Kano Hisanobu, who flourished in the early years of the eighteenth century and became head of the
its
of Edo grew to
and Kano Eigaku,
order of society
72 J- 1776, from a
illustrious
Tan-yu
he was twenty he was given a
the Kaji-bashi Gate of the great
painter-in-ordinary to the
over two hundred and
when
stated that
house by the Shogun. The dwelling was located
Tokugawa Shogunate. The year 161 5, when Tokugawa leyasu was appointed Shogun, marks the beginning of the Edo or Tokugawa regime, which
appointment, and
It is
who
nineteenth century (Plate
set
of ten fusuma;
ink
and
Kano
achieved fame in the
family in 1743 first
half of the
7).
color
on paper.
Henjoko-in monastery,
Wakayama.
45
SOTATSU, KORIN, AND THE Edo period reached
Painting in the
NEW
dimax in the early work of Tawaraya
a
years of the seventeenth century in the
and Ogata Korin, 1658-1716. Sotatsu,
Sotatsu, 1589-1651,
who lived in
Kyoto, was
a
high-ranking Buddhist
gained a high reputation
at the court.
of the old Yamato-e
work of Kano
style,
flat
backgrounds ot gold, are
Genroku making
full
of charm and elegance.
who also worked in Kyoto,
era (1688-1704),
spirited designs for pottery,
many
painting. His
rose to
sketches
first
excelled
and then turned
from nature,
especially
and flowers, became powerfully stylized in ings. In
fame during
which was the most prosperous
Tokugawa Shogunate. Korin
period under the in
a
by the
of wonderful brilliance against
classical figures, in colors
the
work is essentially
His
strongly influenced
Eitoku. His flowers-and-bird compositions
and
Ogata Korin,
monk who
of the emperor Go-mizunoo and thus
attracted the attention
revival
REALISM
to
of birds
his finished paint-
bold compositions and rich colors, Korin created some
of Japan's most beautiful masterpieces on large screens. The decorative style of Sotatsu and Korin, with
upon
realism, always based
foundation of the
Realism
new
in painting
art
subjects
its
high degree of
from nature, was the
of the Edo period.
was
important in the
also especially
of the Shijo-Maruyama school. Maruyama Okyo,
style
1733-1795, was born in
and moved
to
master of the ings of the
Kyoto
Kano
province, the son of a farmer,
an early age.
He
studied under the
school and later studied the
Sung and Yuan
trees, plants, flowers,
almost
Tamba
at
and birds
scientific precision.
realistic paint-
dynasties. His treatment is
of rocks,
very true to nature, with
This school of
realistic painting,
unconcerned with either metaphysical abstractions or bold stylizations,
was
Kyoto, where
it
enthusiastically appreciated
ultimately
by the people of
became the dominant
style.
This
Matsumura Goshun,
naturalism was further developed by
1752-1811, founder of the Shijo school.
Goshun was born
in
Kyoto, where he studied poetry and painting under Buson of the
Nanga
school,
associated with
and
after the
death of
Okyo. He softened
realism in gentle, intimate landscapes.
school
is
Buson he became
the impact of the latter's
The
style
thus based on the best elements of the
and Okyo. Since
this
is
one of the most iinportant schools of
painting in the latter part of the
Edo and
early Meiji periods,
produced many of the most distinguished
it
of the Shijo
work of Buson
artists
in an
atmosphere of unclouded
movement which appeared a return to Confucianism.
tranquillity.
in the
Genroku
During
this
The
era
intellectual
was
in reality
time the commoners
became prosperous and wealthy, and were
free to devote lei-
sure hours to cultural pursuits. Great playwrights and novelists
were inspired by
this
Confucian learning, and the
teachings of Chinese sages ciety.
were prevalent
Chinese paintings of the
were imported
into Japan
in
all classes
Ming and Ch'ing
ethical
of so-
dynasties
and were greatly admired.
of that
time.
After centuries of war and political turmoil, peace finally prevailed under the domination of the
This
state
men
of spiritual truth and knowledge.
stimulated men's desire to paint for the pleasure of diversion
46
THE NANGA SCHOOL OF LITERATI
regime.
of quiet and freedom from disturbance enabled
to pursue the enlightenment It
Tokugawa
Many of these priests,
paintings
were brought
in
and other learned men when they
by Chinese
artists,
visited the city
of
Nagasaki, which was the only port open to foreign intercourse.
Tea and Wine I7i6-iy8j;
Parties, a six-panel screen hy
Yosa-iio-Biisaii,
color on a satin-weave silk. Collection
of
Tatsiijiro
Hashimoto, Tokyo.
Right:
Sketches of Insects and Fishes,
from an album by
1793-1841;
Wataiiabe
Kazan,
color on silk. Collection
Junzo Kosaka, Tokyo.
of
were distinguished
^
^ ^^P,}^k^l
a.
i-
V -f^ r^
Hi
and pursued
-<^\
worked
well as in ethics and
as
in his
this artistic field for his
Many of these
faction.
and prose,
in verse
the sciences. Each painter
own
individual style
own enjoyment and satis-
became masters of the
literati
and
art
attained a certain place in the history of Chinese painting. In
Japan the iJ
<
artists
who
are responsible for the
development of
school of painting are Ike-no-Taiga, or Taigado, 1723-
this
1776, and Yosa-no-Buson, 1716-1783. Taiga
landscape painter, while Buson,
'^liMk^
trayed natpre- ^o closely in his
who was work
Edo
own
taste
any of the conventional or traditional
end of the Edo period many :-
were
as-
number of Nanga-
period, each one creating his
compositions or portrayals to his for
chiefly a
that observers
tonished by his realism. There arose a great
school painters in the
was
famous poet, por-
a
own
without regard
styles.
Toward
the
brilliant painters appeared, the
most noted among them being Tanomura Chikuden, 1777-
/.
1835, and a
Nanga
Watanabe Kazan. Chikuden gained
landscape painter, while Kazan,
great
who was
fame
as
learned in
Confucianism, excelled not only in landscape but also in flower-and-bird compositions and figures.
The Nanga
school of painting continued to flourish after
the twilight of the
Among
the
these times
Edo period and on through
the Meiji era.
many artists who distinguished themselves during was Tomioka Tessai, 1836- 1924. Tessai's life-span
covered those eventful and anxious years which witnessed the
breakdown of the
great feudal system and the restoration of
The new era was ushered in with the recogniof Emperor Meiji as absolute ruler of Japan by virtue of
Imperial rule. tion
the ordnance of the sun goddess, Amaterasu. Tessai produced a
number of superb works
and white and was
in black
a
master of calligraphy.
The
appreciation of painting was not something enjoyed
by the upper
classes alone; the
inherent liking for
it
too.
But
common
people possessed an
was not
until the beginning
it
of the seventeenth century that genre pictures of peared
at a price
more than sketches
Window,
from the Boat
Tanomura Chikucien, 1777-183$; Collection of Komakichi
in ink
from
and
an
album
light color
by
on paper.
Tamura, Osaka.
colors
a sort ap-
they could afford to pay. These were nothing
swiftly
and known
drawn ink-brush as
sketches
daubed with
Ukiyo-e. Their popularity soon spread
throughout the country; particularly appreciated were the ones called Otsu-e, produced by
many
families in the village
of Otsu, one of the resting places of the Tokaido Highway on the shore of Lake Biwa, a few miles
The
school of painting which developed from these circum-
stances
is
times by
had
its
known its
as
some-
others traveling along the highway.
school
of the seventeenth century depicted subjects from Buddhist
as
48
it
was
provenance in southern China in the Yuan dynasty and
Ming and
actually an art of amateurs, as
ers.
early Ch'ing periods.
It is
opposed to the northern Chinese
which is represented by the works of academic paint-
The Nanga
from Kyoto, where they
cheap souvenirs to the retainers of daimyo and
called in China, or
continued through the
school,
as
name of Bunjin-Ga. The Nanga
Nanga,
Japanese
were sold
school was founded by
men of
letters
who
lore
and were probably intended
Most of the
for
early Otsu-e
worship by those
who
could not afford costly images. The popularity of the Buddhist subjects lasted until the
end of the seventeenth century, when
they were replaced in favor by pictures of an entertaining nature, vigorously
drawn ink-brush
sketches
showing great
strength and originality.
Most of these
were used
sketches
as
tahsmans and depicted characters from folklore, legends, and
mythology. Often they were inscriptions flourish
satirical
and had calligraphic
of humorous poems. The work continued to
through the eighteenth and first half of the nineteenth
when
century,
the art of Otsu declined sharply.
MEDIUMS AND MATERIALS OF PAINTING The in
essential character
which the
subject
is
of Japanese painting and the manner
represented
mediums
the materials and
is
largely conditioned
watercolor, mineral pigments, paper or brush.
When
strips are
silk,
and the fude or
silk is used, it is usually in strips
inches wide, and
sewn
when
a larger size
together.
by
used. These include India ink,
is
The paper
required, is
about twelve
two or more
made from
the thin
fibrous inner bark of the Asiatic paper-mulberry tree and
from other
plant substances such as grass, rice straw, or
bamboo. The India or sumi,
is
made by
soot together.
mizu
sashi are
inkstone has a
An
ink, in the
form of a hard oblong
inkstone or suzuri and a water dropper or
used to prepare the ink for use. flat
toward one end
inkstick
boiling a type of glue or fish oil and pine
A
black oblong
depressed center portion which slopes gently
to
form
a well.
To make the ink ready for use,
drops of water are allowed to run into the well and the inkstick is
dipped into the water and rubbed on the stone until the
desired blackness
is
attained.
The
coloring materials are water
colors or mineral pigments, the latter being prepared
by
Tomioka
Tcssai,
i8}6-ig24:
The Chi-
nese Poet Su Tung-P'o. Musluviokoji Collection,
Tomioka Collection,
Tessai,
Tokyo.
18)6-1924: Mountain
Villa.
Naito
Tokyo.
49
mixing with
a
kind of glue
most important
as a
article, the
binding medium.
brush,
is
used in
all
The
last
and
manner
branches of
Japanese painting and consists of a conical tuft of hair, usually that
of the badger, securely fixed in the end of a bamboo tube.
certain effects.
The
Left:
is
essential to
An
characteristic expression
produce
achieved with
Otsu-e, or popular image of the Edo period,
An Otsu-e
of the Edo period,
late
late
50
Art Museum.
was used
and the shading of line or the tone
of line or stroke
this particular
(1
180-1185).
type of brush
is
a function
artist.
The image was used
as a
Museum.
seventeenth or eighteenth century, It
was used
depicting
Daitoku
The
in Japanese painting
seventeenth or eighteenth century, ink and color on
Gempei Wars
head of Fukurokuji, god of longevity; ink and color on paper. Seattle
manipulates his brush. Certain
touch and feeling transmitted by the
talisman to scare off the evil spirit of smallpox. Seattle Art
Right:
artist
gradations denote the angle at which the brush was held.
black ink lines or strokes clearly reflect the
paper, depicting Tametomo, a famous warrior of the
which the
to accentuate a meaning,
Since brush strokes represent the basic principle of Japanese painting, the brush's conical shape
in
strokes are indicative of the speed or pressure that
shaving
as a talisman for a long healthful
the life.
of the
IV Color
I
N THE the
.
made
its
early years of the seventeenth century
new style of painting known as Ukiyo-e
appearance, depicting everyday
Ukiyo-e was
common
people.
prosperous middle
essentially a
upper
its
of society, the
strata
of genre painting aimed
a school
pictures for the
particularly of
Yamato-e school with
the lower classes. In contrast to the secular subjects intended for the
life,
at
providing
The people of Edo were
class
addicted to amusement.
Their interests revolved around a certain social or pleasure
world
Ukiyo. The term Ukiyo-e
called
World," or simply "passing or tially
the
city,
with
its
is
essen-
theaters,
puppet shows, wrestling pavilions, and houses of
assignation. actors,
variously translated
world." This
fleeting
of fugitive pleasures of the
life
restaurants,
is
of the Drifting World," "Pictures of the Floating
as "Pictures
The indigenous population of
singers,
the
Ukiyo were
dancers, prostitutes, courtesans, bath-girls,
favorite beauties, taste
was
easily
understood and appealed to the
of the populace. Such
pictures that the
it
became necessary
these pictures
would be prints
more
practical.
to find
and
at
century, in the
of woodcut
As the demand
some means of producing
such a low price that they
The method of reproducing
from wood blocks was the solution art
arose for the
rapidly drawing ink sketches
available to everyone.
Although the
China,
easily
demand
great
a
method of
daubed with colors was no longer increased
Prints
to the
in Japan dates
Nara period when
problem.
from the eighth
was introduced from
it
use had been restricted chiefly to reproductions of
its
Buddhist religious paintings.
It is
stated that the first
book
be illustrated with woodcuts was the he Akviogatari, which a collection
pubhshed
of ancient romances and
in the tenth century.
tales
to is
of feudal chivalry
But Moronobu was the
first
of the woodcut, and in
to realize the unlimited possibilities
buffoons, and a variousassortment of entertainers. The Ukiyo-e
1670 he designed the
or Pictures of the Drifting World, and the ukiyo-soshi or life
With an excellent knowledge of the methods of the Tosa and Kano schools, he became a skillful Ukiyo-e artist and created
environment that the
an original style of genre painting especially adapted to the
sketchbooks of the Drifting World, chiefly depicted the
of these gay
Ukiyo-e
quarters.
artists
lived
artist
was
and developed the color prints which
Although
it is
actual founder of the
popularly regarded
significantly
name any
Ukiyo-e school, the to
spite
of the
were executed exclusively
difficult to
its
fact
for the
individual as the
first
master to con-
development was Hishikawa
Moronobu, 1618-1694, one of trators
is
of Edo. The Tosa-
of the Ukiyo-e school, in
that his fine genre paintings
tribute
streets
Iwasa Matabei, 1578-1650,
as the originator
nobility.
in this
few coins on the
originally sold for a
school
It
the
most famous book
illus-
wood
black-and-white single-sheet print.
block. In the early period of
clearly defined in a rather
in order to facilitate the
Ukiyo-e the
PRINT
publishers first
were pressed by the demand
toward
step
satisfying this
for color pictures.
demand was
its
its
portraits
of contemporary actors and
The
to color the prints
times the
work was done by
the artist
drawing and sometimes by other so popular that the
who made
artisans.
increasing
demand. The
limited to
two
first
method of
colors, green
of these
and
the original
Hand-colored prints printing in colors,
a natural result
realized,
of the
prints to appear
were
rose.
In a short time the potentialities of the two-color
The Ukiyo-e with and amusements,
short
by hand. The process of hand-coloring was very slow; some-
were plebeian subjects of everyday pursuits
detail,
work of the wood engraver. A
which was introduced about 1740, was
DEVELOPMENT OF THE WOOD-BLOCK
were
lines
bold manner, without fme
time after the development of the black-and-white print the
became
of that time.
first
and around 1765 multicolored
method
prints
were
being produced in Edo. The multicolored print, developed
by Harunobu, furnished unlimited
possibilities for
new
styles
51
and designs. The heavy
by
replaced
and
fine
The
slender and graceful.
was made
print
known
is
no longer
printer.
of the wood-block
Although
work of the
the
artist
a particular
who
During
were
by collaboration between the
and the
as
necessary,
and figures became
finished quality
possible only
painter, the engraver,
color print
lines,
delicate outlines,
conceived
the early period of wood-block printing an edition
was limited
to about forty copies, or at the
demand was
so great that publishers often ran as
thousand copies from a single
set
work employed
the painstaking
in the earlier periods, the
later publishers
wood
The meticulous
ing from the deterioration of the blocks.
printer.
its
cutting of the
block by
The normal by
size
of the Japanese wood-block print
with precision of registry by the printer, were equally con-
ten
tributing factors to the beauty of the fmished print.
placed side by side in series were
To
qualities,
which
necessary to understand the unique process
it is
by
A color-print artist first drew the original
was made.
it
the Japanese color print's essential
appreciate
fully
composition in black outline on a piece of translucent paper.
The
black-outline drawing, executed with brush and India
ink,
was complete
in every detail
and represented the
artist's
fmished work. This foundation picture was then given to the engraver,
who
pasted
it
down upon
face
block of wood,
a
usually cherry, sawed in the direction of the grain and not across
it
Europe. The paper was carefully rubbed until
as in
every detail of the design became clearly
was
oiled.
by the engraver, and the wood
incised with a knife
spaces
between the lines was cut away with tiny
On
relief.
the
first
proof from
this
actual colors
on
a proof,
but
suitable to his process
left it to
artist
fifteen'inches. Prints consisting
or
much
more panels are occasionally found.
panel
is
the
same
separate blocks later
ance.
by
size as the
normal
demand
in
in the
In these examples, each
print; they
and printed on separate
was designed
It
thirty inches,
as a vertical
made of two
One of the most
composition.
were cut on
made
its
which was
five inches
panel measuring about ten
interesting
and popular types
part of the
of the poorer
kakemono
of the upper
hashira-
wide by twenty-eight inches long.
This became very popular for hanging on the upright posts in the houses
appear-
separate sheets for a single
of color print of the mid-eighteenth century was the kake,
same
sheets. In this
period a color print called kakcmotw-e
classes,
wooden
and was the counter-
or hanging scroll-painting in the houses
classes. It
was
difficult to lay
conform with the unusual shape of the painters well versed in the art
did not apply the
one of balanced composition.
artist
about
is
of two or three panels
second half of the eighteenth century, and prints having four
designated
block the
the colors to be used. As a rul? the
most
in the
chisels so that
of the design on the fmished block stood out in
the lines
all
and then
visible,
black line in the design were
The borders of each
as ten
remained oblivious to the inferior work result-
was neither the engraver of the
the engraver, and the careful application of colors
many
of blocks. In contrast to
the original composition, he
block nor
most to about
seventy or eighty, but by the early nineteenth century the
out
a
design to
hashirakake,
and only
of proportion could produce
the printer to select those
of blending. Separate blocks were
cut for each color, engaging the
skill
of the engraver to make
UKIYO-E SUBJECTS
each one in perfect register with the other.
The beauty of the fmished
color print depended
paper. In printing, the colors
wood
were applied with
block, and each impression was taken
a
the
The
on the
scenes
upon
touch of the printer in applying the proper pressure
brush to the
by pressing the
back of the paper with a kind of pad made of hempen cord.
Although in tone
block was used for each color, gradations
a separate
were sometimes produced from an individual color-
block by blending different colors or different shades of the
same
color.
Blended color
tones, such as those seen in sky
water, were obtained
by wiping away the
where
were
prints
lighter shades
required. In Japanese
no two impressions are exactly
and
superfluity of color
wood-block
alike in color,
and some-
times entirely different colors are found on prints of the same design.
The
surface
and rich
quality of the paper with
It
in great
in those days
demand because
were
the lower-class citizens of Edo
fanatic lovers
of the popular drama. Color-
print portraits of famous actors provided the theatergoer with
mental image of features, costumes, and character
a vivid
parts, as well as the plots
and scenes of a particular
play.
It
was
not important that these pictures expressed an exact likeness
of the
actors, so
cally in
long
as the actors
were represented dramati-
make-up and costume. There was
also a great variety
of pictures of women and famous beauties, which were equally as
popular
engaged
as the portraits
of actors. The
women
in the things associated, with their
pastimes, their domestic activities.
They
are depicted
everyday
life,
their
are seen elegantly
to
dressed in beautiful contemporary fashions, in typical Japanese
garden settings and other domestic surroundings peculiar to
creamy tone was of great importance
of the Asiatic paper-mulberry
tree,
which produces
paper suitable to the wood-block process.
.S2
highly absorbent
prints are actors,
Pictures of actors
prevailing subjects of
was made from the thin fibrous inner bark
soft
the fmal product.
its
were
Ukiyo-e color
from the Kabuki drama, and women.
a
tough
their
manner of living. Charming teahouse girls and geisha are
interestingly portrayed at their calling.
Each great Ukiyo-e
own
painter represented his female subjects in his
way, so
by
that the
work of these
particular
can usually be identified
artists
a certain facial type or other characteristic form.
famous Yoshiwara
on the
district
outskirts of Edo, depicted
and richly colored
in their magnificent their beautiful
The
was centered upon the courtesans of the
greatest attention
dress.
The
pictures of
costumes provide a graphic record of the
extravagant fashions of the times,
one of the most important
when
textile design
of decorative
outlets
becanie
much Ukiyo-e
mological derivation of Ukiyo-e
itself
is
art.
The
ety-
an indication of this,
the original Buddhist connotation being the "transient, unreliable
world," which, for the newly liberated townspeople
The growth of the
capital.
with their families, and
two
bering some
By
feudal estates.
world
in the
gressive
Kabuki
the courtesan districts and especially pleasures
of the
flesh,
of more than half the Ukiyo-e
The
eighteenth centuries.
at first
the
Shogun's retainers and the
development of commerce and local industry through
As the
the standard of living.
grew
in
larger cities prospered, there
of merchants and
a class
Tokugawa
many ways
much so new capital
that quarters like city
of Edo
easily
Actually, for this lively public,
Ukiyo-e began as downright
and detailed handbooks such
The
Edo, a great surge of building activity was created by the
and daimyo moving
influx of retainers
men, and dwellings
for the workers, the city rapidly reached
vast proportions.
From
the opening years of the seventeenth century the
Yoshiwara, or Reedy Plain, on the outskirts of
district called
which was
a
as the
Yoshiwara
manual of sex and
fact that the first print or
two of
a pleasure
sumo bouts, eating
haunt for people. In
places,
populated with actors, singers, dancers,
entertainers, pleasure girls,
attempt to circumvent the censor. However, the feudal govern-
new
ment
century
little
concerned with pornography but
is
indicated
by the
fact that
many of the
early erotic
bear the names of both the publisher and the
artist,
books
whereas
decent books are often anonymous. Single prints followed the illustrated books,
and the huge contemporary popularity of
this art available at
nominal prices can to
attributed to the stimulus provided
a large extent be
by the
social position
of
resorts it
of
district
precinct
it
had
The
customs.
as
it
was formerly
a provincial
daimyo, chose the
Tokugawa
leyasu selected
headquarters, feudal
called,
a village until 1457 site
is
not an ancient
when Ota Dokan,
for a castle fortress. In 1590
Edo for his provincial military and from 1603, when he became the supreme
power and was appointed Shogun, he made
it
his per-
By
and
its
former population of
the courtesans
a
its
needed
as the Nightless City,
own
services.
and within
its
code or principles of behavior and
and there existed
a strict social
which was observed with
They were attended by
were
their trades in the
the beginning of the eighteenth
beautiful houses of the courtesans reflected a
habitants
was merely
its
certain elegance
"moral problems."
it
gaiety.
was known
costly clothing,
Tokyo, or Edo
a great
was a thriving and practically self-contained district,
the courtesan plus the traditional Japanese insouciance about
city, since
jesters, storytellers,
and others plied
complete with tradespeople to provide
The
theaters,
destroyed most of the city in 1657, the Yoshiwara was
rebuilt in a different section
rather with sedition and other crimes against the state. This
world of lively
puppet
and panders. After
bath-girls, courtesans, prostitutes, fire
this
theaters,
and licensed houses of entertainment
completely unprintable pictures, would seem to indicate an
time was
with their soldiers
in
and servants by the thousands. With the construction of the
such books were ordinarily only vaguely erotic, followed by
at this
With
court and administrative government centered
and fickle pleasures were the Kabuki
class.
"courtesan critique."
to reach
great houses for the daimyo, in addition to buildings for
by wealthy samurai, but from the
in 1660,
which was
artisans
powerful, dimensions.
merchant
pubUshed
cities
The peace and pro-
the seventeenth century contributed to a substantial rise in
Edo, was
Pillow,
their
the year 1787 the population had risen to
middle of the seventeenth century taken over by the rising
erotica in frank
their
lodging troops, shops and houses for merchants and trades-
established personage in
centers of refmed if dcniimondaiti entertain-
ment, frequented
Edo court and to leave when they returned to
was an
the Yoshiwara district in the
became accepted
cities,
seventeenth and
art in the
of old Japan. So
life
of Japanese
constitute the subject
the
num-
to spend
courtesan, trained and educated
in polite accomplishments,
the social
theaters
which
were compelled
in the eighteenth century.
the
in
in size
of the daimyo, making Edo one of the largest
To
world meant amusements
was astonishing
the feudal lords or daimyo,
at
1,400,000, in addition to
important, and in
this transient, fleeting
all
families in the city as hostages
of the seventeenth century, took on hedonistic implications. them,
city
to three hundred,
months each year
several
families
art.
Collectors and connoisseurs of Japanese prints are well
aware of the erotic nature of
manent
and splendor. The eighty thousand retainers of the Shogun
among
personal maids adorned with rich and
and were accorded great respect by the
and patrons of the
district.
prominent part of city
the other larger
cities,
famous
called
district
rank
a regulated formality.
such
life
as
The
in-
pleasure quarters
not only in Edo, but also in
Kyoto, which contained the
Shimabara. These famous pleasure
quarters offered a variety of subject material to the Ukiyo-e painter,
and wood-block prints of famous
women
and actors
were eagerly purchased. 53
LANDSCAPE SUBJECTS
tracted to examples being sold at a shop in Paris.
to be collected
Although the pleasure quarter or Ukiyo with its magnificent costumes and women who lived by
the allurements of
charm
and beauty offered the most lucrative subject matter for the color-print
Many
artists,
new
fields
by
stories,
attract their attention.
by legendary and
historical
by
the occupations and customs of the times, and
was
landscapes. It
that the beautiful
in the latter part
of the Tokugawa period
and interesting scenic color
and Hiroshige made
sai
began to
color prints were inspired
their appearance,
prints
by Hoku-
with their innova-
tions in the representation of hght and atmospheric conditions.
Until
with a few exceptions, landscape had been
this time,
used only
background or as a scenic setting to complement
as a
the depiction of
women, who were
Although
subject.
the principal Ukiyo-e
these early landscapes
showing beautiful
by connoisseurs and
them was stimulated by Edmond de Goncourt's monographs on Hokusai and Utamaro. Both
by
in
Europe and America, and
informed appreciation gradually increased until
also in Japan,
the turn of the century large
sums were paid
new Much of the awakened interest in the color
only a few decades, exerted an important influence on the trends in paintifig.
by foreigners and
print
the
work and
efforts
making
assisted in
the Japanese themselves
of Professor Ernest
collections
Museum in Tokyo. He was Tokyo, and was
of Japanese
associated
among
untU an
edict
was
of prints of actors and courtesans lar.
Around
It
was not
became popu-
that landscape
end of the eighteenth century the principal
the
highways of the country had been greatly improved, which caused commercial
traffic to increase
people to travel. This in turn created a
it
as the
most picturesque highway
Edo
in the
world, offered iimumerable subjects for the color print, which
memento of the
the traveler appreciated as a seen.
Color prints of these views
sent or taken
to travel
and
well
as
had
places he
as scenes
of Edo were
home to friends, and this in turn created a
desire
and were made to
not considered to have
and exotic
were not
scenic views
at first
satisfy the
lower
aesthetic quahties.
which
appreciated
handicraft. In the closing years
classes,
Even
they were
the Japanese for their intrinsic
as a
open
to foreign trade,
with
only Dutch merchants privileged to trade with the Japanese. this
print,
Paris
medium of trade
European
artists
and
became acquainted with the Japanese color
the nineteenth century that
properly evaluated,
54
that
which, dispensed from Holland, found a market in
and London. However,
when
a
long
known
on the south shore of Lake Biwa was
The
peaceful
for the impressive
The
artists
is
artisans
of the Ukiyo-e were not
aristocrats or learned
with the Yamato-e, Tosa,
They were commoners with
schools.
who
of the Miidera temple,
the subject of Hiroshige's Eight
priests like the painters identified
and Kano
site
boom of its famous bell in the
the rank of
frequently executed designs for wood-block
prints in addition to their regular occupation as designers
book
many
graphical information in
although
it is
of the
sufficiently
cases
completely lacking,
is
complete regarding the outstanding
The following
later period.
important features of the print painters give
of
or theater posters. Unfortunately, bio-
illustrations
lives
sketches containing
of the most prominent color-
some idea of their individual contributions.
it
was not
its
THE EARLY PRINT MAKERS
form of cheap commercial
of the Tokugawa period large
in Nagasaki, then the only port
was from
faithfully carried out.
the beautiful
numbers of color prints were sent to Europe by Dutch traders
collectors first
his
possess such great artistic merit
by
worth, but were looked upon
It
and when he died in London in 1908,
ancient Miidera temple
artists
see these beautiful scenic spots.
Because the color prints chiefly depicted actors and courtesans,
a behever,
Famous Views of Lake Biwa.
ran eastward along the coast from Kyoto to
and was regarded
became
A
request to have his fmal resting place in the graveyard of the
twihght of early evening,
Tokaido or Eastern-Sea Way,
great highways, especially the
because
art for the Imperial
with the University of
he
demand
color prints of famous views and prominent places. These
of
who
his years in Japan,
and encouraged more for the scenic
a result
connoisseurs in the West.
devout student of Buddhism during
issued in 1842 prohibiting the publication
was
FenoUosa,
admirer and scholar of Japanese
a great
interest in Japanese art
the Yoshiwara courtesans.
F.
painting and sculpture. His writings stimulated considerable
continued a preference for pictures of their favorite actors,
women, and
for rare
The scenic color prints of Hokusai and Hiroshige, which antedate the rise of the Impressionist movement by impressions.
views of the country were greatly appreciated, the populace
beautiful
They began
knowledge of
a wider
ufltil
the middle of
importance began to be
group of French
artists
were
at-
Hishikawa Moronobu, 1625 -1695, was born in the province of Chiba and moved to Edo when he was very young.
He
studied under masters of the Tosa school of painting and was
an admirer of the
classical
Moronobu became
genre paintings of Iwasa Matabei.
a distinguished painter and, as the leading
exponent in the establishment of the wood-block
one of the most
prolific
realized the possibilities
Ukiyo-e
subjects
of Japanese book
of satisfying the demand for the
by producing
be purchased by the lower
was
print,
He new
illustrators.
single-sheet prints that could
classes at a
nominal
price.
Of
around
a
hundred and fifty sets of illustrations by him, perhaps
two dozen were
erotic, appealing to a wealthy,
audience. In such sets the
first
highly select
illustration was apt to be an
He created an original wood blocks with designs
innocuous, presentable frontispiece.
of genre painting adaptable to
style
of simple lines devoid of detail to enable the
still
inexperienced
engravers of that time to produce the woodcuts
and more easUy.
He was
a skillful designer
more
and although
drawings of women are lacking in appeal, he had
which gave
style
Moronobu's
and animation
life
prints
were originally
demand
for color increased, they
some
possibly
by the
others possibly
The
line
1664- 1729,
under
were colored
by
assistants. Still
its
founder, whose
an actor
posters.
as
He was
work suggests his early training,
well as a designer of signboards the
first
Ukiyo-e print
as his principal subject,
vigorous style
reflects the influence
second of the Torii early 1720's),
line,
Kiyomasu
was probably
a prolific designer
a
and
maker
his sturdy
and
from 1696
to the
younger brother of Kiyonobu
of prints of Kabuki actors and Yoshi-
wara courtesans. Another
artist,
who
produced prints until
about 1750, was probably a son of Kiyonobu and adopted
name.
When Kiyomasu ceased producing
a designer thought to be a son-in-law of
the
to
of poster design. The
(active
name of Kiyomasu and continued
prints
his
around 1730,
Kiyonobu adopted
in the
were executed by these two
same
style.
The
known by those who is
later artists
names. Torii Kiyomitsu, 173 5- 178 5,
the third Torii
is
credited with the development of the three-color print. Torii
who was a leading pupil of Kiyomitsu,
Kiyonaga, 1752-1815,
of the Torii masters, developed a style of reahsm, abandoning the earUer idealism in the depiction of Kabuki actors. His influence on the Ukiyo-e school was as
and the fourth and
great as
the
was
that
work of
last
of Harunobu and was
his contemporaries.
He
as tall, graceful,
background
and
beautiful.
He
marked on
specially
developed a
also
approach in the representation of women,
whom
new
he showed
developed the landscape
as a beautiful setting for the figures.
Okumura Masanobu,
after his lifetime.
portray actors
and
figure.
and white, and
of the Torii masters begins with Kiyonobu,
his father,
and theater
his
dynamic
were painted by hand,
himself, others
artist
a
human
to the
in black
as the
rapidly
Kiyonobu or Kiyomasu
color prints bearing the signature
c.
who
1686- 1764,
lived in
Edo and
studied under Kiyonobu, was a pubhsher as well as a designer
and
his
name
is
closely associated
work
color-printing. His early
manner
is
with the development of in black
subjects, introducing a picturesque style at their
Nishikawa Sukenobu,
who at
flourished during the
Osaka,
is
mental work on printing in six colors.
and
many
figure
women
scenes of
social life.
of the eighteenth century
illustrator
skill in
and depicting
pastimes and occupations, as well as
contemporary
noted for
first
half
his experi-
He was a popular book had
a
His perpetual theme, whatever the subject,
is
his single-sheet prints,
distinctive style.
which
the grace and beauty of Japanese girlhood. erotica
and white in the
of the Torii school but shows great
on commission from
are rare,
Sukenobu designed
the publishers, but his fmest
Hishikawa Monmohu, 1625 i6gs'-
The
to
Saffron Flower, a
hlack-and-white hook illustration depicting an incident in the elev-
enth-century novel
The Tale of
Genji. Victorid and Albert
Mu-
seum.
55
works
are his
the daily
many volumes of graceful illustrations depicting
women
of the
life
of Kyoto.
Utagawa Toyoharu, 1735-1814, founder of line,
gone
is
said to
to
have been born
Kyoto when he was
a
Utagawa
the
Oita prefecture and to have
in
young man
He moved
to study the paint-
ing of the
Kano
influenced
by Toyonobu, 1711-1785, and created
school.
characteristic style
to Edo,
of Ukiyo-e female figures.
where he was
his own He was a skillfull
painter and one of the earliest color-print artists to produce
pure landscape.
He
of perspective
in
cleverly adapted the
Toyoharu was one of
European technique
of print called
a particular style
uki-e.
group of painters commis-
a selected
Mausoleum of the Shogun at Utagawa Toyokuni, 1769- 1825, and Utagawa
sioned in 1796 to repair the
Nikko.
Toyohiro, 1773 -1828, both studied under Toyoharu. As a pupil of the
latter,
Hiroshige acquired great knowledge of
landscape painting.
who was born and
Nishimura Shigenaga, 1697- 1756, in
Edo, was an amazingly
lived
versatile artist. After studying the
work of Masanobu and Kiyonobu he developed a style of his own. He was a great innovator of new forms of the Ukiyo-e, especially in landscape-with-figures,
prints
and stone-rubbing
but also in the perspective
work
His
prints.
exerted a great
upon Harunobu and Toyonobu, and
influence
the
name of
Shigenaga ranks high in the history of Ukiyo-e also because
of his close connection with the introduction of color-printing.
KORYUSAI,
HARUNOBU
Isoda Koryusai, a former samurai
who
flourished between
1760 and 1780, was a pupil of both Shigenaga and Harunobu,
and
a friend
work
and favorite of the
so closely resembles the
latter (Plate 6).
His
work of Harunobu
earliest
that
it is
difficult to
distinguish any difference. After the death of
Harunobu,
his
assumed
style
a distinctive character
beautiful drawing and rich decorative color schemes.
noted for
his elegant, dramatically
with
He
is
designed compositions for
the vertically elongated hashirakake, or pillar prints. Besides excelling in artistic erotica, Koryusai
of color-print fashion of young
women
was
also the originator
plates issued in sets for the
enjoyment
New
Patterns for
in the provinces, entitled
Young Leaves. Suzuki Harunobu, 1725 1770, was the greatest of the
Ukiyo-e designers durmg the century. prints
He lived in Edo
and studied the
under Shigenaga and
was only during the the magnificent
last five
work
latter half
for
of the eighteenth
method of two-color Torii Kiyonohu, 1664-
a theater scene with the actors Sodezaki Iseno, a female impersonator,
which he
is
famous. Prior to 1765
Harunobu devoted himselfchiefly to the fll ustrations of books, 56
A
later the three-color process. It
years of his life that he produced
and Ogino Isahuro
1
7 zg:
hand-colored wood-block print of
as lovers. Published by Ise-ya Kimbei, about
1726. Victoria and Albert
Museum.
;
Okumura Masanobu, 1764:
1686
c.
to
A black-and-white wood-
block print showing a
woman Victoria
man and
with a female attendant.
and Albert Museum.
having until then produced no more than about forty broadsheets.
But in
1765, with the aid of certain craftsmen skilled in
refreshing fashion in their domestic surroundings, pursuing their
customary
by the
His graphic delineation
activities.
of
is
charac-
with heads
wood-block cutting and efficient in the method of registration,
terized
Harunobu developed and produced the
inclined or slightly turned, the lovely curves of their forms
With their rich and known as nishiki-e or brocade
first
multicolor prints.
brilliant colors, these prints
prints, because
of their resem-
blance to the beautiful silk fabrics of the time.
and three-color prints portraits
and
of
seems that
children,
and
historical
marked resem-
work of a contemporary, Kiyomitsu. However, his great work in the multicolor print originated
in the designing in
The few two-
produced before 1765 included
women,
allegorical subjects. His early prints bear a
blance to the it
that he
actors, lovely
became
of picture-calendars, which are unusual both
composition and in meaning. They became a part of the
activities
who
of groups of poets
and appreciation of the
arts. It
gathered for the enjoyment
became
a fad for the
members
compete among themselves by producing elaborate
to
endars which they exchanged at
Harunobu produced
a great
for
From
which he
this is
Year gatherings.
number of these
intricate designs at the request
group.
New
cal-
calendars with
of the most prominent poets'
experience he began to produce the works
women and children in domestic
famous, with
beauty, and the
the gentle mannerisms, the delicate
charm of the feminine world
as representative
of women in general andnotany particularindividual. Women are presented with unusually thin necks feet, like
dainty china dolls.
They
charm skirt
and tiny hands and
are portrayed in a pure and
When
caused by the
which the
An
important feature of Harunobu's designs
He was
the
first
of painting, which had only been used
a limited
He
to develop this
in earlier times in
manner in religious paintings or depictions of temples.
women
portrayed his
suitable
their
fold of the
movement of the legs, and the mamier in when carrying an umbrella or
the background setting.
style
by the gently opened
sleeves fall back
holding a book. is
walking or otherwise in motion,
further accentuated
is
his figures,
costumes gently flowing to complement
their exquisite
the posture.
and proper to the
in an endless variety activity or pastime in
of
settings
which they
were engaged. Indoors, they are shown occupied with domestic chores, or writing letters by the light of a paper lantern
outdoors, strolling on beautiful spring days against cherry-
blossom backgrounds, playing with children in gardens, and
walking in gently
poem from space with a
Two
settings depicted in a delicate style.
Harunobu expressed
and
sensitive attitudes
wavy
attractive
Harunobu's
falling
snow.
Many of his
prints contain a
ancient times written across the top in a blank line
resembling the line of a cloud.
young
girls
served
as
prints; one, the daughter
was named Ofuji, and the
models
of
other, Osen,
for
many of
a toothpick
was
maker,
a great beauty
of
about eighteen years of age. Osen was so beautiful that she
became
a principal topic
of conversation
referred to in the news-sheets and her
in Edo.
name was
She was often later
used for
57
V
-.^
fA
'^^^
Ahoue
Isoda Koryusai, active
left:
rakake, or pillar print, of a young
c,
1760-1780:
woman wearing
A
hashi-
a crest or
mon
on her kimono of the character ju, which means long
She
is
representing
Seunin of Horaizan,
the female
garden with a crane, a pine
tree,
evity. It refers to the fabled
life.
in
a
and bamboo, emblems of long-
mountain of Horai on the Island
of Everlasting Life, or Paradise. Victoria and Albert Museum.
Above print,
right:
of the
Isoda
Koryusai:
A
rising sun, a pine tree,
hashirakake,
and a
flight
or
pillar
of cranes,
all
symbols of longevity. Victoria and Albert Museum. Left:
Nishimura Shigenaga, 1697-17^6: Hotel, one of
the
seven gods of good fortune, carrying a lady across a stream.
A
print in
two
colors published
and Albert Museum.
58
by Yamashiro-ya. Victoria
Suzuki Harunohu, 1725 IJ70:
Museum.
Tokyo National
worked in the teahouse at the Kasamori
entertainment, he portrayed
people came to see her under the pre-
And
characters in plays. She
shrine and tense of
many Edo
making
Osen were series
to
Osen of Kasamori.
a visit to the shrine.
in great
Harunobu's pictures of
demand. He produced many famous
of prints with delicate brush strokes and tender
lines
expressing the world of feminine beauty. These include
Manners and Customs, Eight Views of Indoor of the Tanwgawa, and in his
book
last
Life,
and Six Views
year he produced a picture
entitled Beauties of the Yoshiwara
Gay
Utamaro trayers
mond,
this
them
in
the best
known
in the
West of
of sensual feminine beauty. As the
the Ukiyo-e porartist
of the
derni-
Utamaro was discovered by Edniond de Goncourt in liis
of pleasure
girls
Niwaka
for a
much of his best work.
element of "the eternal female" that has made
among
Peintre des Maisons Vertes. Included
in
Quarters.
it is
and courtesans
Celebration.
Yoshiwara held
is
many Women
pictures
his
a set titled
The women of the
Dressing
red-light district
this celebration annually,
and on
this
oc-
men and performed various satirical and humorous acts for their own enjoyment. Utamaro was an ugly man and throughout his life this physical handicap seems to have exerted a strong influence on the many things
casion they dressed themselves as
UTAMARO, SHARAKU Kitagawa Utamaro, 1753-1806, one of the greatest of
Ukiyo-e
painters,
brought the technique of the color print to
the highest degree of achievement. to
Edo and became
painter
a pupil
At an
early age he
of Toriyama Sekien,
a
came Kano
and a noted designer of picture books; but he was
greatly influenced
designs for
book
by Kiyonaga. Utamaro
illustrations, the earliest
first
also
produced
being for the text
he did and
of the theater
as
possibihties
him
famous works
it is
known
Yoshiwara,
biographical sketches
that he spent his life in the as
gay quarters of the
had been the custom of the other
artists
Ukiyo-e school. He had many friends among the entertainers, playwrights, bath
and teahouse
girls,
of the
women from
foremost publisher of color
many
insects to landscape
now
subjects ranging
and domestic
are his portrayals of
scenes,
women.
Harunobu depicted women
as a
common
from animals but his most
His pictures were
fixed type,
his beauties the features
the various
ideal
of feminine beauty and posture. They
qualities
ness,
prints.
having great
being signed Utamaro, an adopted name.
Just as
gave
the famous houses of
as
Utamaro was very
to live in his house.
actors,
frequenters of the district, and the prostitutes. Greatly attracted to the beauty of the
as the
versatile, excelling in
which was the name he
From
ac-
and furnished him with board and lodging, and
later invited
and
used.
well
Tsutaya recognized the work of Utamaro
of a play. They were dated 1775 and bore the signature Hosho, first
Edo he became
said. In his earliest years in
quainted with Tsutaya Juzaburo, poet and an important patron
to
all,
all
Utamaro
representing his possess the
same
of sophistication, worldly-wisdom, and coquettish-
whether they are
women
of the pleasure houses of
59
Above:
Kitagawa Utamaro, ij^j- 1806: from
Insects, an
album published
Fuzoku Sandan Musume,
Lower
He as
girls
of genteel and good character
portrayed thein with invariably long
narrow
as
voluptuous solid color,
slits,
faces,
(Plate 9).
and with eyes
while their bodies are unnaturally
(Plate 8).
The background
tall
and
usually consists of a
and the costumes worn by the
women
are rather
when compared to the colorful fabrics painted by other Some of his drawings are executed with very few lines,
plain
artists.
the contour of his figures being emphasized
with
soft
warm
more by
color,
Among Utamaro's models was a popular waitress named who worked in the Naniwaya teahouse, one of the eating places clustered around the Asakusa
Kannon
temple. Utamaro's prints of animals, birds, fishes, and insects,
which were executed curate detail,
famous
60
in a
most
were produced
series titled
A
China, and
this
all
over Japan and even in
enormous popularity
resulted in his inability
to maintain his high quality
demand was life
that
of workmanship. In
so great that
were the work of pupils. his
of the Upper, Middle, and
rising
It
young
many
was
also
his later years
prints attributed to
during these
color-print
artists,
last
him
years of
particularly
Hokusai and Toyokuni, began to gain popularity and over-
shadow Utamaro. As he could not
fail
to see his position as
foremost print designer being challenged, he became resentful
flesh tones.
Okita,
many
or Girls
Tokyo National Museum.
Classes.
His designs were in great demand
the
Collection of
Kitagawa Utamaro, ij^j-iSoS: The Middle Class, /row
Left:
Yoshiwara or
A
Tokyo National Museum.
1788.
in
lifelike
manner with very
for albums,
one of which
acis
a
Collection of bisects, published in 1788.
of many of his contemporaries and often resorted to malicious
and
false accusations against
published a
set
them. In 1804 he painted and had
of three conjoined
prints
which portrayed
Hideyoshi, the great military lord of the late sixteenth century,
being entertained by his five concubines in a luxurious setting. This was considered an affront to the
Utamaro was
sent to prison,
where
Tokugawa Shogun and his
hands were bound
with chains fqr
His early death
fifty days.
the age of fifty-
at
three was probably due to broken pride and dejected spirits
following the humiliation of being thrown into prison.
Toshusai Sharaku, active from 1794 to 1795 in Edo, chiefly painted portraits of Kabuki actors, and today, his originality, artists,
regarded
is
as
one of the
on account of of Ukiyo-e
greatest
although he was hardly recognized by the public
during his lifetime. Sharaku remains an enigma because until the present day the only
known
surrounding
facts
to February 1795.
Although nothing
which sheds some
light
1794
an item appeared
life,
on him, although
its
authenti-
cannot be proved. Whatever his source, one Tatsuta
city
Shashukin wrote that Sharaku's that
May
way of essential
in the
information has been found about his in 1868
his life are
executed in a ten-month period from
his 140 prints
name was
real
he lived in Hatchodori in Edo, and was
Saito Jurobei,
No actor in
a
the
work was
largely
disregarded by students of Japanese art until 1910,
when
retinue of the feudal lord of Awa. Sharaku's
Kurth published
Julius
that
Munich, declaring
in
he considered Sharaku one of the world's greatest porSince then he has been a favorite of print collectors.
traitists.
Most of months three
two
book on him
a
the pictures he produced in that short space of ten
are portraits
Kabuki
of actors
theaters in
Edo;
who were then a
appearing
few depict sumo
are historical prints. In studying the style
interesting to observe that in the series
and the prints
ones are smaller in
show
not attempts
His
size.
of busts of actors are considered
traits are
earlier
and
of his work
it is
and
later prints
he changed from bust to full-length portrayals
later
succeeding ones
selves,
between the
the
at
wrestlers,
first
twenty-eight
work and the quahty. The por-
his finest
a gradual decline in at characterizations
of the actors them-
but rather of the expressions of psychological caricature
peculiar to the characters they impersonated. pressions are exaggerated with small eyes, slanting, large protruding noses,
movements and emotions.
and
The
actors'
ex-
almond-shaped and
lips
depicting various
In his later prints these bold
Toshusai Sharaku, active I7g4-i7g$: Matsumoto Koshiro Gorobei, a fishmonger, in
Kiri-za theater.
May
A
1794.
IV
as
Medley of Tales of Revenge, Tokyo National Museum.
and
and are replaced by more closely resembling the conventional actor prints
interesting facial expressions disappear
features
produced by other the earlier prints
is
artists
of the time.
A
that all are signed
distinctive feature
of
"Drawn by Toshusai "Drawn
guished and popular of the Ukiyo-e school.
to a
wood-engraver when about thirteen years
Sharaku," while all those of the later group are signed
began to study painting under Shunsho
by Sharaku." All the
From
earlier prints
have mica backgrounds
and were brought out by Tsutaya Juzaburo, the great Ukiyo-e publisher
who
sponsored Utamaro and others.
in
the latter he took the art
at
old,
and then
about nineteen.
name of Shunro, which he
used for about fifteen years. During his long lifetime he used
about thirty different names to sign Japan
at that
his
work, which even
in
time was an astonishing number in comparison
to the four or five customarily used.
HOKUSAI
He was born
Katsushika, in Shimafusa province near Edo, was apprenticed
name Hokusai
until
He
did not adopt the
about 1797. Hokusai's
life
was most
unconventional according to Japanese standards of etiquette Katsushika Hokusai, 1 760- 1 849,
known names
is
one of the few universally
outside Japan, as well as one of the most distin-
and proper behavior.
He was
restless
and forever striving
to
gain further knowledge of the various schools of paintmg.
61
—
such
as the
masters.
At
He
Tosa and the Kano.
studied under several
time European copper-plate engravings made
this
which afforded Hokusai the oppor-
their appearance in Japan,
tunity to study European perspective and the technique of light
and shade. Throughout the
were many changes matter, and
it
was not
which he achieved
until after
many
great local popularity its
there
in his subject
a pioneer,
and in
and world-wide
traditional form, used for centuries
Japanese painting,
had not been introduced
Japanese color prints until Hokusai rediscovered quisite scenic views. His
life
years that he fmally
which he was
field in
fame. Pare landscape in in Chinese and
of his work and
in the style
turned to landscape, a
of his
earlier part
it
in
in his ex-
approach to realism, with distances
expressed in three-dimensional perspective, can be seen in his
famous
Thirty-six Views of Fuji. In each
majestic peak of Fuji
is
related in scale to
Whether
in the surrounding landscape.
of these its
plates the
true appearance
the cone
as a magnificent towering peak, or seen from
depicted
is
among storm-
A
prolific artist
painters,
and the most
Hokusai
is
best
known
versatile
of the color-print
equally accomplished in any subject (Plate
book containing an
was
for his landscapes, but he
His Manga, a
2).
endless variety of rapid sketches, con-
stitutes a historically priceless
the^ntire field of Japanese
life,
encyclopedic
work embodying
legend, historical figures, gods,
animals, birds, fishes, flowers, insects, natural flora, and con-
temporary human
manner of
figures.
The people
movements, meticulously observed expressive line (Plate pictorial caricature, life.
The Manga
was published
are depicted in
5).
in a powerfully graphic,
The word manga means
18 14
and the
last
first
last
day of
and toward the end of his time he produced a three-
volume his
volume
three appeared post-
humously. Hokusai continued to work until the his life,
a cartoon,
spontaneous drawing, or sketch of daily
contains fifteen volumes; the
in
all
occupations, and pastimes, with their
activities,
series entitled
A
Hundred Views of Fuji, which bears
fmal signature, "The Art-Crazy
Old Man."
ghmpsed through a grove ofgraceful bamboo, genius emerges in the originality of the com-
tossed waves, or his creative
HIROSHIGE
positions.
Hokusai introduced sense
effects
of light which give
a
powerful
rain, heat, cold. Incorporating these effects
masterfully expressive portrayals of daily
life,
of nature
in
he was able to
produce a beautiful and interesting record of contemporary scenes art
Ando
of atmospheric conditions: humidity, passing showers,
wind,
and
activities in Japan.
His greatest contributions to the
of the color print are his celebrated landscape
Famous
Sights of the Eastern Capital,
Views along
the
Banks of the in
Their Thousand Aspects, and Vieivs of Famous Bridges. His later
works include
pictures of flowers
borrowed from the
Katsushika Hokusai, IJ60-1849: boats at
Sano,from
and
classical literature
the set entitled
A
birds,
and subjects
of Japan and China.
color print
of the bridge of
Victuresque Views of Famous
Bridges in Several Provinces, published by Yeijudo (Nishimuraya) Yohachi, about 1828. Victoria and Albert Museum.
Hiroshige, 1797-1858, with Hokusai and Utamaro,
one of the three
artists best
known
outside Japan.
duced many charming and picturesque color
He
pro-
which
prints
have gained wide popularity for their revelation of the inherent poetry of nature.
He depicted thescenicbeauty of the Japanese
countryside with greater realism than any other
series
Sumida, The Fifty-three Stations along the Tokaido, Waters
is
work was
closer to the intimate enchantments
artist,
and
his
of nature than
the subtle and exalted rhythms of the earlier Chinese and
He was born in Edo, where his member of a fire brigade retained by the
Japanese landscape masters. father served as a
Tokugawa government.
Hiroshige's talent developed at an
Katsushika Hokusai, 1760-1849:
A
bridge joining the provinces of Hida tains. It is part
of a
set.
color print
of the suspension
and Etchu high
in the
moun-
Picturesque Views of Famous Bridges in
Several Provinces, published about 1828
by Yeijudo
mura-ya) Yohachi. Victoria and Albert Museum.
(Nishi-
Katsushika Hokusai, 1760-1849: Color print from the the village of Sekiya on the banks
series called
The
Thirty-six Views of Fuji.
It
shows
the
view of Fuji from
of the Sumida River. Victoria and Albert Museum.
drawings attracted wide attention. In 18 12
proportion. His mountains, trees, and rocks are related in true
he entered the studio of Utagawa Toyohiro and progressed
perspective, giving a distinctive impression of distances. People,
early age
and
his
so rapidly that he
of Utagawa stiU
was granted the privilege of taking the name
after
studying there for only one year. While
with Toyohiro he produced a number of portraits and
other subjects in the customary Ukiyo-e style which were
pubhshed, but
after the death
developed his
own
first
landscapes,
titled
style
of Toyohiro in 1828, Hiroshige
and around
Ten Famous
in
in
Places in
Edo
in the
sets,
one en-
series
of color
prints
Edo, sets of beautiful bird-
and-flower pictures, Famous Places
Famous
two
and the other Eight Views of
Places in Edo,
Lake Biwa. Subsequent albums of sets or appeared, such as Famous Places
time produced his
this
which were pubUshed
in
Japan, Views of Famous
Four Seasons, One Hundred Views of Edo,
Places in Kyoto,
Famous
Places in Osaka,
exquisite single-sheet prints. Hiroshige
is
best
and many
known
for his
travelogue guidebooks called The Sixty-nine Stages of the Kiso Kaido,
The Reisho Tokaido, and especially The
Fifty-three
Stages of the Tokaido.
saw with
a remarkable sense
of
and cityscapes with their everyday life are realistically
portrayed in an endless variety of scenes.
which
light
prints
is
The vivid manner in
and atmosphere are expressed in
a remarkable achievement that
his scenic color
few
artists
have
equaled. Hiroshige's masterly portrayal of atmospheric conditions such
clouds,
as
snow, driving wind, rainstorms,
and sudden showers
Even the moisture
fleeting
one of his great contributions.
is
in the air, the feeling of the seasons,
and
meteorological variations are expressed in a most subtle and sentimental
way pecuUar
prints that Hiroshige
to the Japanese. In the series
of color
produced from the hundreds of sketches
made on journeys over the great feudal highways, the wellknown scenic spots are observed not only with this feeling of atmospheric realism but also with a sense for the picturesque, depicting chance encounters, peasants, a roadside shrine, and
many this
Hiroshige's landscapes have a fascinating naturalism and depict the places and things he
villages,
other incidental features.
The human touch in views of
nature appealed especially to travelers
their journeys
and the
Hiroshige undertook
life
as
remembrances of
they encountered along the way.
liis first
trip in the year 1832,
when he 63
received the privilege of going along with a courier of the
Shogun and
his retinue
from Edo
to Kyoto.
It
was on
journey that he amassed a wealth of sketches for The three Stages
this
Fifty-
of the Tokaido, the series of color prints which
brought him world fame. 'The Tokaido, or Eastern-Sea coast
from Kyoto
origin, this remarkable
Japan's
Way,
to Edo, a distance
highway
ran eastward along the
of 345 miles.
Of unknown
bears striking testimony to
medieval greatness in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries.
Under
tention, since
it
the
Tokugawa regime
connected the Shogun's
with the Imperial court
at
Kyoto.
It
it
received great at-
seat
of government
was considered the most
picturesque highway in the world, being a wide, well-kept
thoroughfare, lined for the greater part of giant pine trees.
The Tokaido,
like other
its
length with
main highways con-
necting other parts of Japan with Edo, was thronged with couriers, retainers
on
official business,
of daimyo passing to and from as
Ando
Hiroshige,
1797-1858:
A
Descending from Flight toward Purple
White Egret
Iris.
Published in
the early nineteenth century by Fujioka-ya Keijiro (Shorindo). Victoria
and Albert Museum.
Right:
Ando
Iris
Albert
64
Hiroshige, 1797-1 858:
The
Horikiri Shobuen or
Gardens of Horikiri, near Tokyo; dated 18^7.
Museum.
Victoria
and
domains,
as' well
merchants, pilgrims, players, musical performers, itinerant
priests,
Above:
and the colorful retinues
their feudal
and other
travelers.
Extended along these principal
highways was
a succession
of towns and post
stations, in a
highly organized system, each containing inns, shops, eating
of entertainment, and
places, houses
a regulated
horses and carriers for the convenience of travelers.
number of The course
its
winding manner, with
giant ancient Japanese cedars, to
its
Hakone
sides lined
snow
riers
where
travelers
jects
in the guardhouses
journey. sea,
and
From
making
of the
mode of travel,
their costumes,
and in
and
in others the quaint
manner
in
which
his
sub-
carry their paper umbrellas. At almost every turn on the
One of
these, Ishiyama, appears in Hiroshige's Eight
Famous Views of Lake Biwa. Conforming to the established
the
Japanese
manner of depicting
certain
famous
spots in a tra-
with the time of day or atmospheric
time the travelers would catch magnificent
condition, Ishiyama
is
The Treasure Ship with
sacred treasures, and other tokens of good luck for the
and
end of
prints
ditional relationship
it
Color print by Ando Hiroshige, ijgj-iSsS:
scroll,
site.
their passports to officials
their reasons for
from Kyoto. Hiroshige's
continued on through Mishima to the
there
all this
and give
rrdles
Tokaido there was an appropriate scenic view or well-known
Tokaido, and one of the principal bar-
had to present
inland through im-
or rain pictures the farmers and laborers with straw
raincoats,
was
formerly one of the largest and most important of the poststations along the old
few
coast
continued to
passes to Ishiyama, at the south
along the way, their
with
Barrier. This
a
sea, it
Tokaido portray with much charm the many people he saw
Hakonemachi, on the eastern shore of Lake Ashi, and con-
tinued on in
mountain
Lake Biwa
the Tokaido progressed through beautiful mountain country to
from the
Nagoya and Kuwana, and then turned
From Edo,
Hiroshige to record in his color prints.
Fuji.
route, with mountains rising
pressive
of the Tokaido afforded an endless variety of scenes and subjects for
Along the rugged
views of the majestic peak of
the robe
New
Year.
the Seven
The gods
in the
associated
with the autunm moon,
Gods of Good Fortune,
depicting their emblems, the
upper row are: Fukurokuju, with
of a scholar; Bcnten, the only female, with a stringed instrument called a biwa; and Bishamon,
tall
in
head,
staff,
and
armor and holding
a trident. Those in the front row are: Hotel, with his large bag which sometimes contains the sacred treasures; Daikoku, with his mallet
and bags of
rice;
ideogram on the
Yebisu, with his fishing rod and a tai fish in a jar; sail is
mwmgm
kotobuki, which means hope, happiness, long
wmmmmmmmmmm
and Jurojin, holding a fan and dressed life,
good fortune, and so
m
in the robe
forth. Victoria
of a
scholar.
The
and Albert Museum.
^mmmmmm
65
tsugawa and terminated
at
Nagoya, where
travelers could
continue their journey to Kyoto.
made numerous journeys through
Hiroshige
various parts
of the country, and from the vast material acquired he was able to produce a great variety of color prints and
partially
fmished
new
or revised versions of the Tokaido
Around 1850 Hiroshige published which
series
is^
known
on each
as reisho.
This
and one each
name of
for the tenninal points
hundred
hundred
fifty-three post-
of Edo and Kyoto.
and
copies,
later to
But the enormous demand
copies.
work caused
the
of the usual number of
set consists
In the early period of wood-block prints, an edition ited to fewer than a
set.
Tokaido
print in a formal calligraphic
one for each of the
fifty-five color prints,
stations
a version of the
called the Reisho Tokaido, the
subject being written style
new versions
evidenced by the twenty complete or
of* existing series, as
his publishers to print as
many
was lim-
around two
for Hiroshige's as ten
thousand
copies of his later sets or series, with consequent deterioration in quality.
believed that altogether he produced over five
It is
thousand drawings for color Hiroshige's
Two
prints.
from
whom
he was
later separated;
Two
years before his
and Shigemasa her second husband. death, Hiroshige retired
from
his
worldly
Contemporary with Hiroshige during
lived in
Edo and
who
artist
Kabuki
Canal
A
Snow-covered
Shiba District of Edo, from
in the
Hundred Views of Edo. Date Victoria
Street
his series entitled
Snake 12
seal:
by the
(a.D.
The
1857).
1
at the
actors.
half of the
first
distinguished and versatile Ukiyo-e
of female figures and
Another pupil of Toyokuni was Kuniyoshi,
798 -1 86 1, a landscape painter, but best
There was
guished landscapist, called
the
age of fifteen became a pupil of Uta-
specialized in color prints
battle scenes.
album
and Albert Museum.
medi-
Utagawa Kunisada, 1786- 1864, who
gawa Toyokuni. He was a
Hirosbige, ijgy-iSsS:
activities to
and become enlightened through Zen Buddhism.
nineteenth century was
Ando
used
artists
:
Hiroshige's daughter,
tate
other
name after his death Shigenobu, who had married
known
for striking
also Keisai Eisen, 1792-1848, a distin-
who
is
said to
have begun the famous
The Sixty-nine Stages of
with
the Kiso Kaido,
Hiroshige completing the remaining forty-six.
Wood-block because the Ishiyama temple
moonlight
is
at its best
bathed in
at that season.
Stages of the Kiso Kaido.
among
the Tokaido
series
is
The Sixty-nine
The Kiso Kaido was second only
the ancient highways and
mountain way, or Nakasendo its
rapidly lost
its
printing declined sharply after Hiroshige, and
popularity as
it
deteriorated into an endless
variety of prints of confused artistic composition,
Another outstanding Hiroshige
From Edo
when
as it
to
was the mid-
was sometimes
called.
route went inland to the center of the island of
ors, 1
and tawdry
8 80s, after
quality.
It
was not
until
the restoration of Imperial rule
gaudy
col-
sometime
in the
by Empress
Meiji,
and continuing through the turn of the century,
that a renas-
cence occurred in the art of wood-block printing in the traditional
manner.
Among
the foremost
artists in this
period of
Honshu, through Hachioji, Enzan, and on to Okaya and
revival of Ukiyo-e were Kobayashi Kiyochika, 1847-1915;
Winding over rugged mountains, it passed through Kiso-Fukushima, which stands midway between Tokyo and Kyoto, in the very heart of the beautiful Japanese Alps. During
Inoue Yasuji, 1864-1889; Ogura Ryuson, active
Shiojiri.
the
Tokugawa regime
Yamamura, 66
a barrier gate
the local daimyo.
was maintained here by
The road then went
to
Naka-
Hashiguchi Goyo,
1
in the i88os;
880-1921, and Ito Shinsui, b. 1896.
fmished work of these
artists is
equal artistically and technically to that done in the tradition
The
comparable and in many pieces
by the great masters of the
past.
classic
V
VARIOUS FORMS of primitive sculpture from the very early periods of Japanese history,
prior to the introduction of
Of particular
existed.
Buddhism,
Jomon type with
and the sculptured clay figures
representations of deities with
human
first
to gain capital.
the
era.
These
tombs of rulers were of
stupendous proportions, often measuring more than seventy acres,
the
and surrounded with moats. For some unknown reason,
Haniwa
figurines are not
found within the tombs, but
groups on top of the mounds. The
instead
were placed
greater
number of Haniwa
in
represent
men and women wear-
ing ancient costumes and hairdos, and as a rule the lower part
of the figure
is
cylindrical in shape.
domestic animals such
some
are in the
monkey.
It
as horses,
Some Haniwa
chickens, and dogs, and
form of wild animals such
it,
as
the boar or
was undoubtedly the experience of this
sculpture, reflecting the advanced civilization that enabled the Japanese to
assimilating the techniques
represent
make such
prehistoric
which produced
rapid progress in
of the high culture
later
brought
from the mainland.
a period
A
The
year 552,
peror of Japan a
when gilt
derives
the King of Paikche sent to the
Em-
bronze image of the Buddha together
Asuka period (552-645). The name
from the region
called
painters,
to
of the noble houses began erecting magnificent Buddhist
and many daughters of nobleijien entered monasteries
shrines,
to
become nuns. For
activity,
a century
and temples housing 816 Nearly
Nara was
of building
a hive
and by the year 624 there were forty-six monasteries
all
priests
and monks and 569 nuns.
of the early buildings have long since disappeared
because their construction was of wood, which rendered them
and gradual deterioration
susceptible to the ravages of fire
from the elements. earliest
Among
the
few splendid structures of this
period of Buddhism that have survived are the famous
Golden Hall or Kondo, the
Yumedono
five-storied Pagoda,
or Hall of Dreams, which
form
buildings of the Horyuji temple near Nara.
Empress Suiko. that
was current
Its
in
architecture
China
is
many
The Horyuji,
was founded
oldest surviving temple in Japan,
Prince Shotoku Taishi, in obedience to the
and the
of the
a part
in
607 by
command of the
representative of the style
in the sixth century
and was most
likely the
work of Chinese
craftsmen.
Although some of the sculptured images
and temple
emigre architects
for
were brought over from Korea or
China, most of the masterpieces of the Asuka period were
with a number of volumes of the sutras or scriptures, marks the beginning of the
artists, priests,
more knowledge from the learned men at the With the rapid spread of Buddhism the lords
these early temples
THE ASUKA PERIOD
which witnessed the building of
steady stream of scholars,
Japan, and in return Japanese students and missions visited
Chma
Haniwa
was
and temple carpenters, came from the Asiatic mainland
T'ang
which
It
and monks, along with sculptors, bronze workers,
are
few centuries of the Christian
mounds of earth covering
located.
the great temples.
Subsequent
called dogu, attributes.
from the Ancient Burial Mounds period, correspond-
ing in time to the burial
is
intricate sculptural
to these appeared the earthenware figurines of the culture,
to have
importance from the Neolithic age
the earthenware of the designs,
known
are
were
Sculpture
Asuka
in
Yamato
province,
now Nara prefecture, where the successive Imperial residences
working
created
by foreign
sistance
of native craftsmen. The sculpture of
artists
was derived from Buddhist around
this time. Its fully
art
in Japan
as
developed
with the this
as-
period
in
China
style in Japan
in this
practiced
period was the result of harmoniously absorbing the fuiest qualities
of the various Chinese dynastic
styles into a
work
of singular beauty.
67
The Shaka Nyorai Triad, also called the
or
Amida Triad
Sakyamuni Triad,
exe-
cuted by Tori Busshi in gilt
bronze.
Asuka period (532-
645). Horyuji temple, Nara.
The
earliest historical reference to
tions a Chinese sculptor
from China
in the year 522
Buddhism among
his
own
a
duced
Buddhist image in
who had embraced
the
is
is
said to
over
have introduced
mentioned
as
having pro-
memory of the Emperor Yomei, new religion. It is also recorded that
Tatto's daughter
was one of the
received into the
new
dhist sculptor
who came
Tatto,
of friends. His son Tasuna
circle
master craftsman and
became a
and
men-
sculpture in Japan
named Shiba
first
faith in Japan.
three Buddhist nuns
The
outstanding
of the Asuka period was Tori Busshi,
a
Budson of
Tasuna,
who received the highest favors from Prince Shotoku
for his
work and
for his devotion to the
advancement of
Buddhism. In 605 he received an Imperial commission
make two images of the Buddha, one
in gilt
to
bronze and the
other in embroidery. These images, which were enshrined in the Gangoji monastery,
were made
in the size called joroku,
the standard height for a statue of the Buddha. This height,
equal to sixteen
feet, is said to
have been attained by Sakya-
muni, the founder of Buddhism. Tori, for his skill in producing these works,
was rewarded with the high court rank o( taijin,
and was given an 68
estate in
Omi
province containing a large
number of rice
fields.
His most notable
work
is
famous
the
Shaka Nyorai Triad, or Sakyamuni Triad, in the Horyuji temple, consisting of a gilt bronze
image of the seated Buddha with
an attendant Bosatsu standing on either side. the halo attached to the
Buddha
An inscription on
states that the
icon was
made
command of the widow of Prince Shotoku, in memory of her husband, who had died in the pre-
by Tori
in the year 623 at the
ceding year and was intended to secure his happiness in the Bud,
dhist Paradise.
The triad is noted as a representative masterpiece
of the Asuka period and
which
as characteristic
of Tori-style images,
are magnificently stylized with a realistic portrayal of
the features and a peculiar freedom of proportion that
impressive.
A
distinctive feature
is
most
of Asuka-period sculpture
is
seen in the delicate modeling of the hands and in most cases the gentle features that reflect a sense of kindness and sincerity.
The images most
frequently depicted in Buddhist sculpture
during the Asuka and Nara periods Japanese
means
names
as
a perfect manifestation
verse as attained through
dha. Butsu
is
may be identified by
their
Butsu or Nyorai, Bosatsu, and Ten. Nyorai of the absolute truth of the uni-
Buddhism, and
the Japanese
name
for
is
equivalent to
Buddha, or one
Bud-
who
has
attained true enlightenment.
tama who,
Buddha images
Gau-
represent
contemplation under the bo
after
tree, attained
the Buddha or Sakyamuni. In Japaname Sakyamuni is referred to as Shaka Nyorai
Six Manifestations
is
the Nyoirin Kannon,
Buddhahood and became
desire
nese the Indian
Nyoirin Kannon in the
and Shakamuni Butsu,
names apphed
all
Gautama, the
to
founder of Buddhism. The Buddhist sutras or scriptures
state
Buddha has thirty-two distinguishing physical features, among which is the hair, depicted with many small curls that a
called rahotsu,
meaning
snail hair,
because of the resemblance
of these evenly spaced conventionalized curls to
Among
of light, fmgers and toes
characteristic
that every
is
Buddha
though certain symbols are
Buddhas most frequently found
to
hidden in
in cloth
this hall for ten centuries until
it
was
rediscovered in the early years of the Meiji period. Carved
from
a single log of wood,
and the
features
it
has a
crown of pierced bronze,
of the face represent a calm,
beauty. Light falling
upon
it
from
intellectual, classic
certain oblique angles
Another Chuguji
that are slightly
nunnery of the Horyuji temple. Carved in camphor wood,
of the
soles
own
has his
common
secretly
and enchanted gem. The famous
Yumedono had been wrapped
very famous and imposing Nyoirin Kannon
snail shells.
wheel-marks of Buddha.
thousand-spoked
virtue of the wheel
gives a weirdly mysterious dignity to the features.
webbed, long and slender fmgers, and on the the
and
by
on the forehead
other features are a curl of white hair
that gives off a ray
One of the who satisfies human
and in the Thirty-three Manifestations of Kannon.
is
in the
feet
Another
symbol,
al-
Buddhas. The
all
in Japanese art are called
Sakyamuni, Dainichi, Amida, and Yakushi. The Japanese
name
Bosatsu
the equivalent of the Sanskrit
is
are believed to represent at the
Gautama, the Buddha Sakyamuni,
time he was a prince in the Indian kingdom of Kapila-
vasta, are usually depicted as lovely
Kannon ages
name Bodhi-
meaning enlightened being. Images of Bosatsu, which
sattva,
is
Bosatsu.
The upper
and graceful,
part of the
body
usually naked, and the hair flows
shoulders or
down
arranged in some form of knot.
is
as in the
in Bosatsu
im-
over the
The hands
frequently hold such symbols as the lotus flower of Kannon, or the vase and lotus of Juichimen Kannon, the eleven-headed
Kannon. The name Ten, often used as
in Japanese,
is
the
same
Deva, meaning heavenly or divine being. Ten are heavenly
gods and goddesses,
as distinguished
from personages of earth
or hell, which are either fierce or benevolent and beautiful.
Among
other important images of the Asuka period in the
Horyuji temple
is
bronze Buddha
is
the Yakushi Nyorai in the Golden Hall. This a typical
example of the
superb modeling of the face having
An
expression. the
a strong
style
on the halo
incised mscription
of Tori, the
but tenderly alive indicates that
image dates from the time of the foundation of the temple.
Yakushi Nyorai
is
the
Buddha who heals may hinder the faith devotee. He is usually de-
name given
to the
physical as well as spiritual ailments that
and enlightenment of
a
Buddhist
picted with a medicine pot in the
forearm front.
is
raised
left
hand, while the right
with the palm of the hand open toward the
Within the precinct of the Horyuji
or Hall of Dreams, which
The most
sacred
image
is
the
main
in this hall
hall is
is
the
Yumedono
of the East temple.
the famous Nyoirin
known as the Yumedono Kannon and Guze Kannon. Kannon, whose Chinese name is Kuan-Yin, is the goddess of mercy who in the Buddhist hierarchy of gods appears in a KamiOH, also
variety of forms, such as in the Six Manifestations of Kannon
Bronze image of the Yakushi Nyorai, in the Golden Hall of the Horyuji temple, Nara. Asuka period (552-645).
69
also
from a single log, the goddess is shown in a sitting position,
her right leg resting on her
polychromed and gilded
wood
and the
left
The
knee.
statue's originally
worn away,
surfaces have long since
has darkened
from centuries of incense smoke
to a lustrous purphsh-black like ancient bronze. This lovely
portrayed with her elbow resting on her right knee,
goddess
is
and the
first
two fmgers of her right hand
are lightly touching
her cheek. Her eyes are half closed in meditation, and a most tender, compassionate
smde animates her
and salvation to aU living things are the dess
Of all
Kannon.
lips.
Benevolence
attributes
of the god-
Kannon
inspires the
the Buddhist gods,
widest devotion in Japan, despite the higher rank of Buddha or Nyorai in the Buddhist hierarchy. Another manifestation
of the goddess
which she often appears
in
two
Bosatsu, one of the
most
attendants in the
cases she stands alone as a single object
From
Buddhism
the earliest phases of
is
Amida
the
Kannon but in
Triad,
of worship.
in Japan sculptural
images of Kannon were produced in great numbers. In contrast to
which
the serene magnificence and expressive strength
characterize the best images of the subtle qualities flecting the
Buddha, Kannons have
of realism and individual expression often re-
feminine beauty of contemporary models. The
Asuka period was
a
high point of Buddhist
art
and an
era in
which many
great masterpieces
after the first
images were brought over from the mainland,
were produced. V^ry soon
the native genius of the Japanese began to transform the style
Nyoirin Kamion,
of sculpture adopted from the Chinese. Aside from
Kannon,
certain
native innovations expressing a purely Japanese aesthetic taste,
Yumedono Kannon
also called the
carved from
a
log
single
Guze
or
of wood.. Asuka period
(552-645). Horyuji temple, Nara.
the sculptor frequently created in his images a genuine expression of graceful sentiment, tenderness, and
warmth.
Flourishing as a living art after a span of fourteen centuries,
Japanese sculpture has
no counterpart
of the world. Sacred images constituted most of the output of Japanese sculpture art
was
for the first several centuries,
largely nonexistent at that time.
careful preservation as sacred objects,,
of the temples and monasteries ing, that these great centuries.
The
was reached
and
in
was
it
wood
own them
fact that
are
still
so
clay.
The
preferred
single log, as indicated
70
were among the craftsmen
instruct the Japanese in the techniques
which persisted for generations. were carved from
a
above for the early Kannons, only the
method of
knife or chisel,
the introduction of Buddhism into Japan,
many
wood continued to flourish until the Fujiwara period, when the great sculptor Jocho created a new technique which eliminated many of the earlier difficulties. carving in
With
by
medium was wood, endowment pe-
toes usually being cut separately. This
the sculptor.
stand-
carving was the supreme native
centuries the statues
wooden images carved with
Korean bronze
Stone was not used for Buddhist sculp-
in China.
In contrast to
those of bronze were the creation of the modeler rather than
many
Buddhist images, executed in wood, bronze,
first six
arms and
because of their
and the
works of sculpture have survived
culiar to the Japanese, a genius
For the
It is
and secular
highest expression of the sculptor's art in Japan
dry lacquer, or ture, as
that
BUDDHIST BRONZE IMAGES
in the cultural history
the
casters
King of Paikche, both
stage in the process lost
of bronze
wax, was to make
to
casting,
a finished
thick layer of fine-quality clay as a
mold and baked,
at
make
which
sent over
sacred images and to
of the
known
art.
wax model of the
was then applied stage the
The
first
as cire perdue,
statue.
to the
or
A
wax
wax would run out
through apertures in the clay mold. Molten bronze was then
poured into the hollow mold.
When
the bronze had cooled
and hardened, the dehcate process of cutting away the clay
was undertaken
as the
because soUd bronze
fmal stage. Large images were hollow
would have been
and a useless extravagance. In
impracticable to
this process the sculptor
move
modeled
the images in wax laid over a rough core of clay. When the wax image was completed in finished detail, more clay was
Kannon, Goddess of Mercy, bearing a lotus, as an attendant of the
Amida Buddha,
standing with
slightly bended knees,
welcomes the
soul of the deceased. Gold-lacquered
wood darkened by Fourteenth
incense smoke.
century.
Museum. Eugene
Art
Seattle
Memo-
Fuller
rial Collection.
Nyoirin Kannon, the
also called
Miroku Bosatsu
Chuguji nunnery of the Horyuji temple
a single trunk of the camphor
in turn laid over the
wax
at
or
Maitreya,
in
Nara. Carved from
Asuka period (552-645).
tree.
modeled wax.
In the heating process the
ran out through vents and small removal gates, and
metal rods secured the space between the inner and outer clay
and procedures. With of China beaming on of T'ang
art
this all
strong influence of the great culture
phases of Japanese
also visible in the
is
life,
the inspiration
Buddhist images.
A
purely
cooled,
native style of sculpture could not be developed in those times
both the inner and outer cores of clay were chipped away.
because there were certain prescribed canons necessary to fol-
This method of casting was used to make
low according
molten bronze
cores. After the
except such enormous statues
cast in this
and Kamakura, which had to be made with only the heads and hands
all
the Great
as
mold had
the large images,
Buddhas of Nara
in cast
bronze plates
of the Nara period
(710 794), and the powerful influence
which Buddhism had
genius of the
creative
begun
to wield,
preme
aesthetic quality
were major of the
factors contributing to the suart
of this epoch. With
skilled
Chinese and Korean sculptors creating masterpieces of sacred
images for the
new
temples and monasteries, the persuasive
influence of the T'ang dynasty
was strong.
Chinese civilization were active in
all
Many
to true
Buddhist
was exclusively
ideals.
religious,
it
And
aspects
of
phases of Japanese court
since the art
of
followed these fixed
forms brought from China, which were in turn adopted from the Buddhist sculptured images of India.
cast as single units. artists
The
that time
development of sculpture
in the
But with
Nara period,
the rapid
a distinctive
native character began to appeaj; and the Japanese craftsmen
became masters
in their
own
right.
In the Toin-do, or East Hall, of the Yakushiji temple at
Nara one of the famous masterpieces of the Nara period was
known
how
as the
Sho Kannon. This handsome statue exemplifies
far Japanese sculpture
T'ang China and India into
was able
to assimilate the art
a vigorous
and noble
style
of
of its
and scholars were vigorously striving to acquire more
own. The superb modeling and the beautiful and graceful
and more knowledge from China. This resulted in many
proportions combine to give the figure a feeling of majestic
reforms and the adoption of T'ang administrative organization
poise, heightened
life
by the rhythmic
folds
of the "wet" clinging
71
;
drapery revealing the forms of the body. In such examples, the master sculptors of the
handsome and
Nara period reveal
a style far
more
The Japa-
majestic than the Chinese prototypes.
nese sculptor displayed a great talent and taste in proportion
and
in the
there
is
manner of handling
hung garments
these loosely
an extraordinary delicacy and refinement of line.
Perhaps the most famous example of this characteristic style
of modeling in the Nara period
is
Amida Triad in the
the small
Tamamushi-no-Zushi, or Golden Beetle Miniature Shrine of
Lady Tachibana, about 710,
tTiis
by standing
Kondo of Horyuji
in the
temple. Dated
superb group shows a seated Buddha flanked
attendants in small scale, each clothed with cling-
ing garments and each image
upon
set
The
a lotus calyx.
stems of the flowers are depicted as rising out of a sacred pool
which
is
beautifully represented in the horizontal surface
of
an oblong bronze base engraved with ripples and lotus leaves.
Behind the group,
backdrop,
as a
bronze screen which
a
is
a
masterpiece of low-reHef sculpture shows heavenly figures
on
seated
lotus blossoms, surrounded
by swirUng
scarves
amid
many were produced when
gently undulating lotus stems and flowers. These and
other masterpieces of the Nara period
Buddhist
art flourished
under the patronage of the various
Emperors.
During
this
period Buddhism reached great heights under
the sponsorship of the
ceeded
Emperor Shomu and eventually suc-
as the state religion,
as the headquarters.
with the Todaiji temple regarded
The Todaiji was
started in 745
object in the Todaiji is
is
sacred
the Daibutsu or Great Buddha,
which
in 752.
the largest bronze image in the world.
Under command of
the Emperor, the casting of this great image was at
on order of
The most
Emperor Shomu, and was completed
begun in 743
Shigaraki palace near Lake Biwa, but the effort ended in
failure for lack
Nara
of technical
skill.
The work was resumed
and successfully completed
in 745
at
in 749 after eight
The figure is seated cross-legged on an enorcomposed of fifty-six lotus petals, each high and alternately turned upward and downward.
diflferent castings.
mous bronze ten feet
pedestal
The work required
to execute this colossal
a stupendous effort
and was a tremendous technical
that time. terials,
The
image represents
statue contains over a million
including about 900,000 pounds of bronze, 165 pounds
of mercury, and 288 pounds of pure gold.
Its
immense pro-
portions measure fifty-three feet in height; the head feet
feat for
pounds of ma-
long and over nine
feet
is
four feet wide and the hands almost seven feet long. necessary to construct the
by applying
successive
sixteen
wide, while the eyes are almost It
was
body of this huge work in segments,
molds one above the other
after
each
preceding segment had cooled. Only the head and the hands
Bronze image of the Sho Kannon temple, Nara.
72
in the
Nara period (710-794).
Toin-do of the Yakushiji
were
cast as single shells.
turies the
On three occasions through the cen-
Great Buddha has suffered
damage
necessitating
restoration.
then in
1 1
An earthquake in the year
855 shook off the head;
80 the head and right hand were melted in the
which destroyed the Great
fire
and in 1567 the head was
Hall,
again knocked off by an earthquake.
the
method appears
smaller works.
ancient two-storied
among
are
to
The
have been used more frequently for
clay images of
Chumon
the earliest specimens of the
from the year
precinct,
Nara period
are a
number of clay images
in the
Hokkedo, or
Nara period, dating
object of worship in the
gates.
Hokkedo
the cele-
is
Fuku Kensaku Kannon, which
surrounded by fourteen other images.
Of colossal size v\dth was made
Third Month temple, which are of exquisite workmanship
its
and regarded as representative of the art of that time. Although
in the dakkatsu kamhitsu lacquer technique. Clay
the
method of using clay was abandoned soon after this period,
much of the Nara work in
this
technique reached a height of
perfection. In this clay process a frame
of wood and
provide a ground to hold the clay. rice-straw fibers
with the fine
was made with
strips
wound with cords of rice straw or other fibers to was
fibers
first
laid
of the paper-mulberry
on with
many
The
The
Nara
distinct
methods of producing dry-lacquer
kaushitsu or
hollow dry lacquer, and
hoUow
Nara period, the desired form of the image was
modeled in
clay,
and dry
dry-lacquer technique, which was the type used chiefly in the half of the
were made of
it
mokushin kamhitsu or wood-core dry lacquer. In the
first
pigments or was covered with
large images
There were two
work, namely, dakkatsu
first
finished surface clay
six arms,
period for images, almost completely replacing wood.
ap-
final
of three eyes and
lacquer were the principal materials used during the late
either glue or
tree.
mixed with
a brush.
either contained the fmal color
gold leaf Although
of clay mixed
applied, then a layer
plication consisted of a fine clay
mica dust and
A layer of clay containing
esoteric attributes
of
who serve as guardians of a Buddhist
brated dry-lacquer image of is
are in the
Rikishi, are a pair
and usually keep watch over the
The main
Among the many treasures lavished upon the Todaiji in the
Kongo
711. Ni-o, or
fierce-looking demigods
CLAY AND DRY-LACQUER SCULPTURE
Ni-o which
or Middle Gate of the Horyuji,
clay,
and several layers of hemp cloth covered
with liquid lacquer were apphed over
this core.
After this
lacquer shell became perfectly dry and hard, the clay core was carefully chipped
away and
a
wooden framework was con-
m^r^f Bronze image of Yakushi Nyorai
Nara period (710-794).
in the
Yakushiji temple, Nara.
Bronze image of the Great Buddha completed in 749;
Nara
in the Todaiji temple,
Nara,
period.
73
the distinctive expression and beautiful features of
structed inside to give additional strength. Such parts as the
teresting
head and arms were made separately and then stitched to the
the image of Ashura, one of the Hachibu-shu,
body and made
unlike those of present-day Japanese
details,
rigid
with coats of lacquer. Various surface
such as hair and
articles
of jewelry, were modeled
surface
quered and colored, or covered with gold
leaf.
form was
first
were already elements of esoteric Buddhism
was then
lac-
time. This
wood-
In the
carved of wood,
then covered with layers of hemp cloth saturated with liquid lacquer.
The
entire process
was
similar to the
making hollow dry-lacquer work. the gradual changes in methods
It is
from
method of
interesting to observe
the hollow dry lacquer
form of Buddhism, with
and understood only by the
thousand-armed Harmon, and many
The Heian period the capital
Konin
was abandoned in the
wood carving. One of the many famous dry-lacquer images is the Hachibu-
tenth century for
shu,
or Eight Supernatural Guardiatis of Sakyamuni, in the
Kofukuji temple
at
Nara.
A
characteristic
of the
art
of the
early Nara-period sculptors can be clearly seen in the realistic
treatment of the animated and youthful
Clay image o/Ni-o with mouth open,
in the
Gate, of the Horyuji temple at Nara, made
74
faces. Especially in-
Chumon,
in
jii;
as
was a period
in
others.
which the
by
all
of
its
It is
divided
arts
and culture were
the course of political
and religious developments. Thus retained
an eleven-headed
six arms, a so-called
era (794-897) and the Fujiwara era
(897-1185).
It
doctrines designed for
(794-1185) begins with the removal of
stimulated and influenced
It
as there
existing at that
from Nara to Heian, now called Kyoto.
into the Jogan or
are not
introduced a variety of
Karmon, an Ashura with three heads and
of the early eighth century to the wood-core dry lacquer in
became
its
initiated,
images of supernatural beings, such
the second half of the century. Finally the lacquer shell
nothing more than a fmishing coat.
Nara period,
and
core dry-lacquer method, which was used chiefly in the latter half of the period, the desired
natural beings began to appear in the
which
Images of super-
girls.
flour,
with a mixture of liquid lacquer and sawdust,
powdered incense wood. The fmished
is
far
Buddhism
power
in Japan
had
principal Chinese features, but with the
opening years of the Heian period
its
were
to be
spiritual
needs
doctrines
brought to conform more closely with the
and temperament of the Japanese. It
was during
this
time that the
work of two
Saicho, founder of the Tendai sect, and
great priests,
Kukai or Kobo Daishi,
Chumon,
or
Middle
Clay image o/Ni-o, with mouth
Nara
period.
Gate, of the Horyuji temple at Nara, made in yii;
closed, in the
or
Middle
Nara
period.
founder of the Shingon
sect,
gave birth to strong and charac-
forms of Japanese Buddhism. Both of these
teristic
to wield considerable influence, and Buddhism
aU powerful, with two
Shingon
sect
with
complex symbolism, and
its
Mount of the
esoteric philosophy
Hiei in Kyoto, the seat of the Tendai
were based on
monastery on
rival centers, the
Koya, near Nara, which taught the
sects rose
now became
pantheistic realism.
that
on Mount
whose doctrines
sect,
These two monasteries
became the fountainheads of Buddhist learning and teachings greatly influenced the forms of Buddhist contrast to the earlier Buddhist sects called exoteric,
comprehended, the
from
the theories peculiar to these
new
esoteric sects, or those
having occult or secret philosophies. The regarded the Buddha Sakyamuni
as a
earlier
Buddhists
supreme and miraculous
him
personage, while the esoteric Buddhists proclaimed
god and regarded
phenomena
all
In
meaning
of the Heian period was inspired
easily
art
their
art.
a
mani-
in the universe as
of the power of Dainichi Nyorai, the Supreme
festations
Buddha. In the bewildering pantheon of later Buddhism with its
immense canon,
sentative
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas
all
culiar functions prescribed features, a strictly
by
new iconography
secret canons.
their pe-
Because of these
appeared and the images took
(
prescribed forms of mystery and austerity to represent
special attributes,
This
are repre-
of individual aspects of Dainichi and have
later
and
Buddhist
at
times had forbidding expressions.
art sacrificed
expression in the earlier images, kindness, and a tender,
warm
much of
the freedom of
whose features radiated
grace,
Dry-lacquer image o/Ashura, one of the eight supernatural guardians of
Sakyamuni,
in the
Kofukuji temple, Nara. Nara period
(710-794).
feeling.
the Jogan period continued to be carved in the technique called ichiboku, in
HEIAN CARVED-WOOD IMAGES
Any "With only a few exceptions Japanese temple sculpture from this
was
period onward was entirely executed in wood, and there a great
demand
were
buflt
Buddhist images to furnish the nu-
for
merous monasteries
all
over the country.
on the summits and
remote regions,
as
it
sides
to indulge in meditation or solitary tices in distant retreats.
religious
men
and contemplative prac-
The serene atmosphere within the waUs
to create beautiful works.
wooden
monasteries
of mountains, often in
of these monastery compounds inspired
ence for
New
became the fashion among
artists
and sculptors
The principal reason
for the prefei'-
sculpture
was the
traditional taste for the
medium and the traditional skill in the use of the chisel. Much of the wood sculpture of the Heian period was rather simple and tended toward the decorative.
work
is
A particular feature of this
the gracefully carved loose hanging garments
done
in
a technique called homa-shiki, or rolling-waves style, consisting
of beautifully controlled approaching a beach
at
which the head, body,
legs,
and even the pedestal
of a standing figure were carved from a single piece of wood. portions that protruded, such as forearms stretched out
from the elbows and separately.
It
was
objects held in the hands,
also
common
were carved
practice for the protruding
knees on a seated image to be carved separately from the
which was made from
The Late Heian
rest,
a single piece.
or Fujiwara period (897-1185) covers the
three centuries of Japanese history
which saw the
rise
and
fall
of the Fujiwara family, the warfare of the Taira and Minamoto
and the fmal victory of Minamoto Yoritomo,
families,
established the military
government
at
Kamakura.
age of luxury and abundance for the upper
classes.
It
who
was an
The begin-
ning of the Fujiwara period preceded by a few years the
of the T'ang dynasty in China, and the
began to
reflect a true native taste
arts
of Japan
fall
now
and the ancient Japanese
love of nature; landscape painting became so popular that
it
influenced paintings with Buddhist subjects, which frequently
have
naturalistic
backgrounds. Buddhist
art
continued to
resembling sea waves
flourish
under the growing wealth and power of the mon-
regular intervals. Heian sculpture of
asteries.
Religious art was greatly stimulated by a
parallel curves
new
style
75
interior
is
the famous image o£ Amida Nyorai,
which
con-
is
sidered to be one of the fmest examples of Japanese religious
wood sculpture was executed who was celebrated even during his lifetime. It was Jocho who set the style of Buddhist sculpture during the Fujiwara period, and he was rewarded with many art.
This great masterpiece of
by Jocho,
d. 1057,
honors in recognition of his great work.
Almost
the sculpture of the Fujiwara period
all
wood; however,
new
a
technique appeared called
was in
yosegi,
or
assembled wood'blocks, in contrast to the single-wood-block
method, In this
teclinique perfected
were cut according
make
to
during the Early Heian period.
called ichihokti, used
new
a hollow
and assembled
form approximating the shape of the image
to be carved. Designating parts to be cut
by Jocho, many small blocks
to geometrical principles
marks were applied
away and
those to be
left
to indicate the
untouched. The
whole was then disassembled and each piece was carved by an
assistant.
up again and
After the roughly carved
separately
form was
securely reinforced with iron clamps,
it
set
repre-
sented the true form of the image on which the master sculptor
had only
workshop of
hussho, or
These
by Gilt the
wood image o/Aniida Nyorai, by
Byodoln temple,
Joclio, in the
Hoodo of
ateliers,
new
a master sculptor
and
his assistants.
or schools of Buddhist sculptors, were founded
great artists
and flourished for many generations, often
taking their names from the places where they were located.
were buUt with government funds, each contained an brought about by the
rise
of the Japanese
sect
known
as
Jodo,
or Pure Land, under the teachings of Genshin, 942-1017, a
very learned
man of
the Tendai sect. This Buddhist faith
teaches the worship of Aniida,
Buddha of Infinite
power of the Buddha Amida, and
Qualities,
upon
Buddhist
art is clearly seen in the
his
beautiful expression of tenderness and compassion. All this
faith
is
characterized in
quent scenes of Amida and
much of the
his attendants
among
famous Phoenix
temple
Uji near Kyoto.
at
known
as the
The
original
Hoodo, was
the Fujiwara family
was
Buddhist images enshrined in
76
welcome
became the
Hoodo, of the Byodoin
Hall, or
main
The
was often
big monasteries of these
of the
and
clusively for certain families entered the priesthood
honored with a high Buddhist rank. Jocho, whose a priest
working
in sculpture,
became
which
sculptors
asteries, there
form of private sculptors.
worked
ateliers
comiected with the houses of master
fmished form. This custom came in with the introduction of the yosegi sculptural technique, providing a
method
With
for the
employment of many
more
assistants
practical
and pupils.
the prosperous conditions existing during the Fujiwara able to produce great
were
satisfy the
the
mon-
Here pupils were trained and sculpture produced in
images of all kinds to
Among
was
in his field
exclusively for particular
of the period,
magnificently decorated
first artist
appeared another kind of estabhshment in the
period, these atehers
is
the
and were
father
to receive such a distinguished honor. Parallel with the system in
re-
in the ascendancy. this
hall
built in 1053
presentative of the best rehgious architecture
when
it
to
the nobles to build halls dedicated to Amida,
such as the
Byodoin,
The
painting, with fre-
coming
the dying to Paradise. In architecture, also, fashion
is
and stern expression in
the esoteric Buddhist sculpture of the early Heian period.
Jodo
priestly rank.
and feudal famihes, and many of the sculptors working ex-
Land of
images of Amida with their
in noticeable contrast to the severity
were usually laymen, but during
to these administrative offices
the second half of the Heian period a great sculptor
rewarded with a
office
sculptors attached
times became closely associated with particular great noble
name. The influence of Jodo on
calling
making of images. The
faith in the all-
believer will be reborn in AiTiida's Paradise, the Pure
Jodo, by
entrusted with the
a promise that the
with a doctrine of salvation through absolute saving
the
system originated in the
During the preceding Nara period when the great monasteries
Late Heian period.
at Uji.
With
to execute the skillful fmishing details.
introduction of this technique a
numbers of
demand of this age of luxury.
The years that preceded the close ofthe Heian period brought loss of power of the Fujiwara family and a series
with them
of
fought between the rival clans of the Taira and
battles
Minamoto
famihes.
The
final defeat
Minamoto Yoritomo marks
of the Taira family by
the beginning of the
Kamakura
period (1185-1333) and the establishment ofthe seat of govern-
ment
at
Kamakura. The center of culture remained
and Kamakura became important
in
anxious to cultivate the
arts
which included the Shingon and Tendai.
school
made
its
on in the
carried
development of the
realistic
class
of peace.
A
strong reaction ap-
wood
Vivid realism in sculptured
the Fujiwara period.
the
Kamakura period became
a popular religion, assuming a truly Japanese character
quahty, and
Zen Buddhism became
the mihtary
class.
simple,
their followers
While
less
sects,
particularly popular
doctrines of the
new
sects
and
with
were prac-
and easUy understood, and because of this they
found
among
the samurai and commoners.
emphasis was given to icon worship in the
the art of sculpture attained
its
new
highest reahstic develop-
ment in the images of the founders and high priests of the new sects,
who were greatly respected for their religious teachings.
Icon sculpture retained its traditional form in the images
Wood
image o/Ni-o,
Kamakura
ivith
new
a further
FUJIWARA REALISM
expressing itself in the revival of the old Nara sects and in the
tical,
less
of society and were
Kokei, a Nara sculptor, attained
The
or
for religious activities. This
new
Buddhism in
more
trend of the Heian period.
peared against the formal Buddhism of the Heian period,
birth of new sects.
traditional style, a
appearance which was
Kyoto,
period produced a culture that was vigorous, in which the military families constituted a
for the older sects,
Along with the work
made
mouth open, by Unkei and Kaikei
period, thirteenth century.
Todaiji temple, Nara.
Among
its
the great
belonging to the Kofukuji temple quarters of the Hosso sect of
images, introduced
at
number of treasures
Nara, which
Buddhism,
are
is
the head-
some examples
of the work of Kokei. Within the Kofukuji compound
Nan-endo, a magnificent octagonal hall containing cipal object
is
the
as its prin-
of worship the Fukukenjaku Kannon, a wooden
image made by Kokei in the year
11
representative of Kokei's style
Hosso
89, as well as the
Rokuso, or Six Patriarchs of the Hosso
perfected
by
highest development in
Sect.
These works are
of realism, which was
later
by his son Unkei, and his pupil Kaikei. Unkei's work
not only achieved perfect realism,
as seen in his
images of
famous priests, but also a dignified strength which harmonized
Wood
image of Ni-o with mouth
Kamakura
closed,
by Unkei and Kaikei;
period, thirteenth century. Todaiji temple, Nara.
11
by one thousand
gilt-bronze images of Kannon, each five feet
seven inches in height and arranged in evenly spaced
'^^^t
one enormously long haU which was rebuilt in 125 1 original temple
One of the is
had been destroyed by
tiers
in
after the
fire.
outstanding representative works of this period
the Kamakura Daihutsu, or the Great Buddha of Kamakura,
located in the precincts of the Kotokuin temple. This enor-
mous bronze seated figure of Amida Nyorai is about forty-two and about ninety-seven
feet in height
The image was
the base.
cast in
much
feet in
1252 by an
circumference at
unknown sculptor
work of art than the larger The Kamakura image was originally enshrined in a large building, but this was damand
is
regarded
image
at
as a
finer
the Todaiji temple at Nara.
aged by a storm in 1369 and the great image has remained in the open since the year 1495,
what was
left
when
tidal
waves carried away
of the old structure.
Besides the sculptured images of Buddhist and Shinto
and
deities,
era
portraits
of contemporary
leaders, the
produced many other subjects which
Kamakura
reflect the great
carving of that time. There are, for instance, the Shi Tenno or
Four Deva Kings,
in the
form of warrior gods who protect
the four directions of the Buddhist universe, and a host of
other religious deities as well as imaginary animals.
Among
the several Shinto animal-guardians or messengers of deities,
Bronze image of the Great Buddha of the Kotokuin temple.
Kamakma
at
Kamakura,
in the precincts
those most frequently seen are the Kara-Shishi, or Chinese
Lion, and the Koma-inu, or Korean dog, which are placed at
period, cast in 1252.
the entrance of Shinto shrines as guardians. Although the term
Koma-inu with the traditional Nara-period work. Kaikei,
who had been
a pupil of Kokei, was a contemporary of Unkei; but in contrast to the
by
dynamic
style
of Unkei,
his
work
is
characterized
graceful realism with delicate form. Exquisite examples of
Kaikei's
work include the Sogyo Hachiman, which portrays
the
Shinto god as a Buddhist priest, and the Jizo Bosatsu, both of
which well
as
priest,
in his right are
is
as the
decline.
The
rise in the
power and popularity of the Zen
as the
declined during the
Momoyama
many names
a precious pearl in his left hand.
There
for Jizo according to his functions,
and
regarded
reached
was
offset
other
sects.
ture for architectural purposes.
The
earlier
type of architec-
called kara-yo or Chinese style,
and
images either in temples or by the roadside are often seen with
known
cloth bibs around their necks, placed there
by parents praying The work of these two great sculptors of the Kamakura period was carried on by Unkei's sons, Tankei, Koben, and Kosho, and a number of
developed in north China and introduced into Japan
for the recovery of sick children.
same time
the
few works known
to have
been executed
as
is
temple carving. This was the
as
style
is
also
of decoration at the
Zen. This style was not only fashionable in
buildings associated with
Zen Buddhism but also in the build-
ings of the other sects, in Shinto shrines, and in palaces and
Many of the resplendent examples of the architecMomoyama and Edo periods reflect this exquisite work with its delicately wrought human figures,
mansions.
by Tankei is the Thousand-handed Kannon in the Sanju-Sangendo temple at Kyoto. The figure of Kannon is seated and ac-
ture of the
companied by twenty-eight followers; they are surrounded
animals, birds, and flowers in pictorial compositions.
78
this
by an important development of decorative sculp-
tural sculpture
Among
sect
Religious sculpture
and Edo periods, but
throughout Japan roadside images of Jizo are numerous. Jizo
others.
its
much to sculpture as it did to the developbecause Zen did not attach as much im-
portance to images
hand and
is
as
his head shaven, and holding a staff with rings
is
art
culmination in the thirteenth century and then began to
ment of painting,
of children
their respective
apex of Japanese sculpture, when the
one of the most popular
a deity
by
Koma-inu by a closed one. The Kamakura period
did not contribute
is
originally called
most commonly seen in the
Buddhist gods in Japan.
form of a
He
were
names, Shishi being characterized by an open mouth, the
as
are in the Todaiji temple. Jizo
a guardian of souls, and
applied to this pair of guardians of the sacred
is
precincts, they
kara-yo
VI Masks
A
^^^m in
DISTINCT
and often grotesque phase of
.^_ _Al. Japanese wood sculpture had its provenance ancient rehgious dances which employed wooden masks.
Their use and development corresponds with the unique
whose origin can be
history of dramatic art in Japan,
back through the
Both of the
many
traced
centuries to the mythological age.
oldest chronicles
of Japan, the Kojiki and the
designs have been carefully preserved and imitated
the present day.
The masks used by
down
to
the Japanese throughout
the recorded history of their dance and lyric-drama are not
only rich in
artistic
achievement but cover a wide variety of
forms. Masks have been used only in the lyric-dramas and
drama proper
dances; the It is
from
never performed with masks.
is
the Asiatic mainland that the
furst ritual
were introduced into Japan. Although
and
festi-
their use in
Nihovshoki, written at the beginning of the eighth century,
val masks
contain interesting legends of the rehgious dance called kagura,
the countries of the mainland gradually declined, their devel-
or sacred dance with music, from which the Japanese drama developed.
They record
that
when Amaterasu-o-mi-kami,
the sun goddess, retired into the Heavenly
was thrown
Cave and the world
into darkness, the heavenly deities
were greatly
perplexed and in their consternation debated various means to persuade her to
come
out.
At
this
time the witty and jovial
goddess Ameno-uzumeno-mikoto, by performing a comic
dance
at the entrance of the cave, succeeded in enticing the
sun goddess from her hiding place, and light was restored to the universe.
The traditional origin of the
to these mythological times,
and
it is
kagura
is
thus traced
certain that the kagura
its earliest
form
it
in Japan continued until
The
masks
earliest factual
in Japan begin
Then
tinent.
was a pantomime,
in
which the per-
it
reached the stage of a real
accounts relating to the history of
with the seventh century,
the dance-drama called gigaku
at
which time
was introduced from the con-
in the following century the gigaku
was super-
seded by another dance-drama brought from the mainland, called hugaku,
However,
it
which has been performed until the present time.
was not
the use of masks
when
until the eighth
and ninth centuries that
became popular throughout the country,
they were introduced
as a part
of the Buddhist cere-
mony known as gyodo. The gigaku and hugakii were principally performed for the
has existed since very ancient times. In
opment art.
privilege the
aristocracy,
and because of
commoners were unable
this exclusive
to acquire an appre-
of these dance-dramas. However, with the practice of
formers impersonated the deities and imitated their deeds by
ciation
wearing masks and dancing to the accompaniment of instru-
using masks in the Buddhist ceremony of gyodo, other plays
mental music and chanting. This simple and primitive sacred
were developed and the popularity of masks increased
kagura dance with
its
town and village in in early times
crude masks
Japan.
were made
is still
practiced in every
The masks used in
mythical birds and animals, for
men imagined
sacred beasts as possessing attributes different
among human sacred dance
beings.
from
its
the ritual dances
to suggest supernatural beings
With
the gods and
the present-day
No and kyogen
dances. In these dances, acting
perfection has reached a high level of accomplishment and the
perfected
mask
serves to create fantastic impressions.
from those seen
the gradual development of the
primitive beginning to the refmed
drama, the carving of the masks improved, sculptural masterpieces.
and
until
eventually they attained their ultimate refinement as seen in
Certam
No
"GIGAKU" DANCE-DRAMA
many becoming
families specializing in this
category of sculpture have been famous, and their original
According to the
Nihotishoki, gigaku
was introduced into
Japan in the twentieth year of the reign of Empress Suiko, or
79
Bugaku mask
called Bato. It
is
with violent movements and said
used in a vigorous dance to represent the
anger of
a son whose father has been killed by wild beasts, or an
Empress whose jealousy turned her
Heian
period,
twelfth
into a
demon. Late
Itsukushima
century.
shrine,
Miyajima.
6i2,
by
a
Paikche.
Korean named Mimashi from the Kingdom of
It is
said that
Chinese kingdom of
Mimashi had learned the
Wu, which
gigaku in the
was an important country
prior to the T'ang dynasty.
It is
called this dance gogaku, or
music of ^o, since go
said that the Japanese originally
tated the advanced cultural life assistants or pupils
instruction
of the Chinese. Thus, two able
were quickly appointed to receive complete
from Mimashi in the technique of its performance.
Gigaku dances continued to be the most popular performances
two
their
mean-
ing of the Chinese character for wu. However, the
name
but in the Buddhist temples
dance
the hugaku dance during the eighth and ninth centuries.
gigaku, or accomplished music,
because itive
its
music was so
was
is
later applied to the
much more advanced than
the prim-
music of Japan. The gigaku was but one of many
arts
for over
centuries, not only at Imperial-court functions as well, until
humor
unrestrained
been preserved since that time.
famiUes,
the
who were keenly
members of the Imperial-court
desirous to acquire as
learning and culture of China as possible.
It
was
much of the when
a time
in every phase of their daily existence the noble famiUes imi-
80
exist today,
idea of their colorful display of theatrical pageantry and
dhism and Chinese culture. Gigaku performances received an
by
was superseded by
Although the gigaku performances no longer
some
being rapidly introduced from the mainland along with Bud-
enthusiastic reception
it
is
appreciated
from
Of the 223
the masks that have
extant gigaku masks
of the seventh and eighth centuries, 164 are preserved in the Shojoin Treasure Repository at Nara, 28 in the Todaiji temple,
and
31
in national
museums. The masks
in the national
mu-
seums were originally preserved in the Horyuji temple near
Nara, and are traditionally said to have been brought to Japan
colorful costumes
by Mimashi. Some of
these surviving
and
works of art and
some
possess
the religious images of the gigaku masks
masks are veritable
characteristics in
cover
all
masks are rather
boys called
were designed
called
effectiveness
its
especially as the
performance
called
was a comic performance.
been an elaborate spectacle when
it
It is
A
king
known
next, followed
as
The
first
by two lion-taming
Goko and an
by Kongo,
actor
a strong
and
a fantastically
Konron, whose comic gestures
ugly
stirred the
Gojo entered with her
began to
have
also said to
a particular mask.
much laughter. When a genteel and beautiful girl escort named Rikishi, Konron
audience to
Accounts of the gigaku dance recorded in ancient chronicles it
shishiko.
Chido came
character called
was held out of doors.
relate that
by
Shishi, a lion, attended
of the dance increased, there appeared
deep and prominent carving, increased the
of the portrayal,
masks contributed to the gay
robust fellow, with Karura, a mythological bird. As the tempo
to
or most of the head of the wearer. This large-size
mask, with
fantastic
clearly identified
was
to appear
In contrast to later
large, as they
was
character
few
a
were made of dry lacquer and painted, most of
them were carved from wood and painted. types, gigaku
common with
Asuka period. Although
and
atmosphere of the open-air performance. Each
festive
act a
comic love scene in pantomime with crude and
unrestrained humor. His actions caused Gojo's escort to be-
was performed in the
come so angry that a humorous fight ensued in which Konron
The
suffered a rather comical but indehcate accident, to the great
courtyards of Buddhist temples or of noble mansions.
>^f00
^
'
,_.^
Gigaku mash of Goko, Contemporary this
or
King of Go.
records say the actor wearing
mask appeared
at the beginning
gigaku performance and played
of the
the role
of
i^^'^.
.^**
Bugaku ninomai mask of Ouiia, the Old Woman. The ninomai, or second dance, is performed by an old wife
Ouna,
in
man
called Jo
and
which they comically
a piper. Asuka period, seventh century.
imitate the first dance called
Tokyo National Museum.
formed by two
his
try to
amma,
per-
actors in full court dress.
Gigaku mask of Gojo depicts the purity
or Maid of Go. It and beauty of a noble-
woman ofthe ancient Chinese kingdom ofGo, where the gigaku
originated,
and
is
the only
female gigaku mask. Nara period, eighth century. Shosoin,
Nara.
Late Heian period, twelfth century. Itsuku-
shima shrine. Miyajima.
81
Gyodo mask
Left:
Kuhanda, one of or eight hearers
representing
Hachihu-shu,
the
of the sacred palanquin
in the
gyodo
at the
memorial ceremony held
procession. It
was used at the
pagoda of the Toji or Kyo-o Gokokuji
temple
in
Late
1334.
Heian
Kyo-o Goko-
period, twelfth century. kuji temple, Kyoto.
Gyodo mask
Right:
ofKaten.
One
of the original masks used by the twelve hearers of the sacred palanquin
Twelve Deva Kings,
representing the in
the
gyodo
procession at the
me-
morial ceremony at the pagoda of the Toji or
Kyo-o Gokokuji temple
in
1086, and again in 1334. Late Heian period, tenth century.
Kyo-o Goko-
kuji temple, Kyoto.
delight
and laughter of the audience. This scene was quickly
followed by more laugh-provoking trance of Taikofu, an old
The
Taikoji.
The next India,
ness
supported by a boy called
old man's unsteady walk created a comical
to appear
skit.
was Baramon, portraying a Brahman of
who held the attention of the audience with his nimble-
and
acter to
land,
man
incidents with the en-
skill
The fmal charSuiko-o, king of some foreign
in twirling a long piece of cloth.
come upon the
with eight
scene
retainers.
connote that they were
is
The names of the
all
drunkards, and
latter in
Japanese
their actions to-
repertoire of dances given with or without the aid of masks.
From
the descriptions in ancient chronicles
hugaku in
the T'ang court, they
proper
sequence. Small and easily carried musical instruments were
used in
this dance,
which required only three pieces,
or bronze gong, a feo5/»'-tsusumi or hip-drum, and
a dohatsu
a.fue
or flute.
THE "BUGAKU" DANCE After
more than
were
in turn introduced into Japan.
without the comic vulgarity of the gigaku. Various names
have been applied by the Japanese
to the dances
which make
the complete hugaku performance. These names are desigtitles
that also indicate the
from which the dances Bokkaigaku
realm in the T'ang empire
originated, such as
for Manchuria,
Togaku
for China,
Koraigaku and Shiragigaku for
Korea, Rinyugaku for Indo-China, and so forth. The music
and dances of these many regions became the favorite form of entertainment not only
at the
Imperial-court functions but
also in the
Buddhist temples. During the succeeding centuries
the hugaku
formed an intricate part of the cultural life of Japan,
and the nobles themselves became proficient in the
a century of continuous appreciation
by
at
The
hugaku was thus a highly refined andcomplicatedperformance,
nating
after the other in
of
dances of eight countries within the structure of the T'ang
Judging from these early descriptions of the gigaku, the manner
with the actors being introduced one
appears that the
a compilation
empire. As these individual dance-dramas were perfected
up
which it was performed resembled a continuous procession,
it
most finished form was actually
the traditional music of fourteen countries and the curious
gether with their humorous masks provoked great laughter.
in
its
art
of
music and performing the dances. The hugaku
rendering
its
reached
fmal form during the Heian period (794-1185) and
its
the aristocracy, the gigaku fmally gave way to the hugaku dance,
has survived to the present day. Regular performances are
which was
given
also
of Chinese origin. In contrast to the rather
simple form of the gigaku, the hugaku
82
is
a difficult
and complex
at
at Imperial-court functions in
Tokyo and
occasionally
important Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines.
Tsuiiia mask of Oiii,
Demon, used
or
ceremony of the same name on the
last
in
the
day of winter
hean-throwing at the
Horyuji
temple at Nara, in which three demons, a father demon, a mother
demon, and a son demon, are driven out hy the god Bishamon.
Kamakura
Although bugaku reached
period, thirteenth century. Horyuji temple, Nara.
highest development during
chief instruments were the fue or flute, hiwa or lute, koto or
the Heian period, most of the masks preserved in the
museums
large zither, sho or panpipe, kugo or harp, shichiriki or flageolet,
and temples date from the eleventh to fourteenth
centuries.
and three kinds of drums,
Whereas the masks used
its
in the gigaku
conform with the character
parts
were rather
realistic to
of the dance, bugaku masks
dadaiko, kekko,
and
taiko.
This array
of Oriental instruments produced an exotic rhythm wliich enhanced the beauty of the dance.
are symbolic. This serves as a subtle accessory to the rhythmic
inovements expressing bugaku dance
is
human actions and emotions.
performed with
a fair
masks were made very thin and
light,
weight, and only covered the face.
The fme
express their syinbolic
Since the
amount of action, with a
details
moving
"GYODO" MASKS
of
There is
required to
meaning were executed with
touch, and the masks even had various
the
minimum
a delicate
which
parts
larly is
a
known
Buddhist ceremony that as neri-kuyo,
gyodo. Introduced into Japan
were manually manipulated by the wearer. Some bugaku
period (710-794),
masks have eyes that move, and others are made so the mouth
relic
will
open and
ings.
close,
or the hair
move to
express certain
mean-
A remarkable characteristic of some is the vertical move-
ment of the
cheeks,
and the mouth
which
are being
gives the impression that the eyes
opened and
closed.
Every
these masks could be clearly seen and appreciated dience, because the bugaku dance
detail
of
by
the au-
was performed on
a stage
in small quarters, in contrast to the gigaku performance,
which
was given out of doors. The more complex nature of the
although
it
consists
or image, which
or shrine,
is
is
still
its
exists in
Japan popu-
correct Buddhist
name
from China during the Nara
of a procession in which a sacred
normally kept from view in a temple
carried through the streets for the people to see.
Shortly after its introduction, this ceremony was also practiced at
Shinto shrines, and although originally Buddhist,
chiefly a Shinto procession.
Many
it is
now
gyodo masks dating from
the tenth century are preserved in the ancient temples at Nara.
Since the eighth century the Horyuji temple has celebrated an
occasion called the Shoryo
ceremony in which
the sacred ashes
and a small image of Prince Shotoku, the founder of Bud-
musical accompaniments for the dance required additional
dhism in Japan, are carried around the precincts of the temple
instruments of an advanced type. Since bugaku was performed
in a procession. These are borne in an elaborately ornamented
on
palanquin, with the faces of the bearers hidden by gyodo masks.
a stage, the orchestra
was placed on
either side,
and the
83
Since ried
it
have the palanquin car-
this
were covered by masks
commoners,
intended to portray the eight attendants of the Buddha, as the
known
Hachibu-shu. The gyodo ceremonial masks include a
great variety of grotesque and fantastic representations of
many
deities.
aifairs,
with
The
processions
brilliant
were elaborate and colorful
costumes, and the leaders usually
masks representing such things as lions and goblins. famous pagoda of the Kyo-o-Gokokuji temple popularly
known
palanquin with
as Toji,
was dedicated
its sacred relic
wore
When the at
Kyoto,
in the year 1086, the
was borne by bearers
who wore
masks representing the Twelve Deva Kings. Some types of gyodo dances are parts
still
of Japan. The
performed in Buddhist temples in various raigo
ceremony
is
performances in which the actors wear masks.
when
cincts.
religious pageants
easily
understood by the
were given in the temple pre-
These raigo ceremonies became popular in many temples
throughout the country. During two of the
fectare of Nara, a raigo
ceremony
is
days at
festival
town of Shimoda
the Taimadera temple near the
in the pre-
enacted each year.
It is rti
honor of Chujo-Hime, daughter of Fujiwara Toyonari, a minister to the Emperor,
who
according to legend
is
said to
have painted a large picture of the Buddhist Paradise in the year 763. Chujo'-Hime became a
nun
nt this
temple
after
assuming the name of Honyo, and, because of her accomplishments,
is
given
this
performance in which the Twenty-five
Bosatsu welcome her.
one of these types of
gyodo which have survived until the present day as religious
the tenth century
and other Jodo doctrines more
a sacrilege to
coolies, their faces
was considered
by common
It
the Jodo, or Pure Land, doctrine
being forcibly expounded by Eshin-Sozu.
SACRED DANCES
originated in
was
To assist in making
Sacred dances and performances
as practiced for centuries
in the Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines, as well as those
M)
mask
depicting Kagekiyo, a
renowned
warrior of the Heike family, ivho fought in their losing conflicts with the
Early
Edo
period,
Tokyo National Museum.
84
Genji family.
seventeenth
century.
performed
at
the Imperial court,
were the sources from which
No drama and the kyogen comic interlude developed. Among these early entertainments are the primitive performthe
ances called dengaku,
meaning
dengaku probably had
rustic music,
and sarugaku. The
origin in a primitive dance held in
its
and processions
is
ceremony,
of Chinese origin, was introduced during the
also
Nara period and
the
consists
sarugaku probably had
principal character
provenance in the ancient kagura.
ments
at
Shinto
festivals.
On
as incidental entertain-
the picturesque island of
Miya-
jima in the Inland Sea is the famous Itsukushima shrine, which is
of very ancient origin. Old records mention
its
existence as
early as the year 8ii. This beautiful Shinto shrine, with build-
ings connected
when
the tide
floating
on the
by broad galleries, is built out over the sea, and coming in the whole structure appears to be
is
surface of the water. Regular performances of
the kagura and bugaku dances are given as part of the traditional ritual in this impressive
and beautiful
setting.
Along with the
masks that were prominent in the history of Japanese dances
..^ju^^a
No
mask representing Yamauha, a witch
sixteentli
Museum.
At
the
first
ceremony was only
exorcise the evil
mask fashioned
a regular
and temples. In its early prescribed form the
was
spirits.
called Hososhi,
whose duty
it
was
to
Hososhi wore an extremely grotesque
in the likeness of a
most
fierce
and horrible-
looking four-eyed demon. In the original ceremony Hososhi
waved
a halberd
much
with
had driven away the
ability
invisible
and nimbleness
As time went on and the popularity of the tsuiiia the
mask
actually
became
until
he
enemy.
a devil
mask and
increased,
the performance
developed a more dramatic and exaggerated form, with the devil being impersonated instead of invisible.
times the ceremony presented an even
more
of action with the introduction of two
During
later
exciting display
devils into the cast.
t^MKnlii hi'
siding in the remote mountains.
period,
ceremony. This
performed in the Imperial court, but it soon became practice at shrines
its
in the tsuim
of scattering dried beans to drive out
devils or other evil spirits.
the fields to pray for divine grace for the crops, while the
Both of these performances developed
mask used
century.
re-
Momoyama
Tokyo National
No
mask portraying a young
offeminine beauty. skill,
it
is
small mask. tury.
known
girl
of the purest
A masterpiece of the carver's as a
ko-omote, meaning
Muromachi
period, fifteenth cen-
Tokyo National Museum.
85
custom
also to select
famous sumo
wrestlers,
Kabuki
actors, or
other prominent persons to scatter the beans at these temple
Many
functions. parts
years ago
when
the tsuina had spread to
of Japan and was practiced in temples and
popularity became so great that the ceremony in
form, called setsuhun, was observed, and Japanese households.
On
of the house
scatters a
house and in
eacl^
this last
it is still
handful of beans
a
its
present
custom in
of the
at the entrance
room, crying loudly, "Devils
name
its
night of winter the master
luck inside," or "Oniwa-soto, fukuwa-uchi." the Japanese
all
shrines,
outside,
The
good
prefix oni
is
applied to devils or demons.
THE NO MASK Of all the masks used by the Japanese in their various dancedramas since ancient times, the
No
mask
as perfected in the
fourteenth century expresses the greatest aesthetic refmement.
The
best of the
No masks are masterpieces of the sculptor's art
and developed from the
traditional
masks used for centuries
in gigaku, hugaku, gyodo, and other ceremonial performances.
The term
no means performance or accomplishment, and
derived from the
word sarugaku-no-no
which
performance ofsaragaku or dengaku.
fore
signifies a
came
drama. The origin of the but
No
Old Woman. The typical No mask for an oU woman. Miiromachi period, fifteenth century.
mask of
representing
No
Hosho
Ubti,
or
sarugaku and dengaku dances in
portant role.
therea lyric
No has not been clearly determined,
generally believed to have developed
it is
It
imply an accomplished performance of
to
is
or from dengaku-no-no,
from the
early
which masks played an im-
Both of these dances doubtlessly originated from
primitive dances held in the fields to pray for divine favor on
School, Tokyo.
the crops and
were developed during the Heian period
(794-1185) by musicians as entertainment for the
common
people in a form of dramatic dance. The sarugaku was perTstiina
masks were then made
a pair had
its
own
in pairs, although each
one of
individual characteristics; the pairs repre-
sented a devil-father and devil-son or a devil-husband and
Many
devil-wife.
temples throughout Japan
elaborate tsnina ceremonies,
They
are observed
now
still
popularly called
on the evening of the
last
celebrate
known
as
Narita Fudo,
is
ceremony
is
performed here on
a
more popu-
famous for
its
mame-
The
larger scale than in
other temples or shrines. This present-day survival of the
not employ the masks
that
scattered
music. In contrast to the complex danceiof the Imperial court
and the Buddhist temples, these dances became extremely popular with the commoners, for they were performed in an
at the setsuhun festival.
much
which means
unrestrained manner, with a quality of seriousness as well as
new solar calendar. The
especially
maki or bean-throwing ceremony
accompaniment of a kind of popular music
day of winter
Shinshoji temple at Narita in Chiba prefecture, larly
to the
originated in China called sangaku,
setstihun.
according to the old lunar calendar, which corresponds to the third or fourth day of February in the
formed
comic
interludes.
The majority of the
No plays were written during the fourby two famous No actors,
teenth and fifteenth centuries
Kanami, 1333-1384, and
was
his
son Zeami, 1363 -1444. Kanami
a Shinto priest attached to the
which
is
Kasuga shrine
at
Nara,
the tutelary shrine of the Fujiwara family, and to-
gether with his son, was an accomplished actor.
The
talent
of
former days; instead,
both Kanami and Zeami came to the attention of the Shogun
the head priest, dressed in an elaborate costume, performs the
Yoshimitsu, under whose patronage they were able to develop
tsuina does
ceremony by
as in
tossing blanched beans over the heads
people gathered around. In more recent years
86
it
of the
has been the
their earlier
performances into more dramatic plays. Through
their close association
with the Imperial court they achieved
;
of the eighteenth century it continued as a ceremonial function
of the mihtary
class.
No plays are said to
About one thousand
have been composed, and of the eight hundred
Among
survived, 242 are stiU actually performed.
have
that
those cur-
more than one hundred were com-
rently being performed,
posed by Zeami, including the Matsukaze or The Pine Breeze,
Hagoromo or The Feather Robe, Miidera or The Mii Temple
among
the
solemn
lyric
most
No may
The
celebrated.
and dancing accompanied by the
The No
recitation
of
utai, recitative
with
utai,
plays are mostly historical romances with
a strong influence of Buddhist, especially Zen, views
The No,
as a
roles to indicate the characters
masks being used in the chief portrayed.
be described
performance played by men, consisting of music
chants
which form an
on
essential part
life.
of the
of very ancient
are as old as the original sarugaku. Utai are
origin and are archaic in style while rhythmical in tone,
composed of
usually being syllables.
drums,
The
orchestral
of
alternate lines
music of the
No
is
and seven
five
produced by hand
and larger drums.
flutes,
Before the play begins the musicians seat themselves on the floor at the
back of the
of the stage
is
the
ported by four
M)
mask ofOkiiia
kijo, the
or
Hakushi-
Old Man, used
in the
same
pillars at
stage, facing the audience. as that
on
the corners. After the
the chorus appear and take their places
The
rows on the
machi period, fifteenth century.
individual parts, while the chorus chants the explanatory
Maeda
portions in utai accompanied
Collection,
Tokyo.
right of the stage.
sists first
No is
arranged according to a
of prescribed order. This usually con-
of a god-play or kami-mono; second, a battle-play in
sisting chiefly
of
new form of lyric
growing popularity of such dances
Kanami and Zeami
their traditional elements
drama. Realizing
as the dengaku
and
perfected a harmonious blend
The shirabyoshi, which were then very popular among by two court
the nobility, are said to have been introduced ladies at the
beginning of the twelfth century.
Some
early
woman;
third, a
wig-play con-
of posturing, with the principal character being
fourth, a hmatic-play
and a kind of revenge-play
an earthly-play. The sixth, in which the program comes
is known as the last-play. The masks were developed as an integral
to an end,
of poetry, music, and dancing
with the refmed melodies and graceful forms of the shirabyoshi dances.
a
fifth,
actors speak their
by the rhythmic beat of the
The program of the
which the ghost of a warrior appears;
sarugaku,
and are characterized by
was made to cover the
skillful carving.
face only,
and was worn for
siderable time during the enactment lightness
was
a
most important
No No mask
part of the
Since the
factor.
men, women,
of lengthy
a
into types, including
persons, devils, and mythological creatures. Great care
in a white scabbard, impersonating
white-time-beating and in
its
early
to have been performed to the
men.
Shirabyoshi
form the dance
is
means
believed
accompaniment of a
tsusumi
or drum.
deities
and
sages, insane
was
exerted by the famous mask makers so as to appropriately
—beautiful, —and many
express the essential quality of each character
noble, humble, fierce, tragic,
young or old
also
forms of emotion. With the great acting technique of famous
Originally the flourishing at
its
No masks are classified
by ladies in long robes with
headgear and swords sheathed
con-
plots,
accounts mention the shirabyoshi as originally being performed tall
two
in
No play ofthe same name. Muro-
traditional convention
the
members of
by kneeling
No
sup-
is
members of the
orchestra have taken their proper positions, the
orchestra.
great success in creating a
The roof
a Shinto shrine and
tlie
No
was a kind of ceremonial performance
court of the Ashikaga
and from the Muromachi period
(i 3 3
Shogun Yoshimitsu,
8- 1 573) to the begirming
No performers a
mask
the
that
way
combined with the
would portray
the light struck
it,
sculptor's skill in creating
different
emotions depending on
many of these No masks seem
to
87
possess the
power of changing
facial expressions. In contrast
Nikko, Yasha, and Miroku. These ten are
to the masks used in the earher dances such as the gigaku,
working about the same time
bugaku, and gyodo,
developing the
which were produced by the
by
carvers
who
oughly understood and had
No
By
were men
of joy,
are masterpieces
about the beginning of the Edo or
No
wood
in
all
or
of expression conveying
and love.
grief, fear, hate,
become estabhshed
thor-
complete knowledge of the
their details
Like
No
Tokugawa
No
and from
period
masks had
that time
on
masks were made in exact reproduction. There are
said to
have been
Kanami and Zeanii were
performance into
its
perfected form.
many other traditional things in the history of Japanese
culture, there are
numerous mask
stories
which have been
Two of these are narratives about the Kwanze family of No actors. One relates to
handed down through the
an early the
No
family
who was
presence of the Shogun. bell,
performing
When he
retired
being unable to fmd the proper mask
for the next act, he bit his
blood, and appeared
more
the bell was again lifted.
who
centuries.
member of the Kwanze
dojoji in t|ie
under the pfoperty
(1615-1867) the various character forms of the
all
who
performance. The masks, carved in
made of dry lacquer, feelings
a
of
work. The No-mask
specialized in such
carvers, or men-uclii as they are called,
intricate
sculptors
No masks were made
Buddhist images in their spare time, the
that
fmger and streaked
his face
horrible than with a
The
other story
is
with
mask when
about a Kwanze
requested the elderly carver Gensuke to
make him
a
many stories attached to certain characteristic No masks which are suggestive of their origin.
The
okitia
mask which portrays
man is said to have had its provenance in the second month of the third year of Daido, 806-810, when a great hole a very old
appeared in the earth near the Sarusawa Pond is
noted for
the its
its
From
this
when
nights,
shadow of the Kofukuji five-storied pagoda
water.
Nara, which
at
subhme beauty on moonlight
is
reflected in
opening in the earth there issued forth a
dark smoke which spread over the countryside causmg
illness
among the people. The Emperor was greatly concerned about this strange occurrence and summoned a sage of wide renown to make the necessary observations. The sage explained that the negative fire of the earth,
which
is
normally concealed,
was escaping through the hole because the ground had caved in, and therefore a positive fire should be applied to restore the equihbrum. Thereupon, a great pyre of wood around the
hole was lighted, and after ceased to
it
had burned away, the hole
smoke and the illness abated. To celebrate this strange
event the okina sambasu dance was performed, and ever since that time
it
present day
has survived as an ancient tradition. it
called takigino, or
second
Even
to the
No
dance
has been customary to perform the
fuU-burning No, on the seventh day of the
month of every
year. Traditionally the oldest okitia
mask, bearing the date Genkyu
3,
or 1206,
is
said to be the
preserved in the Asakusa temple in Tokyo, where at the festival
it is
held on the fifteenth day of the sixth
one
used
month
every year.
Although many
No
masks of the
earliest
period of
this
lyric
dance are preserved in certain temples and shrines, the
ones
known
to have been carved
by the famous makers
mostly preserved by descendants of the great
There
is
no biographical information
famous mask makers; only master carvers,
as
their
names
are
No performers.
available about the
are
known. The ten
they are called, were Koushi Kiyomitsu,
Kyogen mask known as Oto, an abbreviation of Otogozeti, meaning Noble Lady. As a popular favorite in the kyogen comedy
Himi Munetada, Tokuwaka Tadamasa, Echi Yoshifune,
plays, the character
Akasuru Yoshinari, Fukuhara Bunzo, Ishikawa Tatsuemon,
period, fifteenth century.
is
often given other familiar names.
Kasuga
shrine,
Nara.
Muromachi
hamiya mask, which belongs to the classification of devil and
mythological masks.
and
The
one which he could not
ill-fitting
him
old carver sent
a
poorly
use. In a
made
of rage
fit
own son and messenger. The disgrace was so great that the old man
Kwanze broke committed
it
and sent the pieces back by Gensuke's
suicide. After
many
years had passed
Kwanze
required a certain type of mask to play before the court and a carver
was recommended
most perfect mask
that
make
to
Kwanze had
performance he found that
it
it
It
was the
worn and
after the
for him.
ever
could not be removed from his
The
No performance, from the time its perfected form was
developed in the Muromachi period, was the dramatic entertainment of the Shoguns and the Imperial court. regular part of the artistic class
life
its patrons. During the Edo period some of Tokugawa Shoguns even went so far as to give
certain favorite
No
actors the rank
their enthusiasm to further
access to the private apartments
of the
danger to the Shogunate and to the
type has since been called
castles.
Shortly after
the begimiing of the eighteenth century, Arai Hakuseki,
made by
its
of samurai, and carried
extremes by allowing these actors
was
old Gensuke's son and
was a
having been
the earlier
The maker was summoned and with much effort he succeeded in pulling it away from Kwanze's face together with a good portion of the actor's skin. This mask had been face.
It
of the samurai, the military
a distinguished scholar
official
who
of Confucian learning and an
advisor to the Shogunate, compiled three voluminous
reports, presenting in detail the reasons
why
the
No
was
a
After considering
state.
niku-tsuki-no-meti or face-tearing mask.
THE "KYOGEN" COMIC INTERLUDE With sister
the development of the
No
play there appeared a
performance called kyogen, which consisted of one-act
comic
Kyogen had
interludes.
dances and, along with the
its
No
origin in the old samgaku
play, the
comic gesturing of
kyogen was perfected and refined. These one-act interludes are usually performed
on the same
No plays and are No performances.
stage as the
presented as comic relief to the solemn
Many
of them are
satires
on
social evils
and human behavior,
although the majority are primitive aiid naive farces performed to
amuse the audience.
classic
the
In contrast to the
No
plays with their
and poetic quotations and dialogue in the language of
Kamakura period,
the kyogen consists entirely of dialogue
and monologue in coUoquiahsms of the Muromachi period, without lyric or epic poetry. Although
this
language was used
a few hundred years ago, the kyogen comic interludes with their
mimicry and gestures are well understood by the present-
day audience. In the same manner contrast with each other, their
as the
masks
masks are more simple than the
No
No
and the kyogen
also differ.
The
kyogen
masks, and as each
is
intended to portray but a single expression, they are rather naive, depicting faces of conmaon people, usually
manner. This also
is
in direct contrast to
are not as
as the
No
numerous
essential to the portrayal
as in
in their variety
m a comic
Kyogen masks
of characters
masks, numbering only about twenty that are
zens, sniihng
animal and
No masks.
of the
parts, including
ordinary
citi-
gods of good fortune, comical ghosts, and
demon masks with whimsical expressions. Just No masks, many of the earliest kyogen
the case of the
masks have been preserved, a few in the temples and shrines
and the families.
rest chiefly
by the descendants of
the old kyogen
The comic kyogen mask
called Nobori-hige,
meaning Climbing-
ivhiskers, used for the laughable spirits or ghosts.
teenth century.
Edo period, seven-
Tokyo National Museum.
89
Kyogen mask
called Kctitoku,
posed
to depict
a Buddhist priest
toku,
who
is
is
sup-
named Ken-
made such a
said to have
whenever he was exposed
Muromachi
which
face
a cold wind.
to
period, sixteenth century.
Tokyo
National Museum.
this
evidence the Shogun,
at a
court function in the year 171 1,
agreed to substitute certain pieces of ancient music in place of the
No. From
official
this
time on the
patronage, and
it
servative circles as a cultivated
No
No
appears to have lost
was performed only
plays and their texts
form of entertainment. The
became famihar
to
better-educated persons in the rich merchant teurs soon
began to take a great
dialogue, and chants. all
No
many of
class,
interest in learning
the
and amaits
dances,
survives to the present day in
of its ancient beauty, and performances again are provided
as part
The
of the
official entertatninents at the
cultural history
of traditions
90
The
its
in certain con-
Imperial court.
of Japan records an endless repertoire
that survive to the present day.
The mask
is
no
exception, as uidicated dances, processions,
by
and
its
popularity in
festivals in
throughout the country. There not have princess
its
is
many forms of
every town and village
hardly a hamlet that does
Inari Shinto shrine dedicated to the prehistoric
named Ugatama-no-Mikoto, the goddess of rice. At little shrines the Hatsuuma Festival is cele-
these picturesque
brated on the
first
zodiac horse-day after the cold season
according to the old lunar calendar, or about the 12th of February.
It is
held for the observance of prayers for a
one of the most popular
crop of rice and
is
Those taking part
in the shrine dance
who
is
the messenger of Inari.
people in open-air
stalls set
up
good
folk-festivals.
wear masks of the fox,
The masks
are sold to the
especially for the festival.
<^
VII Metalwork
from the
I
HE ART of preparing metals
^
their ores has
earhest times.
for use
from
been practiced by the Japanese
The Neohthic
culture of Japan
con-
is
sidered to have been one of the most advanced in the world,
because extant metal tools and weapons reveal unusual
skills
and knowledge. From these early beginnings the Japanese metalworker and
artist
gradually developed the art to a
of beauty and perfection. Gold,
superlative degree
silver, iron,
copper, and tin are the only substances recognized as true metals
by
early Chinese
or the five metals and were believed to have relationship with the five colors
—and
also
century
with the
some mystical
—black, red, blue, white, and
five planets.
According to Chinese
all officials
any gold or
costume.
official
below
silver
sixth rank
The
ornament permitted
a Japanese lady consisted
sword and on
They were
wear
of a simple his
his pipe case.
One of the earliest uses of gold was for coating other metals, to protect
them from oxidation
the early centuries
it
as
was employed
well as for display, and in as a
coating
on bronze and
copper objects of personal adornment and on the iron trappings of horses.
It is
bits
and
evident that the craftsmen of these
and the fashioning of metals,
earth's crust.
to
on the mounts on
hairpin; a gentleman might have gold
ancient periods
on the materials of the
were forbidden
of these and similar subsequent
effects
the sun and the male and female principles of nature, or yaiig yin, acting
were
use. In the ninth
its
except on their armor and swords and
philosophy, they were believed to have originated through
and
sources of supply
its
laws survived until very recent times, so that the only gold
and Japanese writers. In the Japanese
language they are designated collectively by the term go kin
yellow
mineral veins in later periods. Since
not too plentiful, sumptuary laws limited
were highly
skilled in the art as
of metallurgy
well as in the art of decorating
them. Their process of applying thin sheets of copper to iron
not considered simple elements, but capable under certain
for protection,
conditions and influences of being transmuted one into an-
them
at
and coating
it
with gold, passed away with
the end of the period of the Ancient Burial
Mounds
many centuries of Japanese metalwork did not work solely in precious metals,
during the early centuries, the Japanese also had developed the
nor were there any special guilds of goldsmiths or silversmiths.
technique of "onlaying," by which gold was applied directly
The value of the
onto the surface of another metal. In
other. All
through the
the master craftsmen
were content
material
to use
was secondary, and metalworkers
any metal,
their sole desire being to
(c.
A.D.
with a
manship. So true
selected
is
this that
it is
not in gold and
silver that
are found, but in less costly metals
alloys. In this the Japanese
craftsman was a true
and
artist.
Although
this
method was
this
chisel.
method
the surface
fine lines into
it
Then a sheet of gold of the desired thickness was
and carefully heated, and while
the roughened metal surface.
and rubbing with
a
smooth
stone,
it
hot was laid on the gold
became firmly this
gold was practiced, in the same manner After the introduction of
still
By lightly hammering
Already in the period of the dohnens
THE NOBLE METALS
extensively used
of the metal was roughened by crosshatching
produce objects which would be valued for beauty of work-
most masterpieces
lOo).
Buddhism
affixed.
method of applying
as at the present time.
in the sixth century
gold was employed more extensively, especially for gilding
Gold was regarded by Japanese writers five metals.
in
many
as the
Although never abundant in Japan,
localities, in
king of the
it
was found
the sands of rivers in early times and in
bronze and wooden images of Buddliist vessels
divinities,
copper
used for ceremonial and ornamental purposes, and
copper architectural appliques for the decoration of temples
91
Iron kettle for the tea ceremony, with the design
of a chrysanthemum and a kiri Attributed
to Yojiro, a
Momoyama
period
tionally said to
famous
crest
kettle
(1573-1615).
have belonged
to
in
relief
maker of the It
is
tradi-
Hideyoshi. Tokyo
National Museum.
Ashiya
iron kettle, with a design
and maple fifteenth
in
relief.
century.
of a deer
Muromachi
Collection
period,
of Ryoichi
Hosomi, Osaka.
and
shrines. In
somewhat
later
times the most important use
of gold was as a medium of exchange, for which purpose it was in the
form of gold dust enclosed
in quills or tiny bags, in
each case containing a precise weight.
1570 and 1580 the
first
government mint was
the coinage of gold and silver coins.
were
objects
Then between Only
the years
established for
in very rare cases
of solid gold ever made, the exception being a
few wine cups and very small
kettles for heating
wine or
the beautiful alloy called shakudo.
pieces
and sparingly worn
as jewelry, its
use in the art of the
metal craftsman was confmed almost exclusively to the decoration
on sword mounts and on pipe
fifteenth century, solid
cases.
Even
gold was used sparingly on sword
mounts, with the exception of the nienuki principal use being for inlaid decoration
92
as late as the
(rivet-heads),
its
on mounts made of
the second quarter
(1688-1704),
which were periods of luxury and abundance,
the tsuba, kogai, and kozuka were frequently gold. Although
the
many
it
is
made of
solid
was generally used sparingly throughout
centuries, the use
nique that
of gold in lacquer work
Japan and renowned
peculiar to
for
its
is
a tech-
exquisite
beauty.
water which belonged to the houses of certain nobles or
daimyo. Since gold was seldom used for any ornamental
During
of the seventeenth century and again in the Genroku era
Silver, or gin as
it is
called in Japanese,
referred to as shiro-kane, silver
Burial
by the Japanese
Mounds
that period as
period;
is
also
sometimes
meaning white metal. The use of
dates at least as early as the Ancient
many
objects have
on which silver has been used
sword scabbards with bands of
been found from
for decoration, such
silver,
silver
beads for
personal ornament, bronze and copper rings coated with silver.
Like gold,
silver
is
found
in Japan as pure metal but
is
Above:
Bronze
of human
mirror, with a relief design
figures. Pre-Buddhist period, before
A.D. 552. Tokyo National Museum.
Bronze dotaku,
Left:
ti'ith
a relief design
representing flowing water. Pre-Buddhist period, before
A.D. 552. Tokyo National Mu-
seum.
very limited in its distribution and occurs only in small quan-
used, even in the palaces of the nobles or in the great mansions
of the daimyo.
was seldom used even
It
for religious vessels
or utensils at Buddhist ceremonies, since due to
somber color
With
it
was considered
the beginning of the
two hundred and Shogunate,
silver
arts for inlay,
and
its
cold and
unfit for ornamental objects.
Edo period (1615-1867) and its of peace under the Tokugawa
fifty years
came to be extensively used in the decorative especially in the
form of alloys with copper,
used for tsuba and other sword mounts. Certain peculiar to Japan
and bearing the generic name
silver alloys
shibuichi
were
widely used by metal craftsmen to provide unusual decorative effects
of color, these
alloys being
gray patina. Along with inlay
work,
silver
was
its
COPPER, TIN, AND LEAD
meaning of the term, was never
Silver plate, in the true
tities.
made
to
produce a beautiful
use in alloys and as decorative
also extensively
used in lacquer.
Copper, or akagane
as it is called,
meaning red metal, has
played a most important role in the art of Japanese metalwork. In addition to being the principal uses are far
component of bronze,
its
more numerous than in other countries, and many
of these applications are without
like or equal. In the early
centuries of our era the Japanese achieved skill in the arts of
preparing copper and employed in advance
of any other people.
it
in a decorative
By
manner
far
the end of the period of
the dolmens the use of thin sheets of copper coated with gold
applied to iron as a protective and decorative feature ceased to exist, as
we
have seen, but the use of thin copper sheets to
protect and ornament surfaces of
present day.
The
art
period (710-794),
wood
has continued to the
of gilded copper culminated in the Nara
when
it
was
lavishly used to embellish the
93
wooden architecture oftemples and shrines with richly worked was
appliques. Gilded copper
make ceremonial
artisans to
also extensively
used by skUled
vessels, articles for the altar,
and
metal lanterns for the courtyards and interiors of temples and
Toward
shrines.
tensively
for domestic use, rative
the end of the
employed
and for many other
sword mounts. During
seldom gilded,
Edo period copper was ex-
for the decoration
as the
of vessels and
utensils
including deco-
articles,
these later times copper
was
craftsman preferred to exploit the rich-
colored patinas ^n shades of red and
brown
to enhance the
beauty of his work. The alloy of copper and zinc which produces brass was
Buddhism.
unknown in
Japan before the introduction of
Brass, or shinshu, never
Japanese metal craftsmen because
harsh and
The
it
its
found much favor among color tone
was considered
does not blend harmoniously with other metals.
use of brass in decorative objects has been almost ex-
and
clusively restricted to ceremonial vessels dhist temples
and Shinto
or five ornaments of the Buddhist
The
utensils
of Bud-
shrines, especially for the go-gusoku
principal use of tin
altar.
and lead in Japan was in the prep-
aration of pewter. Neither of these metals appear to have
been used separately, except in rare cases. Tin
many places,
in
Ekaganii, mirror with a handle, having the design of a raft under a barren willow. Bronze.
Edo
period,
seventeenth
century.
By
Itani
Hoju.
Tokyo National
is
is
found in Japan
only one ancient mine in the
country, situated in the old province of Satsuma. Lead was also rarely used, except as
an inlay for decorative purposes in
early lacquer ware. This lack
lead
Museum.
although there
was not due
occur extensively in
ed
of interest in the use of tin and
to the scarcity
many
of either of the
With primary interest centered in from
ores, for they
these ores
were
treat-
being argentiferous or silver-producing.
as silver ores,
process
But
districts.
early times
the extraction of silver, the
was practiced
manner, which resulted in the
loss
in a
most wasteful
of the greater portion of
the tin and lead. Pewter, as an alloy of tin and lead, had been
used in very ancient times in China, where a Superstition against
its
it
seems there was
use for domestic vessels
owing
to a
curious belief regarding the origin of tin. This belief prevailed
not only in early times but even persisted until recently. Occasionally pewter vessels had been found to communicate
poisonous properties to wine kept in them, which the old
Chinese philosophers attributed to tin originates ciple
arsenic.
They claimed
that
from arsenic by the influence of the female prin-
of nature
called yin, acting for a period
years; therefore, tin used in
of two hundred
making pewter must sometimes
be a mixture of arsenic and tin if sufficient time has not elapsed for the complete conversion of the arsenic.
According to early records, the use of pewter in Japan was rather
Bronze mirror with six design
in
relief.
having a conventionalized geometric
Pre-Buddhist period, before
National Museum.
94
hells,
A.D. 552. Tokyo
common
during the Nara period,
utensils are said to
period until
it
was used
more
as
have been made from
when it.
vessels
By
an inlay decoration in lacquer.
recent times that pewter
became
and
the Heian It
was not
a favorite alloy
The characteristic Japanese tea jar or made of pewter is rather ovoid in section with a round
for keeping tea leaves. canister
Up rim having contained in a
a tightly fitted cover. silk
net of very large
the neck with a cord so the
tea jars are usually-
mesh which is tied around
may be hung
jar
for safe-keeping.
unequaled.
as
The
fame of this family
great
begimiing in Kyoto around the middle of the twelfth
its
when Myochin Munesuke
century
more than
established
its
name. For of
six centuries the successive generations
Myo-
chin not only continued to be the greatest armor makers
priesthood for ritual utensils, which probably further
but occupied with honor and distinction the position of ar-
case
discouraged the Japanese craftsman from applying his its
out pre-eminently
had
of silver, pewter was not in favor with the Bud-
As in the dliist
These
Among the famous armor makers, the Myochin family stands
skill
ornamentation except on rare occasions. Li rare
to
cases,
pewter pieces are found with inlays of copper, bronze, and even gold, but usually
surface
its
is left
entirely plain.
The
beauty and value of old pewter depends entirely on the soft gray mottled patina which
its
surface acquires after a length
of time by constantly being rubbed with a
morers to the Shogimates. Every piece of hammered ironwork
known
is
a
Myochin, whether
plain or
workmanship
a perfect example of the fmest
of the ironsmith.
known
Cast iron does not appear to have been
to the Japa-
nese in prehistoric times, but one of the earliest records to
mention
silk cloth.
made by
to have been
ornamental,
it
states that in
stricting the
making of
the year 700 an edict
was
cast-iron coins to the
issued re-
government.
Cast iron has been principally used by Japanese craftsmen for
IRON
making small
objects, such as kettles
According to the old Cliinese philosophers, the metallic element iron called yatig,
a product of the masculine principle of nature
is
and therefore
and
tenacity. Its
from the time of the dolmens, which
kettles
were made
kettles
were
ancient dolmens have
come many
excellent examples
of iron
cast
in the chapter
on
it
cooking purposes
was not
the lost-wax method,
sculpture.
until the
that artistically
for the ritual of the tea
by
vessels
are masterpieces of
kettles for
early times but
of the Muromachiperiod(i338-i573)
around the beginning of our era. From the chambers of these
use in Japan dates at least is
possesses hardness
modeling and decoration. Iron
were used from very
and other similar
many
for heating water or wine, and
end
wrought
ceremony. These
which
is
explained
When these castings are removed
with the exception of the molded
weapons, armor, spearheads and arrowheads, and especially
from the molds, they
swords that display the splendid workmanship of the early
ornamental designs, imsuitable to receive any further deco-
Japanese ironsmith.
Of all
the articles
since early times the foremost place
made of iron and must be given
steel
to the
ration
by
inlaying, chasuig, or other similar process without
additional treatment.
At
this stage
hard and
sword has occupied a pre-
of the casting
is
eminent position of honor and renown. For more than eight-
decarbonized.
The
warrior's sword, for in Japan the
are,
brittle
of the process the surface
and must be softened and
furnace used in this process, which has
een centuries the Japanese craftsman has lavished his highest
make it perfect not only as a weapon but also as a work
skill to
of art to be worn in times of peace. Iron swords comprise the articles
burial
of greatest importance among the objects found in the
chambers of the ancient dolmens.
Although the swordmaker and armorer were both smiths, their crafts
rivalry
were
entirely distinct.
There was an intense jealous
between the two craftsmen and
it is
rare to
fmd
either
one encroaching on the rights of the other. In early times the fame of the armorer
which
was measured by the
resistance
his masterpieces offered to the cutting blades
rival, the
swordsmith. However, in
later
times
it
of
his
was the
beauty of the ornament with which his armor was adorned that
brought him
fa:ne.
The
plates
of which the helmet and
body armor were constructed were made from both wrought iron and care
although
steel,
was used
steel
in the selection
extreme toughness which
was used
less
frequently. Great
of the pieces of metal, but the
many
possess
is
imparted by the
repeated doubling and welding to which the iron was subjected before
it
was fmally hammered into the fmished
piece.
Engraved
gilt-hroiize
period (794-11S5).
head of a nyoi, or
priest's scepter.
Heian
Tokyo National Museum 95
remained unchanged for more than four hundred sists
years,
con-
of a cast-iron pan from which the bottom has been broken
away, with a lining of refractory
pieces are in turn set
upon
workshop. The cast-iron nace so that
it rests
space between
an hour or more,
makes
is
slab,
is
and the
fdled with lumps
bum
ignited and allowed to
is
of the
floor
then placed inside the fur-
of the pan
for
consumed; then the object
until nearly
reversed and the operation
and these
on the perforated
sides
of charcoal. The charcoal
placed on
on the
bricks
article is
directly
and the
it
few
a
is
holes,
This pan
clay.
numerous
a fire-clay slab perforated with
is
repeated. This heat treatment
and malleable for the
the surface sufficiently soft
crafts-
man to incise clean lines and channels with sharp and unbroken edges for the decoration desired. After the decorative
brown oxidized
work
has been completed, the imique
which
surface to
these castings
owe
so
much
of their beauty has yet to be produced. In the case of the fmest objects, the entire surface
the Japanese. fire,
The
and when
casting
it
worked with
is
produce an irregular rough
effect
is
which
a pointed
is
punch
to
highly esteemed by
then again heated over a charcoal
has reached the desired temperature
it is
rubbed with a liquid composed of plum vinegar containing iron in solution and ferric oxide in suspension. This operation is
repeated on each part of the object until the entire surface
amount of rusting. The whole is thoroughly rubbed with a dry cloth, then cover-
has been properly treated to the desired
ed with a thin coat of lacquer and carefully heated over a
with fme
brazier,
particles
of water being splashed on
it
with
a brush during this treatment.
The development of the
techniques of casting was due to
which was conducted in
the popularity of the tea ceremony,
simple, quiet surroundings, with the refined beauty of the utensils in
simphcity.
harmony with Zen principles of restraint and The cast-iron objects were chiefly kettles, many
being designed by such famous
artists as
Sesshu,
Tosa Mitsu-
nobu, and others of equal fame. The foremost name associated
with these
appHed to
kettles kettles
prefecture.
by the
is
Ashiyagama, which
made
Ashiyagama, or Ashiya
soft effect
produce a natural
is
the generic term
at Ashiya, a coastal village in
of the
Fukuoka
kettles, are characterized
surfaces, so skillfully treated as to
rustic quality.
Together with the
Ashiya, which have been highly prized since the
kettles
of
Muromachi
made at Temmyo in Sano, north of Tokyo, and Temmyogama, have also been greatly appreciated by
by Shiotsuchi-no-Okina in producing was he
who first
salt
in prehistoric times.
taught the Japanese how
to
make
salt.
The
period, those
It
called
four kettles are about four feet in diameter and four or five
the tea masters. (i
It
was not
573-161 5) that the kettles In the
is
a
Momoyama
period
Kyoto became popular.
minor Shinto shrine
from the main Shiogama
ancient iron kettles
96
at
town of Shiogama on Matsushima Bay
eastern Japan there
distance
until the
made
in north-
just a short
shrine, dedicated to four
which according
to tradition
were used
inches deep, with the iron about three inches thick. Early the
morning of the tenth of July each year,
of the iron-kettle shrine
will,
on
the Shinto officials
while they take cold ablutions,
observe the ceremony of changing the water of the four kettles,
when
which,
it is
traditionally said, will
a national calamity
is
change in color
about to take place.
probably of the same period, are dotaku, which are curiously bell-shaped. Their exact date
and
archaeologists
dotaku
were
is still
is
of dispute among
a subject
not known.
It is
presumed
originally used as percussion instruments
some
sibly, at
their use
later time, as
that
and pos-
ornamental objects. They are
without like or equal and are only found in Japan
at certain
Honshu and Shikoku. None have
ever been
excavation sites in
found in Kyushu, which mainland.
is
the island nearest to the Asiatic
appears that they were deliberately buried, but
It
the reason remains
been found and
unknown.
A great number o( dotaku have widely from one or two
their size varies
inches in height to three feet, the latter being the most
mon. These
com-
and usually decorated with
bells are flat in section
an over-all pattern of lattice design or one typically Oriental
Many
in feeling called ryusuimon or flowing-water pattern. are
ornamented with
such things
interesting primitive pictures depicting
human
houses,
as fish, deer, turtles,
ing scenes, and scenes of the everyday times.
beings, hunt-
of those ancient
life
These castings are thin and are of great importance in
the history of bronze founding, for they could only have been
produced by the lost-wax process and by the use of a hot mold.
Somewhat
around the begimiing of our
later,
era, in the
period of Ancient Burial Mounds, the bronze spears, halberds,
and swords of the Above:
Bronze kenian with chased and openwork
Heian period (794-1185). Owned by
the
designs.
Konjiki-do of the
Chusonji monastery at Hiraizumi, Iwate prefecture.
earlier
period had disappeared, and in their
stead the chief articles of bronze are mirrors,
helmets, horse trappings, and small
hollow spheres with a
bells.
sword pommels,
These bells are simple
cut in the lower half, and they
slit
contain a loose piece of metal or a small round pebble. as accessories to the warrior's
trappings,
and for other ornamental purposes. The bronze
mirrors found in the ancient burial
mounds offer an interesting
study of the development of bronze centuries. Left:
Detail showing one of the finely pierced and line-engraved
gilt-bronze plates from
a
kanchoban pendant. Asuka period
(552-645). Tokyo National Museum.
They
costume, on horse
were used
bronze mirrors
as early as the
(206 B.c.-A.D. 220).
the end of the
by
work through many
Metalworkers in China had been casting beautiful
Han
the Japanese
beginning of the
They were introduced
dynasty.
Many
of the
Han
dynasty
into Japan about
earliest
mirrors cast
were exact copies of Chinese prototypes, but
there soon appeared a certain native expression
which the
Japanese always developed immediately after adopting an art
from the
continent.
The
characteristic
Chinese mirror was
decorated with symbolic representations of legendary figures
BRONZE The
art
of casting bronze, which was
called kara-kane or
Chinese metal, has been practiced by the Japanese ever since several centuries before our era, as evidenced
exaniples found in simple burial mounds. spears, halberds,
and swords, and
by the various
They include bronze
are another
proof of the
and animals, gods, and mythical
characters. For
knovwi reason the early Japanese
casters
some un-
merely copied the
Chinese mirrors but without reproducing the designs with their original sharp lines, preferring instead to soften
apparently for aesthetic reasons.
assumed a truly indigenous dances,
scenes
A
The mirror
style
them,
designs gradually
with hunting scenes,
festival
with house designs, and conventionalized
mirror of unusual design that also dates from the
advanced knowledge of metallurgy and the techniques of
patterns.
founding in prehistoric Japan. The largest cast-bronze objects.
time of the Ancient Burial
Mounds is the so-called bell mirror. 97
The bell mirror is found with from four to twelve small round bronze the
bells attached
Nara period
around
outer edge.
its
of
and eight-lobed, and
that are square, while others are six-
eight-
Many mirrors
are typically Japanese in taste, with shapes
and twelve-pointed, generally decorated with
birds,
and landscapes.
flowers,
By the
time of the Heian period the mirror had developed
come
a distinctive Japanese style and
wakyo, or Japanese mirror. plain but thinner
The
to be
known
as the
mirrors of Heian times had
and higher rims, and the knob or boss in the
center for the cord,
which was
large, plain,
Nara period, became smaller and was
and round in the
usually in the
form of
a flower. As the mirrors became thinner during the Heian period, the designs
were more dehcate, with
flowers, pine
branches, butterflies, leaves of grass, and cranes. During the
Kamakura period
the wakyo
type of design called Gilt-bronze sutra box, with chased and
openwork
floral
designs.
of poetry along with the
was often made with a particular
or picture poem, combining a piece
pictorial subject.
The mirror with
a
Heian period
(jg4-ii8^). Collection of the Aichi-do of the Chusonji monastery
e-uta,
at
Hiraizumi,
handle most frequently seen in Japan to the present time
around the end of the
called ekagami. This type first appeared
Muromachi period and became popular during
Iwate prefecture.
yama
the
Momo-
period. Since the handle eliminated the need for the
cord knob, a greater freedom of design was possible and beautiful compositions
the
is
Edo period
the
were
demand
created.
With
many
the beginning of
grew
for these mirrors
to such
proportions that the quahty of workmanship suffered.
The
its
beginning in
Ise are the
famous Jingu
history of the mirror in Japan has
legendary times. At Uji-Yamada in shrines, the
Geku
sericulture,
and the Kodaijingu, or Naiku, dedicated to the
dedicated to the goddess of crops, food, and
sun goddess, Amaterasu-o-mi-kami. In the Naiku the mirror called Yata-no-Kagami,
no-Shinki or Three Sacred Treasures
—which
necklace
is
enshrined
which is one of the Sanshu-
—
i.e.,
mirror, sword, and
constitute the Imperial Regalia
of Japan.
According to Japanese mythology the mirror was given by
Amaterasu-o-mi-kami to Prince Ninigi, her grandson, when the latter came a mirror
is
down to earth to reign. Because of this heritage, many Shinto shrines throughout
venerated in
Japan, and in olden times a mirror
was offered
to a Shinto
shrine with a prayer.
TEMPLE BRONZES Both the Asuka and Nara periods form in bronze founding, paralleling the arts ing.
Due to
the introduction of Buddhism in the sixth century
and the estabhshment of a fixed Bronze
98
sutra
box with designs of dragons and clouds;
Heian period (794
gilt-bronze and silver in
relief.
1185). Tokyo National
Museum.
to
a brilhant epoch
of sculpture and paint-
capital
and court
at
Nara
in
the year 710, the building of numerous temples proceeded at
a rapid pace, and the
many
skilled artisans
brought from
China and Korea included workers in bronze and others pro-
Gilt-bronze head of a shakujo, a staff used
by Buddhist
priests.
Nara
period (710-794). Tokyo National
Museum.
./I fi
Gih-bronze reliquary stupa, with openwork and chased designs offlowers, dragons, lions, and flames.
Kamakura period (1185-1333}.
Saidaiji temple,
Nara.
ficient in the
production of images of Buddhist divinities and
examples of bronze work
is
the temple ornament called
form o(ban,
meaning baimer or
such a strong
kanchoban
which
emphasis placed on the production of religious art, the develop-
streamer.
Ban were commonly made of
ment of bronze-founding was
there are a
vessels for the
priests,
ceremonies of
its rituals.
largely
due to the Buddhist
and the chief w^orks in bronze for the succeeding
centuries other than Buddhist images bells,
With
were temple
lanterns,
and other objects for the sacred buildings. Very soon
few
is
a
rare examples fashioned
a great central baldachin
there
are preserved in the early temples at
many
Nara and
smaller articles such as bells,
gongs, braziers or incense burners, bronze banners, and other objects
for
ritual
purposes.
Among
the
more
elaborate
from which hang
long pendants of metal plates. In the extremely large kanchoban
several smaller ban, each with
of this period
although
used in the kancho ceremony. These bronze kanchoban are
the Japanese craftsmen themselves began to produce in bronze.
Horyuji, in addition to
textiles,
of metal, which were
elaborate pieces consisting of a square top
The most important
ancient bronze images and ritual vessels
literally
is
ornamentation
consists
its
from which
are suspended
pendants of metal
of an over-all
series
plates.
The
of patterns and
designs in sharply cut pierced work with the remaining slender surface spaces delicately engraved. quisite
Other examples of ex-
openwork with fme engraving
are the
many
halos of
99
Brass
with
censer
long
a
handle in the shape of a bird's
Asuka period (552-645).
tail.
Tokyo National Museum.
Buddhist icons and the keman, or pendant ornament. The
keman was originally a wreath of flowers used
in Buddhist temples, but later the real flowers
by
leather,
wood, and metal
an ornament
as
were replaced
substitutes. In the
bronze keman the openwork design
in the
is
majority of
form of con-
Many
of the early pieces of bronze are
One
type
the shakujo, a staff used
is
metal head of the
jangling sound
Buddhist figures are mcluded, beautifully chiseled within the
this
pattern.
itinerant
the Heian to the
Muromachi period
there flourished
made
staff is
principal characteristic
ventionalized vines with leaves and flowers, and frequently
From
them
the temples that have preserved
is
the set of six rings
to frighten
away wUd
of bronze object seen in temples
is
of Decadence, which was prevalent
There are
sutras
or scriptures were buried so that the owner might be prepared for the appearance of the Maitreya
Buddha. Buried
It is
was
said that
carried
by
form of a
which
is
deco-
flat
hung on a rack in front of an image of the Buddha
and struck by the
and the
it
the kei or gong,
rated piece,
was influenced by the Buddhist conception of Mappo, or Age at that time,
its
animals. Another type
box or
practice
The
which give off a
when the staff strikes the ground.
type of staff originated in India, where
monks
centuries.
priests.
in a variety of shapes but
a Buddhist percussion instrument in the
mound. This
many
by Buddhist
a curious custom of placing hand-copied sutras in a bronze container to be buried in a sutra
being used by
still
for so
priest
with a mallet while reciting the
also beautifully
wrought bronze
sutras.
censers with long
handles that are placed before the image of Buddha while the
conducting a service. The ends of their long handles
in the
priest
is
mounds together with these sutra boxes were Buddhist images,
curve
downward
mirrors, coins, small containers with lids, and other similar
ornamental nature and frequently designed in the shape of a
articles.
Sutra boxes used for this purpose were
made in a wide
bird's tail or
to serve as a support
some other simQar form.
variety of forms in bronze, and decorated with incised niotifs
esting articles used in esoteric
which were sometimes
vajra bell,
Nara prefecture there
gilded. In the is
of a
gilt
box of unusually
a sutra
form which was excavated from
Kimbusanji temple in
a
mound
nearby.
beautiful It
consists
bronze oblong case resting on a support resembling
a Chinese table with four legs similar to those of the
period. There
were
also great
numbers of sutra boxes
in the temples and houses of the nobles; they
decorated and represent the highest
Many
of these were of gilt bronze in a
lotus flowers
and interlacing vine
fmely worked with sutra boxes
large
100
skill
reliefs in
to contain
for use
were beautifully
of the bronze worker. delicate
openwork of
designs, while others
were
gilded bronze and silver. These
were usually oblong or
enough
Ming
cylindrical
more than one
and some were
sutra scroll.
and the
dorje.
They
and
of an
are usually
Two of the most inter-
Buddhism
are the goko-rei or
among
the various articles
are
reserved for Buddhist exorcism, the ritual act or process of driving off evil Jupiter, the
spirits.
The
dorje is the pajra
symbol of the strong and
or thunderbolt of
indestructible,
the priest grasps and manipulates in various prayer. like a
The emblem
is
which
ways during
a bronze instrument, shaped
dumbbell with both ends pointed or having
much
five
con-
verging prongs representing the thunderbolt. The vajra bell in the
form of
a hand-bell
and
is
so
named because
it
is
has
the same five-pointed symbol of the vajra or thunderbolt at the end of the handle.
In Buddhist temples are also found ceremonial ornaments
placed on the altar
known
as san-gusoku,
or the three
articles.
consisting
of a
and a candlestick; and
vase, an incense burner,
namely an incense
also the go-gusokii, or the five articles,
burner, a pair of vases, and a pair of candlesticks. There were also
many
interesting bronzes
made
in the
stupa to contain sutras or other religious
form of a tope or and although
relics,
they were intended for the temple or house of a nobleman, they were frequently buried in the sutra mounds. dhist stupa
is
usually in the
form of a
The Bud-
cylindrical or prismatic
tower topped by a cupola erected to contain or form a Buddhist shrine. Aside
from the variety of articles of bronze used and
in the temples for ornamental
ritual purposes, in the
courtyard there was frequently a bronze lantern of enormous size. is
Of particular importance in this category of bronze work
the octagonal lanteni that stands in front of the Hall of the
Great
Buddha
tern, cast consists
in the Todaiji temple at Nara. This great lan-
by the lost-wax method,
is
thirteen feet in height and
of an octagonal pedestal supporting an octagonal light
"
698.
One of the two
at the Todaiji
temple
in diameter at
the belfry
was
on
New Year's Eve,
two hours temple
a beautiful
sound, with a rich tonal vibration which in some bells continues for
many
Many
minutes.
quality; for example, the old bell
shore of Lake
Biwa
is
bells
melodious tone
its
Among
the
of Japan, the oldest to bear a date
in the belfry
of the Myoshinji temple
scription dated the second year
Bronze kei, or gong, with
famous for
this
of the Miidera temple on the
noted for
heard in the early evening.
bells are
many
Kyoto, with an in-
of the Emperor
relief designs
of
period (794-1185}. Zenrinji temple, Kyoto.
great temple
the one that hangs
is
at
when
Mommu,
lotus plants.
or
Heian
light
the largest
it is
8.9 feet in
At midnight
of large bonfires, the
bell
is
to complete the operation. In section, the Japanese
bells differ
from Western forms
in having the
rim
It is this
construction which causes the gentle rising and falling tones
neither
boom
wood beam under bell that
form of a
is
like a battering
men
are
a
is
low
boss,
the
ram. At the huge
needed to propel
the direction of a leader.
struck
rung by
which
is
The
point
frequently in
lotus flower.
casting
of
a large bell in early times in Japan
important event and was
and popular
are
beam of wood suspended from
with a
tower and propelled
The
of Japanese beUs. They are
swung nor furnished with tongues, but
Chion-in belfry, a number of
the is
by the
characterizing the beautiful
on the
a great Japanese temple bell
;
and
feet in height
thickened internally so their mouths are constricted.
have been made
The boom of
believed that
It is
other one hangs in the
struck 108 times according to Buddhist ritual, requiring almost
the
in 749.
The
recast in 1239.
was
when
in 989
diameter, and weighing seventy-four short tons.
bamboo flute and lions gamboling among clouds. One of the fmest works of art of the Nara period, it is said to time of the erection of the Great Buddha
thick. This bell
was badly damaged
measuring 17.9
striking the outside
at the
and 10 inches
famous belfry of the Chion-in temple at Kyoto bell in Japan,
bell
playing the
a famous one in the belfry 13.6 feet in height, 9.2 feet
was blown down by a typhoon.
the present bell
two-doored. The
of the doors portray Bodhisattvas
Nara;
originally cast in 732 but
chamber, in which the panels are alternately one-doored and grilles
at
base,
its
is
it is
largest bells
rejoicing.
on the day appointed
A
celebrated
by
great festival
was held
at
the temple
for running the metal into the
the temple grounds. People of
was an
religious ceremonies
all classes
came from
mold far
in
and
near with contributions, often consisting of bronze mirrors, hairpins,
and other ornaments to be added
to the
bronze in
the furnaces, and in succeeding years this occasion was ob-
served
by temple
festivals.
Gilt-bronze implements for Buddhist exorcism. bell
and a dorje
A goko-rei or vajra
or vajra (symbolic thunderbolt), resting on a four-
footed tray between a pair of flower holders.
Kamakura period
(1185-1333). Tokyo National Museum.
101
LATER BRONZE WORK During the Heian period (794-1185) the founding entered a
art
of bronze-
of stagnation despite the great rich-
state
ness of this period in other fields of creative activity.
But
after
the protracted warfare and feuds between the Fujiwara, Taira,
and Miuanioto farmhes, there came a revival of the old
art
of
Nara period. During the first hundred years of the Kama-
the
kura period (1185-1333) there appeared a renaissance in
and
it
was during
kura was
cast.
this
But from the beginning of the Muromachi
period until the end of the
Momoyama period only the metal
arts contributiiig to the needs of war flourished, for the
was torn with
art,
period that the Great Buddha of Kama-
unrest. It
Tokugawa Shogunate
is
country
not until the Edo period, with the
firmly estabhshed and the coimtry
again at peace, that the art of bronze again flourished. In the
Edo period
the foremost examples of the bronze-founder's
art are in the
mausoleums of the Tokugawa Shoguns at Nikko.
The
Toshogu
shrine, which is the mausoleum of Tokugawa leyasu, 1 542-1616, founder ofthe Tokugawa Shogunate,
great
is
the major architectural accomplishment of the
It
required fifteen thousand
to complete
all
arts.
period.
of its buildings. This magnificent structure has
an infmity of carved flects
Edo
men for a period of rv\'enty years
detail
and gold-leaf decoration and re-
the high level of achievement attained in the decorative
Another notable example of
leyasu in the
Toshogu
this
period
is
the
tomb of
shrine, completely cast in bronze,
with
bronze gates and distinguished by an impressive simplicity of design.
Almost the
geometric and
entire surface
ornamentation
is
molded
is
covered with a delicate
ground upon which the bolder
floral motif, as a
in relief
Large standing lanterns of bronze, contributed by the pro-
daimyo and nobles, who vied with one another in thus
vincial
doing honor to their departed the
Nikko
were given
shrines.
chiefs, line the courr^-ards
of
hundreds of these lanterns, which
votive offerings
as
dhist temples
Many
and to Shinto
by
the wealthy, both to
shrines,
were
cast
Bud-
during the Edo
period. Lanterns of this rj^pe adorn the approaches and grounds
of every temple of importance in Japan. Each group or pair differs
from any
harmony and
other, yet in
form and decoration
the bronze modelers and founders.
of
this
casting,
bronze work but
is
is
The extraordinary
or Chinese metal, which indicates that
alloy
tains lead as a]^ essential
not signify any
102
it
alloy
is
kara-kane
probably originated
from the bronzes of the earher
which were a simple
quality
on the physical character of
The fmest and most perfected
in China. Distinct
are in
not due solely to the modeling and
largely dependent
the alloys used.
all
of the fme work of
are characteristic examples
of copper and
tin,
periods,
kara-kane con-
component. The term kara-kane does
specific alloy, since
it
has a generic rather than
Miniature bronze stupa. Excavated
at a sutra
mound
on
Mount
Kurama. Heian period (.794-1185). Kuramadcra temple, Mount
Kurama, Kyoto.
Bronze hangmg
lantern, with a pierced design
of bamboo and cherry
Muromachi period (1338-1573). Iwayadera temple
branches.
at
lantern, with
a specific
meaning and is applied
to a varied
of metals of the lead-tin-copper of copper
may
series, in
group of mixtures
which proportions
range from 71 to 89 per cent, tin 2 to 8 per
and lead from
5 to 15 per cent.
beautifully chased tsuba
BRONZE ALLOYS
tin,
and lead. This
is
the centuries, the Japanese developed and perfected a
of fme and interesting beautiful color tones.
alloys,
zinc,
its
It is
soft
number
some of which produced most
One of these
distinctive for
sheen of its surface.
is
a
bronze called sentoku,
is
in
which the
similar articles, either
with plain
after the destruction
altar vessels It is
allow
it
of a temple
of bronze, gold, and brass
frequently used for vases and
with very
surfaces, to
and
shibuichi.
When
these are simply
beauty and decorative value being entirely
dependent on the unusual patinas produced by special ment. Shakudo
is
sometimes called
u-kin, or
because of the black tone of its patina. But
and before
its
treat-
cormorant gold,
when it is first cast,
surface has been suitably treated,
it
has a dark
order to attain the black surface with a violet sheen of the
was introduced from Ming China in
melted together in a mass.
frequently used for Buddhist ceremonial
composed of copper,
the fifteenth century. According to an old Chinese legend,
fire,
is
copper color rather similar to that of ordinary bronze. In
a yellow bronze
was discovered by accident
and other sword mounts. There
golden tones and the satin-like
occupying an intermediate position between
kara-kane and brass, and
by
and
nothing specially attractive in the alloys them-
selves, their great
and
trees
National
the alloys peculiar to Japan the fmest and most
all
cast there
As the science and art of preparing metals advanced through
tin,
Tokyo
articles.
Of
is
(133S-1373).
another Japanese alloy called sawari, which consists of copper,
beautiful are shakudo
which
an openwork design ofplum
Muromachi period
bamboo.
Museum.
Kasama.
cent,
Bronze hanging
little
ornament in
play to
full
However, the fmest specimens of
its
sentoku are
relief or
pleasing tones.
found among
fmest examples, the presence of not is
mandatory. There are no
the lowest being
of gold. The Satsuma
is
known
less
than 4 per cent of gold
than fifteen grades oi shakudo,
chusho,
shakudo produced
which contains only
by
traces
the metal craftsmen of
generally considered to be the richest in tone and
the most valuable. tained and
a,s
less
it
The
date of its origin has never been ascer-
has never been
employed
for large castings.
The
fmest objects in which shakudo was used are sword mounts
from
the time of Goto Yujo, 1440-1512, the
first
of a famous 103
perfect
ground
for inlaid designs
physical properties
Its
of gold,
silver,
make it an ideal metal
and copper.
for the craftsman
and allow him to work and fashion it with complete freedom. It
can be
hammered
into sheets,
drawn
into wire, or cast into
any form. In the process of producing the violet-black the object
leaching
first
is
by
wood ashes, and then carefully polished, if necessary,
with fme charcoal powder. After vinegar containpg lye,
patina,
boiled in a solution of lye prepared
salt
immersed
this it is
in solution, then
and placed in a tub of water so
that
in
washed with all
traces
removed. In the fmal stage of the process
it is
a
plum weak
of alkali are placed in a
boiling solution of copper sulphate, verdigris, and water, to
which
is
sometimes added potassium
tone of patina
is
nitrate, until the desired
produced.
Shihukhi occupies a position of equal importance with
main
shakudo in the field of ornamental metalwork. In the refers to
an alloy consisting of one part
copper. But shibuichi
is
be included two other
one part
which
silver
consists
a generic alloys,
and two
silver
name under which must
one
called sambo-gin,
parts copper,
it
and three parts also
which
and the other
is
hoji-gin,
of equal parts of silver and copper. Within the
defmition o£ shibuichi are also included several lower alloys
of the same metals, although the alloy most generally used
by
the
than
more important metal craftsmen was
shibuichi.
in decorative
As in
sambo-gin rather
the case o( shakudo, the value of this alloy
metalwork
entirely
is
dependent upon
metal;
no
it
to
has
particular beauty until given a suitable treat-
produce a patina of tones of gray. The process of
producing the beautiful color tones o( shibuichi bell,
that used for shakudo,
dated 698. Myoshiiiji temple, Kyoto.
and the alloy
itself
physical qualities for inlaid decoration.
remarkable family of sword-mount to
artisans.
His descendants continued
make sword ornaments and uphold the family name
greatest in this field for seventeen generations, until the
as the
middle
of the nineteenth century. Fine shakudo, containing 4 or
5
per
cent gold, far surpassed any other alloy in the exceptional
beauty of
its
patina.
The deep
and the handsome polish
104
it is
violet-black tones of shakudo
capable of receiving provide a
un-
When it is first cast, its color is that of pale gun-
ment Bronze monastery
its
usual patina.
alloys, shakudo
and
inlaid designs in gold, silver,
worker was
By
shibuichi,
is
the
same
as
has the same ideal
using these
two
together with
fme
and copper, the Japanese metal-
able to achieve tonal effects unrivaled
by any
other metalwork in the world. Ever since the earlier periods, the Japanese metal founder and craftsman has displayed great skill
and possessed the quality and
Much
versatility
of a true
artist.
Japanese metalwork, particidarly in sword mounts,
represented
by masterpieces of unrivaled beauty.
is
Arms and Armor
VIII
I
T
WRITTEN
IS
.chronicle that
most ancient
the
ill
official
the Japanese sword had
legendary origin in the cosmogonic
its
Age of the Gods. Accord-
shrines within
its
precincts, the
bidding of the King a priest was ordered
ing to the Kojiki, or Records of Ancient Matters, compiled in the
of Korea, and
year 712, Prince Susano-o-no-Mikoto, brother of the sun
to cross over to Japan
goddess, killed an eight-headed dragon in the province of
and
Izumo and found
a
sword
in
its tail.
This sword, which was
originally called Amc-no-Murakunio-no-Tsurugi, or Heaven's
Cloud-gathering Sword,
is
one of the three heirlooms of the
Imperial family. Legend recounts that
when
Prince
Yamato-
Takeru, 82-113, a son of Emperor Keiko, was starting on an expedition against rebel clans in the province of Suruga, he visited the Jingu shrines
sword by
sacred in the
enemy territory,
rebels,
death. flint
this act
but
it
and was presented with
the warrior-prince
and tinder from
berry
Ise
Yamato-Hime. While on
this
moor
a
was surrounded by
who set fire to the grass so that he would be burned to He cut the grass around him with his sword, and with
against the
Upon
of
Princess
oncoming
his
pouch, he kindled a counterfire
The
flames.
prince was saved through
and was able to beat off and conquer
his return the prince left the tree,
whereupon
shone so brightly that
sword
it
sword hanging on
Princess Iwato secretly carried
to a cedar,
it set fire
into the field bunaing. Because
history of the
his enemies.
it
at
second century,
away,
which
fell
was renamed the Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi,
Nagoya. The Atsuta is
mid-
of this episode in the legendary
or Grass-mowing Sword, and has been preserved
Atsuta shrine
a
said to
shrine,
by the
founded in the
be the most sacred Shinto shrine
next to the great Jingu shrines of Ise. The sacredness attached to the shrine
is
due to the Grass-mowing Sword which, with
Ya-Tsurugi or Eight Swords
most important. The fame of the Grass-mowing shrine is Sword spread as far as Silla, then one of the three kingdoms the
fled to
at the
and
steal
it.
He succeeded in his mission
Hakata in Kyushu, but before he could
sail
away,
the gods of Atsuta discovered the loss and dispatched the
of the Sumiyoshi-Myojin
shrine,
who
recovered the sword. Having failed in sent one of his generals to Japan
god
overtook the priest and this,
the
King of
Silla
armed with seven swords, but
when he reached the proviiice of Owari the Atsuta gods killed him and captured his seven swords. These swords, together with the Kusanagi, constitute the eight swords for which the
Ya-Tsurugi shrine was erected.
The times
oldest
is
form of Japanese sword used during
called the tsurugi or ken,
which has
historical
a straight double-
edged blade usually wider near the point. However, until the opening years of the eighth century,
it
was not
when the Taiho
code instituting the Chinese form of government was being established, that the carefully recorded history
blade began.
It is
generally accepted that
of the Japanese
Amakuni,
the
first
of some twelve thousand Japanese swordsmiths whose names
and dates are known, produced the
Two
first
single-edged blades.
name are extant. In the second half of the eighth century the Amakuni blade was further developed by Yasutsuna, who worked under the divine or three swords bearing his
inspiration
of the gods and established the form of Japanese
sword blade
that has
been retained through the centuries.
Japanese scholars divide sword blades into
produced before 1600 being designated
two
koto,
classes,
those
or old swords,
new swords, although
the mirror at the Jingu shrines of Ise and the necklace or
and those made
jewels at the Imperial palace, constitute the Three Sacred
more recently the term kinkoto, or near-old swords, is generally used instead o( shinto. The superior quality of the koto blades was confmed to the work of a limited number of famous
Treasures of the Imperial Regalia of Japan.
meaning Hot
Field,
is
The name
Atsuta,
derived by popular etymology from
the legend of the sword, and
among
the
many
subsidiary
after that
time
shinto,
or
swordsmiths and their immediate followers, and was due
105
Tangs and points of koto visible
blades, with the pattern
on two of the blades, (i)
Sagami);
iijj-izjo.
c.
(2)
of watered
steel
Made by Kunimune (ofBizen and Made by Sadamune (Hosho of
principally to the exceptional tempering of the blades. This fine art tion.
was perfected only by long experience and observa-
The
art
(j)
Mino);
Seki,
the
Made by Kageniitsu Made by Kanemoto
early sixteenth century. Victoria
or small black-lacquered headpiece, while a
yeboshi
shimenawa, the sacred rice-straw rope of Shintoism, was
as
stretched across the smithy, with zigzag pieces of paper, called
and from master
to
gohei,
from
was
it
lost
father to son,
through death or became modified.
suspended from
good ones.
It is
it
to scare
said that the
away
evil spirits
Munechika of Satsuma was once performing ation in the forging of the blade
men
and the blades made by these
are always
of great value.
Because of their remarkable workmanship and practical value
weapons, the best of the koto blades have neither
equal, being the fmest blades ever
The word is
hatana,
strict
two swords,
or
sense
nor
his strong belief
Shinto
faith,
such blades,
al-
story is
of the blade
is
a critical oper-
as
Kokitsune-maru or
his assistant failed
him. But because
and adhcrance to the principles of the
he was
frequently acted
invite
assisted at this critical
moment by
the
form of a woman. This
not only a popular historical narrative but
on
the stage in a
No
play.
designates the longer of the
it
by
carried
all
of
known
Fox-Spirit of the Inari shrine, in the
applied to the single-edged
is
a rather generic term applied to
though in the more dai-sho,
which
like
produced anywhere.
Fox sword when
Little
and
famous tenth-century swordsmith
Many of these traditions were handed down for a considerable
sword,
(of
and Albert Museum.
length of time through schools or families of swordsmiths,
as
(of
of blade-making was transmitted exclusively
a professional secret pupil, until
Yaiiiato); early fourteenth century,
Osafune, Bizen); fourteenth century. (4)
the samurai, the shorter
one being the wakizashi. The elaborate nomenclature used by
PROCESSES OF SWORD-MAXING
Japanese sword experts for designating the almost endless types of blades
their points
are
made
is
by
distinguished
a science in
itself.
They
their relative length,
are described
and
and by the shape of
and backs. The metal from which these fme blades
is
principally derived
from
deposits
of magnetic
iron ore and ferruginous sand,
which produced iron and
of the most excellent
It is
quality.
steel
recorded that the forging
of these blades was considered an occupation pleasing to the gods and that lead a
as a requisite for success, the
more or
less religious life
according to the
Gods, and abstain from excesses of
swordsmith clad himself in
106
his
swordsmith must
all
kinds.
Way of the The master
ceremonial costume and wore
The
forging of the Japanese blade required the utmost
and calculation and the operations.
entire process
skill
was one of many tedious
The method of forging an
aU-steel blade,
and the
one preferred by the famous swordsmith Masamune, began with welding a a handle.
Other
strip
of steel to a rod of iron which served
strips
of steel were placed upon
it
into a bar of the required dimensions, usqally
eight inches in length
by one and
a quarter to
as
and welded
from
six to
two and
a
quarter inches in width, the thickness being from one-quarter to three-quarters sions
of an inch,
all
depending on the fmal dimen-
of the fmished blade. This bar was raised to a welding
Tangs and points c/shmto visible
black's,
on three of the blades, (i)
Made
Kyoto); dated 1632. (2)
with the pattern of watered steel
of Osaka); seventeenth century, (j)
Made
of Osaka);
by Mioju (Umetada, of
by Yoshimichi (Tamba-no-kami,
heat and notched in the middle with a chisel, then folded itself and welded,
upon
and then forged into its original dimensions.
At the beginning of the forging operation
the smith coated
the metal with a thin layer of clay containing ashes of burnt straw, before placing
it
on the
process of forging great care
fire,
and through the
was used so
that
no
entire
grit or dirt
got on the anvil, and the metal was never touched by the hand lest
some
vital
grease should adhere. All these precautions
importance because of the great
specks appearing in welding,
The
usual
method was
to
risk
of
were of
slight flaws or
which would impair the work.
weld four
repeat the doubling, welding,
bars together,
and then
and forging nineteen times, so
was composed of 4,194,304 layers of metal in its It is said that between each forging the bar was
the bar
thickness.
cooled in
oil
and water alternately. At
this stage
of the process
was drawn out under the hammer to
the bar
its
required
length and shape, and the prescribed curve was given to
Although whole blades were made of steel
described above,
as
a large proportion of Japanese swords are composite,
being made of steel and iron, or of steel, iron, and
of the two metals. There were
it.
a
some
compound
number of methods used by the swordsmiths in the process of forging, each having a name by which it is identified. Some of them are extremely complicated,
a
while others are comparatively simple, such
as the
popular form favored by the Bizen smiths in which a plate
of steel
is
the edge.
placed between
However,
it is
two of iron, with
the steel
said that the best
produced by welding together
plates
forming
examples were
of iron and
steel alter-
late
Made by Kuniteru (Kobayashi, (4) Made by Masayoshi
seventeenth century.
(Taira-no, of Satsuma) ; dated 1784. Victoria and Albert
and forging them nineteen times,
nately, folding, welding,
and then hammering them on the narrow edge
became the broad bar being
of the
hammered on
which
angle,
face
On many
is
Museum.
the edge,
it
was hammered on the
fme
called hoso-masa, or
blades, especially those
schools of the Senju-in of
imtil that
Sometimes, instead of the
bar.
fiber forging.
produced by the famous
Yamato and
the Awataguchi of
Yamashiro, there are beautiful markings. These are the
result
of peculiar methods of forging and of the juxtaposition of layers
of iron and steel of different
qualities,
in blades of the East. In early times steel
much
small furnaces
like those
which
and burnt
in
of a blacksmith's forge. This
having, from the bottom up, cast iron, hard iron,
coinmon
of quality and produced
resulted in an irregularity
wrought
is
was produced
iron. This
a
mass
steel, soft steel,
mass was broken into
small pieces and the desired qualities were selected
by the
experienced eye of the swordsmith, whose knowledge of metals was unequaled.
The swordmaker coidd then produce
almost any variety of blade he desired by welding the hard
and
soft pieces,
more
times.
was etched,
then doubling, welding, and forging several
When it
was
from this process The most common
the fmished product called
watered
steel.
etching substance was a hot solution of an impure native ferric sulphate applied with a rag.
developed, he was able to
mixing
selected qualities
and doubling the bars in ing. In
some
As the
make
of iron and a
manner
art
of the blade maker
recognizable patterns steel plates
by
and welding
that controlled the water-
types of Japanese blades the watering
efl^ect
was 107
;
by gouging out portions of the
eiiliaiiced
of forging and then bringing
stages
hammer
which
who
is
carefully
examined
its
surface in search
step
direction,
which produced fde marks
to shape the tang
by fding
fde marks as well as the shape of the tang in recognizing the
rounded and
are
maker of a
blade.
of defects.
in a particular
called yasmi-me. assist
These
Japanese experts
The ends of some
called chestnut-shape or kuri-jiri,
stroke of the sword. Since the tempering process
most important
tangs
is
one of the
stages in blade-making, great skill
perience were required to determine
visible.
kind of draw knife, and fded by the
a
The next
was
with the
was completed, the blade was scraped
the forging
a sen,
smith,
of metal would be
so the different layers
When with
surface at the later
to a level
it
and ex-
from the color alone
when the proper moment had arrived to plunge the blade into the water. Not otdy the temper of the blade, but also its form, deffended upon this decision. The tempering was so higlily important that the signature of the swordsmith
who tempered
the blade was sometimes placed on the tang along with the
smith
The
who
did the forging,
if it
was done by a
different
process -of grinding and polishing a Japanese
man.
sword
is
while
others are angular and called ken-kiyo. After the tang
was
shaped, the blade was roughly ground, and if the swordsmith
was
with
satisfied
he placed his name on the tang.
it,
ornamental work, such at that time. It
their blades;
was not the
The
practice for
all
swordsmiths to sign
Masamune and other famous
their blades because,
it is
said, these
crucial stage in the process
tempering, for
it is
Any
engraving on the blade, was done
as
smiths did not sign
could not be mistaken.
of making a blade
is
the
there that the skill of the swordsmith
taxed to the utmost to give the blade
its
This tempering produces the yakiba or tempered
of the blade, which is
a
is
real practical value. steel
edge
clouded band, usually from one-fourth
to one-half inch in width, rurming along the edge of the sword,
sometimes
a simple straight
as
special outlines. All
band and sometimes with
of the numerous forms of yakiba have
their special characteristics
and are designated by particular
names which, together with
their exceptions as to special
schools of swordsmiths, are almost endless. Although each
swordsmith probably had
his
ovra secret method, the general
process of producing the yakiba was to coat the blade to a thickness of about one-eighth inch with a clay having a
ferruginous character,
made of fme
river sand
mixed with
about one-tenth part of fmely powdered charcoal. Before the clay coating
moved by
on the blade had hardened,
was
a portion
re-
bamboo stick along the edge on either side to expose the metal. The inner margin of this strip of clay was either made straight, notched, waved, or formed with some a
peculiar outline.
the blade
over a
When the clay coating became dry and hard,
was securely held and moved backward and forward
fire
of fir charcoal, with the edge downward,
until the
proper temperature had been reached, which was determined
by
the color of the exposed part of the metal.
The
blade was
then plunged into a tub of warm water, in a vertical position if it
were a
straight blade, or in a horizontal position
Among
with the
many stories of swords, there is one about an occasion when Masamune was
point
first if it
were a curved
blade.
the
tempering a blade in the presence of another swordsmith noticing the latter stealthily put his hand into the water to learn
108
its
temperature,
Masamune
cut the
hand off with
a quick
Complete
and
suit
of armor
in
flame color and gold shou'i)ig the front
rear views with typical leg covering
century. Metropolitan
Museum of
and shoes; seventeenth
Art. Rogers Fund, 1904.
a meticulous operation, and a fine blade sometimes required
slightly
two months to fmish. The work was done on a large fme whet-
but the unusually sharp edge forms
stone that
was
peculiar to Japan
and whose exportation was
prohibited by Shogunate decree. Kneeling
sharpener held the blade in his
moved
it
upon
two hands with
backward and forward on the
lengthwise along the face of the blade are shitiogi,
which
is
the floor, the a rag
stone.
two
and
Rumiing
angles, the
along the back part, and the broader plane
called the jigane, sloping to the edge.
The
blade, usually
measuring from twenty-eight to thirty inches in length,
is
curved and a little broader
no
to point with
and always
flattening,
than
a perfect
at the point,
curve from heel
at the saine relative
from the curve of the back. Another amazing
distance
which
that the line
is
at its base
divides the shiiiogi and the jigatie
detail is
an
equally true intermediate curve, always at the same relative
from the other two
distance
back and edge.
at the
It
was an
achievement of the highest excellence of craftsmanship to
A vertical line
produce three such perfect curves.
cut off the
plane of the shinogi about one inch from the point, while the
of the edge continued in
line
curve to the back, and an
a
unparallel inner curve continued the dividing line of the shinogi
and the jigane to the back of the blade. The remarkable
strength o( the jigane
when it is ground by a higlily
is
achieved
skilled sharpener
who
will give
lessen the chances
of fracture. After the blade is perfectly sharp
it is
it
a slightly
convex shape to
fmished with a polishing stone dressed with
powder of
oil
and a fme
with a polishing
stone, then fmally burnished
On the fmished blade are a number of peculiar mark-
needle.
ings that
become
work
only after the
visible
and among the many
names applied
special
is
completed,
to these appear-
ances are the nini and the niye. Although these markings
do
not contribute to the quality of the blade, their existence considerably enhances fat
its
value.
The
resemble the minute
nini
globules seen in milk and produce cloudy spots, while the
niyc,
which
The
are
more
minute specks.
rare, are brilliant
of a sword blade was of the
practical effectiveness
utmost importance to the military man, for
depended upon
its
trustworthiness.
factors entered into the
it
to determine the origin
was signed or unsigned,
to impart this
It is
said the first
knowledge
origin of a given blade.
the marks that indicated
The
function of the mekiki
to estimate
its
pecuniary value, and
to the samurai.
in gold,
kakihan
Reading its
Even the most outat
times as to the
a blade, seeing
maker, was an
and long experience.
ticated, the
of these sword
and quality of a blade, whether
standing and reputable of the mekiki differed
faculties
essential
was appointed by the Ashikaga Shogun
Takauji in the fourteenth century.
was
many
there developed
whose knowledge and experience
to the samurai.
experts, or mekiki,
his life frequently
as so
make-up of a sword,
the official sword expert
was invaluable
And
and knowing
art requiring special
When a blade had been authen-
name of the maker was placed on
the tang, usually
and often with the signature of the mekiki and (seal)
Among
his
added in gold.
the celebrated mekiki
were the sword sharpeners of
Honami and Miyoshi families, whose traditions were handed down for many generations. One of the best known is Honami Kosetsu, who was appointed by Hideyoshi in the the
sixteenth century.
It
was probably he
who
introduced the
custom of signing unsigned blades in gold, although some 109
Honami Kotoku, who wrote a treatise on blades The certificate, or ori-kami, of the tnekiki was written on a sheet of a special kind of thick paper known as kaga hosho, made for the Shogun in the province of Kaga, attribute
it
to
some time
earlier.
and of which only a hundred
The
certificate
the blade,
which
it
its
sheets
were produced each
gave the name and residence of the maker of
by
dimensions, and any peculiar characteristics
could be identified.
It
further stated the blades'
estimated value in gold, and was signed by the
sometimes by more than one. The
on
year.
the reverse side.
The
seal
or
seals
tnekiki frequently
or
tnekiki,
were impressed
mentioned,
among
other things, that he considered the blade worthy of becoming
an heirloom, since aristocracy
it
was the
traditional practice
among
and noble famihes to regard fme swords
the
as heir-
retainers
and military
friends. In the year 1702 a
list
of
this
nature was compiled in which values were given in mai of gold, a measure of value introduced in the sixteenth century
during the time of Nobunaga.
It
was equivalent to the gold
oban, which contained about 4.82 ounces of gold, and
its
value at that time was equal to about one hundred dollars. In that
no value was given
list
to the blades
of
six
famous
swordsmiths, but the highest value of fifty mai was attached
Sadamune of
to the swords of
adopted as
soft
the
Kamakura
of Masamune. Other values in the
smiths, an
list fall as
low
one mai, in which fmal category there were about twenty
names, including Muramasa, whose blades, although unsurpassed for quality, bore a reputation for bloodthirstiness
and
ill-luck.
Blade experts differed widely in their evaluation
looms. Prior to the end of the sixteenth century there were a
of the positions of the various swordsmiths, on account of their
number of famous famiUes of swordsmiths and from time
partiahty for certain schools.
time the experts prepared
lists
to
of blade makers, arranged
according to the experts' estimate of their merits, and added to
it
the average value of their blades. Such a list
for Hideyoshi toward the
enable
him
was compiled
SWORDMAKERS AND TRADITIONS
end of the sixteenth century to
to select suitable blades for presentation to his
The
signatures of the early swordsmiths appearing
on the
tang are remarkably brief, usually consisting of two characters,
and
some
in
cases
only one, forming the maker's name, to-
gether with the place of residence. Swordsmiths of the twelfth
century
was
all
had
official titles
rarely indicated
when
it
also
or honorary rank, although this
on the blade
became the
until the succeeding century,
practice to
add such names
as Fuji-
wara, Minamoto, and Taira to their own. Honorary such
as
kami and
daijo
titles
were in frequent use in the sixteenth
century and almost every swordsmith of importance added a tide to his signature. Besides the signature
of the swordsmith,
Japanese blades often carry curious and interesting items
engraved on the tang. Occasionally they
was made
by two
state that the
especially for a particular person, that
smiths, or that
giving the
it
was tempered by a
number of times
famous swordmakers are
it
as
it
blade
was made
certain smith,
had been forged. The names of
well
known
to the Japanese as
those of the foremost painters, writers, calligraphers, and historical figures, for the art
upon
as the
of the blade maker was looked
most honorable of all
makers appeared in the
crafts.
latter part
The
greatest blade
of the Kamakura period
(1185-1333), notably Yoshimitsu of Awataguchi in Kyoto,
Masamune of Sagami, 1264-1343, and his pupil Go Yoshihiro, 1299-1325. The name of Masamune has passed 1229-1291,
into the Japanese language as a term signifying supreme excellence, for a
Masamune
operated his forge
blade was unequaled.
at the feudal military capital
where blade makers from the provinces came
Masamune
of Kamakura,
to acquire
more
knowledge from the great master. In the beginning of the thirteenth century a great impetus to
Kabuto
or helmet of iron,
insigtie.
Signed
Museum
of Art. Gift of Bashford Dean, 1914.
Unohouiye;
lacquer,
and
eighteenth
silk
with a wild-hoar
cetitury.
Metropolitan
swordmaking was given
who summoned
by the Emperor Gotoba,
number ot the him in rotation.
a
foremost swordmakers to Kyoto to attend Besides demonstrating their
skill
gave him instructions in the
in his Imperial presence, they
of blade-making. Emperor
art
Gotoba himself produced blades of excellent
which
sixteen-petal
some of
quality,
and marked on the tang with the Imperial
are extant
chrysanthemum. These blades are most highly
make of the
treasured in Japan, and are called kiku-go-saku, or
august chrysanthemum.
The succeeding
centuries
swordmaking, not
in
the names of
many
were
also periods
of great
as brilliant as in earlier times,
activity
although
great smiths appeared, especially in the
seventeenth century. In 1877 the Imperial government under
Emperor Meiji
issued an edict prohibiting the samurai
wearing the sword, which had been not only also the distinctive
mark of his
from
his privilege
traditional military caste.
but
The
sword had been the center of the old military life of Japan and it
was
a part of the education of samurai youths to
history and
its
etiquette, for
fifteen they entered
man's
when
know
and were honored
estate
to
down from
the coveted weapon. Swords were handed to son as heirlooms and treasured as a
its
they reached the age of
wear father
the
Nuke-mam or
the Springer Out, belonging to the great
feudal Taira family.
It is
said the
Kogarasu-mam was made
Kammu
during the time of Emperor
and once was
in 782
away by a crow. The Nuke-mam was made in the year 820 and is said to have sprung from its scabbard to destroy a
carried
was about to
serpent that
was
asleep.
Then
there
is
strike
Taira-no-Tadamori while he
sword of the
the famous heirloom
Minamoto family called the Hize-Kiri or Beard Cutter, which was made iii the tenth century and whose edge was so keen passed through his beard
that after cutting off a
man's head
before the head
Another famous Minamoto heirloom
sword
is
fell.
Hiza-mam or Knee
the
the same period and
when
is
said to
it
Cutter,
used to behead a kneeling criminal,
knees in
its
downward
stroke.
which was made
have had such
There are
it
fme edge
a
would also
cut his
number of in-
also a
teresting stories regarding certain superstitions associated
particular swords or their nukers.
in
that
Some were
with
considered to
bring good fortune, happiness, and longevity to the owner,
while others were believed to be unlucky and bring misfortune.
blades of Muramasa of Ise,
The
latter part
who flourished in the
of the fourteenth century, were considered to be
most cherished possession.
A sword was also traditionally given by a father to his daughter
the
on her wedding day as a symbol of that purity of life which
woman was
expected to keep, and
with which she might take her
do
to
so.
it
was
also the blade
own life should it be necessary
In feudal times a samurai's
life
was pledged
to his
lord and he was never sure of the fortunes that the following
day would bring, for his
own hand
his life
might be taken in a
fight, or
by
under orders of the death penalty for some
breach of the rigid code of samurai etiquette.
was therefore
It
sword be well
and
of utmost importance
that his
properly cared
edge should be so keen that a man's
for. Its
head could be cut off
one blow, and
at
selected
if skillfully
leave a shred of skin at the throat for the head to
the breast.
cutting
The
Japanese blade
weapon of the
swords of Damascus,
is
generally regarded as a
highest order, unsurpassed Persia,
extraordinarily thorough
and
India. This
privately,
persons ties are
its
by even the
was due to the
workmanship, the swordsmith's
primary desire being to produce a blade that was a credit to
done,
hang upon
reliable
and
maker. At times the samurai's blade was tested
and sometime
officially,
by
cutting
up corpses of
who had paid the death penalty. The blade's capabilioccasionally found engraved
swords a statement
is
two, or three bodies
on the
inscribed that
at a single
it
tang,
and on some
had cut through one,
blow.
Japanese literature contains a wealth of accounts, both historical
and legendary, of famous swords connected with
the lives of great figures of the past. These include the famous
heirloom swords
as the
Kogarasu-mam or the Little Crow, and
Kabuto of
iron
with horii-like oniauieiit and a mask made
resemble a mythical winged being called tengu. the seventeenth-eighteenth century, while the
Metropolitan
Museum of Art.
The helmet
mask
is
dated
Gift of Bashford Dean, 1914.
1
is
to
of
713.
WiUow-leaf-type
Left above: reeds; signed
steel
arrowhead depicting herons and
Umetada Hikohei no-jo Motoshige, and dated 1645.
Metropolitan Museum ofArt. Giot'antiiP.MorosiniCollection, 1932. Bifurcated steel arrowhead with
Right:
eighteenth
Metropolitan
century.
a design
Museum
of wisteria;
Giovanni
of Art.
P. Morosini Collection, 1932. Left:
Steel arrowhead in shape of a gem, 'depicting the story of
Kwakhyo; 1645.
unworthy quality.
as
well as bloodthirsty, although of the highest
Muramasa, a pupil of Masamune, was a most
swordsmith but he possessed
a violent
skillful
mind verging on
madness, which was believed to have passed into his blades.
Tokugawa leyasu,
for instance, having
by them, held them to be unlucky. the
Muramasa
suicide or even
the
been accidentally cut
was a popular belief that
blades could induce their
murder and
owner would
blade with
It
that
owners
to
commit
once a blade had killed a man,
die of starvation unless he appeased the
more blood. The lucky and unlucky
attributed to the blades of certain
characteristics
famous swordsmiths have
signed Umetada Hikohei no-jo Motoshige, and dated
Metropolitan
Museum
Ciovanni P. Morosini
of Art.
Collection,
1932.
(522-645),
armor made of small
these suits
time. Portions of
first
of armor are preserved in the Shosoin
gether with a large
number of arms,
of the Emperor Shomu, variety
together and
plates, laced
overlapping, was introduced for the
who
all
dating
at
Nara
from
to-
the time
reigned from 724 to 749. This
of armor was adopted by the Japanese and modified
according to their
own desires and requirements. It was during
the Fujiwara era (897-1185), in the latter part of the Heian
period, that the
developed.
The
two
principal types
of Japanese armor were
one called oyoroi or great harness was used
by
and consisted of
generals and other warriors of superior rank
influenced their monetary value through the centuries and at
a full suit including the helmet and the large protecting pieces
one time the Muramasa blades were even stricken from the
for the
blade experts' Hsts,
maki or wrapping the belly, was worn by the
arms and shoulders. The other form,
and consisted principally of
cuirass
and
known
as hara-
common soldiers
tasses
without the
shoulder pieces and without the use of a helmet. During the
ARMOR
fifteenth century fighting
hehiiets
With
the increase of commercial intercourse between
Japan and the Asiatic mainland during the Asuka period
112
on horseback began
of armor. The Japanese helmet, or piece of
to decline
and
and shoulder pieces were then worn with both types
armor and
is
made
kabuto,
in a variety
is
a
of
most
interesting
types.
The form
gether with
silk cords.
together in the same
The whole
manner
suit
of armor itself was held
as the shikoro, that
of iron were laced together by
plates
with the cords forming a pattern. latter part
It is
the
is,
many
or leather cords,
silk
said that during the
of the ninth century the great feudal families adopt-
ed particular colors for the cords on their armor, the Fujiwara using light green, the Tachibana yellow, and the Taira purple. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries during the
kura period the mihtary increased
class
it
was not
trace their origin
press Jingo,
and sixteenth centuries
of hereditary armorers rose to
positions of importance, the
was claimed
swordmaker and armorer. Al-
until the fifteenth
that the great famflies
all,
Kama-
feudal system steadily
its
power, and with the growing number of samurai
its
created a golden era for both
though
and
Myochin
back several centuries
to descend
their
family, the greatest of
The family
earlier.
from the Prime Minister of the Em-
who invaded Korea
at the
head of an army in the
middle of the third century. However,
was not
it
until the
middle of the twelfth century that the recorded history of the Steel arrowhead with a pierced design
Left: the
of sages playing
game of go signed IJmetada Hikobei no-jo Motoshige, dated
family begins with Munesuke,
who had
time been
at that
;
Museum of
Metropolitan
1645.
Collection,
Giovanni P. Morosini
Art.
given the family
The
1932.
name of Myochin by
Myochins
pre-eininent position of the
Japanese art
is
Emperor Konoye.
the
in the history of
not only based upon the superb quality of their
armor, but also on their claim to being the founders of ironRight:
Steel arrowhead with a pierced design of peonies
Chinese
lion or shishi; signed
and dated
1645.
and a
Umetada Hikohei no-jo Motoshige,
Museum
Metropolitan
of Art.
Giovanni
work
as
an
art.
They were armorers
more
eighteenth century, and retained during aU that time the fore-
most position in the armorer's
P. Morosini Collection, 1932.
to the court for
than six hundred years, from the twelfth to the end of the
art.
The hammer work
in iron
executed on a piece of armor or on an okimono attributed to
most frequently seen has the
hachi or
crown made of a number
of gores of iron riveted together with joints,
which
a ridge
while keeping the hehnet light in weight. ation, there
formed
at their
offered powerful resistance to the cut of a
is
To
sword
serve as ventil-
usually an aperture at the top of the helmet
called the hachimanza. This
generally in the
is
chrysanthemum with the aperture
in the center.
on
its
it
was
a visor.
These iron masks were tied to the hehiiet and were
fantastic animals.
Above
which
is
a generic term
tokonoma or
that served as
apphed
to
alcove, developed
amusement
for the
Some of the most exquisite
and most ingenious of these earlier okimono, such as the wonderfully articulated fish,
came from
models of birds, dragons, the studios of the
serpents,
Myochin, and
and cray-
are master-
pieces of the metal art.
the peak were fastened
the curious ornaments resembling a pair of called tsunomoto, while in a socket
fixed the forecrest or mayedate.
teenth centuries the as a
okimono,
decorative ornaments for the
to represent not only terrible-looking faces, but also
demons and were
The making of
glyptic artists of the older schools.
a
on
made
armor is extremely tough, capable
into a special art and afforded occasional
is
underside to reflect gro-
on the iron mask
their
of resisting powerful blows from swords and other weapons.
There
tesquely
the face, as well as
though thin and light,
form of a
mayezashi or peak riveted to the lower part of the hachi; frequently lacquered red
the Myochin is unexcelled. The practical excellence of their work and their manipulation of the iron is unsurpassed. Al-
horns which
During the fifteenth and six-
mon or family
crest
motif in the decoration of armor.
tector
flat
ARCHERY
between the horns was
came into general
A shikoro
use
or neck pro-
was attached to the back of the helmet, and was com-
posed of from three to seven rows of metal plates laced to-
The most primitive weapon of sport and warfare is and arrow, and in no other country did
it
the
bow
attain greater
im-
portance than in Japan. Although firearms were introduced into Japan until a
by the Portuguese
very
late period,
in 1543, the
bow and
arrow,
remained the most important of
113
weapons, and the skill offamous archers was celebrated through the centuries. Archery
was an
essential part
of the Ufe of the
and the custom of shooting from horseback so
nobles,
as to
examples of bows of the eighth century are preserved in the Shosoin five
at
Nara. These ancient
and a half to seven
bows range
send an arrow accurately in any direction while in swift
deciduous woods, those of azusa or catalpa
motion was part of
sidered the best.
Japan, archery sentations
their education. Like the other arts
was probably introduced from China. Repre-
of famous Chinese archers are frequently portrayed
on metalwork, the most noted being Yoyuki, have shot
of
down
aim accurately directed by the cry of the Japanese nuhtary
who
is
said to
a goose flying invisible above a cloud, his
commanders armed with
bird. Pictures
a
bow and
of
with a
quiver of arrows on the back are frequently seen in old scrollpaintings.
The bow and arrow
ciated with the lives of
Thus Jinmiu Tenno, the trayed holding his
And
bow
the Empress Jingo
Korea
has been traditionally asso-
famous Japanese since ancient times. first
Emperor of Japan,
is
hand, and in another picture she
is
Steel
Left:
at the
it.
with her
bow in her
seen writing the characters
highly
is
the
peculiar features, the
form of the bow. The
usual
which averaged about
elastic piece,
wood being
bow was
six
con-
first
a long,
and a half feet
in length with a curvature
which was reversed when the
weapon was
It
strung for use.
arrow was discharged
at a
was held
vertically,
and the
point nearly two-thirds of the
way
dowTi the bow, and always on the right side of the bow. The bowstrings were
made of hemp
fibers twisted together
loops at the ends, and since Japanese arrows were of greater length than
with
much
Western ones, the bowstring was drawn
well behind the ear. Another peculiar feature of the Japanese
bows is
that are preserved in
their single curve,
but a
flatter
curve
at
which
many of the is
temples and shrines
not a true segment of a
one end than
at the other.
bow and the
circle,
Therefore the
not in the
upon
the face of a rock
greatest distance
time of her conquest.
A numberof fine
middle but about two-thirds of the way from the top, where
koku-o, or sovereign of the country,
bow
often por-
depicted during her invasion of
in the third century riding a horse
with her
is
with a giant crow perched upon
many
7apanese archery presents
of which
from
in length
and are made with a variety of
feet
arrowhead pierced
with
between the
string
is
a
cherry blossom design and the characters of the
Tenjin shrine; signed Toshiyoshi or
Shunkichi; eighteenth century. Metropolitan
Museum of Art. Giovanni
sini Collection,
Center:
P.
Moro-
1932.
Willow-leaf-type steel arrowhead
pierced with Japanese characters. Eighteenth century.
Metropolitan
Museum of
Giovanni P. Morosini Collection,
Right:
Art.
1932.
Steel arrowhead with the design
of a dragon entwined around a sword; eighteenth century. Metropolitan
Museum ofArt.
Giovanni P. Morosini Collection,
1932.
Right:
Steel arrowhead in the shape of a jewel pierced with the
design of a dragon; eighteenth century. Metropolitan
Giovanni P. Morosini Collection, 1932.
114
Museum ofArt.
the grip
placed.
is
The Japanese bow is of excellent composite up of two thin strips of bamboo be-
construction, being built
tween which are set three somewhat thicker strips of deciduous
wood
placed edgewise so as to increase
two
outside of these are set danea,
all
strips
being secured with
bound with
its
strength.
On
of haze wood, Rhus
fish glue,
the
succe-
the case of the
the great military figures of medieval times are famous for
famous twelfth-century archer whose adventures are told
a
some examples
the literary classic called Yumiharizuki, sank a boat with a
the
bow
touches these metal facings for some distance from the ends,
weight.
produces a sound
when
striking against them. This
signaling,
Emperor required water
and
twanging
their
it is
would
that
sound
when
the
morning during
signal his desire
by
bows.
belonged to famous
number of very long
historical figures,
and
it is
easUy seen from their form and size that they are very powerful.
Two
of these are
Miyajima on the Inland
at the great
Sea.
Itsukushima shrine at
One, eight
feet
nine inches in
length, belonged to Yuasa Matashichiro ; the other five inches long.
The
eight feet nine inches in length and an
On
usual length
is
is
eight feet
six feet five inches, as in
in
arrow of great
another occasion in the twelfth century during
the battle of Yashima, a beautiful island in the Inland Sea
renowned
for
its
magnificent views and a place of refuge of
the Taira clansmen, the Taira fastened a fan to a in the
bamboo
pole
bow of one of their boats and challenged the Minamoto
to exhibit their skill at archery. Yoichi, the best
Preserved in temples and shrines are a
bows
said that
for washing in the
ancient times, three of his retainers
One of these, Minamoto-no-Tametomo,
their archery feats.
then lacquered and
rattan at various points. In
was frequently used in
1147-1199,
Hachimangu shrine at Kamakura,
which was founded in 1063 by Minamoto Yorioshi. Many of
ends are faced with metal, and since in some bows the string
it
bow of Minamoto Yoritomo,
preserved at the Tsurugaoka
bowman, distance
of nearly a hundred yards,
squarely
on
its
rivet
The arrowhead,
and
it
that
it
dropped into the
called yauo-ne or yajiri,
interesting products
is
struck the fan sea.
one of the most
of the Japanese metalworker. Produced
by famous swordsmiths, the fmest examples richness in
arrow
is
Minamoto
discharged his arrow with such accuracy, from a
form and ornament. The
in accounts
earliest
display great
mention of an
of the mythological age shortly
after the
gods gave birth to the islands of Japan. The sun goddess had sent
two
deities to earth to prepare the
way
Ninigi-no-Mikoto, upon
whom
power of the realm
handed down
to be
for her grandson
she bestowed the sovereign to posterity.
of these divine messengers, having decided to
and
rule himself,
of heaven.
plains
was
killed
Among
But one
on
earth
by an arrow dropped from the
the
many
great makers of orna-
Umetada Myoju, 1558-1632, sword-
mental arrowheads
is
smith to Hideyoshi,
who
is
often regarded as the
first
to raise
The fame of his arrowheads was almost as of his sword blades, and it is among these later
the craft to an great as that
stay
art.
arrowheads that the most elaborate examples are found. This beautiful
yama
work on yano-ne became popular during the Momo-
period (1573 -161 5) with the developing taste for rich
and gorgeous decoration. During the two hundred and
Edo
years of peace of the
became more
elaborate,
most of the decorative arrowheads
being pierced and saw-cut with a great variety of designs. yanagi or willow-leaf arrowhead,
shapes and proportions,
is
the
which appears
Imperial
kiri
Among
the
the
crests,
(paulownia) and the Imperial kiku (chrysanthe-
the yang and yin symbols of creation, the written
characters for sorts
The
many
most often seen are the sakura or cherry blossom, the
heart-shaped petal of the sakura, dragons, family
mum),
in
most frequent form, ornament-
ed with an endless variety of openwork designs. designs
fifty
period, ornamental ironwork
Hachiman Dai Bosatsu or god of war, and
of typical Japanese motifs, such
These arrowheads are
as the
all
plum and bamboo.
also frequently seen
with beautifully
115
Willow-leaf-type
Left:
arrowhead
steel
with pierced cherry-blossom design; eighteenth century. Metropolitan
Museum ofArt.
Giovanni P. Morosini Collection,
1932.
Willow-leafsteel arrowhead pierc-
Center:
ed with the Itnperial kiri
crest; eighteenth
Museum of
Metropolitan
century.
Giovanni P. Morosini Collection, Right:
arrowhead
Whistling
Art.
1932.
made
of
wood; seventeenth century. Metropolitan
Museum of
Art. Gift of Bashford Dean,
1914.
executed characters in openwork bearing the names of owners, deities,
and so
in pierced
forth.
work
to be floating.
Many
contain Buddhist prayers written
so skillfully
done
that the characters appear
Many of these Buddhist inscriptions were made
for warriors to use as an offering to a temple, others as
trophies in
others for hunting, and ornamental ones such as those
worn
palace guards, with the arrows spread out and the
feathers protruding behind their backs like the
tail
They are
little
conical
or quadrangular in shape, though most of the quivers found in temples are shaped like an armchair with a high back
made
to hold
from twenty
and
to thirty
arrows and they were apparently intended to stand on the floor.
The common arrows were
similar to those used in
and
war
archery and had
conical iron points. For the chase
the arrowheads
were of steel and appear in a great variety of
shapes and
sizes.
for
Although there are many subdivisions, the
chief categories were the yanagi-ya or wihow-leaf arrows,
116
and a half to the same.
six
The
and
sharp,
a half inches,
kari-mata
some of the willow-
forin,
and some of the pointed
but
its
varies
principle
was not only used
for
from one
was always
war but
also
for big game, and had both the inner curve and the outer edge
of equal sharpness.
framework of bamboo, while the others were
frequently lacquered or otherwise decorated.
latter are
and
be almost heart-shaped. In the kari-mata
as to
had very long
more than
The
arrows so wide
usually
quivers and those used in
short legs.
leaf arrows being long
of a peacock.
war were
The hunting a
cated or two-pointed arrows, and togari-ya or pointed arrows.
Each of these types varies greatly in
arrowhead the distance between the points
honor of victories in war.
There were many types o(yebira or quivers, some for war,
by the
watakusi or flesh tearers or barbed arrows, kari-mata or bifur-
more
Many
of the larger and
sometimes measuring
tangs,
earlier
in length, as a necessary counterpoise, since in
specimens the head weighed particular interest
which
is
is
as
much
sometimes called hiki-me. This
shaped contour, with
is
its
usually
is
the
flat
a pear-
shoulder or broadest part near the
top or foremost portion. Around the shoulder
on
Of
the sounding or
made of wood with
with four oblong holes, each hole having aperture
some
as eight ounces.
the kahura-ya or turnip-headed arrow,
whistling arrow, which
shrill
examples
fifteen inches or
its
it is
pierced
corresponding
top or nose of the arrowhead.
The
sharp,
whistling they produced as they ascended and descended
was used
as a signal, as
well as serving to terrify the enemy.
IX Sword Decoration and Mounts
I .
N THE
early centuries
mounts were simple and few
its
when
the
sword was
in almost constant use as a fighting
weapon,
number, being primarily
in
functional accessories to the weapon.
But
as the feudal
system
developed and the samurai increased in power and wealth, the art of
sword mounts came
not wear jewelry, so the
art
to embellish the sword,
into being.
The
Japanese did
of the metalworker was employed
and the most eminent
chasers contributed their talents to
period the sword was rarely used
its
and scabbard being
it
The
alloys,
combined with exquisite inlay-
ing and chasing, are of remarkable beauty.
beautiful
and unique
palette,
artist
unknown
had
With
this extra-
at disposal a
in the
most
metalwork of
in gold
sword
a Japanese
as is
was never practiced on the blade of
customary in other Oriental countries,
although the swordsmiths occasionally damascened their
names on some of the
koto,
or old blades.
of decorating a blade was by engraving,
The
earliest
as seen in
method
examples
preserved in temples dating from the Nara and Heian periods.
Common
on
early blades are engraved invocations to
dhist divinities, such as Fudo,
Diva Kings. his victory as these
It is
Shotoku Taishi attributed
over Moriya in the year 587 to invocations such his helmet.
gods of good fortune, and
is
and in the
and
as
such he
is
one of the supreme
trinity,
—a perfect mani-
of the absolute truth of the universe, equivalent to Dainichi.
Of
the three divinities forming the
known as the destroyer, but since death is a transition to a new form of life, the destroyer is really a recreator, and thus Fudo is styled the Bright or Happy One. He trinity,
is
Fudo
is
represented seated over the brink of a precipice, or standing
on
a rock, surrounded
by
flames. In his right
a vajra hilted sword, and in his
left is
hand he
carries
a rope for the binding
and chastisement of the powers of evil.
The most form of
hi,
usual type of decoration
on the blade
is
in the
or grooves, with the larger grooves serving to
left
strength. In section these grooves are always segments circle,
those of moderate width being mostly semicircles, while
in the wider ones there are frequently motifs
worked in
relief
These grooves, which were sometimes treated with red quer,
its
of a
were
called chi-tiaga-shi, or
lac-
blood chamiels, by the com-
mon people. In another mode of early decoration, chasing was combined with pierced work, the
subject usually represented
being Ama-Kurikara, the dragon entwining a sword.
found either in a wide groove or in a panel having
It is
a triangular
end, with the design cut through the blade.
Bishamon is one of the seven
shown in full armor, with a fierce
expression, carrying in his right shrine,
Bud-
Bishamon, or one of the four
said that Prince
engraved on
Siva,
render the blade lighter in weight without weakening
any other country.
Damascening
—or Fudo, a
or Dainichi Nyorai in Japanese Buddliism
Buddha or
lavishly decorated.
ordinary range the Japanese metal
Hindu god festation
combinations, unusual patinas, and color treatment of the metals used on sword mounts,
the rain dragon entwining a sword
is
and
weapon, and
around the beginning of the thirteenth
Buddhist divinity. Fudo corresponds to Achala, a form of the
Edo
as a fighting
until
but also with intaglios usually representing Ama-Kurikara
—^which
artists
adornment, with an increased number of ornamental mounts its hilt
was not
decoration. In the
gradually evolved into the most important object of personal
on
It
century that blades were decorated not only with engraving
a lance.
hand a small pagoda-shaped
He
is
equivalent to the
god of riches, but because he is depicted with armor and lance, he has been erroneously included
among
TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS
Hindu
the gods of war.
The
earliest
Japanese sword was the double-edged ken,
which was succeeded by the
first
single-edged sword in the
117
Three
From be
mounted tachi
beautifully
on a sword rack.
(slung swords)
Tachi
top to bottom: (i)
worn
to
at court ceremonies, signed
on ura (back side of tang) "Etchu-
no-Kami made
Fujiwara-no-Masatoshi,
of Lord Tsunemitsu
to order
of Shonu rank," and dated 1682. (2)
Tachi
Tachi
he ivorn ivith armor,
to
only partly
signature
worn
be
to
legible,
remnants of signature on
monies,
omote
(front face
of tang), possibly
and Albert
fifteenth century. Victoria
Museum.
eighth century, called the
was supplanted
then has been used
as a state
similar except for the tachi
Many
tachi.
as a fighting
ago the
centuries
tachi
weapon by the katana, and since sword. The tachi and katana were
manner
was suspended from the
in
which they were
sash
carried; the
by two cords with
its
blade
edge downward, and the katana was thrust in the sash with edge upward. The mounts or different shapes
Dai-sho called
(pair
of swords carried by a warrior), the long sword
katana and the short sword
called
wakizashi. The blades are
of the fifteenth century and the mounts are of the eighteenth century. Metropolitan
Museum of Art.
Gift of Howard Mansfield, 1936.
by
different
and
is
blade,
fittings
from those on the
names. The katana
distinguished
by
its
is
on
A
similar
sword
its
of
a tachi are also
usual swords
and are known
the national
sword of Japan
long, slightly curved, single-edged
which averages from twenty-eight
length.
to thirty inches in
called the wakizashi
was
also carried
the samurai, along with the katana, as a supplementary
by
weapon whose the
word
blade usually measured about eighteen inches
The combination of these swords
in length.
dai referring to the katana or
on
the custom to leave the long
their
sword
owner,
its
called dai-sho,
mounts. But, since at the
a house and to place the shorter one
beside
is
longer sword, and sho
Very often the dai-sho pair had
to the ivakizashi or shorter one. identical or similar designs
it
was
door when entering
on the
tatami or
mat
was frequently more elaborately
the latter
decorated. It
was the
tradition for a samurai to give a small
age. This
a
first
of
sword of the military man's son was known
as
charm sword and had
male children under
the hilt and scabbard covered in bro-
caded sUk with a kinchaku, or purse, attached to
wear
the son
Goda
bard and mounted with fmely worked
118
Collection, gift of a trustee,
1917.
started to
his
it.
But when
ceremonial dress, he was pre-
Fuchi and kashira made o/shakudo, by Mitsuotomo Kikuoka; eighteenth century. Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Masauji
first
sword
five years
called mamori katana to his
(j)
court cere-
at
sented with a short sword having a plain black-lacquer scabfittings. Tliis is
the
]
A
Left:
tanto having
having a kozuka
and sheath of ebony with
hilt
gold mounts depicting
and flowers, and
butterflies
(small
knife).
Made
Natsuo, and signed and dated 1866.
Museum of Art.
A
Right:
H. O. Havemeyer,
Bequest of Mrs.
H. O. Havemeyer
1909, The
by Kano
Metropolitan
Collection.
nhieteenth-century aikuchi ivith scabbard
and kozuka (small knife) with a seventeenth-century
The
blade.
and
hilt
and scabbard
are
made of steel,
Museum of
Metropolitan
lacquer.
silver,
Art. Gift of
William B. Osgood Field, 1949.
sword
was
that
also carried
by men when wearing
the kama-
shimo, or court dress. Smaller blade weapons, such as daggers,
were is
mounted. The
also beautifully
tanto,
rarely longer than twelve inches,
and usually had the
hilt
was
whose curved blade fitted
with a guard
and scabbard mounted with
all
the
fittings
used on the sword, generally elaborately decorated.
Also in
this
category
is
the aikuchi, a knife or dagger without
with a hilt and scabbard which were frequently made
a guard,
of metal and elaborately decorated. During the Tokugawa period the aikuchi was carried by persons of rank and tired soldiers,
and was
committing
also used in
by
re-
hara-kiri, or
ceremonial suicide. Another interesting weapon witliin the category of daggers
is
which
the kwaiken,
is
an early form of
either a single-edged or double-edged knife carried
nese
women
by Japa-
and used for ceremonial suicide by severing
The
hilt
which is
of the Japanese sword
more
in length
which
is
an oval rarely exceeding one and five-
combines the most beautiful designs with the fmest workmanship.
With minute
by the foremost
chasing of extraordinary
usually
is
from
eight to ten
and generally covered with same,
a rendered sharkskin.
It is
white in color and is cover-
on the fuchi.
on the
kashira,
ornaments called menuki, which are held in place by a project-
wound round
ing pin or by braid
the
hilt.
matched pair and frequently conform fittings.
Fine examples of menuki
They
worked by
metals are occasionally signed pieces
in gold or other
celebrated artists
are remarkable for their jewel-like quality.
often in the
form of dragons,
variety of the
most
Sometimes a broad
as
They
human and animal
the rivet or mekugi fre-
it
dragons or a dragon entwining a sword, and
up, and
then ground dowoi to a smooth surface and polished. This
known
as same-nuri,
ance of tiny rounded discs of ivory tsukaito,
is
or sharkskin lacquer, and has the appearset in
which is placed over the same, is
black lacquer.
a braid
The
wound round
the hilt in various patterns, leaving rhomboidal spaces through
which the same
mount
is
visible.
On
the
pommel
called the kashira, while at the
is
the protective
lower part of the
hilt
next to the guard is thefuchi, or ring into which the base of the hilt
fits.
In spite of the small surface at the disposal of the
artist.
found on the
The
hilt
subjects.
of metal, called the dogame, encircles
with black lacquer
filled
usually decorated with a design of
of a
and
most
flying cranes, rabbits, tigers,
the middle of the hilt and through It is
are
temple guardians, and an endless
interesting
collar
are usually a
in design to the other
quently passes.
hollow centers are
and the sub-
On either side of the hilt is a pair of
ed with small lumps which are rasped down, partially covered until the
when done
combinations of colored metals, the principal
also for their
part of the design being executed
ordinate part
skill
masters, the kashira andfuchi are remarkable
Buddhist divinities such
the veins in the neck.
inches or
the kashira,
eighths inches in length and five-eighths of an inch in breadth,
tanto, a variety
is
two
principally
of dagger.
decoration of the scabbard of the sword varied both in
extent and character depending
upon
which the weapon was intended.
the size and purpose for
In the dai-sho or pair
of
swords, mentioned above, the scabbards were almost always
made o( hinoki,
the Japanese cypress.
They were
lacquered in
black and frequently decorated with the crest or mon of the
owner
in gold lacquer,
and had a fmely decorated metal cap
at the tip called the kojiri.
The wakizashi was usually fitted with 119
Left:
o/menuki in gold and other metah depicting the famous Chinese Kwanyu and Chorio; eighteenth century. Metropolitan Museum
Pair
warriors
of Art. The Sylmaris Collection,
Below:
Pair of gold
of George C. Graves, 1931.
gift
menuki representing quail; made by Motonori, nineMuseum of Art. The Masauji Goda Collection,
teenth century. Metropolitan gift
two
small sheaths
which were hollowed
the scabbard at the top, and in these
oj.it
on
either side
of
were carried two small
knives called the kogai and the kozuka. At the edge of the sheath for the kogai
is
a guard or protective
mental metal called the is
kurikata,
had
aiid
The
kurikata also served
wound round the scabbard so as to hold in place when thrust in the sash. When
swordsman prepared from the
kurikata
of the wide
fullness
neither.
through which the sage-o, or long flat silken cord,
over the shoulder and
for action,
and throw
it
knots, and nooses
artist
slightly less than
made
to be carried as a pair.
of the kozuka handle gave the
surface
greater scope for his design.
It is
in these
mounts
he would draw the
that
had been trained from boyhood
which enabled
varieties
use
it
its
in
of loops,
for binding
made of
Its
which
The
is
could be used.
which
kozuka was carried in a sheath in
like the
handle
The
is
elaborately decorated and
kozuka, although
its
Its flat,
elongated
one piece with the handle. The
made
to
conform
to the
end terminates by curving into and form-
ing a tiny disc-shaped fmial. At times the kogai was finely lengthwise,
from the center of the end of the handle
the point, forming sticks, in
which
two
case
it
to
equal parts resembling a pair of chop-
was
called a wari-kogai.
Many
curious
because no records have been found to estabhsh their validity,
by welding
steel side
of the
beautifully inlaid or engraved with decorative
designs and often with engraved graphic symbols or the charflat
in
applied to
unpolished. Frequently the iron side of
of Japanese writing. The
is
made
is
stories
with a high polish, while the iron side tapers to the is
a knife
kogai,
But its
comwhen de-
straight single-
kataha plates, produced
together a plate of steel and one of iron. is flat
—
blade and handle
tached from the handle, and the term ko-katana
the blade
in
skewer-shape part
many him to
thrown with
was to serve the swordsman in every manner
and thus baring the forearms. In
refers to the small knife carried in its sheath
cutting edge and
as a missile,
swordsmen, or sometimes driven
sleeves
the combination of the blade and handle. is
skillful
principal purpose
with remarkable rapidity
frequently restricted to the blade only,
edged blade
by
the scabbard, resembles a head pin or skewer.
sword scabbard, including is
have been used
said to
into the heart of a fallen foe to deliver the coup de grace.
split
which generally
is
great accuracy
the
In the literature of Japanese sword mounts the term kozuka
—
the kozuka
the
prisoners.
120
to or matches the kogai if they are
The more extended
behind the back, catching up the
the art of forming the sage-o into
acters
width and
elaborately decorated, and conforms
tie it
feudal times the samurai
blade
is
most frequently bear the artist's signature. Among other things,
sword securely
bined
usually about one-half inch in
four inches in length,
with both the kogai and kozuka, the katana seldom had
was passed
in the
1917.
the fmest examples of chasing and engraving occur, and they
as the fitting
feudal
while the one for the kozuka
trustee,
usually-
the kogai and frequently
sage-o
piece of orna-
Although the wakizashi was
called the uragawara.
fitted
flat
of a
metal handle, which
is
have been written about the kogai and
uses,
its
and
although most of these stories have to be considered as fictional,
how
they
still
serve to illustrate
used.
It is
said that in the days
revenge for slain his
real
it
relentless
or imagined wrong, the avenger, after having
enemy, would
those finding
the kogai might have been
of hereditary feuds and
thrust his kogai into the corpse, so that
would recognize
badge of the owner of the
would then be known and
kogai.
the distinguishing
The
suspicion
mark
or
identity of the slayer
would not
fall
on an
imiocent person. Sometimes the slayer even went so far
as to
write a full statement of the reasons for the deed, bearing his signature and
means of the
seal,
kogai.
and pinned
At times the
authorities for trial
would
it
body of his victim
to the
slayer
would surrender to the
and punishment; in other instances he
retire to a secluded place
and commit
hara-kiri.
a rule, having left his kogai behind as evidence, he
endeavor to lose ally
his
former identity and become a
meaning wave-man, which was
owing
allegiance to
that in the old days
no
feudal lord.
as
would
ronin, liter-
has also been written
of continued feudal warfare,
custom to decapitate a
But
a masterless samurai
It
was the
it
were a warrior of any
fallen foe, if he
THE "TSUBA"
by-
Of all the fittings on a Japanese sword, from
its size
and shape and from the
work on
lavished his best
metal plate, generally
elliptical,
majority o( tsuba are
tsuba
and around
this
dai. If the tsuba
on the scppa
thereby forming a
and
his residence
handle by which the ghastly trophy could be carried without
also
have a perforation
stories
about the kogai,
factual that the ii'ari-kogai, or split kogai, sticks,
and the regular kogai was used
established as
it is
were used
as
and
to loosen
chop-
dress
up
when he removed
the ruffled or matted hair of the warrior his helmet.
riobitsu,
which tsuba,
at either side
and kozuba to
two sword
side.
pass through.
fittings
earlier
called
found
of the opening
The
of the seppa
tsuba
may
dai called
Above and
resembling washers,
are called scppa. Their original use
which was, in the
artist, it is
left side
and date on the right
tsuba are
narrow space
a plain
with his name on the
for the kogai
below the
is
bears the signature of the
kogai into the tnage, or topknot
dai,
opening through which the tang
opening
not touch a corpse without being defded, he would stick the
of contamination. Notwithstanding the questionabdity
flat
round, or often resembling a
The made of steel, and the fmest are oishakudo
a specially shaped
is
seppa
of these and other
artist
a
It is
or shibuichi or a combination of both. In the center of the
general as proof of prowess in battle. Since the samurai could
fear
metal
the tsuba or guard.
averaging about two and a half inches in diameter.
passes,
hair,
most important,
rectangle with gently curving sides and rounded comers,
importance, and to present his head to the feudal lord or
of
it, is
the
fact that the
was to support the
examples, thinner in the center.
Seppa are usually ornamented like the other
fittings,
the larger
one, called o-seppa, being placed under the tsuba. Tsuba on the
Kozuka and kogai
Left:
a design
of
having
by Mitsuyuki
lilies
1790-1862, of the Goto
Tojo,
school; the
kozuka
blade
is
signed
by Sukehiro, 1635-1682. Victoria
and Albert Museum.
A kogai made o/shakudo
Below :
by Rinjo (Mitsuzane) Kanzaye-
mon Goto, with conventional
bamboo tury.
Art.
designs
Chinese
leaves;
of the
lion
and
seventeenth cen-
Metropolitan
Museum of
The Masauji Goda Collec-
tion, gift
of a
trustee,
1917.
Above:
Four kozuka with handles o/shakudo and
of Mount Fuji, a pine
tree,
and
the
moon;
the
iron with scenes
moon and
a flying goose;
a sword; and a plaque with inscription; seventeenth-eighteenth century.
Metropolitan
Museum of Art. The Masauji Goda
Collection, gift of
a trustee, 1917.
121
early swords
were generally of iron, and they continued
used almost exclusively during the
yama periods. They were more peaceful times when
to
used occasionally in later and
still
sword became more of a deco-
the
All of the
be
Muromachi and Momo-
numerous
fittings
or mounts on a Japanese sword
serve a constructive purpose, and
or attached, making placed on another
it
hilt
all
removed
are rather easily
possible for
them
to be changed or
or scabbard. There are certain specific
rative accessory to the costume.
Japanese terms used to describe collectively different
Tokugawa Shogunate, from 1615 to 1867, other metals made their appearance for use on tsuba and other sword mounts. The greatest development was made in the alloys of copper, including brass, sentoku, shakudo, and shihuichi. The last three, being peculiar
sword mounts which were made
During the
era of peace under the
of
gether since they are of conforming decoration. Mitokoromofio,
which means
the kozuka, ko^ai,
objects for three places,
on metal work.
soroimono,
Owing
of violet-black,
refer to a set
is
used to describe
and mamki when they comprise a
conforming or matching decoration.
to Japan, are fully described in the chapter to their unusually beautiful patinas
sets
particularly to be used to-
meaning
a set
which may
When
of conforming consist
having
set
word
using the
objects, the Japanese
of any combination of sword
and menuki.
ranging to tones of gray and golden bronze, a variety of
mounts, with the exception of the
magnificent combinations were created to produce metalwork
A
never achieved in any other country. The variety of treat-
of swords, which may comprise as many as twenty-four pieces,
ment and
the ingenuity with
were created by and the
skillful
which such
different groupings
beautiful effects
of these unusual
methods of working them,
from
faces, the
the front
on
every variety of technique, such
The
are a perpetual
kodogu,
which they apply
designs were executed in
as inlaying, carving, piercing,
tsuba designs present a story
of Japan through
several centuries, portraying her historical, religious, legendary, mythological,
extremely
and contemporary customs.
rare.
the hatana and ivahizashi.
is
and engraving. With an almost endless repertory of subjects and themes,
sets are
kogai, kozuka,
the complete set of fittings for a pair
dai-sho,
design being either identical or continued to the back.
although such
is
alloys,
source of wonder and admiration. Tsuba are usually decorated
on both
daisho-no-soToimono
to all
This pair of swords, or
Then
mounts
the
word
collectively
on a
there
sword or dagger, with the exception of the
mounts which
are not characteristic
is
tsuba.
and are without recog-
nized names are called kanamom, which
literally
means hard-
ware. In the slung sword, or court sword, called the fittings are
and are
Sword
tachi,
the
of different shapes from those on the usual swords
known by
scabbard of the
tachi
different
names. The lacquering on the
was regulated by a
particular color
and
Iron tsuba of the
Higo
style
strict etiquette,
with a
being used on different occasions
Iron tsuba with a pierced design
of rudders.
Muromachi
fifteenth century.
period,
Tokyo National
Museum.
Iron tsuba with a pierced design
ofsacredfungus and young bracken; fifteenth
Albert
122
century.
Victoria
and
Museum.
Edo
school with
openwork design of pine
trees;
period, seventeenth century. Ishikawa Collection, Tokyo.
and the number and the position of the Corresponding to the
kashira,
swords, the one on the
word
a half inches
crests prescribed.
pommel, on other Japanese from the
tachi is called the kahuto gone,
meaning hehnet. These
kahuto,
one and
or
of the
hahuto gane cover about
depth; the outline of the
hilt in
manipulation of design, that the Japanese refer to the best
work
with the
as painting
family,
which
school of metalwork design, and for the
opening. In this open space, reaching from one side of the
greatest master in the art
hand, which
is
loop of metal called the saru-te, or
with the hands joined. From tassel,
monkey
sometimes in the form of two monkey's arms this saru-te
hangs the cord and
usually of leather, having ornamental ends of metal.
the tachi scabbard are the ashi, or loops, through
were passed
so that
it
On
which cords
could be suspended from the
Shogun and
main
worked
his courts. Starting
samurai family from the province of
son, Sojo, 1460-1538,
and more
Mino (now known
450 years from the
middle of the Muromachi period to the year 1877, when the Imperial edict was issued
wearing of swords.
men of during
by Emperor Meiji
Of the more
abolishing the
than three thousand crafts-
repute recorded as having produced sword mounts
this
long period, the greater number belong to distinct
and exclusive
schools.
great artists in
working the metals and
Such superb
skill
was expended by
in their extraordinary
as
the year 1856 leaving
no son
him. Naturally the position
in the style of his
the third
greatly appreciated
is
relief.
This great family continued
as the
founder, the
The work of
elaborate.
field, until finally, the sixteenth
sword mounts may be considered
daimyo, and
the family had an un-
whose work was
because of its designs in high
making of decorative
its
Gifu prefecture), and the second master of this family was his
SWORD-MOUNT MAKERS the
for the
with
of sixteen generations. Yujo came of a
line
master, Joshin, 1511-1562, son of Sojo,
The principal period of activity in
Goto
the
is
of sword mounts, Goto Shirobei,
name was Yujo,
1439- 1 5 12, whose art interrupted
father but freer
sash.
the greatest kinko,
for generations provided leaders in the classical
top is ogee in form, while the broader sides contain a decorative
hilt to the other, is a
Among
chisel.
or makers of sword mounts, the most famous
as
undisputed leader in their
and
last
master, Hojo, died in
skilled in this
work
family was one of great honor, and
much
to succeed
Goto Shirobei
as successor to the
coveted. Three
years after the death of Hojo, three candidates presented
and competed for the position
selves
to his
who
were pupils of Goto Ichigo,
master. All three
honor
them-
seventeenth Goto
as the
gave the
nephew Mitsunori, but unfortunately Mitsunori
was never recognized
as the
seventeenth master because he
had not received the personal approval of Hojo during lifetime.
The
eight
first
Goto masters seldom signed
his
their
work, although some of it has been identified by the foremost experts, Jujo
who were
the twelfth and thirteenth
Goto family and
the best qualified for such
and Yenjo,
generations of the
a task. These experts engraved Iron tsuba with brass incrustations
showing
floral
ornament
in
the
on the back of the pieces the
name of the artist and their own names and wrote out orikami, certificates, giving the name of the masters, a description
or Otiin
style.
Victoria
Sixteenth
century.
of the decoration, and the value.
and Albert Museum.
Around thirteenth
were
the latter part of the eighteenth century,
flourishing,
collect
when
the
and fourteenth generations of the Goto masters
complete
was the pride of some of the daimyo
it
sets
thirteen or fourteen
of mitokoromono or kozuka of the
Goto
masters.
Some of
these sets
to
first
were
completely decorated with the dragon or the Chinese dog of
Fo in sets
Iron tsuba carved with a design of
monkeys.
three
Shozui
Hamano;
eighteenth tional
century.
Museum.
Attributed
Edo
to
period,
Tokyo Na-
different forms, or
with other popular
had a combination of designs. Although
great satisfaction to
be able to
collect
subjects; other it
was always a
complete
sets
of
mitokoromono of the old Goto masters and to fix them on the
new
styles
of scabbards,
mounts created
as
it
was
Tokugawa regime
there
were
steadily
ornamental mounts made for the
new
style
also the
custom
to acquire
new fashions. Around the latter part of the changing fashions in
dai-sho,
was usually introduced
or
two swords. The
for the time
of the
New
Year, and the daimyo, vassals of high rank, and important
123
Tsuba of shibuichi of a
tiger
of the
in
tiger
and
form
the
and bamboo. The
stripes
his eyes are inlaid
with gold and metal alloys. Signed
Yasuchika Tsuchiya. Edo period, eighteenth tional
Tokyo Na-
century.
Museum.
Pierced iron tsuba in the form of
Chinese fan
a
or
hand-screen.
Signed Masayoshi (of Satsuma); eighteenth
century.
and
Victoria
Albert museum.
Iron tsuba having eight openwork designs of family crests in brass
and an over-all
brass inlaid ground depicting pine needles; eighteenth
century. Victoria
officials
of the Shogun's court placed
new swords
their orders for those
during the eleventh and twelfth month of the old
year, so as to have
them for their customary visits of New Year
congratulations.
illustrated
costly sets sets
fittings
during
Tokugawa
times
not only in the rivalry of daimyo in collecting
of the old masters, but
of mitokoromono and
also in the practice
one or more
sets
set
soroimotio as presents. It
battles, scenes
Tokugawa period, the daimyo and when they rode in their
the kamashimo-zashi.
from on
sword or
wakizashi,
which they
The kamashimo-zashi derived
masters reigned supreme.
The
dog of Fo,
scenes
plays, flowers,
from
great
and other similar
Edo
period, in the
daimyo vied with one another
name
era
was
and costly sword
Those of solid gold were mostly used by daimyo, but even
some of
it
in rich
of the
the
more wealthy and important merchants of this
were allowed to wear one sword with pure-gold orna-
ments. Between 1830 and 1844 the
state finances
a distressful condition that the so-called
were
in such
Tempo economic
elegant ornaments
on
these
reforms were instituted.
made by
the
Goto
indulge in luxuries, were forbidden to use gold on sword
family, and the tsuba, fuchi, and kashira
were of plain
with exquisite nanako work, sometimes with the
Tokugawa
No
fittings.
called
mounts of the Goto
kamashimo-zashi were almost exclusively
124
its
the court dress of the nobles called kamashimo, and
these swords that the ornamental
the
Japanese subjects. At the beginning of the
palanquins to audiences with the Emperor or the Shogun, the short
from
finest
The principal
relief.
Tokugawa Shoguns, and his court adopted a very luxurious mode of living, and during that time sword mounts were often made of solid gold. This period of luxury continued on through the prosperous Genroku era (1688- 1704), when
also
the highest vassals of the Shogun,
wore
and menuki, of the
was
of mitokoromono by famous Goto masters.
century to the end of the
kagai,
so-called Kan-ei era (1624- 1644), lemitsu, the third
the time of Hideyoshi in the latter part of the sixteenth
usually
o{ mitokoromono, or kozuka,
nanako on sliakudo with gold decoration in
of giving
customary for princes to include in the dowry of a daughter
From
bards were always in plain black lacquer, with the matching
designs included dragons, the
The importance of sword is
and Albert Museum.
sliakudo
crest
of the
family or of the daimyo. Kamashimo-zashi scab-
The people were ordered not
ornaments, and were enjoined to follow a more austere
of
life.
Luxurious dress was
of wealth circumvented
this
also banished,
to
way
although ladies
by wearing the most costly silks
With rily
crustations
Goto
of peony sprays on a
branched from the Goto school, and they were responsible for
c.
ground
in
the
1800. Victoria and
Museum.
Albert
an object of artistic merit and three great schools of chasers
were founded, the Yokoya, Nara, and Hamano. All had
(fish-roe)
style;
become prima-
era,
with gold in-
Tsuba of shahudo nanako
Tokugawa
the continuation of peace under the
Shoguns, the sword had, by the Genroku
on sword
the wonderful variety and beauty of workmanship
mounts. The Yokoya school was founded by Yokoya Soyo,
who formed
his
own
school in about 1640 together with his
son, Sochi; the foremost
Somin,
c.
member of this
family was
Yokoya
1670- 173 3, whose designs were executed with great
freedom. The Nara school was founded by Nara Toshiteru,
who
from
also seceded
He
the Goto.
entered the service of
Tokugawa Shogun lemitsu in 1624 and worked chiefly in iron. The glory of the Nara school was Nara Yasuchika, a great chaser active between 1670- 1744. He worked mostly in the
Tsuba of shibuichi
inlaid with
shakudo,
the
depicting
foxes'
sentoku.
Around
Hamano
the middle of the eighteenth century
nighttime
Shozui founded the school known by that name, and produced
and having tiny pierced oblong
extraordinary effects on iron tsuba that resemble fragments of
wedding procession
at
holes to represent lighted lanterns
by
carried
Victoria
the
foxes;
c.
1830.
and Albert Museum.
mounts makers
Then
difficult to
it is
distmguish the characteristics of some
of some of the foremost
style
varies so greatly, thus blending into the style
again, in certain pieces the style
blance to the style of another
under a cheap costume when appearing in pubhc, and the
cause of the
men
down
maimer
in
artist
little
in the
or no resem-
same school. Be-
which the Japanese connoisseurs break
these principal schools into
term
of others.
of a given master which
can be recognized without difficulty has
fittings
of bronze
often with a very high fmish. In the classification of sword
of these schools, because the
ehided the law by covering sohd-gold sword
tsuba
cast iron and, in strange contrast to these,
many
sub-schools,
it
seems
school in general refers less to artistic style or
with black lacquer.
that the
Among the foremost makers of sword mounts, Kane-ie, who flourished around the middle of the Muromachi period, was the first maker of artistically decorated tsuba. Many un-
treatment than to a form of art genealogy. Although the fore-
signed iron tsuba of the fifteenth century are believed to be
occur in the
the
work of armorers. While some of these have
conventional
saw-cut silhouettes of animals, birds, flowers, and leaves, a large
number
regulated tsuba
ornamented with punch marks or
are only
hammer
dents.
workmanship
Hideyoshi, in the tsuba decorated
are
The most
perfect examples of iron
by Umetada Myojo, swordsmith
latter part
of the
Momoyama
to
period. Iron
with translucent enamel on gold were made
in the early seventeenth century to be knov^Ti as Hirata enamel.
producing the same
style
made
its
appearance on tsuba and kozuka executed by Hirada Tokosai
and
also
some
thin and delicate cloisons.
design fittings
in each school
work of each
relief to
is flat
have a
distinct style
further complicated
by the
master, ranging
very bold
relief,
of their own,
variations
which
from engraving
while in other
work
in
the
with the ground cut away. In the Japanese sword
of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are found
examples of chasing technically unsurpassed anywhere, and it is
to the artists
of these schools and to
the superb quality of Japan's metal art
their followers that
owes
its
unchallenged
position.
METAL CHASING
of decoration mostly on shakudo
the late seventeenth century, champleve enamel
others,
very low
is
Hirata family continued
of the nineteenth century,
instead of iron. In the eighteenth century, or at the earliest in
and
attribution
by Hirata Donin and came
The
his traditions until the first half
most masters
beautiful pieces of cloisonne with
The nese
merits of sculpture in metal are evaluated
by the
quality of the chiseling, rather than
rative design itself,
supplied
by
by by
the Japathe deco-
which on sword fittings was almost always
painters.
Thus the Japanese draw
tion between the decorative design and
its
a clear distinc-
technical execution,
125
;
the degree of excellence residing in the quality of the chisel-
work. There are about two hundred and
fifty cutting
METAL TREATMENT
and
The many
engraving tools used by the Japanese metal sculptor. In the
work of the
chaser one feature, scarcely less important than
the chiseling of the decoration
ground on which strict
itself, is
the preparation of the
was
applied. In earlier times there
it is
a
canon with reference to these grounds, the so-called
nanako style being essential for the mountings of swords for
ceremonial occasions, while the ishime andjiniigaki considered
Nanako, or
less aristocratic.
styles
were of
fish roe, is a pattern
generic to
of carving are
varieties
name of
bori,
and
them on decorated sword mounts. Guri bori is a work in is done on sword fittings in imi-
which carving and welding tation
of
guri lacquer
work.
It
consists
gether.
Sometimes
as
many
which
The
These microscopic dots covered the whole
V-shaped channels with sloping
itself.
In chiseling, the Japanese
metalworker always attached great importance to the patina
and shakudo, because of
beautiful violet-black color,
its
was
layers.
When
one form o(guri
which produces
and seldom more than one one-liundredth of
slightly
carving,
more than
which
sides, cuts
done in
is
through these
side, revealing the
black and
red metals and leaving one layer of shakudo in the center. In
nanako dots are exactly spaced at equal intervals, absolutely size,
is
fifteen sheets are used, the chamiels are cut
through seven layers on each
the most frequently used for nanako work. These minute
uniform in
more of these very
or
as fifteen
thin sheets are foimd in a tsuba,
one-eighth of an inch thick.
portion carrying the motif
of several sheets of
metal, usually alternating shakudo and copper, welded to-
minute raised dots executed by a sharply struck cupped punch. surface, except the
under the
classified
distinctive appellations are given
bori the
channels are rounded at the bottom,
a different effect than the
form having
was sub-
being accurately arranged in
metals in guri bori
more
either straight or concentric lines, the greatest technical skill
jected to a process
of pickling. In the method knowai
an inch in diameter, so
was required
that,
The punching
to execute the patterns.
tool
was
guided solely by the hand and eye, and three or more blows
arated
by
is
a pattern
of dots arranged in
untouched. This term
V
grooves
is left
an orderly pattern of
also used for
is
tiny quadrangular pyramids attained
diagonally with
lines sep-
of equal width in which the surface
spaces
effective, the finished piece
kiri-bori the incised chiseling
produced decorative
unrivaled beauty. This exquisite
work was
created
as kata-
effects
by
of
the use
of the burin or cutting tool to produce lines of varying width
of the mallet were required for each dot.
Daimyo nanako
a sharp
bottom. In order to make the black and red colors of the two
by cutting the
at right angles to
and depth of individual value, much This
work
is
as a painter uses his brush.
even more astonishing
no subsequent retouching or
when one
finishing
was
realizes that
possible.
Another
surface
form the pyra-
mids. In the decoration called gotiome nanako the dots are
arranged in perfect diagonal lines forming lozenges, with a dot in the center
of each lozenge, making
dots to each lozenge. There in
which a smaller dot
is
is
also
raised
an
group of
a
five
intricate nanako pattern
on each of the
regular dots,
while another type has two smaller dots superimposed on each of the original dots. StiU a third variation has separate dots with the
ground space stamped with flowers so minute
they cannot be seen with the naked eye. There limit to the ingenuity
producing these
and
skill
fantastic surfaces.
many
although the most characteristic form
produced by a blunt
surface
tool.
Of these
ishime resembles stone pitting, nashi-ji hari ishime appears as
scarcely
is
is
a
any
artist
The grounds of
resemble the texture of a stone. There are ishime,
is
of the Japanese metal
in
ishime
varities
of
roughened
varieties tatsuta
like the skin
of a pear,
though small holes were picked out by
a needle, gozame ishime resembles Japanese rice-straw mats or tatami,
and gama
ishime
is
like the skin
of
a toad.
Zaramaki
imitates stone,
and in the variety of ground known asjimigaki
the surface
given the highest possible polish, and
is
ceptionally beautiful shakudo.
126
when produced on
is
ex-
the violet-black
An
iron
tsuba with gold and
silver inlay in the design
and vine; signed Sadatsune ofSatsuma; nineteenth and Albert Museum.
of a gourd
century. Victoria
form of
fineness.
or
engraving of lines of equal depth
bori is the hairline
and width
There was
openwork
copper wire inlaid in iron, and resembling pine needles
which was produced with remarkable
called kebori,
of perforated
also the sukashi-bori, a type
chiseling,
which was generally used
tion with a variety of metal carving in
ing on a pond or lake.
in conjunc-
which the designs
When
which
is
usu-niku-bori or
is
and
atsu-niku-bori or
The
its
inlaying
is
was a process
with the surface
known
a variety
is
difficult, the
designs
seem
to
known
which
when
teenth
the
century.
Museum.
Akasaka Victoria
nine-
on and
and Albert
soft
floral fits
design or
the
The
hammering Sometimes,
as ten processes
decorative process
as kiribame-zogan
some
similar
motif in
a
is
a thin sheet
petal
of the flowers, which produces an
flowers outlined in a contrasting metal.
gold,
swastika diaper design and heraldic in
known
many
a deUcate banding of a contrasting metal
and copper inlay having a
Kaga
century. Victoria
surface
nunome-
method of
work and outlining the openwork with a veneer of a contrasting metal, such as gold, to emphasize the outline. When the metalworker cuts an openwork
Tsuba made of shakudo with
crests
called
chiseling a design in pierced
very intricate
silver,
is
silver into the design.
the designs are very intricate, as
of inserting inlay
covered with tiny pieces of brass and
style;
of gold or
are used in this technique of inlaying.
as taka-
or ground-out
is
and elaborate geometric patterns
a very thin sheet
called hira-zogan,
it is
emerge from under the
Pierced iron tsuba representing five cranes in
laid
The method of inlaying gold and silver on an iron
iron sufficiently to develop a softness, and then
decoration called gomoku-zogati, used on tsuba and other is
is
ground down and
zogan. This process requires the heating of the surface of the
The of hammering fittings.
metal surface and float in the atmosphere. In another form of
mounts, the surface
of the design. The cut design o( shakudo
in delicate
distinctive for the exquisite
character of its designs. In this process,
and
it is
as togidashi-zogan
which
ed.
of the
highest degree of perfection
projected above the surface
style
A block o{ shibuichi
fixed into the grooves of the shibuichi, then
wire into grooves cut in the surface of metal.
zogati.
base.
parts
gold or
it is
wider at its
relief,
artist
of elaborate designs on sword
this inlay is flat
is
then cut with channels which correspond perfectly to the
relief,
called hon-zogan
and when
ground
cut out of a
is first
low
form of inlay
When
with shakudo in which the design
polished untU the inlaid design and ground are perfectly blend-
feudal periods raised the art to
silver
usually a shibuichi
is
high
was among the
silver
of decoration in Japan, the metal
in the execution
float-
which the
on with India ink is called
is
also called taka-bori.
Although inlaying with gold and early forms
in
design appears to have been painted
sloping so that each cut
Japanese also use the term maru-bori. In the category of carv-
chiu-niku-bori or half relief,
work
small block of shakudo in rehef with aU the sides of the cuts
referring to carving in the round, the
ing in relief or niku-bori there
type of inlay
sumi-zogan, or ink inlaying. This inlaid
appeared on both sides of the piece, approximating carving in the round.
One
style;
effect
of metal, he
around each
of transparent
A variety of decoration
Pierced iron tsuba with the design of
an egret and a
lily
century. Victoria
pond; nineteenth
and Albert Museum.
nineteenth
and Albert Museum.
ni
much
practiced
by
the early metal
artists is called
moktmw-ji,
then the manifold plate
is
punched from one
or wood-grained ground. In this type, which produces a
opposite side resembles broken
ground resembling the grain of wood, two thin
hammered dowai
similar metal
While
of equal
the mass
is still
size are
hot,
it is
plates
of
welded together by hammer. coated with a kind of marl and
blisters.
until each produces
Although iron was used exclusively
work on sword mounts,
its
a variety of metals
charcoal furnace. In this stage the clay or marl
a shakudo ground with a gold graining, bi
repeated.
hammered
in,
is
removed and
and the process
is
then
A number of plates may be worked together in
this
manner, depending upon the quaUty of graining desired, and
has
no
were used
in the
with the fmest and most beautiful of all having
technical processes of decorating quisite
effect.
in the earlier mokume-ji
later periods,
is
blisters are
own wave
straw ash before being brought to a glowing heat over a
another similar plate
side so that the
These
workmanship
fme sword
constitutes a level
all
these highly
fittings,
the ex-
of art in which Japan
rival.
I
128
X
Shinto and Buddhist Architecture
I .
native
N THE realm of Japan's
civilization
tive people
charm and beauty of Japanese
refmements of
resides in the subtle
Among the impressive
its Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines.
features
artistic heritage,
religious architecture
the quality of
is
proportions depending essentially upon mathematical ratios in the dimensions
of the building, and harmony in the general
balance of the architectonic composition. contrasts of light
by the
ment being tecture.
and shade were most
from
religious architects
The
subsidiary elements
The
disposition
skillfully
accomplished
early times, color
employed
and
and orna-
in Buddhist archi-
principal architectural features of Shinto shrines
and beauty derived from the
are their elegant simplicity
rela-
tion of contours, surfaces, and intervals.
Japanese architecture originated in the endeavors of the early inhabitants to provide for their physical wants,
first
with
cave dwellings, then with pit houses, ground-level houses and, fmally, raised-floor houses.
and the materials
at
hand
There can be no doubt affected the forms
that climate
of the primitive
buildings, as indicated in the earliest historical literature, such as the Kojiki,
or Records of Ancient Matters, and the Nikon
Shoki, or Chronicles of Japan, dating tively.
archaeological
evidence,
Haniwa houses found are the
from 712 and 720 respec-
Further knowledge of early houses
tombs of the
in particular
is
provided by
the miniature clay
in the great sepulchral
mounds which
rulers, built in the ancient
Yamato, the present Nara
prefecture,
third and fourth centuries. There are also
and the dotaku or bronze beU-shaped
province of
attained, while the efforts
had been
the
most profound expression of the country's
of the primi-
of Japan were directed toward the construction
of dwellings which
at first
The
physical needs.
were determined
solely
by
their
primitive pit house had as a foundation
an area of ground dug out to a
maximum depth of one meter
in an elliptical or rectangular shape with rounded comers,
generally with a diameter of the superstructure
this,
shape, erected
is
from
said to
five to six meters.
Over
have resembled a tent in
on an arrangement of four or more
posts to
support a sloping roof. During the succeeding Neolithic period,
which is characterized by more and
better
implements
and the development of agriculture and domestic animals, there evolved alongside of the pit house and the ground-level
dwelling, the house with raised floor, a kind of building
on
and
its
piles. first
The
latter
was
use as a dwelling
The
originally used as a storehouse,
was probably only by the ruling
architectural history
of Japan
is
generally conveniently
divided into the following six periods period, extending
from the
class.
:
i
.
The pre-Buddhist
earhest times to the introduction
of Buddhism in 552, during which there developed a
style
of
The first period during which was introduced through the medium of Bud-
architecture peculiar to Japan. 2.
Chinese culture
dhism from 552 to 794, thus including the historical periods of Asuka (552-645) and Nara (710-794). 3. The first period of nationalization of the imported
styles,
during the Heian
period (794-1185), which embraces the Jogan or Early Heian
The
and dating from the
(794-897) and the Fujiwara or Late Heian (897-1185).
many bronze mirrors
second period of Chinese influence, lasting from 11 85 until
objects
on which
are
depicted houses, thus providing a source of information on Japan's early civilization.
Like the other arts, architecture did not spring into existence in the earliest period, since the ideas of synunetry
and propor-
tion could not evolve until at least a moderate degree of
4.
Kamakura (1185-1333) and Muromachi 5. The second nationalization of the imported styles, which occurred from 1573 until 1867, including the Momoyama (1573-1615) and Edo (1615-1867) 1573, including the
(1338-1573) periods.
periods. 6.
The period of European
influence,
from the Meiji
period (1868-1912) onward.
129
SHINTO ARCHITECTURE
The is
Because of the abundance of trees and other forest growths in Japan, the primitive domestic dwelling houses
were
class
built
of wood, with
of the ruling
pillars thrust into the
and the whole framework, consisting of posts, beams, and so
rafters,
with cords made from the twisted
forth, tied together
fibrous stems of
ground
chmbing
plants.
The
Japanese propensity
for clinging to ancient traditions gives us
many
insights into
her early culture; and because of this a general idea of ancient Japanese architecture before the introduction of
may be
Buddhism
obtained from the Shinto shrines or jinsha which have
survived.
The
finest
examples are the Daijingu shrines of Ise
and most primitive form of Shinto architecture
earliest
called the tenchi kongcn style,
were fastened two horizontal
which served
roof as well
as
as walls.
walls
on four sides and a
of Shinto the gods were worshipped
ducted in an enclosure
made by
at
ceremonies con-
thrusting branches of ever-
A number of
Subsequently
raised floor, thus
house with gabled roof. This
this
is
the
producing a simple
form of
the original
the shrines at
Ise.
A
except for a symbol, and has no provision for joint worship
by
a congregation, so that only
the shrine, but cistern,
which
The
wiU
is
altar
enough space and the
stop at the mitarashi or sacred water
in front
of every Shinto
shrine,
and wash
purification
and ring the gong or round
soul.
bell
by pulling or shaking the long rope or drapes
and goddesses,
it
became the custom
to use such objects as
mirrors or jewels to symbolize the presence of a god, and therefore a dwelling in
The
Japanese
word
for both a shrine centuries there
and a
which
wiya,
to enshrine
meaning honorable house,
and the house of a
was no
them was provided.
distinction
is
chieftain, since for
used
many
between a domestic dwelling
shrine.
from
it
will stand outside
and clap
his
of his body
and
enormous pantheon embracing many nature gods
actually
or other
individual worshipper does not enter
first
mouth and hands symboUcally for the
He
is
priests
green trees into the ground. As Shinto developed into an
its
by
Shinto shrine contains no image or idol
organized native cult combining nature and ancestor worship,
with
whole
Shinto-shrine style called yuiitsu shimmei, as represented
officiating persons.
cult
ground.
set in
which
structure o(the tetichi kongen house was elevated by introducing
although they have been frequently reconstructed,
pre-
of two posts
tied to these rafters to support a thatch
needed to accommodate an
still
consists
rafters sloping to the
beams were
and the Izumo-Taisha shrine in Izumo province, which,
serve their primitive form. In the earliest stages of the ancient
and
the ground supporting a ridge pole, to each end of
his hands, usually twice, before
that
hang
worshipping
the deity of the shrine.
The Shinto dhist temple
shrine has
none of the magnificence of the Bud-
and from remote antiquity has represented the
The
Jingu shrines of Ise
of Kodaijingu or the Naiku (Inner
shrine) dedicated to
the sun goddess, Amaterasu-o-mi-kami,
and the Toyouke-
purest type of Japanese architecture. consist
daijingu or the
Geku (Outer
shrine) dedicated to
Toyouke-
«5...^«^
The Naiku to the
130
(or Inner shrine) of the Jingu shrines of Ise, dedicated
sun goddess, Amaterasu-o-mi-Kami.
Izumo Taisha, prefecture.
or
Great Shrine of Izumo,
at
Taisha,
Shimane
o-mi-kami, the goddess of farnis, crops, food, and
They
sericulture.
beheved to possess today precisely the appearance
are
they presented in the year 478 in obedience to a revelation
reign of the
when they were moved thither
from the sun goddess. During the
Emperor Temmu, 672-686,
was decreed
it
that
the Ise shrines should be rebuilt every twentieth year, alter-
on each of two
nately
of the old
features
scrupulous accuracy.
apart for the purpose, the
sites set
reproduced in the
edifice beijig
With few
new with
exceptions, the Imperial re-
building decree has been observed, and the shrines have actually
been reconstructed fifty-nine times during these thirteen
hundred
The
years.
Ise shrines are
constructed oiiiinohi
wood
or Japanese cypress, Chamaecyparis obtusa, from the state forests
form they represent the ancient
in the Kiso mountains. In
Japanese style, built with thick piUars to hold the framework,
with
a great pillar at either
end
to support the ridge pole.
peculiar feature of their construction
of the two
jection
each end of the roof,
rafters called chigi at
which provides additional support
A
the extended pro-
is
for the ridge pole
and
re-
sembles an animal's horn at each gable end. The roof is thatched,
and
in order to bind the ridge
and
rafters
finrdy together and
two boards
to keep the thatch in position,
are laid lengthwise
apex of the roof with a wider board lying along the
at the
apex and extending beyond the ends of the roof.
topmost ridge board in place with
heavy logs
called katsuogi are laid
two
upon
it
To keep
this
subsidiary boards,
At
at right angles.
improved methods of construction, the
a later date, due to chigi
its
or crosspieces of the ancient style came to be regarded
merely
as
ornaments placed upon the ridge board, often
having their ends embellished with carvings.
The
center of the cult of Shinto
the great shrines at
Ise,
where only Imperial personages and Imperial envoys
are
is
permitted beyond a certain fence, and the sacred mirror or Yata-tw-kagami ures
—
is
—which
is
one of the Three Sacred Treas-
enshrined in the Naiku shrine, dedicated to the sun
goddess. But the oldest shrine in Japan
is
the Izumo-Taisha,
or Oyashiro or Great Shrine of Izumo, which the
is
dedicated to
god Onamuchi-no-Mikoto. He is the strongest and bravest
of the sons of Susano-o, brother of the sun goddess, said to
have founded
retired to Taisha,
him. This
is
where a
said to
to have been
reduced.
on
It is
a state in
large palace
was
built to receive
a large scale at first
and then been gradually
recorded that the Emperor Suinin rebuilt
sometime around the
as the
Emperor's palace," and
first
this
century "in the same manner
it is
thereby proved that the
shrine building possesses the original architectural
dwelling house of ancient times.
It is
before the shrine was reduced in scale feet,
is
be the origin of the shrine, which seems
shrine
was about 160
who
the province of Izumo and later
and although
form of
a
further recorded that
when rebuilt,
this figure
its
height
should not neces-
The
principal types oj Shinto shrines, showing the front view, the
side vicii',
and the plan. From top
to
bottom: Shimmei, Taisha,
Nagare, Kasuga, Hachiman, and Hie types.
Tokyo National
Museum.
131
Main the
sanctuary of the Kainogaino shrine at Kyoto, an example of
Nagare type of Shinto
architecture.
Founded
in the
Nara period,
eighth century.
sarily
be taken
literally, it
appears that the structure was of a
size. Its architectural
or oyashiro and differs
somewhat from
type
known
is
form than the
as taisha
the shrines of Ise, for
has undergone certain changes and departed
more from
it
its
called torii, a
two
beyond them
log slightly below it.
one
torii,
which
thick logs placed upright and slightly
at either side,
with another horizontal
The extreme simplicity and graceful pro-
portion of this symbol of Shinto, which has herself, presents a refined
become a symbol
and noble appearance.
Originally designed as a perch for fowls that sing to the deities
daybreak, the
torii
subsequently came to be regarded
characteristic
of Shinto.
An
ancient custom of
offering live cocks to a shrine undoubtedly
had some con-
nection with the legendary rooster that perched entrance of the
And
sun goddess
it
the supreme divinity of Shinto,
for believers to sun.
upon
the
Cave of Heaven, where the sun goddess hid
herself and caused darkness to cover the earth. is
make
and even
Shinto gateway,
offerings
as the yuiitsu
types of the ancient Imperial palace and the dwelling houses
of the ruling
class,
in addition to being beautiful symbols of
The extreme
refmcd architectural form of these shrines
simplicity
instill
a
and
profound
after the it still
to dwell there
and pervades the whole of the atmosphere with a message from the
past. It is this
charm of old Japan
silent
that
still
lingers in the sacred precincts of Shinto shrines.
The
invasion of Korea
by
a strong expeditionary force
under the Empress Jingo in the third century marked the
first
time Japan was brought into intimate communication with the Asiatic mainland. This prepared the
way
for the flow
of
continental culture and the gradual introduction of Chinese
and Buddhism in the
civilization
other
arts,
Buddhism exerted
architecture, as did the
sixth century.
a strong influence
harmonizing of the two
As
in the
on Shinto
faiths in the
of style with the introduction of a particular curvature of the
perch evolved into the symbolical
retained the original
a forest, a beautiful feeling of closeness to nature emanates
from them. The Japan of ancient times seems
was natural
of cocks to herald the rising
ideogram meaning bird perch.
132
and Izumo, kiiown
middle of the eighth century, resulting in a certain elaboration
of two wooden posts and a crossbar erected in front of the
its
shrine buildings of Ise
since the
These cocks were originally placed on a bird perch made
shrine,
The
shimmei and taisha forms respectively, represent the primitive
they are situated in groves of ancient trees or in the depths of
at least
splayed, their upper ends mortised into a horizontal log that
gateway
in
type of Shinto
impression of their role as the houses of the gods. Because
usually consists of
at
Uiui prcjcdiiiL, joiindcd
each with one or more gateways
proach to a Shinto shrine passes under
as a
L'sa shriiic in
kind of beamed propylon. The avenue of ap-
trees harbors a Shinto shrine,
of Japan
oj the
Nara period, an example of the Hachiman
the sacred ideals of the people.
Ise shrines.
Throughout the country nearly every ancient grove of dense
projects
J 2 5 in the
architecture.
remarkably large
original
Alain sanctuary
name of torii and
roof.
While
the great shrines of Ise
and Izumo continued to
preserve their original ancient form, possibly because of their role as the
most important and
oldest shrines
of Shinto,
it
was
inevitable that Shinto architecture in general should gradually
be influenced by Buddhist built
styles.
Shinto shrines were always
of wood, principally hinoki or cypress, which acquires
a beautiful sheen with age. tain
The tendency
to introduce cer-
River, and the fine two-storied gate and corridor of the
Buddhist architectural features in Shinto buUdings began
Shimogamo
Heian period (794-1185), when shrines were often
Nara period
in the
shrine nearby.
(710-794),
The Kamogamo, founded
painted in colors, usually a rich verniihon, and were designed
and the house of the tutelary deity of Kyoto,
with curving roofs supported by a system of brackets called
deity to
to-kyo. It
was
also
during the Heian period that great two-
storied gates appeared at the entrances
of
shrines,
and the
Nagaoka
gamo
covered corridors resembling colonnades.
From the introduction of these features of continental origin
whom the Emperor sent his message
decision to
trance
is
remove the
to Kyoto.
from
capital
The main
two
Japanese architecture the term hay
addition to the earlier forms of shimmei and taisha as seen at
distance in a building
and Izumo. They include the Nagare, Kasuga, Hachiman,
and Hie types. The best examples of the Nagare type are represented
by the main sanctuary of the famous Kamogamo
shrine in the city of
Main and
Kyoto near
sanctuary of the
Hie
the banks of the
shrine on
rebuilt according to the original
Kamogawa
in the
Momoyama
the ill-fated site at
in length,
is
with
Kamoits
en-
used to denote a span or
between two adjacent
building contains five piUars on one of
pillars;
thus if a
its sides, it is
said to
have four bays. Ever since the introduction of the Nagare type of shrine, ularly because
its
forni has been extremely popular, partic-
of its beautifully proportioned roof
Lake Biwa near Otsu, an example of the Hie style of Shinto
plan
being the
the long side parallel with the ridge of the roof. In
there developed four principal types of Shinto shrine in
Ise
this
concerning the
shrine building at the
three bays in width and
on
in the
became the most important shrine
period (1^73-1615).
architecture,
founded
in t]ie
Its
gabled
ninth century
roof side
greatly extended in a graceful curve over the front
is
of the building to provide
name o( gohai
shippers and bears the
to a space for worshippers in front
where the
staircase is located
Every year on the
of shelter for the wor-
a sort
or kohai, a term applied
of
and sheltered by extended
day of May
fifteenth
a religious building
a great festival
eaves. is
held
ruary and on the night of August
gabled
side,
ajt
by the Shimogamo and Kamogamo shrines. It is known
transferred
The roof of the main
of a
main
the left corner of the
when
shrine
cypress and incurved in the
halberd bearers, and an Imperial ox carriage. Representing
ridge
which formerly used
the Imperial procession at the shrines,
it starts
early in the
morning
pay homage
to
at the
Imperial
palace nearby and proceeds with an Imperial messenger and his suite in full court
costume, to both shrines.
which
this festival, at
The
origin of
leaves of hollyhock are offered to the
gods and goddesses enshrined in both the shrines,
is
traced
back to the sixth century,
when
the deities of the shrines,
whose anger was indicated by great
it
receives
situated in the midst
of verdant woods
atmosphere of peace and sanctity
which are the type
Nagare type of
the Kasuga shrine,
at
Nara, where an
is
the
temporarily
made to the main shrine. made of thin narrow strips of
is
manner of the Nagare type; sets
districts. It
shrine,
of crossed poles
its
called oki-
was one of the two most
forms of Shinto architecture, and
and surrounding
spirits are
ofchigi used for ornamental purposes.
shrine
it
was
common
chiefly used in
Nara
has not been as popular as the
which can be found
in
all
parts
of
the country.
The Hachiman type is
best illustrated
by the main sanctuary
of the Usa shrine near the coast of the Inland Sea in the northern part of Kyushu.
name from
its
surmounted by two
The Kasuga-type
was performed to propitiate
storms throughout the country.
The Kasuga type
chigi,
four of
repairs are being
procession reminiscent of ancient times with retainers, pages,
is
all
is
on the
is
behind which
shrine,
Utsushidono, a hall where the divine
Aoi Matsuri, or Hollyhock
consists
sanctuary
entrance
An extremely large Japanese cedar stands
as the
and
its
and an impressive gallery surrounds
the shrine buildings.
jointly
Festival,
The main
15.
one bay square and has a gabled roof;
Hachiman
It is
one of the three most noted
shrines in Japan, the other
two being Iwashimizu
near Kyoto and the Hakozaki shrine near Hakata, where the
the Fujiwara family and a sanctuary for their ancestral deities,
Mongol invasion occurred in the latter part of the thirThe Usa shrine, which was founded in 725 and is dedicated to the Emperor Ojin, Hime-Okami, and the
and
Empress Jingo,
cincts.
Its
it
The
is
imparted within
its
pre-
shrine was founded in 768 as the tutelary shrine of
used to be regularly reconstructed every twenty years.
present
form
is
considered to have developed
ning of the Heian period.
It
actually consists
shrines painted in rich vermilion, reached
a beautiful avenue lined with
on both
sides,
some
at the
begin-
of four small
by passing along
numerous rows of stone lanterns
three thousand in
all,
which
are lighted
twice each year, on the night of the Setsubun Festival in Feb-
Main
sanctuary of the Osaki
the outstanding examples built in
134
1606.
Hachiman
of the Congen
Momoyama
period.
shrine at Sendai, one of
style
of Shinto
architecture,
great
teenth century.
is
a beautiful
of Shinto architecture with carving. Its
The
shrine
main building
roof,
is
this particular style
bright-red color and elaborate
embowered
consists
and comiected
example of
its
in a
grove of ancient
of two rooms, each with
trees.
a gabled
to each other along their eave sides.
somewhat resembles two
entrance on the side parallel to the ridge of the roof, which
Main
It
buildings joined together with the
sanctuary of the Kihitsu shrine in
during the Oei era (1394-1428).
Okayama
Muromachi
is
prefecture, built
period.
r
I
i
I
I
sanctuary of the Toshogu shrine at Nikko, showing the Kara-mon, or Chinese Gate; to the
A/rt///
Fence.
Edo
curved
at the eaves
The Hie
and extended in front to form
style is typified
shrine at the foot of
near Otsu.
a gohai or
It is
4uring the
Mount
said to
Hiei on the shore of Lake
its
original plan
period (1573-1615). This building
its
and gabled roof with a eaves of the
fme example of
hisashi,
main roof or
which
is
irimoya or hipped
it
architectural style
shrines very often closely resembled the
building of the Yasaka shrine,
its
In the called
hisashi
shinden
commonly
said to
of Shinto
form of palaces and
right
of the gate
is
the Sacred
in
of supplementary
halls, is
roofs of
two
on
a
Osaki shrine. The Kitano shrine Tenjin, for
it
was
wara Michizane,
and outside,
wood
much better
is
established in 947
who
is
deified
a
carvings
number
larger scale than the
known
as the
Kitano
and dedicated to Suga-
under the name of Tenjin.
His death in 903, after he had been exiled to Kyushu, was followed by such severe earthquakes and thunderstorms in the city that
it
was thought advisable
to appease his spirit
by
which he could be enshrined. The pres-
were erected in 1607 by Toyotami Hideyoshi
and include two
gates, a
main
hall,
and an oratory, with a
complicated plan of roof ridges and carefuUy laid cypress shingles
ai-no-nia or span
building, noted for
;
ent buildings
which the
whose main
built in 1606. Inside
of great richness and beauty the Kitano shrine, with
Gion
and half hipped and half gabled roof.
was
these structures are embellished with colored
called the
have originally been the
were connected with an
architectural beauty,
erecting a building in
of the house of Fujiwara Mototsune
Gongen was developed
shrine in Sendai,
main
is
Momoyama period a new style of shrine architecture
separate buildings
its
Kitano shrine in Kyoto and the Osaki
style are the
Hachiman
the
mansions of the nobles, and an excellent example
is
to provide
open veranda. During the Late
Heian period (897-1185) the
Kyoto, which
is
an extension of the
additional eaves under
a shelter for a corridor or
haU or
Biwa
have been founded in the closing years
Momoyama
particularly noted for
principal
and
roof covering a corridor. The principal examples of the
Gongen
by the main sanctuary of the Hie
of the ninth century and rebuilt according to
shrine, in
left
period, seventeenth century.
shelter for the worshippers.
with
riJ
which give
a
most iiiteresting and beautiful variety to
the buildmgs.
Among
the important changes that took place in Shinto
arcliitecture
during the Kamakura period and the following
135
Muromachi, Momoyama, and Edo, were
periods of
increas-
ing influences of Buddhist architecture, the larger-scale con-
of the buildings, and the adoption of the Gongen
struction
style after the
Momoyama period.
During the
first
half of the
Heian period about the only feature of Buddhist architecture that
was introduced into the design of Shinto buildings was
the funa-hijiki or pecuhar boat-shaped zontally to support the eaves or
arm extending
some other part of a
After the middle of the Heian period a bracket system was adopted
hori-
building.
more comphcated
from Buddhist design with the
use of the de-mitsuto, which consists of an arm having three wooden cubes to form the lowest support bracket on a pillar. More complex arrangements of brackets and other forms of
the tide
is
coming
fifty-three feet in height
especially
when
From around the end of the Kamakura or the beginning of Muromachi period there appeared many charming small
the
shrines in local districts, called ko-miya or
little
shrines,
which
shrine, dedicated to
is
leyasu, 1542-1616, founder
Yomeimon
or Gate of Sun-
art
of the Edo period. Only of small
four
sides. Its
qualities
of design were inspired by Buddhist forms, such
examples noted for their relatively free as
which is the largest shrine in Okayama prefecture,
whose reputation ranks next Miyajima on the Inland
Sea.
to the Itsukushima shrine at
The Itsukushima
shrine, situated
one of the three most beautiful scenic spots in Japan, con-
of the main shrine and several subsidiary shrines and connected by broad corridors or
stretch over the sea
on both
sides
galleries
which
of the shrine, so that when
a
twelve-columned, two-storied
foil,
of dragons' heads or dragons and clouds,
while other beam-ends are carved with
heads and dragons' heads painted white. ets
The
lions'
elaborate brack-
supporting the balcony are designed in the form of peonies
and
lions,
with carvings of a Chinese prince,
inmiortals between them. a
on
extremely rich carved decoration on the ends
in gold
fine
it is
structure having hipped-gable ends with cusped gables
rafters consists
all
of the
thirty-seven feet high,
all
buildings,
Its
the most elaborate and magnificent gate in Japan, a
of
Many
sists
Tokugawa
of the Tokugawa Shogunate.
than six feet wide. In contrast, the increasing
temples.
at
be
The Japanese have a saying, "Never say kekko (magnificent) you have seen Nikko." Situated near the banks of the Daiya river on a hillside in the midst of a forest of ancient Japanese cedafs, Nikko is one of the most beautiful places in Japan, and the site of the elaborate and colorful Toshogu
of the important shrines followed the trend in Buddhist
the Kibitsu,
reflection to
dimensions, twenty-two feet wide, fifteen feet deep, and
gables.
less
its
is
picture,
until
perfect expression
scale
torii rising
and presents an unforgettable
the rays of the sun cause
through the following periods, in particular the great curved
measure
seems to be floating on
se^n in the placid waters of the Inland Sea.
light
and
edifice
The huge camphor-wood
out of the water about five hundred feet from the shore
Buddhist architecture strongly influenced Shinto buildings
roofs
whole
in the
the surface of the sea.
group of Chinese
porticoes are
two
is
the
railing
cliildren at play.
sages,
and some
of the balcony depicts
On
the ceiling of the
beautiful paintings of dragons; the
nearer the entrance,
dragon,
The
known
as the twbori-ryu
one
or ascending
work of Kano Tan-yu, 1602- 1674;
the inner
one, the kudari-ryu or descending dragon, was executed
by
*»a3>
The
great
Miyajima; and bears a
136
camphor-wood it
differs
tablet
torii
of the
from the usual
Iisukushiina
torii in the
with the autograph
shrine
form of its
at
pillars,
of Prince Arisugawa.
Itsukushima shrine at Miyajima; view from the Inland Sea of the
low stage and the high stage where the sacred Shinto dances are performed.
Yomeimon
Kano
Eisliin,
ceiling,
or
Gate of Sunlight of the Toshogu shrine
1613-1685.
With every
pillar,
at
beam, bracket,
and wall embellished, the endless carvings and paint-
many Nikko
ings of the
of Japanese
art,
shrines, wliile lacking the
pure
spirit
represent the highest possible achievement in
the elaboration of Shinto shrines.
Nikko, Tochigi
prefecture.
hundred years and
wooden and
it
period, early seventeenth century.
has the distinction of being the oldest
structure in the world.
temples of Nara, art
Edo
cidture.
it is
regarded
As one of the seven
These famous structures are
quality of hinohi, the Japanese cypress, still
from about the
a gradual
third century,
it
flow of Chinese culture
was not
until the introduction
of Buddhism into Japan in the year 552 that native architecture
began to be materially changed under
its
the reign of the Empress Suiko, temples
were
scale
one
form
Kondo
are the
or main building, the
influence. built
on
after another, including such great edifices
features
convexity of the
pronounced
peculiar and interesting system of brackets called to-kyo,
their
the
beam
entasis in the slight
supports called kaeru-mata. To-kyo
of an arm or arms
have long since
more than
distinctive
a grand
been destroyed by fire, and in many cases rebuilt. The Horyuji alone has miraculously survived for
The
During
and
thirteen
607,
of religious architecture of the Asuka period are the
With one
these great temples
from the year
the period of the Six Dynasties in Cliina.
supports the eaves or
all
Chumon
their architecture follows Chinese prototypes prevalent during
monasteries as the Hokoji, the Shitennoji, and the Horyuji. exception,
of a fme
or middle gate, the Goju-no-to or five-storied pagoda, and part of the corridor or colonnade. Dating
Although there had been
built
and those which are
preserved within the precincts of the Horyuji in their
original
BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
great
fountainhead of Japanese
as the
square
some other
part
is
pillars,
a device
or blocks called
top. In the large buildings
which
of a building, consisting
called hijiki extending horizontally
wooden block
the
and
to
with
a
or niasu placed on
with their huge and greatly extended
137
roofs the arrangement of to-kyo series
of
mamier
upon
hijiki
becomes very
intricate,
with
and repeated in an expanding
until their projection creates sufficient support for
the eaves.
%
placed
to
The
kaeru-mata, or frog's legs, are the
ornamented
triangular-shaped supports placed in the centers of tie-beams.
By begun
the beginning of the eighth century the Japanese
adopt the
arts
had
knowledge of government and to
to acquire a vast
and culture of China through constant
inter-
course between the two countries. Official envoys and students
were able
to Iqarn
of Chinese
much from
civilization,
their observances
which during the
and studies
centuries of the Sui
and T'ang dynasties reached the highest degree of attainment in the world.
Emperors
to
move
The
cultural
ancient custom for the Japanese
their palaces
and
capital to a
new
site at
the time of accession because of the belief that a house in
which a death took
place
was unclean, was abandoned, with
the establishment of the permanent capital in the province of
Yamato,
at
Heijo-kyo, which
later
became Nara. This was
710 during the reign of the Empress-Regnant time
when T'ang
Japanese
life,
culture
was dominant
Gemmyo,
in
and the new capital was laid out on
scale after the
T'ang
capital
all
in
at a
phases of
a magnificent
of Ch'ang-an. This gave an im-
portant stimulus to architectural development.
The Imperial
inner city of resplendent palace buddings with red-colored pillars
and great roofs of green glazed
of the nobles nearby,
tiles,
reflected the splendor
and the mansions
of the Nara period.
Great monasteries were erected one after the other at an almost frantic pace during the time that Nara remained the
'
To -To,
or East Pagoda,
storied structure
mokoshi. Built
Right:
~':^C^'
of the Yakiishiji temple
at
Nara, a three-
showing the use of intermediate projections in 680.
To-kyo
called
Yakushiji temple, Nara.
(brackets)
of the south portal of the Todaiji
temple at Nara, showing the elaborate use of such brackets in the
Tenjiku-yo style of Buddhist architecture. Bulk kura period.
138
in
iigg.
Kama-
from 710
capital
until 794, culminating
of the Hall of the Great Buddha
with the construction
at the
were painted with
exterior portions of temples
The
Todaiji temple.
a red oxide
of lead, and the interiors were decorated in a peculiar method
known
ungen in which different shades of colors were
as
carefully graduated.
have survived,
To-To
Among
now
the
main temple buildings
preserved as National Treasures,
that
is
the
or East Pagoda of the Yakushiji temple erected in 680
near the city of Nara. portions.
It is
It is
remarkable for
a three-storied
But
pillars.
base,
its
wooden
roof.
is
feet in
supported by
between the
floors as
an
These projections, which are called
meaning
mokoshi, literally
and
appears to be six-storied since each
it
story has an intermediate projection additional
beautiful pro-
pagoda measuring 115
height and thirty feet square at seventeen
its
lean-tos, are frequently
found on
either three or four sides
of buildings in the form of projecting
eaves or roofs under the
main roof as an
against the weather.
mokoshi, and
Hanging from the comers of
from the roof
also
additional protection these
corners, are hionze futakii,
or wind-bells, which resemble the great temple bells in miniature form. flat
They
are often
more elongated and have a thin,
piece of bronze cut in the shape of the Chinese cloud motif
which
is
hung from
when
to ring
the
Japanese pagoda usually
of the
the tongue of the bell and cause the bell
wind blows. An
is
interesting feature
the exceptionally
tall sarin,
of the
an ornament,
of bronze, surmounting the roof. The principal parts
sarin,
from the base upward,
are the roban or
dew basin,
the fukubachi or inverted bowl, the tikehatm or everted flower,
the kurin or nine rings, the snien or water flame, the ryusha or
dragon vehicle, and the
or sacred gem.
hosliu
Hokke-do of the
the Toshodaiji, the
Todaiji,
The Kondo of and the
Yume-
dono of the Horyuji are among other surviving temple buildings of the Nara period. The Kondo or main hall of the Toshodaiji
celebrated for
is
its
elegant
form and
proportions of its coloimade on the front side.
or Hall of Dreams of the Horyuji temple the east temple and
building in Japan.
is
fme
for the
The Yumedono the main hall of
considered the most beautiful octagonal
is
It is
HaU of Dreams
called
Shotoku was known to
because Prince
there in deep meditation while
sit
pondering a passage in the three
sutras.
The Hokke-do
or
Third Month temple, founded in 733 and the oldest extant structure of the Todaiji, is named from the custom of holding a yearly service for the
Hokke scripture in the month of March.
The succeeding Heian first
period,
from 794
to 11 85,
marks the
period of nationalization ofthe architectural styles brought
from the mainland. Around the
many
period
Nara
closing years of the
had arisen
difficulties
that tended to retard the
and economic advancement of the country, brought
cultural
about by a variety of circumstances including the too-excessive influence wielded
by Buddhism.
relations of Buddhism
the seat of
A marked deterioration in the
and the state prompted the court to move
government
to Heian-kyo, or Kyoto, in the year
794 in order to break up certain destructive social and economic practices
and begin
was
quillity, as it
place in the
a
new life in
called.
The
the capital of peace and tran-
architectural changes that
of the temple buildings brought about by
Sliingon
and
new
practices
with the establishment of the Tendai
ideals
sect.
sect
and
and the
Buddhism again became extremely powerful
popularity
its
took
Heian period were principally in the arrangement
were two great
was widespread among
rival centers
:
the people.
the monastery
There
on Mount Koya,
south of Nara, where the esoteric philosophy of the Shingon sect,
with
its
complex symbolism, was taught; and
that
on
Moimt
Hiei, northeast of Kyoto, the seat of the Tendai sect,
whose
doctrines
two
were based upon
pantheistic realism.
fountauilieads of Buddhist learning
isolation
were
These
built in the
of rugged mountainsides in the hope of avoiding
excessive involvement in political matters; as a result the architectural
arrangement had to conform with the natural
surroundings, and instead of the regular pattern
on
level
when laid
out
ground, there was greater freedom in the location of
the individual buildings. At the same time the advancement in
temple design
is
seen in the extreme beauty of proportion
of the five-storied pagoda of the Daigoji temple in Kyoto built in 951. In the early part
of the Heian period there ap-
peared a peculiar variety of pagoda called
Chmnon, in
607.
or
Middle Gate, af the Horytiji temple
Asuka
periad.
at
Nara,
built
tope,
which became an
asteries.
essential
talw-ta,
or treasure
element in Shingon
mon-
This form derived from the Indian stupa or tope.
139
HHuaniDHfl
which was
usually in the shape of a cylindrical or prismatic
low tower topped by a cupola, erected to house relics of Buddha or contain a Buddhist shrine. Under Japanese influence the taho-to
with a
a square
came
to resemble a two-storied
pagoda
lower story covered with a roof or mokoshi, and
more narrow
circular
upper story covered with a great roof
having deep projecting eaves. Early Heian architecture
main
hall
is
by the invaluable examples of the
beautifully represented
of the Muroji temple south of Nara
as
well
as its
very small five-storied pagoda, both ofwhich were built in 824.
One of the finest examples of late Heian temple architecture is
the
Hoodo, or Phoenix
Hall, of the
Byodoin
at
Uji in the
that typifies purely Japanese art.
in the monasteries
of the Jodo
with an image of the Buddha in the Nai-jin or inner sanctuary,
which
is
in the center of the interior in an area
aroimd while
reciting the Nembutsu or Invocation to
The
form of the Amida-do
simplest
elaborate Phoeni'x Hall of the
The temple was designed
to represent the mythical
phoenix of Chinese legend in the ground. The main hall lateral corridors its
ward
act
of descending
supposed to represent
is
its
wings, and the rear corridor
to the
body, the
its tail.
To-
the end of the Heian period the great popularity of the
new Jodo only way
or Pure Land
sect,
based upon the belief that the
to salvation lay in absolute trust in the aU-saving
power of Amitabha Buddha, or
The
the
Buddha Amida,
in-
Byodoin temple is nothing more
center building.
The second period of Chinese
duction of the
time.
Buddha.
three bays square, but
than an Amida-do with a sanctuary of one bay square in the
preserved since its construction in 1053.
typify the best religious architectural accomplishments of the
is
the larger buddings often are five bays square, while the
Kamakura and Muromachi
elegant proportions
one bay square
surK)unded by an open space or corridor for people to walk
was converted into a monastery in 1052, and the original main haU, known as the Phoenix Hall, has been carefully Its
was the Amida-do, or HaU
of Amida. In plan, the Amida-do was almost always square,
suburb of Kyoto. Originally a villa of Fujiwara-no-Michinaga, it
The most important building
sect
ment
new styles from
a further develop-
the mainland.
Two important
many of the
buildings of
period were the Tenjiku-yo or "Indian style" and the
Kara-yo or "Chinese
style," as
"Japanese style" which fmally to
when
in religious architecture took place through the intro-
architectural influences that inspired this
was during the
influence
periods,
form
a
mixed
called Indian style
often with as pillars,
A
style. is
opposed to the
merged with
The most
Wa-yo
or
the Chinese style
striking feature
of the so-
the use of an elaborate system of brackets,
many as seven arms projecting to the front of the
reflection
of the Tenjiku-yo
style
appeared in Japan
around the beginning of the Kamakura period
in the re-
large monasteries built during this
construction of the great monastery of the Todaiji, which
time were erected principally by various members of the
had seen unsurpassed prosperity and power during the Nara
Fujiwara clan, and although lacking the appearance of strength
period but had been reduced to ashes by a general of the Taira
and grandeur of the older temples, they
clan in 1180 during a civil war.
fluenced architecture.
reflected a quality
of
dignity and elegance and the native freedom of expression
The Hokke-do,
or Third
Month
ceived on a grand scale and
its
The
Todaiji had been con-
restoration,
temple, of the Todaiji temple at Nara, founded in yjj.
Nara
which was directed
period.
imi^^wi' '»''«r^'>^''wi3a»t»f»
140
The HooJo,
by
or
Phoenix Hall, of the Byodoin monastery
the priest Shunjobo
Chogen, was an enormous under-
taking requiring vast knowledge and experience in religious architecture.
The Tenjiku-yo
style
of the restored buildings
is
actually a modification of a style of temple architecture of the
Sung dynasty style"
arose
Chogen,
in China.
from
The
fact that
it
a misunderstanding
a great architect,
was
was
called "Indian
of the term used.
able to accomplish the
work
of restoration of the Todaiji because he had studied architecture in
China and supervised the construction of many monasteries
in that country during three long visits there.
the same principles of
Sung
He employed
architecture in the construction
of other temples in Japan, although the only one to survive the Jodo-do Hall of the Jodoji monastery at
Harima on
is
the
at Uji,
Kyoto
prefecture, built in 10^3.
ogi-daruki or fan rafters.
Kara-yo
style
which the
Early Heian period.
Another
architectural feature
to-kyo or brackets
were used not only on the tops
of pillars but on the intercolumnar spaces that
is
of the
was the Tsume-Gumi, or compact system, in
as well.
The
plan
almost universal in the Kara-yo style has a main hall of
three bays square, and in the larger structures the hall
is
pro-
vided with the mokoshi, or additional roof. In the center of the interior there
is
a Nai-jin or iimer sanctuary
of which
in the rear portion
principal
is
of one bay square,
placed the dais to hold the
image of the temple. Carved decoration came to be
used on the rafters
at the
heading beams, which
gable ends and also on the ends of
later led to the
development of sculp-
tured ornamentation. Fine examples of the Kara-yo style
Inland Sea.
include the Shariden or Relic Hall of the Engakuji temple at
The Kara-yo or "Chinese style" was introduced into Japan along with Zen Buddhism to become the typical style of the Zen monasteries. Among the characteristic features of the
temple
Chinese style are the
tiled floor, a
and vigorous upturned curves
roof having a steep slope,
at the corners
the rafters arranged in a radiating
of the eaves with
manner at the comers,
called
Kamakura, the Kaisando or Founder's Hall of the Eihoji at
Tajimi in Gifu prefecture, and the
Shuonan monastery
The Wa-yo
at
Tanabemachi
or Japanese style
the Nara-period architecture
which did not adhere
in
Kyoto
Hondo of the prefecture.
may be regarded as a revival of
from
five
hundred years
to the rigid Chinese
earlier,
method of planning 141
but allowed a greater freedom in the arrangement of the different buildings
of
a temple.
for this traditional style in the
newly
the
the Renge-o-in monastery in Kyoto,
district itself,
cinct
Kamakura period under
risen sects.
The
where
great
the pressure of
restored buildings within the pre-
of the Kofukuji monastery at Nara, which was one of the
seven great temples of Nara and
had
as
many
as
examples of the
at the
height of its prosperity
175 buildings, are considered to be the best
Wa-yo
style.
The To-Kondo
or East
Main
Hall and the five-storied pagoda of the Kofukuji are fme extant examples of the
Nara period, while the Hokuendo or
North Octagonal Hall and the the late Heian period.
Many
three-storied
pagoda represent
outstanding examples of the
Japanese style were built during the
\'
Kamomachi, Soraku-gun
temple
Nara
numbers of Buddhist monasteries were restored and reconstructed during the
various provinces, for example the main hall of the Saimyoji
There was a strong preference
Kamakura period
in
at
Sanju-Sangen-do because of the spaces
between the
of this temple dess
is its
The is
Kyoto
which
satiju-san
pillars in the structure.
and
prefecture,
is
also called the
or thirty-three
The unique
feature
principal image, the Thousand-handed
God-
Kannon, carved by the famous sculptor Tankei in his
eighty-second year. style
in
One of the oldest examples of the Wa-yo
the charming taho-to or stupa of the Ishiyamadera.
is
subject
of one of Hiroshige's Eight Views of Lake Biwa
the Ishiyama temple,
the lake
temple
is
is
so beautiful
also
noted for
from whose grounds on its
a
the
view over
moonlit night in autumn. The
Genji-no-ma or Hall of Genji, the
building in which
Lady Murasaki Shikibu, 975-1031, wrote
her famous
romance, the Genji Monogatari.
classic
^
South portal of the Todaiji temple
at
Nara,
built in
11 99, in the Tenjiku-yo style of Buddhist architecture.
Kamakura
period.
Belfry of the Todaiji temple at Nara, with
bronze
142
bell originally cast in
732.
Nara
its
great
period.
The second epoch of nationahzation of Buddhist tural styles
architec-
adopted from the Chinese spans the three centuries
buildings of the Zuiganji temple at Matsushima, founded in
828 and reconstructed in 1609 by order of Date Masamune,
Momoyama and Edo periods. Buddhist temples of the Momoyama period began to acquire
one of the most powerful feudal lords of Japan.
the native style of architecture that was prevalent before the
rock-cut caves,
Kamakura
the
from 1573
to 1867, covering the
As has already been noted, the
period.
arts
of
some two
stories
in earlier times
and the
covered the
Other examples of Momoyama
were being
main
great panels
on the
walls of castles and mansions
created. Buddhist architecture
distinguished for
its
tured ornament.
during the
of the
Momoyama
The
Momoyama period
son Hideyori. Typical of the
The
Sharuk'ii, or Relic Hall, Eitiiti
era
is
also
restoration of Buddhist monasteries
was carried on
at a great
under the leadership of Toyotomi Hideyoshi and
during the
era
resplendent coloring and elaborate sculp-
Momoyama
later
pace
by
his
style are several
of the Eiigakiiji temple
at
Kamakura, a
high and
smoke of incense. These caves
Japan then became almost entirely free of foreign influences large-scale decorative compositions that
An
avenue
of ancient Japanese cedars leads to the temple, past many
hall
by
all
begrimed with
are said to have been used
traveling priests for religious meditation. religious architecture are the
of the Toji in Kyoto; the Kara-mon or Cliinese
gateway of the Daitokuji, which was formerly a gateway in the Juraku-dai mansion of Hideyoshi; the
Gate for Imperial Messengers
Samboin temple orated by
in
at the
Chokushimon or
Diatokuji in Kyoto; the
Kyoto, containing several chambers dec-
Kano Sanraku and the Ohiroma or Stork Chambers ;
of the Nishi Honganji temple in Kyoto, wliich
fine
example of the Kara-yo
style
of Buddhist
is
gorgeously
architecture.
Built
(1293-1299). Kamakura period.
143
The taho-to
(stupa) of the Ishiyamadera, huilt in 1194 in the
Wa-yo
style
ofBuddhist
architecture.
Kamakura
period. Ishiyama temple, Otsu, Shiga prefecture.
Left:
Main Hall of the Saimyoji
temple at Kamomachi, Soraku-
gun, in Kyoto prefecture, an example of architecture.
Right:
Kamakura
Main Hall of the
between 1599-1606.
144
Wa-yo
style
of Buddhist
period.
Toji temple at Kyoto, rebuilt sometime
Momoyama period.
decorated with paintings by
Maruyama Okyo. In the Edo period detail,
Kano Tan-yu, Kano Ryokei, and
the primary emphasis
was on decorative
with the general form and proportions being over-
looked and the different acteristics.
Of
styles losing their distinctive char-
particular interest are the buildings
Mampukuji temple
at Uji,
of the
Obaku sect
the headquarters of the
of Buddhism established in 1659 by Ingen,
famous Chinese
a
of the
priest.
These temple structures follow the
Ming
period and are in sharp contrast to other Buddhist
temples in Japan. the
in Nara,
great
the Hall of the Great
and the main
monly known
style
later
Two of the most representative examples of
Edo period are
as the
hall
of the
Buddha
Seisuiji
at
temple,
Kiyomizu temple, which
wooden platform on
a cliff offering a
gate of the Nanzenji in Kyoto, called the is
widely
known
notorious robber Ishikawa
a
columned loggia within
The main
front of the building.
on
a
erect-
for a legend relating to the
the earlier part
of disrepair were restored by the successive
outward, sometimes in double folds; these are generally open,
as this
provides the principal light in the interior.
harmonious arrangement of the
is
a principal feature
of both the
filled
stands near the
lingers over this
center of Buddhism.
floor
in
is
partly bare
the distinctive features in the architecture of Japa-
steps in the center
continuing
of the approach
as the gallery railing.
front,
by
a flight
of
with a balustrade
A system of deep bracketing
corbeled out from the main pillars sometimes supports this gallery,
which
is
sheltered
by the
usually
great projecting eaves. In
ribs are lacquered
clasps at their intersections.
and partly covered with
of the main
hall
peristyle, or
column carrying
of huge dimensions an
all
Due
is
is
interior
used, each
to the peculiar construction
is
no
its
thrust
the weight acts vertically
on the outer
on the
of
immense weight walls
interior points
Although the forms of roof are varied, feature
is
a profuse system of bracketing to harmonize
framework of the Japanese roof with
because
and of the
to the altar are
system of roof-supporting columns,
with that of the cornice. the
gallery
from the entrance
richly lacquered. In temples
The
tatami or mats, but
many of the fine temples the floors of the
central part
of
their principal
a steep slope at the top, gradually flattening
the eaves to produce a
a raised gallery, reached
The ceiling is
with paintings, and the
and ornamented with metal
southwest entrance to the city as a noble and beautiful symbol
is
and exterior archi-
interior
walls forms the major ornamental detail.
support.
Among
and
and an elaborate cornice of wooden bracketing on the
tecture,
highest pagoda in Japan, measuring 182 feet.
nese Buddhist temples
pillars, posts, brackets,
left
The
beams, which follow a particular standard of measurement,
and heavy projections, there
still
and the
facade contains one, two,
or three sections provided with folding doors which open
Tokugawa Shoguns in a series of magnificent reconstruction projects. The great five-storied pagoda of the Toji temple in Kyoto, rebuilt by lemitsu, the third Tokugawa Shogun, is the
of the Old World atmosphere which
this raised
sides
sometimes
Sammon, was
It
around the two
more comstands
panoramic view
Goemon. During
is
passes usually
paneled and subdivided by ribs into small rectangular coffers
of the Edo period many of the temples in Kyoto that had fallen into a state
which
the Todaiji
of Kyoto and its neighboring districts. The famous two-storied
ed in 1628 and
the larger temples there gallery
toward
somewhat concave appearance which
often accentuated by the
tilt
given to the eaves
at the
four
comers. They are extremely picturesque with their large pantiles, their
heavy
ribs
carried along the ridge,
of tile cresting with large terminals
and
their sloping gables.
four fundamental forms of roof design
:
There are
the gabled roof, the
pyramidal roof, the hipped-ridge roof, and the hipped-and-
145
gabled roof.
two
The gabled
slopes with a
heavy
roof, or kirizuma type, consists of
rib
of tiles along the ridge and along
dhist building is generally constructed in the hongawara
which
consists
of vertical rows of semi-cylindrical
the gable ends. In the pyramidal roof, or hogyo type, the ridges
nating with rows of slightly concave
that divide the several
lower ends of the rows of semi-cylindrical
and
at the
segments are heavily ribbed with
tiles,
top where they meet, the intersection is surmounted
with a bronze roban or dew basin to support certain rooftop ornaments.
The hipped-ridge
shichu type, consists
roof, called the yosenmne or
of four sloping
sides, those parallel to the
ridge having four angles, while those are triangular in form.
on the opposite
The hipped-and-gabkd
sides
roof,
or
irimoya type, could be described as a gabled roof with the
addition of eaves projecting along
all
four sides.
beauty and charm of Japanese architecture interesting variety
of its
roofs,
is
tiled roofs
of the
expressed in the
from the grand and imposing
The four fundamental forms of temple ped-ridge roof, or
Much
yosemune
roofs:
or shichu.
4.
i.
Gable
of Buddhist temples, to the unusually lovely roof
jects representing the
propriate subject.
symbol of
The
called kakakusa-'gawara
with a flower,
leaf,
and
their ends are generally decorated
The
pleasing proportions
and perfectly designed curves of Japanese roofs add much to their beauty, as
do the graceful projecting eaves supported on
an interesting system of bracketing. Throughout the cen-
roof, or
kirizuma.
turies
roof,
or
2.
Pyramidal
rooj, or
hogyo.
3.
Hip-
irimoya. Tokyo National Museum.
of Japan's cultural history, religious
ideals
have been
the principal factor influencing the style of architecture, with
inherent simplicity and
Shinto exerting
146
some other ap-
the end of the eaves are
or scroll design.
toward the ornate, while the
with the frequent haze of the atmosphere. The roof of a Bud-
the
comma-shaped ob-
creation, or
flat tiles at
the picturesque thatched roofs of farmhouses, and the dwelling that blend so perfectly
tiles at
along the end
and usually are decorated with designs of lotus flowers,
the tomoye or circle of three intertwining
houses with roofs of gray-colored
tiles
The
tiles
of the eaves, which are rounded in section, are called tonwyegau^ara
Hipped-and-gabled
of a Shinto shrine covered with thin narrow pieces o( hinoki
flat tiles.
mamier,
tiles alter-
its
Buddhism
leaning
traditional Japanese dwelling
retained an air of elegant simplicity and subtle refmement.
XI Domestic
JAPANESE
domestic architecture, which
first
developed as a purely native style during the
Heian period, has always aimed
harmony with
at a perfect
nature between the house and the garden. This intrinsic relationship
is
so strong that
the two seem
merge with
to
a
of complete unity. Nature endowed Japan with beauti-
feeling
ful features,
and the architectural composition of the domestic
dwelling house has been designed to conform with the landscape.
The deeply ingrained
Japanese appreciation of natural
Architecture
turies in the latter part
form of domestic senting the
first
of the Heian period,
is
the essence of a
architecture called shinden-zukuri.
truly Japanese domestic style, these
dwellings were budt for court nobles in beautiful locations
within the city of Kyoto, with picturesque mountains
or
arranged symmetrically around a main
halls,
hall, called
and connected to each other by galleries. The establish-
shindeti,
ment was
located in the middle of the estate and faced south,
toward the principal garden and a large pond or
which developed during the Kamakura period. The Zen behef
sliindeii,
that the universe
is
pervaded by one
spirit,
portant role in Japanese culture. Actually, to an ingrained love ter
and
that the indi-
one with aU nature, has for centuries played an im-
is
from
of nature inherent
earliest times.
The
Zen gave
direction
in the Japanese charac-
original Japanese religion
unorganized worship of nature and the
spirits
was an
of the dead,
which, through the centuries, developed into the native Shinto
cult.
The pantheon of
this beautiful native religion
many nature gods and goddesses, including those of rivers, mountains, fire, and winds, and many deified
embraces the sea,
persons. In addition, there are those things to ancients ascribed divinity, such as the sun flowers, rocks,
and
trees.
and the moon, the
The worship of such
pression of the belief that natural objects are
indwelling souls, and
this is the
which the
things
is
an ex-
endowed with
reason that certain trees and
rocks are frequently seen along the wayside adorned with the
shimcnawa or Sacred
Rope of
they are inhabited by a divine
with
this
southern outlook, was reserved
room of the
ception and living
inaster
used not only for reading, studying, and dressing, but
also for sleeping.
ments were
The
subsidiary buildings with their apart-
contained living rooms for various that
of the long
tainoya
on
either side
galleries that
the family,
of the master's
the lake and over the water.
seventy feet long by
by
were two very
beyond the bank of
pavilions at the ends extending slightly
sides
hall
extended in a southerly direction, with
The
fifty feet
shinden
was usually about
wide, surrounded on
which was
a closed veranda
in turn
all
four
surrounded by a
more narrow open veranda. The floor of the entire mansion was of wood, raised above the ground on heavy supporting
and the walls consisted of a
day with iron hooks
hung on
come in
the
vertically,
and could be held open during the while a fabric or
as fasteners,
the inner side.
It
was not
bamboo
possible for rain to
open windows or even onto the veranda because
STYLE
thatchlike manner, projected well
which was
Each subsidiary
hall
built
was
up with thin
laid
strips
by
a variety of
of cypress in a
beyond the building
line.
out exactly like the main
hall,
the interior consisting of a single, large, into sections
posts,
of wooden shutters which
series
the roof,
which developed between the tenth and twelfth cen-
members of
of the mistress being the northern hall. Connected to each
THE "SHINDEN-ZUKURI" MANSION
setting,
matching houses), and
called tainoya (literally,
swung outward
landscape
of the house. The term
room
spirit.
its
The
as the re-
room in Japanese domestic architecture refers to the
Shinto, in the conviction that
intimate relationship of the house with
lake.
living
curtain
The
as a
background. The mansion consisted of a number of buildings,
beauty was also greatly stimulated by the teachings of Zen,
vidual
Repre-
imposing
movable
open space divided
partitions, such as sec-
147
tional folding screens called byobu, single or double-section
screens called called kicho,
tsuitate,
and large portable framework stands
which were hung with
silks.
At
this
time the
T'ang dynasty in China was on the decline and the Chinese influence
was beginning
to
wane in Japan, with
the native Japanese character was
becoming more accentuated.
A new class of secular artists was some of the mansions with
the result that
commissioned
elaborate paintings
on
to
colorful screen compositions. In this period, mats
The Shomeimon Gate of the Imperial
embeUish
ceilings
and
were not
used to cover the floors but served merely for reclining and sitting,
and were moved about
at will. In
time the sym-
metrical plan of the various buildings of the shinden-sukuri style
gave
way
to the typical Japanese arrangement of joining
the buildings one to the other in a meandering
manner which
no longer required connecting galleries.
Toward
the end of the twelfth century, with the rise of
feudalism, the seat of administrative tary caste
was
established at
government of the mili-
Kamakura
in eastern Japan, for
palace at Kyoto. Reconstructed after repeated fires in the style of the Late Heian period, eleventh to
twelfth century.
The Shishinden
or Ceremonial
Hall of the Imperial palace
at
Kyoto.
Rebuilt after the fire of 1854 as a reproduction of the original palace building of the early part of the
Heian period (794-118^).
Guest hall of the Kojo-in monastery fecture,
built
universally
1601
in
at
Momoyama
Otsu, Shiga pre-
the style of the dwelling houses
used since the end of the
(1338-1573).
148
in
Muromachi period
period (1573-1615).
which
this
period
is
named. The residences of the newly
upper-class warriors, though influenced
of the* aristocracy basically simple
at
and
Kyoto, lacked practical.
teenth century,' with the
fall
By
by
their distinction
the
first
more and more
risen
and were
shiriden-zukuri.
half of the four-
of the Kamakura regime and
of the Ashikaga, the administrative headquarters were
On
known
Muromachi
as the
account of
Ninomaru palace
this the
period.
in the
Ashikaga period
The mihtary
Nijo
castle at
caste
subsidiary buildings
manner about
the
the time and to
also
adopted
Nijo Horikawa
But out of it developed
the aristocracy and
interiors
in
were
first
new style of building
to a free plan,
to the
partitioned
with the various
a functional
structure.
conform
now
Kyoto. Edo period,
way
grouped in
main
a
which the symmetrical arrangement
of the shinden-zukuri gave
rise
moved is
mode of living of
called the shoin-zukuri, in
back to Kyoto and established in a section of the city called
Muromachi.
the
planned their dwellings in conformity with the style of the
the shinden-sukuri
To meet mode of
and informal
the necessities
of
living, the large
by means of
sliding doors
half of the seventeenth century.
ml 1
General view of part of the main group of shoin-zukuri-rfy/e buildings of the Katsura Detached Palace at Kyoto. early seventeenth century.
Edo
period,
^^B
^
M 'P^ Interior
view of the corridor along the
Ceremonial Hall of the Imperial palace of the
style
Jroiit oj the
at
Kyoto.
of the Late Heian period, eleventh
Shishinden or
A representation
to twelfth century.
149
were moved from the mansion Nijo
at
castle.
of Hideyoshi's famous Jurakudai
site
Momoyama, and Within the
Tokugawa Shogun,
first
occasion of his
comers
like a series
power of
the
zukuri in a
of the
Edo
period,
which
Edo
the
form became,
simplified
until the present time, the style class
typical
of steps. With the increase in the
cdmmoners during
more
is
it
main buUdings joined together
consisted of several
Edo
castle
on the
to serve as his residence
Kyoto. In plan
visits to
houses of the feudal lords of the
palatial
buildings of the Katsura Detached Palace at Kyoto.
palace in the
compound of Nijo
magnificent mansion was originally built by leyasu, the
this
Arrangement of part of the main group of slioin-zukuri-5/y/e
Ninomaru
the
vast walled
at their
financial
period, the shoin-
has remained
as it
of residence for the merchant
and wealthy farmers in the provincial
districts.
period,
early seventeenth century.
THE JAPANESE HOUSE called fusuma,
windows and also
and translucent paper began to be used for
The
which
urban
for the outside sliding doors called shoji,
had appeared. The
characteristic shoin-zuhuri interior
traditional Japanese dwelling as
manner
which the Japanese
the
noma, the
to custom, the Japanese always
window
the bay
called the shoin.
with mats called
were
sliding
of shelves near the
The
tokonoma
for reading
entire floor surface
tatami.
wooden
called the tana or chigai-dana,
The last important
was
and
and writing
now
covered
addition to appear
shutters called amado. In substance, the
domestic architecture of the Muromachi period contained the principal elements
all
of and closely resembled the fine
Momoyama
period the palatial mansions in the
shoin-zukuri style reflected the vigorous
ing activity of
all
the
arts.
growth and
The magnificence of
flourish-
the interior
decoration of the feudal lords' dwellings is beyond conception.
There were fmely chased and gilded metalwork appointments, elaborate
wood carvings, especially in the ramma or horizontal
opening above the
lintel
which
partitions ofl^the
rooms, and
magnificent paintings on screens, wall panels, coffered ceiling panels,
and on the fusiwia or
interior sliding doors.
era of the great screen painters such as
It
was the
Kano Eitoko and Kano
Sanraku with their large-scale decorative compositions covering huge panels of paper or
silk.
The mastery with which
these painters embellished suite after suite in the apartments
with a profusion of resplendent color and fme counterpart.
On surfaces
detail has
no
of gold leaf were depicted gorgeous
landscapes with ancient pine trees,
plum trees with their white
blossoms, gardens and groves rich with brilliant leaves, birds
with bright plumage, wild geese in the moonlight, rocks,
and an endless variety of other
of these
interiors can best
forming
a part
150
in
entering the house and
sit
on
and
sit
remove
their knees
recline.
subjects.
fantastic
The splendor
be exemplified by the buildings
of the Nishi Honganji temple in Kyoto, which
According
their shoes
when
and heels on the mats
or tatami that cover the floor surface or
on
upon
necessary because of
this
the floor. Since
mode of sitting,
and with the rooms
no
the
free
seat furniture
rooms
is
are small
a cushion placed
and the
for any one specific purpose.
with the climate
as a
ceilings low,
of furniture they need not be reserved
The
design and construction
not only architecturally beautiful but practical
dwellings of today.
During the
today, even in the
ning and layout were largely influenced by the climate and
architecture included the recess in the wall called the tokorecess
it is
developed during the Edo period. The plan-
districts,
as well,
is
and
major factor in the layout and general
planning, an unusually charming effect climate of the main islands of Japan
is
is
The
the result.
about the same
all
over,
with the four seasons of about equal duration and clearly divided one from the other.
The summer months
oppressive, less because of the heat,
which
is
than on account of the extreme humidity. This
of the winter, with
The high
tures.
its
are very
not excessive, is
the opposite
low humidity and moderate tempera-
rainfall is
another factor that has influenced
the planning of the house, because, although the rain
throughout the year, there
is
a particular rainy season
falls
from
about the middle of June, lasting for a month or more. This season
is
called nyubai, or baiu or tsuyu,
and
is
characterized
cloudy and sultry days mostly accompanied by
some periods of about
rain,
three days each having torrential
downpours. The Japanese rainy season has always been cially
by
with
offi-
designated in the old lunar calendar by the ideograms
for nyubai,
meaning "entry
ideograms used for
baiu,
to the
plum
season,"
and the
meaning "plum-rain," which sug-
gests that the rainy season begins
when
the plums are ripe.
Because of these climatic features, a primary consideration
aimed
at
meeting the conditions of the summer months. Not only
is
in the planning
and building of the Japanese house
the climate unpleasant during the rainy season but
is
it is
a time
The also
make summer living, and they
extensive apertures consisting of sliding doors
more
the Japanese house
make
pleasant for
the house and the garden flow one into the other.
of air. Therefore the house has only a few permanent walls,
The house is always constructed of unpainted wood, while the fixed walls are made of a bamboo latticework covered with
and the external and internal divisions are formed with sliding
a
when mildew is
a serious factor unless there
and removable doors which permit the throughout the entire house. walls
To
from the summer sun and
far as possible
is
free circulation
air to
move
protect these sliding exterior rain, the
roof must project
and a veranda should extend
at least
south side of the house to provide sufficient shade. as a
as
along the
And lastly,
protection against dampness, the ground floor of the house
has traditionally been built one and a half to feet
freely
above the ground on
posts.
two and
a half
kind of
roof
is
mud
plaster
mixed with chopped
of pantiles. There
is
silvery-gray of the heavy roof alent atmosphere.
gabled roofs
is
A
was made
called oni-gawara,
up of many
against evil.
devil
Most of these end
Thc Ohiroina,
or Stork
Fushimi
of Hideyoshi
at
of the abbot.
It is
tile,
tiles at
of a devil and was
to protect the house
the present time repre-
in the
Nishi
at
Kyoto, formerly the residence
castle,
and now the audience chamber
gorgeously decorated with paintings by the
foremost members of the
Kano family and
exquisite carvings of storks in the lintel).
of tiles, with
ridge. Originally
Chamber, of the shoin
Honganji temple compound
the
of the hipped-andlayers
end of each
to represent the face
meaning
and the
and the haze of the prev-
characteristic feature
the ridges built
a tile representing water at the this tile
tiles
straw,
harmony between
a pleasing
Momoyama
The main chamber
ramma
noted for the
(opening above
period.
in the living quarters
of the Ninomaru
palace in the Nijo castle at Kyoto, with paintings attributed to
Kano Tan-yu, 1602-1674, and
and
sliding screens,
his school
and the highly decorated
on the walls
coffered ceilhig
with paintings on a gold-leaf ground. Edo period,
first
half
of the seventeenth century.
151
of the living quarters ofNagoya
Interior
castle,
shoiving one of the
ramma
wall panels and some of the fusuma, the large
above the
fusuma, and corner of the coffered ceiling. The castle ivas completed in 1612 by order of ley asu, founder of the Tokugawa Shogunate, as a fortified residence for his soti resided there until in
1945.
sent
1
868.
Momoyama
waves or
It
Interior
of the
rooms.
Built
Momoyama
in
1612 and destroyed
in
an
charm
some have
against fire;
called tomoye-gawara, others the
a half to
two and
a half feet above the
the floors are of tatami, that the
tomoye or circle composed of three intertwining commas,
movable walls and result
stiU others
simply the ideogram
layout of the typical Japanese house comprises
three distinct parts: the area raised above the
covered with mats or tatami which includes quarters; the raised part with
wooden
ground and the living
all
which includes
floor
the corridors, veranda, and usually the kitchen; and a small
lower portion of almost ground level which includes the
bathroom, a section of the kitchen, and the entrance
hall.
The
measurement of a room or any other part of a house spread as
level floors,
is
ment.
A
mat
based on the size of a mat three feet
by
six feet.
tatami are
made of
a
and pleasant
The
to
style
The
side,
over-all area is
six
of
a
by six feet. a
mounted on
narrow a rice-
152
it is
built
with primitive
actually represents a purity
developed by a refinement of
The
The
surfaces
and the
Unfinished and unpainted
skill
intimate relationship of
itself also in the
beauty of
with which they are
wood is
usually
employed
treated.
for
both
the inside and outside of the house, and the meticulous selection
and the combinations of different kinds of wood
particularly pleasing effect.
in the fmer houses
One of the
is
principal
create a
woods used
the hinoki cypress, Chamaecyparis obtusa,
is
smooth and
dense, with very
taste
through several
fact that the floor level is raised
from one and
fme
the passage of time. Also frequently used Thujopsis dolabrata, called hiba,
Hardwoods
are likewise
which
grain, a pleasing
is
another cypress,
closely resembles hinoki.
employed, such
as a
maple, Acer
pahnatum, called momiji or haede, with bright-yellow color; a kind
of sandalwood, Zelkova serrata, with a grain of vigorous
curves; and Morus alba, a mulberry
nese dwelling does not imply that
of
wood
climate.
with nature manifests
odor, and a light color that attains a silvery-gray sheen with
rather primitive simplicity that characterizes the Japa-
centuries.
the
life
actually the
of measure-
walk on.
methods and archaic design, but
conform with the
Japanese
is
especially adapted
is
as the unit
straw body about two inches thick, which makes the tatami soft
partitions appear primitive,
of a particular mode of living and
posts, that
construction and the
which
fme woven rush with
border of black fabric on the long
to
ground on
wooden
or ground-
house is always given in terms o(tsubo, which
The
1945.
wooden
well as those parts having
is
raid in
air
air raid
which is the symbol of Shinto,
with mats,
an
in
period (1573-1615).
period (1573-1615).
a waterfall as a
The
showing the chigai-
castle
Yoshinao, whose descendants
was completely destroyed
an ornament of lotus flowers
for water.
ofNagoya
living quarters
dana. and the use of beautifully painted fusuma between the
color, called kuwa.
A
wood light-yellow wood is the kiri
beautiful decorative
paulownia, Paulownia tomentosa, with a color and sugi,
fme
which
is
grain.
There
a species
the center that
is
in
or
light, silvery-violet
also Cryptomeria japonica, called
of cedar with a reddish-brown color in
becomes
lighter
toward the
outside. Sugi has
both a
wavy and a very fine
straight grain,
and
is
extensively
used for uprights and ceiling panels; slender young trunks of sugi are often used in their natural form,
with the bark peeled
off and polished, for the posts of tokonoma.
Bamboo
tensively used as a building material in addition to
produces a
soft
native varieties sixty-five feet
ex-
is
wood, and
and charming
effect, especially the beautiful
whose trunks
attain a height
of
as
much
as
with a proportionately large diameter.
work of architectural beauty but one that is flexible
for the practical, utilitarian usage of the various rooms.
none of the rooms with matted
ranged, each
custom of furniture
room
sitting
As
floors are actually reserved for
any exclusive purpose, and the partitions are so
easily rear-
can be used for any purpose desired.
on the matted
floor
The
and the absence of
and bedsteads gives the rooms a more spacious
Himeji
castle at Himeji-shi,
leyasu.
Momoyama
Hyogo
prefecture,
green of the tatami, and the beautiful tones of the natural wood create a feeling taste.
There
of great elegance and utmost refmement of
minimum
also a
is
arrangement of the rooms
is
of interior decoration, and the determined by the
size
of the
The sliding partitions between the rooms, called/i«Mma, also removable when the full space of two or more rooms
house. are is
The planning and layout of the Japanese house has produced not only a
appearance, while the white of the shoji doors, the fresh pale-
desired for
some
o££om fusuma also serve as
a
a
A fusuma is
wooden frame with
laid
on
wood,
is
usually a set
five feet ten inches in height,
normal width of about three
on both
There
doors on wall cupboards and as entrance doors
into living rooms.
with
particular purpose.
separating the average-size rooms, zndfusuma
sides,
and
several layers
a piece
to cover the
feet,
and
is
composed of
of heavy paper glued to
of decorative paper or
whole
surface,
it
a painting
with a narrow frame of
usually lacquered in black, bordering the entire parti-
showing the main buildings originally
built
by Hidcyoslii, and enlarged by
Tokugawa
period (1573-1615).
153
Thefusuma slides between an upper and lower beam in which there are usually two grooves. Between the upper beam tion.
or
lintel
and the ceiling beam there
Ramma
rainma.
is
an open space called
are never fully closed, since their purpose
is
to
permit a free circulation of air between the rooms; they are
ornamented with
wooden
a delicate
openwork
panel carved with
latticework or a
wooden
designs, in the large mansions
often with very elaborate compositions.
Since there are only a
few fixed
many wide window sliding doors, there
house. There
is
is
provided with
openings, principally in the form of a freer circulation of air throughout the
also a
is
wide outlook on the beauties of the
garden, especially because of the manner in which the Japanese sit
upon the
floor.
Above
same
the lintel of the shoji doors are
On the sides of the house where there is no
ramma openings the
above the fusuma, but instead of having openwork
as
carvings or latticework the openings are fitted with shoji
windows
that can
little
be opened and closed to control
ventilation.
For protection against the rain
as
where there
is
no
well as to keep out possible
windows
intruders at night, shoji doors and to the outside
walls in a Japanese house
and the greater part of the outside wall space
ing.
open
that
directly
closed veranda have a partic-
ular
kind of sliding wooden shutter called amado, or rain door.
The
sides o{i\ic' amado are
provided with either overlapping
pieces or grooves so that each section can
fit
securely into the
next with the aid of a bolt, the end ones being bolted to the
beams
at
both the top and the bottom. During the day,
when
the amado are not in use they are slid into compartments
placed at the ends of the door and
window
openings.
An
veranda, the openings are in the form of paper windows called
important type of armex building that forms part of the larger
elbow-rest windows, because they slide on a
houses
low
about
sill
twelve inches high to offer an unobstructed view from a
is
the dozo or hura,
storehouse. Since the
which
wooden
squatting position. Almost every small house has a veranda
house presents an ever-present
facing the south that also serves as a corridor, instead of an
houses often have one or
inside corridor,
and the design of large houses often includes
two or more verandas corridors, because
in addition to one or
more
inside
of the more complex arrangement of the
most of
is
a fireproof
fire
either attached to the house or separated
a half feet in width, often extend the full length
concrete, as well as the
side
of the house and are usually enclosed on the outer
with sliding glass doors, while the floors are generally of highly hitioki.
The
of the rooms that open on the
sides
veranda are provided with shding paper doors called
which
are the
same height
as the
fusutm and
slide in
shoji,
grooves
between the floor beam and the lintel. Both the paper windows and the
shoji consist
of wood. To the house
is
of frames with a latticework of thin
of the
strips
in
which
Godowns
from
it,
are
and are
usually two-storied with exceptionally thick walls of concrete
and
polished
godowns
these
their valuable possessions are stored.
that are painted either black or white.
side
or
hazard, the better dwelling
more of
rooms. In the larger houses these verandas, which are three
of the
godown
construction of the Japanese
windows and
The very
door,
exceptionally thick concrete and swing
on
thick roof is
which
hinges.
are also
The
of
earlier
clay, and when fire threatened the godown windows were immediately closed and
godowns were made of house, the
their joints or seams filled
with clay that was always kept
nearby for that purpose. In the Japanese house, customary usage of particular rather than
any
special furnishings distinguishes
rooms
one from
of the
another. Living rooms, guest rooms, reception rooms, and so
applied the plain white translucent paper that pro-
forth are thus easily interchangeable because of the flexible
side
duces a soft light, giving the
shoji that faces the outside
room
a
warm and peaceful
feel-
plan of the house.
The
principal
room is
the reception
room.
House of a feudal vassal, an old samurai mansion, at Tsuyama, Okayama, showing servants' quarters along the wall.
154
Edo
period, seventeenth century.
;
Interior
Left:
of a living room
Kangahu-in monastery of
in the
the Miidera temple (also called Onjoji temple), near
Biwa, Shiga
Guest room
Center:
Momoyama
prefecture. Built in 1600.
in the
room, the place of honor where
hanging scroU-painting and
a
Otsu on Lake
flowers are placed so that their aesthetic qualities
period.
preciated.
main house of the Koho-an, a nnnor
tokonoma had
said that the
It is
medieval times in the Zen monasteries
its
when
may
be ap-
origin during
the priests
hung
monastery of the Daitokuji temple at Kyoto, showing the arrange-
Buddhist pictures on the wall behind a low stand on which
ment o/shoji, a hell-shaped window, the tokonoma, and the fusuma.
was placed
Edo
burner.
period, early seventeenth century.
Right:
Interior
view of a room
the Kujo-kan,
in
a building
formerly on the premises of Prince Kujo's residence in Kyoto,
a vase
From
of flowers,
and an incense
which became the prototype of
the wall with a built-in altar the secular
a candlestick,
arrangement there developed an alcove in
this
tokonoma. The
earliest
tokonoma
in domestic
shoiving the chigai-dana and the tokonoma with a painting by an
dwellings was actually a family altar on which was placed an
of the Kano school. Edo period, seventeenth century. Tokyo
image of the Buddha together with an offering of incense and
artist
National Museum.
flowers, before
which
it
sliding doors or fusuma.
size
The average
connected to
size
it
by
of the reception
room is from eight to ten mats, and together with its anteroom "When
often serves as a guest chamber. quired, as for a large gathering,
increased
by removing
reception
room and
up
to face the
its
size
greater space
is
re-
can be considerably
the four fusuma doors separating the
the anteroom. These
rooms always open
garden and generally have a veranda extending
later
members of the family would gather
tokonoma gradually
icance of the
with an anteroom of almost equal
all
morning and evening. The
to worship each
came only
to
have
aesthetic
meaning, the Japanese have
always retained a feeling of sacredness for religious pictures
religious signif-
disappeared, but although
it.
The
earlier
have been replaced by secular ones in the
form of kakemono, the
vertical
hanging
scrolls,
of which
some are rare and beautiful poetical works of calligraphy, while others are ink paintings of landscapes, figure subjects,
other characteristic themes of Japanese
art.
Like the
arrangements and ornaments that are placed one the tokonoma, the
kakemono
is
changed
at
at a
and
floral
time in
frequent intervals
enjoyment of another, for the observance of certain
the full length of one, two, or three sides, thus bringing house
for the
and garden
holidays and festival days, or to conform with the season of
in closer
proximity and heightening the feeling of
harmony with nature. Among the reception stitutes a
room
are
:
the most important features of
the tokonoma, an alcove
which con-
kind of shrine dedicated to the exercise of aesthetic
pleasures; a tana or chigai-dana, a recess
with a
specially
com-
posed arrangement of shelves and wall cupboards; and a shoin,
which
is
a particular variety
of bay window. The only ap-
the year.
The
larger mansions often possess a
more kakemono
that
generations of art collecting.
precincts
consists
Japanese room.
It is
always found in the reception
frequently in the living there
is
of the
also
room of
the larger houses as well
always one in the principal
less affluent.
A
tokonoma
room and
is
room of the
a recessed portion
made for each godown within the
of the property. Tokonoma vary in form or in the
cupboards.
most important feature of a
many
are not in
use are roUed up, placed in boxes especially
arrangement of their
constitutes the
The kakemono which
individual one, and kept in the fireproof
pointments in the anteroom are one or more built-in wall
The tokonoma
few hundred or
have been acquired through
details.
The form most commonly used
of a platform, three by
above the floor
level, faced
six feet, raised a
on the
front with a
almost always black-lacquered, and having surface,
of
eitlier a tatami
its
few inches sill
that
own
or polished boards, which
is
is
floor level
Across the upper portion, and somewhat higher
houses
with the
sill.
of the
than the
lintels
over doors,
is
a crossbeam
between the posts 155
with the space from the beam to the ceUing
at either side,
filled in
The tokonoma
is
wall, because the
seldom
rooms
three shelves between the cupboards.
of the
if ever placed in the center
and the principal guest
sits
toward
there with his back
it.
was applied
the term shoin
are designed asymmetrically. In the
tokonoma
centuries the
For
to a
priests,
and
developed
applied indifferently to any a bay
its
in importance in the reception
room
are the tana
and
feature
which give the room a variety of interesting arrange-
The
ments.
tana, or chigai-dana, is a recess
designed shelves and wall cupboards. tokowaki, is
meaning side of the tokonoma.
with
is
Its
principal purpose
to provide variation in the architectural design
form
is
at
arrangement
times very complex,
consists
its
most
as a
above a deep floor
of the room,
siU
and had
original type
A
of small cupboards with sliding doors
do not extend the full width
most unusual and
arrangement of shelves
is
now
its
acts as a decorative
it
its
original
consisted of a
raised several inches
o£ shoin
is
a hirajoin or
flat shoin.
except that
it is
of a
flat
The
flush
is
frequently used
next
to,
and
called
with the wall and the lower portion
wall space below the sliding siU.
The
windows
instead
shoin constitutes a beautiful
at right angles to, the
dows opening
seen in the design of some tana, but
is
hirajoin is identical to the tsukejoin
decorative feature of interior architecture and
a short
interesting asymmetrical
above the
called a tsukejoin or projecting shoin,
while a more simplified type that
characteristic
and are joined one above the other by
shoin
reading bay, and
which was
of the raised and deep
rod.
in the house having such
cupboard with sliding doors beneath. This
a
usually consist of two boards that recess
When the shoin
of the reception room in the larger houses,
consists
wooden
room
room. Although the
placed above and below wall shelves. These wall shelves
of the
sUl
Zen
wide bay window with delicately latticed sliding shoji windows
artistically
often called a
It
wide
a
or to a suite of rooms having such a bay in
purpose was to serve
but it also serves to display one or a few objects of art. Although its
window
principal
recess.
Next
in as
of domestic architecture, the term was
moral and
shoin,
came
bay window with
also designated the study itself.
it
as a part
being considered a sacred place in the home, and in view of its
one never enters within
shoin
used for reading and writing in the dwelling houses of
has had the unique distinction of
spiritual significance,
The
part of the architectural development of residences. Originally
room the place of honor is in front of the tokonoma,
Japanese
two or
the most refined compositions are those having only
with wall plaster to produce a frame for the tokonoma.
is
always placed
tokonoma, with the win-
directly onto the veranda.
ymf^-''«Butlilt.\aik
House of a feudal
vassal, at
Tsuyama, Okayama,
showing part of the main house within the com-
pound
wall.
Edo
period, seventeenth century.
The Kara-mon of dai mansion
Daitokuji
of Hideyoshi.
(1573-1615).
156
the
Kyoto, originally the gateway
to
temple
at
the Juraku-
Momoyama
period
The Ginkakuji,
or Silver Pavilion, of the Jishoji
Kyoto. Originally
huilt
Ashikaga Shogun,
in
Muromachi
period.
c
by Yoshimasa, the eight
1479 as a country
villc
The dining room in a Japanese house is called chanoma, when literally translated, means the room of the tea. Essentially the dining room for the family, it is a small room
which
measuring from four and a half to eight mats, depending
stored in a wall cupboard, thereby leaving the living
which,
the size of the house.
upon poses
—for example,
room
or
tionally
workroom
it is
as a
It
family sitting
for the mistress
never used
as a
size
as a
sewing
—but tradi-
which average from
for
six to ten
and are always provided with wall cupboards
many
having sliding doors. There are larger houses, as
to have his
room and
of the house
bedroom. The rooms reserved
sleeping are the living rooms,
mats in
serves a variety of other pur-
it is
the
rooms
living
in the
custom for each member of the family
own room. Some
of these living rooms have
mattress of wadded cotton about an inch or so in thickness is
on
placed a pillow and the quilted bed coverlet. In the
morning when
the bed
is
no longer
in use,
it is
folded and
room
free to be used for other purposes.
The
refuied elegance in the appearance of a Japanese
emanates from natural
wood
its
surfaces, the soft light transmitted
through the
paper doors, and the lovely tone of the pale-green
only
room
and native charm of the
design, the beauty
tatami.
embeUish the room
article that frequently serves to
The is
characteristic Japanese folding floor screen called a hyohu or
ordinary single-panel screen called a
most Japanese homes
is
tsuitate. Still
a
an
preserved in
the ancient tradition of having both
anterooms, while they frequently have a tokonoma and
Shinto and Buddhist deities venerated in miniature family
which
usually placed in two of the principal rooins. The Shinto altar, called kamidana, is often a small shrine placed upon a board shelf high up in the corner of the room near the ceiling. In many of the large homes of the old families, espe-
generally have a veranda
faces a garden.
There are
sometimes a few movable chests-of-drawers and cupboards in the living rooms, but their use
is
somewhat
restricted
due
many built-in cupboards and drawers. A low table is the most common piece of movable furniture found in the Japanese room. It serves many purposes, especially as a dining table when the traditional individual trays or ozen are not used. When the living room is used for sleeping, a toko or to the
futon,
which
is
the Japanese bed,
cupboard and spread upon the
is
brought out from the wall
tatami floor.
The
futon
is
a
altars, v^rhich are
cially in the provincial districts, the
handsome styles
kamidana are frequently
architectural reproductions
of Shinto shrines and measure
height.
The kami or deity its name and
tablet bearing
directly
upon
the
wooden
is
as
of the
characteristic
much
as six feet in
represented
by
a small sacred
placed in the miniature shrine or shelf Besides the tutelary kami
The Hiunkaku
in the
compound
of the Nishi Honganji temple
at
Kyoto, originally a pavilion
in
the
grounds
of
Hideyoshi's
Jurakudai mansion. Alomoyama period (1573-1615).
157
from
most important kami venerated
that locality, the
who
Amaterasu, the sun goddess, Imperial family.
member of the
homage according
and offering
shxiiie,
a prayer.
day of each month miniature sake of the camellia-Uke sakaki
of Shinto, are
is
the ancestress of the
A candle is lighted every morning and every family pays
custom of bowing before the usually twice,
is
to the Shinto
clapping their hands,
On the first and fifteenth
bottles
and
fresh branches
Eurya ochnacca, the sacred tree
tree,
offered.
Since the worship of Amaterasu and the local deities does
not conflict with
faith in
called But Sudan,
also
Shinto is
carvings.
altar,
found in most homes. In contrast to the
which is plain and bare of ornament, the Butsudan
altar,
usually
is
Buddha, the Buddhist family
much decorated with fme lacquer work and elaborate contains an image representing
It
Buddha
or
some
other Buddhist deity, together with small tablets that are
since they are able to
burner.
The
warm only their hands over the charcoal may be made of wood,
hibachi or portable brazier
porcelain, or metal, and to round.
It
its
shape varies from square or oblong
which
contains a metil container in
burned. In the big farmhouses in the rural fireplace
is
used for burning wood, while in the very cold
stiU
kind of fire pan of stone sunk in the floor
of Japan
used.
A low table-like framework is placed above the fire-pan
a
opening with a cloth spread over
it,
and the family can
rice
is
offered every
members, together with gift
received
by
morning
A small
to the deceased
sweets, or vegetables;
fruits,
the family, except fish or fowl,
to the Buddhist altar before
it is
is first
though they were
member of the
every
a reverent
offered
used or eaten. These offerings
to the Buddhist family altar signify that the deceased are treated as
and any
alive,
members
and every morning
family addresses the shrine by saying
"good morning"
to
show
respect to the departed
ones.
wooden
frame, open
at the top,
supported on four short
legs, or
and resting on
Japanese house
is still
heated in the traditional manner
with a charcoal burner or brazier called a the average climate during the winter
comfortable cold,
and
is
as the
humid
hibachi.
months
climate of summer,
is
it is
Although not
as
un-
moderately
especially unpleasant because the construction
the Japanese house offers very
Japanese have to be
158
burned rapeseed
warmly
little
protection against
it.
of
The
dressed during the cold months.
These
oil,
lanterns,
are
still
a flat base or
held within a stand with four
which
rested o'r
upon
the floor
with lamps that
used for decorative
utilitarian lighting in the principal
door purposes. This type of lantern
first
is
Tokugawa
They immediately became popular and were
period.
sively used for
all
could be carried around
easily.
The
typical Japanese paper is
made of numerous
of bamboo that are bent into
circles
and placed
one above the other with paper pasted over them.
collar
is
exten-
forms of lighting, especially because they
lantern, called chochin or carrying lantern,
bottom
also a
and out-
appeared around the
beginning of the seventeenth century during the
having
well as
as
rooms. There
variety of folding paper lantern used for both indoor
pliant splittings
The
homes by means
In earlier times the Japanese lighted their
of atido or andon, square-shaped paper lanterns having a rigid
delicate supports.
bowl of boiled
sit
with the cloth for additional warmth.
and were formerly lighted with candles
with a long history sometimes span several centuries.
is
around the hearth with the lower part of their bodies covered
of the deceased members of the family,
in old families
is
districts a large
parts
venerated and inscribed with the posthumous Buddhist names
who
fine ashes are
allowed to accumulate and on which glowing charcoal
affixed a collar
of thin
a pricket for the candle,
wood
To
while the top piece
is
just a
of wood. Since most chochin are made for outside
the paper
is
treated with a
heavy coating of fish
The
oil as a
use,
pro-
streets
were not lighted
earlier days except at festival times,
and paper lanterns
tection against the weather.
during
the
with a solid piece
Left:
The Shokin-tei
pavilion of the Katsura Detached Palace at Kyoto, in
which are included a tea-ceremony room and a moon-viewing veranda overlooking the pond.
Center:
A
of
Detached Palace
it
A
period, early seventeenth century.
bench under the roof of the Shokin-tei pavilion showing the rural
cottage style
Right:
Edo
room
into closer
architecture. at
Edo
period, early seventeenth century. Katsura
Kyoto.
in a
dwelling house with the sliding shoji removed to bring
harmony with
its
gardeti
and pond.
Jiro
Harada, Tokyo National
Museum.
View from
the
room of a dwelling house arranged around an
interior garden. Jiro
Harada, Tokyo National Museum.
159
a purely white lantern
is
used
at the
time of a Buddhist funeral.
Therefore, every chochin has something painted or written on it,
such as the family crest of its owner, a picture, or ideograms
meaning "good night" or "beware of
fure."
Among
the
popular types o{ chochin are the odawara-chochin, a cylindrical
named after the town of Odawara, and the gifu-chochin, named for the city of Gifu and noted for its delicate oval shape lantern
and beautiful designs of flowers, its
birds,
and
insects painted
thin paper covering. Originally Gifu lanterns
cipally used
Obon
thcoughout the house
Festival,
which
at the
on
were prin-
time of the Buddhist
for three days beginning July 13,
lasts
during which time the departed members of the family return
from the
spirit
world
yumihari-chochin with
base so Interior
of a main room
in a
dwelling house showing the tohonoma
with a kakemono hanging in
it,
and
a hell-shaped
window. Jiro
Harada, Tokyo National Museum.
it
for a brief visit. its
Other lanterns
are; the
bow-shaped handle connected to
its
can stand; the takahari-chochin, a cylindrical lantern,
which
usually with the family crest,
is
placed imder a
little
protecting roof on a high post at the door or gate of the house;
and the hozuki-chochin or red-berry
lantern,
which
rather
is
small and round and of bright-red color, used in lantern
were carried by those going out tice is
at night.
no longer necessary in the cities,
used in rural
districts,
where they
Although
lanterns are
are
still
160
use a lantern that
is
prac-
widely
marked with
family crest to identify the person carrying one
The Japanese will not
this
still
the
on dark nights.
plain white, because
processions and at festivals.
It
has been a Japanese custom to
hang beautifully decorated paper the garden
on summer evenings,
feeling of freshness that are
hung on
much
lanterns in the house
like the furin, or little
the verandas.
and in
their soft light giving off a
wind
bells,
XII Landscape Gardenini
I
HE Japanese love of nature
_JL.
finds
articulate expression in the art
its
most
of landscape
gardening. In order to fully appreciate the profound beauty
of this
art,
with
its
tary
it
would pos-
merely the empty charm of novelty or fanciful conceit.
It is
generally accepted that the rules and
theories .underlying
the art of landscape gardening in Japan have been in a continuous tradition still
from
early to
handed
modem
times
a Japanese
garden
picture" of the countryside, with favorite rural spots.
The most
is
its
make a "landscapemany famous views and to
striking features
of the varied
landscape of Japan are depicted in a composition of hiUs, stones, cascades, streams, teristics
and
lakes. Nature's peculiar charac-
indigenous to Japanese scenery, with
fantastic exaggerations
its
The only the
strange and
of form, are carefully studied and
deviation
artificial
for his composition, as
from the
strict
adherence to nature
is
contours imparted to certain trees and shrubs
in
by
pruning and shaping to produce conventional representations
of favorite forms seen in nature. tree that
used
is
as a
as
not the ordinary pine
It is
model, but one that has been molded into
strange and unusual shapes
of nature
evident in the present-day examples.
The aim of
The
select-
godas, and shrines, which are seen as a part of every rural view.
sess
and are
life
model,
symbolism which animates its design.
methods of Japanese landscape gardening,
down
ing the natural features and plant
as his
well as certain characteristic structures, such as bridges, pa-
it is
deeper meaning imparted to the most rudimen-
this
garden designer uses the scenery of Japan
neces-
unique and varied composition,
sary to penetrate into the
Without
natural scenery of their country as reflected in their art.
by age and tempests. The expression
represented in the landscape garden
with careful consideration for unity, scale, proportion,
aesthetic principles
is
executed
of balance,
and harmony. Japanese landscape
gardens are not only representations of natural scenes, but often are expressions of an abstract sentiment or symbolical
meaning. Since the Japanese garden
is
essentially a retreat for
the enjoyment of peaceful seclusion and meditation, reflect the
it
should
temperament and sentiments of the master of the
The garden attached to
the dwelling house of a priest
interpreted in the landscape garden. In these artistic produc-
house.
tions, as in Japanese painting, the landscape
designed to express the qualities of virtue and dignrtied soli-
designer fol-
lows the traditional canons which prescribe an essence of reality rather
of Japanese
than naturalistic appearance.
art require a careful selection
The
principles
tude
other gardens
;
may
is
suggest the attributes of Buddhist
divinities or depict philosophic traditions.
and modification of
the constituent parts of a scene rather than a completely realistic
reproduction of nature, and most often tend to accentuate
certain characteristics.
herited arts,
The
Japanese love of nature
culture.
taste acquired from traditional customs, The transmutation of nature into conven-
tionalized motifs
and decorative
branches of art,
familiar to
It is
is
all
designs, as seen in
Japanese,
many
and these have be-
The
introduction of
city
of Nara
a representation of the
its
attendant culture
in connection with the ancient monasteries
these conventional conceptions that the Japanese
is
Buddhism and
for the earhest
landscape gardens in Japan and these were principally laid out
when
Thus, landscape gardening
LANDSCAPE GARDENS
from Korea in the sixth century was the chamiel
710,
have formulated an interpretation of nature peculiar to themselves.
FIRST
from natural life.
the accepted traditional forms derived
from
THE
an in-
and educated
and
come
is
ment
the Empress-Regnant as the first
in the province
permanent
Gemmyo seat
of Yamato, the
art
and temples. In established the
of court and governof landscape garden-
ing entered a phase of rapid development along with the
161
Garden of
progress of architecture.
the Saihoji temple at Kyoto, designed by
The
influence
which Chinese
culture
exerted was manifest in the construction of the palaces,
villas,
Muso Kokushi, uyyij^i.
down upon
a long
Murofiiachi period.
and extremely narrow sand bar
that trav-
Pine trees bent into fantastic shapes by the wintry
erses the bay.
and mansions of the wealthy nobles, and beautiful landscape
storms are seen in great numbers along the entire length of
gardens contributed to the magnificence of these buUdings,
the sand bar and enhance
providing their owners with picturesque settings in which to
second half of the Heian period, or Fujiwara
enjoy leisure moments and to entertain their guests.
By
the
time of the luxurious Fujiwara period (897-1185) the aristocratic society
had developed a standard of living that was
distinctly metropolitan in
its
manners and
In 794 the capital had been transferred
which was surrounded on three and traversed by
rivers
of
sides
new
capital
The
to Kyoto,
beautiful mountains
providing an
temples, palaces, and
were erected on a grand
and since there were many natural ponds within the
from Nara
by
crystal-clear water,
ideal setting for landscape gardens.
mansions of the
cultural activities.
hiUs,
woods,
city limits, their gardens
springs,
were the
and many were intended to resemble particular places
noted for scenic beauty. For example, the garden
at the
sion of Fujiwara Sukechika symbolized the bay at
hashidate
on the Sea of
its
beautiful
man-
Ama-no-
Japan. Ama-no-hashidate literally
means Bridge of Heaven and famous for
162
and
were enriched with
these natural creations. Gardens of huge proportions fashion,
scale,
since ancient times has been
view from the mountains looking
its
unique beauty. During
new shinden-zukuri style of architecture was made
to
focus of the garden
conform with
was
islets.
The
at its farther
islet
by
the its
galleries, the
arrangement.
was the main house, or
looked out on a court having containing three
this
this
when
perfected with
spacious and luxurious apartments connected
gardens were
era,
shinden,
The
which
end a large pond
nearest to the shinden,
which
was approached by way of an arched
called naka-jima,
bridge that spanned the water obliquely. Bridges spanned the water between the remaining to the other side of the
boats to pass.
a
islets,
and the
final
bridge
removable section to allow
On the banks of the pond, and along the stream
that flowed into
of vegetation
pond had
it,
were great boidders,
skillfully
trees,
and
all
manner
arranged in a naturalistic setting, some-
times with rocky beaches and sand bars. Although these fabulous gardens of the Fujiwara period long
many
great temples
tain aspects
ago disappeared,
and monasteries have preserved cer-
of them which conform to the detailed d^criptions
contained in old record books of gardens.
ZEN GARDENS
are said to have been
made by Soami who designed ,
of the Silver PaviHon. The Ryoanji,
With
the introduction of the
Zen
of Buddhism in the
sect
Hosokawa Katsumoto, Zen monastery in the latter part of
and was converted into
of nature in the arrangement of gardens and the kara-yo
the fifteenth century.
The
dwelling of the head
priest,
became popular forms
The
dwelling houses.
tended to
make
style
and
philosophical spirit of Zen, with
its
beyond the limits of human knowledge,
speculations reaching
were designed
for monasteries
and although many
these gardens symbolic, after those
of the
earlier
Heian
style, there
developed a garden of smaller proportions in which the reproduction of nature was the principal aim. features
The most prominent
acteristics
of the
site
skillful use
of the natural char-
to produce picturesque effects.
famous designer of Zen gardens, and the one the a
The most
who contributed
most to their development, was Muso Kokushi, 1275-135 1,
Zen priest of noble
later years
of his
life
birth also in
known as
Soseki.
He spent the
Kyoto, where he created a number of
superb gardens of rare beauty within the precincts of temples.
of about 130
Among
these
is
many
the landscape garden in front of the
tsubo or
a
small south garden of the hojo, or
occupies a space within the walls
approximately 4680 square
This
feet.
garden, which is regarded as one of the masterpieces of Soami,
who was
greatly influenced
exclusively of stones
extreme that
by Zen philosophy,
and white sand, and
its
is
can be appreciated only by those
it
composed
simplicity
who
so
is
under-
stand.
The technique of gardening
of the Zen-inspired gardens were rocks, water, ever-
green trees and plants, and the
the garden
Kyoto, was originally
the Kitayama vUla of the military lord
Kaniakura period (1185-1333) the symbohcal representation
of architecture
at
and
to represent mountains
water by various combinations of stones and sand or earth, called hare sansui, or cellent
dry landscape, and
when Zen
examples of the Muromachi period
ophy was popular. The Ryoanji garden examples of the dry-landscape
many
seen in
is
style; the masterful use
has never been expressed so purely and symbolically. stones are
grouped into
five sets
philos-
one of the
is
is
ex-
finest
of space
Its
fifteen
of two, three, or five and
arranged with perfect proportion on the level white-sand
abbot's apartment at the Tenryuji temple, and the famous
ground, which has a meticulously worked pattern of straight
garden of the Saihoji temple. In the
parallel ridges
figuration
of the
was most
site
pond of irregular
latter
the natural con-
skillfully used:
around a large
shape, fine rock settings are profusely over-
grown with many species of beautiful moss of unusual thickness. A supreme work of genius, it has become better known as the Kokedera, or Moss temple. The shinden-style houses with their vast gardens prevailed during the early part of the Muromachi period (1338-1573), and the
first
families of the Ashikaga
Shoguns found great of the Fujiwara
delight in emulating the aristocratic culture
Muromachi period when
nobihty. Later in the
of architecture reached its
fully
the shoin style
developed form, the landscape
gardens that symbolically represented
Zen
ideals
were
also
adopted. Perhaps the garden that most perfectly exemplifies this
Zen
inspiration
is
at the Jishoji
temple, popularly called
relies
upon
essentials
made with
a
bamboo
rake.
Zen Buddhism
the individual to grasp the meaning of hidden
concealed behind outward appearances and to
men-
some
these
tally interpret their significance.
Therefore, to
rocks suggest the legend of tora-no-ko watashi, in which tigers lead their cubs across a
mountain stream;
to others they re-
semble high mountain peaks soaring above an expanse of clouds, or islands in an ocean.
The
best time to see
them
moonhght night when they appear as Hving nature. The other famous garden created by Soami a clear
is
that
the Daisen-in, one of the smaller monasteries within the
pound of the Daitokuji temple the Ryoanji,
it is
at
on
is
things of
of
com-
Kyoto. Like the garden of
in the dry-landscape style
with a miniature
reproduction of nature confuied to a small space of about eleven hundred square
feet,
alongside the dwelling house of a
Ginkakuji or Silver Pavilion, originally built in 1479 by the
priest. In the
group of carefully trained
trees
Ashikaga Shogun Yoshimasa as a country viUa, atHigashiyama
to represent distant mountains. Vertical rocks symbolize
cliffs
in Kyoto.
While
the gardens of the rich mansions followed
the style of the famous style
moss garden of the
Saihoji,
and also the
of gardens attached to the smaller monasteries situated
and a as
background
waterfall,
is
a
and horizontal stones represent objects such
embankments, bridges, and a boat. The
bolizes a river
level
within the compounds of large monasteries, a more abridged
designed under the spiritual philosophy of Zen,
form with symbolic
exist in the
interpretations
school of landscape gardening
is
began to fmd favor. This
often suggestive of the ink
landscape painting of Chinese origin, usually being
of stones, sand, and small evergreens stream, the ocean, or mountains and
two most famous gardens of temple and the other
at the
composed
to symbolize a
hills
this style,
pond, a
with
waterfalls.
one
at the
The
Ryoanji
Daitokuji temple, both at Kyoto,
all
this
garden,
these stones
world of symbolic expression transcending the
actual world.
suggested
ground sym-
and is covered with pine needles. In
by
The Zen
priests
gave names to the stones
their shapes: "tiger's
as
head" stone, "genius' hat"
stone, "lying-ox" stone, "clear-mirror" stone, "tortoise-sheU"
Fudo stone, Kannon stone, Daruma named after the first patriarch of Buddhism), "saddle-
stone, "long ship" stone,
stone (so
shaped" stone, Buddhist paten stone, "faint-smell" stone.
163
Garden of the Ntvizeiiji temple of the abbot. Attributed
to
at
Kyoto, next
to the living quarters
Kobori Enshu, I5yg-i64j,
dry-landscape style, with rocks,
it is
in the
and white sand.
trees,
Gardeti of the Ryoaiiji temple at Kyoto, in the kaic sansui or drylandscape style. Attributed to Soami.
Muromachi
period,
early
sixtenth century.
THE STROLL GARDEN
colors being a natural resiJt rather than one
of
particular
arrangement. In contrast to the Occidental method of making
from
Japanese landscape gardening thus developed lier shinden-style
the ear-
garden, which frequently served as a place
of outdoor entertainment, to the garden based on Zen principles to
roji style
its
symbohc
on the
tea
type that appeared in the
same subordination of color to form, and the same simple
ceremony. Along
naturalness as opposed to ostentatious artificiality, are evident
Momoyama
was created which
period
Edo period is
called the
garden. This type of garden appeared because of the
in even the
most minute
details
styles
of composition. These divisions are the
or elaborate
style,
of the daimyo and feudal
classification pertains to the
tea
lords, hi these great stroll
form
gardens
a part of the
ceremony, with interesting paths leading to them. Land-
scape designers endeavored to create these stroll gardens so as
harmony with
to have scenic views in pleasures
of meditation.
stroll style
of garden
is
One of the
that
the desire to enjoy the
foremost exaftiples of the
of the Katsura Detached Palace in
the western outskirts of Kyoto.
The grounds
contain
numer-
ous buildings and have quiet beautiful surroundings and views
of the mountains in the background. garden
is
the
manner in which it
is
A
pecuUarity of this
plamied, for wherever one
stands the scene always appears to be the front
never
feels as
view and one
though standing in the wrong position to enjoy
is
carefully avoided in Japanese land-
the abbreviated or free style of
the composition, and to
manner,
flat
so,
garden. This
free or refined, as seen in
some extent
to the nature
of the
The garden is regarded as a poem or picture intended to inspire some worthy sentiment or to suggest some natural scene that is particularly favored by the owner. At times a purely abstract sentiment is conveyed by the commaterials used.
position of the garden, such as contemplation or peaceful
retirement from the cares of the world, solitude or dignified seclusion.
Garden record books of early times show
Japanese have always frowned
that the
upon making a garden an orna-
mental appendage to the house or making any ostentatious display.
Gardens shoidd be pleasant retreats for hours of leisure
and should be created from
a
genuine love of nature, and they
to their artistic beauty. Since
it is
the intention of Japanese
gardens to provide a place for unrestrained ease and medita-
Of primary importance are
tion, there are various sentiments that landscape gardeners are
is
contour, form, and proportion, with the combination of
164
or fmished
the result of re-
scape gardening, and the variety obtained sourceful manipulation of design.
into three
shin,
should be so arranged that each of the four seasons contributes
the beauties of the landscape.
Unnatural regularity
is
falls
the gio or intermediate style, and the
which
also the various structures that
of Japanese gardening.
In theory Japanese landscape gardening
increase in the area of gardens that adorned the great mansions
were
the
lost,
Japanese prefer to display the natural lines of branches and
and blossom in an open and well-balanced composition. This
(1615-1867), another style
there
crushed to-
but
is
(1573-1615) and was further developed in the
stroll
is
stems so as to exhibit the subtle shapes and colors of each bud
was
of small garden attached to the teahouse, which
roji
all
this latter
aesthetic quality. It
its
fully described in the chapter
with the
gether and individual form and beauty are
representations that developed into the
be enjoyed for
type with
bouquets of flowers, in which a variety of color
said to
have expressed in their works, such
as
long
life
and
Garden of
mon-
the Daisen-in
compound of
astery in the
the
Daitokuji temple at Kyoto, built
by Soami at the beginning of the sixteenth century.
happiness, gentleness, the pleasure of retirement, and others.
many
These fanciful conceptions are inspired by the emotion
aroused by natural scenery, whether
it
be awe-inspiring,
An
Furuta Oribe, called "distance-raising" method, in which he
many of the compositions of gardens, in particular
favored placing the larger hiUs and trees in the background
is
largely dependent
which are
Designers of Japanese landscape gardens
draw
sketches,
visit
appropriate
and make notes of their observations.
from these sketches and notes that suggestions are supplied
which contribute
to originality
and complicated scene stead, the contours
is
An
of composition.
never attempted in
extensive
entirety
its
;
in-
and peculiarities of p jrtions of it are studied
The immediate view in
separately.
front that can be fully ob-
served from one point of sight, with
its
most
opposite
striking contours
method become more from
scene
first.
Then
by turning
sketches are
a little to the right
though these sketches depict can ordy be useful
as a
all
site.
A
other parts of the
and then
to the
of the principal
left.
details,
Al-
they
general guide for the subsequent execu-
tion of the garden, as variations
the actual
made of the
from them
are governed
reproduction of the real scene
is
never
by
foll-
when
it is
understood that
mountain looking toward the
distant plain.
view
The
of a garden is summer enjoyment, foliage should
pearance.
The
presence of water, preferably that which
clear, shallow,
However,
it is
rocks,
if the character
of the garden requires water
not obtainable, the designer then arranges the
and
trees to
not confmed to any particular
principles
set
which serve the designer
ments within the composition. that the garden
is
hills,
produce a composition suggesting water.
Although the distribution of the many is
It
more than an
features
of a garden
of rules, there are certain guide in his arrange-
as a
must always be remembered artistic
arrangement of trees
too closely, for the garden must conform to the nature
and rocks;
of
surroundings, and to the
intended to represent some imaginary or true landscape.
size,
form, and character of
it is
is
and running, produces the most refreshing
owed its
is
scale
be arranged sparingly to produce a cool and refreshing ap-
effect.
is
acceptable
of a garden must be carefully considered, and since the prin-
and
both in the foreground and in the distance,
a
cipal purpose
of mountam, valley, rock formations, stream, and most promi-
sketched
the famous tea master
the mountains are of similar magnitude, or that the
nent
trees,
method was taught by
and the lower ones in the foreground. The theories of Rikyu's
those gardens attached to religious houses.
It is
and smaller ones
in the back, and distant water placed higher in the background.
asso-
Their value
occult meanings, historical or philosophical,
scenery,
mountains should be lower than the near
distant
ones, with larger trees planted in the front
upon
tary, gay, or placid.
ciated with
soli-
which
in
a real picture composition to the Japanese,
the trees, rocks, and lanterns to be used.
Through
the centuries there have been
the procedure of laying out the garden
ground should be fmished background, while finished
last.
all
first,
;
many
theories as to
some
say the fore-
others that
it
agree the middle distance should be
The renowned
tea master
THE HILL-GARDEN STYLE
should be the
Sen-no-Rikyu taught
the "distance-lowering" method,inhis system of composition,
The
fsukiyama-niwa, or hill garden,
is
the most complete
landscape garden, and since an ideal Japanese landscape scene
must contain mountains and water scenery, the term
saiisui.
165
which
used to denote such a view,
is
of these
artificial landscapes.
the most prominent feature, and
and distribution ery,
with the
are
meant
given to the best
from
mountain scen-
hills
in the foreground
Of great importance is blaiik spaces,
of Japanese painting. In the
is
a
hill
two, which
is
is
and a cascade.
placed
hill
hill
tain
by
which
is
smaller and with
Garden of
the
it
none of the
at
which
rocks,
grouped so
which
moun-
of mystery.
the hira-niwa, or
flat
garden,
and shrubs of rounded form, are sometimes
as to suggest
mountain scenery. Hira-niwa gardens
to the foregroimd
is lull
mountain valley or a
sea-
The level portions of Japanese made use of turf in more recent
suggest islands 'ih the sea.
gardens have frequently
hard-packed earth or covered with wliite sand or finely broken
number
characteristics
four,
of the
Kyoto, showing a part
(1573-1615).
in
is
five,
represents a
times; however, these portions were formerly finished with
should be low and rounded and
Samboin monastery
Momoyama period
a feeling
In contrast to the hiU garden
number
it
sides.
from the principal moun-
a valley. In the near foreground
larger mountains, since
designs.
more
of great distance with
tain
is hill
because
number
smaller and different in character,
three, slightly
little detail
coast scene, sometimes with groups of rocks arranged to
Upon the opposite side of hiU number one
number
and has very
feature
have broad sweeping
so as to suggest a lower hill divided
steep
common
with the space between the two usually having rock formations
is
are supposed to represent either a
number one should be placed
somewhat
amount of detail in the form of rocks and plants.
the use
fuiished garden there are five
distance. It should
Adjacent to
fair
In the remotest part of the garden
by
with hill number one forming the main feature
hills,
of the nearer
which
all
the principle of sug-
gesting to the imagination the impression of space
principal
contain a
sweeping contours of the nearer
mountains, and the low rounded
of obliterations and
hills are
their form, character,
to represent actual
distant peak, the
ideally arranged.
also
is
In the hill-garden style,
oj the
shells, ties
while the
hills
were partly covered with
different varie-
of moss. Each of the component parts of the garden
is
carefully placed to suggest the desired natural scene or the
sentiment to be expressed in the composition in keeping with the desired religious or secular thought. sensibihry expressed
by
certain features
Most of the
delicate
of a garden derives
from the thoughts and works of sages, poets, and philosophers,
who
pond
not only practiced the accomplished
arts,
but were the
containing several islands connected by bridges in a variety of
chief patrons. Just as the traditional behefs possess ideal moral
decoration have
quahties, the aesthetic principles governing the art of Japanese
virtues.
gardens are hardly separable from the ethics which inspire
the
them.
tortoise
A
finished lull garden
perfect unless
not complete nor
is
is it
considered
become
intrinsically expressive
of moral
The lotus-covered lake, the blessed isle, the pine tree, plum tree, the bamboo, and the suggested shape of the aU have a symbolical meaning and convey some
familiar sentiment in the art
of landscape gardening.
contains a real or suggested waterfall or cas-
it
cade which occupies the most important position in the back-
number one and two. An
ground between
lulls
favored cascade
the one called
refer red to in
is
near the high mountain
In aU forms of Japanese gardens the proper selection and
arrangement of stones is one of the most important principles.
it is
China. According to the principles of garden design, a tree should be placed so that
its
may
branches
hide the outlet of
famous scene
is
four rivers
A
issue.
must be of proper
they will appear to have been placed there by nature. There
of the Himalayas, renowned in
are certain superstitions attached to the particular arrangements
cascade and
its
favorite classical
its
model
lake
it
from which
for garden lakes,
mon-
taken from a famous Chinese lake which the Japa-
and forms of stones;
omen. Certain
stones having propitious qualities consecrate
complete arrangement.
Moon
custom of
From very
priests to attach
some
early times religious
Bridge. According to the theory of landscape design, the
principal stones in the gardens of temples
Japanese skillfully arrange the composition of a garden to
giving
compensate for the limited area of the lake by hiding and
names of Buddhist
planning the conception of a large lake
entirety
its
space
by
from any one
partial deletion
is
point. This suggestion of limitless
type of stone, or to
of contour
lines,
which
is
an im-
and monasteries, by
applied to the vast
numbers of garden
of great length and of considerable complexity.
Some names merely
it is
has been the
divinities.
The nomenclature stones
it
meaning to the
to certain holy functions or
them names according
never completely visible
suggested to the imagination, as in
is
as
the garden and are considered of the utmost importance to a
by an
intercepting parts of the contour with plants and shrubbery.
some forms
tradition has sanctioned
being of good omen, and others are condemned as of evil
arched stone bridge of Chinese design called the Full
this careful
and
sharp observation are necessary to arrange garden stones so
to give
nese call Seiko. Such lakes are frequently spanned
By
trees
and proportion to
size
often said to impart a suggestion of
it
a scenic
often represented in the lotus ponds of temples and asteries, is
harmonious composition with the
conform with the scale of the garden. Great care and unusually
at the foot
Buddhist teachings for
constitute a
shrubs, the stones
an
appearance of depth and remoteness. Such tion in temple gardens
To
composi-
the cascade, and heavy foUage should surround
a
GARDEN STONES AND TREES
often
;
in the province of Chiang-so in southern
Chinese poetry,
Riumon,
called
especially
Rozan by the Japanese
apply to the place of origin of a specific its
geological nature, while other
names
refer to the position or function of stones in a garden, such as
equally important in
"wayside" stone or "torrent-breaking" stone, and even in
the art of landscape gardens. Varieties of islands are often
domestic gardens some stones bear the names of Buddhist
introduced into the water scenery, bearing descriptive names
deities.
according to their form and character however,
their
portant principle in Japanese painting,
is
;
strictly
con-
sidered there are only four important ones in the rules for gardens.
The fu:st is known as horaijima, or island of the blessed,
and since
it is
supposed to be an island in the
sea, it is
placed in
The names reserved for certain stones depending upon
purpose or position have not only been most interesting
but also most helpful to a better understanding and appreciation of this beautiful
the stones seen
on
and ancient
hills
are the
art
of the Japanese.
Among
"mountain-summit"
stone,
it
"mist-enveloping" stone and "propitious-cloud" stone, while
symbolizes a tortoise, with the stones representing the head,
those of a cascade include Fudo, the Buddhist divinity to
the center of the lake.
legs,
and
tail.
horaijima,
gevity. isle,
The
placing of the six rocks around
Usually a pine tree
is
placed in the center of the
both the pine and tortoise being symbolic of lon-
The second
island is called fukiagejima, or
and, being a sea island like the
vdth a bridge. The two other
first, it is
wind-swept
not comiected
islands are called shujinto, or
The master's isle' is placed in the foreground, often with a small summer house or shelter on it, and approached by a bridge. The guest's isle master's
is
isle,
and
kiakujinto, or guest's isle.
placed in the background of the landscape and approached
by bridges and stepping
stones.
Many
motifs of Japanese
whom
cascades are especially dedicated,
represented
by
a vertical stone.
Then
and
who
is
always
there are often eight
smaller stones called "children's" stones that surround
and represent the children
who
Fudo
are his attendants. Also in the
category of cascade stones are the "water-dividing" stone, "cascade-basin" stone, and "water-receiving" stone. Others
used to adorn the water scenery are the "falling-water" stone,
which
is
a spray,
at the base
of the cascade and breaks the torrent into
and the "water-tray"
and placed in
a lake so that
stone,
its
which
surface
is
is
large
slightly
and
flat
above the
167
water level but slightly covered the bank of the lake there
form
sleeping
is
when
a pair
Upon
to produce a
form of unusual beauty,
of stones that suggests in
finest natural
examples in Japan.
the water
rises.
male and female mandarin ducks, which ac-
cording to the Chinese
classics
represent conjugal fidehty.
On
as seen in many of the Many of the favorite surgical
methods practiced on the native pine produce the peculiar shapes often portrayed in Japanese scroU-paintings, such as the
the master's island there are the stone of easy rest and the
irregularly shaped branches with their clumps
stone of amusement, while
thecoma of discs or
whose names
stones
on the
guest's island are three
of hospitahty,
refer to the functions
zontal
bamboo
balls.
The
poles so that they
"guest-honoring" stone, "shoe-removing" stone, and "obei-
of lines and ridges
sance" stone. Certain ideas derived from ancient axioms were
practiced
apphed to the composition of landscape gardens, for accord-
many of the gar'dens
ing to the early philosophy of Japan, inanimate things of the
of mountain scenery
Zen
in
on hori-
into an arrangement
is
carried to perfection in so
monasteries.
often achieved
especially those
the natural physical features of the world are created
spherical forms to be placed in
a
grow
another favorite method that has been
is
from ancient times and
universe possess male or female attributes, and the beauties of
by
of needles in
training of branches
The
representation
by pruning low shrubs,
of the juniper variety, into rounded or hemi-
clumps on the
sides
of hiUs. In
blending of the sexual essences. Trees and stones were en-
dry or waterless gardens the branches are trained to resemble
dowed with imaginary
weeping
aesthetic
forms
stately
sex,
determined by their relative
value in a garden composition, with the strong and classified as
male and others
stones have been properly placed.
of the
trees, shrubs,
and
varieties
The
all
number of
when
trees are
this
arrangement
the imagination of the observer to interpret
suitable
is
grouped together,
When
completed.
a
different species are
usually selected to contrast one with another, with
form and
contour receiving special attention. The garden designer
is
always careful to place trees and shrubs in characteristic places to
conform with their natural habits of growth
tain plant or tree
is
not planted in a valley,
plum
again, with the exception of the
mounor vice versa. Then ;
thus, a
which blooms
tree,
early in the year, trees that shed their leaves are not placed in
the foreground.
The
art
developed in Japan, and
of pruning it is
done
trees
in a
and shrubs
mamier
of the fundamental
of nature's forms and have apphed art
The
group
higlily
Japanese
characteristics
this natural instinct to their
of horticulture. The matsu, or native pine,
rugged
is
consistent with
the character of the particular trees thus treated. possess a remarkable sense
is
a tree of
irregularity, but the Japanese gardener will skillfully
its
needle foliage into clumps having a
flat
and some-
what rounded form. Since the clumps of needles on the Japanese pine are inclined to become large and full, the gardener will often pluck the needles
by hand, leaving only about
dozen or so in each clump. Such pine trees,
trees or
fmished composition, which
art
of grasses must be carefully
arrangement
with sand on the
the principal
considered because the garden stones can serve their proper
purpose only
a waterfall,
given by the Japanese to form and line in their horticultural
as female.
Trees and shrubs are planted only after
which suggests
trees,
ground to represent a lake or stream. The immense importance
a
branches of pine
having so few needles, arc often depicted in Japanese
paintings and also used as motifs in the decorative
is
essential to the
understand the
upon
beauty. Japanese gardens are so arranged that
its
changmg
seasons
artistic quality.
may
Nature
contribute in rotation to their
in her
changing moods, gay, colorful,
placid, solitary, friendly, or tempestuous, arouses in the soul
certain sentiments
By
character.
and
feelings according to one's culture
a strict obedience to the laws
garden designer
is
spot, such as
Kyoto, which
is
within
its
of some
Arashiyama on the Oi River near
believed to contain
all
the beauties of nature
whose depiction
limited area, and
conveyed by the cherry
and
of nature the
able to produce an impression
famous scenic
trees
in the garden
is
and maples planted on mountain
hiUs.
According to the
rules
of Japanese gardening, there are
certain positions that are considered best for the planting
of
The mouth of a cascade is one of these choice positions, for here the tree would produce an effect of gloom and remoteness. Other trees should be planted by wells and watertrees.
basins to provide shade,
and
a lake so as to cast their
shadows on the water.
others should be placed near
still
Many names
applied to the trees in a garden indicate their importance and function.
The
"principal" tree
position.
Second to
this is the
the tree of "setting sun,"
a large pine or oak tree of
is
beautiful proportions that should
which
occupy the most prominent
"view-perfecting" is
tree,
then
often a maple that reddens
in the autumn, placed so that the rays of the setting sun pass
arts.
The formal pruning, trinmiing, and other treatments practiced on trees exaggerate some of the natural characteristic
through
forms, but at the same time keep the form in the closest
outlines partially behind the intermediate
harmony with nature.
of bended form
In the nursery, the garden pine receives
an extensive and thorough surgical treatment by having
relies
meaning and
its
it.
There
is
the tree of "solitude" to suggest a feeling
of meditation, and the "distancing pine" placed with indistinct
is
hills.
A
often placed at the edge of a lake
pine tree ;
its
long
its
branches are trained to stretch out over the water and fre-
branches bent or broken, then bound with cords and splints
quently supported upon props protruding from the lake.
168
View of the Samboin monastery garden from the adjohiiiig huildings.
Momoyama
period (1573-
1615).
Ever-changmg
rich color effects are acquired
flowering trees and shrubs as well that are so
from
the
many
of brilliant foliage
as those
abundant in Japan: the cherry, plum, peach,
wisteria, camellia, azalea,
and
a variety
of others, in successive
order from the early spring to autuinn.
of lotus plants placed
in lakes
and
iris
With
planted
the exception
at
the edge of a
stream, flowering plants are seldom if ever used.
However,
flowering shrubs and grasses are important to the composition
of a garden, for
their colors enliance the
view during the
autumn. Flower beds are considered to be effeminate in
removed before entering
Although
the house.
stones are used in their natural shapes
a variety
of
and arranged in an
irregular formation in a curving line, cut stones of rectangular
form and others which are also used.
The name
are
hewn
but retain natural contours or flying stones
tohi-ishi,
plied to these pathways, since their formation to resemble a flight
is
often ap-
supposed
of birds, and some arrangements are
sea-guU style and wild-goose
of hewn stone
is is
style.
A
called
long rectangular
occasionally placed in front
strip
of the veranda,
taste
or irregular pieces of hevwi stone in various sizes are formed
and are placed in another part of the grounds independent of
into a long oblong strip. Sometimes the spaces separating
the garden, usually in a
flat
area near the ladies' apartments.
Since the level portions of Japanese gardens are generally
many
covered with sand or gravel, or in
hard surface of earth, a pathway ishi,
is
made o£ tsutai-
or stepping stones. These stones serve to protect the
wet weather, and they
also
LANTERNS AND OTHER ORNAMENTS
when strolling
form an important
feature
of
Another important feature in Japanese gardens
the garden. There are certain rules applying to the arrange-
lantern, which, aside
ment of stepping
of elegance. The stone lantern
stones to give variety to the composition as
well as convenience in walking.
A stone of much broader and
higher proportions than the others
is
with mortar, or frequently
laid in mortar.
cases a well-swept
frequently
sanded or bare-earth areas and provide comfort in
these irregular stones are fdled
with large pebbles
placed in front of the
once used
from
its
is
courtyards and along
the approaches of Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines. is
space between this stone and the veranda must be allowed so
Momoyama period for ornamenting their roji,
may
be hidden frona view
when
the stone
of Japanese origin and was
as a dedication object in the
house to serve as a convenient step from the veranda. Sufficient
that the clogs or sandals
is
utihtarian purpose, adds a touch
said
The
its
furst
use
was
secular,
by
It
tea masters during the
usual material used for lanterns
is
or tea gardens.
granite or syenite.
169
The
stroll
the paths
garden of the Katsura Detached Palace at Kyoto, attributed
and stepping stones connecting
There are a number of different types or terns,
and they take
their places
The
size
Edo
the teahouses.
styles
of origin, or the individuals
and proportion of
who
lanterns, or toro,
shrines,
designed them. is
A great number of stone
Kohori Enshu.
Of the
of stone lan-
names from temples or
their
to
lanterns arc used to light
period, early seventeenth century.
of great im-
portance and must conform to the general character of the
is
great variety of lanterns, one of the
the kasuga,
which has
most frequent
a long cylindrical standard with a
hexagonal lamp chamber and base, and a rounded hexagonal roof tilted
at the eaves
and surmounted by a flame-shaped fmial.
Two faces of the hexagonal lamp chamber are open to receive
garden. According to the general rules of gardening, a lantern
the oil lamp, while the stone surfaces of the remaining four
should be placed near a lake or
sides are
way
that
its
light
may
be reflected in the water. The usual
height of a stone lantern
were
since lanterns
some
are
from one
boat landing, in such a
at a
is
from
five to six feet
;
however,
originally used for practical purposes,
to three feet in height
such places as a footpath.
A
when
used to light
lantern should always be har-
carved with a buck, a doe, the sun, and the
respectively.
the kasuga, but each bears a different name.
probably originated
from
Kasuga shrine
at
Nara, which
of stone lanterns within
placing of stones, shrubs, or trees near
approach to the main
The calm and
appearance wliich the light produces comes from an
serene
oil
lamp
its
is
slirine are
lanterns of various shapes
which
again
special
emphasis
is
placed
on
this,
various
methods are used to produce an aged appearance, such
making white 170
lichen or green
moss grow on them.
as
buck
a night in the
sides
of the
three thousand stone
are lighted twice each year,
not only admired for their beauty of form but also for their
on
Along both
some
once on the night of the Setsubun
and since
kasuga
famous for the great number
precincts.
placed in the light chamber of the lantern. Stone lanterns are
age,
The name
the carved representation of a
and a doe, deer being the divine messenger of the Shinto
moniously blended into the garden composition by a proper it.
moon
There are four other lanterns of similar shape to
festival in
middle of August.
lanterns are lighted along with the great
February, and
When
these stone
numbers of hanging
metal lanterns around the shrine buildings, they present a cinating spectacle like
some
fairyland scene.
fas-
Among
the most charming lanterns are the type called
yukinii-doro, or
snow-scene lanterns, because of their pictur-
when snow
esque aspect
to three feet in height
falling.
is
and
Yukimi average from two
of a round, square, or hex-
consist
agonal lamp chamber supported directly on six
curved
surmounted by a
legs,
four, or
tliree,
roof of extremely
circular
broad proportions, somewhat resembling a coolie
hat. Since
the broad surface of the roof is particularly designed to receive
the snow, these lanterns produce a most picturesque effect when the garden
many
clad with a placid mantle
is
other types of lanterns
whose lamp chamber
tern,
of snow.
Among
the
the rankei-gata, or valley lan-
is
on
rests
either
one or two long
curving supports placed on the edge of a lake, and the miyagata,
on
or shrine-shaped lantern, having a square lamp chamber
a square-shaped standard,
and surmounted with
a
roof
This
is
then covered with about six inches of earth and gravel,
while the edges or sides of the bridge are planted with a
strip
of turf secured with bamboo and bound with cord, to hold
An
the earth in place. yatsuhashi,
They
is
consist
old form of
wooden bridge, called swampy beds of iris.
frequently seen across the
of long, wide planks placed one
in a zigzag arrangement
after the other
and supported on wooden poles fixed
mud. When the crossing of a lake or stream is planned by using a combination of bridge and stepping stones, an in the
interesting type
bridge,
is
of bridge
called the nozoki-bashi, or
peeping
frequently used. This consists of a gentle half-curve
constructed so that the outer end, which
higher than the
is
shore end, terminates at a point just beyond the rise of the curve, with stepping stones, high above the surface of the
from
water, continuing
this
point onward.
resembling that of a temple. Wooden lanterns are principally used near resting shelters and summerhouses on a garden path.
They are of rustic form and have paper doors which
made
either
is
wooden
and
post,
a
Bronze hanging lanterns are
A variety of styles of walls, fences, and hedges comprise the enclosures of Japanese gardens. Although walls are generally
rushes.
or teahouse, and frequently over the garden water basin.
Another favorite garden ornament
which in
is
the stone pagoda,
usually consists of three or five stories
form
to the
and
is
similar
wooden pagodas attached to Buddhist temples.
Stone pagodas are often supported upon splayed legs, and with
of intricate
their lack
A
detail are elegant
and
form.
classic in
much to the picturesque appearespecially when placed in a secluded posi-
stone pagoda contributes
ance of the garden, tion
on the
side
many
WALLS AND HEDGES
roof
from the eaves of the veranda of a house
of wood or
frequently suspended
lamp chamber with
a square
supported on a
of a mountain.
Of particular importance also
the means
by which the entire property is
serve as the boundaries of gardens.
surrounding the older properties structed of clay in a
orate
wooden
is
enclosed, they often
typical Japanese wall
of great thickness, con-
framework of heavy timber, with an
elab-
bracketed cornice surmounted with a slanting
roof of ornamental walls,
The
tiles.
To
enhance the grandeur of these
huge roofed gateways of striking design are provided
for the entrances.
Many of these walls and gateways are extant
in the city of Kyoto,
among
the
most
beautiful
of which are
kinds of garden bridges used for reaching the
those around the Imperial palace and around the Nishi Honganj i
islands in the lake or for spaiming streams. Constructed either
and Higashi Honganji temples. The enclosures of gardens
of stone, or wood, or earth and
proper usually consist offences, not only for the whole of the
are the
logs, they
comprise a variety
of styles ranging from the most elaborate to simple and
rustic
garden, but also in short lengths to be used as screens to divide
ones. In important gardens, arched bridges
of cut stone are
a part of the garden, or to hide something considered unsightly.
often used, while other bridges are simply
made of
When
slab
a long
of rough stone. Some of the more elaborate stone bridges
consist
of several spans and are adorned with beautifully carved
Of complex
rail-posts.
built in a horizontal tural railing
and
construction are the
mamier with
posts,
wooden
bridges
a typical Japanese architec-
with each end supported by an ar-
a fence
is
Garden fences have been considered mental pieces ever since they were ing the Kainakura period. are unique
the other, resembling a great bracket. Called rankan-bashi, or
materials, such as
bracket bridges, they are most picturesque and typical through-
rushes, reeds,
bridge
is
A
more simple but charming form of wooden
constructed with planks laid crosswise
on arched
beams, which are in turn given intermediate support by a trestle-like part fixed in the
bed of the stream. Then there are
it
often consists of
space between, and overlapping at the point
rangement of superimposed beams protruding one row above
out Japan.
erected as a screen
two
portions built parallel to each other with a four- or six-foot
and most
first
The many
where they meet.
to be important orna-
used extensively dur-
kinds of Japanese fences
interesting, beiiig
made
bamboo, wooden boards,
in a variety
plaited
of
bamboo,
and twigs. All these materials are used not only
alone but in a great variety of combinations and designs, for fences
and
also for
gateways and
gates,
with
a never-ending
diversity of design, contributing a great deal of interest to the
picturesque architectural arrangement of the house and
made of bamboo
the interesting do-bashi, or earth bridges, consisting of bundles
garden.
of fagots or small logs laid crosswise on a framework of timber.
combination of bamboo and rushes and reeds.
Most of
the fence gates are
its
or a
Some very in171
as to be conveniently reached with a ladle. Water made in a variety of materials including stone, wood,
veranda so basins are
and pottery, and
their
forms depend principally upon the
taste
of the individual. All these important accessories of a Japanese garden, with tkeir historical aesthetic
and romantic comiections, contribute to the
value ofthe perfected composition in which the rocks,
the trees, and even the waterfalls appear to be
imaginary
as
The Japanese landscape garden tation
of natural scenes;
tural refuicment,
Japanese.
Earthen wail and entrance Palace at Kyoto.
Edo
to
a garden in the Katsura Detached
period, early seventeenth century.
it
used as screens.
They are called sode-gaki, a single unit
a
mere represen-
by no means disregarded
in the
arrangement
of a garden, namely the absence of synmietry and the lack
these materials,
and
more than
and the character and temperament of the
of compactness, which render
made from
is
expresses the pliilosophy, the cul-
Domestic architecture in Japan has two important
features that are
design. tercstiiig fences are also
endowed with
well as real symbols expressive of moral virtues.
and arc
literally sleeve fences,
It is
it
consistent with
important that a harmonious
freedom of
relationsliip
be pre-
served between the garden and the adjacent buildings, and that the principal
rooms be provided with
a desirable view.
of gate-like form supposedly in-
There is no discernible division or variance ofcharacter between
tended to conceal some object in the garden, but actually
the grounds of the property and the surrounding landscape.
chiefly ornamental in purpose. Usually about three or four
Artistic taste
feet
consist
of
wide, and from five to seven
cipally at the side
feet high,
they are used prin-
of the water basin, or arranged near the
veranda. Their designs and forms are endless, and often appear in irregular
and unusual shapes, with each having
characteristics
and being known by
basins found in
all
a certain
its
particular
name. The water
Japanese gardens arc provided for the pur-
pose of rinsing the hands, and are therefore placed near the
172
is
distinctly manifest in the
manner of scattering
throughout the composition such architectural objects lanterns, pagodas, bridges,
as
stone
and rustic resting houses, for though
placed with great care and design, they are disposed so as to
appear
as natural as the
landscape
of the landscape garden, with an
essential part
its
itself.
The
symboUcal
natural beauty qualities,
forms
of true Japanese architecture and portrays the
sentimental appreciation of nature inherent in the Japanese.
XIII Floral Art
HE ART of arranging flowers known as Ike_JL- bana or Living Flowers is an aesthetic achievement pecuUar to the Japanese. The appreciation of beauty in nature
fmd
universal but the symbolic beauty the Japanese
is
in nature
to their
own
is
unique. This concept of symbolism, applied
plant material and spiritual requirements,
essence of Japanese floral art.
natural
By retaining
growth of flowers and of the landscape
belong, the Japanese have found a
man
that enables
to elevate his aesthetic rules
from
a
a suggestion
to
is
flowers
and
to grasp nature in her lovehest aspect
mind
to spiritual beauty
on which the
floral art
of Japan
profound knowledge of plant
and constant observation of nature
and perfection. The based derive
acquired by close
life
The
itself.
is
masters of the
flowers as
it
developed in Japan
The
earliest
and developed through the centuries bypriests, poets, and philosophers, of
all
still
the Japanese,
exercises a strong influence
and
at the present
aesthetes,
on the
lives
time there are more
than three hundred different schools of flower arrangement.
The main as
principles are essentially the
they derive to a greater or
school.
The
less
differences are slight
same in
extent
all
schools,
from the Ikenobo
and of little importance.
understanding of these fundamental principles
is
an appreciation of the symbolism and beauty of the art evolved in the hands of
An
necessary for
this cultivated people. It is
as
it
indeed a
well-known fact that a Japanese flower arrangement following these classical rules surpasses in beauty
and in depth of meaning
any other knowTi arrangement or method of grouping.
a
member of the
of
this school.
Imperial court,
is
conflicting records concerning the
to Buddhist teachings.
It
it is
always attributed
seems that it was received from China
who was
regent to the great E:npress-Regnant Suiko, was a fervent
made
Buddhist, under whose leadership Japanese civilization notable progress.
Ono-no-Imoko was
to the Chinese court representing
China
in
of
all
the
first official
of Japan.
He
envoy visited
607 and again in 608, accompanied by a number of
by Prince Shotoku died
in 621,
devote the remainder of his his patron's soul.
He
to study abroad.
When
Ono-no-Imoko decided
life
to
to prayer for the repose
spent his days in meditation at a
hermitage with a lovely garden and lake which Shotoku Taishi had planned
the
main
hall
from Chinese models,
situated
behind
of the Rokkakudo or six-sided temple
at
Kyoto, founded by Shotoku in 587. Here, according to tradition,
to
Ono-no-Imoko conceived
Buddha should
the idea that floral offerings
express or symbolize the part that the love
of flowers plays in harmonizing lifetime his
man and
method of arranging
Within
his
flowers was followed
by
nature.
other priests, and such arrangements were called "in the style
of the floral offerings in the hermitage by the lake," or Ikenobo. This school,
still
bearing the same name, continues to be the
the founder. Followers
spot
Although there are many
founder
as the
His patron, Prince Shotoku Taishi,
the nominal head of the school
origin of the art of arranging flowers,
Ono-no-Imoko,
regarded
most popular school of flower arrangement
BUDDHIST ORIGINS AND IKENOBO
is
school of flower arrangement in Japan has an
Prince Shotoku
cherished
without prototype and
is
authentic age of thirteen hundred years.
scholars chosen
art,
into Japan around the middle
a purely Japanese cultural achievement.
men of deep
This beautiful
Buddhism
of the sixth century. However, the practice of arranging
Ikenobo school who originally formulated these precepts were aesthetic sensibility.
many of the other forms of art associated with
the introduction of
the
of the
which they
way of arranging
together with so
where the
seeds
still
were
live
first
in Japan.
By
1935
was the forty-third in line from and practice the
art
on
the
planted thirteen hundred years
ago. Although the art has been modified and refmed cessive masters, the underlying principles
by
suc-
have remained the
same. Each arrangement must express the nature of the plant
173
and branches of flowerless
trees
and
In fact, the
plants.
branches of certain evergreens and other flowerless trees and
and bamboo,
plants, such as the pine, maple,
among
highest rank as
are given the
itself is
only one detail of the composition, possessing
Talue if it its
Thus the blossom
hana.
is
from those lines of growth which give
separated
tree
it
of the trunk of the
character. For example, the roughness
plum
regarded
little artistic
to the Japanese inseparably comiected with any
is
beauty which the blossoms themselves possess.
arrangement in Japan
is
A
floral
a sincere attempt to bring a small part
of nature into the house, an expression of nature's grandeur
and power. One of the
earliest
These
called shin-no-hana.
forms of arranging flowers was
floral
compositions, which were
of an extravagant character, were arranged formally around a stiff and vertical central or slwi branch
form of a Western bouquet.
It
and were more in the
seems that even these
earliest
arrangements were triangular in general outline and comprised three
main branches,
as in
arrangements of today.
THE RIKKA STYLE Floral compositions,
of Buddhism, were
employed
Later they were also
Imperial court.
which developed under the influence
at first restricted to religious purposes. as secular
decorations at the
A very ornate and complicated style of formal
composition consisting of pine and other evergreens together
with colored blossoms deriving from shin-no-hana was soon developed and
name of Rikka
survives luider the
still
or
Rikkwa, meaning Standing or Erect Flowers. The first knovra treatise
giving dcfmitc rules and nomenclature to the different
members of a Rikka composition was written by Ikenobo
twelfth master of the Ikenobo teachers,
Rikka flower arrangement and
middle of the eleventh century. Through
diagrammatic drawing showing the main lines.
The
who
Scn-ke, the
died around the
his teachings
many
around them, building up a complex com-
and
position. Ikenobo Floral Art Institute, Kyoto.
the luxurious
in
instances
became an exposition of skill. During
and elegant Heian period (794- 1 185) the making
of these arrangements became a
polite
accomplishment of the
court nobles. Rikka arrangements, which are six or material and the individuality of the arranger, and must bolize
some
rather extended sense.
or blossoms with only so
make an
attractive
used in a
is
more
to complete, are intended to
such
as
employed
to represent different objects in nature,
white chrysanthemums for a small stream and pine
branches for rocks and stones. These handsome, artfuUy-
bouquet, with perhaps additional
Kamakura
arranged Rikka compositions remained in favor until the era at the
The Rikka
retical distribution
flower, refers
not only to the blossom but also to
line or first
branch
end of the twelfth century.
style has a defmite
hana, the closest English equivalent
the stem, as well as to branches of flowering plants and trees
174
terials are
word
the other hand, the
which
and require days
word flower suggests blossoms only much of their stems as is necessary
greenery to display the flowers most effectively. In Japan, on
for
feet in height
symbolize a segment of natural scenery. Various plant mais
To those acquainted only with Western
flower arrangement, the
to
sym-
philosophical thought.
In Japan the expression "flower arrangement"
Rikka
arrangements were brought to a high degree of excellence
accessory branches are arranged
the shin,
is
member of
a
form controlled by
of seven governing
lines.
meaning core or
Rikka composition
The
heart,
a theo-
principal
and
to be fixed.
it is
the
Theo-
retically
should be central and perfectly vertical.
it
The
shin
should possess straightness, height, and lightness. In ancient times the pine was always selected because of acter.
Considerable care
branch to make
its
erect char-
given to the posing of the central
is
appear powerful and vigorous and never
it
The
weak or
unstable.
auxihary
lines contributing principally to the shin
other governing lines are essentially
but neces-
sary to the balance and completeness of the composition. In
order to give body and beauty to the entire composition, additional foliage
and flowers are added
have been placed. In addition to the
after the
lines
seven lines
and masses, the
forms of the spaces and hollows in a composition are of
primary importance. Perhaps the most striking
of a Rikka composition
compared
which the designs
the
characteristic
the bunch-like nature of the design
some of the
as
in
to
is
later schools,
more
possess a
such
austere
open lineal character is pronounced. In the Rikka
lineal character
is
Enshu,
as the
refmement and style the
absent to a great extent, although a sug-
gestion of the governing lines
Rikka arrangement and the
The method employed
is
evident in the outline of a
triangular contour predominates.
in the later formal styles of flower
arrangement can be traced directly to a simplification or modification of the origiiial Rikka
style,
with
all
the super-
fluous branches being omitted.
The abundance of feature
of
a
different materials
Rikka composition
later schools
is
marked
a
of formal arrangements. Rikka arrangements
are divided into shin, gyo,
and
so,
referring to the different
degrees of elaboration or sketchiness. represents the fmished its
which
noticeably reduced in the
is
beauty from
its
and formal
The
floral
which
shin style,
composition, derives
approach to symmetry or regularity in
respect to perfection in balance
and proportion. The
so style
Iketioho is
the opposite to this kind of beauty, and the gyo
is
interis
mediary between the two. These three general position apply not only to the floral
floral art in Japan.
which
ment was trees
of comto
all
arrangements, since they constitute the fundamental
forms of style
styles
Rikka arrangement, but
is
A
special
sometimes referred to
branch of the Rikka
as a
a
arrangement.
was held together by
The
triangular
made up of three main mental composition
composition
lines is the
funda-
of Ikehana. Ikenobo
Floral Art Institute, Kyoto.
a
wooden framework
placed in the
society of
etiquette
made
by the theory of
the seven governing lines.
The
tendency in the sand-bowl arrangement was to emphasize the horizontal, while in the standing vase arrangement the ver-
was emphasized.
Pre-eminent in the
in the
Heian period. The ceremonial code
fortunately, the constant preoccupation with details of court
and water. The composition of these arrangements was
also
Kyoto
of the T'aiig court was adopted and carefully followed. Un-
bottom of the basin and afterward concealed by sand, pebbles,
culture
of the formal Rikka
the decorative use of thick stubs and branches of
bowl. This arrangement, which suggests a garden in miniature,
tical
which
floiver arrangement,
sand-bowl arrange-
and water plants arranged in a broad shallow basin or
controlled
Shoka
simphfication
affairs
it
and
dress,
difficult if
with elaborate
rites
and
aesthetic pastimes,
not impossible to cope with the urgent
of government. Incursions by barbarians,
rivalries
great families, and plots centered around the throne
of
were
only a few of the troubles resulting from the continuously diminishing powers of the sovereigns. Gradually the admin-
liistory
of
aesthetics is the
spread of
and refinement emanating from the elegant court
istrative
power came
into the hands of the military clans,
culminating with the estabhshment of the supreme power in
175
Ikenobo Nageire flower arrangement and three principal lines. Ikenobo Floral
Kamakura
the hands of the Miiiamoto clan at
meditative
Zen
of Buddhism in Japan, had
its
because the self-discipline of suitable to the ethical
strong adherents
beginnings in
Zen Buddhism
code of the military
certain aesthetic sensibility,
with a sense of beauty
among
and
makes
this
vi^as
especially
class, this sect
found
it
life is
associated with a
paradox that the
ethical
its
and
a floral
arrangement was regarded
of the unity of
all life.
So
is
it
no
code of the warrior, described in more
translated as the
word
who
ZEN INFLUENCE AND THE DIFFERENT SCHOOLS
room,
and almost
a floral
The
ideas
176
Under
tea masters.
of naturalism and simpUcity, frugality and
found in Zen teachings were mirrored in the
later
was
art
chiefly
that. the
the influence of the
rustic simplicity that
governed the tea-
composition often took the form of a simple its
of
leaves or a spray
flowering shrub. But this affected simplicity did not permit the practice of elaboration in flower
sufficient scope for
arrangement, and other forms of arrangement were developed appropriate to the large
upon It is
in
1
rooms of the
aristocracy but based
which had thus been inaugurated.
principles
popularly accepted that the Ginkakuji or Silver Pavilion
Kyoto
built
by the famous Shogun Yoshimasa
(Facing)
more modern
Two-panel
depicting birds in
a
detail
0,
to
in 1479
floral art in Japan.
is
Ad-
a pair of six-panel screens
landscape with
Painting on paper. Attributed
restraint
It
inaugurated these modifications were to
famous
the birthplace of the
of the mind.
ceremony.
modification in floral art took place, and the principal
floral designers
Way of the Warrior, includes in
creed the practice of flower arrangement as a means for
composure
first
arrangement of a single flower and
recent times as bushido, a term analogous to the English chivalry
tea
with the object of adaptation to the tea ceremony
frugality
class.
as a natural expression
is
the
refuiement
Kyoto.
The more modern development of floral
inseparably connected with the
how
Because of the great emphasis placed by Zen on the afifmity
of man's soul with nature,
simplified form.
a great extent
aesthetic
drawing showing the
terms and theories similar to those of the Rikka style but in a
life
easy to understand
line
Institute,
of flower arrangement, which adopted to some extent
styles
combination of moral
of flower arrangement became an the mihtary
and
this age,
the powerful leaders at Kamakura.
among
According to Zen teachings moral
practice
The
in 1185.
probably the most notable development
sect,
Art
willow
trees,
Eitoku Kano. Late
peonies,
etc.
Momoyama
period. Courtesy, Smithsonian Institution, Freer Gallery of Art,
Washington,
D.C.
2
Hohiisiii. Brciikiii\i
school.
Edo
IWwcs. Painting;
Smithsonian Institution, Freer Gallery lVashin<^ton,
iihiyo-c
period, nineteenth century. Courtesy,
D.C.
0}
Art,
3
Set of four
fiisiiina;
^old-leaf ground on paper.
calendar, ivith camellias which bloom while snoii>
finger pulls,
4
with cherry blossom motif.
Sotatsu, Nonuira.
Institution,
Kano
Siiow-covcrcd willow still
school,
covers the ground.
Edo
tree depicting, the
period, second half of the seventeenth
Si.x-panel screen depicting waves at Alatsushima. Painting on paper.
Freer Gallery of Art,
Washington,
D.C.
heginiiing of spring, according to
Black lacquer frames and circular bronze hikitc, century.
Momoyama
Author's
the
old
or inset
collection.
period. Courtesy, Smithsonian
5
(Left) Hokusai. Portrait
school.
Edo
of a courtesan
Freer Gallery of Art. Washington.
6
(Below) Korinsai.
Painting;
walkiiifi.
Painting; nkiyo-c
period, nineteenth century. Conrtesy, Smithsonian Institution,
nhiyo-e
Smithsonian
D.C.
Winter: a young
school.
Iiistitntion,
Edo
Freer
woman walking
period,
Gallery
c.
of
1760-1780. Art,
in the
snow.
Courtesy,
Washington,
D.C.
L
7
(Rif^hr)
Two-panel
screen;
on paper with design of peonies blooming among golden
clouds.
Kano
school,
Edo
period,
early
eighteenth century. Author's collection.
8
(Below) Utamaro. Moonlight Revelry
Dozo Edo
at the
Sagami. Detail of painting; ukiyo-e school.
period, eigliteetith century. Courtesy, Smith-
sonian
Institution,
Washington,
Freer
Gallery
of
Art,
D.C.
I
—
_^/-_™y%i:_,..v;,
:-
n
^
fX h
9
The
Utaiimro.
(Left)
Niwaka
courtesan carrying a wheat pestle
fan peddlers taking part
Wood-block
print,
in
a
Perjoriiiers.
Niwaka
mica ground.
10
Nijo Castle
at
Utamaro
Signed
(Below) Ceremonial Reception Hall the
New
of the
the
Ninomaru Palace
Kyoto. Paintings on the wall panels and
1602-1674. and
seveuteeuth
Association.
Early
ga.
York.
on the coffered ceiling on a gold-leaf ground attributed
Tan-yu,
a
celebration in the YosJiiwara.
1790' s. Collection Charles A. Greenfield,
in
Depicting
and two geisha masquerading as
century.
his
school.
Courtesy,
Edo Japan
to
Kauo
period, first half
National
of
Tourist
Facing
11
and 12: (Above) Ko-Kiitani plate
with quail on a rock and peonies. Edo period,
probably fourth quarter of the seventeenth century. Courtesy, Seattle Art Museum. (Below) Nabeshinia dish
with cocksconib design; made at the Ohochi
kiln
of Lord Nabeshinia of Saga province. Edo
period, eighteenth century. Courtesy,
Seattle
Art
Museum.
14
(Above) Imari plate decorated with peony
basket
and
Edo period,
floral
motif
Freer Gallery oj Art.
13
(Left)
in
Kakiemon
Washington.
D.C.
jar decorated
medallions and arabesques
Edo
over-glaze enamels.
700. Courtesy, Smithsonian Institution,
1
in
with floral
over-glaze enamels.
period, seventeenth century. Courtesy,
sonian
Institution,
Washington,
D.C.
Freer
Gallery
Smith-
of
Art,
Lid grass
oj in
Suzuri-hako depicting a rabbit gold lacquer on a brown
in
lacquer
ground. century.
New
Unsigned. Collection
Momoyama Charles
period,
A.
uxteenth
Greenfield
York.
1
/
(Below) Lid of lacquer Suzuri-bako. Natural
wood edged depictuig
pewter, seal
in
quail
and twisted
black lacquer in
pottery,
leaves
and gold
in
(Facmg) Lid o/roiro lacquer Suzuri-bako
woman
with girl attendant
writing
iiaracters
which mean "perseverance in hue" roofed wall by efixting liquid black
tooth-
irom her mouth. Signed Kinyosai, Shotoku 71 S,
Edo period.
New
York.
Collection Charles
A. Green-
ivith
with
pottery,
lacquer.
Hanzan. Edo
period,
Collectwn Charles A.
•ctmg a
'
16 tall
gold designsmillet,
stalks
mother-of-pearl
Signed with pottery eighteenth
Greenfield,
century.
New
York
19
Inro.
(Left)
Edo
period.
Left:
roiro lacquer inro
of two cases with porcelain owl perched on gold lacquer branch with hanging rattle-hoard, and mother-of-pearl tree
stump; signed Ritsuo and green seal Kwan, early eighteenth
Wood and
century.
young on a
ivory
netsuke
oud with
of
stump; signed Ikkyu, eighteenth century.
tree
Umimatsu wood ojimc
of
cicada
on
a
tree
stump;
signed Rensai, nineteenth century. Right: four-case inro
of hirame-iiashi-ji their
fi.xing
seventeenth
playing century. field,
?0 II
(Rii'lit)
caparison
litsuo
and
letsuke
in
Sumo in
seal
player's
lacquer
iiiro.
'8
(ground decorated with elephant
ivory,
and other
inlays.
Kiran. Edo period, early eighteenth century.
red lacquer
A. Greenfield,
New
in
\nd green pottery seal, Ritsuo
inro
sumo players who wore them. Collection York.
(Facing) Lid of lacquer Tebako. Natural unpolished kiri
even ''hanging objects"
'2ollection
Signed
Oni mask
and carved wood dragon ojimc. These huge
onipleniented the size oj the Zharles
Roiro
with pottery,
bas-relief.
wood with
Signed, with gold lacquer signature
Ukanshi. Edo period, early eighteenth century.
Charles A. Greenfield,
New
York.
hair.
century.
with
a
lacquer
depicting
three
Signed Koami Nagataka,
Carved ivory netsuke
mask;
signed
children
kakihan,
of children
Tomonohu, eighteenth
Carved coral ojimc. Collection Charles A.Green-
New
York.
(Below) Netsuke. Edo period.
23
Carved wood and ivory netsuke of Oinia Darunia; signed Minho and eighteenth century. Collection
seal,
Charles A. Greenfield,
21
(Above) Carved ivory
Edo
period.
Upper
left:
yakko
or
signed.
Lower
York.
iictsuhv.
iiiaii
Upper
a shovel; imsi^ued.
New
with
ri^ht:
samurai's servant;
a
un-
Oishi, seventh
left:
act ofClnishiiigtira; signed Rantci,
early
nineteenth
right:
a
o-kyu
or
Lower
century.
rakan using
the
burning
nioxa treatment; signed
Shuzan, eighteenth century. lection
New
Charles
A.
Col-
Greenfield,
York.
24 left:
Carved wood netsuke. Edo period. Upper kuzunoha and abe no seimai or Fox-Mother;
(Facing)
signed Kakuho.
Upper
right:
laughing hoy holding a fan
with tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, and jade inlay; signed Hojitsu, nineteenth century. Center:
22
(Right) Netsuke. Edo period.
Carved and
colored
wood
netsuke
with his
Lower
paw; signed Masakatsu,
left:
frog
on
a
pumpkin stem;
nineteenth
of a sennin carrying a smiling child
Sukenaga,
on his hack; by Yoshiimira Slnizan,
sennin and the toad; signed
eighteenth century.
century.
early
Collection
rat
Charles
cleanhig
his face
early nineteenth century.
century.
signed
Lower
Matsuda
right:
gama
Toyomasa, early nineteenth
A.
Greenfield,
New
York.
^r
r
Ikenobo Moribaiia flower arrangement and
Yoshimasa
jacent to the Silver Pavilion, hall
containing a small
classic is
room
tearoom of four and
was the
the Ginkakuji
tearoom in Japan.
man of
ceremony and the
arrangement were greatly stimulated.
Among
of flower
the attendants
was Soami, 1472-1523, who, together with
397- 1476, was an important figure in the history of Japanese
aesthetics.
Noami,
a
monk who was
of Yoshimasa,
a favorite
main
Institute,
Kyoto.
carried
line
drawing
on by Geiami and Soami.
Soami. There
is
It is
generally believed that
also a
As
a result
of the impetus given to culture by Yoshimasa,
different schools
But the
of flower arrangement came into existence.
between these schools
differences
nomenclature applied to the branches or
may be
a five-lined arrangement
lie
great
and
liis
standards
were
of the nomenclature
is
art.
A
to impart an appearance
considerable
ophy, together with
art
good and
many to
waterwheels and waterfalls
and painting 1661-1673. Collection
Kosode of
Kambun from
the
Kambun
on
satin
in
block printing, tying
damask. Life
Edo
All
of
and dyeing,
Kambun
period,
Magazine.
design
era,
rights
reserved.
Mr. and Mrs. Shizuo Nomura, Kyoto.
(Below)
Courtesy,
satin
Ise era,
Monogatari,
a
tenth-century
over flowing water tale.
Edo
period,
1661-1673. Courtesy, Life Magazine. All
reserved. Collection
much
rights
Mr. and Mrs. Shizuo Nomura, Kyoto.
one
philos-
mixed with
the theory of the
the mystery. Modifications in the
in actual form.
slight
The main
and none
principles
of
the art are the same throughout, and floral designs regarded as
works of art today depend
as
they did three or
more hun-
dred years ago on the same old canons.
For example, a
damask with tied-and-dyed and embroidered
design depicting the eight bridges
departed very
of originality
essentially
traditional superstitions, such as
evil luck, are
and contribute
is
amount of Chinese
arrangements made by these schools were
Kambun
(Above) Kosode with
and
wood, and the teaching symbolized by them. The chief object
ideas of
Facing 25 and 26:
example,
earth, fire, water, metal,
and the same
was
principally in the
lines; for
ment, incense judging, verse-linking, and landscape gardening. influence
attributed
to him.
and mystery to the various versions of what
aesthetic
was designed by
book on flower arrangement
was skilled in the arts of the tea ceremony, flower arrange-
His
illustrating
and accessory branches. Ikenobo Floral Art
lines
the beautiful garden at the Silver Pavilion
remarkable
art
Geiami, 1431-1485, and his grandfather Noami,
his father, 1
furst
the patronage of Yoshimasa, a
aesthetic sensibility, the tea
at
built a devotional
the prototype of the
is
a hal( tatami (nine square feet). It
generally believed that this
Under
that
the three
style
of
floral
arrangement
Nageire or Thrown-in style came into use about
was brought art
is
into fashion
by the
usually divided into
formal, deriving
known
this
tea masters. Japanese floral
two main branches, namely
from Rikka, and
as
time and
the natural, deriving
the
from 193
Nageire. However,
it is
although Nageire
a free
is
of first importance
to
apparently carelessly placed in a container, to the old art canons. in arrangement
To
that
it
conforms
also
the unpracticed eye the difference
between these two schools will appear very
almost negligible. In
slight,
remember
and natural arrangement of flowers
the
fact,
more
nearly a Nageire
composition approximates a formal arrangement, the more highly
One of the
regarded.
it is
Nageire arrangement
principal characteristics of a
in the small quantity of plant
lies
material used. /Generally the arrangement consists of no
more
than one well-shaped branch and a few sprays of flowers
at
base.
its
Some of
the literature
on Japanese
floral art gives three
divisions or forms
of flower arrangement, the third being
Moribana,
meaning
much on
literally
naturalness.
mitted.
As
Moribana, a
to heap or pile up.
an informal arrangement and lays
later style, is
Very
little
bending of the branches
and natural
in both the formal
styles,
stress
is
per-
Moribana
conforms to the age-old standards. Although there are various kinds of Moribana arrangements, determined by the shape of the container and the plant material used, they are usually
made
in
flat
dish-like or bowl-like receptacles,
which may
be round, oval, or irregular in shape, with the arrange-
ment suggesting of water
natural landscape scenery.
visible in such
arrangements
is
The amount
dependent on the
season.
During the peaceful
era of the
arrangement continued to existence but there
The
was considerable
polite pastime
priests
Tokugawa Shogunate flower
flourish.
schools
came
into
of Ikebana was no longer confuied to
and court nobles, but became an accomplishment of
all classes
of people.
By
the time of the Meiji Restoration in
1868, almost every household had in
New
similarity in their results.
making
a flower arrangement.
at least
The
one member adept
best compositions dis-
play a bold and vigorous quality essentially identifiable with a masculine touch.
Both
in flower
arrangement and in the
ceremony men have always played the leading ever, with the Meiji Restoration
and the
partial
role.
tea
How-
emancipation
of women, many new schools were founded by women, Enshu
school.
An
arrangement of orchid leaves. The center leaf
curves gracefully and shows chiefly
its
front surface.
leaves are kept firmly together at their base
show
and female elements
other
and are arranged
portions of their front and hack surfaces in such a
the male
The
manner
to
that
are properly balanced. Essentially the
general form of the composition assumes a trilineal arrangement. Asiatic Society of Japan.
although art.
As
men
continue to be the leading practitioners of this
a result of the influence of the West,
which has swept
over Japan since the end of the nineteenth century, new schools are always coming into existence to meet the new requirements for Western-style rooms where a tokonoma
not available.
is
Some of these ultramodern schools have entirely
disregarded the traditional principles, and they use the square
or the circle for the general outline instead of the triangle, and delight in using even numbers.
schools almost unconsciously
But even
foUow
growth and emphasize beauty of line.
194
these very
advanced
the laws of natural
PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION The
balance and beauty of lines in the open lineal character
given to a Japanese
floral
design
is
the distinguishing feature
of Japanese flower arrangement. Far greater
placed on
stress is
beauty of line than on harmony of color. Various plant
which
materials are used to produce a linear composition
in
the language of line conveys an unmistakable impression of the natural process of plants.
growth and the life-rhythm of the
This appreciation for lines of motion imbues Japanese
floral designs
with a living
quality, so they are not simply
groups of flowers detached from their parent stems, soon to fade.
An
analysis
of Japanese flower arrangement reveals that
by
the directions taken
the governing lines of each group of
stems or branches, which are founded on principles of pro-
portion and
form
harmony
the basis of
by nature
displayed
in
many
creations,
flower compositions. Technically the
all
of the water in which the flowers are placed is regarded
surface
as the soil
from which
the plant material
is
to spring,
and
it is
therefore necessary for the arranger to convey the impression
of a strong and vigorous origin in accordance with the law of natural growth.
Any feeling of weakness must
avoided in the springing
of the container tree. In the
as a
lines,
growing
be carefully
which must leave the mouth of a
single unit, like the trunk
arrangement of the principal lines of a composition
from the point of
their separation, the designer carefully
avoids a symmetrical distribution and aims rather to obtain a
more
subtle balance
achieve
through a pleasing variety of forms.
harmony and
To
balance without resorting to syrrmietry
requires a special genius,
and the Japanese happily possessed
the imagination to develop this peculiar but very characteristic
type of asymmetrical design. In a flower composition care
should be taken to use an odd number of branches or flowers,
of which no two should ever be the same height. In addition to the lines of the branches and stems, the surfaces
form and
different
of the leaves and the distribution of the buds and
blossoms receive an equal share of attention and play their allotted parts in each floral design.
The Etishu school.
japonicum one,
An
in a
arrangement of bamboo combined with
bronze sand-bowl. The arrangement
which sometimes occurs
is
materials are placed side by side
and
a double
There are usually from three to seven governing
The
are detached at the base.
Because of the character of the thick-stemmed bamboo, the vertical tubes are cut off with a splice cut.
The
leaf branches which are
attached are distributed to suggest a trilineal composition.
The
arrangement 0/ Nuphar japonicum reveals seven leaves and two
line
and showing mainly
its front
surface.
The remaining and back
judiciously balanced. Asiatic Society of Japan.
of each group of stems, are given primary attention.
though compositions of one or two than seven are sometimes made.
arrangement
model
for
all
is
lines as well as
The
triple
lines, al-
of more
or three-lined
much favored and may be taken as the original
arrangements. Although various nanies, such
as
other
flowers, with the longest leaf taking the position of the principal
carefully distributed as supports, their front
of each stem, or more correctly the governing
lines
such a broad flat vessel.
in
lines
Nuphar
leaves are
surfaces being
heaven-earth-man
or
spiritual
truth-harmonizer-material
substance, are applied to these three cardinal lines, they
be simply three lines cipal,
called principal, secondary,
may
which
is
and
tertiary.
contain only one branch or many.
The
may
These prin-
the longest and most central line, determines
195
Enshu flat
school.
An
arrangement of a white plum branch in a broad
bronze basin. The composition
soe branch vessel.
is
treated as a streamer
Such an arrangement
and dips
called the
is
The secondary
is trilineal.
into the water
or
of the
''water-diving plum.''
An arrangement in a bamboo vase with three openings.
Enshu school.
At
the top
is
a trilineal composition of flowering narcissus. The
middle arrangement
Beneath
cissus.
is
a trilineal composition of flowering nar-
a three-stemmed arrangement
is
of chrysanthemum
having five flowers. The plants represented are
Asiatic Society of Japan.
tree,
water, and
land plants respectively. Asiatic Society of Japan.
other lines
tertiary. In a seven-line
arrangement the two extra members
Regardless of the general
are the sidepiece placed
between the support and the second-
the shape and size of the arrangement, with
being in fixed proportion to
it.
all
shape of the principal branch, to achieve proper balance the tip
of the main branch should be
where is
that branch springs
from the
above the point
directly
container.
The secondary
the intermediate or harmonizing line and the tertiary
shortest line. Theoretically, the secondary tertiary
is
is
is
the
one-half and the
one-fourth the length of the principal. Although
the curves of these lines vary in the different designs, as a
general rule the secondary has a the tertiary a
more
lateral one.
more
By
vertical
tendency and
changing the direction and
giving a different character to the curves of these three main branches, an almost endless variety of designs In a five-line arrangement
two
may
be created.
additional lines are used,
ary,
and the trunk piece placed between the sub-principal and
the tertiary.
The
general
form of these
positions depends chiefly
to the principal. In schools displaying
curvature
is
slight,
characterized
by
central stem
is
a
but in a school such
little
as the
affectation this
Enshu, which
is
high degree of artificiality, the principal or
given a bold
lateral
curvature from a point
about three inches above the "springing" and then a reverse curve so that the upper extremity thus maintaining
its
is
vertically
above the
general form of the curvature
may
be compared to a
ary and the sub-principal placed between the principal and
a composition, the lateral curvature of the principal
strung.
bow
When it is necessary to lower the height of
when
it is
base,
center of gravity. In a broad sense the
namely the support placed between the principal and second-
196
com-
three-, five-, or seven-line
on the amount of curvature given
is
made
on
toward which the principal bends
the side
is
tuate the droop. This
droop
is
known
When
and only
as a streamer
as similarity is
one occurs in a composition, avoided.
given a
is
lengthened proportionately to accen-
noticeable droop and
aU times
at
five- or seven-line compositions are desired,
com-
the extra auxihary lines are added. Although flower
from one point
positions are designed to be seen principally
of view, namely, in front of the tokonoma, lines
all
the governing
of a composition have directions of varying degrees
forward and backward in addition to the vertical and
flatness
lateral
any tendency to
directions already mentioned. This avoids
and gives some consideration to the over-all
from points
and
to the right
effect
left.
In arranging the lines of a composition there are certain errors
which
One of these
are to be avoided.
cross-cutting,
which occurs when two
referred to as
lattice-cutting are other
one another. Window-cutting and errors; in the
is
different lines intersect
former the branches cross in curves to form suggest
latter the crossings
looped openings, while in the
latticework. Correctly arranged, a floral composition
is
not
only a thing of beauty but an expression of living flowers.
Although some highly material has been
artificial
much
Oj
shochikubai or the favorite
may
exaggerate the it,
they do
suggest most vividly the feeling of natural growth.
It is this
and almost caricature
features pecuhar to a plant Etishu school. All arrangement
compositions in which the
bent and twisted
rhythm of the
combination ofpine, bamboo, and plum treated in a fanciful manner.
portrayal of natural
The pine and plum branches
plant that the Japanese endeavor to present in their floral
are arranged in a cylinder-shaped vase
of natural bamboo with a small sprout attached position the pine forms the principal
forms the secondary
line
and
and augments
to
it.
tertiary lines
In this corn-
and
the
of Japan.
life
com-
positions, rather than a faithful copy of nature.
plum
the principal. Asiatic Society
growth suggesting the
No
flower or plant
is
too humble to be used, a thing of
beauty being possible with the most commonplace materials. In choosing the plant material the seasonal factor
is
an im-
portant consideration. Flowers forced to blossom out of season are in most instances not used. Each flower has
its
common
to
proper season and month.
more pronounced and lines are
the directions of the other governing
correspondingly changed to obtain proper lineal
several istics
months or
seasons,
Many
and certain
as
vature, the general direction of the principal line
composition of such flowers,
and
if the three
tion
were enclosed in a
governing
vertical,
such a style of composi-
lines in
triangle, the
hypotenuse would be
There
is,
however, another
style
of composition used in a
large class of flower arrangements in
ing lines
which the three govern-
are enclosed in a triangle whose hypotenuse
is
horizontal, giving a horizontal or ahnost horizontal direction to the principal line. This style
is
mainly employed for com-
positions arranged in either hanging vessels
on high
shelves, the idea
projecting laterally this style
distinctions in
vessels
being to suggest
on the edge of a
cliff! It
or standing floral
growth
often happens in
of composition that one of the two auxiliary
lines
vitality to the leaves.
mind and
it is
express
When
making
a
necessary to keep these
them
in the arrangement.
Then, too, the character of the season must be represented as
vertical.
distinctive character-
occur during the various seasons of their growth, such
an unusual bend or
balance and harmony. Regardless of the amomit of the curis
flowers are
much
as possible in a floral
composition. For example, a
spring arrangement should be simple and vigorous, suggesting
the grovsrth of young plant
life,
while a
should be profuse and luxuriant.
A
summer arrangement
fall
arrangement some-
times includes a broken branch or a dried seed the
for a winter arrangement, In
pod
to suggest
coming cold season. Evergreen branches are much favored
all
which should be
Japanese flower arrangements the
are relatively few, but each flower
is
relatively sparse.
number of
shown
to
its
flowers
best ad-
vantage.
197
The idea of applying sex to plants and trees and to inanimate and rocks in a Japanese garden
stones
fancy and
also applied in several
is
it
is
flowers in a floral composition. Tliis distinction
one of individual form tion, regarded as
as
of forms
common
a rather
ways
to leaves
not so
is
in contrast or in
and
much
combina-
male and female with respect to each other.
For example, rocks of a different character placed side by side in a garden
become male and
female, but if used individually
they have no sex. The observance of such capricious fancies is
not
of design because they help to
wit^i'out value in the arts
harmony of well-balanced
create a
contrasts. In a floral ar-
rangement the front and back of leaves, which are male and female respectively, are given carefid consideration, especially
when
the leaves arc large and important, the purpose being
to achieve well-balanced masses
by twisting and turning the
leaves so that both surfaces are alternately displayed. In flowers
the buds are regarded as female and the flower in full as male.
Colors of flowers also have sex; red
is
bloom
a favorite
masculine color and white a favorite female color.
THE MATERIALS AND VESSELS USED Flower arrangements arc made with one plant alone or in the early
by combining two or more
species
of tree or
species.
Although
Rikka style many kinds of flowers were combined
in one composition, in the succeeding styles the
considerably reduced. Combinations of are
still
two or
rather
common,
two
number was
or three species
particularly in those vessels having
three openings, such as certain
top and two side openings. In
all
bamboo
vessels
with a
compositions, either single
or combined, the special nature and character of the materials
used are carefully observed and followed.
The
rules
govern-
ing any Japanese flower arrangement presume that the arranger possesses an intimate knowledge of plant growth. distinction
between
trees
The
and plants and between land and
water plants is scrupulously observed. The locahty of growth.
Above:
Enshu
school.
An
arrangement
o/Nuphar japonicum
comprising seven leaves and two flowers in a fancy bronze vase
with a fish-shaped base. The principal leaf reveals
and
the remaining leaves reveal both their front
its
front surface
and back
surfaces in
a carefully balanced composition. Asiatic Society of Japan.
Below:
Enshu Nageire.
clematis with
hooked
ment
is
Japan.
198
An
informal hanging arrangement of
two flowers placed
to the pillar
in
an iron gourd-shaped vase
of the tokonoma. The simplicity of the arrange-
especially suitable for a small tea room. Asiatic Society
of
Morihana.
A water-viewing arrangement of
iris
blossoms and their
leaves standing upright in pebbles in a broad, flat pottery contaitier filled
with water. Each group of flowers and leaves
arranged
to be
is realistically
a growing plant.
whether mountain,
plain, or water, has considerable influence
almost endless number of shapes, varies from a shallow saucer-
on the arrangement and the character of the design employed.
like vessel to
For example, water plants are never combined with land
legs or
plants,
and they are arranged in
a different
manner and with
different surroundings than land plants.
To
grow on mountains with those would be considered inappropriate.
grow on
that
that
foot of a tree
must be given
A
plant
arrange flowers the plains
growing
a position in a floral
at the
composition
lower than a tree branch. Blossom-bearing trees and flowering plants are treated as quite distinct in character.
Thus one can
on the part of the arranger
one of trumpet shape, usually supported on short
sometimes on a decorative base in the form of rocks,
waves, or an animal grouping. Occasionally these bronze vessels are
of considerable height and have a long and wide
neck with
a
round of oval-shaped body. Broad and shallow
flower tubs and bowls furnish another related category of standing vessels, and were used
from relatively
early times for
arranging plants and trees associated with water. Properly they
were used
for the
arrangement of water plants and
grasses,
for a
although very often plants and trees growing on the banks of
proper knowledge and famiharit>' with the natural charac-
streams and lakes were permitted, suggesting a scene along
readfly understand the need
teristics
of plant material, and
known
little is
why exotic plants
are carefully avoided
by the
about which
Closely associated with the nature of a floral arrangement is
the
form of vessel
used.
A flower composition must always
is
two
principal types: the sand
latter is correctly
made of lac-
circular in plan, while the sand
usuaUy of bronze or porcelain and
is
bowl
commonly oblong
is
or
polygonal and sometimes oval in plan. Each type contains a layer of pebbles or sand covered with water. In these arrange-
contained.
and design. In
a general sense Japanese flower vessels
may
be
divided into three types: the standing type placed on a dais, or shelf; the hanging variety, familiarly vessels, fastened either to a
known
as
wall or piUar; and those
suspended by chains or cords from a cefling or beam. These vessels
wood and
The
The
it is
less
hooked
quered
the horse tub.
conspicuous than its contents, both in color
be in harmony with the vase in which vase should be
table,
the edge of the water. There are
bowl and
Japanese.
vary greatly in
wide-mouth standing
size,
shape,
and material. The ordinary
vase, generally
made of bronze and
in
ments water
is
plainly visible.
favored in the
regarded
as a part
of the composition and
Sand-bowl .and tub arrangements
warm months when
cooling or refreshing Baskets of woven
are
is
much
the sight of water has a
effect.
bamboo
or reed are another popular type
of standing receptacle for flowers.
Of
Chinese provenance,
they are generally beheved to have been
furst
used by Yoshi-
199
masa. Essentially there are
with
a bail handle
two
principal shapes: the basket
and the basket with a
handle. In addition to these
two
classic
neck and no
straight
models, there are other
decorative standing forms, as well as certain shapes designed
gourd shape. With the
particularly for hanging, such as a
exception of the
woven flower
properly placed on a thin
flat
baskets, all standing vessels are
tray
made of poUshed
or lac-
quered wood. Sometimes a decorative stand or very low table
is
substituted for the tray.
custom of dispensing with Yoshimasa, the
According to
tradition, the
trays for flower baskets
who was so pleased with
is
due to
the elegant simplicity of
woven basket presented to him by a Chinese craftsman that
he ordered
it
to be placed
on the
dais
without any tray because
he did not wish to detract from the character of the basket. Also attributed to Yoshimasa's patronage
bamboo liest
vessels for flower receptacles.
form was simply
closed
a
bamboo
It
is
the use of
different shapes
is
A
standing vessel
objects.
It
inspired
by
side cut out
from the top
The invention of the majority of these
usually attributed to different tea masters.
bamboo
tea
vase for flower
and highly decorative form of
which often
the flower chariot,
figures
upon
appears
that
the idea for these chariots
decorated wheeled chariots used in certain
richly
are the black-lacquered flower
festivals. Especially typical
with
chariots enriched
silver fittings.
Floral compositions in the vessels are
ers
over a
was
drawn
the large tubs profusely filled with flowers
hangmg
or so-called hooked
arranged in a horizontal direction, suggesting flowcliffy
most instances the shape of the bottom con-
In
veys the method of use.
The hanging bamboo
variety
is
most
frequently characterized by narrow side openings. Other hang-
bamboo, and
at
to use a
prominently in paintings on screens and other decorative
bamboo
forty principal
Sen-no-Rikyu, a celebrated
man
striking
is
the
be cut into different shapes. Side openings, sometimes
and portions of the
arrangement.
first
ing
bamboo standing and hanging vases, which are made possible by the facility with which bamboo can
different levels,
tradition,
was the
bottom
by a bamboo node. There are more than
are especially typical.
master,
appears that the ear-
cylinder with the
shapes of largely
According to
made from the irregular root of name is derived from their supposed
vessels are often
their
resemblance to certain natural forms, such
as a
conch
shell
or
gourd. These curious and irregular forms are greatly favored for the tearoom,
where
position and vessel
is
rustic simplicity
highly esteemed.
background for the hooked
both in
floral
com-
To provide a decorative
varier>% pillar tablets about three
or four feet in length and four inches in width are very often
hung between
the vase and the pillar.
Morihana. in a
As
a rule these tablets
A water-viewing arrangement of lotus blossoms
broad shallow white pottery
vessel.
Water-viewing
arrangements are much favored as summer compositions.
In
this particular composition the seed
pod, flower, and bud
are employed, representing the past, present, the three phases
200
of human
life.
and
future,
are oblong, taper sides
toward the
have shghtly curving
top, or
extending from the top to the bottom. The early
which were lacquered
were inscribed with
black,
a
tablets,
poem
in
of vessel
third class
to this category
is
is
the suspended vessel. Belonging
vessels,
made of chain. Most
the popular crescent-shaped vessel,
by
pottery or bronze, and suspended
suspended
and then replaced by
for a short time
rule the seasonal factor influences the selection
On
played.
a single
however, are of a horizontal character and
is
kakemono.
When
suspended by
a hanging arrangement
chains
from the
ceiling or
of these elongated vessels are some resembling
a boat,
of which
kakemono, and
the early ones are generally believed to have been
made of
these
ambitious ones were copied from
the elaborate pleasure boats. Boat-shaped vessels are always
hung above eye
would suggest
a leaking boat
most familiar boat-shaped
bamboo with
water
level so that the
not
is
visible,
which
and therefore be unlucky. The
vessels are those
made of a tube of
the ends splayed to resemble a simple boat or
mam
punt. In these vessels the tips of the
obscure any part of the picture. In
porting chains, and the tip of the central stem
is
under
directly
any calligraphy, and the
When
the
kakemono
hooked
to the
relation to the
is
all cases
is
as
is
not to
the signature of the
of figures must be
work of
the
kakemono
a long
kept low, so
is
faces
arrangement
painter, a flower
visible.
a celebrated poet or
generally omitted, to allow
undivided attention to the work of art.
part of the floral
arrangement are well within the triangle formed by the sup-
When
decoration.
exhibited, the floral composition
artist,
either
it is
methods of harmoniously combining
for the
two kinds of
of the
side
used,
is
and position of the flower arrangement in
Some of the more
the
the dais or
rules are established for the size
of the alcove. General
pillar
is
require additional supporting chains. Especially characteristic
bronze.
hung
is
of the tokonoma toward the front and
floor
a
dis-
on
placed
As
others.
of objects
tokonoma
the back wall of the
kakemono. The flower arrangement
gold characters.
The
shown
are
It
important that the
is
floral
with the character of the picture.
same flowers
the
design should harmonize
When it
is
necessary to use
in a composition that appear in the kake-
outside the triangle,
mono,
the floral design should be subordinated, so as not to
sweeping over the side to represent the single long oar which
detract
from
the Japanese use to propel boats. Floral arrangements of a
the
the apex.
Only
the streamer, if used,
nautical character, such as a
is
becahned or swiftly moving
sailing ship, are particularly interesting. Certain rules are
ployed to
convey by the
lines
mast, oar, and general motion of a ship.
stem represents the mast; the other
iri-ftmc
toward the right or decides
prow of
left,
which one
reverse of the iri-fune.
the vessel
may
point either
and each school of flower arrangeit
The "outward-bound"
prefers.
and the streamer sweeps to the
left
prow
the
is
toward the
to the right
stern,
reversed for the "outward-bound" arrangement.
and
The
material in the "in-port" or tomari-fune arrangement rather straight nature, conveying the idea of
other form of hanging vessel. There are also
this
plant
is
of a
no wind or
motion. Well buckets, either circular or square, are
and
or
For a "homeward-boimd" arrangement,
the masters of the Ikenobo school point the
vessels
and
"homeward-bound"
boat arrangement, which expresses farewell,
de-fuiie
is
central flower
boat arrangement, which expresses the wish for the
return of a friend, the
ment
The
lines suggest the sails,
the streamer suggests the single oar. In a
or
em-
of the flowers and stems the
still
an-
some hanging
of a more novel nature, such as inverted bronze parasols
bells
and
The proper
place for displaying a floral composition as
we have
seen,
rooms of the Japanese house and owes its
is
is
found in
tea masters
the
tokonoma
of placing in
it
all
is
the
important
the center of interest.
aesthetic significance chiefly to the habit
and
work of the
to the subject
floral
artist.
poem
If a
is
inscribed
on
design should, if possible, correspond
A marked feature is the supposed
of the poem.
association always existing
between the picture and the
floral
composition. For example, if a painting depicts a landscape
with mountains and a is
most
suitable, for
ground of such
it
lake,
an arrangement of a water plant
may
be supposed to
a landscape.
ciations are also observed.
work
appears on the
For example,
kakemono
is
blossoms, an arrangement of them
many
exist in the fore-
Popular traditions based on assoif the artist
known is
whose
admire cherry
to
most appropriate. The
double associations appearing in Japanese art motifs
deriving from the animal and vegetable kingdom, such as the
and the peony, are
lion
also faithfully kept in
mind.
Occasionally small floral arrangements are placed on the tier
of shelves called tana, in the recess adjoining the tokonoma.
Properly, if three arrangements are used they should follow the natural distribution of growth found in real scenery.
so-caUed hiU, plain, and water representing natural scenery,
used for the ings.
Thick
bamboo
is
style,
The
arrangement
characteristic
and
is
mouth and two
side
open-
most
vase with a
a triple
tree branches representing a
mountain
also
are used for
the top, land plants for the middle, and water plants for the
sea shells.
tokonoma, which,
the
kakemono, the
It
of Zen priests
a picture or vase of flowers. In
the host exhibits his choicest treasures,
which
bottom. In addition to the flower arrangements placed in the
tokonoma and on
the tana shelves, other novel arrangements
having no association with the permanent alcoves are also occasionally
made and
placed
on
a flower stand or
flower horse, the latter comprising crosspiece.
The
two
side posts
typical flower stand has
two
hung on
a
and a top
small shelves
201
connected by vertical and horizontal framing that
is
lacquered
black and enriched with metal mounts.
PREPARATION OF PLANT MATERIAL The
lineal character required for the various flowers
branches of trees
is first
formal schools, such
suitable material. In the
where
skill
and
based upon a careful selection of
of arrangement and beauty of
as the
Ikenobo,
of
line are
furst
importance, the next step comprises the bending, twisting,
and binding together of the material shape. In is
allowed, since naturalness
is
a feature
of the curve of the branch,
gardless
selected into the desired
Moribana and Nageire very little binding of branches
ward. The fmal step
is
to eliminate,
of both
all tips
Re-
styles.
should point up-
by trimming or
cutting,
any material which does not directly contribute to the beauty of the fmished composition. Before wedging the manipulated plant material into the container, certain steps are taken to
prolong
its life.
Naturally, fresh clean water and careful han-
dling both in cutting and arranging are the best preservatives.
Cuttings are always
made
early in the
morning or
early in the
evening, except in very cold weather. If the cuttings are not
used immediately, some teachers
recommend
that
all
plant
material except the blossoms should be submerged in water
Other teachers fmd
for several hours.
very
sion, except in
and produces
that
immediate immer-
warm weather, is harmful to long vitality which
brittleness in the stems,
considerable bending.
are subjected to
These teachers recommend only a
short immersion just before use, except in the winter
when it is
the stems and branches are very brittle.
customary to thaw the branches over
in order to
make them
softer
and more
At
months
this
season
a charcoal brazier
flexible.
Large delicate
blossoms are wrapped separately in soft paper and if very fragile they are
kept wrapped until the arrangement is fmished.
There are two
essential factors to
how
cuttings; namely,
be considered with the
to preserve the succulence
of the stem
extremities so that water continues to rise in the tissues,
how to them
and
obtain softness and flexibility in the stems, permitting
to yield to the necessary twisting
and bending
Ihetiobo school.
An
arrangement of flowering magnolia branches in
a trilineal composition placed in a
woven
reed basket of traditional
shape.
until the
desired curves are obtained.
There are three principal methods of treating the stem extremities, that
is,
by crushing, charring, or plunging in boiling
water. After crushing,
some require an
often a simple household
artificial preservative,
commodity rubbed into
the crushed
ends. For example, sugar is recommended for asters, aspirin tablets for
chrysanthemums,
salt
for
powdered
columbine and
morning glories, an equal mixture of salt and alum for poppies, boric acid for carnations, and secreting a
202
milky
fluid.
powdered alum
for flowers
Sugar water forced in with a syringe
is
suggested
water
lilies
for
or calla
all
hollow-stemmed flowers such Branches of evergreen and
lilies.
bearing trees require no
artificial
as
fruit-
preservative their stem ends ;
are split for a couple of inches, or if the stems are small
enough, they are crushed. shiny, they are frequently
gamboge and terized
size.
To keep
pine needles green and
washed with
The stem ends of
a
mixture of sulfur or
certain plants charac-
by woody and sturdy stems may be
treated either
charring or plunging in boiling water. Included
among
by the
plants especially suitable for these azalea,
two methods
chrysanthemum, hydrangea, and peony.
of these methods
is
used, the entire branch
or paper, exposing only the stem end.
of the stem end
are the aster,
When either
wrapped in cloth
is
About one-half inch
plunged into boiling water for about two
is
minutes. Afterward, the branch is unwrapped and held upside-
down, and cold
clean water
is
poured over the
entire
branch
for several minutes.
Considerable care and skill are required to
make the artificial
curves especially associated with the formal floral composition.
Some stems are more flexible and will bend without snapping, while the more
brittle
and harder stems require
ment. In most instances a cloth at the
stem
is
special treat-
wrapped around
the stem
point of bending to prevent splintering. Sometimes the at the
point of bending
a
low
fire.
with boiling
Occasionally
it is
with a knife. In order to avoid unsightly
carefully shaved angles, the
either softened
is
warmed over
water or gradually
stem
is
generally bent at several points,
which
produces a smooth and shapely curve. After any forcible bending,
it is
recommended
to dip that part
of the stem in cold
water, which destroys the elasticity and makes the curve per-
manent.
One of the most of plant material for
is
difficult steps relating to the
manipulation
the fixing of the stems in the container,
which many kinds of fasteners or plant holders are
The stems must leave unit,
the
mouth of the
which requires firm and
fastener used for a vase
form of a
to
skillful fixing.
An
early type
of
with a cylindrical mouth was in the
cylindrical piece
wide enough
used.
container as a growing
of wood with a wedge-shaped
hold the stems. Perhaps the most
types are simply the fork of a branch or
X-shape, with other twigs pressed in
slit
common
two twigs forming an
at right angles to
hold
the stems and branches upright. All of these fasteners are fixed just
A
beneath the surface of the water and should not be
characteristic
receptacles
is
nails or holes
form
for sand
made of a
sheet
of metal with rows of upright
of different diameter. These are concealed beneath
the sand or pebbles. There are also the plant holders, in the
which
visible.
bowls and other flat-shaped
form of
many
decorative metal
crabs, tortoises, or dragons,
are intended to be visible
and are used in shallow
Ikenoho school. ings.
At
the top
An is
chrysanthenmms.
arrangement in a bamboo vase with two open-
a trilineal composition of cypress and small pink
The lower composition comprises
three small
yellow chrysanthemums assuming the general form of a trilineal group.
receptacles.
external beauty of nature, and great importance
is
attached
to the expression of this meaning. Philosophical interpretations
SYMBOLIC MEANINGS AND ATTRIBUTES
suggesting permanent eternal ideas, historical associations, a legion of traditional fancies, and the double combinations of
An instinctive love of symbolism is a fundamental Japanese characteristic. It
medium
among
the
seems to be practically impossible for them
flower subjects or themes which have become a permanent
them
part of the Japanese cultural heritage and hold an important
to admire flowers simply as flowers. Instead, they regard as a
flowers with certain bird and animal attributes are
for expressing
some mental concept. The Japa-
nese are always searching for the hidden
meaning behind the
position in art
and
literature.
The months of the
year and the
various deities and pleasures which custom has associated
203
De-fume
Ikeiwho school.
Right:
arrangement made of iris. The
tips
or outgoing-boat
of the main part of
the composition are kept well within the triangle formed
by the chains, and the
of the principal
tip
directly beneath the apex.
The long
to the right suggest the single bptits.
Far
Ikenobo school.
right:
secondary line
An
oar employed to propel
is
An
arrangement of bush
moon-shaped bronze
The
vase.
treated as a streamer.
arrangement of pussy willow and
small white chrysanthemums to
is
In this composition they become the streamer.
clover in a suspended
Ikenobo school.
line
leaves sweeping
in
a
bamboo vase attached
a tapering hanging board or pillar. In this trilineal
composition the secondary branch length as the hanging
is
about the same
bamboo container and the
tertiary
group comprises seven small chrysanthemums.
with them through the centuries form an endless source of material for the
artist in
every kind of
Japan
art.
is
rich in
known by
seasonal flowers,
and almost every month
special blossoms.
Ordinary and familiar flowers growing in
is
its
the garden and in the field have been given a conspicuous place in the
numerous
festivals celebrated in
The
the calendar year.
Japan throughout
flowers most esteemed are those
endeared by custom and tradition and cherished
of the season rather than those known for spectacular bloom. Flower viewing pursuits of outdoor
landscape is
is
life.
The Chinese
The
is
harbingers
one of the
a fanciful conceit a
favorite
snow-covered
considered to be winter's floral display and thus
one of the flower
was
By
as
their rarity or
festivals
of the year.
by the Japanese
especially adaptable to the seasonal succession
of flowers.
Japanese spring, which started with the Chinese
New
Year and began about February, was heralded by the ap-
plum blossom, which opened even while the on the ground. The plum blossom, because of
pearance of the
snow was its
still
duration and sweet scent and the classical simplicity and
beauty of
its
positions than
form, its
is
much more
favored for
floral
com-
flashy rival the cherry blossom. Silhouetted
against gray skies in a bare winter landscape, the delicate
blossom, fresh,
204
undaunted, and
leafless,
straight
its
stiffs
presents
an
un-
shoots,
and blossoms are
for a floral tree,
and the sparse distribution of its buds
carefully kept in mind.
An
unusual plum-
blossom arrangement made in an oblong flat-shaped receptacle filled
with water shows the principal branch bending
into and disappearing under the water and the blossom-
covered extremity reappearing. According to one story,
this
design was inspired by real scenery and for that reason
floral
the composition
plum of
the
arrangement
is
sometimes called water-diving plum or
mountain stream. For the as
called the Early
lunar calendar formerly used
plum blossoms
forgettable picture, hi selecting
arrangement the rugged and angular nature of the plum
well as for the
Herb
first
Festival, the
New
Year's floral
of the Five Seasons festivals,
plum
is
combined with the
known as Shochikubai used on many felicitous
pine and bamboo. This traditional triad suggests enduring happiness occasions, especially at
blossom
is
in season.
also associated
and
is
wedding ceremonies,
The
plum
if the
so-called Japanese nightingale
with the plum
Although the peach blossom which follows shortly the
plum
means its
is
notable for
its size,
attains the traditional
predecessor.
is
tree.
color,
and beauty,
it
after
by no
esteem and admiration given to
The peach blossom
is
chiefly used in floral
compositions during the Peach Blossom Festival, popularly
known
as the Girls' Festival
or Dolls' Festival, which occurs
on the
third
Five Seasons
day of the third month and
Many weddings
festivals.
month, when the peach blossoms are an the spring landscape.
symbol of
life
The
makes
its
is
the second of the
take place during this attractive feature
associated idea
of the peach
most
As
use
suitable.
of
as the
a rule the
ment of cherry blossoms water of the vase, and
on the
floor
several petals are often placed in the
recommended that
it is
Singly, the cherry blossom possesses
has
no
particular distinction
peach branches are inclined to be too exuberant to please the
although indigenous to Japan,
of the flower
with
gay and showy blossoms,
its
is
never
used in combination with any other plant material and
its
blossom has the place of honor on the tokonoma because the national flower of Japan. Patronized
it is
and extolled by
chrysanthemum
poets, the cherry
by Emperors
blossom vies with the
in the affection of the Japanese.
However,
probably because of the transitory nature of its beauty, lasting as
it
does for a short space of only three to four days,
attained a to the
prominent place in
floral
compositions
chrysanthemum or the plum. The
as
it
has not
compared
latter retains its
beauty for an entire month. Because of the ephemeral character
is
records before the fifth century.
artist.
tree,
of the cherry blossom,
other felicitous occasions.
its
use
The
cherry blossoms have their
own
is
avoided for weddings or
falling petals
distinctive
of full-blown
charm and they
have been compared in poetry, where they have become a favorite theme, to tears shed
by
a saddened sky. In an arrange-
great attraction
and
mass on a
tree
has a floral richness of unsurpassed beauty.
it
The cherry
no
of form, but in
cuttings are considerably thinned out, because the blossoming
taste
the petals falling
of the tokonoma should not be swept away.
a
The wild
nowhere mentioned
It
cherry, in early
did not achieve the position
of a national flower until the eighth century, when the Emperor
Shomu,
attracted
by
the beauty of the blossoms, ordered
cherry trees to be planted in the gardens near the Imperial
Up
palace at Nara. interest
to that time the
plum
tree
had held the
of the Emperor and his court. From the ninth century
onward Imperial garden
parties to
became customary and cherry
view the cherry blossoms
trees
were planted near the
palace at each succeeding capital.
The on
celebration of the Boys' Festival or
the fifth day of the fifth
blooming of
a
form of
iris
Iris
Festival occurs
month and comcides with the called shohu-no-hana. The leaf
—which in almost water plants receives the major share sword and therefore harmonizes of attention—resembles all
a
most appropriately with the doUs or ancient warriors in full that day.
Boys
armor displayed
figures representing
in Japanese houses
also carry the sword-like leaf,
which
for
on
them 205
symbolizes success.
On
the festival day,
iris
leaves are soaked
in the hot bath, because of the traditional belief that the so-called iris bath provides miraculous protection against
For the
disease.
mixed with
fmely chopped
festival also,
sake, a drink
which was
samurai. Several species of
common
kind, lasting through three seasons into the
guished in stiff
which
peculiar to each season
teristics
and
one
to Japan;
fall,
has charac-
are carefully distin-
For example, the early leaves are
floral design.
straight,
by the
especially enjoyed
are
iris
leaves are
iris
while in the
the leaves are curled and
fall
bent. Associated in art with the
iris
man-
are the kingfisher,
the three Buddhist divisions of time future
—
regarded
it is
contemplation and
deep green and emerald and full-blown blossoms represent
the future, while withered and partly decayed leaves and seed
pods suggest the
posed to suggest a mountain and
used as the main part of a
is
design arranged in a shallow
floral
The
wistaria,
which blooms
in
flat
May,
usually regarded as
is
the most important of blossoming vines.
purple
word
is
means
for droop, sagaru,
wistaria
The
mourning and
associated with
is
is
grows
in gardens
on
felicitous occasions.
especially adaptable to suspended
arrangements, with the streamer
is
trellises
bemg stressed.
Since
it
usually
overhanging a lake or stream,
also used in shallow flat receptacles filled
gesting such real scenery.
since
to decline or retrograde,
avoided on weddings and other
nature of the plant
However,
since the Japanese
To convey
it
with water sug-
the impression of land-
scape in miniature, stones are sometimes introduced in the
design to simulate the edge of a large lake.
floral is
The
pheasant
associated with the wistaria.
flowers,
was introduced
into
Japan in the eighth century. Although essentially a favorite of the upper classes, It
it is
a persuasive
motif in Japanese decoration.
used in combination with the peacock, the golden
is
pheasant, and the lion, and with such companions
it
constantly
appears in the decoration of temples and palace walls. Traditionally
it is
one of the three flowers to which royal rank has
been attributed, the other two being the cherry blossom and the lotus.
With
its
exuberant curly
petals, the
peony
times knowTi as the flower of prosperity, because
it
is
some-
retains
its
beauty so long, sometimes lasting for twenty days. The leaves
narrow
poems
as the national
flower of India.
associated with the Buddhist religion,
avoid
its
It is
and orthodox Buddhists
is
and
always seen seated on a lotus
flower. Because of its association with life hereafter,
considered appropriate for funeral ceremonies.
206
closely
use except for sacred purposes. In sculpture
painting the image of Buddha
of peaches, melons, pears, and
in the
hung on
are
many
the
garden for the occasion. Long
of variously colored paper on which are written
hung on
associated with romantic legends are also
the
motif
this
cultural skill, the
of fall,
is
by
far the
popular
flowers and
is
it
is
some
it
was not
form being
privilege arts,
thousand years
floral
It
mark of
petals,
The
the Emperor.
in high esteem
it
appears
by the court,
ninth century garden parties were given
Festival,
festivals, takes place
day a
ninth
later that
of the Emperor.
Imperial palace to celebrate
Chrysanthemum
cultivated
furst
symbol of the sun,
though never with sixteen
the special
as early as the
as the
as a crest as early as the
until a
chrysanthemum was always held
at the
occasions, including
indigenous to Japan, historical records
chrysanthemum was used
often in the decorative
and
all
was imported from China and
became the exclusive
this
of Japanese horti-
scholars claim that the small
during the Nara period. Recognized
century, but
prob-
available throughout the
is
considered appropriate for
wild chrysanthemum
is
A triumph
chrysanthemum
the most formal. Although
the
used in the
the principal flower
all
choice for a floral composition.
year and
frequently
is
arts.
which
is
its
the
blossoming time. The last
of the Five Seasons
on the ninth day of the ninth month.
composition of chrysanthemums
is
On
displayed
tokonoma of practically every Japanese household
to-
gether with an appropriate kakemono. Since the chrysan-
water plant blossoming in the middle of sum-
regarded
up
set
The chrysanthemum,
in the
supposed to suggest the lion
customary for young people to
made of paper,
ably the best loved of
which
hiding in thick fohage. lotus, a
strips
decorative
lines in a floral design,
is
branches
it is
the fourth
is
honor of the legendary union
In
offerings
composition,
floral
this
is
this date,
by making
Star Festival,
held and
is
branches of bamboo. Although scarcely to be considered as a
grouped around one of the governing
The
on
as Tanahata,
festivals.
cake. These, generally
are occasionally closely
mer,
stars
celebrate
indicate that
The peony, queen of Chinese
the lotus in decorative
On the seventh day of the seventh month the more popularly known
bamboo
receptacle.
Combined with
past.
design are the mandarin duck and other waterfowl.
of two
sup-
open and buds suggest
the present. Curled leaves not entirely
hot weather, various kinds of small water plants are arranged is
therefore a favorite flower of monastic
is
of the Five Seasons
of a large irregularly shaped stone, which
and
present,
past,
Large perfect leaves with their broad surfaces of
retreats.
darin ducks, and other water birds. Sometimes, particularly in
at the base
—
an appropriate theme for religious
as
A
its
use
is
symbol of
themum
lasts
longer than the majority of flowers,
to be associated with longevity. In design
with the crane,
also
Undoubtedly the
with which
it is
is
it
has
come
represented
emblematic of longevity. pine, foremost
most important of all flowerless flower arrangement
it
is
of
all
evergreens,
trees in Japan,
surpassed orJy
by
frequently combined.
and
its
is
the
use in
the chrysanthemum,
The
pine, a constant
Ikeiiflbo school. Iri-funie or
single
of the composition tip
is
feature
of the Japanese landscape,
symbolical of strength
is
and endurance and therefore suggests the idea of a long and hardy
life. Its
use in floral art
and thus plays an important role in congratulatory occasions.
bamboo,
it
arts
of decoration
crane and tortoise, both being
celebration.
faithfulness.
compositions on the
The
it is
is
all
plum and
New
Year's
associated with the
emblems of longevity.
ature representation of these three
wedding
floral
Combined with
forms the traditional triad for a
arrangement. In the
omen
considered a very good
is
A mini-
especially favored for a
pine also symbolizes loyalty and
A characteristic arrangement combining the pine
and white chrysanthemum stands for landscape in design. This derives
from
a
floral
well-known poem in which the
white chrysanthemum seen beneath the pine branches likened to the
moon between
in a strict sense as neither plant it is
nor
character,
tree,
but
may
is
regarded
be used in
never arranged in a vessel
made
The main part
under the apex of the triangle.
directly left
forms the streamer.
employed by the Japanese
to
It suggests
propel their boats.
of bamboo. Although thin sprays or branches of bamboo are often
combined with other
trees or plants, for
positions a portion of the stalk
twigs attached.
is
obliquely.
selected
The number of nodes
should be uneven and the top
is
simple
com-
with a few leaf-clad
or joints in the stem
cut either horizontally or
The bamboo remains green
typifies the virtue
the entire year, and
of straightforwardness or uprightness of
character. In the arts
of decoration the bamboo
is
represented
together with the tiger and the sparrow, but never with both at the
same time. The dual
bamboo
is
association
of the sparrow and
said to represent loyalty to the throne.
associations,
which are of Chinese provenance,
observed by the Japanese that
it
These dual
are so carefully
would be deemed most
inappropriate to display a painting of sparrows and an arrange-
ment of ordinary garden
black clouds.
The bamboo, because of its pecuhar place of either. Properly
is
is
vine tendril sweeping to the
the long single oar
leaves.
kept well within the supporting chains and the
of the principal branch
The
incoming-boat arrangement made of a
morning glory with a hud and a few
flowers at the same time.
be essential to use some form of bamboo in the
It
would
floral
com-
position. In addition to the double combinations already
mentioned, some popular associations appearing in the
arts
207
of design are the maple with the deer, autumn
grasses
with
Among many other famihar flowers and plants well known to the flower artist
the omoto plant, esteemed for
is
and shiny-green sword-Uke throughout the year and for
which
leaves its
its
hardy
retain their color
berries that turn red in winter.
Because the characters used for writing the name omoto can also
be read "ten thousand years green," subject for celebrating a
new
this plant
makes
a popular
undertaking, such as a house-
warming. The Chinese orchid, or wood orchid, with small almost colorless flowers leaves
and
is
found in
the European crocus,
many it
appears even before the
through the snow,
it
Chinese
lily,
floral
compositions. Similar to
has a small yellow flower its
which
way up
suggests the idea of the fertility of
are prized
this
by
when
its
prized for the soft lines of its
plum blossom. Pushing
hidden in the earth. Both
available at a season
is
blossom and the
floral artists
life
narcissus, or
because they are
flowering plants are scarce. Their
blade-shaped leaves receive most of the attention in a floral design.
There are
also the creeping plants characterized
limp and delicate stems, such
208
as the
difficult to
A
the wild boar, and the willow with the frog.
by
morning-glory, which are
arrange according to the lineal rules of
floral art.
simple and modest arrangement of one flower and one leaf
or perhaps a few leaves
much ness
is
especially characteristic
and was
favored for the tearoom where simphcity and natural-
were
stressed.
Certain flowers are avoided for festive
occasions because of associations that
may
be interpreted
as
unlucky. Included in this group are flowers of a poisonous nature or evil smell or ones that change color. exists against the camellia because the petals
one by One, but drop off^suddenly, struck
off"
by
all at
it is
symbolizing unchangeableness. In
it is
floral
will not permit
head
is still
held
also
an evergreen
most
attention.
any further elaboration of the
character and habits of the different flowers art, it
fall off"
like a
design the arrange-
glossy oval leaves receives the
Although space
prejudice
indigenous to Japan and
has been used since early times, and
its
one time,
a sword. Nevertheless, the camellia
in considerable esteem because
ment of
A
do not
can be readily appreciated that the
employed in
floral
floral artist
must
always possess a sympathetic feeling for the virtues and weaknesses
of each member of the
selects his material.
floral
kingdom from
wliich he
XIV Tea Ceremony
where
HE TEA CULT or
tio-yu, is a secular ritual
ceremony, called chaindigenous to Japan,
known from
ap-
aesthetic
and philosophical enlightenment. The
however, was e anists
tea
regarded as a cultural institution of
it is
preciation
I
*
tea plant,
very early times to Chinese bot-
and was highly prized for medicinal purposes.
It
dhist priest presented a
palace at Karasaki
cup of tea
tournament that was being held so delighted with plants to be
to the
Emperor Saga
on the shore of Lake Biwa during
its
grown
there,
at his
a poetry
and the Emperor was
fragrance and taste that he ordered tea
in the vicinity.
was
considered to possess the virtues of reheving fatigue and strengthening the wiU, and to have the quality of pleasing the I
soul with
its
Taoists believed
"Buddhists used
it it
to be an elixir
<^
among
of immortality, while the
to prevent drowsiness during their long
hours of meditation. The
latter
custom was practiced in Japan
the Buddhists of the southern
lished an elab arate ritual
ceremonies.
of
Zen
tea as a part
The Zen monks would
who
sect,
of
estab-
their religious
gather before the image
of Bodhidharma and drink tea from a single bowl with the
profound formality of a holy sacrament. ritual that the tea '
It is
from
this
Zen
ceremony of Japan was fmally developed
into a secular accomplishment in the fifteenth century.
The
earliest
records in
4 relate that in the year
which
tea drinking
729 the Emperor
is
Shomu
tea.
The
invited one to
were
tea leaves used at this early date in Japan
probably brought from China by missions to the T'ang court, -
for
it
was not until the year 805
founder of the Tendai
that the Buddhist priest Saicho,
sect, is said to
China and planted them
at
have brought seeds from
Mount
Hiei, near Kyoto.
introduction of the tea plant into Japan
famous
priest
Kobo Daishi,
is
said to
founder of the Shingon
s
have planted the seeds
However, it was not
until
at
Mount Koya,
around 816
onward many
succeeding centuries.
It is
who He is
sect,
near Osaka.
that the regular planting
of tea gardens was begun on any considerable that time
The
also ascribed to the
had gone to China on the same mission with Saicho.
tea gardens are
Because of the close association of tea with Buddhism and its
use at certain rituals,
ceremony had
the tea
practices.
Although
ceremony was that the
its
it is
seems reasonable to suppose that
it
origin in religious or semireligious
not clear whether any formalized tea
established during these early times,
it
appears
enjoyment of tea drinking was often made an ostensible
motive for indulging in conversations of a religious and poetical nature.
Even
in these early times
it is
Japanese attached great importance and significance to the drinking
mentioned
hundred Buddhist monks to the Imperial palace in Nara take
BEGINNINGS OF THE TEA CULT
and flower-like aroma. Chinese
delicate bitterness
tributed
much
evident that the
some ceremonial
of tea, which undoubtedly con-
to the literary spirit that centuries later pro-
duced beautiful court compositions during the brUhant days
of the Heian period. Very
little is
mentioned about
tea after
the early ninth-century record of the planting of a tea garden
by
the
that
it
Emperor Saga, and
it is
not until the twelfth century
again becomes an important subject. In the year 1191
it
appears that the planting of tea was reintroduced into Japan
by
Eisai, a
study
Zen
famous Buddhist doctrines.
It
was
who had gone to China to who founded the Zen sect in
priest
Eisai
Japan and also founded the Kenninji temple in Kyoto, where his
tomb is located. Some of the seeds of the tea shrub brought
from China by
Eisai
were planted
the others were given to a priest
at
Hakata in Kyushu, and
named Myo-e-Shonin, who
and from
grew tea at Uji near Kyoto, which is stiU renowned for produc-
mentioned in the
ing the fmest tea in the world. Thus, the tea plant was intro-
scale,
recorded that in the year 816 a Bud-
duced into Japan for the second time by Buddhist
priests
and 209
•
" i^^5 ^n^ip.
mi
1 -4
Tlie
Togudo
kuji
or
in the Giiika-
Silver
Pavilion
at
Kyoto,
which contains the
historic
tearoom called Dojin-
hy Shuko,
built
sai,
the
in
late fifteenth century.
became popular among the Zen
tea drinking
aid in keeping
them awake during
their
sectarians as
an
long meditations and
made tea drinking a kind of Zen ritual, and as Zen among the warrior class and spread throughout the
examples of the applied
vigils. Eisai
Although
prospered
furst rules
country, the ritual constituted the foundation on which the later tea
ceremony developed. The Japanese
also considered
tea to
have great healing powers, for according to tradition
when
a fatal
epidemic spread through Kyoto during the reign
of Emperor Murakami,
son of the former Emperor Daigo
a
wooden image of Kannon,
carved a
and drew
about the city on a
it
cart.
made them drink of
the sick and
offered to the divine
the
image and thus caused many
to
become
Muromachi period (1338-1573) Zen
arts.
Under
Shogun, the
cult
culture exerted
ideals
its
became
uifluence
on
the patronage of Yoshimasa, the Ashikaga
of the
tea
ceremony developed
into a social
determine the exact date
is
regarded
as the
at his villa
fascinated with
and
curios.
it
that
closely connected. Yoshimasa, 1435-1490, literature
and the
and on
arts,
Shogunate he caused a beautiful
yama in Kyoto in the year Pavilion, as the
and epicurean
his
was well versed
retirement
villa to
be built
pursuits.
It
210
many
in
from the
at
Higashi-
1479, with the Ginkakuji, or Silver
main structure, where he indulged was during
this era that
evolution occurred based upon truly Japanese
because so
polite ceremonies.
he made a huge collection of
Most of these
treasures collected
many noted
are included in
private collections,
retainers at tea, gifts
Yoshimasa used to reward
of valuable
tea utensils, instead
been the custom among feudal
The
tea
ceremony
that
masterpieces of
fme
art
given
of fme weapons,
is
said to
his re-
have been
who
understood the
of the early ceremony. At Yoshimasa's villa, Shuko
supervised the building of the Togudo, a devotional hall near
which contains the
historic
the Silver Pavilion,
and
had
code of regulation by Shuko, based upon the
Dojinsai. This small tearoom, measuring four
tastes,
among
his ties
an
and exquisite
as
Yoshimasa enjoyed so much and
information given to him by persons formalities
and with
lords.
through friendly intercourse, its first
some being
his friends
his warriors
in aesthetic aesthetic
by
Yoshimasa survive under the name of Higashiyama pieces and
tainers
arranging was
its
life
Yosliimasa learned the art of drinking tea from Shuko and he
which the
floral
the
Ginkakuji, he appointed Shuko
of Sosho, or master of
to the position
foimd so favorable for strengthening
of incense burning and
when
founder of the cult in
gathering conducted according to a prescribed etiquette, with art
it is
ceremony were drawn up, the Zen monk
of incalculable worth. Besides entertaining
more widespread and Chinese the
of ease and luxury
tea utensils
which had been
difficult to
Shuko, 1422-1502,
became so
the tea
at this time,
regulated form. After Yoshimasa had retired to enjoy a
He
well again.
By
it is
for the tea
the goddess of mercy, offered prayers for
were produced
arts
frequently referred to in art history as the Higashiyama period.
or about nine feet square,
room upon which
all later
is
tearoom
and
called
a half mats,
the prototype of the classic tea-
ceremonial tearooms are based.
A
Stone lantern and koshikake (waiting bench)
the tea
in
garden of the Rokusoan tea-
house in the garden of the
Tokyo National Museum.
corridor roseitei,
from
this
tearoom to two small rooms
for his incense parties.
Shuko, with
The tea-ceremony code as drawn up by
refmed and elegant simplicity, was more
its
specifically set forth in regulated
tea master ciples
called the
which were reproductions of those used by Yoshimasa
who
form by
Jo-o, 1503-15 55, a
possessed a strong feehng for the
of frugality and
Zen
prin-
and etiquette prescribed by Rikyu
after
fashion of giving tea parties, conducted according to
prescribed principles of etiquette in simple and quiet surroundings,
became an aesthetic pastime for the feudal lords and others
of the warrior class as well
as for the literati.
offered a calm withdrawal
from worldly
The tea ceremony and a serene
cares
atmosphere to discuss and enjoy the cultural refmements of life.
Toward
the
end of the Muromachi period, Oda Nobu-
naga, one of the greatest military figures of Japan, became the de facto ruler
of the country, and being
ceremony, made Sen-no-Soeki,
known by monies. masters,
his court
Rikyu had been and
1
name Rikyu,
521 -i 591, his
a pupil of
after the death
a devotee
two noted
Rikyu
the most important figures of the
is
of
all
cha-jin,
better
or tea tea
considered one of
Momoyama
was chosen by Hideyoshi to remodel the it
is
tea
master of polite cere-
of Nobunaga, he became
master to Hideyoshi, 15 36- 1598.
and purge
who
of the
rules
period.
He
of cha-na-yu
extravagances and excesses which had
came
the various schools that
tainments both for an ostentatious display of his wealth and
power and
means of encouraging
as a
powerful
his
on a grand scale of luxury so
financially
and
less
vassals to
formidable
as rivals.
One of Hideyoshi's most
celebrated entertainments
which was given
tea party,
this great tea
party and that
the wealthiest
announcement a tea bowl,
cities
a
all citizens
daimyo
said they
and
and towns
to the
were invited
generous request, for the
decline
to
sit,
feast lasted ten
Muromachi
ciples
of the
ceremony
the time of the
first
days and was proIt
was due to the
of the
Rikyu was then famous
down
from the high prin-
tea
ceremony was only
temporary. Under the influence of Rikyu, elegant and severe beauty
their
suffered a gradual
Ashikaga Shoguns in
period. This deviation
aesthetic qualities
floral arrangement,
kettle,
a rather
lofty aesthetic standards originally laid
by Shuko during the
which was
of Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and
vassals that the tea
from the
to attend,
most humble peasant. The
vided with music, dancing, and plays.
wealthy
publicly in
he was giving
were only required to bring a
mat upon which
ostentatious activities
that
was the
November of
month he had proclaimed
Kyoto, Osaka, and other
from
in
render
as to
famous Kitano
1587. In the preceding
The
strict
stiU constitute the
him. Hideyoshi had a penchant for giving huge enter-
them more weak
THE TEA MASTER RIKYU
by
basic principles as taught
vie with one another
restraint.
The
entered the ceremony after the time of Shuko. rules
styles
were encouraged in the
as a tea master,
having arts,
noted for his
for
art
of
and as an arbiter ofsocial etiquette and taste. 211
At the time Rikyu assumed
the task of formulating severe
THE TEAHOUSE
canons for the conduct of the tea ceremony, the country was
from
suffering
(i
a
long period of protracted warfare. Despite
Momoyama
the temper of the Japanese in the
this,
period
573-161 5) was such that they loved grandeur and splendor,
and both the fme and applied
form and
laid
down by Rikyu
city in all matters connected
called for utter simpli-
with cha-iio-yu and for the tea-
to be decorated according to the severest style. After
Rikyu,
his favorite pupil, Furuta Oribe, 1543-1615,
one of the most distinguished under three famous
gawa leyasu, and
leaders,
further
by returning more
became
of all time, serving
tea masters
Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, andToku-
improving the estabhshed principles
to the older custom. In contrast to Oribe,
Kabori Masakazu, 1579- 1647, Lord of Enshu province, a noted
master and connoisseur whose school
tea
Enshu Ryu, introduced objects
from
is
knowTi
of rich and beautiful
a profusion
the severe style of Rikyu. Besides these
men,
who
were the most outstanding, there were many other noted masters, including as
and
tea,
several feudal lords
and the
tea
ceremony
life
and the
aesthetic ideals
derived from
its
,only did the ritual of drinking tea out of a
is
true principles and ideals are in
embodied
ceremony, especially
ideals
its
principles
which have influenced prescribed
life
tea
etiquette.
tea cere-
the simplicity and purism of the tearoom
Zen monastery. Even
derived from the
was
the architecture of the
teahouse and the arrangement of the tea garden reflect the
Zen that are forever present in all phases of The traditional arrangement of a formal
philosophies of
Japanese culture. tea
garden with
its
teahouse and other appointments follows
certain prescribed rides for the proper conduct
of
a
tea
ceremony. The garden, or
by
a
low
roji, is
hedge which divides
it
the inner garden, or
nchi-roji.
short
into the outer garden, or soto-roji,
Within the garden
walk paved with stones
tea
size,
where the
guests
ceremony. Close to the
gate, a
and
very
leads to a small cottage con-
taining the yoritsuki, or waiting
or mats in
usually partitioned
room, usually of three
tatami
convene and prepare for the
yoritsuki
is
the koshikake, or
waiting bench, in the form of a roofed arbor, where the
From
the
arbor, a winding path of irregidarly laid stepping stones.
ritual, it
of the
of frugahty and
mony, but
Not
teachings.
harmony
of Zen regarding
in the underlying sentiment
a result
bowl before the
guests wait until their host appears to greet them.
ceremony evolved from the Zen
its
with the philosophy of Zen. The art are
tea
distinguished
between Zen Buddhism
a close relationship
is
only natural that
and
who
expert in the art of the tea ceremony.
Because there
is
as
of various kinds into the ceremony, thereby departing
themselves
the tea
image of Bodhidharma lay the foimdations of the
color.
The principles
room
were extremely rich in
arts
The underlying sentiment of
of the Zen conception of greamess in the smallest incidents of
restraint,
Together with
its
rehgious teachings, the chief contribution of Zen to Japanese life
has been in the realm of aesthetics. Zen, following the
concepts of Taoism, accepts the
mundane
it is
and, unlike
the Confucians and other Buddhists sects, tries to
fmd beauty
as
in our
world of woe and worry. This
in the
famous Sung allegory of the three vinegar
is
admirably expressed tasters, in
which Sakyamuni, Confucius, and Lao-tzu, the founder of Taoism, once stood before a life,
and each dipped in
found
it
sour, the
nounced
it
suggestion
sweet. is
of vinegar, the emblem of
jar
his finger to taste the liquid.
Buddha
called
it
Zen philosophy
bitter,
Confucius
and Lao-tzu pro-
teaches that the value
of utmost importance in
something untouched the beholder
is
art,
of
for in leaving
thereby allowed to
complete the scene with his thoughts, and thus a great masterpiece irresistibly holds his attention until he feels a part
of it. The
aesthetic ideals furnished
as its recognition
of the worldly
the spiritual, have permeated
have contributed centuries.
212
much
all
as
by Zen philosophy, such of equal importance with
phases of Japanese
to her art
life
and
and culture over the
The mizuya (water room) next Mr. YagCs house
at
Kyoto.
to
the tea-ceremony
room
in
which
also bears the
name of roji,
leads
through the chumon,
or middle gate, to the teahouse, or sukiya, in the inner garden.
The small rustic middle gate is usually in the form of a framework having a thatched roof, or occasionally is just a low swinging gate made of bamboo. Along the
middle gate and the teahouse, basin,
where the
guests observe the
before entering the tearoom.
A
evening, a lighted candle
is
formahty of washing
stone lantern stands close
the water basin, and if the tea
is
between the
roji,
the tsukuhai, or stone water
is
ceremony
placed in
its
by
given in the
is
light-chamber. There
another small roofed arbor with a bench near the teahouse,
but not on the principal path, provided
as a place for the
guests to rest during the short intermission
and second
sessions
between the
first
of the formal tea ceremony.
Many of these small teahouses or sukiya were built after the favorite styles
of famous
and Sen-no-Rikyu. a
tea masters such as
Of simple
and
Kobori Enshu
rustic architecture,
framework of roughly prepared wood and bamboo,
walls,
and
with
plaster
a thatched roof, the teahouse represents a poetic
impulse in harmony with the calm atmosphere of the garden
and the reverence and purity of the tecture
tea
ceremony. The archi-
of the teahouse follows the plain and simple forms of
the Japanese farmhouse with carefully
its
thatched roof, and the
plamied asymmetrical composition
is
skillfully
A tsukubai the
(stone water hasiii)
Kankyu-an teahouse
at
and stone
lantern in the garden
of
Kyoto. Japan Travel Bureau.
The
Jo-an
house
with
built
by
tea-ceremony
open
the Tenshoera
Momoyania villa
skylight,
Oda Urakusai during (1573-1592);
period.
In the
of Mr. Mitsui at Oiso,
Katiagawa
prefecture.
213
handled by a particular branch of builders and carpenters especially trained in the minutest
interior
of the teahouse
details
of construction. The
of the tearoom proper,
consists
designed to accommodate not
more than
miznya, or water-room, which
is
room where
the tea utensils are
area of the conventional tearoom
five guests,
and a
pantry adjoining the tea-
a
washed and arranged. The four and a half tatami or
is
mats, the half mat filling the space in the center of the room.
At one corner of this floor, to
form
mat used
half mat a square hearth
a brazier
in tearooms
on which
is
is
is
sunk into the
placed an iron kettle.
The
slightly larger than the standard size
used in the ordinary dwelling house, being six feet four inches
by
three feet
two
inches according to
Kyoto
standards.
only entrance to the tearoom from the outside
opening usually measuring about two
feet
is
The
through an
by two and
a half
feet
—so small that the guests have to creep through. Although
the tearoom
unimpressive in appearance,
is
materials are intended to suggest
or
which
sabi,
lished by
is
the true spirit of the tea
made from
bamboo, and
The
call
wabi
as estab-
as gracefulness,
and rusticity. The principal features of the interior
tearoom are
architecture of the pillars
design and
ceremony
Sen-no-Rikyu and may be translated
tranquillity,
its
what the Japanese
a small
tokonoma, slender
windows with
natural logs, small
grilles
of
the shoji or sliding doors covered with paper.
lo;^ oeilinig
is
of irregidar height, with
tions varying in design
different por-
its
and made of such materials
straw, rushes, bark of Japanese cedar,
narrow
as rice
of wood,
strips
and bamboo. Despite the appearance of refined poverty,
these
tearooms are made of the choicest of materials and are frequently
costly per square foot then a
View of the nijiriguchi
Left:
room
more
at
fme dwelling.
(small entrance) to the Yuin tea-
Kyoto. Japan Travel Bureau.
Tearoom
Below:
in
the tea-ceremony house at the Ryuko-in,
showing the view toward the veranda or
corridor
which overlooks
the garden. Daitokuji temple, Kyoto.
Below
center:
Jo-an, huiU by
Momoyama
The tearoom
in the
tea-ceremony house
Oda Urakusai during the Tensho
period.
In
Mr. MitsuCs
villa
era
known
as
(1573-^592);
at Oiso,
Kanagawa
prefecture.
Below
right:
The tea-ceremony room
Ryuko-in, a minor monastery
in the
in
showing the chigai-dana and the tokonoma.
214
the
teahouse at the
Daitokuji temple at Kyoto,
The tearoom that
is
absolutely empty, except for the
maybe placed there temporarily
few things
for sesthetic appreciation.
has fallen during the night can be enjoyed with
The
shojo, or
6 P.M.
THE TEA CEREMONY
midday,
and
;
When mony, depending on the seasons of the year and the
all
attached to the
as a separate structure,
main dwelling. The
screens for the purpose
kakoi
occasions,
was applied to
of the
room
partilioned off
The name
and the term is
tea served informally
still
without invita-
formal tea ceremony, called cha-iw-yu,
a light repast called kaiseki, followed
called koicha,
A
and
lastly a
regular formal tea
only about one hour
foaming
ceremony is
where only powdered
is
tea
lasts
by
an enterIt
consis
s
a thick pasty tea
brew known
as usucha.
about four hours, but
required for an informal cim-tio-yu
tea
is
There are various hours
served.
during the day that are considered proper for holding a tea
ceremony.
which
is
One
held
at 5
is
the yogomi, literally
asa-cha, or
is
when the morning
convolvulaceous vines,
fade, are used to decorate the
morning
because this
meaning overnight,
a.m. in the summertime,
glory and other similar flowers of
which quickly
tea, is
the time
tokonoma. The
served at 7 a.m. in the wintertime
when
is
conducted
at
any other time than
the beauty of the
a
week
a formal cha-no-yu
is
given, invitations are sent out
in advance or earlier if desired, either in writing or in
person, usually to the prescribed number of five guests.
the
It is
other proper means, and, according to pohte etiquette, those
tainment that the host has prepared with great care.
of
which
;
at
Not
tea gathering.
this partitioned area
from
distinguished
tion, the
a.m.
some being
used for those tearooms which are built into the main house.
As
at 8
noon; ya-wa, or night conversation,
at
duty of the guests to reply promptly in writing or by some
early tearoom, in fact,
consisted merely of a portion of a large
by
tea cere-
according to the precepts of different schools.
tearooms are built
fuji,
freshness.
the preceding hours.
There are a number of ways of conducting the
as well as
all its
other proper hours are hango, or after breakfast,
snow which
accepting
wUl
call
on the host the day before the party
The many
express their thanks.
rate preparation are attended to
to
details incident to this elabo-
by
the host,
who
gives special
thought to the selection of the kakemono or hanging be placed in the tokonoma, to the
floral
scroll to
arrangement, and to
the food to be prepared. Just before the time set for the party the host sweeps the garden and
oughly
clean,
and arranges the
path, sprinkles
its
surroundings are thor-
tea utensils in
it
proper order.
There are certain prescribed duties expected of the such
as those pertaining to their
tahi
or socks; for
Among
on
it,
a
men on
kimono with
three or
a
silk
divided skirt or hakama, and white
women, a kimono with crests and white tahi.
other things, the guests are supposed to take along a
small folding fan, one or
and
guests,
costume, which for
formal occasions should be a black five family crests
with
its
tearoom and
water, sees that the
pad of
kaishi,
two fukusa, or square
pieces
or small pieces of white paper
of silk,
on which
the guests place their cakes during the cha-iio-yu.
The
guests arrive about a quarter of an
hour before the
time appointed and assemble in a small waiting
room
called
215
Toko;ioina
o Fireplace.
K,rchen Hosr
ChSf Guest
o KosTs Door
O
En Trance
t]
;
Floor plan of a four-and-a-half-mat tearoom showing the
Above: proper
Feer
sitting
arrangement of the host and guests, the position of the
tokonoma, the fireplace, and the kitchen or water room. Japan Society of London.
Interior
Left:
with iron
of a tea-ceremony room showing the sunken hearth
kettle,
and a tana or stand for holding the
utensils.
Tokyo National Museum.
where they may prepare
the yoritsuki,
for the party.
While
the
guests are waiting in the yoritsuki, an assistant to the host usually appears at the entrance
and bows, then prepares a cup
of hot water for each guest to drink and invites them to the koshikake, a waiting bench outside the waiting room,
on
where
is
distance
tearoom is frequently decided upon by the host and the
of the
guests in advance; that matter
are provided.
however, the guests sometimes arrange
between themselves while waiting
in the yoritsuki.
In any event, the principal guest or shokyaku
chosen on account of his experience and as guest
of honor he
acts as
skill
is
generally
in cha-no-yu,
spokesman for the
and
others, heads
the procession to the tearoom, and keeps his responsible position until the entertaimnent
is
over. Sometimes, according to
sixteenth-century custom, as soon as the guests are assembled
on the waiting bench they amiounce themselves by knocking on the
wooden gong, provided by the host. After made a fmal examination of the tearoom and
bangi, or
the host has
pantry and
is
satisfied that all is in
proper order, he comes
this
garden path, or
expended
roji,
that the landscape
his talent to create a scene
The garden
rare beauty.
instill
and cushions
along
miniature form which in the finest tea garden
The order of seating
a tobacco tray
in the
sit
It
architect has
from
the waiting
path,
which
is
a
work of
often only a short
room to the tearoom, is intended to
a feeling of calm and peace in accordance with the spirit tea
ceremony. The carefully
der along the
laid stepping stones
way amid the shade of evergreen trees,
trained shrubs, stately clumps of
bamboo,
mean-
carefully
grasses, ferns
moss, and dry pine needles. Weathered rocks as
of nature in
is
skillfully
and
placed
though nature herself had arranged them in the depths of a
forest or as part
of
a
mountain
cataract contribute to the
atmosphere of the tea garden. Near the tearoom the guests
come upon
the tsukubai, a stone water basin near a lichen-
covered stone lantern. Here tains clear cool
water
at the
and may
water basin, which con-
be kept constantly
filled to
overflowing with water running through a stem of bamboo, the guests perform a ceremonial washing of hands and rinsing
of mouths before entering the tearoom. This formality proborigin in the purification ritual performed
by
into the garden as far as the middle gate or sometimes to the
ably had
waiting bench, where he bows and promptly retraces his steps
worshippers before the larger Shinto shrines, where ladles
to the tearoom.
The
guests in turn
stand this polite salutation to receive them. guests follow
leading.
216
bow to the host and under-
mean
that the host
is
prepared to
As the host proceeds toward the tearoom
his
him slowly in single file with the principal guest
its
were provided fdled
at a large cistern
which was constantly kept
by running water. The slow walk along
the
roji
and
this
purification formality are intended to put the guests in a
frame of mind conducive to a qualities
full
appreciation of the aesthetic
found in the tearoom and in the ceremony. In feudal
would
times if a guest were a samurai he
sword or
leave his
swords on a rack provided for that purpose beneath the eaves, a
serving of rice accompanies the yakimono, and then a small
bowl of clear soup At
reminder that the tearoom was a house of peace.
On arrival, the guests leave their sandals near the stone step, and then enter the tearoom by creeping through the or small entrance, and in their proper order
show
uijiriguchi,
their respect
by kneeling before the tokonoma. Proper etiquette requires the guest to hold his folding fan before
the
kakemono hanging
in the
him while admiring
tokonoma, and then with the
same poise and bearing admire the portable sunken hearth holding the
kettle. After
and admiration, the guests take to the rules
of the
tea
ceremony, with the principal guest
called a mizuya, or
is
washing and arranging the is
from
this
their respect
their proper places according
being seated before the tokonoma.
tearoom
brazier or the
showing
The pantry
adjoining the
water-room, and
used for
is
ceremony.
utensils for the tea
It
this
is
also served.
point in the kaiseki the host takes
away
rice vessel as
hassun,
he
which
one from the
The next
retires to the pantry.
consists soil,
of two
delicacies,jane
two
the
wooden
lacquer boxes or the large porcelain plate and the
course
called
is
from the
and
sea
the portion for each guest being placed
upon the inverted cover of a lacquer bowl. Along with hassun the host brings in a sake pot
from the cup of his
the honor of drinking furst
with it
and asks that he
serves the hassun to the principal guest sake. After
and
The
fills
host
his
cup
emptying the cup, the principal guest gives
to the host to hold, so
the eating
guests.
the
may have
it
may
be
filled
by
When
the guest.
and drinking are over, the host brings in
a large
lacquer vessel with a spout containing hot salted water and
boiled rice, along with
some pickled
delicacies in a porcelain
pantry that the host makes his appearance into the
him and
expresses
having been invited. The other guests
also greet
tearoom, where the principal guest greets his thanks for
the host in the same
manner and
in the proper order.
As
their
spokesman, the principal guest inquires about the garden and about the kakemono that hangs in the tokonoma.
At
the
furst
session
of a formal
tea
prepared light repast called kaiscki
is
ceremony an
especially
served after the guests
and the host have exchanged greetings and the guests are properly seated.
The
kaiseki consists
of a few dishes prepared
with the greatest care and served according to a fixed order. It
has always been the custom for the host to bring in and
serve these dishes himself, although he does not eat with his guests.
The
first
dish to be brought in
is
a soup
made of
soybean paste served in a covered lacquer bowl. Then served in a covered lacquer bowl.
Raw
fish
rice
is
or shellfish or
hors d'oeuvres called mukozuke are offered next and served in
Tea-ceremony
utensils: described as follows
with the century date
given: Lacquered utensil stand (eighteenth); on the top a porcelain dish.
room on
These three dishes are brought into the tea-
typical square-shaped Japanese lacquer dinner trays
called ozen.
Following the lead of the principal guest, the
others simultaneously uncover each
bowl by using both
hands and place the covers beside the trays then ;
eaten the soup and rice, they replace the covers.
pot called a sake
is
kaiiiiabe
dish.
each guest
having
and shallow sake cups are brought in and
poured for each
mukozuke
after
A metal sake
guest, to
be drunk while they
eat the
A large wooden vessel of rice is brought in so
may
bean-paste soup.
help himself, along with another
The next
bowl of
course consists odmono, vegetables
and boiled fish, served in a covered lacquer bowl, and another serving of sake.
Next
lacquered boxes
is
a large porcelain plate or a set of
two
brought in containing yakimono, which
is
a lac-
is
quered tea caddy for powdered green tea (eighteenth); a Hagi-ware pottery tea bowl (eighteenth) on which
bamboo teaspoon by Rikyu, while whisk.
On
the lower part
is
a seventeenth-century
inside the
of the stand
is
bowl
an iron
is
fire
a modern tea
pot by Shobei
(eighteenth) with ashes inside ready to receive the charcoal. In the
middle
is
the fire iron on
which the
kettle rests,
An
and
in front a
iron
kettle
(eighteenth) with a nineteenth-century cover.
Next
pottery shallow
bowl (nineteenth).
iron stand (eighteenth) to rest the cover
modern Raku-pottery vase
to
Raku-
by Kojomi there
kettle on,
of the
hold the bamboo ladle (modern), and
century two-panel low screen used in the tea ceremony around the brazier in a large room in a house.
To
the right
lacquer incense box, a silk napkin or fukusa, a
is
a Chinese
Sung
Ming
lacquer cake
dish, a seventeenth-century coal basket,
proper portions and place them on the inverted cover of one
mat, a modern feather brush for ashes, and a pair of iron rings
of the lacquer bowls or in the empty mukozuke
the kettle. Metropolitan
Another
the
a pair of iron chopsticks for charcoal (eighteenth), and a Bizen stoneware water pot (seventeenth). Behind the stand is a seventeenth-
broiled fish with vegetables, and the guests each take their
dish.
is
and a
an eighteenth-century cane to lift
Museum of Art. 217
plate.
The watered
guest,
and
is
hot water
is
to
wash
still left
rice
poured into the
is
two
porcelain dish,
On
which
are
each guest's dinner tray are
now wiped clean
which
chopsticks,
rim of the diimer
kaishi
are rested
tray, are
Then
if the
The
is
very their
summer full
is
a deep, square fire-holder
of the
half-size tatami in the center
hearth
inset in the corner
early
stands the brazier.
until late
hearth
ceremonial rules are followed
arbor with waiting bench called the koshikake, which
it
Here they
the teahouse.
sit
and relax between the
near
first
and
nakadachi. In the second session the true place.
The
summons
host
the guests
by
is
koicha, or thick
green
tea.
The
is
manner
mountain
prepared to serve the
The
by
tokonoma, and the
brazier or hearth, depending
principal utensils for the tea ceremony, comprising:
coal basket; 4. furnace; 5. kettle; 6. water vessel;
box; 10. handles for
13. slop bou'l;
14.
kettle; 11.
bamboo teaspoon;
boo water ladle; 18. stand for water
218
7.
upon
i.
tea
bamboo mat;
a careful arrangement of pieces of
sits liis
by
on
a
rock-bound
coast, the
pines, or the echoes
the hearth with
side.
These
tea
all
articles,
of a
the utensils for
which
are usually
caddy; the mizusashi or water
;
jar; the chasen
whisk used to beat the powdered green
water the chashaku or very thin
the
bamboo spoon
or
tea in hot
used to con-
tea mill; 2. tongs; 3. char-
Utensils for the tea ceremony, including
bamboo whisk;
portable fire braziers, a feather to brush
bowl; 12.
8.
three feather dusters;
15. tea jar; 16. silk bag for tea jar; ij.
ladle.
after
prized collectors' pieces, include: the chawan or tea bowl; the
the principal guest.
in the
now
the tea at
bamboo
g. incense
and
cataract.
host
making
by
distant surf breaking
chaire or tea
The
fire,
dropped onto the red-hot charcoal. In the
sound of wind in far-away
which has replaced the kakemono on the portable
the
burning well, a piece of
singing tones produced
After entering, they inspect and admire the floral arrangement
kettle
is
iron in the bottom of the kettle are poetically likened to the
guests repeat the purification
as before, led
early kettle makers. Fixed
takes
formality at the stone water basin and then enter the tearoom in the same
article
gong
sound of
the host
an
also
softly striking a
rustling
now
is
of great age, perhaps
ceremony of tea
seven strokes are given as the signal for the guests to return
and
carefully
kettle
calm and peaceful atmosphere of the tearoom the hollow
or thick tonal board hung near the teahouse. Either five or
to the tearoom,
The
when making
has been properly arranged and
incense
second sessions in a kind of intermediate retirement called the
often particularly inter-
art object
by one of the famous
nected with the main dwelling house, or to a small roofed is
is
is
The
designed with simple details worked
of special attention, often an a signed piece
not in use,
piece of the small-size tatami mat.
esting, being, carefully
con-
is
When
autunm, the hearth opening
out in a charming rustic manner.
tearoom
kettle are particularly
ceremony and the host
examine them and appreciate
tea
wooden framework of the
the tray, signify-
sweets are served, and the
room
is
covered by a
formal tea ceremony has ended,
the guests retire, to the waiting
to have his guests
o£ the tearoom, where
from
guests.
host carries the trays to the pantry one at a time.
When this first part of the
articles
aesthetic qualities.
on and protrude over the
now pushed into
ing that the repast has ended.
Both the hearth and of the
which
with the pieces of
brought by the
season of the year.
important
proud
lacquer bowls with covers and the mukozuke
white paper from the pad called
The
bowl of each
poured into the empty soup bowl in order
also
off the chopsticks.
the
rice
now eaten along with the pickled delicacies. This
Japan Society of London.
bam
ashes, charcoal baskets,
Japan Travel Bureau.
and ash
containers.
vey the portions of powdered bowl;
tea from the caddy to the tea chakin or tea cloth, a small oblong piece of white
tlie
linen used to
wipe the
tea
ing one side with his right hand, takes one sip and compliments the host
bowl; the koboshi or kcmui or
receptacle for waste water; the hishaku or for the water in the kettle; zfuta-oki
bamboo
ladle used
bamboo on which
kettle or the ladle;
which
are used
to place the cover
of the
utensils for the tea
bosom of the kimono. When
ceremony have been arranged
all
passes
these
is
replaces
regarded as the most
important part of the ceremony. The host
first
He
brings in a
and places it before the principal then lightly wipes the teaspoon and tea caddy with
the fukusa he carries in his obi.
He
next puts hot water from
the kettle into the tea bowl, using the the tea whisk, then empties the tea
bamboo ladle to wash bowl by pouring the water
into the waste-water his tea cloth.
bowl and wipes
the tea
bowl dry with
Two or three spoonfuls of this powdered tea for
the koicha service,
which is made from the leaves of the older and enough hot water to make three and a half mouthfuls for one person, are whipped to a creamy froth with tea plants,
the split-bamboo whisk.
When
the host considers the tea to
be ready to serve, he places the bowl before the head guest,
who tea
bow
then makes a
bowl on a fukusa in
to the other guests and, holding the
the
pahn of his
left
hand and support-
its
Ta-ccremony
arUclcs.
A
are
wrapped
m
row o/chane two of r.hich
silk containers,
and four
^''^P'^^"^)-
Traucfs ureau.
J'^P'^n
Tea-ceremony
articles.
ladle to dip tuater
is
aU guests have sipped
guests have partaken
of the
tea,
a
who its
the host
part of the formal cha-rw-yu party the serving of usucha, the complete service of which, with
aU of
its
formalities,
forms the only course in the shorter
informal cha-tw-yu party.
The difference between koicha, a thick pasty green tea, and usucha, a thin foamy green tea,' is that the powdered tea for koicha is made from the young leaves of tea shrubs that are from twenty to seventy years old, while tea powder for usucha is made from the young leaves of tea shrubs that are from three to fifteen years old. The serving of usucha is conducted in the same manner as the koicha service, with
all
of Its
progressive formaHties. When the usucha part of the second session has ended, the principal guest requests the host to allow him the privilege of
examining and admiring
the tea bowl, for these tea bowls are a proud possession of the host because of their rarity, some having
of the great potters or
Firstrounh,,h^Vn,ha,nhoo
from a
wiped with
to the second guest,
until
tea
wipe
cover.
^ {lacquered tea caddies),
and so on
sips,
touched with a piece of
are in turn
bowl
of the
The succeeding and fmal
receptacle containing cakes, guest.
all
his lips
which
etiquette
two or more
washes both the teaspoon and the tea whisk. Then, in proper observance of the ceremonial, he tucks an end of his fukusa into his obi, pours a ladleful of water into the kettle, and
in their
is then ready to prepare a cup of tea. This second session of a formal cha-no-yu party begins with
green tea which
to the third,
it
contents. After
proper places, the host
koicha, a thick pasty
bowl where
piece of paper, and pass the
and the fukusa or smaU piece of silk, two of host, one suspended from his obi and
The
preparation.
paper, or with his fingers,
by the
the other thrust in the
fme
its
prescribes that he then take
the edge of the
or smaU article of por-
celain, metal, or
on
ceremony
kettle.
Second row futa-
oki, rests for the kettle lid or ladle.
artists
been made by one of earher times or having been
Tea howls and bamboo the tea ceremony.
tea
whisks for
Japan Travel Bureau.
Third row kensui, knvls for waste water. Fourth and fifth ^^^,^,^. mizasashi, water jars. Japan Travel Bureau,
219
in the possession of one of the famous tea masters such as
Of equal importance is the tea caddy,
Rikyu, Oribe, or Enshu.
not only prized for age and workmanship, but also because
more than
a
few extant ones were once in the
collections
These
articles
of
Nobunaga.
great historical figures such as Hideyoshi and
and others are carefully studied and passed on
by the principal guest and the other guests in the proper order. After the usucha coixrse and the formalities of the tea
ceremony
are over, the guests take their leave of the host
by
departing through the nijiriguchi or small door and return to the yoritsuki or waiting room,
where they originally assembled.
On the day following the party, cha-no-yu etiquette prescribes that each guest thank the host for his hospitaUty
him
a letter or
by
calling at his
home
by sending
This secular ceremony of simplicity
and
its
Zen philosophy,
is
tea,
with
arts. It
severe canons of
reflected in the art, architecture,
accomplishments and to
is
many
from
and every-
also closely related to
branches of the
lesser
exerted a powerful influence on the arts of pottery-
making, landscape gardening, and influence in the field of ceramics
of early
its
beautiful associations derived
day life of the Japanese. The cha-no-yu literary
kilns
was
floral
The
arrangement.
Its
so great that the majority
and famous potters produced
for the tea ceremony.
articles exclusively
devotees of the tea cult are not only
well versed in the art and culture of Japan but also in those of
Korea and China, and take pleasure in exchanging
critical
opinions on philosophy and aesthetics with carefully selected friends in the pure
in person.
many
and peaceful atmosphere of the tearoom.
^\^
The
six positions of drinking tea
level
of forehead;
6.
returns
220
it
to
3. lowers
same position
it;
4.
i.
Takes howl;
drinks; 5. loivers
as at first.
During
2. raises it to it
again,
and
the last four positions
the
howl
is
given half a turn totvard the right, gradually bringing
the side which
was facing
Japan Society of London.
the drinker round to the opposite position.
XV
T -M^
Incense
HE EXQUISITE pastime of the burning of
incense
known
as kodo is
but
ntmued
from China
Ko^Io was of the aristocracy in eadier times and has
to be enjoyed
by devotees among
Japan. Incense burning in Japan
vmg
is
the upper classes
generaUy accepted
conmion aromatic
as
jamm, camphor
antiquity, in the
of the gods and the burning of the dead.
viously continued
emonies, and
by Buddhists
as part
of
Its
use
was
their rehgious
still used in Tibet, Burma, Ceylon and Japan. It is recorded in the early chronicles that a ce of mcense wood was washed ashore on the island of ^aji, where the Inland Sea begins, and presented to the
it
Emperor Shomu in the eighth century, from central Asia isted among the treasures of the Shosoin Repository at a. The original inventory of the Shosoin lists two pieces ticense wood, one under the name of Zensenko,
a log of
e size,
measuring over three
m
feet in length
by more than
ot diameter, the other under the name of 0-]ukko a hollow log, to which are attached old labels indicating that es
were cut off from
it
lumasa in the fifteenth
and given to the Shogun Ashikaga century, and to Oda Nobunaga in
ixteenth century, and that the 3ff
on the occasion of
his
Emperor Meiji had a piece visit to Nara on the ninth of
uary, 1877.
also
came into favor
of a room perfuming clothing by spread-
ing the various incense brazier
burned
articles across a
rack in the center of which an
was
placed. In feudal times warriors often incense in their helmets before entering the field of
battle, as it
was considered proper
etiquette to maintain the
manners and customs of pohte society even on the combat.
field
of
With the increased popularity of the use of incense, there was much competition among the growing number of furnishers of the fragrant compounds. Each maker claimed such high merit for
his particular products that the individual
buyer learned to sample and place his different
kmds
custom of
selecting one's particular
meetmgs between
m
own
to get the type he preferred.
brand
valuation on the It is is
said that this
the origin of
friends to test their olfactory
powers
time developed into organized competitions for discernmg different combmations of incense materials The mcense ceremony, like the tea ceremony,
AND SPREAD OF INCENSE
is
a
social
gathermg conducted accordmg to a prescribed etiquette quiet surroimdmgs, and a highly moral and esthetic form of entertaumient requiring a maximum of con-
m
ter these early years se
gum
for secular purposes, such as for scenting the air when a guest was expected and
which
5
laurel,
it
is
ina,
press-Regnant Suiko. Incense said to have been sent to
substances used in the East are
gum bendragon or dragon's blood, rose maUow, star anise, sweet flag, and several others. The burning of mcense has been associated with Buddhism for centuries and mcense is used by priests for ceremonies of purification before coming into contact with a sacred image or officiating at an altar. But in the fifteenth century
been introduced by Buddhist priests in the sixth cenry at the time Buddhism was brought to Japan from Korea, le Indian Ramayatia and Mahahharata mention the employ-nt of mcense by the Hindus from remotest )rsliip
mixed
incense known as awase-ko, introduced in the tenth century, that constitutes the foundation of the incense used until the present time. The numerous substances used for incense in the Eastern countries are obtamed from certain resins and gum resins, barks, woods, dried flowers, fruits, and seeds. Included among some of the more
regarded by the
panese as an esthetic accompHshment which creates mental inquillity by developing a refined sense of smeU. favorite pursuit
the
It is
Ceremony
of the Nara period various kinds of were brought from Korea, China, and Central Asia;
centration.
221
of the
to fix a date for the final evolution
It is difficult
incense
ceremony
but by
as a fully constituted secular ritual,
the fifteenth century
appears to have acquired
it
some
for-
room, the host
greet the guests as they enter the in the corner opposite the
of the
their places along the side
room
mulas and etiquette under the patronage of the Shogun
noma. In addition to the playing
Ashikaga Yoshimasa (143 5- 1490). In the Togudo, the small
places along the side opposite the
and beautiful building adjacent to Yosliimasa's Ginkakuji or
wetsuke or umpire, thefuciamoto,
which contains the famous tearoom designed
Silver Pavilion,
by
the
roseitei,
Zen monk Shuko, which
for his incense parties. These parties
master Shino Soshin
ceremony century.
in
It
Edo
as
form
seem
have enjoyed the
to
ceremony. The famous tea having founded the incense fifteenth
end of the seventeenth century during
when many
period,
continued to enjoy
class
members of
cultivated
With
became devotees of the ceremony.
the tea
ceremony and the
arrangement, the incense ceremony was an
vogue among
the
ers
and performs other
duties,
adjacent to the toko-
guests, three others take their
tokonoma,
as follows: the
who is in charge of the count-
and the scorekeeper. According
to the prescribed etiquette, the host retires to the small
mizuya or water-room to get the various
called
the side of the
room
He first brings in the
kobon,
the game, and then takes his place
opposite to
and facing
a special tray
the guests.
on which the
utensils
on
of the ceremony are placed,
with the kogutate or stand to hold the center.
At
the left
is
room
utensils for
utensils placed in the
the kogu or kobako, a cabinet with three
compartments, one each for the incense, the ginyo or squares,
and the charred residue of the
incense.
To
talc
the right
It
much favor through the remainder of the
period, but after the Meiji Restoration in 1868
larity lessened.
in
of the
at the close
remained almost exclusively a pastime of the
wealthy merchant
Edo
regarded
is
aristocracy until the
the
as the tea
regulated
its
called the
of those used by Yoshimasa
are reproductions
same widespread vogue
two rooms
there are
takes his place
tokonoma, and then the guests take
where
polite circles,
its
popu-
of
art
aesthetic
floral
pastime
this ancient triad
was
TOKONOMA
regarded as an institution of cultural enlightenment and mental
composure. All three were characteristically Japanese and be-
came an
of the education of noble
intrinsic part
men and
women. Each
contributed to a
and
developed sense of courtesy and behavior in
strict
observance of ceremony c
a highly
c
keeping with Japan's ancient philosophies and traditions. c
THE INCENSE CEREMONY
b
The fundamental principle of the incense ceremony in guessing the nature
perfume of
its
A
system of
strict
c
consists
and name of some incense from the
smoke.
c
,0
9
c
conventions and
down for the proper conduct of the incense ceremony is closely observed by those who participate in the entertainment. The room used for the ceremony is usually of
c
intricate rules laid
c
c
eight mats, occasionally of ten, and always has a tokonoma. In the eight-mat
room, two mats form the center portion,
with one placed across each end and two on each side to the center ones,
twelve feet by twelve
by
parallel
which makes the dimensions of the room feet, since
six feet in length. It
each mat
was the custom
is
three feet
for the
game
two
requires strict mental concentration
sides.
on
Since the
game
one's sense of smell,
the host must take every precaution to keep the air free
from
a possible conflicting odor, and even the floral arrangement in
the
Ill
tokonoma must not contain any flowers with
Fede
6
to be
played with more than five contestants, and sometimes those taking part were divided into
a
wide
scent.
To
Vhor plan and arrangement of an eight-mat room for the incense ceremony, a. position of host when receiving guests; b. position of host when conducting the ceremony; c. guests; d. metsuke (umpire); e. scorekeeper; f. fudamoto (in charge of the counters); g. kogu (cabinet for utensils), charcoal.
and
h.
hitori-koro, with supply of red-hot
Japan Society of London.
of the
kogutatc,
on the
burner with three
toward the
feet,
tray,
is
the celadon koro or incense
placed so that
two of its
feet are facing
guests.
The next item
while the
to be brought in
by
the host
the vessel to hold the red-hot charcoal
cakes. After placing this
host will then dust
all
is
the hitori-koro,
made of a
of pine cones and kimmii nuts blended into
formed into small
fine
powder
a thin paste
upon
and
the floor the
the utensils with the fukusa or small
piece of silk, which he carries in his obi. The next step is the preparation of the fire in the incense burner, a performance requiring particular skill and done according to fixed cere-
monial
rules.
hitori-koro
The
with
host will then
a pair oUiihashi or
remove
the cover of the
metal chopsticks and take
out one cake of red-hot charcoal to be placed in the koro or incense burner. ashes that
hot charcoal and form a cone. These ashes are delicately shaped with an osaye or silver spatula especially made for that purpose,
The koro is partially filled with fme oyster-shell
he carefully arranges
to completely cover the red-
delicate is
tip
and
carefully
of the cone
skillful
is
just slightly flattened. After this
molding of the cone
made with
is
completed, a hole
a utensil called the kiri or pointer, to
provide a tiny chinmey from the top of the cone to the charcoal in the center, for the heat to
rise.
With
a pair
he places the
talc over the chimney hole in the cone and, with of wooden chopsticks called kobashi, removes a piece of incense from the kobako and sets it on the talc. The koro, with
a pair
Its
thin vapor of perfume rising gently in the
to be passed
air, is
now ready
among the guests. Even the passing of the
performed according
to the rules
of the ceremony:
koro
it is
is
held
in the left hand, with three fmgers grasping the base, the index
fmger
at the side,
and the two
feet
or tiny legs of the koro
Lacquered cabinet with utemih for the luceme ccrewony decorated throughout with views of the cherry blossoms on Mount Yoshino, with rafts and fallen petals on the river, a bridge, etc., in gold and silver takamakie, gold and silver kirikane, hirame nashi-ji, and gold and silver foil on black ro-iro. Interior and base of nashi-ji. Silver mounts. The cabinet is in three stages with cupboard, four drawers, tray, and writing box with tray fitting in lower stage. Late eighteenth century. Victoria and Albert
of
ginyo-hasami or silver tweezers to hold the ginyo or talc squares,
Museum.
223
Kodogu
(uteusiJs) for the incense ceremony.
upper grouping:
i.
koban
ginyo, koshiki or hishiki (counters); 4. lower,
basami
(talc square); 3.
kozutsumi
kizami-ban (paperweight
(silver tweezers to hold
224
10.
left to right,
2.
upper,
middle; three fuda
(folded paper for incense); 5. top:
or chopping block for incense); 6.
ginyo^;
tipped chopsticks for hot charcoal); (pointer);
From
(scoreboard); next group,
7.
ginyo-
11.
hane
(feather brush); 12. knife to cut incense; 13.
incense; 14. asaye (silver spatula); 15. top right: mallet to cut incense.
burner); 2. (incense
kobako
disk);
pair o/hibashi (metal-
utensils);
4.
extinguisher; g. kisi
guesses);
and
8. silver
osaye (metal-tipped spatula
to
arrange ashes);
Bottom row
3.
left to right:
1.
celadon
(case for mica squares, incense,
kogu-tate
(silver
saw and
koro
to cut
chisel
(incense
and takigara
stand to hold the silver
fudazutsu (box for receiving counters or written 5.
hitori-koro (box for hot charcoal). Victoria
and Albert Museum.
turned toward the one
who
is
passing
When
it.
been received by each guest and the round charred residue of incense a
wooden
utensil
is
taken from the
the koro has
completed, the
is
talc
with the
tiata,
having a sharp point, and with the Imie or
tiny brush of feathers,
for
many of the favorite varieties
of incense were not only named bore names taken from the
after flowers
classics.
Among
and plants but
those
named
after
stories
and legends of old Japan were the hana-chim-sato or
removed
village
of
used for each round of the
dance;
a fresh piece
is
talc is also
falling flowers; hatinia, after a character in a
tatika,
meaning banks of mist
shagetsu or slanting
competition.
of incense vary considerably both in quality and in
Sticks
works of Japanese literature,
and then placed in the metal-lined
lower compartment of the kobako. The
from the cone, and
with its poetical symbohsm and the infmite number of famous
moon; and
No
in the springtime;
hoke-kyo, the Scripture of the
Lotus of Truth, the sutra on which the teachings of the
of Buddhism are based. In submitting
differences
between the best blends
Nichiren
are very subtle, so that the players
must be endowed with
verse along with their guesses as to the kind of incense, the
and the perceptible
cost,
very acute and cultivated senses to guess the correct names the end of a long game. There are a
at
number of varieties of the
own
formula or conventional method.
Of these various types the
one culled jisshu-ko or ten incenses,
game, each with
its
played with four different kinds of incense, follows. that is
described as
is
Three of the four samples are given a name such
of a flower or something
called the "guest."
Three
fanciful,
as
while the fourth sample
made up with each set one of the named samples.
sets are
containing a specimen of each
players
sect
competed
either
a poetical
with stanzas of famous poems or
with appropriate verses of
own
their
composition. In
tliis
highly developed form of intellectual entertainment, the
competition of verses beautifully complemented the elegant ritual
of the incense ceremony.
The exquisite
ko-awase, or incense-ceremony sets of lacquer
utensils called kodogu,
used in
this
accomplished pastime have
long been treasured by collectors.
A
complete
set
of kodogu
These, together with the sample called "guest," are placed in small individual boxes that are closed except for a
on the
top,
tional set
making
a total of ten boxes in
all.
of the three named samples only
each specimen placed in
its
own
slit,
as a
preliminary
trial
"guest" incense.
The next
step in the
up, with
to be passed
rising
through the
only, while
announced. According to the rules no
made
name is being is made of the
its
trial
game
consists
of passing
the ten boxes with their burning incense, to test the
each contestant. At the beginning of the
game
The
skill
of
each of the
players has been given the appropriate /«(/« or counters
by the
named incenses and one
for
players record their guesses
by
fudamoto, one for each of the three
the "guest" incense.
slit
addi-
box
incense
around with the smoke from the incense
narrow
is
narrow
Then an
placing the counters on the kohan or scoreboards, which in
turn are handed in
returns
them
at the
end of the game according to certain
and counted up by the fudamoto,
intricate rules
who
then
to the fudazutsu or counters box.
In addition to the jisshu-ko variety of incense game, there are nine other principal varieties, such as the meisho-ho or
famous
and the yeto-ko or twelve animals of the zodiac,
places,
each one with
its
own
characteristics
and
rules. Prizes
were
often given to the winners of these contests, and in ancient times, swords
and armor were bestowed
incense parties were held
incense
ceremony was one of the
of the upper
classes,
as prizes
by nobles and feudal
when
such
lords. Since the
principal cultural pastimes
the players not only contented themselves
with the identification of the various kinds of incense, but often
competed with
score.
There was a close affmity between the incense ceremony
verses
of poetry to supplement
their
Lacquer
covL-r
of cabinet for mccnse-cerernony
utensils.
Ro-iro
lacquer decoration with a true lovers knot with brocade pattern
clouds enriched
ii'ith
kirikane, and geese flying home
takamakie; half-moon Victoria
in
silver inlay.
in
and gold
Mid-eighteenth wntury.
and Albert Museum.
225
Small lacquer boxes and tray for
inform of a drum with
form of the Shinto tomoye. The
o/fundame, while in
incense.
interior
box
left: circular
is
o/nashi-ji and the base
the tiny inner boxes are decorated ivith
hiramakie on fundame with
eighteenth century.
Upper
silver bands enclosing three tiny boxes in
Upper
waves
men
fundame
fundame
box of carved red lacquer with chrysanthemums and
on
waves, with the cover for same (lower right) decorated with lotus
and other plants with a praying mantis. Late eighteenth century.
with
Lower
Upper
fundame
gold and black
Museum.
etc., in
contains the following articles: the koban or scoreboard;
fuda or counters; kobashi or
center: cover for a six-lobed box, decorated with herons in a
stream in gold and silver takamakie enriched with kirikane on
center: tiny tray depicting
ginyo, koshiki, or hishiki, the talc square to
wooden
burn incense on;
chopsticks to pick
up
kiri
ground. Early eighteenth century. Victoria and Albert
or pointer; osaye or metal spatula to arrange the ashes;
hane or feather brush koro or incense burner kobako or cabinet ;
kogutate or stand to
chopping block for incense ginyo-hasami or
box
;
silver tweezers to
metal chopsticks to hold hot charcoal;
;
for the talc squares, incense,
incense; kozutsumi or folded paper for incense; kizami-ban, or
226
base ofround butterflies
Late
ground.
hibashi, the
Lower left:
their interior in nashi-ji.
ivorking, with saltpans, fish nets drying,
hold ginyo;
and kirikane and
silver foil
ground. Mid-eighteenth century.
right: cover for the box, decorated
herons in a stream in gold and silver takamakie enriched with
kirikane on
takamakie enriched with gold and
for counters;
charcoal.
and charred incense
hold the seven
and the
hitori-koro,
ashes; the
utensils, the fudazutsu
which
is
the
box
or
for hot
XVI
M
ERAMic ART in Japan had
^^^^.^ Neohthic
its
Pottery and Porcelain
origin in the
when the Jomon type of earthenware was produced. The name jomon, meaning ropepattern,
was given to
it
type of earthenware because the
marks of
surfaces reveal the
form before
this
age,
was placed
improved during the
a coiled rope used to secure
in the kiln.
later
its
As the skUl of the potter
period of Jomon pottery, a wide
variety of shapes and designs appeared, many of comphcated
ornament with a In these later
feeling
Jomon
of primitive freedom of expression.
types, the elaborate sculptured motifs
the relief designs produced clearly reflect the highly
stone age.
around the
new
developed pottery of the Japanese
first
people migrated from the Asiatic mainland
or second century
on
a culture based
Yayoi
thin cords of clay
The era of Jomon culture lasted for several thousand
years, until a
them
by applying
and
b. c.
agriculture. This
after the distinctive
and brought with
new culture is called
powerful
among which was
states,
about the seventh century,
Burial
Mounds, from
these clans.
It
was during
this
tomb
mound
tomb. The type of earthenware this era is called
baked ware. Sue ware appears to be to
yaki and imhe yaki.
body being shaped on
civilization
vessels
for
it
men
the throwing-wheel. Japanese
advanced rapidly during the era of Yayoi culture,
was during
this
period that simple communities of kins-
kiln
were
patriarchal families
munities called created.
From
uji,
this
began to form stronger
from which
was of great
name
and
rituals,
applied
such as iwaihe
which was
set
much
up on the slope of a
on
level
to
its
hill,
in
ground, Sue-ware
higher temperature and were
The advent of
this so-called cellar
of Japanese pottery
rapid advancement. Vessels of Sue ware
the country until after the thirteenth century,
political
com-
to
all
the
in the sixth century
from China which followed gave arts.
when
they
local characteristics.
The introduction of Buddhism influences
system of family domains arose several
a generic
significance in the history
began to acquire
these
domains was
yaki
continued to be produced in a number of districts throughout
went on
a group of small
word
With the introduction of a new type of kiln
fired at a
and contributed
developed into strong patriarchal families with sub-
ordinate famihes subject to them. As time
about the
into existence in
unglazed pottery and includes those early types used
all
consequently very hard.
tour, the
came
that
objects, but
Sue-type pottery, or sue yaki, the
especially for religious offerings
and of simple form with an elegant con-
Haniwa
being frequently used in Japanese ceramics to signify ware or
called "cellar kihi,"
usually undecorated
time.
the
circle
name.
is
first
the
grouped in a
found in
Yayoi earthenware
the
on
are found instead
that
type,
by
form of human or animal figures. For some curious
first
Jomon
erected
Haniwa were not included with
contrast to the earlier type erected
In contrast to the earlier
of Ancient
lower portions with the upper
are usually cylindrical in the
reason
mounds
age of dolmens that the small
Haniwa appeared for
clay figures called
part in the
called the period
is
the great sepulchral
Tokyo known by
EARLY POTTERY TYPES
as
clan.
This era, which extends from the third or fourth century until
type of earthenware
a Neolithic site at a place in
known
the region
Yamato, controlled by the Imperial Yamato
But
it
that glazed pottery
was not
made
its
which have been preserved
until the
and the
a great stimulus
Nara period (710-794)
appearance,
many examples of
since the eighth century in the
227
Shosoin Repository
Nara. Until recent years these pieces
at
now
been
of their shape, material,
style,
were believed to be of Chinese ascertained
and glaze
from
careful study
were
that they
6rigin, but
ahiiost certainly
Nara period. These specimens
in the
has
it
produced in Japan
closely resemble
T'ang
three-color ware, but in each of their properties and specific
from
characteristics they differ
known
true Chinese pieces
to
have been produced during the T'ang dynasty. Glazing was an important stage in the development of the potter's because
it
art
enabled vessels to hold water, making them suitable
When
for domestic uses.
articles
everyday household and dining
of glazed pottery become
accessories, the natural tend-
ency is for them to acquire aesthetical and ornamental qualities.
Although glazed pottery was produced by the
from
as early as the
ninth century,
it
was not
half of the thirteenth century, during the
Kamakura
major development of ceramic
that the first
move was
This forward
influenced
kihis at Seto until the furst
art
period,
took place.
by Chinese wares, when
Kato Shirozaemon, generally known
as
Toshiro of Owari,
returned from China in the year 1227 and began to produce
He
famous wares in imitation of Sung and Yuan ceramics.
was followed by Yayoi earthenware jar of yellow clay
slightly tinged with pink,
a smooth surface. Late Neolithic Age.
and
Tokyo National Museum.
of descendants,
a long line
produced excellent native Japanese examples
Many
of Chinese prototypes.
of
all
whom
after the glazes
of the early pottery
vessels
of
Seto with their thick glazes have always been highly prized
by
the tea masters, especially the exceedingly rare specimens
made by Toshiro and
his
immediate descendants.
POTTERY FOR THE TEA CEREMONY The
cult
of
tea
was
still
another important influence that
stimulated the art of pottery-making in Japan. Although
it is
recorded in ancient chronicles that tea drinking was already
known to the Imperial household in the early part of the eighth century,
it
was not
that as a ritual this
Zen
until the
of the Zen
ritual,
sect
which had
Kamakura period (1185-1333) became better known. From
it
its
origin
China, the tea ceremony reached Japan in the fifteenth century,
as
its
among
the Taoists in
fmal development in
we have
seen,
under the
patronage of Yoshimasa, the Ashikaga Shogun. The principles
of
down by
utter simpMcity laid
the celebrated tea master
Shuko and further developed by the tea master Sen-no-Rikyu, under the patronage of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, had a direct bearing on the
aesthetics
There was very
little
of Japanese pottery.
progress in the art of pottery-making
in the sixteenth century until the last decade,
dispatched an
army
to Korea, first in 1592
when Hideyoshi
and again
in 1597.
These military operations came to an end in 1598 with the
Jomon earthenware 228
jar. Neolithic
Age. Tokyo National Museum.
death of Hideyoshi, but
when
the
army
returned,
its
com-
manders brought many Korean
back to Japan with
artisans
them. Since the main forces of this army belonged to various
daimyo of the and
settled
of Kyushu,
island
set
up
it
was here that these Koreans
was an
kilns in the feudal doniains. This
important event in the cultural history of Japan, responsible
advancement in the
for great
feudal lords artists
who
art
was Shimazu Yoshihiro,
in Satsuma the Koreans set
Among
potter.
the
at
whose
town of Chosa
castle
up a number of kilns.
recorded
It is
of Nabeshima returned from the expedi-
that the feudal lord
tion with a
of the
brought back these potters and ceramic
few hundred
and that the Daimyo
potters,
Terumoto brought with him
the
Korean potter
later
known
Koraizayemon, whose decoration on hagi yaki has always
as
been favored by the Japanese and whose family continued the kiln for eleven generations.
founded or
by
assisted
Many
these
other potteries were either
Korean
artisans in such places as
Karatsu, Yatsushiro, Takatori, and Kyoto.
The wares produced their
at these kilns
were
in the
manner of
Korean prototypes, with grayish-white and cream glazes,
plain or painted in blue or
brown; and
also greenish-gray
celadon with or without the inlaid decoration called rnishima.
The
great tea masters such as Shino Soshin, Furuta Oribe,
Sen-no-Rikyu had much to do with furthering
and
develop-
this
ment. Not only were regular potters encouraged by the devotees of the tea ceremony, but painters and "gentlemen potters" also turned to
making
by hand
vessels
in a simple,
unassuming maimer.
The
tea masters favored
in a soft
an extremely austere, sober utensil
monochrome, and they were
chiefly responsible for
the popularity and appreciation of the type of as
Raku. This
is
ware known
hand-modeled
a soft, low-temperature,
pottery with a thick rich glaze, in a variety of subdued colors, first
made by
Chojiro, under the guidance of Sen-no-Rikyu,
grand arbiter of the
tea cult in
of the sixteenth century. are purely Japanese
and
Japan.
No
of the
tea masters than
it
Its
has
the second half characteristics
no exact counterpart outside of
other pottery better exemplifies the fastidious taste
an original
primitive simplicity of form, its
Kyoto during
development and
thick glaze
which
superfluous and
is
when
its
Raku
tea
bowl with
pleasant to the lips. Painted design it
its
crude uneven modeling, and
was
occurred was only faintly sketched
strokes. Among the many amateur potters who produced Raku tea bowls the most famous was Hon-ami
with swift brush
Koetsu, artist,
1
568- 1637, a celebrated painter, calligrapher, lacquer
and
tea master. Extant pieces
made by Koetsu skill
by
and
sensitivity
tea masters.
of Raku-type pottery
are very rare and, as masterpieces
of taste, are valued
The
perfectly fulfilling
aesthetic qualities
its
function.
of the tea bowl
Its soft,
conductor of heat, so that although
of great
as priceless possessions
coarse clay
filled
with hot
is
Haiiiwa clay image of an Age,
lie
a
tea, it
c.
ar))ion'(i
third to seventh century
wan. Ancient Burial
Mound
A.D. Tokyo National Museum.
in
non-
may 229
be grasped with comfort by the fingers.
Its
shape allows
be passed from one person to another without
and
slightly roUed-in
its
rim with thick
fear
it
to
of spilling,
glaze enhances the
pleasure of tea drinking.
The glaze.
Many
body and tea
a
appreciation of tea-ceremony pottery requires
knowledge of
its
bowl
is
further displayed in the
the quality and execution of the thick
bowls are appreciated for the
skill
and care
with which the potter reserved some portion of the clay
free
of glaze for examination, and for unusual tinges of color
at
of
characteristics, the varieties
clay, the
shapes and the glazes peculiar to certain wares or kilns.
the
many
The
of these old wares are deeply appreciated for
aesthetic qualities
art that lies in the tea
soft-textured
The real
water.
distinctive features
the very hard and
found in various types, such
as
fme stonewares of Bizen, the yellowish
glazes
of some Old Seto ware, the thick uneven glazes of Shino
Wire.
The
emerges in the varied
potter's individuality also
methods by which the
sometimes on the
vessels are shaped,
marked absence of
throwing wheel, other times with a spatula or by hand. The
painted decoration on a great majority of tea bowls, this
pottery of the tea ceremony affords supreme evidence that
the edge of the thick glaze. There
is
a
being considered unessential and distracting. After
among
Raku
tea masters are
and Shiragaki. Tea
by
of Bizen ware are greatly enjoyed
tea devotees for the exquisite
displayed
humble of man's
Hagi, Karatsu, Old Seto, Tamba, Iga,
utensils
charm of the
may
the pure spirit of art
ware, the kinds of pottery most highly prized
faint
wet color
by a water jar or flower holder when sprinkled with
enter into and eimoble the
most
creations.
As the demand
of pottery for domestic
for various kinds
use increased, there developed a taste for a less austere type
among this,
the
new merchant
class
and with the increasing
of townspeople. Because of
ability
of the
potters, a rapid
development took place in the seventeenth century in many of Japan, principally in the Seto
parts
Around this time
the typical pottery
district
and in Kyoto.
ware of Kyoto was made
of a hard white clay with a deep cream color, or sometimes a covered with a network of fme crackles.
light buff glaze,
Much
of this ware was made in the Awata and
of the
tricts
city
present time. these wares celain
The
first
Kyoto
It is
in
Hizen
after the
secret
to the history
Kenzan, 1662- 1743, with
on
a por-
and partly the choice
aesthetically distinctive,
a truly
of enameling. Another famous Kyoto
much
from
middle of the seventeenth
partly the style of painting
and which provided Japanese potters with
tributed
dis-
imtil the
potter to use enamel colors
of colors which makes Ninsei's work
style
Omuro
produced
to be
was Ninsei, who learned the
maker
century.
and has continued
indigenous
artist
who
of Japanese pottery
his distinctive
con-
Ogata
is
Chinese ink-style
painted decoration executed with graceful freedom of expression. His calligraphic designs
and
stylized sketches
—of
flowers and trees, a flight of geese, or a glimpse of landscape
—are remarkable for
omy
of line. The
applied
slight
their firmness
of stroke and econ-
but suggestive decoration which was
by Ninsei and Kenzan, although contrary
principles
of the more severe masters of the
to the
tea cult,
was
accepted and even favored by others for the tea ceremony. It
may be that to such severe tea masters as Rikyu, some of the
productions of these potters would be unacceptable, and yet
both potters were capable of enjoying the pure tea
called
upon
to
do
so.
spirit
of the
when The importance of Ninsei and Kenzan
ceremony and creating wares pleasing
to
its
votaries
to the pottery art of Japan lies not only in their artistic achieve-
ments, but in the fact that they nurtured a national style of Seto pottery jar with four ears, engraved with a design of lotus.
pottery decoration. This native style was further developed
Kamakura period (1185-1333}. Tokyo National Museum.
in
230
Kyoto by many
distinguished potters in the eighteenth
century whose descendants
still
operate
some of the hereditary
especially such
famous wares
as
Kakiemon, Imari, Nabeshima,
and Kutani. These four wares exemphfy the apex of Japanese
kUns.
They seldom bear the With the exception of Nabeshima, whose wares were made for presentation purcolored porcelains with white grounds. seal
BEGINNINGS OF JAPANESE PORCELAIN
or
mark of
a potter or kiln.
were producing
poses and use in feudal houses, the kilns
The
beautiful Chinese porcelains
of the Ming dynasty were
always highly prized by the Japanese, and the Korean potters
daimyo on
who were
their return
from
it
was hoped
that
brought along by the various the invasion of
Korea would
produce such work. These artisans, who were skilled in making porcelain in their native land, at
first
made only pottery wares,
since proper materials for porcelain
covered in Japan.
had not yet been
dis-
Among the artisans brought from Korea in
1598 was a potter called
Ri Sampei, whose
Japanese
name
is
articles chiefly
and
a
commercial
their productions
workers and practice seal
on
a
potters, hi contrast to this,
of the kiln or
their personal seal
at similar small
was the
as
kUns
some
making
daimyo of Hizen, and
set
up
porcelain.
to Japan
kilns;
but
forty years later that any real progress
Sampei was one
with Nabeshima, the it
was not untU about
was made in developing
true porcelain.
This early period of the
Tokugawa Shogunate now
wit-
all
traditional
pieces they con-
potters,
artisans placed their personal seal
continued to use his original
and those
other locations, usually used
of Japanese
practice in other forms
their kiln, while the successors
many potters who came
on
There were many inconsistencies in
china clay of fme quality at Izumiyama in Arita in Hizen
of the
was the
The Kyoto
at
Kanae Sampei. Around the year 1616 Sampei discovered province, and succeeded in
it
of the potters of Kyoto almost always to place the
pseudonym,
art.
and export,
were the work of many contributing
sidered as having artistic merit.
working
basis for daily use
of
seal,
a
this practice, since
on
all
pieces
made
famous potter or
and
used
stiU others
at
artist
many
pseudonyms, hi addition, the practice of legal adoption further complicates matters and makes
it
difficult
many
and in
cases
impossible to accurately record the various generations of a
family of potters.
The
were placed upon
specific types
seals
of famous
tea masters, or cha jin,
of wares they preferred, with
known
nessed rapid advances in the production of fme porcelain,
the result that these wares produced
Tea bowl of yellow Seto ware having
Karatsu-ware pottery jar having a brown-colored clay body covered
a brownish-colored body
by small kibis
covered with a yellow glaze in which are spots of copper-green.
with a greenish-brown glaze and decorated with
Momoyama period
jlowering grasses.
Tokyo.
(1573-1613). Collection oflssei Hatakeyama,
Edo
are
a
design
of
period, seventeenth century. Collection of
Sukezo Idemitsu, Tokyo.
231
Square pottery dish ofOribe ware with a design of stripes.
Momoyama period
(1573-1615).
Tokyo National Museum.
by the name of the nor
tea master, although
among
Included
artist.
designs or
names
these
he was neither potter
famous
tea masters
are closely associated with
Rikyu, Oribe, and Enshu,
who
many
whose
kilns are
and porcelain ware of Japan, including
ground and
their historical back-
distinctive characteristics, are given in the follow-
ing sections.
appear most often.
From the Middle Ages, when the Seto wares were produced, the ceramic art has manifested a feeling nese.
The
taste
which
is
purely Japa-
and temperament of the Japanese
is
and expressed in the pottery and porcelain which they prefer for their
own use and enjoyment. An appreciation of Japanese
ceramics, with their
immense
SETO
reflected
variety and complexity,
is
best
The town of Seto
referred to in ninth-century Imperial records,
acquired through a knowledge and understanding of the most
the
important types, both of pottery and of such colored por-
period, that the
celains as
Nabeshima, Kakiemon, Imari, and Kutani. Imari
and Kakeimon are both familiar names in Europe,
was exported in first
fairly large quantities
half of the eighteenth century.
ware
as this
from Arita during the
The earliest examples were
taken to Europe by Dutch traders in the
latter part
of the
in the former province of
Owari
haps the oldest pottery center in Japan. Although it
step
first
was taken
is
per-
kilns are
was not
half of the thirteenth century, during the
first
its
until
Kamakura
in the development of
Seto ware. This period marks the actual beginning of the
growth and advancement of Japanese ceramic
art,
which
in
many word setomono ceramic wares, and the word
Seto ware was to achieve the foremost position for centuries. In fact,
has been
from
commonly
early times in Japan the
applied to
One of the most famous
seventeenth century, before the discovery of porcelain in
setomonoya means a pottery shop.
Europe, and consequently were highly prized in the West.
names among Japanese
The English
who is generally regarded as the founder of ceramic art in Japan. He first esta'b-
East India
Company and
the French
Compagnie
des Indes began shipping these wares around the
seventeenth century.
The
earher
Kakiemon
end of the
designs
profusely copied in the eighteenth century at Meissen, tilly,
Worcester, Chelsea,
Bow, Derby, and
were
Chan-
other places.
The
brocaded Imari designs in blue, red, and gold were also the inspiration for
many
patterns produced at these
European
manufactories. Descriptions of the most important pottery
232
potters
is
Kato Shirozaemon,
1
169 to
1249, usually called' Toshiro of Owari,
lished a kiln at Seto in the early part
where he produced
of the thirteenth century,
a primitive unglazed pottery ware. In
the year 1223, in the
company of
a Buddhist priest
named
Dogen, he visited China, where he studied the art of porcelain-
making
of four years. Upon his return to Japan he many parts of the country in search of a clay of the
for a period
traveled to
finest quality to
produce porcelain, but
as this
venture was
without reward, he returned to Seto and resumed his there.
Some of his
earliest pieces, called
work
Toshiro-Karamono,
and incised
rating these Seto wares with impressed patterns
designs other.
which were used
singly or
combined one with the
A variety of motifs were used,
such as
plum
blossoms,
They were made from clay that he had brought from China. The first Seto wares believed to have been produced by Toshiro have a brownish glaze
chrysanthemums, peonies, willows, pine needles,
streaked with black, and a rich reddish-brown glaze with
strongly resembles the technique and design found
are highly prized in Japan.
splotches of golden
on by
brown. The work of Toshiro was carried
a long line of descendants,
all
endeavoring to produce
wares similar to the beautiful Sung celadons, called Japan,
seiji
in
which were highly valued by the court nobles and
bands of circles in an over-all pattern or
The
of decoration
style
foliage,
and
as a single decoration.
as well as the selection
and Yuan celadons from China and the
of motifs
on Sung
inlaid celadons
of the
Korai period of Korea, since these were the prototypes that influenced the Seto wares.
The
shapes and forms of the Seto
wares were also taken from these Chinese and Korean types, the bottle-shaped vases, jars with
narrow necks, incense
feudal lords.
such
The term Yellow Seto or hi seto is generally applied to all varieties of Old Seto or ko seto pottery having a yellowish or
burners, and temwokti-type tea bowls copied after the Chien
amber-colored
glaze.
This glaze, which
the devotees of the tea ceremony, firing in
is
is
greatly admired
by
the result of incorrect
an attempt to imitate celadon, and
its
production was
as
yao tea bowls of China.
As the
tea
ceremony grew
in popularity the Seto potters
began to produce imitations of the small dynasty imported from China. These
tea jars
jars,
of the Ming
having four small
continued until modern times. The amber-colored glaze,
loops close to the neck to secure a cord, are covered with an
which followed the yellowish one, contained
a large quantity
uneven dark-brown or dark-amber glaze, and those of superior
of iron which caused
muddy
Toward
its
color to be slightly
the end of the Middle
in tone.
Ages the Old Seto glaze be-
came brownish and dark brown in color and was
chiefly
applied to such articles as tea jars and similar vessels. potters
made remarkable
Tea bowl of ash-gray
The
progress in their technique of deco-
Shirio
ware hnown as "unohana-gahi,"
meaning a fence along which bloom the tiny white blossoms of the utsugi (Japanese snowflon'er). End of fifteenth century. Tokyo
known as Shunkei tea jars after a Seto potter of that From the end of the sixteenth century through the early
quality are
time.
part of the seventeenth century Seto wares
were produced
with crudely painted designs in a purely Japanese developed from the orders for tea
jars
taste
which
given to some Seto
Shino-warc pottery jar with a crude brush design of landscape.
Momoyama
period (1573-1615). Collection of Nisaburo Taka-
mitsu, Tokyo.
National Museum.
233
by Oribc, the famous
potters
with
its
sketchily
or picture
seto.
draw
This type of ware,
tea master.
designs,
is
known
or painted
as e-seto,
"With the beginning of the nineteenth century
the Seto kibis began to produce porcelain wares, the introduction
and development of which was due
Tamikichi,
who
Most of
Arita.
and-white.
work of Kato
studied the technique at various kilns in
was made
this porcelain
The town of
celaiii centers in
to the
Seto
is still
in underglaze blue-
one of the
busiest por-
and only rarely
usually impressed
white
frequently
slip,
on
incised, are filled
The name
a gray glaze.
is
with a derived
from the supposed resemblance of these rows of repeat-designs to the
rows of characters
nese term mishima
is
in Japan
Korean
and
filled
calendar, for
was famous. The Japawares having
also used to describe all
incised or impressed designs
are of Japanese or
Mishima
in the yearly
which the town of Mishima
with
slip,
whether they
origin.
Japan with over five hundred producing kihis,
and in the town park stands a great porcelain plaque in memory of the famous potter
Tosliiro. Also in the
town
Shinto shrine, dedicated to Kato Tarrdkichi,
method of making
the Arita
is
who
the
Kama
SHINO
introduced
Toward
porcelain in 1807.
the end of the fifteenth century, potters of the Seto
district in the
certain tea
KARATS U
notable productions were the powdered-tea bowls
communication with Korea during
which have
was the
of Karatsu in the northern part of
iron-oxide black glaze. These wares, which were crudely
city
Kyushu, which was one of the leading pottery centers where the ancient Sue earthenware had been produced.
was not
until the
turning
However,
it
end of the sixteenth century, when great
numbers of Korean
potters
were brought over with the
army of Hideyoshi,
that the
re-
advanced ceramic tech-
nique was introduced from northern Korea and glazed pottery first
fured,
produced. The Karatsu kilns began to
make
a high-
hard pottery with a thick opaque glaze and a transparent
formed with
a
which
and a transparent ash-
and uneven form have milk-white and dark-brown
glazes in
monochrome.
Many
Karatsu vessels are most highly prized by devotees
tea
ceremony
as
Inside the vessel can
wavy
having been made by a special process.
be seen
pattern, caused
many
small,
round marks, or a
by beating during the process of
for-
mation in order to harden the clay. The ware known as brush-
marked Karatsu
is
a type of
Korean decoration of the Yi
dynasty which was produced by dipping the brush in a colored
and drawing the design with a continuous stroke
oxide or
slip
until the
brush was dry or free of its content. The seventeenth-
century wares of the Karatsu kilns included a type of decoration
known as mishima, which is purely Korean in its origin,
and was
first
made only
Korean potters had
at those
radiating designs in the
form of stars,
ventionalized flowers, and lines.
234
Kyushu
settled. It consists
locations
where
of small repetitive and
circles, semicircles,
The
designs,
con-
which
are
have continued to be
The uneven white
is
called fire color
by
painted Shino ware,
is
the white glaze and thickness of line.
body and
its
its
An
brown
brown is
glazed
thinnest,
distinguished
by
The
e-shino,
design exposed.
or
iron oxide under
its
simplicity
and
unusual feature of some Shino ware
was wiped off part of the
heavy and coarse, thick glaze
decorated in
is
is
the tea masters, and considered
to be one of its most charming characteristics.
is
colored glaze, while wares such as tea bowls and jars of crude
glaze,
wares often have a reddish tinge where the glaze
brown or blackishbrown with iron oxide under the glaze and had scant designs that were crudely executed. The glazes on e-karatsu comprise a translucent white feldspathic glaze
rough and uneven
favored for use in the tea ceremony.
that the glaze
Karatsu with designs, were painted in
opaque white glaze and those having an
a thick
loquat-colored glaze. Later productions, called e-karatsu, or
of the
make
ceremony
principal port of
early times
was
tea
conducted by a distinguished tea master called Shino Soshin.
The most The
province of Owari were conuiiissioned to
bowls and other articles for use in the
is
piece, leaving the
The body of Shino ware
reflecting a crude peasant technique,
and
heavily crackled or covered with tiny holes
where bubbles have formed. The gray Shino ware, popularly
white body covered with an engobe
called nezumi-shino, has a
of dark-brown
slip
having designs executed in graffito under
Oribe wares are divided into three categories, each according to
its
characteristics:
and Black, or huro
a white glaze.
oribe.
Green, or ao
AU three
oribe;
Red, or aka
oribe;
of these Oribe types have
a
portion of the surface covered with a beautiful sea-green glaze
which blends
ORIBE Famous
of Japanese ceramics
in the history
Oribe ware.
It is
named
Azuchi
priest far
and
Oda Nobunaga, whose
leyasu. Oribe,
later a retainer
from the pottery
builder of the great
father
had been
a
Buddhist
of Hideyoshi, was born in Mino not
district
daimyo and placed
of Seto. Under Nobunaga, Oribe
in charge of a castle in Kyoto.
became the pupil of Sen-no-Rikyu, the
of the tea ceremony, and
ceremony
later
to leyasu's son, the
after the siege
ruler
of Osaka
castle
served
a
While
great master
teacher of this
of Japan, one of Oribe's retainers was discovered to be
who
tried to set fire to the
of Kyoto. According to Japanese custom, Oribe was held
responsible for the act and ordered to life
as a
made
Tokugawa Shogun. In 161 5, which made leyasu supreme
chief of a group of conspirators city
one of
He served under
served as a samurai, and under Hideyoshi he was
there he
or
on the shore of Lake Biwa, Hideyoshi, and
castle
Tokugawa
oribc yahi,
for Furuta Oribe, 1543-1615,
the most distinguished tea masters of all time. three celebrated leaders,
is
commit suicide.
Oribe's
span covered some of the most exciting and eventful years
in Japanese history, and although his career
war lords, he was and peaceful
basically
aspects
of
into a bluish
and purple-red tone
is
covered with a thick gray glaze and on the
a
reddish-brown
gray glazes
is
Red
type with
glaze.
Beneath the reddish-brown and the
a design
drawn with brown iron oxide and
executed with swift, sure strokes of the brush.
ware
at the thin
On the Green and Black types the balance of the surface
edges.
When
Oribe
completely covered with the sea-green glaze,
is
it is
The Oribe wares were produced by Mino and Seto districts. The designs and
referred to as ao oribe.
both the
kilns in
shapes of Oribe ware are distinctive and charming with purely
Japanese characteristics and asynunetrical
manner with
taste,
the
ously related one to the other.
and were created in an
component
The sketchy
parts
harmoni-
designs of rustic
simplicity include such motifs as leaves of grass, a stalks,
a spider's
web, pine
needles,
few
rice
and conventionalized
The forms found in these wares connected with name include such popular ones as rectangular trays
patterns.
Oribe's
with
vertical sides, either singly or
ularly, fan-shaped dishes
and square and round
connected together irreg-
with vertical
jars,
all
square dishes,
sides,
ingeniously executed with
dented or bent shapes in a free and unreserved tech-
slightly
nique.
was with the great
concerned with the more beautiful
life.
The
designs and shapes of his
RAKU
pottery articles have been greatly admired by the Japanese for
The
over three hundred years and have strongly influenced the
ceramic art of Japan until the present day.
pottery called
Raku was
created in
Kyoto sometime
during the second half of the sixteenth century
Left:
when
there
Tea bond of white Rahu ware of a type called "Fuji-san" hazy grayish-white glaze on the upper half suggests the
because the
snow-capped Mount Fuji, and the lower the foot
of Mount Fuji
at daybreak.
half, the
misty scenery at
Made by Hon-ami
Koetsu,
1558-163J. Collection of Tadamasa Sakai, Tokyo.
Right: to
Black
Raku
tea
bowl known
as
"Shunkan."
Attributed
Chojiro, i^i^-i^gz. Mitsui Collection, Tokyo.
235
was
a great
demand
famous ware was
for articles for the tea ceremony. This
first
produced by a potter
Chojiro, 1515-1592, and his son, Jokei.
The
called Sasaki
father
of Chojiro
was a potter named Ameya, who had emigrated from Korea, settled in tiles.
Kyoto, and
set
up a kiln
of roof
for the production
After his death Chojiro and his son continued to operate
the kiln.
They were commissioned
make
to
the roof
tiles
making wares
exclusively for use in the tea_ceremony, and in
work and
recognition of this
Rikyu gave gold
memory of
Jokei in
seal to
Raku
rations
at this
o(raku, which they impressed
in the previous
of
Muromachi
a national art
period,
by Hideyoshi's
was
to be used
to impress every piece of pottery he produced. Later gene-
which
time that the tea ceremony, which had become an institution
Chojiro, which bore the
meaning enjoyment of freedom,
character raku,
Hideyoshi was having buUt in the year 1587.
was
name of Tanaka. Then
shortly after the death of Chojiro, Hideyoshi presented a
for the beautiful pleasure pavilion called Jurakudai It
because of a close friendship,
to Chojiro his family
of the
own
seals
their respective pieces.
The
family preferred to use their
on
family of Raku-ware makers has continued for fourteen
raised to the dignity
generations until the present day, each successive generation
Sen-no-Rikyu.
being appointed by the master of the house. The most
tea master,
Under Rikyu's guidance Chojiro and
Jokei soon began
members were
distinguished
Chojiro, and
Nonko, 1599-
who was the son of Jokei and became a Buddhist monk, which time he assumed the name of Donyu. Raku ware
1658, at
was
produced in the
also
Raku glaze.
yaki
and Mino.
kilns at Seto
having a thick heavy
a low-fired soft pottery
The ware
centuries tea
is
has been a favorite with the tea masters for
and comprises
ceremony, such
all
as tea
the pottery articles for use in the
bowls, small
incense burners, and incense boxes.
jars,
Raku
tea
flower holders,
bowls are more
highly valued by devotees of the tea cult than any other ware. This preference suitable for
that they
is
due to the
powdered
were the
tea,
fact that the
bowls are most
also because
of the tradition
and
favorite tea
bowls of the great
tea master
Rikyu. There are three types: Black Raku or kuro
Raku
or aka raku, and
White Raku or
shiro raku.
raku.
Red
The
thick
glaze has a soft appearance and a pleasant soft feel to the touch.
The
glazes are always
monochrome and comprise
black,
various tones of brown, shades of gray, yellowish white, a soft yellow,
and
Fujiyama
is
on the
red. Designs are rarely painted
although occasionally a faint sketch of a pine
done by
lightly scraping
away
tree, a
the glaze.
Japanese greatly admire the natural design resulting
uneven flow of the glaze while
glaze,
heron, or
The
from the
and to these they have
firing,
applied specific terms, such as maku for the
wavy
welt lines
caused by the flow of the glaze, and nagare for the lines ending in a teardrop.
A
unique feature of
Raku ware
that
is
it is
occasionally
shaped by hand without the use of the potter's wheel.
method
is
to shape the
fmgers and a
bamboo
bowl from
a
lump of
spatula, leaving the base
very thick.
Then, by turning the bowl upside-down, the foot rim to
its
proper shape. The other method
is
Small Satsuma vase for holding a single flower; drum-shaped body with design of dragon, phoenix, and floral sprays
in colored
on a cream-colored ground and crackled glaze. Edo period, Collection
236
ofK.
Irnai,
Kyoto.
enamels c.
1780.
form the bowl, and then pat
with the fmgers. The foot rim fluted
is
when the bowl is fmished.
the coils
is
it
is
cut
to roll the clay into
rope-like pieces about one-half inch in diameter, coil itself to
One
clay with the
it
upon
to the desired shape
then shaped separately and
In this process the outline of
not entirely erased. The crudely formed tea bowls
with their lip rims bent
slightly
inward are always made in an
with design of seasonal flowers in colored
Teapot of Satsuma ware with loops for overarching handle luhich
enamels and gold, on cream-colored ground, with crackled glaze.
was usually made of rattan or bamboo. The glaze is rather drab, while the clouds and flying storks are painted in greenish-gray,
Satsuma sake
Made
bottle
originally to fit in a gold-lacquered luncheon box.
Edo period,
end of eighteenth century. Collection of K. Imai, Kyoto.
unrestrained
them
manner with
a gentle unevenness that
c.
makes
and to drink from.
pleasant to hold
1840. Victoria and Albert
included an over-all impressed design or pattern inlaid with
white
mishima satsuma, copied from Korean proto-
slip called
types, while others
brown
SATSUMA
Museum.
glaze
some with
on
splashes
glaze, others
had
delicate sketches
done with
a greenish-
a brownish crackled glaze. There are also
of greenish-brown on a heavy tea-colored
with a dark-green or brown glaze spattered with
Ryumonji,
golden brown tea-dust, and some with black
glazes. All
Nayeshirogawa, and Tateno, located in the former domain of
wares described above are recognized and
classified
The pottery produced the
in the kilns at Chosa,
House of Shimazu, which ruled over the provinces of
Satsuma and Osumi,
were
set
is
generally called Satsuma. These kilns
up and operated by Korean
potters brought back to
Japan by Shimazu Yoshihiro in 1598 after the military expedition to Korea.
The
early Satsuma wares copied the potteries
of the Yi dynasty of Korea, with monochrome glazes tliickly
upon
a crudely
laid
formed body of high-fired, hard and
Japanese as Satsuma.
The name Satsuma
by the average foreigner and those not
do not
reflect Japanese taste.
One of these,
prise jakatsu or serpent
and scorpion
glaze,
com-
being a milk-white
glaze laid over a thick black glaze that produced a beautiful
and unusual color tone
reflecting tiny spots
for the
an attempt to copy is
a
cream-colored, high-fired type of pottery with a crackled
enamel
or ko satsuma and
made
the late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century wares,
glaze having an over-all elaborate
Old Satsuma
familiar with Japanese
export and tourist trade which are not typically Japanese and
coarse pottery. All these early Satsuma wares are highly
of the original productions were made. The wares of these
the
has been associated,
ceramics, with entirely different wares generally
valued for use in the tea ceremony, for which purpose most
kilns are designated as
of the
by
colors.
The
and gaudy decoration in
other ware covers a wide variety of
ornamental pieces and small figures executed in a gaudy
manner
for this trade.
Most of the export and
Satsuma have been produced
called
Kobe, and Kyoto
at
tourist
wares
various kilns in Tokyo,
for the past seventy-five years.
of white. The
Black Satsuma or kuro satsuma and White Satsuma or
sliiro
satsuma are terms applied to a coarse and heavy pottery having
HAG
I
a thick black glaze covered with either a milk-white or a
brownish glaze
glaze,
depending upon the degree of dark or white
most prominent or conspicuous. Later Satsuma wares
The
port
town of Hagi on
the castle headquarters of the
the Sea of Japan
Mori family
was formerly
in the province
237
of Nagato. The seventeenth-century Hagi pottery wares were copied exactly from the Yi-dynasty wares of Korea, especially those called ido yaki. a
The
principal potter of
Korean named Rikei, who came
to Japan
Mori Terumoto when he returned
lord
Hagi ware was with the feudal
after the
;^>.K
Hideyoshi
expedition to Korea in 1598. Rikei became a naturalized citizen
and took the Japanese name of Koraizayemon, under
which name the family has continued wares for eleven generations. Hagi
mostly tea
of the
utensils
produce pottery
Hagi ware, were
and have been greatly admired by devotees
who
ceremony,
tea
to
yaki, or
place
Raku
pottery
..••j^
Hagi
first,
second, and Karatsu third. Hagi tea bowls are considered to
have a most
grain pottery usually with
is
Raku
second only to
delicate feel in the hands,
The body of Hagi ware
ware.
a thick crudely
monochrome
formed fme-
The
glazes.
early
productions were generally covered with a milk-white glaze
and a transparent yellow-green glaze a later shiro hagi,
glaze.
From
this
and rather beautiful glaze
called
White Hagi, or
milk-white
Other glazes were
1640. Victoria and Albert
Museum.
done in a swift manner,
were executed
bowls.
ido
developed in imitation of Korean
later
wares, such as the brush-marked ware with
that
chocolate-colored pottery body covered
c.
developed, and also another glaze of loquat color
resembling that found on the original Korean
strokes
Tea bowl of Hagi ware with with a pale greenish glaze,
its
wide brush
drawn
also scantily
in iron oxide under the glaze,
designs
AWATA
and mishima
decoration, as well as various glazes having light-green and
gray colors.
In the Awataguchi district of Kyoto,
was noted
for
swordsmiths, are
its
ceramic wares in
much
the
same manner
did in the seventeenth century.
AWAJI
produced pottery
which
The
in ancient times
many kilns still producing as their predecessors
early Idlns at
articles for the tea
Awataguchi
ceremony. Awata
yaki,
or Awata ware, has a white clay body and the glaze is generally
The pottery wares of Awaji are synonymous with and also Mimpei ware. The picturesque island of Awaji
referred to as is
only a few miles distant from the city of Kobe
at the eastern
end of the Inland Sea and, according to Japanese mythology, was one of the first islands created by the ancestral deities of Japan.
The ware was
Mimpei, who was
furst
produced around 1831 by Kashu
greatly interested in ceramic art. This
has a smooth brownish-white
body covered with
ware
a creamy-
a deep a
cream color or occasionally
network of very fme
crackle.
An interesting
having worked influence
ceramic
at
Awataguchi
artists
such
as
by
beautiful
monochrome
Of
beautifully mottled to resemble tor-
glaze,
toise shell.
which
is
special interest
The articles made particularly for
soft
were executed in various
some Awaji relief.
is
the Awaji or
the tea
ceremony
body, while the wares for domestic use have a
dense hard body of fme texture.
238
is
the
for a short time, exerted great
latter
produced wares for the
glazes,
Mimpei
low
ware
Chinese Imperial yellow, turquoise blue, apple green,
and a blackish brown.
have a
distinction in this
of Awata are members of the Kinkozan family
Imperial family.
ductions are characterized
with
in rich
on the pottery of Awata. The most prominent
ware
Many Awaji pro-
is
use of underglaze iron-brown and imderglaze blue. Ninsei,
and the Taizan family; the
sometimes finely crackled.
decoration
enamel colors comprising red, green, and light blue, sometimes with gold.
colored glaze that varies occasionally to a light buff. Awajiglazes are
a light buff covered
The
The
designs
colors, occasionally
pieces contain a
on some
pieces
with gold, and
molded decoration done in
BANKO In the second half of the eighteenth century a wealthy
merchant and amateur ceramist named
mon began to make pottery wares after
Numanami Gozayethe
manner of Ninsei
and Kenzan. He lived at Kuwana, where travelers embarked on a boat to cross Ise risk the several
Bay
to visit the
famous shrines rather than
dangerous rivers on the way.
Kuwana was
one of the
also
of
prints
that
Most of the
title.
highway
the Tokaido
on
fifty-three stages
by Hiroshige in his famous
depicted
of wood-block
series
productions of
earliest
Gozayemon's kiln were Raku-type wares for the tea ceremony. His
work was
who
greatly adinired
him
requested
was appointed
move
to
by
potter in
official
is
said to
have found
his
to carry
on
later a potter
and
such
as
famille rose.
named Mori
of the Banko kiln from a
The Gozayemon wares
the pottery.
he
died
had not been any successor
as there
included fme
and Chinese
imitations of Delft faience of Holland verte
Gozayemon
formula for making enamel
colors. Yusetsu purchased the seal
grandson of Gozayemon,
now Tokyo, where
1785.
around 1800, and about thirty years Yusetsu
Tokugawa Shogun,
the
to Edo,
famillc
There were other Banko productions
brownish-glazed wares, underglaze blue ware, and a
soft pottery
ware having
designs executed in red.
a cream-colored crackled glaze
The Banko
Tokyo
kiln in
with
is still
in
existence.
BIZEN Okayama
Bizen ware, made in first
prefecture,
was one of the
of the early Sue wares to acquire individual characteristics.
Bizen
is
distinctive for
its
very high-fired clay body which
closely resembles bronze, both to the eye
and to the touch. The
wares which date from the thirteenth century were originally
produced for household and articles as jugs
masters,
who
and seed
them
use
ritual
jars that are
use and include such
highly prized by the tea
Some
for holding water or flowers.
Bizen wares produced for the tea ceremony are frequently called
Imbe, which
a
is
more
thin
and
delicate
ware
first
made
about the end of the sixteenth century by members of the clan or family of that
name. In addition to the unglazed
bronze-colored bizen yahi, there bizen
made from
Above:
is
an unusual type called ao
a grayish-green clay
Banko-ware
which was
candlestick with a design
in overglaze colored enamels.
Edo
greatly
of chrysanthemums
period, early nineteenth century.
Private collection, Tokyo.
Below:
Flower holder ofAwaji ware having aflat extended mouth
in a separate piece
and two small handles
in the
form of elephants'
heads. Cream-colored body with crackled glaze, painted in colors with gilding.
Made
teenth century. Victoria
by Kashin Sanpei in Awaji,
enamel
late
nine-
and Albert Museum.
239
prized during the
Edo period.
All the wares
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are
made during
known
the
Old Bizen
as
Bizen wares have always been highly valued by the Japanese,
by the
especially
tea devotees
or ko bizen. In the seventeenth century the hidasuhi type of
effect
Bizen appeared with the beautiful
splashed with drops of water.
highly valued for use as tea
ware each piece salt
is
partly
scarlet
marks which are
in straw
furing, the
of the body touched by the wet straw develop
streaks
vessel
when
lightly
dampened with
water from the sea and placed in the kOn. In the
parts
enjoy the moist color
of hidasuki
utensils. In the firing
wrapped
so
who
produced on an unglazed Bizen
scarlet
EIRAKU AND KAIRAKU-EN ,#
and markings. In the seventeenth century the pro-
Around
the middle of the sixteenth century Nishimura
ductions of the bronze-colored Bizen ware included numerous
Soin, the son of a samurai called Zengoro,
figure subjects executed in a nTost pleasing manner, including
potter at the Kasuga shrine at Nara.
mythological personages, gods, animals, birds, and
fishes.
Old
unglazed as a
articles
used
at
was the
official
He produced the various
the shrine for ritual offerings as well
type of earthenware charcoal brazier called a/wro.
the direction of a famous tea master
Rikyu he made
who was
Under
a pupil of
a particular type oifuro having a deep black
sheen or luster which was used especially for the tea ceremony.
To
each generation of Zengoro descendants was transmitted
the secret of making this type o£furo.
of
this line
famous
One of the most noted
was Zengoro Hozen, 179 5-1855, who became
for his imitations
of Ming porcelains. In the beginning
of the second quarter of the nineteenth century, while working
Kyoto, he was invited to go to the Tokugawa
at his kiln in
castle at
Mito, the seat of the Lord of Kishu, where he
a kihi in the
famous garden known
as
Kairaku-en.
set
up
Hozen
is
celebrated for his remarkably beautiful wares in imitation of
Ming
three-color wares, underglaze blue-and-white
and kinran-de porcelain having
after Shonzui,
with gold brocade designs
after the
ware
ground
a red
Chinese manner. Hozen's
productions coinmonly referred to by the Japanese
as
Kairaku-
en ware comprise colored glazes which completely cover the
ware
in green, yellow,
and purple, and occasionally white.
Sometimes turquoise blue
ware a
colors. In this
is
used in place of one of the three
slight ridge outlines the designs
separates
one glaze from the other, and
skillfully
blended on each piece.
pieces after the style
He
all
also
and
these colors are
produced many
of Ninsei's enameled pottery. The name
is the Japanese name for the Ming Emperor Yung Lo, was given to Hozen, written on a silver seal by the Tokugawa Lord of Kishu in appreciation of his work in the style of Ming porcelain. After that aU the successive potters of this Zengoro line have used the name of Eiraku along with
Eiraku, which
their artist
son,
Bizen stoneware figure ofHotei, one of the shichifukujin or seven gods of good fortune. life.
He
sacred
is
gem
He is a lover ofchildren and a symbol ofa happy
seen here in his happy role with a child at his side, the in his right
hand and
children or the sacred treasures.
his bag in
About 1800.
which he puts playful British
Museum.
Zengoro
line,
their individual pieces.
succeeded to his father's
work and
a rich coral-red
fmely executed decoration in gold.
He
is
also
this rich
excelled in
ground with
famous
finely executed porcelain tea bowls, rice bowls,
having
Hozen's
in 1824 in the twelfth generation of the
making gilded porcelain having
silver,
for his
and dishes
red ground with exquisite designs in gold or
frequently combined with underglaze blue-and-white
decoration.
240
pseudonyms on
Wazen, born
The ceramic wares bearing the Eiraku seal through
howl with a design of flowering
Kairakii-cii-ware pottery tea grasses.
Edo
period, first half nineteenth century.
Tokyo National
Tea bowl wade by Niusei
Tokusawa
gold.
many
these
generations are
at the present
numerous and of
time the
artist
potter
great variety,
known
as Eiraku,
Hozen, or Nishunura Zengoro, the sixteenth generation of the line,
producing wares of the
is
traditional style style
middle of the seventeenth century.
and a design of round
fans in red and light-green overglaze enamel colors with silver and
Museum.
and
in the
Pottery body covered with a black overglaze
of his
of the faniDy
own
finest
quahty both in the
as well as in a
modern
Japanese
Collection,
utensils for use in the tea
and
delicately
beautifully
worked
ceremony, including finely shaped
tea jars, tea bowls,
and water
jars,
and
modeled incense burners in the form of birds and
sea shells. Ninsei's first
Omuro
Tokyo.
wares were
made
kHns in the
at the
of Kyoto, where he produced
district
articles similar
to those of other kiln centers, such as the primitive types so
creation.
much
in
demand.
He
learned the secret of enamel colors and
him is usually credited the creation of a school of beautifully executed overglaze pottery. The influence of Ninsei's work to
NINSEI
was firmly infused
One of the most
celebrated
ramic history of Japan active
dates
is
names
associated
with the ce-
Ninsei, a painter and potter of Kyoto
around the middle of the seventeenth century. The of his birth and death are usually given
as
but these have not been confirmed. Ninsei's significant influence
1596-1666,
work had
upon the wares of Kyoto, with
characteristic style reflecting his
achievements
as
an
a
their artist-
potter. His real name was Nonomura Seiyemon and his artist name of Ninsei was derived from the seal with which his work is impressed, bearing the characters nin and sei, the latter taken from his own name. The character nin was bestowed upon him by Prince Ninnaji, who was the traditional superior
of the Ninnaji temple in Kyoto, formerly palace, near
which Ninsei had
accomplished the Tosa
artist
who had
and Kano
schools.
set
up
known
as
a kiln. Ninsei
Omuro was an
studied under masters of both
His pieces were principally
the term
Kyo is
Ninsei's
ware
from
in the qualities
of Kyoto ware, for which
often used as a broad description.
fme and hard, and
is
said to
The body of
have been made
a paste called shigaraki clay. His glazes usually
very fme network of crackle and have a glazes preferred
by Ninsei were
soft
show
a
warm effect. The
a lustrous black, a translucent
milk-white, a pearl gray, and especially one of raven-black
produced by laying green glaze over sometimes sprinkled with tiny inspired
by
enamel
richness of effect, with
minute
detail
colors, especially in the depiction
and flowers. In Ninsei ware the teristic
flecks
which was
of gold, a technique
by Japanese gold-lacquer ware. His designs
characterized exquisite
a black glaze
are
and
of plants
traditional Japanese charac-
of balancing motifs against bare, undecorated
areas
is
beautifully exemplified. In later life Ninsei traveled through-
out Japan visiting innumerable kihis and devoting to teaching other potters.
much time
Often while visiting a kiln he would 241
practice his
own
art,
which accounts
for Ninsei
many
considered characteristic of so
ware being
locations about the
country. Because of his widespread fame during his Ufetime, his
work was
imitated
by
potters almost everywhere,
sometimes badly.
Kenzan's work. The designs most frequently found include
autumn flowers,
a
few cherry blossoms, bamboo
blossoms, a stalk or
two of rice, and water
years he retired to a small village near
where he produced some of disciple
KENZAN
his best
that
predominating
of Kyoto,
ration. Typical
is its
known
of Japanese pottery, in particular
as
is
of Ninsei continued the name of Kenzan.
the
is
work of Ogata
Ogata Kenzan,
still
being copied by
a
especially appealing
Shinsho, 1662- 1743,
KYOTO WARE
poet and potter of Kyoto.
of Japanese
civilization
worked
year 794,
picturesquely nestled
various kilns in Kyoto, where he produced articles
mostly for the tea ceremony in an entirely
new
style
of ce-
ramic decoration. His designs are applied in quick strokes of the brush directly
is
local potters.
He was a younger brother of the famous painter Ogata Korin, who was also celebrated for exquisite lacquer work. Kenzan at
called Iriya,
work. Kenzan was a
remarkable freedom of shape and deco-
of this freedom, which
to Japanese taste,
usually
trait
plants. In his later
Tokyo
of Ninsei, and because he did not have an imme-
diate successor, a son
Kenzan's free and distinctive style
A
leaves gently
touched with snow, three blades of grass, a branch with plum
on the
soft clay
body of Raku-type ware
The ancient capital city of Kyoto-, which has been the center
tains.
is
Teeming with
and culture from
historical
great center of Buddhism
of old Japan
lingers.
is
a
Though
its
founding in the
among surrounding moun-
and
religious traditions, this
unique city in which the
spirit
often the scene of fighting and
and other similar pottery. Both bold and sketchy in a most
conspiracies of powerful feudal houses, the city has always
unconventional manner, Kenzan's designs are more easily
preserved
appreciated as painting than as ceramic decoration. Sometimes
from
as
an additional touch he would include a piece of poetry
with the design. Kenzan's designs have continued to exert a strong influence
on Kyoto wares
as
well as on wares in other
parts
of the country until the present day. The color technique,
with
its
superb combinations,
is
one of the unusual features of
Kyoto-ware porcelain bowl by Dohachi, 1783-1855. Design of cherry trees and maple trees. Edo period. Tokyo National Museum.
its
It
has also played an important role
in art and literature and for a long time has been a center
famous for ceramic artists and kyoto yaki,
potters.
The terms Kyoto ware,
and kyo yaki are synonymous, and are applied
to
a great variety of wares produced in private kilns in and
aroimd the
capital. In particular
they refer to those pottery
Pottery ivriting screen depicting a mountain, pine
tree,
and house
roughly sketched with quick brush strokes by Kenzan. Metropolitan
242
ancient prestige and cultural elegance emanating
the Imperial court.
Museum of Art.
Gift of
Howard
c.
1740.
Mansfield, 1936.
wares decorated with overglaze
by Ninsei
enariiel colors as
in the seventeenth century,
and Seto-type wares. Kyoto wares are made of different kinds
and blends of clay because the
were exhausted
at
many
it
a variety
of
local deposits
had to be brought from
products bear the
name
kiyomizu yaki.
The wares
called
Old
Kiyomizu or ko kiyomizu are chiefly imitations and adaptations of Chinese enameled porcelains: the underglaze blue-andwhite, celadon, and three-color ware of Ae
Ming and Ch'ing
Kiyomizu was a pottery having a creamy-
dynasties. This early
wares of Kyoto are
white clay body and a cream-colored glaze which might or
according to the style or design of certain individual
might not be crackled. There were probably more than ten
The
distant places.
classified artists
an early date and
developed
and the glazed Raku-
Among
or potters.
characteristic
the outstanding ceramic artists of
kilns located in this area in the latter half
of the seventeenth
Kyoto, besides Ninsei and Kenzan, previously discussed, are
century,
making articles for the tea ceremony. In the eighteenth
many who flourished from the late eighteenth century through
century,
when
the
nineteenth
century,
including
Aoki-
Okuda-Eisen,
began
to
there
was
a rage for Chinese ware, these kilns
produce enameled pottery, and in the beginning of
was added. At the present
Mokubei, Takahashi-Dohachi, Nin'ami-Dohachi, Eiraku-
the nineteenth century porcelain
Hozen, Eiraku-Wazen, and Makuzu-Chozo. Several small
time Kiyomizu ware includes both pottery and porcelain.
same
private kilns have been continuously producing the
wares since the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and are still
among
being operated by family descendants. Included
the old family potters
working
at their private kilns are
Rokubei, Chikusen, Eiraku, Kawai, and
Among the
Settsu.
Ming and Ch'ing
On
a cliff near the
of the
city
summit of Mount Otowayama,
district
many
number of Buddhist
mountain, which
is
in the
of Kyoto, stands the famous Kiyomizu
temple, and preserved in the cincts are a
still
buildings within
masterpieces.
its
Around
prethis
popularly called Kiyomizu, and in the
below known
as
Kiyomizu-zaka, are kiln
sites
whose
operating
Rokubei and
who came
to
Miura Chikusen, the fourth generation
to
is
noted for
his exquisite imitations
of
underglaze blue-and-white, which are con-
sidered the fmest of this type of work produced
the present time.
eastern part
district are
Chikusen. Rokubei, who is the fifth generation, is the descend-
operate the family kiln,
KIYOMIZU
Kiyomizu
ant of Shimizu Rokubei, 1740-1799, a potter
Kyoto from
Seifu.
outstanding artist-potters of Kyoto
private family kilns in the
The
style
anywhere
of wares produced in
at
this district
underwent changes with the passing of time, from the very earliest
tea-ceremony
utensils to
enameled pottery
as intro-
duced by Ninsei and the imitations of Chinese wares as ko kiyomizu.
The
later
Kiyomizu wares
known
reflect the artistic
ceramic traditions of Kyoto and are essentially Japanese in their color decoration.
Shonzui-style octagonal bowl with cover, in under-
glaze blue-and-white, by
Kawamoto Hansuke: Edo
period,
century.
early
nineteenth
Tokyo National
Museum. 243
SHONZUI
IMARI
is named after Gorodayu Go Shonzui, a who traveled to China in the year 15 13 to study the art of making and decorating porcelain. Upon his return to Japan
island
Shonzui ware
potter
he
settled at Arita in
Hizen province, where he produced
porcelain wares of underglaze blue-and-white.
have brought back quantities of china
known
clay.
He
is
said to
Shonzui design,
by oblique wavy bands
as kara-kusa, is characterized
of underglaze blue alternating with white bands. The designs Oil
the blue bands are in reserve and consist chiefly of brocade
and imbricated
patterns.
These bands are generally used in
combination with landscapes, and designs in the Chinese manner.
also
A
with flower and plant
favorite style
of Shonzui
decoration consists of geometrical patterns, especially in the
form of linked circles or to Shonzui
disks.
and bearing
Many extant examples ascribed
his seal are
of excellent form and
beautifully decorated with such patterns,
borrowed from
Chinese designs of the late Ming period. These Shonzui designs
with various pattern combinations are purely Japanese in feeling as rice
and have
a
unique charm
bowls and water
when appUed to such articles
Edo period,
eighteenth century.
Saga prefecture, bear the generic
The many
yaki.
Takasu Collection, Tokyo.
name of Imari ware
kilns in this area include Hirado,
now
or imari
Okochi,
Nabeshima, Kakiemon, and those located in Arita. Collectively theSe ceramics are called Arita ware, but during the
Tokugawa
Shogunate the wares produced commercially in the Arita were exported to other parts of Japan
city
of
from the port
tov\m of Imari and have been popularly called hnari ware.
The English term Old Imari, which refers to the
ware dating from the
on and does not
signify the early
quality
known in Europe,
well
early eighteenth century
when
china clay of fme
was discovered in Izumiyama, the Korean potters who
settled in first
is
ware of Arita. At the begin-
ning of the seventeenth century,
Hizen province were able
time
after the
to
make
porcelain for the
aforementioned Shonzui. These porcelain
wares have a fme hard white body decorated in underglaze blue-and-white.
The
naturally influenced
Imari
from
dish.
style
and technique of decoration was
by the blue-and-white for these potters
Design of coiiuentionalized
silk brocade patterns.
National Museum.
244
in the northern part of the
of Kyushu, principally in Hizen province, which is
Yi dynasty of Korea,
jars.
hnari dish having a design of horse-chestnuts in ovcrglaze colored enamels.
The ceramic wares produced
Edo
porcelains of the
were
skilled in
birds
and flowers copied
making
period, eighteenth century.
Tokyo
If}iari dish.
men
Design of Dutch ships and Dutch-
in eighteenth-century costume.
Kato
eighteenth century.
such porcelain in their native country. After a short time the Cliinese blue-and-white porcelain of the
to exert tions is
its
influence
Ming
and fmaUy replaced the original produc-
of the Yi-dynasty
style. In
Japanese the term sometsuke
applied to blue-and-white wares, while gosu
Ming
dynasty began
is
applied to the
blue-and-white wares of China or imitations. Most of
the blue-and-white wares
were for
daily use
and included
rice bowls, plates, sake bottles, candlesticks, shoyu oil pots,
chopstick holders, and flower holders.
numerous and included
all
The
designs
were
kinds of Chinese and Japanese
subjects such as flowers, plants, grasses, trees, birds, animals, fishes, celestial subjects, landscapes,
and seascapes
(Plate 14).
Blue-and-white wares have always appealed to the Japanese aesthetic sense
of purity and elegance, and they have always
been favored for daily
at
Arita
by Kakiemon and Tokuemon. The
wares, but
style inspired
it
by the designs and
fashion in brocade textiles. this characteristic style
The
colors
late
of the prevaUing
developed expression of
fully
became known
as imari tiishiki-de,
Tokugawa period
Imari Brocade, and aU through the
or
these
Arita wares remained in great favor and typified the Japanese taste for
merchant
enameled porcelains, particularly among the rich class,
which leaned toward elaborate designs and
richness of color.
The
designs
surface, leaving almost
on Imari ware cover the
no ground. They
pleasing and ingenious
manner upon
bowls
and well-balanced
it
in a symmetrical
was greatly admired and imitated
Worcester, Chelsea, and Delft.
ARITA PORCELAIN
early Arita
soon developed into a purely Japanese
was exported by Dutch and English
use.
Tokyo.
was influenced by
porcelain decorated in overglaze colors
Ming
Edo period,
Collection,
Its
are
entire
composed
in a
the surface of plates and pattern. Imari
traders to Europe, at
ware
where
such places as Meissen,
colored enamels include
semi-opaque purple, transparent sapphire blue, dull yellow, bluish-green, underglaze blue and, in the older pieces, a rather
In the middle of the seventeenth century the art of makmg
porcelain with overglaze enamel decoration
was developed
dull rich vermilion.
Many
pieces of early Imari
have designs
depicting the manners and customs of the times, showing
245
Imari wine
bottle
with a design in overglaze enamels of
the seven sages in a century.
Amamiya
figures of Japanese
wood-block
One of bowls
is
six large
bamboo grove. Edo
century.
similar to those in genre
prints.
the
most
bottle vase in
overglaze colored enamels with
a design of flowers and birds.
Tokyo.
Collection,
men and women
Kakiemoti
period, seventeenth
Nakajima
Collection,
attractive designs
found on early Imari
round medaUions of a beautiful warm, duU red or
period, seventeenth
with an abundance of colors lavishly emphasized by too gold, resulting in a complete loss of
the yoraku or necklace motif. This usually consists of
Edo
Tokyo.
gance.
its
much
original refined ele-
As the domestic and export demand
increased, even
during the early part of the eighteenth century, imari nishiki-de
became
a standardized style
and potters of the Arita
district
vermilion connected with delicate conventionalized pendant
not only produced their wares in their homes and fired them
flowers or arabesque designs in enamel colors. Appearing
at a large
the inner side wall of the bowl, the design
same elaborate manner on the as
outside.
produced on the early wares with
The its
is
on
repeated in the
imari yoraku design
elegant composition
community
were
also
ceramic
by the
Many
many
pieces of this
ware were made with elaborate designs
of eighteenth-century Dutch costume.
246
The
nishiki-de
ships
and figures in Dutch
became overelaborate and gaudy.
town of color
painters,
where
draw and
who specialized only in painting common workers were employed to
artists
figure subjects, while
and
but there also sprang up in Arita
workers specialized in overglaze enamel decoration. There
and rich colors has always been greatly favored in Japan. The Dutch traders, on the other hand, were particularly attracted beautifully decorated imari nishiki-de porcelains,
kiln,
a place called Akae-machi, or
paint designs allotted to
of the
later
export market and, as such,
of the early Imari and
had appealed
them on a production basis.
Imari wares were especially
made
for the
lost the original beautiful quality
also lost the
warm rich elegance which
to the Japanese taste.
KAKIEMON
Kakiemon ware of the 1680,
The
beautifully decorated porcelain
Nangawara
kiln
known
the famous Japanese potter early history
the
at
as
called
Takahara Goroshichi,
his birth
596-1666.
to
and purity which
have been from Izumiyama, thus belonging to
prominent in the
glaze has a warmth and richness and is pleasing to the touch. The colored enamels are lustrous and exquisitely combined (Plate 13). The hues occurring most frequently arc an iron
and death are unknown but usually are
of
said to
from about 1640
Nabeshima, the feudal lord of Hizen province. The white
who was most
dates
is
earlier period,
clay of high quality
name from
its
of Arita ware, Sakaida Kizoemon. The exact
given
1
ware made
Kakienion received
as
was made from a
He was the pupil of a famous Arita potter who had retired to a Buddhist
red, a pure
and transparent blue-green,
aubergine, light blue,
monastery because of the turbulent times. They worked to-
The iron red is rather light in tone, with an unusual richness which is complemented by the
gether during the early years of the Kan-ei era (1624- 1644)
beautiful glaze
producing blue-and-white porcelain of superb quality, but
Chinese origin, such
little is
knovwi of their later
association.
Sometime during
this
grayish yellow, and black.
lion.
on the body. Many of the motifs were of phoenix, the dragon, and the fu
as the
But Kakiemon's
designs represent true Japanese elegance
same period Sakaida Kizoemon began experimenting in the
in their simplicity, with motifs delicately balanced against
technique of making colored enamel glazes, a secret that was
large areas of bare space. His designs of flowers, plants, rocks,
him by a rich Arita merchant named Tokuemon. While Tokuemon was visiting Nagasaki, the only port open
grasses,
given to
met
to foreign ships, he
purchased
Japan. Success did not failed to
whom
he
and most of the
in
was
come easily,
produce the desired
from
since the early experiments
result,
and Kizoemon was to try
many different methods before he finally perfected the proper formulas. He fmally succeeded in producing a porcelain ornament
in the
form of persimmon with such
perfect color that
He presented it to the feudal lord of the Nabeshima family, who was so amazed with its beauty it
resembled the real
that he
from
Above:
kaki,
in the
meaning persimmon.
Nakao
Collection,
Collection,
in
glaze of the
background
Kakiemon ware
traders to Europe,
that
It
was the
was taken by Dutch and English
where it was
greatly
admired and
and much copied in the eighteenth century
at
collected,
Meissen, Chel-
Bow, Worcester, and ChantiUy. The second period of Kakiemon, from 1680
sea,
represented glaze
ware
Imari style
by is
;
to 1720,
is
a complete change in style. This transparent-
characterized
but although
second period,
by
nishiki-de decoration in the
this is the principal feature
much was
still
of the
produced in the original
birds.
Edo period,
Tokyo.
Kakiemon wine ewer. Design of plum Edo period, eighteenth
overglaze enamels.
warm opaque body
enhance the exquisite composition.
left free to
early
were ingeniously drawn
shape of an open flower. Decorated
enamels with a design offlowers and
eighteenth century.
in
word
Kakiemon bowl
in overglaze
Right:
fruit.
bestowed upon Kizoemon the name of Kakiemon,
the Japanese
branches, and trees
manner with a distinctive combination of colors,
which was then unknown
a Chinese potter
this secret process,
plum
a naturahstic
trees
and bamboo
century.
Takasu
Tokyo.
247
Kakiemon
with phim
dish,
eighteenth century.
tree
and deer design. Edo period,
Nahcshinia
Tokyo National Museum.
dish.
Design of wisteria brandies
glaze hlue-and-white. Edo period,
in
eighteenth
under-
century.
Tokyo National Museum.
Kakiemon
style.
The demands of the
rich
merchant
class
and
of the feudal lord of Saga, head of the House of Nabe-
kilns
the popular taste of the time were responsible for this departure
shima, whose castle was at the
from
in the northern part
the earher charming and elegant
intricate designs
work
in favor
of the
and striking colors of Imari. The designs
included aU of the typical Imari work, with a limited use of figure subjects forming part of the decoration. feature
of this kakiemon
nishiki-de decoration
compared
textile patterns
Kyushu
to Imari, in
quality
which the
and colorful design combinations. The
the end of the
first
quarter of the eighteenth century the
Daimyo of Saga, who was interested in ceramic art, appointed his
most able potters to produce porcelain wares of the highest
quality
and elegance for
wares, which are
and for
his personal use
commonly known
as
gifts.
Kakiemon kilns have operated continuously for three himdred
made
called (Plate 12).
generation.
blue-and-white and celadons of great refmement, but iro
Okochi
kiln, or
Okawachi kiln
is
as it is
especially noted for
its
elegance. These wares
interruption until the Meiji Restoration, after
248
known
as
it is
the
of the Okochi Idln
were
produced under the patronage of the Nabeshima lords without
A distinctive porcelain included in the classification of Arita is
sometimes
The kilns of Nabeshima produced underglaze
nabeshima, or enameled Nabeshima,
that
NABESHIMA
at the
These
Nabeshima, were
years and are at present under the direction of the twelfth
ware
for
the closing years of the sixteenth century Lord Nabeshima,
whole surface of the ware was covered both inside and outside with
part of
hundred years and produced many great daimyo. In
Daimyo of Saga, returned from the expedition to Korea with a great number of potters who set up kilns in his domains. At
Kakiemon style. This is a distinguishing
nishiki-de as
Nabeshima family ruled the northern several
that the center
esque figure subjects, while the outside surface had a design
of kakiemon
town of Saga in Hizen province of Kyushu. The powerful
island
A characteristic
is
portion was usually plain, or contained beautiful and pictur-
in the original
of the
Nabeshima.
It
was produced in the private
they were
which time
made commercially. The Nabeshima wares were
made of high-quahty, pure-white
clay
and most of the
Naheshima
plate with design of a camellia in full bloom
by a bamboo fence, eighteenth century.
enamels.
in colored
Edo period mid-
Yamanaka and Company,
New
Nabeshima
York
and Osaka.
enamels.
were
articles
plates for daily use
presentation purposes.
Only
of the feudal lords and for
the fmest pieces
these uses, while those that
were not
were
carefully
drawn with an
outline of
were
high-temperature kiln. Colored enamels were applied over the glaze and fired in a low-temperature kihi. In the earlier
which can be described
plates,
very shallow bowls or
as
have a high and prominent foot rim. Nabeshima
designs possess great elegance, usually in a distinctive
asym-
metrical composition in subtle balance. These beautiful and graceful designs of flowers, plants, trees and, occasionally, birds
were most
designs
and waves of overglaze
Tokyo National Museum.
selected for
entirely perfect
The potting is remarkable for its elegance and exactness, and deep
The
eighteenth century.
underglaze blue; then the glaze was applied and fured in a
destroyed.
the plates,
dish with design oj peonies
Edo period,
were inspired by nature and depicted
Nabeshima manner. Their elegance
is
in a distinctive
due to the precision
with which the design has been adapted to the curved
of the dishes and essential to the
to the avoidance
composition.
sides
of anything not absolutely
Much of the
surface space
was
Nabeshima
pieces this technique
executed with great care and
were
on
laid
unnoticed.
A
skill
of color application was so that the
enamel colors
so exactly that the underglaze blue outline characteristic feature
of Nabeshima
plates
is
is
the
very high foot rim with a "comb" pattern, which was not kilns. The comb pattern was row of teeth being dravm in perfect
allowed to be imitated by other in underglaze blue, the
regularity with very fine brush outlines and filled in with cobalt blue.
On
the underside or outside of the deep plates appears
the characteristic
money
Nabeshima arrangement of the Chinese
or coin motif, or other traditional Chinese motifs,
left
undecorated. Occasionally landscapes were designed in
although occasionally the peach and peony designs are seen.
the
manner of the Kano school of painting, and sometimes
These carefully drawn designs in underglaze blue divide the
designs of fences
Many by
were used and executed
in a zigzag
manner.
asymmetrical but well-balanced designs were inspired
Nabeshima
is
noted for
its brilliant
enamel
to a rich iron red, a soft fresh green,
The Nabeshima wares with
their essentially Japanese designs
executed with such elegance exemplify the exquisite aristo-
the beautiful silk fabrics called yuzen.
hmited
space on the outside methodically into three equal sections.
colors, usually
and a light yellow.
cratic taste
of the Nabesliima lords and are prized for
their
richly enameled beauty.
249
HIRADO
feudal lords until the Meiji Restpration in 1868, kilns
The
small island of Hirado, located a
few
niiles off the coast
when
the
began to operate for the public market. The principal
forms of Hirado porcelains were
plates, tea
modeled small
bowls, sake cups,
of the old Hizen province, has been an active ceramic center
sake bottles, and beautifully
since the beginning of the seventeenth century. In the year
human subjects, birds, and flowers, all skillfully executed, with many examples of special elegance and elaborate work-
1598
when
the feudal lord of Hirado returned
from the
Korean expedition, he brought back many Korean
who
set
up
kilns in his island possession
of porcelain wares did not eighteenth century,
found kilns
at
when
start until
;
potters
at the
outlines
and edges are inclined
blue
is
rather
weak and
to be fuzzy. Like
made only
KUTANI
Mikawachi
and are characterized by a hard pure-white body with
ware, the Hirado pieces were
manship.
around the middle of the
Amakusa. These wares were made
The
of animals,
but the production
china clay of the finest quaUty was
underglaze-blue decoration.
figures
its
Nabeshima
for the use
of the
Near the'Yamashiro Spa not
far
from the
coast
of the Sea
of Japan in the remote mountain village of Kutani, or Nine Valleys, are the old Kutani kiln sites
which date from around
the middle of the seventeenth century.
Kutani
bottle
in
the
It
was here
that the
shape of a double gourd
decorated with design of lions and peonies in over-
glaze enamels. Edo period, seventeenth century.
Tokyo National Museum.
250
Hirado plate made
at the
Mikawachi
decoration of the Buddhist motifs,
and
period about
emblem
Underglaze-hlue
kiln.
orchids in a soft blue on white ground. i
ko kutani, or
Kutani wine ewer. Design of plum
o/ju-i
ivithin a circle
century.
tree.
Edo
period, seventeenth
Tokyo National Museum.
Edo
j^o. Author s collection.
Old Kutani, enameled
porcelain wares
were
produced. Although practically
unknown
these wares have always been
most highly prized by the
Japanese for their
outside of Japan,
magnificence of decoration, which
thoroughly Japanese (Plate
ii). In
is
comparison with the refine-
ment and elegance of the enameled porcelains of Nabeshima and Kakiemon, ko kutani ware possesses an unusual quality of of color, and vigor of design which gives
freshness, intensity
warmth of feeling. With the discovery of china
a great
this vicinity in the
Daimyo of Kaga
poor-quality ware which satisfied the local needs for daily use.
The
kilns
were
re-established in the early years
teenth century, and their later wares copied are
knovm
as shin kutani
(New
articles.
is
kutani,
making porcelain
in
This extensive production was
highly organized system and
middle of the seventeenth century, the
from the various
potters
and Chinese
artisans.
from
remarkable for an endless variety of
made
possible
a
kutani
is
and
artists
kiln sites in Japan as well as
The body of ko
by
comparable to the
efificifncy
Imperial kilns of China, and an assemblage of good clay for
kutani
Kutani) or simply as Kutani.
The relatively short period of production o{ko about 1660 to 1700,
of the nine-
from ko
Korean
coarse and the
Maeda Toshiharu, head of the feudal house of Maeda, estabhshed kibs at Kutani. The earhest
glaze impure, covering the vessel in a thick and uneven
wares being unsatisfactory, he sent Goto
dark and the green resembling the deep blue-green of sea
province,
best potters, to visit the kilns in
Kyushu
one of
Saijiro,
his
to study the technique
of making and decorating porcelain. Ten years passed before Saijiro returned to Kutani,
whether he
around 1660.
visited the Arita
It
not certain
is
kibs or traveled
China to
manner. The enamel colors are rich and
water.
The term
thick, the red
akae kutani refers to those pieces in
the red and green are supplemented
by
being
which
purple, yellow, over-
glaze blue, and occasionally gold and silver.
Ao
kutani,
or
study the Imperial kilns in Ching-te-Chen, but the knowl-
Green Kutani, which has no red enamel, has yellow, green, and purple enamels. Some of the designs were inspired by the
edge that
Chinese
Saijiro acquired, together
to
with the enthusiasm and
fmancial aid of this powerful feudal lord, resulted in the perfection Its
of the enameled porcelain ware knovwi
production continued until
1700,
Saijiro's
and the making of this original
as ko kutani.
death a few years after kutani yaki
came
to an
end. For the next hundred years or so the kihis produced a
late
Ming and
early Ch'ing enameled porcelains;
others are of purely Japanese origin.
The
Japanese examples
range in style from Imari and Kakiemon to the style of Kyoto pottery painting and the
Kano
school of painting.
designs are bold and free, executed with a quick
Ko
kutani
and sure
brush stroke. The colors are harmoniously combined and the
251
Kutani plate scape
Oj
etttieagottal
shape with land-
and flower-and-bird panels
enamels. Signed. century.
Edo
in
colored
period, late seventeenth
Yamanaka and Company,
New
York
and Osaka.
designs create an over-all effect of colorful rustic charm. typical ko kutani composition consisted
A
of dividing the plate
this
phase of ko kutani the use of cobalt blue came to an end
and the red enamel color disappeared, which seems to indicate
rim into symmetrically arranged compartments of geometric
that these materials
shapes or diaper patterns, with the principal design in the
and were
center of the plate.
Kano
The
school of painting
Japanese subjects taken life
executed in the manner of the
especially beautiful,
with its purely
from nature and from
of the country, including human
plants, trees, landscapes,
252
style is
and
seascapes.
the everyday
figures, birds, flowers,
Around
the middle of
now
had
originally been
exhausted.
Green Kutani, or ao
Due
kutani,
brought from China
to this shortage of pigments.
was developed with
over-all
designs in three colors, purple, green, and yellow, outlined
with black. Ko kutani and ao kutani wares, with
charm of color and rusticity.
design, have the richness
their native
of unaffected
XVII Lacquer
rHE
DEVELOPMENT of the
art
of lacquer in
Japan begins with the introduction of Bud-
a far-reaching effect
on the lacquer
art
of Japan. The Code of
Taiho, or Great Treasure, was promulgated in 701, with the
other arts was the great force that
Great Council of State as the supreme organ of govermnent,
stimulated the progress of culture. Preserved in the Treasure
and the Department of Religion holding equal rank. Various
dhism, wliich
as in all the
Kondo
Hall or
Horyuji
at
Golden Beetle Miniature of Japanese lacquer work.
is
the Tamamushi-no-zushi, or
Slirine, the earliest extant It
example
was originally a precious sanctuary
belonging to the Empress Suiko, whose son, Prince Shotoku Taishi,
from of a
was the
actual founder of
Asuka period (552-645),
the
shrine,
Buddhism in Japan. Dating it is
square and in the
form
complete with roof and doors, and mounted on a
name originated from the fact that the crossbeams,
pedestal.
Its
corners,
and edges were originally profusely
inlaid
with the
multicolored wings of the insect tainaniushi or jewel beetle,
ministries
were
and within the Ministry of the
established
among
Treasury was organized
others an Office of the Guild
of Lacquer Workers. Included in the terms of this code were the introduction of a
new
new
system of land tenure, and a
system of taxation by which
com-
or other
textiles, silk, rice,
modities locally produced were payable in fixed amounts in lieu
of labor.
The Taika Reform
declared that under the
land allotment the arable
were
fields, principally
among
to be distributed
the
new
system of
wet
rice fields,
the cultivators, with the size
an exquisite metal edging of honeysuckle design. The
determined by the number of members in a household. In
jewel-beetle wings have long since disappeared, leaving only
addition to the grants of land, each household was given a plot
set in
the metal appliques.
The
shrine
and
its
pedestal are black
lacquered and covered with Buddhist narrative scenes painted in mitsiidaso, a kind
and Nara
periods.
the paintings
of oil pigment used
The
chiefly in the
Asuka
yellow, vermilion, and green used in
were applied
as part
of ground on which
it
was mandatory
was necessary
demand due to the growing The Nara period by the pervading influence of Bud-
supply of lacquer, to meet the
popularity and prosperity of Buddhism.
of the lacquer process.
(710-794)
BEGINNINGS OF JAPANESE LACQUER
is
characterized
learned
of Japan was based upon methods
from the Chinese. The
of the Sui dynasty in China
first official
left
envoy to the court
Japan in the year 607,
and
with the accession of the T'ang dynasty in 618, Japanese missions increased in
in
number. These missions included
many fields, such as who studied the
artists,
specialists
carpenters, founders, craftsmen,
culture
and
arts as practiced
and
by the
Chinese in those times. In the year 645 the Emperor issued an edict
known
as the
all fields
of art and
stimidated the building of great temples and monasteries. interior architecture
early lacquer art
It
government to provide for an ample
for the
dhism, which caused such rapid progress in
The
to cultivate both
lacquer trees and mulberry trees (the latter for silkworms).
Taika Reform, which was based on the
land-ownership laws of the Sui and T'ang dynasties and had
The
and furnishings of these great Buddhist
buildings required large quantities of lacquer for the embellish-
ment of altars, shrines, pillars, and various religious accessories. Although the principal method for making lacquer ware from of
early times
wood
China. This was a favorite
had been
bamboo,
or
known
method
dhist images.
with hempen
a
The
for
to apply the lacquer
new as the
process
cloth, to
which
article
dry-lacquer technique and was
making various
utensils as well as
process consisted of covering a
and when the lacquer
on an
was introduced from
coats of lacquer
dried, the
Bud-
model form
were apphed,
form was removed. Another 253
technique introduced from China during the Nara period
dropper or mizu-sashi, and compartments for holding the
was
brushes and the inkstick or
called hyomon, or sheet design. This consisted
of cutting
thin sheets of gold or silver into designs and laying
them on
sunti.
Cosmetic
kits
were made
a lacquered surface, and then applying additional coats of
decorated with the most exquisite lacquer work. These
lacquer.
nificent boxes
As the Japanese
and craftsmen gained more know-
artists
articles as a
work and developed its
such a degree that
black,
of the word.
comb,
became a
actually
aesthetic quaUties to
fine art in the truest sense
were equipped with various
mirror together with
a box a
its
rouge brush, a mascara brush,
During the Heian period (794-1185) lacquer not only reached
tweezers. There also
a high level of technical proficiency and artistic
ing the Buddhist sutras or scriptures, and
skill,
but also
acquired a truly Japanese character. This development was
due both to the
taste
of the nobihty and to the continual
progress of Buddhism, which created a great articles for
demand for fine
personal use and for the adornment of reUgious
who
property.
Around
from 980
to lOii, the brUhant society at the Imperial court
the time of
included a group of talented
Murasaki Shikibu,
who
articles
kits,
reigned
women, among whom was Lady The
scroU-paintings illustrating
of Genji, with the beautiful interior furnishings
of the houses vividly portrayed, cosmetic
Ichijo,
wrote the famous novel Genji
Monogatari, or Tale of Genji. this great story
Emperor
also record the lacquer
inkstone boxes, fan boxes, and other de luxe
used by courtiers and their
objects for personal use
were
ladies.
exquisite
These lacquer
works of art, usually
of black or red lacquer, though green or gold was sometimes used.
The
tative
of the
finest artistic
stone
box or
suzuri-bako
artist
expended
designs painted with gold lacquer
his best
were represen-
accomphshment. The Japanese ink-
was one of the work.
writer's equipment, comprising
It is
articles
a flat
on which the
box
to hold the
an inkstone or suzuri, a water
mag-
articles
container, boxes for tooth
powder, boxes for incense,
for
toilet
They contained such
beautifully decorated with lacquer.
ledge of lacquer processes, they far surpassed the Chinese
it
in
various forms containing tiny drawers and compartments
a silver
bowl, a
silver scissors,
were handsome lacquer boxes
many
and
for hold-
other articles
for househ(5ld use.
Lacquer was lavishly used for the decoration of the
Buddhist temples that were being built
famous of these
edifices
at that time.
of the Heian period
the
is
Phoenix Hall, attached to the Byodoin temple
many
The most Hoodo or near
at Uji,
Kyoto, on the bank of the Uji River in the mountains. Originally
a
villa
of the Prince Minister Fujiwara-no-
Michinaga, 966-1024,
it
was converted Phoenix Hall
1052. Built in 1053, the
into a monastery in is
one of the
examples of rehgious architecture of the Fujiwara period.
It
ahghting on the ground.
of Chinese origin, in the
Its
magnificent interior
sumptuous lacquer decorations with
quer
Many
work
finest
Heian or
was designed to represent the mytho-
logical phoenix, or ho-o,
pearl.
late
inlays
is
act
of
noted for
of mother-of-
other fme examples of this great period of lac-
are extant in the
famous buildings of Kyoto, the
center of culture and the seat of the Imperial court
year 794.
from the The closing years of the Heian period, which brought
with them the decline of the Fujiwara family and
tween various
clans,
saw the
fall
and
final defeat
strife
be-
of the great
Sutra box in gold lacquer showing a design of clouds, falling rain, and vegetation. Late Heian period, eleventh century. Tokyo National
shallow water flowing through submerged wheels (detail). Late
Museum.
Heian period, eleventh or twelfth century. Tokyo National Museum.
254
Gold-lacquer cosmetic box with nacre inlay having a design of
Lacquer
sake
bottles:
of Hotel
figure
lacquered
green,
red,
a page
Kosho,
A
Right:
century.
Carved
Left:
a
in
drunken
and black; carved
of honor
in
thirteenth
wood the
wood
condition,
figure
of
house of a
daimyo, wearing ceremonial dress and holding a gourd bottle, ivith
decorated in colored lacquers
gold hiramakie
Victoria
;
late eighteenth century.
and Albert Museum.
Taira family by Minanioto Yoritomo,
who
rose to the
supreme power in 1185.
Here they began the production of black-and-red lacquer
Despite the establishment of his headquarters at Kamakura,
Kyoto remained artistic
the capital and retained
its
cultural
and
ascendency. Yoritomo showed a keen interest in religion
and respected cultivation,
cultural learning ;
and although he had limited
he spent large sums on the restoration of temples,
monasteries, and shrines.
The Kamakura period, during which
the feudal system reached great heights, produced luxurious residences
processes
and a profusion of fme works of art. The technical
of lacquer work were greatly developed,
in the inlaying pearl.
A
known as
moved to the Negoro-Dera, a monastery in the same province.
of lacquer with gold,
negoro-nuri or negoro lacquer.
domestic use, and the
name
negoro has
become
a
general term appHed to plain black-and-red lacquer utensils.
Another name connected with lacquer work of this period kamakura-bori,
in
which is
a rustic style
which rough designs were
furst
carved in high relief and
then lacquered in black and red.
The
early designs for
kamakuri-bori lacquer consisted chiefly of
peonies, diaper patterns,
and
is
of carving and lacquering
plum
blossoms,
a cloud pattern.
especially
and mother-of-
silver,
of Kamakura lacquer ware
particular variety
vessels for
It first
appeared
is
LACQUER
IN
THE MUROMACHI PERIOD
at the
from the
•Tliroughthe beginning of the Muromachi period (1338-
great Shingon-sect monastery
on Koyasan in the Kii Peninsula
1573) lacquer continued to flourish along with the other arts
Gold-lacquered sutra box with
lotus-floii>er design
end of the thirteenth century,
Heian
period, twelfth century.
at
which time
priests
(detail).
Tokyo National Museum.
Late
Cosmetic box
in gold lacquer
and mother-of-pearl inlay with a
design^of deer in an autumn field twelfth or thirteenth century.
(detail).
Kamakura
period,
Tokyo National Museum.
255
Lacquered cabinet ('kodansuj
Left:
The front
eucjosing five drawers.
maple
trees;
on one side are cherry
with fruit; on the other, cherry end, morning-glories. In silver
with a hinged door
fitted
trees in
trees in
blossom and orange trees
blossom and maple; on the
and gold lacquer on black and
inlay touched with gold lacquer; each panel
is
of conventional' ornament of gold and inlaid Sixteenth century. Victoria and Albert
shell
framed by a border
Metal
shell.
fittings.
Museum.
Inkstone box in gold lacquer showing a full
Right:
and
decorated with deer, birds,
is
moon
rising
from behind a mountain. Muromachi period, sixteenth century.
Tokyo National Museum.
despite the strife
and intrigue of the age. The Shogun Ashikaga
who was
Yoshiniasa,
addicted to a hfe of luxury, was largely
responsible for the great developments in art, and especially in lacquer.
Well versed
in literature
serious attention to the tea
and
Yoshiniasa gave
art,
and the incense ceremonies,
previously noted, and as a patron of the arts maintained artists
of
distinction.
yama Age. Among the
many
Because so
appeared in those days,
many
masterpieces of art
art historians call this era the
the foremost lacquer
as
artists
Higashi-
employed by
Shogun Yoshiniasa was Michinaga Koanii, who
distin-
guished himself in the lacquer technique called taka-makie, or relief lacquer.
According to records of the Koanii family, he
new approach
to lacquer decoration
by employing
the works of famous painters, such as Soami,
Noami, Kano
created a
Motonobu, and Tosa Mitsunobu, lacquer the
artist in
as designs.
the service of Yoshimasa in the latter part of
Muromachi period was Igarashi
other
artists
were responsible
or
silver,
of lacquer
at
nashi-ji,
The
current
256
of
and
literature
of the Sung and Yuan dynasties
Trade with China grew in
also greatly appreciated.
volume and travelers made more frequent trips, both countries being eager to exchange their products. Chinese lacquer ware
was highly prized and among the imported
articles
found
made
all
the various techniques and forms
The type of Chinese Japanese was the
lacquer are revealed guri,
which
is
lacquer
tsui-shiu, in
by
most highly favored by the
which
several layers
carving. In Japan this
the Japanese
word
for carving.
at
Murakami,
of colored
work is
It is
copies of this famous Chinese carved lacquer
made
could be
in China.
called
claimed that
ware were
first
a city at the foot of the mountains in a
magnificent section of the rock-bound coast on the Japan Sea,
and to the present day, Murakami
lacquer ware.
While
the Japanese
is
noted for
lacquer wares, they were in turn sending their articles to
carved
its
were importing Chinese
own
China, where they were highly treasured.
It
lacquer
was the
Japanese gold lacquer decoration that was most favored
Chinese, and
it is
recorded that China sent lacquer
by
the
artists to
Japan to study the various techniques. Although Japan learned
work
far
beyond the Chinese conception.
delicate nature after the style adapted
dynasties of
China
was great
in the
of Muromachi and, among the
of use in the
mode of
were
about lacquering from China, she developed magnificent
passion for things Chinese
intellectual circles
for objects
consists
pear.
from paintings of the Simg and Yuan 1 6).
of the taka-
which
used on the lacquer ware of this period were
of a most refuied and
(Plate
These and several
various depths sprinkled with gold
resembhng the skin of a
Many designs
Shinsai.
for the perfection
makie decoration and the beautiful several coats
Another famous
things, the art
tea
ceremony.
MOMOYAMA LACQUER
tea masters,
Due in part
to the then
elegance that found enjoyment in exotic
In the opening years of the
Monroyama period
(1573-1615)
the dehcate and rather complicated designs of Chinese inspira-
Lacquer writing box
in the
in
The
inside,
and
tray,
which fits
form of a koto. The cover has a dragon
gold and silver takamakie and hiramakie.
and brocade pattern
shows a landscape
the clouds, rice paddies, stream,
ivith
and maple
moon
gold takamakie on nashi-ji ground. The frame
in
in pewter,
tree in the is
wind
are
in nashi-ji
with inkstone and brass water dropper in shape of a fan. Late
Museum.
seventeenth century. Victoria and Albert
chrysanthemums
tion began to lose their appeal, the rising warrior class of this
elegant in manner. Favorite motifs included
time favoring the more simplified and striking designs purely
and paulownia leaves and flowers strewn about or incorpo-
Japanese in treatment. After the gradual collapse of Ashikaga
rated in the principal pictorial composition. Frequent use of
rule
and the short career of Nobunaga
as
the rule of the entire country was assumed
supreme war
by Hideyoshi. The
age in which Nobunaga and Hideyoshi flourished terized by,
among
lord,
charac-
is
other things, great progress in the realm
of art. Hideyoshi's residences were profusely decorated by the foremost
artists
of the time. The famous Kodaiji temple in
by Hideyoshi's widow
Kyoto was
built in 1606
of her
husband, and although
late
repeated
fures,
memory
has been ravaged
by
the mortuary chapel has survived in a splendid
of preservation with
state
it
in
its
beautiful decorations
of taka-
of the
characteristic feature
Momoyama
period,
which
named after Hideyoshi's palace, was the diminishing interest in the austere principles of Zen Buddhism. A new warrior is
appeared with the redistribution of feudal manors, and
class
practice.
A
great exponent of the gold lacquer
dynamic quality of Momoyama
so forcefully expressed the art
was Hon-ami Koetsu, 1558-1637, the foremost
this era.
common
work which artist
His simple yet forceful designs in taka-makie
of
reflect
his great ability as a painter, lacquer artist, ceramic designer,
and
skilled calligrapher.
tributed a great
many
Koetsu and pieces
his
contemporaries con-
of lacquer which compare
favorably with the fmest aesthetic accomplishments in any field
of
art.
During
the time of Hideyoshi, Japan reached a
high level of prosperity which created a favorable climate for
makie or raised lacquer.
A
both gold and silver lacquer in the same work was a
the temper of the Japanese
was such
that they enjoyed gran-
flourishing activity in the
world of
art.
Upon
the death of
Hideyoshi in 1598 the country was again thrown into a
of warfare, which
Tokugawa
state
lasted for the next several years, imtil
leyasu succeeded in subduing the rival famihes
and became supreme
ruler
of Japan.
deur and splendor. Both in the fme and applied arts the delicate
forms and rich colors reflected a feeling of vigor. Skilled artisans
and
artists
were retained by the new daimyo
as part
of their households, for the decoration of their great residences
and
castles
Even lines
with works of
art in this
sensitive
its
The precise and complicated designs
of the Muromachi became
clear
The
fme
brush strokes was replaced by brilliance of
color and striking designs.
IN THE
EDO
age of gold and color.
the lacquer art of the preceding period with
and
DEVELOPMENT OF LACQUER PERIOD
and simplified and extremely
as
siege
and
fall
of Osaka
castle in the
year 161 5, wliich
we have seen marks the beginning of the Edo or Tokugawa
period, brought
no
cessation
of artistic
creativity.
The domi-
nance of the Tokugawa family over Japan, which lasted
until
257
1
867,
is
the period in
which the feudal system reached
its full
A
form.
particular lacquer technique called togidashi
maturity. As a result of the so-called Christian Rebellion of
the distinguishing features of the
Shimabara in 1637, the cessation of intercourse with the outworld closed the ports to foreign ships. A few Dutch and
who
side
Chinese were
allowed to
remain in Nagasaki and a limited
number of trading ships amiuaUy called at the port to exchange goods. From a cultural standpoint the stoppage of overseas travel
and trade was a
serious handicap, but as the country
progressed under the pohcy of isolation, the Japanese raised their artistic resources to
greater heights.
still
patronized Chinese learning.
promoted
and
with
its
practical
The study of this philosophy
wisdom, and the
teacliings
demand
ware. There was a large style,
is
a dehcate inlay
the early part of the eighteenth century the deco-
work in lacquer began to assume an indigenous style. The painter Ogata Kor in, 1658-1716, a follower of Hon-ami Koetsu, produced some of the most original lacquer work of Tokugawa
period, typically Japanese in design, color, and
He
expression.
rose to
fame in the Genroku era (1688-1704),
most prosperous time under the Tokugawa rule, when luxury and extravagance reached a climax. Korin was one of the
Japan's greatest painters,
them on a smooth polished surface. This magnificent
to reveal
work was developed
to
finished quality of ex-
its
and the name of Masanari
cellence in the eighteenth century,
was inherited by many generations of distinguished
The development of the
art
by the devotees of the
noted in previous chapters,
followers.
of lacquer was greatly stimu-
tea
and incense ceremonies. As
many
utensils for use in these
Tokugawa work. The
elegance of the
designs, executed
and in his lacquer work he combined
bamboo, folding
blades of grass,
fans, sheaves is
charming small lacquer medicine boxes
the
of grain, and
work on
called uiro,
were popular among the samurai and merchant
class
When
the Meiji period
lacquer in
its
but with the
traditional
was ushered
form went
are well
distinguished (Plates 17
and
known, such
Hanzan, Ritsuo, Kyui, and the
as
members of the famihes of Koma and Koami 18). Of great importance to the art of Japan was
the estabhshment, in the beginning of the
of a famous school of lacquer for
more than
three
generation and this
school at
hundred
Koma
its
in Edo,
artists
years.
Tokugawa which
period,
flourished
The Koami of the
eighth
new govermnent
firmly estabhshed and an up-
surge of prosperity, the art was revived standing lacquerists.
by
Among them may
Shosai, Ikeda Taishin,
a
number of out-
be cited Shirayama
Ogawa Shomin, Kawanobe
Itcho,
was apprenticed
One of the most Yamamoto
period was
latter part
Shunsho,
who was
its
Their
members work was
with a
258
seal
Tokugawa
active in
Kyoto
of the seventeenth century, and whose
famed is
known and most widely collected article of work. The decorative lacquer work on inro
Japanese lacquer
reached
its
height in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
with the great demand by the merchants for ornaments which
would
vie with the ornamental sword-guards or tsuha of the
daimyo and samurai.
THE USES OF LACQUER
tionally
distinctive Japanese articles
made
in lacquer. Typical
soup bowl with
its
cover,
which is
is
and
said to
the soup, and the lacquered sake cups.
utensils
were
tradi-
the Japanese lacquered
improve the
taste
of
Used at weddings, these
of three, and are in the form
on by
selected descendants for ten genera-
sake cups or sakazuki were in
famed Kagikawa school founded by
of extremely shallow bowls graduating in diameter from two
Kagikawa Kujiro, who inaugurated
by
is
of inro lacquer. The inro
also the
carried
There was
greatest masters
Koma
probably the best
Many celebrated lacquer artists of the
tions.
one of the
and
to
of the
eleven generations.
work was
as
of
Kito-ye were the respective heads of
inception. In 1636 lemitsu, the third
Tokugawa Shoguns, appointed Koma as Court Lacquerer, a post which was held by the Koma family of lacquerers for
during the
this
in, the ancient art
Kwansei when he was only eleven years of age, and
names
of
into a temporary decline,
sober effects quite in keeping with his style of painting. There
of the Edo period whose
the
which
period of feudal rule.
Sliibata Zeshin. Zeshin, 1807- 1891,
artists
with
beautifid colors in a purely Japanese manner, include wistaria,
a sculptural treatment and a sparing use of gold to produce
were many great lacquer
down
then fmaUy rubbed
is
chrysanthemums. Especially beautiful
rative
the
which
mastery of the various lacquer techniques stamp the fmished
of shell in black lacquer.
Around
colors,
on lacquer
for lacquer in the Chinese
and the somada technique, which
and
ceremonies were of lacquer. The exquisite workmanship and
sages,
in particular the carved red-and-black lacquer called
chinhinbori,
coats of lacquer in
silver
was
of the
responsible for the Chinese influence in the designs
to 1736. Togidashi
gold or
lated
one of
many
of building up a design with
lacquer
is
Masanari,
Kyoto from about 1716
consists
There was a
strong revival of Confucianism, and the ruling class
flourished at
work of Shiomi
continuously for signed with the
traditions
handed down
over two hundred
name of the
years.
school together
of jar-shaped contour, which varied widely in
its
to three inches
They
from
are placed one
sets
the smallest one to the largest of the
on top of the other upon
set.
a square lac-
quered stand specially made to hold them. At a wedding the bride and bridegroom observe the ceremony o( san-san-kudo,
A
set
of lacquer boxes having a cover showing a river landscape with
trees,
takamakie enriched with kirikane on a ground o/nashi-ji. The Victoria and Albert Museum.
etc.,
in
mountains, a mill, a country house, boats, a cottage, temples,
three
Tokugawa
crests are inlaid in gold.
Lacquer century.
of
writing
Early eighteenth century.
box.
The cover on
rocks,
rushes,
Early
eighteenth
the right has a design
and a stream
in
gold
takamakie, enriched with kirikane
tfith
two mandarin ducks of various
on a
black ground.
The frame on
colors
the
left
is
decorated with a motif of waves and clouds in gold togidashi, containing
an oval ink-
stone and silver crane-shaped water dropper
enriched with gold.
Victoria
and Albert
Museum.
259
meaning three
threes are nine,
when
they sip three times out
by which they pledge their marriage vows. According to Japanese behef three means different sake cups,
of three
good
kick,
and san-san-kudo therefore
An
happy union.
wish for a
attractive article for personal use
name given
kodansu, the
signifies the
the
is
to a lacquered rectangular cabinet
with two small cupboard doors enclosing a nest of drawers. average height
Its
fifteen inches,
with
and
about thirteen inches,
is its
but also serves
width about
depth about twelve inches. The kodansu,
fmely lacquered interior portions and
its
hasps and lock plate,
is
its
chased brass
not only a beautiful decorative object
as a dressing case for jewelry, handkerchiefs,
and other small
of personal
articles
reserved for feminine use It is
its
is
the
use.
kimono
Another object
tray or midaro kago.
very large lacquered tray characterized by deep
a
the fmest quahty black lacquer with the
made of
generally
sides,
family crest or mon executed in gold in the center.
kimono
tray
is
placed
two-panel screen
was
is
on
The
the tatami or matted floor, and a
generally placed in front of
it.
The
a dressing-room accessory for a Japanese lady to
tall
tray
drop her
of various types are important household
living, lacquer trays accessories. Kasaiic,
given to a
meaning one over the
upon the other
stacked
The
arrangement.
to
tr^ Qt ozen.
form
is
furnished with a
This custom
made is
sits
on the
inns.
The
about one square foot in
and cake and and
is
trays are either flat
tatami floor, Japanese fashion.
Ozen
the different courses, the ozen size.
observed in some
made in various sizes for most commonly used being are
A
very small ozen
is
also for sake. Essentially the ozen
used for is
a very
generally lacquered black, deep red, or dull
orange monochrome. At a regular Japanese dinner, a guest frequently provided with
When
a
short straight legs, at a convenient height
'of individual trays is still
homes and
plain tray
is
Traditionally the Japanese used individual dining
for the diner as he
tea
lid. It is
and serves many purposes, one of which
mounted on very
Japanese
name one
that
a block-like or box-like
trays rather than a large dining table.
or
the
is
generally comprises three and
kasane
occasionally five trays and in various sizes
other,
of lacquered trays so designed
tier
two
side trays besides the
these lacquer trays are placed
upon the
is
main one.
tatami floor
kimono and other clothing into, which could then be removed
before each guest with the various small porcelain dishes and
by
bowls, they present an attractive and colorful
a servant.
An important article for use in the home and in the tea and incense ceremonies
was the lacquered incense box
called a
kobako or kogu, which was one of the choice pieces on which the artist lavished his fmest work.
Lacquered cabinet consisting of one large and six small drawers within
two folding
carved
wood,
green, red,
In
doors.
lacquered
black,
and yellow. Details
finished in guri (carv.ed lacquer).
The
front
dragons,
is
birds,
with
decorated
and clouds
in
panels with borders of peaches; the lower drawer, with peaches
on geometric ground, framed by key-pattern inside
black
border.
of doors carved
The
in intaglio
with flowers in vases and other motifs on
black ground; gourd
plants on fronts of drawers. Gilt
metal
fittings.
century.
Museum. 260
Late eighteenth
Victoria
and
Albert
Due
to the Japanese
way of
effect in the
elegant simplicity of the Japanese room.
Among
the
quer were the paper called
many
other articles traditionally
shikishi bako, a
shikishi,
box
made
in lac-
for small square pieces
which were used
for writing
of
poems; the
Tray for smoking
Left: in
trees in the distance.
Edo
Black-lacquer ground with a design
set.
gold hiraniakie depicting
men towing
a boat upstream and pine
Tokyo
period, early nineteenth century.
National Museum.
Below: of its
Lacquer document box showing the exquisite work of one
sides
of pavilions with court nobles, a lake and garden,
Border of conventional flowers and
scrolls
etc.
gold and silver
in
hiraniakie enriched with gold and silver foil on black ground. Mideighteenth century. Victoria
box in which
bento bako, a picnic
tabako bon or
tebako or large deep
box or
to carry food
and drink; the
smoking box for the ash tray and charcoal; the
dispatch
box for holding paper;
box used
for the delivery
the hasami bako, a lacquered traveling
the fubako, a letter
of letters by hand
box or
chest for clothes,
which was carried at the end of a pole resting over the shoulder of a
carrier; the cha bako or
natsume or lacquer
box
box for tea-ceremony
for holding
powdered
utensils; the
the cha-ire
tea,
carriages
and Albert Museum.
was embeUished with
work of superb
quality,
and the
rich
and elaborate lacquer
draft animal,
some proportions, was covered with highly ornate vehicles,
as
they were for the special use of the
Emperor, the Shogun, and
their
immediate
made of fme
lacquer work.
It
projected sufficiently at either end to allow
the exception
of some of the
interior appointments
in the palaces
and great mansions of the nobles and feudal lords in early times, almost
all articles
However, some of the
of lacquer ware were small in
vehicles
employed from ancient times
until the Meiji Restoration are magnificent art
size.
examples of the
of lacquer. These conveyances were ox-drawn carriages
used only by people of the highest rank, and the norimono (palanquin)
which served
to carry aristocrats
high position. The ox-carriages were of great
and
officers
size
of
with two
huge wooden wheels; they were adorned with curtains of the fmest
bamboo
cords and
craftsmanship suspended in front, and thick
tassels
of plaited
silk.
The whole of these
great ox-
The
resembled a miniature Japanese
or five swords.
were decorated with red-and-black lacquer
families.
palanquin or norimono was usually very ornate, often being
house slung by
With
of brilhantly
colored sUks. Great care and expense was lavished upon these
or tea jar; and the katana kake, or rack for holding either three
that
an ox of hand-
a caparison
its
shoulders of carriers.
roof-ridge
The only
from
a massive pole it
to rest
which
on the
other form of conveyance was
the kago, an open palanquin, of V-shaped construction in cross-section,
shoulders of
which was slung from
two
porters.
The
kago,
a pole that rested
on the
which was the humblest
of the vehicles considered appropriate for the upper
classes, is
occasionally depicted in Japanese color prints. These three vehicles represented the
when
manner of travel
until the year 1870,
a Japanese invented the jinrikisha, the use
of which
eventually spread through the whole of the Far East. Nevertheless, the still
magnificence of the lacquered ox-carriages can
be appreciated
when these pieces are
used to represent the
Shogun's retinue in the procession of the Jidai Matsuri, the aimual festival of the Heian shrine at Kyoto. During the Edo
261
jjy
**irfftff
Ma|jfHii^;
Lacquer picnic
Left:
and a
set consisting
offour boxes
showing over-all geometric
large -tray
patterns and sprays of cherry blossom, in shell inlay on ro-iro. Also included in the set are one
sake cup and two sake bottles in bronze tvith
flower-shaped
and
Early
nineteenth
Victoria
and Albert Museum.
Right:
Enlarged
The shells with
and
depicting flowers,
century.
of lacquer decoration on
detail
a writing-box table.
'
applied and silver stoppers
crests
mount-piece.
their interiors
the one shell with a design
of an Imperial ox-carriage, are
takamakie
in
enriched with shell fl«(/kirikane on coarse hirame
ground. Early nineteenth century. Victoria and
Albert
when
period brated,
it
the Hiiia Matsuri, or Doll's Festival,
became the fashion
in
Kyoto
to
was
cele-
ornament the doU
stand with miniature reproductions of a bride's outfit of the
kind used by an aristocratic family. Included
among
the
various articles was a miniature ox-carriage with an exquisite over-all decoration
with delicate gold and colored lacquer
work. These beautiful pieces have continued to be used
until
by steeping
Although
in water.
this
sible for killing the tree, several
the roots.
enough
Within
tapping process
new
shoots
grow
six or seven years the tree
and these
for tapping,
is
is
respon-
from
again
again mature
of growth and tapping
cycles
continue for an extended length of time before the tree be-
comes completely drained of its thus obtained
wooden
is
a gray liquid
when exposed
then black
the present time during the Dolls' Festival.
Museum.
strength.
The crude
lacquer
which turns yellow-brown and
to the
tubs to be stirred and
This sap
air.
pounded
placed in
is
so as to produce a
uniform consistency, and then the impurities are removed by
TECHNIQUES OF LACQUER
of cloth. The
straining through pieces
the rays of the sun or over a very
The technique and methods and
its
practice
of Far Eastern lacquer,
materials, are different
its
which of
is
nothing more than a varnish consisting of a solution
shellac in alcohol,
produced from vernicifera,
Chinese and Japanese lacquer
true lacquer. This
which
in the best
is
work
work
is
the sap of a tree, the Rhus
used in
is
its
natural state,
and only processed for the removal of excess water and impurities.
The
tree
vated in Japan from
mentioned,
its
was indigenous to China, and was
tapping trees
cultivation in this early period
when
As previously
at least the sixth century.
encouraged by Imperial decree. The lacquer
culti-
was constantly is
obtained by
they are about ten years old,
this
being
done during the season from June to September. The
trees
are tapped with groups of horizontal incisions starting
from
the foot of the tree and continuing
upward
in alternating
Branches of one-inch diameter and
series
from
more
are also tapped after the bark has been removed, while
left to right.
the smaller branches,
which yield a
particular
quaUty of sap
for special uses, called seshime, are cut off and their sap collected
262
is
then heated by
fire to
evaporate the
excess water content.
The pecuhar
from any other type
of lacquer work. In contrast to the European so-called lacquer,
fluid
low
quaUties
and
Japanese lacquer account for kind, and for its
its
of Chinese and
characteristics its
any other
superiority over
distinctive beauty. Far Eastern lacquer attains
extreme hardness by being subjected to moisture during
the drying process. Actually a lacquered article
"damp box" many each coat this
applied during the course of work.
is
is
placed in a
times, this procedure being repeated after
As
a result of
drying method, the lacquer becomes so hard that for
final
treatment
it
the utmost degree of smoothness.
and most
brilliant polish
fme burnt
It
can be given the richest
by rubbing with deer-horn
It is
owing
that the Japanese
is
remarkable for
its
ashes,
Lacquer treated
clay, or other similar materials.
through these processes
and heat.
its
can be ground dowoi with a whetstone to
resistance to acid
to the extreme durability of lacquer
have been able to use
it
for
many
ware
centuries
for their household utensils.
The principal method of making lacquer ware has remained same for centuries. The article to be lacquered is generally
the
made of a
variety of white pine with a soft
and even
grain.
Lacquer smoking cabinet
shape of a six-panel screen
in
with three drawers, the upper part fitted with lacquer
box with inro-shaped
tobacco
and
ashes,
cover,
box for
silver
with pouch-shaped cover;
silver stove
and chased with conventional
gilt
floral scrolls.
Cabinet
and
the back
decorated on front with various flowers
with Chinese sages engaged in various amusements; in gold and silver togidashi on polished black ground in
fundame. Early
panels on gold
by the woodworker, its made smooth and prepared with a coat of seshime
more than five hundred separate
After the article has been shaped
times
surface
are required to
fill
processes. It can
be seen that the
is
lacquer to provide an even base to receive the successive series
of layers.
A
coat of lacquer composition
then laid on and
is
smoothed with a whetstone. The next coat composition made of lacquer and burnt
down and then laid away to Then
a
dry for no
less
adhesive, over
which is
ground
applied as an
is
again put
is
this
away
to dry for about
coating of cloth
coat of fme lacquer composition and the article this process is
is
repeated
many
is
is
apphed a
again dried
times. After these several
in a square inch
Through
the artisan and the
periods represents
pieces
of foil fragments
of design in these two
many
processes necessary to
ware required laborious and pains-
the finest lacquer
taking work.
the ingenuity and remarkable
artist,
skill
of
Japanese lacquer ware of the great
some of the fmest
pieces
of craftsmanship
ever executed anywhere in the world.
The
affixed a layer of flax cloth or Japanese
twenty-four hours. Over
and
more refmed
which
than twelve hours.
mixture of rice paste and lacquer
paper, and the article
a
is
clay,
make
nineteenth century.
and Albert Museum.
Victoria
different techniques
artist to create these
The foUowing
employed by the Japanese lacquer
masterpieces have special designations.
concise descriptions or definitions cover
important Japanese lacquer methods. Hira-makie in
low
relief,
being built up with lacquer in
is
all
pure
its
the
decoration state.
repeated coatings an apphcation of very hard lacquer
is
given,
Taka-makie refers to decoration in relief of varying depth,
and
is
fmely
built
after
an extended drying period the surface
ground. Following
ten or
this,
more
of lacquer are
coats
up with a lacquer composition
consisting of wliite lead,
a lacquer putty, lampblack, powder,
and camphor, and
quently enriched with gold or silver
down and polished until the object so treated is then ready for work of decorating.
minute, irregularly shaped pieces of gold or silver
the artist to begin his
The
artist
generally executes his design in outline with a
thin paste of white lead and then
fills
in the details of the
design with colors of metal dust or
foil.
This
transparent lacquer and polished.
the designs are built
is
applied
aid of a tiny silver,
covered with
When rehef work is desired
up with a heavy
lampblack, camphor, and black lacquer. dust
is
paste
of white
When
on the painted decoration,
it is
gold or
lead, silver
done with the
bamboo tube or with a quill. After applying gold,
and other metallic
filings
or powders, several polishing
separately
on the
surface.
Hakeme
foil.
is
apphed to
lacquer which shows the brush marks. Nashi-ji
foil
Many
on the
surface
successive layers
placed
a surface is
sembling the skin of a pear. Minute flakes of gold or sprinkled
fre-
Hirame is made with
apphed, each requiring time to dry and each being rubbed
work
of re-
silver are
and covered with a coat of lacquer.
of this process are applied, each being
hardened before applying the next. After the desired number
of coats are applied, the surface
is
rubbed to
which produces color tones ranging from
a
a
high polish
golden to a deep
red or brown, depending upon the depth or number of coats used. This technique reached
its
highest degree of perfection
processes are necessary to produce the proper luster. In the
during the fifteenth century. Hiramc-nashi-ji refers to the
decorative processes using fragments of gold or silver
hirame
such
as in hirame
employed
or kirihame work, a pointed
to apply each
wooden
foil,
tool
is
minute piece individually. Some-
method when
applied in
Mura-ttashi-ji applies to nashi-ji
many coats of varying depth. when it is marred by an un-
even distribution of the gold and
silver. Giobu-nashi-ji
means 263
covered with sprinkled gold
or'"silver filings. In sabi-ji, the
lacquering is done to imitate the surface of rusty iron. Togidashi is
an unusually beautiful form of lacquer work in which the
design
is
up with many
built
coats of lacquer in gold or silver
and colors and then rubbed down is
to reveal them.
also applied to black-and-gold lacquer
The term
work. Zokoku-nuri
ha^ the design carved out and fdled in with colored lacquer
and then rubbed down. The name
Zokoku,
who
tury,
working
a lacquer artist
said to
is
derived from Tamakaji
is
in the late eighteenth cen-
have invented
this process.
and gold, overlaid upon each other so
silver,
Wakasa-nuri
ofvaripas mottled lacquer colors, such as black, white,
consists
produce
as to
Lacquered box with tray decorated with convcntiotial chrysanthe-
mums and stream
pattern in bands of gold
Copper mounts
black ground.
century. Victoria
in
hirame and
form o/kiri
crests.
nashi-ji on
Late nineteenth
cloud motifs or similar
effects.
represents
topmost
coat. Negoro-nuri
on carved wood. Guri layers
of gold
particles
foil
intermixed on the
mottled rcd-and-black lacquer
is
refers to the process
of applying several
of colored lacquer and carving the design with deeply
lacquer
a
is
outlined with gold or silver
which only colored lacquers
in
name
is
derived from the
wood
of
consists
made
carved in
relief, originally
or black lacquer, and later with other colors. usually
plum blossoms and
backgrounds.
Chinkinbori
shallow engraving and refers to
fme gold and
is
said to
end of the twelfth century.
at the
It
coated with red
The designs were
peonies against rather bold diaper lacquer
represents
filled in
is
in the lacquer
and rubbed to produce a flat, didl finish on the surface.
Urushi-e,
was made. Tame-nuri
artist
was
is
said to
have been invented by Shunkei, a
of Sakai, in the
latter part
originally used as a polish for natural
wood, and
brown
color.
Roiro
is
the
name given by
of polished black lacquer roiro
lacquer with
its
the Japanese to the finest quahty
To produce
(Plate 15).
perfect black,
no
less
and exacting work when rubbing. The
a mosaic this ;
Kin-makie
is
a variety
of work having minute
as
method was introduced in the fifteenth century.
the term used to describe a
is
sheets
of lacquer
gold lacquer. Makie
term is now used in
literally
a general
ground covered with
means sprinkled
way to
picture,
and the
describe any kind of gold
or silver picture done on lacquer ware. Kingin-c refers to a lacquer process of the
Nara period prior to the development
of makie, in which the design gold or
silver
powder and
is
drawn with
glue. Shu-nuri
a
compound of
means cinnabar or
had
its
origin in the Heian
period and became very popular during
Kamakura times was
early lacquer process that
ikaki-ji,
264
in
tea
which the
entire surface, or a portion
of
it,
is
set
is
pewter, and gold or silver
work, which
is
most
careful
famous
tea master
the fashion of using black utensUs at the
ceremony. The name raden
shell,
of
taste for roiro lacquer
Momoyama period when the
Sen-no-Rikyu
given to a decoration of
The
used in
this
also called kanagai, are sea ear, nautilus,
and
similar nacreous shells. Lacquer
foil.
shells
ware having
raden decoration
was made as early as the eighthcentury in Japan, and articles made with this kind of work have been preserved in the Shosoin Treasure Repository of the Todaiji temple
at
ever since they were donated by the Empress-Regnant in 765.
red lacquer.
An
began in the
a piece
than twenty to
thirty processes are required, each involving the
silver inlaid separately in the surface
later
fmishing coat of lacquer having a transparent reddish-
as a
colored lacquers. Mo^MfMe represents the imitation of the grain
of gold or
lac-
of the fourteenth century.
or lacquer picture, has the decoration painted in black or
of wood. Kiribame
the
is
which
used as a finishing coat over a colored lacquer ground.
quer It
called tsugaru-nuri.
is
to a transparent dark brownish-red lacquer
Shunkei-nuri
with gold lacquer. Fundame
powder worked
silver
with
traced
and then
The Daimyo of Tsugaru, on whose
feudal estate this type of lacquer
called tsui-shiu. Kamakura-bori lacquer decoration
technique
ground down to a smooth fmish
name given
it is
A
are intermingled
wire with lacquer inlaid in the spaces between.
colored layers. This process originated in China, where
first
is
designs are con-
technique which imitates cloisonne
cut V-shaped channels to reveal the edges of the various
have been
its
ventionalized with mottled and irregular patterns. Zogan-nuri
and Albert Museum.
work having
zonsei-nuri technique
rather similar to zokoku-nuri, except that
enamel, in which the design nashi-ji
The
Many famous
raden decoration
A
great
raden,
on
Nara
Koken
temples of the early periods contained
altars, pillars,
number of sword
and on other
interior parts.
scabbards were decorated with
which was very fashionable with the warrior
class.
XVIII Inro, Netsuke, Yatate, Tobacco Pouch and Pipe Case, and Hiuchi-Bukuro
N NO BRANCH of the applied arts is Japanese decorative genius more in evidence than in none has more exquisite lacquer vi^ork been lav-
imprint of the finger or hand
with designs by the foremost
the ministers, and others as early as the
I .
inro,
and in
ished, often
artists
of the time.
This small and beautiful object has no counterpart in any other country, and
is
probably the favorite and most widely
collected article of Japanese lacquer
work. For several centuries
the term inro has been applied to the miniature medicine case carried
by the Japanese gentleman, hanging from
or obi.
The word
to hold seals
misnomer, Since the
(in),
his girdle
originally signified a vessel or basket
and although the name
is
(ro)
something of a
an aid in determining the origin of the inro.
it is
name literally means seal basket, it therefore suggests
that originally the inro
had no comiection with medicine.
of the leisured
class,
the masses using crosses, circles, or the
ment. In Japan various
when
official seals
affixing a sign
was not
until
Nara period, and leading persons, that the practice
made of hardwood
or lampblack mixed with relatively
classes.
all
or ivory and bears the
person in raised or incised characters
made. Since
;
it is
impression can be
few persons were able to sign with an edict was issued early in the
seventeenth century wliich permitted the lower classes to use a legal
seal,
while
same time forbidding the use
at the
seal to the nobility
and to
all
grades of the military class
except by special permission. At that time
The
inro in
its
preseht
It
inference that
name its
origin
may
carried suspended
is
is
shrouded
even the erroneous
flint, steel,
from the
the
was derived from the
be traced back to the
bukuro, a receptacle for holding
was
true origin
it
and there
implies,
made around
first
its
has been suggested that
seal case, as the
and
tinder,
other than the kakihan, but as time went
on
even became a legal
rule that
girdle in ancient times.
It is
official
people and
seal, a
practice wliich exists to the
A number of passages in sixteenth-century Japanese records refer to inro or seal
boxes of Chinese
making
one's impression,
the Christian era, the seal article its
among
influence
the Cliinese,
upon
and that they soon evolved into
From
ancient times, and long before
was regarded
as a
most important
and when Chinese culture exerted
the Japanese in the seventh century, the seal
attained a relatively high position in the life of those times.
Though the science of written characters is of ancient origin in Asia, until recent times
it
was reserved
to the small
group
made of carved red
style
or black lacquer, generally about four inches in diameter,
five shallow
or chop
the use of the seal
present day.
round or square, and consisting of a
seal
it
document or other writing would be
vaUd without the personal
hiuchi-
which
no
all
they are presently known, were used to hold a
portable inedicine cases.
was considered
became general among
most likely that many of the earlier inro, in the form by which
for
it
a breach of etiquette and a lack of respect to use anything
form was
middle of the sixteenth century, but in mystery.
The seal is name of the
inked with cinnabar
oil so that the
their kakihan, or written seal,
of a
ORIGINS OF THE INRO
docu-
around the sixteenth century
became common among people of usually
a
among
although their use was rather general it
on
were used by the Emperor,
is
boxes
fitting into
illustrated in a Japanese
series
each other.
of from three to
An inro of this type
book published
in 1523,
and shows
the four round cases secured together with a cord which passes
up through apertures on
bow
at the
either side.
bottom and has
the inro could be carried about
on which the
mental designs, and the
seal
and ojimc
tied
with a
at the
top so
is
by hand. Because of the
importance attached to individuals' valuable objects
The cord
a netsuke
artist
seals,
great
they soon became
worked
beautiful orna-
boxes also became fine works of
265
art so they could
be placed upoA a shelf in the chigai-dana or
shelved alcove.
The
original inro seal boxes
from damage by enclosed carried
by
from China were protected
a brocade or leather bag,
which
a sheathing cover having a cord so
by hand, hung by
in turn
was
could be
it
a neck chain, or attached to the
From presumptive evidence these outer containers are beheved to have been made of plaited work, because the Chinese often used fmely woven bags and baskets made of gifdle.
reeds or thread-hke
of bamboo. Receptacles of this kind
splits
were frequently lacquered were used
practical inro
on each
to
make them more
many
for a great
side, to
China around the
o/rcJkamakura-bori
Inro
hold the
seal
attendant on one side and a in
ho-o
bird on the other, with top carved
openwork design of conventional flowers and
posed of two glass,
and
cases.
the netsuke
and white
blue,
leaves. It is
Early eighteenth century. The ojime is
of carved wood depicting Hotei in
lacquer. Victoria
com-
of green
is
red,
and Albert Museum.
trom
and
as
roots, flowers, parts
cliief ingre-
of animals, and
early times the Japanese
lacquer sJwwiiig a Chinese sage with an travellers,
and the oily substance. The
was introduced into Japan from
century of our era, and the
first
were herbs,
From very
minerals.
The more
of Chinese origin had two compartments, one
science of preparing medicines
dients used
durable, and
purposes in Japan.
were seasoned
drugs were apt to spoil during a long trip
were
the heat or the moisture, they
carried in small bags
or receptacles of wood, bamboo, bone, or horn and suspended
from the are a
girdle. Preserved
number of small
probably used
as
among
receptacles
the treasures in the Shosoin
of Chinese origin that were
medicine boxes
when
enclosed in sUk net
bags and attached to the girdle. Special containers used in ancient times for keeping drugs in houses are mentioned in
writings of the
Kamakura period, where they are called ktisuri-
bako, or medicine boxes.
The
records say these kusuri-bako
Were used during the Early Heian period (794-897) and describe them as lacquered boxes measuring over one foot square and containing
several vessels for medicines.
date the kusuri-bako tied
was made
At some
later
into a small portable container
with cords in which to carry drugs. This was called a
yakuro,
and came into the category of sagemono, or hanging
things.
Lacquer was the preferred material for these boxes or
containers because
keep them
fresh. It
it
was believed
to preserve the drugs
seems that until the
late
average Japanese carried only one pouch, which was leather or basketwork,
medicines, and
and was used to keep
flint, steel,
and
and
Middle Ages the
made of
his amiolet, seal,
tinder. Feudal lords
and court
nobles often carried receptacles which were indiscriminately called inro.
They
consisted of several superimposed cases
similar to the Chinese seal
box and were beautifully lacquered
or carved.
Guri (carved-lacquer) in a grove
Four
cases.
lacquer
of a
of bamboo
and
Manju
inro with Chinese sages
atid pines, with
Seventeenth century. depicts
The ojime (bead)
guri
lacquer,
is
of guri
is in
the form
and shows Chinese hoys
and an over-all geometric ground. Both date from
266
their attendants
Chinese boys at play. The netsuke
cake, in
century. Victoria
and
an over-all geometric ground.
and Albert Museum.
at
THE TYPES OF INRO
play In the latter part of the seventeenth century the inro with
the late seventeenth its
netsuke, or toggle,
became a
veritable
work of art. The
inro in
fully
its
developed form
and held in position by a
other,
bottom and
the
Above
composed of
is
a nest
cord which passes across
silk
through channels on the
to the top
of
each
fitting tightly into
superimposed tiny cases or boxes,
sides.
the top of the inro the cord passes through a sliding
bead called gether,
and
which keeps the
ojime,
cases tightly secured to-
attached to the netsuke at the end. Although
is
single-case inro are
sometimes found, they generally consist
of from two to seven
cases,
with the interiors of the two-case
form double compartments,
inro occasionally subdivided to
The majority of
each furnished with a tiny tray.
inro are
and are composed of from three to
elliptical in section,
five
with the usual dimensions being from three to four
cases,
inches in height, and
from two
to
two and
a half inches in
width, with their depth about three-quarters of an inch. Other
forms in which inro were made range from rectangular, cylindrical,
and hexagonal to octagonal in
section.
Some
examples of inro are in the form of a miniature cabinet having
Ro-iro
small drawers and even a space for a tiny spoon. Particularly
and
interesting sisting
a device to enclose
is
and protect the
iruro,
con-
of a kind of sheath, frequently of openwork to permit
a portion
of the inro decoration to be
seen.
Although the
cases,
two bugaku masks
with inlay of gold and
in
takamakie ofgold Composed offive
shell.
with two cases hauing double compartments. Late eighteenth
century.
go
lacquer inro with
colors, enriched
The ojime
is
a carved
wood mask and
W takamakie in the form of a box for masks.
the netsuke
Victoria
is
of
and Albert
Museum. beauty and fmeness of an inro
its artistic
design, the extraordinary accuracy with
workmanship and which the small
determined by
is
cases are fitted to each other
is
worthy of
consideration. These small articles, with their difficult curves in related succession, are skillfully
wood The
or leather core being
exactoess to
which
and
worked
this
delicately
made, the
an extreme thinness.
to
core has been carved and the
perfection with wliich the cases
fit
into
one another represents
the fmest quality of woodworking and craftmanship
known.
The majority of inro
made of
plain
are lacquered, but they are also
and polished wood, of wood
ivory, or shell,
inlaid
with various metals,
and occasionally of carved wood.
In jesthetic quality inro reached their apex during the
During the second half of the Tokugawa number of schools of inro became famous for designs, shapes, and colors. However, due to the
Tokugawa
period.
period a large particular
lack of descriptive detail in existing records,
it is
not possible
to ascertain the development of subsequent shapes as
siderably,
into
two
cord. In
on
of the inro
they became fashionable. Although their shapes vary con-
one particular feature separates the majority of inro categories,
some
depending upon the disposition of the
inro the cord channels are inside the body, and
others the channels protrude along either side in the
of tubes. In the former type with
form
invisible channels the inro
tends to be elliptical in section, while in the latter type with external channels the shape
toward the
sides.
is
flatter in section
and tapers
Occasionally inro are found having a rec-
tangular or hexagonal cross-section with wider central sections
Ro-iro
lacquer inro having the design
of a
cottage, a
pine
tree,
and
a charm under the eave of the roof to exorcise demons and evil spirits.
The
decoration
is
in
takamakie of gold,
silver, red,
and brown.
Early nineteenth century. Signed Tatsuke Kukio. The cylindrical-
shaped ojime
is
ornamented with twisted bands of gold,
bronze, tJH
ivood goat. Victoria and Albert
is in
the form
silver,
of a carved-
Museum. 267
were popular during the second half of the eighteenth
these
The top and bottom
century.
surfaces
convex with a gentle curve
slightly
a slight step
may
be either
at the edges,
or
flat
flat,
with
around the edge.
These variations are not
restricted to
any one type of inro
but are used interchangeably in an endless variety of different
combinations according to the individual
of the
taste
artist.
In the sheath inro mentioned above, the superimposed cases are slipped into a closely fitting sheath.
open
at the top, contains the
on the bottom
upward with
surface so that the series
The drawer
the finger.
composed of the
The
sheath,
which
is
cord channels and has an aperture
of cases can be pushed inro, instead
of being
R^ddish-broii'fi lacquer inro shaded
with fundame, representing
ruma
in a sack;
and at
his feet
of a single century.
at the
usual cases or compartments, opens
a panel that slides within grooves, or
When
bottom.
on one
body with utmost
delicately
worked
sliding panel
by a panel hinged
open, the interior reveals a
tiny drawers, each having a minute
the
a whisk. It consists
case.
Early nineteenth
The ojime
a silver
is
bead inlaid with gold. The netsuke is
by
side
is
precision.
knob and
series o.
fitted witliin
The cord
of carved wood and represents
Fukurokuju, one of the seven gods
of good fortune. Albert
and behind the drawers on the other its
of the of the
side
distinctive
This method
times resulted in minute shrinkage, causing
at
the cases of these inro to lose their precision-like
form, a small percentage of examples dating from the middle
ditional techniques used in
of the nineteenth century onward were made
intricate, painstaking,
as novelties in
wide variety of shapes.
only applying his
fit.
The
the fuier examples
to the exterior but
artisan
making
particularly noted for this
core, those of
work. The
not
the interior
There existed a branch of inro
making the
tra-
were
artisans
Kyoto being was
greatest precision
required, as the sections had to be so constructed that sufficient
The
case or
and the
body of the
The
earliest
inro were
made of leather,
examples continued to be made in the same
finest
material.
core usually consisted o( hiiioki cypress covered
with a strong and finely cured ox-leather. Occasionally inro
were produced by a very
delicate
method
in
which the body
was mostly composed of lacquer. The craftsman would use
as
core a very thin skin from a dog or cat, which was
his
saturated with lacquer, then covered with a piece
mulberry paper and, when
final
form and given many
used in a great
sufficiently dry,
coats of lacquer.
number of inro
of fme cloth
shaped to
more
susceptible to
From
its
A simpler process
consisted of a hinoki core
which
required fewer coatings of lacquer, but at the same time it
specialized in
making
and time-consuming, the
skill
surfaces equally fme.
who
INRO TECHNIQUES
or
and
Victoria
Museum.
charmels are
so as to pass through the length
body. Apart from the characteristic inro with
a
Da-
he has glass eyes
made
damage.
easier
which
Tokugawa
period and
in turn encouraged the artisans to resort to
and quicker methods of production. These inferior inro
were made by fashioning and gluing together thin pliable sheets
of hinoki
wood
to
form
the core,
which was
saturated
with the juice of unripened persimmons, called shibu, to close the pores
and harden the wood. This was followed by several
coats ofsabi, a paste consisting
of raw lacquer and
clay,
which
prepared the surface for the fmal decoration and lacquering.
268
was allowed
to compensate for the
was necessary
to
would form an
make
open without
built
up on
to dry
these sections
the
strain.
fit
layers
of
so perfectly that they
same time be able to
Innumerable layers of
were
sabi
raw bodies of inro, each coat being allowed
and then rubbed down to a smooth
process created a hard surface
on which
lacquer to produce the fmished work. the
many
This calculated allowance
airtight union, but at the
slide
all
artist.
raw core of the inro
surface. This
to apply the layers of
It
was
so important for
to be perfectly seasoned to avoid
shrinkage or distortion, that the lacquer
artist
any
would keep
hanging from the ceiling for several years to acclimate
it
it
to
the variations of the weather.
the closing years of the
throughout the Meiji period there persisted a great demand for inro,
tolerance
lacquer to be applied by the
The remarkable and cover of a
precision with
fine inro
accomplishment and Japanese craftsman.
fit
which the
into one another
a tribute to the ingenuity
The
designs executed
sectional cases is
an amazing
and
on the
skill
of the
exterior of
inro are so perfectly carried through in the different sections that the joints are almost invisible.
The method of decorating
inro requires that the interior surfaces be fmished before any
work
is
commenced on
the exterior. These interior surfaces
are often finished in a red or black lacquer
monochrome,
particularly in the older examples, while the later ones
were
Fundame
lacquer into deco-
rated with a representation of the ceremony
of the
of winter. Daruma,
last
day
in metal-
work enriched with
gold,
looking through
ivindow
lined with shell
out oni
—by
a
is
and throwing
also in metalu'ork
scattering beans in the
traditional
manner.
posed of five
nineteenth century
Carved-ii'ood
com-
It is
form of a
Early
cases.
is
the heads
century.
carved
ornamented with
fundame
also
toria
and Albert Museum.
frequently finished with a dull gold-colored lacquer. casionally the outer surface
rims,
Oc-
of the tiny recessed portion of the
which form the ridge joining one
case to the other,
is
decorated with fme gold lines or a delicately engraved scroll pattern. Finishing the interior surfaces
stage in the
The ojime
wood
of carved wood, repre-
whole process of making
a
most important
fme
inro, especially
is
a
and Albert Museum.
removed between each particles
must be
especially tedious
The
when
of lacquer. Since the inro was considered the most important
manding high
by successive
of lacquer to make the joint neither too loose nor too
Of the two
methods practiced
in the subsequent
decorating the external surface, the one consisted of
a
first
clamping the
by applying
waxy
to the point
more
work of
generally used
became an
article
of luxury com-
fmest inro were usually executed
Ogata Korin, Hon-ami Koetsu, or Koami
With
all
cases
the cases thus
had an unbroken surface
stage in
work of cutting through the lacquer
with an extremely fme, sharp knife to separate the
sections.
To ascertain the proper line of cutting, the inro is very slightly warmed over a slow fire, which causes the waxy substance to melt on the inside of the body and
make
the cleft lines slightly
This cutting must be done with the greatest care and
would necessitate retouching
the lacquer
before the fmal pohshing operation and could easily result in certain discolorations.
The
alternate
method is fmer but more
tedious, the sections .being pasted together
each layer of lacquer.
When
and cut apart
after
each coat of lacquer has been
thoroughly dried and pohshed, it can be very skillfully cracked along the
cleft line
schools.
Many
of
by famous
the traditional taste of the Japanese nobility of ancient times
ground of the fmished decoration. The fmal
exactness, as an error
Kano
from or based upon kakemono
paintings, floor screens, or sliding doors
substance called bintsuke.
this process is the delicate
such as the masters of the Tosa and the designs were taken directly
of contact between the
on which to apply the several coats of colored lacquer required
visible.
artists as
it
The
cases or sections tightly to-
tightly fixed together, the artist then
for the
by such
prices.
Michinaga, or adapted from the works of the great painters
tight.
gether
is
technique of inro decoration involved principally the
allowed in the undecorated body
fully adjusted
ground away each time. This
practiced for high-relief lacquer.
various processes that were developed and applied in the art
accessory to costume,
is
operation, and any excess lacquer
closely
because of the extreme care required to see that the tolerance
layers
of
15
form of
in the
sents a cicada chrysalis. Vic-
Victoria
frame.
of
two monkeys and the netsuke,
of two manju danc-
gold and metal in a
ers in
the
in
three cases. Late nineteenth
and signed
Kajikawa. The kagamibuta tietsuke
inro
cicada, consisting
by warming
the fixing paste. In this
painstaking method the film of fixing
wax must be completely
the designs included scenes of court
life,
artists.
In
majestic landscapes,
the beautiful Japanese interpretation of waves,
snow
scenes,
ancient trees, exquisite flowers, and conventionalized motifs
of
and native
fans, plants,
architecture.
With
the
growing
wealth and cultural development of the chonin, or towTis-
new
decorative motifs ap-
actors
and other inhabitants
people, in the large urban areas, peared, inspired
by
the
Kabuki
of the Ukiyo, or Drifting World, of the Tokugawa period.
However, the new modes created by the demand of this new class
by
of society did not displace the traditional modes preferred
the upper classes.
With
the increase in wealth
large segment of the citizens the to increase, as
ment
it
(Plate 20).
demand
was usually the only
a
of personal adorn-
The pictorial designs were taken from legend,
mythology, scenes from the
famous views of Japan
No
drama and Kabuki
theater,
as depicted in color prints, stylized
motifs, representations of the gods subjects.
article
among
for inro continued
of good fortune, and other
Although the majority of inro were of lacquer, many 269
were made of metal, cloisonne, carved ivory,
beautiful inro
coral, tortoise shell,
carved wood, finely
woven basketwork
hardened with lacquer, and other materials.
Many
examples
of metal inro bear the signature offamous sword-mount artists.
however, a miniature inro
callc'd
kwaichu,
which could be
attached to the broacaded silk hanagami-hukuro, a sort of
folded pocketbook carried by
women. The
was used to contain such things
as
paper handkerchiefs and
rouge, and was carried in the breastfold of the
one corner
USES OF INRO
The
worn
gradually evolved
for utihtarian purposes to
value, an object
of virtu.
chants they not only
numbers
to be
(Plate 19).
It
To
inro was a recognized accessory of the costume of a
became
one having great
assthetic
was worn by the nobles and those of
it
the feudal mihtary its
disciples to
class.
articles
by
priests or
carrie,d^
costly objects purchased in great
subjects
were not depicted on inro
also collected as art objects
the fashion to
by famous artists, and
form
collections
these
were often arranged
of sets of
When
extremely fine examples of inro were
worn
or carried about,
when some were made to this rule
is
vertical
bamboo
times had
were
nine dress of the
Tokugawa
that matter the femi-
period did not permit sagcnwno,
or hanging things, or any kind of girdle pendant, because the
obi was very wide and
making
wound around the body several times,
a tight, hard, corset-like girdle, so that
for the netsuke
and cord
to be passed beneath
it
was
it.
difficult
his
flute called shakuhachi. Theoretically
gradually developed into an extremely beautiful object as an
was not worn by women. For
The exception
forms a part of the prescribed
costume of the komuso, a street-musician, who, with
cades for protection against damage. But, although the inro
works
still
religious
until the Meiji period,
head
hidden deep in a huge rush basket-like headpiece, plays a
belonged to a Buddliist
accessory to the costume, and the best were exquisite
monks, and therefore
for the export market.
that the iruro
they were often enclosed in beautiful containers of fine bro-
it
of personal adornment, the inro
was not
sliding frames in beautiful lacquered cabinets.
of art,
Because Buddhism does not allow
wear
daimyo and wealthy mer-
the
worn; they were
became
inro executed
on
from being an article primarily
kimono with
slightly protruding.
gentleman, and
The inro
flat
hanagami-hukuro
sect.
many
sect called
temples throughout the country, but they
actually itinerant priests unaffihated with
In feudal times komuso
still
any particular
were often samurai in
traveling about the country in search of an
they are
komuso
Fukeshu, which in early
seen playing their
bamboo
disguise,
enemy, but today
flutes
and begging for
alms from house to house. Until rather recent times elderly Japanese
men were often seen carrying an inro at the girdle of
the kimono, together with the pipe case and tobacco pouch,
There was,
and the kinchaku or money pouch.
181;^- 1892.
Netsuke of wood and various materials
^-Vv^^
'^^U^t^ Amhernetsuke of a chrysanthemum. Signed Kaigyoku,
Edo
period. Collection Charles
A.
Greenfield,
New
York,
containing a Buddhist
bell,
a worn ink
in
form of an alms-bowl
stick,
a magatama,
and a
Buddhist rosary; cord-hole edged with stained ivory. Signed Tokoku
and
A. 270
seal.
Edo
Greenfield,
period, late nineteenth century. Collection Charles
New
York
NETSUKE One of
the
most
interesting
and remarkable objects of
the Japanese netsuke or carved toggle attached
creative art
is
to the cord
of all kinds of sagemono, such
as the inro,
money
pouch, pipe case and tobacco pouch, and the yatate or brush case, to
keep them securely suspended from the girdle. As the
Japanese native costume, the kimono, was not provided with either pockets or pouches,
to carry his inro
it
was necessary
his obi or girdle like a chatelaine.
date
gentleman
for the
and other small objects slung by
The netsuke
is
a cord to
believed to
from the fifteenth century, but it did not attain its greatest
artistic
development
until the introduction
of the beautiful
examples of inro. "With the great demand for fine inro during the
Tokugawa
peared and
period, the finest specimens of netsuke ap-
this art
of miniature sculpture then reached
apex. Although the netsuke inro, the best examples
incomplete without
its
cord of an inro, which
is
were made
for this, an inro being
cord, ojimc, and netsuke. calls for
its
not restricted to use with the
the fmest plaited
up through the channels on each
side
The himo silk, is
Stained ivory netsuke of a cicada. Signed Masatsugu, 1813-11
or
Edo
period. Collection Charles
A.
Greenfield,
New
York.
passed
of the inro, and then
passed through the ojime, a sliding bead, to hold the cords tightly together
where they
cross the top
of the
inro.
The
ends are fmaUy knotted into the netsuke in such a manner that the knot
is
concealed.
The
length of the cord
three feet, and about one-third of
underside of the inro to
tie
Lacquer netsuke of a deer
its
length
an elaborate
in colored
is
usually about
is
bow
used on the
having
many
takamakie. Edo period,
signed Kajikawa and red seal, early nineteenth century. Collection Charles
A.
Greenfield,
New
York.
Ivory and lacquer netsuke of Kikujido
in
gold takamakie with
ivory face and black lacquer hair. Signed Jokasai, period. Collection Charles
A.
Greenfield,
New
c.
1800.
Edo
York.
271
)ops. Sufficient length
of cord was
left
between the netsuke
nd the into to allow for the width of the obi, with about
hang
iree or four inches to spare so that the inro could
below the
racefully
The
obi.
color of the cord
was not
dected particularly to harmonize with the color of the inro, ut to satisfy a personal preference, or
of
:aditional colors
uently a matter of
choice of color was fre-
The
a family.
was determined by the
some
superstition,
individuals having
icky and unlucky colors depending on the nature of the year f their birth.
Sometimes the selection was determined accord-
ig to the ancient Chinese traditions regarding the five colors
nked to the five elements
A
—water,
fire, earth,
for netsuke, including
were used
variety of materials
wood, andmetal.
two
/ood, ivory, horn, metal, ceramics, and lacquer, the
wood and
rincipal ones being
etsuke in
style
than the harder, colder
of ivory. However, even in ivory the Japanese
roduced work unsurpassed for
a
was highly favored, not only because of
inoki
nd immaculate
artist
remarkable quality of fresh-
Of the various kinds of wood,
and freedom of expression.
ised
most
are generally considered to have the
to greater freedom of
iiaterial
ness
the connoisseur,
carving, but also because the texture of wood lends
wood
:self
To
not only because of the traditional Japanese mastery
alue, a
wood
ivory.
its
beautiful
texture, but also as having been traditionally
for building Shinto shrines
from ancient times
wood most
arving Buddhist images. However, the
and
widely
times classified according to theif designs, which are of almost variety
endless
—legendary
by the material out of M'hich they are
more
nated
are made.
Katabori, or figure-carved netsuke, are
human
the netsuke are in the
form of a
shakudo or shibuichi alloy.
The
suke resides in the beautiful rather than to that
importance. In
of the
work executed on the metal cover
on the bowl portion, which is of secondary
this
type the cord
fastened to the underside
is
and passed through a hole in the bottom of the
lid
bowl. Matiju netsuke are
flat
and either round or oval in shape,
this
category of netsuke comes from
shape of a
luaiiju,
occur either
two
tea,
of bamboo from the stem or
he root were frequently used,
as
were extremely thin
splits
or in a double form consisting of
have the same form
as
manju except that they are hollowed
out and carved in an openwork design. Sashi netsuke are
made
and slender form
in a long
This type
as five inches.
at times
realistically
made of slender
;redible
minute
plate 21).
for his extraordinary skill in achieving indetail
Many fme
and delicacy of form in netsuke were
juer processes, and also
made
in the various lac-
for
bambo woven into
The
of the Japanese
creative imagination
is
perhaps best
exemplified by the great variety and ingenuity of netsuke
much of
the art of Japan,
of netsuke-carving developed in restrained manner.
whole lore,
field
Its
designs
a completely free
and
life,
and un-
subject matter cover the
of Japanese mythology,
and everyday
which continued
aesthetic tradition, the art
literature, history, folk-
and constitute a complete index of
was often
or ivory.
in the
and
shibuichi used in
lids
on
form of as
brass
well as the
sword moimts,
the so-called kagamibtHa-type
representations of insects, reptiles, fish, tortoises, birds, mice, rabbits,
and
all
manner of animal life.
the miniature carving of netsuke
masks, skillfully portraying
is
An absorbing subject in the
many
facial expression.
kinds of
used on the cord of an inro was carefully selected so
and shape of the netsuke conform to the purpose which it is intended, generally averaging about one and size
harmonize in some
way with the
inro depicted a moonlight scene, the netsuke might be in the
would go well with
passes are often
design of pine trees, and a netsuke in the form of a sage
design, so as not to
mar
the general effect. Netsuke are
some-
as to
design on the inro. If the
form of
The holes through which the cord ingeniously made as a functional part of the
No
The netsuke
a half inches in length.
272
wood
of natural history many of them are remarkably accurate
it
wood
netsuke.
The
of
Japanese decorative motifs (Plates 22 and 23). In the category
those in
copper wires woven into various shapes,
which were used for the
stick
Ichiraku netsuke are
When
;netal was used for netsuke
illoys called shakudo
much
of ceramic, but these lack the fme
kvorkmanship and detail of
3r
this material
it.
pieces of metal, rattan, or
design. Unlike
famous
as
various forms.
within the bounds of a well-defmed
is
gourd or
carved insect upon
ised as
rarver
measuring
often found in the shape of a
is
)f
bamboo woven into various shapes. Ivory was as widely boxwood for making netsuke, this material having )een imported from China since ancient times. The Japanese
resemblance to the
mauju, one over the other. Netsuke of the ryusa category
and fme-grained character, and because
bony, cherry, yew,
its
kind of Japanese cake. Manju netsuke
a
as a single piece
with
jid camellia (Plate 24). Pieces
The name of
or occasionally squarish with rounded corners.
uster increased
woods used were
value of kagamibuta net-
artistic
lard, tenacious,
other
and
most frequently of the
lid
with a
Among
of immense variety,
bowl made of ivory or
tiny
horn and pro,vided with a metal
beautifully proportioned elongated
persimmon, camphor, sandalwood,
desig-
ichiraku.
other creatures depicted realistically. In the kagamibuta category
its
use.
and
figures to animals, birds, insects,
its
netsuke was tsuge or
However, they form and
as katabori, kagamibuta, manju, ryusa, sashi,
ranging from
life,
—or sometimes simply
usually classified according to their
boxwood, on account of
ised for
contemporary
characters,
mythological subjects, animals, masks
a crane; a tortoise netsuke
complement the design of
a
a
would
remote mountain scene on an
Wrought-iron yatate with the inkwell
The
inro.
fascination
of netsuke carving
workmanship found
fruit.
Edo
not only in the
lies
of forms and designs, but
infinite variety
form of a
in the
also in the fantastic
in the finest examples,
which
are often
masterpieces of miniature sculpture.
Tokyo National Museum.
period, eighteenth century.
which was
most important accessory
a
daimyo, samurai, and merchant costly object
classes,
of virtu, the yatate very seldom received the same
and although the majority were fme
tarian pieces,
wood or bamboo, they were usually
the articles included in the category ofsagcmono, or
hanging things, which were carried by
men
was the
equipment.
yatate, a container for writing
originated
is
not known, but
it
in earlier times,
When
all classes
Meiji period.
and
a
long
writing brush,
two
of people through the early part of the
yatate consists essentially of
hoUow stem
is
carried.
sections conjoined,
the brush tube
two
like the inro
units, the
inkwell serving
the obi.
;
or tube in which the fude, or
Most
yatate
were made with
at the girdle
these
in others as a
two
by means of a netsuke sections
were
separate
netsuke and thrust up through
The writing ink was first ground and diluted and then
soaked into an absorbent substance, such prevent spilling. Aioxa, which mogusa,
is
is
as
cotton or
a corruption
produced from the
wormwood identified
articles
the natural
of
wood
as Artemisia
fibers
moxa.
It
only the wealthy could aiford
it.
of yatate were made of bamboo, wood,
means arrow
stand.
A
of the
that the writing case usually carried instead
inkstone,
was
word
literally
eighteenth-century record
late
called a yatate.
It
states
suzuri, or
further states that in ancient
times the suzuri was carried in the yehira, or quiver, and the
word may that
in
it
from
derive
may have been
which
it
appears
is
this
custom. The same record suggests
called a yatate because
known
quiver in shape, or because the brush
of an arrow
The
in a quiver.
were able
the warrior class
composing poems. These written
medium
one another
one of the forms
as dohio-utsuho is
and resembles a
carried in the
nobles of the court and
manner
many of
scholars proficient in the art
poetical compositions
which people of cultivation expressed
in
their feelings
of love, friendship,
of
were the to
joy, sorrow,
happiness, loneliness, and like sentiments and thoughts. Be-
was necessary
to
have one's
own
writing equipment
cause
of the Japanese
when
of an Oriental
times to carry a suzuri, or inkstone, a sumi, or inkstick, and a
nio.xa,
was considered
The
reason for calling this writing-equipment container a
yatate has not been clearly determined, as the
to
be the better substance for the yatate, but because costly,
sections,
with the inkwell fixed to the end of
and carried
and cord,
word
article
round shallow bowl-shaped inkwell with a hinged
a small lid,
The
it
became popular during the
Tokugawa period and continued to be an indispensable for almost
left in
fmish or lacquered.
The
Among
costume of the
and an elaborate and
treatment. Yatate were principally considered utili-
artistic
YATATE
to the
it
to
was rather
greater
number
brass, iron, or silver,
some of the more elaborate ones being decorated with carving, metal inlays, engraving, or chasing. In contrast to the inro.
it
traveling
away from home,
it
was the custom
in early
writing brush in the quiver. According to twelfth-century records the
because is
it
name
yatate-no-suzuri
was carried
was given
in the quiver;
to the inkstone
however, the same name
used in other contemporary records and refers to the ink-
stone carried in the
bosom of the costume
the sleeve of armor.
or in the
pouch on
It is therefore difficult to ascertain
with
273
certainty whether the portable writing case as
TOBACCO POUCH AND PIPE CASE
we know it was
examples resembled the shape
called yatate because the earlier
of a quiver, or because the name was an abbreviation of
Around
It is
beheved
Kambun
the
that the furst portable yatate appeared
era (1661-1673), at
which time
between the Machi-yakko and the
retainers
or banner knights in the city of Edo.
during
of the Hatamoto
workers employed by the labor contractors, and
as
they were
not of samurai rank and not allowed to carry a sword,
adopted
said they
pipe
made
as their defensive
entirely
huge tobacco
a
of iron. These measured about
sixteen inches in length
When
fighting pipes.
weapon
and were
it is
fifteen to
called kenkwa-kiseru or
their use or possession
was
finally for-
bidden by the Shogunate government, they were replaced by
bamboo
the shakuhachi or yatate,
measuring
to be formidable
portable form.
when
persons
flute,
and by the
These huge
yatate.
fifteen to eighteen inches in length,
weapons and seem to be the
Around
yatate in
first
time yatate were carried by
this
traveling around the country
Kiso lumber merchants
proved
and
especially
when buying lumber
by
in the vast
mountains of the Kiso region. The early examples were made of iron and alloys,
brass,
such
while
as sliakudo
later
and
made of
specimens were often
—
the merchant, the blacksmith, and others, as well as the
and
When the warriors were in camp,
scholar.
them
a jiuc'iu-yatalc
which was
wood in the form of a lacquered folding
fan.
or
daimyo
jiiichu,
usually
The interior was
and writing brush, while the cover was fixed by as a fan.
origin.
A
made
left in
which was
the latter part of the
of subjects, such
in turn carried in the
and equipped with the
Tokugawa period
articles
yatate in a
yatate in the
warm, silver.
274
to resemble an endless variety
as baskets, lanterns,
instruments, and so forth.
form of
beautiful gray patina
kitchen utensils, musical
The Kyoto craftsmen produced
a quiver
and
as
a
an inro. Smoking
made
frequent
calls at
the port of
Naga-
until the year 1605 that tobacco
actually cultivated in Japan, at a place called Sakura-no-
baba on the island of Kyushu near Nagasaki. introduced
it
was smoked wrapped, of leaf, but
particular type
later to a
introduced from Korea or China century.
people
The smoking
all
habit
When it was first
either in paper or in a
method soon gave way
this
kind of bamboo pipe, and
was
to a
metal pipe which was
end of the sixteenth
at the
up by
enthusiastically taken
over the country, but soon became the subject of
condemnation by certain
who
at the
conceded that he could not break himself of the
smoking became
so popular that
its
same time
habit. In fact,
was forbidden by an
use
which proved
edict in the year 1609,
famous
moralists, including the
Confucian scholar Hayashi Razan,
made of inlaid
years.
and
ineffective
and was
Tobacco importation was then carried on by smuggling,
it is
fictitious
said that tobacco
shibuichi
having a
with simple designs of
was
at
name of Life-prolonging
it
was
one time sold under the Tea.
was very expensive, which
In these early times tobacco
made smoking
luxury reserved only for the wealthy. Thus
a
of the feudal
restricted to the pleasure
lords,
only in the privacy of the home. In time,
as the
became more general and tobacco more
plentiful,
sidered proper etiquette to offer
seventeenth century
of the Osaka craftsmen. In these Osaka examples the inkwell
made
which was suspended from the obi by
was not
the literary
wide variety of shapes appeared, mostly from the workshops portion of the yatate was
it
men of
for writing, with the brush usually having a telescoping shaft.
Toward
was
ships
However,
saki.
pipes provided
copper, or an alloy of pleasing color, decorated
the plain metal fmish,
whose
traders,
the place of
bosom of the costume. This form of yatate was
made of silver,
pouch with
began during the early part of the Tensho era (1573-1592), when tobacco was furst brought to Japan by Portuguese
upon
called a kwaichu-yatate, a small metal container
to carry inside a purse,
kwaichu, or
or
favored by
style particularly
a rivet at the
There were variations
in the style and shape of yatate depending
world was
•
became the
it
to carry a tobacco
cord and netsuke, in the same manner
they
made of
provided with hollowed-out spaces to contain the inkwell
lower end in the same mamicr
men
followed by three or four similar edicts during the ensuing
shibuichi.
Toward the latter part of the Tokugawa period yatate were worn as an essential article by men of all classes the carpenter,
carried with
Japanese
a sheath for the pipe,
a feud existed
The Machi-yakko were
the middle of the eighteenth century
among
fashion
yatate-tio-suzuri.
by the
host. it
it
to guests to be
decorated and intended
it
was con-
smoked
in
During the second quarter of the
became the fashion
measuring more than three
and then
smoking habit
feet in length
more
for
to carry pipes
which were
show than
lavishly
for use.
It is
recorded that in the early years of the eighteenth century the
bamboo
stems of pipes were decorated with fine lacquer
work; but
later,
toward the middle of the century, beautifully
made of iron and brass, without a bamboo stem. Strict regulations were also enforced during the Meiwa era (1764-1772), prescribing the styles of pipe that decorated pipes were being
could be carried by the various styles
classes.
Different shapes and
of decoration were designated for pipes carried by the
members of
the military
class,
the townspeople, actors and
other entertainers, artisans, and so on. a tobacco
pouch with
came popular during
a netsuke
this period.
The custom of carrying
and ojime attached to
it
Except for the samurai
the custom of wearing a tobacco
be-
class,
pouch became widespread
JJi^lUu^j^^gllj^Bj^;^
-
Tobacco pouch, pipe pipe.
and
case,
Top: bamboo smoking pipe
with chased and inlaid metahvork mounts. Middle: carved ivory pipe
Bottom:
case.
tobacco
pouch of
and
leather with gold-foil imprint
finely
chased
of
Edo
period,
nineteenth century.
Tokyo
dragons and waves. early
mounts
metal
National Museum.
among all classes, especially the merchants, whose taste created a demand for fine and costly examples. Both the tobacco pouch and the the pipe were
sheath-like container for
made of leather and worn together with a cord girdle. The beautiful colored
and netsuke suspended from the designs
worked on
the surfaces of the fine specimens
plify the superb talent
Toward
exem-
of the Japanese leather craftsman.
the middle of the nineteenth century, with the
changes in fashion, the sheath of leather was replaced by a pipe case
made of wood, horn,
ivory, or other rigid material,
usually having carved decoration covering the entire surface.
Although
a
cord with netsuke and ojime was sometimes used
to suspend this new-style tobacco
the girdle, thrust
it
pouch and pipe
from
case
the diameter of a pea, served to hold only a small pinch of fine-cut tobacco,
enough
custom of smoking the
for only
kiseru,
two or
three whiffs.
The
generally with several pipefuls
in succession, has remained widespread to the present day.
For the convenience of
meaning tobacco box, container,
kiseru
smokers a tabako-bon,
provided. This
is
made of wood, bamboo,
is
literally
a square, box-like
porcelain, or metal, with
a metal or porcelain container to hold pieces of live charcoal for lighting the kiseru, and a ashes can be
smoking case
bamboo
knocked from the
a kiseru
is still
tube into which the
pipe. Since the
custom of
widely practiced in Japan, the pipe
and tobacco pouch are frequently seen worn in the obi
of the native costume in many provincial
places.
soon became the fashion to wear the pipe case
through the girdle with the pouch tied to
tobacco pouch was a
flat,
it.
The
rectangular-shaped container with
HIUCHI-BUKURO
a cover-flap secured with a clasp, measuring about three
inches in length.
The pipe
case
was
elliptical in section
Of
and
all
the sagemono, or receptacles suspended
averaged about eight inches long by about one inch wide,
girdle, the earliest
with a telescoping cap having the same contour
was used
as the
body.
made to hold, bamboo stem of narrow diameter, and its metal mouthpiece and bowl. The tiny bowl, no larger than
The is
kiseru,
or tobacco pipe, which the case was
unique for
its
of
is
to contain
travelers
from the
the hiuchi-bukuro, or tinder pouch.
flint, steel,
It
and tinder for the convenience
and warriors when camping and hunting. Al-
though frequently mentioned in ancient records in connection with certain well-known figures in Japanese mythology,
its
275
usual shape
not described.
is
The
earliest
known
references
appear in the Kojiki, or Records of Ancient Matters, written in
which
the year 712, first
century
relate
how Prince Yamato-Takeru, in the
surromided by a band of rebels on a moor,
a. d.,
saved himself by kindling a
with the
fire against
and tinder from
flint
his
the
oncoming flames
pouch. ScroU-paintings of
still
burning tobacco. The piece of steel carried in the hiuchi-
bukuro
is
known
hiuchi-kama or hiuchi-kaue, and
as
because
fire, as
one of the
a southern position
five elements,
flint
kind of quartz which readily
an opening
causes the tinder to ignite.
through a fold to form a noose so the opening could be
The
tightly closed.
an
ojime, or sliding bead,
Toward
as a
container for such things as medicine
as well as for flint
until the latter part
and
steel.
This custom prevailed
of the sixteenth century, when the wear-
ing of an inro and a kinchaku or
money pouch suspended from
the obi displaced the custom of carrying the hiuchi-bukuro
attached to the sword. Instead, the samurai of the
of fire-striking stone, called
powder., In
pouch
Tokugawa
to
have
flint
was
The
very hard
hiuchi-ishi, is a
with the
strikes sparks
was
tinder
steel
bamboo
' •
.
many domestic
from ancient times will purify is
and
made from
usually
charred linen or a mixture of kapok and natural
and attached to the sword.
the end of the thirteenth century the tinder
began to be used
and money
were held together with
lengths of cord
said to
supposed to be rectangular, being a product of the earth. The
attached to the swords of warriors. There seems to have been
each end of the pouch, with a cord passed
was believed
and a triangular shape, while the
the thirteenth century depict tinder pouches of oval shape,
at
is
have been triangular in form during ancient times. This was
all
the
households the Japanese have preserved
which the family
a simple Shinto ritual in
rooms by the sparks from
and
flint
steel. It
performed early in the morning preparatory to offering
prayers before the Shinto family shrine in the house. This practice is
is
based upon the purification ritual of Shinto, which
of great antiquity and
to cleanse the people
of an invocation to the gods
consists
of their
transgressions.
There
also the
is
period carried fire-striking paraphernalia in the kinchaku
custom,
worn
sparks to ignite the fires that burn at the altars of Shinto
at the girdle.
Later,
when
it
became fashionable
to
still
carry the tobacco pouch and pipe, diflferent kinds of elab-
shrines
orately designed hiuchi-bukuro of brocade or leather
cord called
were
men of all classes, with the and laborers, who could afford only a
introduced. These were carried by
exception of farmers
common
variety.
As
in other
customs of Japanese
life, a
code
of etiquette was observed in the wearing of the hiuchi-bukuro.
was considered improper and
For instance,
it
good
carry a hiuchi-bukuro
An
taste to
a violation
on ceremonial
of
occasions.
exception to this rule of etiquette was extended to lay
priests, elders,
and persons over forty years of age,
exempt
times from this restriction.
at all
While most of the hiuchi-bukuro were containers in
which the
actually decorative
were
the latter part of the
carried,
Tokugawa
liinawa, or fire-rope,
hiuchi-bukuro to be used
made
smokers, the netsuke was often
as a suigara-uke,
or ash bowl. This form of netsuke was most
frequently used
by peasants because of the practice of knockmg
to serve
the ashes into a holder and lighting the next pipeful with the
276
saltpeter.
The Okera-Mairi
shrine.
shrine at daybreak starts at
on
A
is
New
was often carried
the
in
the
first
known
worship
flint
31,
and
when steel.
is still
at
as the
the
at
of
fibers
rope of this material
Year's Day, although
midnight on December
it
the
Gion Gion
actually
the sacred fire
At
this
is
time every
year the precincts of the great shrine present one of the most impressive scenes, reminiscent of ancient times in Japan,
each of the
many
thousands of worshippers
a piece
essential to pipe
produce
as a fuse for igniting purposes. It
Kyoto, more commonly
at
of it from the sacred
was
steel to
used in the ancient Shinto Okera-Mairi ceremony
Yasaka shrine
of steel exposed
the bottom. Since the hiuchi-bukuro
and
was made of cotton, cypress-wood bark, or the
bamboo, mixed with
period were taken from Chinese prototypes having the piece at
flint
and Buddhist temples. Traditionally, a piece of heavy
kindled by the sparks from
fire-striking articles
some of those made during
who were
of using
in practice,
fire.
The smoldering end
on which
is
it
cooked the
keeping with the belief that evil spirits.
can be taken first
ignites the is
ward
off^
end
kept alive by
home
meal of the
this will
when
the shrine takes
of the rope provided by the shrine and
twirlmg the rope, so that fire
at
to light the
New
Year, in
pestilence
and
XIX
I
HE ART of the weaver has been practiced in
founded in 607, has among
M
Japan from early times and, like other crafts
embroidery in Japan. Listed
and vocations,
frequently mentioned in legends and tales
One of the most
of old Japan. is
it is
popular celebrations in Japan
the ancient Star Festival or Tanabata,
On the seventh night of the seventh month two lovely
loom.
the
stars,
which means weaving
Cowherd
Vega, which are
star
or Altair, and the
far apart
on
either side
Weaver
star
or
of the Milky Way,
The popular Cowherd star for a good harvest and
Textiles
relics
its
the oldest surviving
National Treasure,
as a
this
is
a
fragment of a large mandara showing a scene of the Tenjukoku or the land of Heavenly Longevity.
A
mandara
by
these early periods, inspired
Buddhism, the
During
the mystical doctrines of
sought to express
artists
ideas in their paintings.
Of the
of
a type
is
picture graphically depicting the Buddhist pantheon.
cosmological
difficult
embroidered mandara in the
arc said to have a joyous reimion each year.
Chuguji, which was originally sixteen feet long, there remains
custom of praying
ordy a small fragment measuring
to the
Weaver
to the
star for skill in
Japan for centuries.
have had the
weaving, has been observed in
The Empress-Regnant Koken
the seventh year of
Because the
Tempyo-Shoho,
earliest fabrics
said to
is
festival officially celebrated for the first
time in
755.
on the textiles and costume
of the ancient periods comes from a few early records. The one of the two oldest chronicles of Japan,
Nihoii-Shoki,
written in the year 720,
weaver were
specially sent
by the King of Paikche
Japanese court in the third century A. d. that during the fourth
and a
states that a skilled seamstress
and
It is
to the
further recorded
fifth centuries a large
number of
Chinese and Korean weavers had come to Japan and been naturalized. These skilled artisans
were greatly appreciated by
tliree
which can be seen today. Although
idea of the original,
full
it
cording to tradition,
it
dates
from
Princess Tachibana-no-Oiratsume,
were responsible
for the rapid
development of
the weaving and dyeing industry in Japan. As in the other arts,
the spectacular progress of the textile craft
was stimulated
by the introduction of Buddhism and Chinese learning
in the
was granted permission by the Empress Suiko embroidered hanging made by the young Imperial court.
The mandara
is
when
to
have
ladies
a tribute to Prince
the
Shotoku, this
of the
Shotoku
for the great progress he brought to Japanese civilization in
making Buddhism great temples
threads of
the religion of the court, and building
and monasteries, including the Horyuji. In
many
colors the hanging portrayed the Prince's its
many human figures,
and other symbolic things to secure
Within the Kondo or main
eternal happiness.
Horyuji temple other examples of rare
textiles
hall
his
of the
of the Asuka
period are also preserved, including rehgious embroideries
and brocades.
Many fme are found
sixth century.
the year 622,
widow of Prince
pavilions, phoenixes,
early times,
not
example
of the kind of work done over thirteen centuries ago. Ac-
were given land grants and clan surnames. These emigre
these
by three
may
it
serves as a priceless
rebirth in the Buddhist Paradise with
men, together with many others who followed during
a half feet
were gathered, patched together, and made into the framelike screen
the noble families and in consideration of their importance crafts-
and
Many years ago the fragments of the original embroidery
give a
have long since disappeared or
rotted away, our only information
feet.
examples of Japan's early embroidered works
among
and monasteries.
the treasured collections of famous temples
A
number of
the earliest forms of extant
Japanese embroideries are hangings containing images of the
JAPAN'S FIRST TEXTILES
Buddha and pictures of a religious pieces
Not as
far
from the
city
of Nara the famous nimnery
known
Chuguji, within the precinct of the ancient Horyuji temple
with
were worked with
resist
dyeing.
The
nature.
Many embroidered
silk
and gold tlueads in conjunction
finest
embroidery work in Japan has
been produced in Kyoto ever since the city was founded in 277
embroidery has traditionally
794- Just as in China, Japanese
been the occupation of men specially trained for this work. The
Kyoto embroiderers since this category
lavished their greatest
comprised the
use of Japan's exquisite fabrics. Magnificent also
on
woven
fukusa, the richly
on costume,
skill
and most important
largest
was the work
square pieces used for cov^ering
beautiful lacquer boxes containing ceremonial presents.
the custom of the receiver of the gift to return the
Along with
fukusa to the donor.
other
was only natural
arts, it
period celebrated
artists
such as
It
was
box and its
advancement of the
the
Tokugawa
that during the
Kano Tan-yu, 1602-1674, and
Ogata Korin, 1658-1716, designed elaborate
textiles
for
of the fme and meticulous Japanese em-
broidery are the different kinds of stitches that are used.
Some
embroidery is done in long, even
stitches
which generally run
diagonally in an almost parallel
manner
so as to provide an
of satin. In
effect
this
method
the embroiderers used both floss
and twisted
silk thread,
which
silk thread.
Another method
alternating
between each other to produce an overlapping
is
the Guild of Weavers and an Office of the Guild of Needle-
workers.
A
Dyeing Office was
Palace
a lustrous untwisted thread,
of long and short
consists
stitches
work is usually sewn only with floss sUk work or "couching." It is done by laying
and the Office of the Guild of Needleworkers were responand advancement of the
sible for the supervision
Dyeing Office for the use
Under
directed the activities of sewing and dyeing
of the Imperial family and the court nobles.
this official direction
or linked-weaving. are stretched
on
It is
a technique in
loom and
a
where desired with
strips
of gold
Beautiful
method
work
is
is
and stitching them
side
wound around
is
a core
of
is
partially drawoi
wound around
it
down
made of fme
usually
silk
also produced with a knotted
the needle
and thread is
foil
by
The gold
or cotton.
stitch. In this
up from the underside,
several times; then the needle
passed through the base fabric and returned to the underside
close to
where
it
was
originally pushed
knot in position. This very fme and stitches covers the entire surface
whereas in European work
it is
upward, to secure the
delicate
of
a piece
work of knotted of embroidery,
used in a limited fashion, as
of one or more
shuttles.
composed of a
series
A
crafts
cloth.
A
wearing apparel.
Of
State
278
were placed eight
were established for the advance-
crafts.
Under
ministries,
the great Council
of
of wliich the Ministry of
very thin material called ra, sha,
threads
nuno,
and
ro
were
made from
also a
stiff-textured
its
soft-tcxturcd weave, and ro
of open weave.
many
A
large
by
its
number
this early period.
other materials were used for
a fiber cloth called tiuno.
One
type of /n/o, used is
woven with
the fibers of the inner bark of the Asiatic
tree,
which
is
making tapa
woven with
first
threads
similar to a material cloth.
made
the fiber of
known
in Japan ; the
used
still
Another variety
made from
very early fabric
figured cloth
is
asa-
hemp.
as sliizuri, said to
warp
threads
be
were
other bark fibers dyed with various colors
to produce striped patterns It is
by
distinguished
is
ancient times and called taye or shirotaye,
made of hemp and
offices
the early periods of
gauzes called
produced during
silk,
Chinese administrative system was adopted under a centralized
and
its
also
the
arts
silk
these silk gauzes, ra
open weave, sha by
There was
framework of
weave
lines in the
introduced into Japan from Korea around the third century.
and the Code of Taiho in 701, in which the highly developed
many
said that a
It is
usumotw and three fme
A further stimulus was provided by the Taika Reform of 645
ment of various
made during
variety of fabrics
a twill
of diagonal
Japanese history were used particularly for priestly robes and
in Polynesia for
this elaborate
niotif originated
made with
causes an interesting formation
paper-mulberry
organ of government. Within
is
a scene
of the Nara period knovvai
which
Chinese artisans and the knowledge of the techniques of acquired by Japanese travelers to China.
The lion-hunt
beautiful figured silk material
developed rapidly, owing to the continued immigration of
administration
lion.
from
which
of circular motifs, each enclosing
as aya, distinctive for its delicacy, is
weaving into
Nara period (710-794) the weaving and dyemg
textiles
the lion-hunt pattern,
and was introduced into Japan via China.
from
T'ang-dynasty
favorite design in brocades
is
around the time of the Sassanian dynasty (227-641)
In addition to
In the
A
Nara period onward
the
of brocades were
NARA AND HEIAN TEXTILES
which the warp threads
the weft threads are put in only
vertical or horizontal stripes
for the centers of flowers.
of
these
the fmgers, and then pushed into place
of horsemen capturing a
silk.
especially
One of
silks.
with a comb, rather than thrown across the loom by means
in Persia
threads side
techniques of weaving
which is still being made is called tsuzure-ori
beautiful brocades
called laid silk
many
and dyeing were developed in the Nara period,
This type of
with fine threads of
textile crafts,
while the Bureau of the Palace Wardrobe and the Palace
effect.
gold and
up in the Ministry
set
of the Imperial Household. The Office of the Guild of Weavers
and
is
Wardrobe. There was
up within the Ministry of the Treasury an Office of
luxurious brocade fabrics and figured
Japanese costumes and fukusa. Characteristic
Civil Affairs had a Bureau ofthe Palace also set
when woven with the weft threads.
recorded that a woolen garment sent to the Japanese
Emperor
in the sixth century
by the King of Paikche, from
Korea, marked the introduction of weaving wool. This fabric
called
kamo or origamo, was
from
later
first
known as tsumugi or made of cotton and
material
woven from
rabbits' hair. Early records also
and
a coarse
momen-tsumugi, which was
originally
later
woven with
known
that in the eighth century a robe
to the
Emperor Shomu,
the
goats' hair
mention
silk.
It is
of tsumugi belonged
most devout Buddhist of the
Emperors of the Nara period,
who was
responsible for the
ress
was made in the
The demands of the
textile arts.
daimyo furthered the development of all the
arts
and
great
crafts,
and the increasing feudal power in the provinces spread culture
and learning throughout the country. These influences created and developed local industries and
crafts in the feudal
domains
of the provincial barons, and these prospered with the standards of living of the
rising
commoners. In the mode of
dress
famous Daibutsu or Great Buddha of Nara. There
there
was a gradual change in the style of the kosode or kimono,
were various methods of dyeing employed during the Nara
with
a shorter sleeve
period, such as kyokechi, a kind of stencil dyeing, rokechi or
The natural result of this change in dress style
casting of the
dyeing, and kokechi, also
resist
The magnificent
dyeing. the
and
Nara period
known
fabrics
of the weavers and dyers of
established the foundation
exert a strong influence
still
or tying and
as shibori,
of Japanese
on present-day
textiles
materials in
simplicity
and an over-all simplification of design.
designs in a true and restrained Japanese
design technique developed in the
yama
one of elegant
periods
is
the style
known
taste.
An outstanding
Muromachi and Momo-
as tsuji-ga-hana
dyeing. This
technique consists of tying and dyeing, combined with a
Japan.
During the succeeding Heian and Kamakura periods, the dyeing and weaving
crafts
continued to flourish and
new
hand-painted design executed with a certain freedom of expression. Tsuji-ga-hana fabrics have an elegant
techniques were developed to meet the requirements of
beauty found only in the
gradual changes in the style of costume. In particular, the
craftsmen.
creation of a fashionable dress for the ladies of the nobUity,
of certain new
called jutii-hitoe, affected the craft
of dyeing. The
jmii-hitoe,
which was characterized by many layers of kimono, was more adaptable to small designs colors. Since each
of graduated
color,
for
in repeat patterns in solid
was necessary
it
The new
dyed
style
to achieve a
The Muromachi period also saw the introduction siUc textiles from Ming China, cotton fabrics
India,
and velvets and woolens from Europe. These
fabrics,
introduced
and intimate
Japanese designers and
brought to the seaports of Sakai and Hakata,
many new
techniques in the weaving and design-
harmony
a slightly different
caused a great increase
fabrics because large
needed for each costume. Also,
from
imported
work of
slightly visible at the
with each kimono
shade of the same color.
demand
worked
under-kimono was
neck, sleeves, and hem,
in the
to
was the development of beautiful hand-painted
amounts were
were required
different colors
many social events throughout the year, and particular colors were prescribed to be worn for each of the seasons as well. Among many other new developments introduced in for the
the
making of
especially a
the
fabrics
corded
were
raised
end of the Tokugawa period
While
for
which was used
summer
until
court robes.
the extravagant use of rich fabrics for ceremonial robes
and court there
and double weaves,
silk cloth called seigo,
dress constituted the
demand of the noble
families,
was evident an increasing popularity among the com-
moners
for dress
patterns.
It
of more casual and picturesque designs and
was this indigenous aesthetic taste and temperament
of the Japanese that dyeing of
textiles
now
and
began to
affect the
designing and
laid the foundation for the beautiful
purely Japanese fabrics.
MUROMACHI INNOVATIONS AND IMPORTATIONS A fragment o/aya Despite the constant political disturbances and military strife
oftheMuromachi period (1338-1573), continuous prog-
material
made
preserved design represents the
Albert
in the cightli century.
Wheel of Buddha.
The well-
Victoria
and
Museum. 279
Sakai was the most important.
Osaka Bay
ancient trading port
well as to the
home
is
an
it
soon became a doorway to Kyoto,
provinces of warriors coming up the
Irdand Sea and from Shikoku.
Its
unique position encouraged
of miUtary contractors and moneylenders, and
a class
prosperity
was
also vastly increased
the fortunes of the
from
by
its
its
thriving industry.
Shoguns declined, the feudal lords came
to the Sakai merchants to taxes
of Osaka,
early in the fifteenth century. This
commerce of Sakai and
As
city
stimulated a great development in the industry and
traffic
as
of Sakai, located on
city
where ships from China and other foreign
from
countries called
The
from the
a short distance
borrow money on
the security of
the Ashikaga domains. This further strengthened
the position of the merchant group and the city enjoyed
many
of medieval Europe.
privileges similar to the free cities
In the sixteenth century Sakai was noted for industry,
which continued
were closed
to foreign intercourse in 1639.
of imports of Chinese
produced
and >
V
N^ N^>
With
of Japan
the stoppage
industry began to decline.
silk the
Among the silk fabrics which later
silk-weaving
its
to prosper until the ports
were imported from China and
Sakai was a crepe material called chirimen,
at
These and other imported
a taffeta called kaiki.
were extensively reproduced
fabrics
Sakai textile houses
the
in
VvN<
during the sixteenth century by Chinese weavers. Sakai was also
.J*^
Detail of a
noted for
with narrow
V^^.^ hdwy
silk broiiulc
woven with
a
(ksi^iii
of ox-carriagcs
and books on an over-all geometric-pattern ground.
Momoyama
ing of Japanese textiles which have continued to exert their
The
city
Middle Ages
as
of Hakata, which
known
one of the most important trading
when Kublai Khan made
Kyoto and
is
Kyoto
city
began producing a particular type
The
is
characterized
by
fabric
weaves. These products of Europe, the Near East, and China
been noted for its silk industry ever since the Kamakura period,
these fabrics
became popular
Chinese Sung-dynasty prototypes. the silk
by
known
as the
particular interest
is
Hakata weave, which was originated
named Takawaka
a weaver
Of
of the
lemon, in the
Tensho era
(1573-1591)-
The China after the fall
to the
Ming
trade
was
a lucrative source
of income, and
of the Mongol dynasty the Shogun sent envoys court to prepare for the resumption of trade
medallions.
period brought a variety of fabrics with figured and striped
by
fabrics in the style
called shukin-donsu,
floral
foreign ships that called at Japanese ports during this
material but
was producing
of
a design
were in great dcniand and higlily
it
known as donsu, which when a weaver in that
became famous
as a
made
it is
of gold. The weavers of Sakai
which now forms part of Fukuoka on the island of Kyushu, has which time
has continued as one of its
similar to kinran, except that
Japan during the Kamakura period, in 1274 and 1281. Hakata,
at
woven
In the seventeenth century
introduced an exquisite damask
and
his attempts to invade
foil.
later
which
ports,
in
gold brocade, which was
silver-foil threads instead
in the
was the scene of many fierce combats at the time of the Mongol invasions
was produced
kinran
also
was formerly called Na-no-Otsu, was well
of gold
principal silk fabrics until the present day. Another beautiful
with
influence until the present time.
kinran, or
brocade called ginran
Museum.
period (1^7^-1615). Tokyo National
its
strips
mono and also
prized, not only for
collectors as well.
for
utensils for the tea
It is
for use as
making small
stated that
costume
many of
mountings for kake-
individual pouches in
ceremony were
which
kept. These exotic textiles
from other lands were known as meibutsu-kire, or "celebrated" were of early
fabrics.
Although some of the Chinese
origin,
most were produced during the Ming dynasty and
there
textiles
was keen competition among coUectors
materials
and those having unusual
qualities.
for the fmest
These so-called
celebrated fabrics included gold brocades, damask, and
many
between the two countries. This trade provided a strong
other types, affbrdmg the weavers of Sakai a valuable oppor-
impetus to the growth of a number of seaports, of which
tunity to imitate them.
280
Velvet was another Japanese textile of the late sixteenth century, introduced
by
represent the Emperor.
a mission that
Among
had gone
many
the
brought back were fme velvets called
China to
to
beautiful presents
birodo.
the production of velvets in Japan, and
This encouraged
from
these early
examples there developed the beautiful hirodo-yuzen. In hirodo-yuzen the velvet provides the
ground on which beautiful
produced partly by cutting
pictures in soft color tones are
and partly by dyeing. The method of producing hirodo-yuzen unique, the only tool used
is
by the
artisan-cutter being a
small sharp chisel having a V-shaped point. This tiny chisel
is
placed in a small iron holder resembling a pencil, with diminutive guards at the tip. These guards, between chisel projects, serve as guides,
making
depth of the
artisan to control the
it
cuts.
which the
possible for the
The
when
velvet,
given to the cutter, already contains a colored picture per-
manently fixed by the yuzcn process, wherein the velvet has been completely fmished in
all
of
its
manufacturing stages
except for the cutting of looped threads.
The
on
cutting artist lays the velvet
into the design with his chisel in the
would shade
his
bench and carves
same manner
an
as
artist
the lines of a design with a pencil. In his fmgers
the tiny chisel
becomes a
painter's brush
with which he
dehcately cuts the fme filaments of silk at varying depths with great precision. Great skill
is
required, for example, in cutting
the design of a leaf or a cherry-blossom petal in
low
relief
with such care that the serration on the edge of the leaf and
Kosode of plain-weave floivers
silk
into tied-and-dyed stripes
the delicate veining
on the
petal
remain
clearly indicated. sixteenth century.
Among tions
the
many
subjects
of blue and
medieval warfare that
were no longer reserved for the privileged
and dyeing
crafts
upper
for during this period people
class,
it is
so filled with
difficult to believe that
it
end of this period Japan had reached
and prosperity such
as
closing years of the decisive
conflicts
emerged
as the
a stage
was an
By
of abundance
had never been known before. The
Momoyama
era brought with
them
from wliich the House of Tokugawa
supreme power and established the Shogunate
of that name to rule Japan for more than 250 years. The long of peace of the Edo period wimessed
of weaving and dyeing, and
many developments
merchant
class to a
position of
The
adopted
in textfles
Momoyama
to hand-painted decoration executed
inventiveness.
The era
with gold and
with great freedom and
excelled in designs expensively
silver leaf
and embroidery,
gold brocades and tied-and-dyed the
period the trend
had been from small woven designs and patterns
Edo period costume design
as
worked
well as elegant
fabrics. In the early part
of
displayed a freedom of ex-
pression which eventually developed into ample-scaled designs
known
as
kamhun. This large and striking type of design
characterized
by
is
colorful asymmetrical motifs splashed across
of the
created a
period saw the perfection of the yuzen dye technique, in
rise
power and wealth
classes
manner down the The name is derived from the Kambun era (1661-1673), during which time it became popular. The middle of the Edo
also the perfection
the elegant style of the Japanese kimono.
of all
the elegant perfected style of kosode or kimono.
age of expanding culture and productive developments.
era
period,
their serene
Throughout the tumultuous
The Momoyama period (1573-1615) was
in the art
Momoyama
works of art of great charm.
THE MOMOYAMA AND EDO PERIODS
the
black.
Tokyo National Museum.
of hirodo-yuzen velvets are evoca-
of famous scenic places in Japan, which with
colors are
with diagonal stripes of embroidered
and leaves on a black ground, alternating with and fitting
of
new aristocracy, and the extravagance of textiles and costume reflected the general prosperity of the bourgeoisie. The weaving
the shoulder of a kosode or in a diagonal
back.
which magnificent designs were produced by using rice-paste applied
by hand. Many of
a resist
the foremost artists of
281
the time created elaborate
kimono
designs in a distinctly
Japanese style to be dyed and further enhanced with exquisite
embroidery. In
great age of
tliis
kimono
the center of the weaving and dyeing specialty fabrics
textiles
arts,
Kyoto was
and a number of
were produced in the local domains of feudal
daimyo.
Tokugawa Shogunate
INFLUENCE
northwest part of
the city of Kyoto;
its
strife that
the city during the fifteenth century.
Even today
home
founding in the year 794 the city of Kyoto has
remained famous for
its
weaving and dyeing
industries, par-
of the continued demands made by the
ticularly because
Imperial court for elaborate ceremonial fabrics. At Chiiicse artisans
were brought
in,
and
their
quickly learned by the local Kyoto weavers,
produce fme
began
to
crepe.
The
civil strife
silk
furst,
methods were
who
in turn
gauze, damask, brocade, satin, and
during the turbulent fifteenth century
prevented the development of the industry for a while, but
was restored during
the peace of the
important impetus to the
regime.
An
came when
the
Tokugawa
textile industry
it
is
raged through the sound of
heard coming from nearly every house in the
is
where
silk
weaving
carried
is still
on
as a
industry.
of
certain kind
woven
weaving
silk
was invented by
in color,
meaning
called ori-iro,
Kyoto weaver sometime
a
before the end of the fifteenth century.
It is
produced by a
combination of two differently colored threads, which gives
monochrome. Also
the effect of a
weaving
Chinese
damask
that
Kyoto
which was copied
Sometime during the Keicho
style.
was
associated with
as shusu,
Kyoto weavers began
(1596-1615), satin
known
a satin fabric
is
after the
to
also inspired
same era there appeared the to a popular design
by Chinese prototypes,
at that
this
which owes its name
time showing a higaki or
fence with kiku or chrysanthemums. Another beauti-
ful silk fabric, first
made
seventeenth century,
in
Kyoto
kohaku,
is
Along with the many looms
higaki-rinzu,
conmion
era
make an extremely fine
with geometrical woven designs called rinzu. During
wooden
W^SH^
district is in the
at Nishijin.
name, signifying Western Camp,
its
reminiscent of the fierce internecine
A From
the
This famous silk-weaving
Nishijin district,
ITS
by
made
hand looms
KYOTO AND
decrec\i that all silk fabrics used
Imperial court and by the'nobles should be
The
cades, or nishiki.
is
of
a kind
taffeta.
produced on the
beautiful silk fabrics
in the Nishijin district
of the
in the latter part
which
of Kyoto were exquisite bro-
Japanese term nishiki was applied to any
fabric
with a design woven of several colors, while yoko
nishiki
is
when the design was woven in the woof, and when the design is in the warp. Brocades in design was made by linked-wcaving are known as
applied
tate nishiki is
which the tsuzure-ori
used
—or
just tsuzure, as
they are called today. In the
linked-weaving method, which
done on
is
cross threads are laid in with the fuigers
places with a
comb by
as far as the outlines
hand. These
a
hand loom, the
and pushed into
their
woof threads extend only
of each figure in the design, and every
section of the design has a
rim of minute
holes,
which makes
the design appear suspended in the ground, or linked into
There was
also a particular
kind of brocade
known
it.
as karaori,
or Chinese weave, composed of gold and silver threads, as well as threads of various colors. karaori
The
technique for making
was introduced from Ming China during the Tensho and some of the
era (1573-1591)
finest
duced for the upper garment worn by roles.
These
fabrics
still
bear the
name
examples were pro-
No
beautiful brocades or nishiki arc the kambata,
Kosode
ofii'hite silk
damask with a design of huge chrysanthemums Large shoulder designs such as this
in the tied-and-dyed method.
were popular
in the
Kamhun
Museum, Kamakura. 282
era
(1661-1673). Edo period. Nagao
to the karaori, and the
yori-ito-ori,
actors in female
karaori.
Two
which
is
other
similar
which has corded threads
in the weft.
Kyoto being the
the creative center of Japan's art and culture,
work of the
Nishijin weavers
and dyers extended
its
m-
One of the most flourishing provin-
fluence into the provinces.
towns
cial
Kanto
oldest in the
woven
Kiryu, whose weaving industry
vi^as
district,
with records of silk
one of the
is
fabrics being
there as early as the eighth century. In the Keicho era
the Kiryu silks
(i 596-161 5)
were used
make
to
warriors'
banners, and the fabrics of Chinese-style weaves were also
famous.
The Edo period saw many and produce the
centers prosper
other provincial weaving
they became noted. In the same Kanto
highway
feudal
called
which
particular fabrics for
Oshu-Kaido
on the old town of Isezaki, a
district
the
is
famous weaving center which was noted for
fabric,
its meiseti
belonged to the Emperor
and
their daughter, the
esses
of dyeing
dyeing, which
kind of
is
the
town of Ojiya, formerly noted today for
especially
hemp
cloth.
in Echigo prov-
its oji-ya-chijitni,
this
:
is
rohechi or resist
dyeing kokechi or tying and ;
also called shibori: kyokechi or stencil dyeing;
these
methods were
Two kinds of block-printing
ticed in Japan, positive
ground
is
is
methods are prac-
and negative. In positive block-printing
in color, whereas in negative block-printing the
in color
design on the
and the design in
wood flat
is
reserve. In
both processes
prepared by incising or engraving the
smooth
surface
of the block so that the
lines
of the design stand out in rehef and the spaces between are
weavers
hollowed out.
When printing
fabric called ojiya crepe or echigo
relief portions
of the block are covered with color then the
During the Edo period
produced a beautiful sUk
a
Empress-Regnant Koken. In
ceeding periods were progressively developed into veritable
works of art.
the block of
is
they were
Komyo-Kogo
already fairly well advanced during the Nara period, and in suc-
Mikuni-Kaido, in the rugged mountainous region facing the
which
his death
his consort
and itazome or block-printing. All of
the design
Sea of Japan,
;
category of textiles there are four principal methods or proc-
woven with threads of floss silk. In the same general direction from the city of Tokyo along the ancient highway called the
ince,
Shomu upon
donated to the Todaiji temple by
its
with the positive method, the ;
crepe.
Another early weaving center was Hachijo-jima, an
cloth
island
of two extinct volcanoes which
resembling a padded mallet. In the negative method, the relief
lies
about 260 miles
south of Tokyo. This island has been noted until the present
day for
its
fabrics called ki-hachijo,
made from
sUkworms, with designs dyed in brovra, stripes.
The
fabric dates
use of the
earliest
pressed against the block and rubbed with a device
design on the block
is left
free
of color and the printing
is
the silk of wild
black,
and yellow
record of the island's production of this
from the Edo period, when
Tokugawa
family.
Shikoku, the weavers
made
Near the
was made
it
city
for the
of Matsuyama, in
a cotton cloth
design produced by pre-dyed threads called iyo-kasuri.
is
with
woven
a splashed
in the material
A cloth having the same weave as
iyo-kasuri
but characterized by a deep-blue dye was made in Satsuma.
Kagoshima, the ancient later
castle
town of
the Shimazu family,
became the most famous center for this fabric. Absorbing
evidence of the long history of Japanese textiles and costume is
provided by their vivid portrayal in an endless variety of
scroll-paintings since early times.
They
are also beautifully
depicted in colorful Ukiyo-e and other paintings, not to speak
of the great numbers of Ukiyo-e color constitute a
and
styles
prints.
most valuable record of Japanese
These sources textile designs
of dress and afford a fascinating study of the
of living during many
mode
centuries.
DYED AND PRINTED TEXTILES Dyeing
in Japan has a long history
ning
many
dyed
silks
centuries ago.
A
of development begin-
number of
early examples
of
are preserved in the Shosoin Treasure Repository
at the Todaiji
temple in Nara, including some materials
produced by block-printing. These precious
Nara period (710-794)
are
fabrics
of the
among the art treasures which once
Detail of a design in the kyokechi (stencil-dyeing) method. period, eighteenth century. Victoria
Edo
and Albert Museum.
283
by the hollow
effected
A
portions:'
funnel-shaped openings
woodworker
bores small
the reserve side of the block
frorri
into the hollow spaces of the incised design and die block
make
then lacquered or varnished to
of wood having
printer stretches the cloth over another block
a
smooth and even
down on gether,
the cloth.
surface,
and places the incised block
The two
and the dye color
the design
is left:
by
face
blocks are clamped securely to-
poured through the funnel-shaped
is
mamier the ground
holes until the hollows are fdled. In this
portions represented
is
waterproof The
it
the hollows receive the color while
in reserve.
In kyokechi or stencil dyeing the cloth
is
folded once and
clamped between two thin boards in which the
securely
design to be colored has been cut out.
The dye
applied to these cut-out spaces but prevented
between the
color
is
then
from spreading
method produces
tightly fixed boards. This
a
symmetrical design, the cloth being folded double. Examples
of
stencil
dyeing are distinguishable from any other process
by the fuzzy
outlines
of the design and the
line
of dye color
visible
where the cloth has been
Kyoto
has been the great center for beautiful fabrics produced
folded. For several centuries
by the various techniques of dyeing. dyeing characteristic of Kyoto
which
method was
resist
where the color
is
of
not want-
which allows the color
the process
upon
the
The
is
resist is
repeated as
traditional
of
Kamogawa
methods
then dipped in a dye
become
fixed only
times as desired depending
stUl
used by the dye workers of
and colorful every-
The wide and very shallow
flows through the center of Kyoto, and
by
a
on the
colors required in the design.
to the picturesque
this ancient ciry.
by many bridges of intersected
to
is
then removed by washing and
many
number of different
Kyoto contribute much life
of alum
to use rice paste, or sometimes a paste
exposed portions. The
day
particular process
A resist of beeswax was used in earlier times, but the later
and buckwheat. The cloth so prepared vat,
A
the rokechi or resist method,
produced by drawing the design and covering the
is
portions of the cloth with a ed.
is
historical importance.
The
is
crossed
city
network of narrow and very shallow
which are crossed by hundreds of small ancient Japanese architecture.
The
bridges,
is
also
canals
many of
water, which flows rather
Detail of a kosode of plain-iveaue silk with a design of a
Above:
house on the shore of a lake and poetical ideograms in the dyeing method.
Edo
period, eighteenth century.
yuzen
Tokyo National
Museum.
Below: chicks,
Edo
Silk fukusa with a design of a cock and a hen with two
and kiri
crests
along the border, in the
period, eighteenth century. Victoria
yuzen dyeing method.
and Albert Museum.
Furisode of crimson
damask with a
silk
hold design of a sheaf of noshi, a ceremonial
The ex-
decoration used on gift packages. quisite
silks
comprising the design
executed in the yuzen, tie-and-dye, broidery,
were
em-
and gold-leaf applique techniques.
Middle Edo period, seventeenth century. Yuzenshikai Collection, Kyoto.
swiftly,
of
its
is
and to
crystal clear,
this
importance, for nowhere
water Kyoto owes some
else in
Japan can fabrics be
bleached so white and dyed in such beautiful and brilliant
and in the broad Kamogawa with
colors. In the canals
its
clean pebble bottom, the workers can always be seen washing
out the
many
resist
paste
and allowing the dyes to
brilliant colors
this presents a
set.
Owing
of the long and narrow kimono
to the
fabrics,
picturesque scene with hundreds of pieces of
It is
beheved or
dyeing patterns. In
this
fabric are gathered
design,
method of tying and dyeing known
that the
shihori, is
the oldest of the various techniques of
method, usually small portions of the
and
tied
with thread according to the
and then only these parts are dipped into the dye
If the thread
is
wound
tightly, the color
A
Many
this process
colors can be introduced into a pattern
and very interesting
dyeing method
is
vat.
cannot penetrate
beyond it and therefore leaves only the gathered part with the
results
called kanoko, or
young
was popular during the Edo period and tiny pointed sticks little
can be obtained.
done with the tying-and-
characteristic Japanese pattern
deer. This pattern
consists
from the underside of the
of pressing
fabric to
form
cone-shaped protrusions about half an inch apart over
the entire cloth. Each
cone-shaped portion
little
wound with waxed silk thread, and
cloth ripphng with the flow of the water.
as kokechi,
color appUed.
with
into the dye vat.
The waxed
silk
the entire fabric
thread serves as a
prevents that minute portion of the fabric color.
Except
when
the cloth
is
is is
tightly
dipped
resist
and
from receiving any
stretched afterward, this
dyeing method produces a shrinkage which leaves the cloth
permanently covered with tiny raised points where each
was tied. This unique eye-pattern, or meyui, the eye-hke spots of color
on
is
stick
said to resemble
the coat of a fawn.
285
Besides the yuzen dyes developed in Kyoto, which are also
kamogawa,
called kyo-yuzen, as well as
after the river
of that
name in Kyoto, there is another popular one called kaga yuzen. This name is derived from the old province of Kaga, a mounon
tainous district
now
the coast of the Japan Sea
called
Ishikawa prefecture. Kaga province was the vast domain of tiie
powerful Maeda family, whose lords encouraged
and
local industries, including pottery, lacquer,
Kaga
variety of yuzen does not differ in process
Kyoto It
variety, but
noted for
it is
many
textiles.
The
from
the
beautiful color effects.
its
combines within a single pattern striking tones of vermilion,
red,
a generous amount of green and light The Edo period produced another type of dye process
and purple with
green.
called chaya-tsuji,
and
which
rice-paste resist.
It
like
yuzen was also
made with
a stick
originally consisted of dyeing a fuie
quality of hemp fabric with indigo.
Much of this
was made with handsome designs of landscapes
chaya-tsuji
in an indigo
monochrome on a white ground, and was considered the most refined summer-kimono fabric of that time. The was so highly regarded
chaya-tsuji [^osode
ofplain-weave
silk
with a burtit-orange groutiJ,
nd a scene of the Yoshiwara lethod.
Edo period,
district
three great
dyed by the yuzen
eighteenth century.
that
exclusively controlled and reserved
Tokugawa
A
houses, and thet hree great
times
is
called fuki-ye or
blown
picture.
drawing an outline design and applying a fabrics
known
as
yuzen arc a particularly famous
of Kyoto. The yuzen process
first
appeared in the
lenroku era (1688-1704). Although factual information icking as to the inventor of the method,
it
is
has been attributed
named Miyazaki Yuzensai and to a priest named ukae Yuzen. This new process became the most important
3
a painter
nd popular dyeing
art
of the Edo period, affording an un-
mited freedom of design and jrial
colors.
designs and patterns printed
The multicolored
on the
/hich the designer shared with the dyer. onsists :ick
of drawing detailed designs on the
and
The
rice-paste resist.
pic-
silk enlisted skills
The yuzen method fabric
with a small
exquisite designs
and the
orgeous colors that were achieved in yuzen dyeing made
of the Edo period and
le
most famous
as
continued until the present day.
fabric
its
it
popularity
by the
iscinating patterns
enroku are
modern
f the theaters
lose times.
86
greatest painters
of bold
stripes or
revivals
the portion to be
or over
left in reserve,
section to be protected
resist
It
consists
checks
of the day. The
known
today
as
of the gay and showy costumes
and the pleasure quarters of the Yoshiwara in
of
of rice paste to
aji
already dyed
from another dyeing of color. Some-
times pieces of paper are cut according to the design and securely laid
on
the cloth.
like metal device
This fuki-ye method
many
parts
The dye
is
then placed in a funnel-
and sprayed on by blowing through is still
a tube.
practiced as a household pastime in
of Japan. There was
also a painted cotton fabric
of great beauty made during the seventeenth century and
known is
as kakisarasa.
derived from
The name
two words,
kakisarasa, or painted cotton,
the Japanese kaki,
which when
written with a particular designating character means a painting,
and the Hindu
early record,
cloth
on
a
it
sarasa,
meaning
calico.
was produced by laying
smooth board, and with
a
According to an
a piece of fine cotton
brush applying a liquid
preparation of the distilled juice of unripe persimmons.
Designs for fabrics in the extravagant Genroku era were requently created
Tokugawa
popular process of dyeing widely practiced since Toku-
gawa
The dyed
production was
princes.
Nagao Museum,
Zamakura.
jecialty
its
by the Shogun, the
this
was dry, the designs were painted on by hand in
as
When many
colors as desired.
The
colorful
and beautiful Japanese garments of the present
day are made from
fabrics that are
traditional processes, especially in
still
being produced in the
Kyoto, which remains the
center of the art industries of Japan.
XX A
m
#
LTHOUGH
the culture of Korea and
JL. —^.provided fundamental development of Japan's
whelming
influence.
social order,
The
it
never became an over-
Japanese temperament and aesthetic
complete acceptance of
taste resisted a
China
principles for the
foreign culture,
this
adopting its best qualities and transforming them into a distinctive native style.
inspiration it
makes
also
The
history of Japanese costume reveals the
which came from China
in the early periods, but
clear the distinctively Japanese element,
which
has survived to the present day in the beautiful native kimono.
This purely indigenous dress
most beautiful
in the
is
one of the most colorful and
world and
its liistorical
development
over hundreds of years presents a fascinating story.
Costume
men
garments worn by the
appear to have been a coat and
hakama, or loose trousers by the ;
latter called
mo or
The
hinutno.
women,
a coat
and
the
skirt,
and
sleeves are close-fitting
the legs of the hakama appear tied just above the knees with a cord.
The outer garments seen in
that the hair
was elaborately
these
Haniwa
figures
show
have the
dressed, while others
head covered with a kind of cap or other form of headwear.
The
of the
dress
hung over
adornment and and carry
women
included a scarf called
to provide
things,
much in
warmth.
the
The most prominent
today.
which
hire,
the shoulders and served both as a piece of personal
found in the tombs are
It
also
was used
to
wrap
manner
that the furoshiki
objects
of personal adornment
used
is
of curved ornament called
a type
magatama. These usually occur in the form of a necklace, and the
HANIWA AND ASUKA COSTUME
comma-shaped
tombs of rulers
Our knowledge of costume styles during the earlier periods is
based on the chronicles of those times,
trayals
dates
of dress in paintings. The
from very
century A.
d.,
on por-
period of costume style
ancient times until the beginning of the third
during which time a
The costume of the upper
oped.
furst
well as
as
strict caste
classes
pieces evidently originally derived
the teeth or claws of animals.
system devel-
toward the end of this
Han dynasty, by way of Korea.
erties
were ascribed to
and
Korea regarded the claw of the power. This
earliest
responds to the time
this early
chral
costume
Haniwa
mounds which form
third century. Besides the
is
made
culture,
possible
by the
found in the sepul-
the principal repositories of the
mounds of simple form covering
sarcophagi of earthenware or stone, there are the great tombs
of the
riders consisting
mound. The
latter are
of a stone chamber covered by a large of stupendous dimensions, some being
to the conquest
iron or bronze.
The
clay
Haniwa
figurines,
which are found
tiger as
and
an amulet of great
of the third century, which cor-
expedition. This beautiful shrine, surrounded with
great ancient trees,
dedicated to the Empress Jingo and
is
symbol of the adventurous
spirit
which was
much
to the
is
a
responsible for
the closer contacts of Japan with Korea and Cliina,
and
of
the fact
believed to be the place where the Empress Jingo embarked
on her
with moats. Within their stone chambers are found pottery articles
by
Kyushu, where the Shinto shrine of Kashii-no-Miya is located, is
turn contributed so
metal mirrors, weapons, and other
indicated
when the Empress Jingo led a great army of Silla in Korea. The seacoast near Kashii in
ninety feet high and covering an area of eighty acres complete
vases, jewelry,
is
period of Japanese costume comes to a
and was most
The study of
quartz,
That certain magic prop-
these magatama
close during the first years
small clay figures of the
agate.
that until very recent times people in Asiatic Siberia
period was similar to the Chinese dress of the likely introduced into Japan
fme workmanship, and are
are often of very
made of a variety of materials including jade, nephrite, glass, jasper, serpentine,
from
The magatama found in the great
which
development of Japanese
in art
culture.
The second period marked by
outside the tomb, sometimes represent animals, but usually
The
men and women with regular features, wearing clothes of the Han dynasty, including earrings and necklaces. The principal
about
in the history
of Japanese costume
is
the introduction of Chinese culture and rehgion.
invasion of the A. D. 220,
kingdom of Silla by
the Empress Jingo,
was the beginning of Korean influence in Japan,
and resulted in the introduction of Buddhism in the
sixth cen-
287
tury.
During these four centuries, ending with the closing years
of the Asuka period (552-645), Japanese costume
The
influence of the mairdand. Asiatic upper-class dress
reflected the
Japanese eagerly adopted the
and with
it
new
fashions
of hairdress.
to Chinese style. In the system enacted
by the code there were The most lavish and formal
three types of official apparel. dress
was
for ceremonial occasions
and worn by the Emperor,
the princes and princesses, and the noble ladies and gentlemen
The new costumes were made of fme silk in twiU and brocade
of the court.
weaves with beautiful designs, and were of great length with
Ceremony of Imperial Accession, the Great Thanksgiving Service when prayers are offered to Toyouke-Omikami, the g ess of farms, crops, food, and
very large
demand as the
sleeves.
for
fme
As the needs of society advanced and the
fabrics increased, guilds
were formed, such
Oribe guild of weavers and the Ayabe guild of workers
skilled in brocade.
During the preceding
been a constant immigration of Koreans,
of Chinese
also
of Chinese
dynastic wars in their
own
from Chinese
who were refugees from the Many of these artisans
country.
were not only weavers and brocade workers but familiar with the culture
guild or
a title
it is
also farmers
of silkworms. The brocade-makers'
known
was reserved
for the
sericulture,
New Year's Reverence to A less formal costume was the court dress worn
by nobles wh^n attending ordinary court official dress
who were
worn by lower-rank
charged with administrative
according to the seasons and the colors
tions that determined the dress
of nobility by the Japanese court.
these differences
The Nara The
sash.
were
strictly
court dress for
called a ho, a
T'ANG INFLUENCE
897,
third period of costume extends
from about 607
and includes the Nara period (710-794) and the
first
until
part
men
the
used powder and rouge.
consisted of an upper
was introduced
imitate
all
things Chinese.
The
mission to repre-
first official
sent Japan at the Chinese court left in the year 607 it
was
ostensibly a good-will mission, the
and though
most important
new knowledge. Each mission included a number of scholars who stayed for long periods to pursue their special studies, as well as skilled artisans who studied Chinese methods. The Japanese modified their administrative object
was
to obtain
system along Chinese
lines,
and one of the
the formation of a court hierarchy based
which were distinguished by
titles
first
measures was
on
official ranks,
and costumes according to
at this
which were applied noble and upper
mamiers and
spots, called kashi,
to the forehead
native customs, so that there were
annual
festivals,
dances, music,
dress
which
is
stiU
used for great formal occasions.
the end of the Early Heian period in 897, official relations
stop sending missions to
grades of rank.
Japanese
Nara was modeled
after the
Chinese capital
Code of Taiho, which was promulgated in 718, prescribed the official dress
288
at
Ch'ang-an.
The
701 and revised in
of the Nara period according
very influential
ambassador to the T'ang court.
the caps and robes to distinguish the
Japanese culture and manners changed greatly and the city of
of the
was employed more widely. The latter fmally developed
into the sokutai,
a
result,
dress
restricted in use, while the court
fit
and culture to the Japanese. As a
modes of
and amusements of the court
During the Early Heian period, the ceremonial
Nara period became more
Imperial court did not see
civilization
to the traditional
distinctive
were of Chinese origin and blended with those of Japan.
with China ceased because
course with China increased rapidly, opening up the great
two
and living in the Nara period. The various forms of
dress
573-621, far-reaching reforms were adopted which greatly
T'ang
of crimson color
and cheeks. While the
commoners clung
changed and stimulated the advancement of culture, the po-
many subdivisions of the From the time of Prince Shotoku direct inter-
also
the teeth
followed the dictates of Chinese
classes
dress, the
At
system, and religion, and even prescribed the color of
Both
and
time and the ladies adopted the practice
Chinese custom. Under the regency of Prince Shotoku Taishi,
litical
and
garment
a long skirt called a no.
The custom of blackening
of using beauty patches or
to
class>.s,
women of this era dressed their L
of the Heian period, known as Jogan or Early Heian (794-897).
end of the Nara period it was the fashion in Japan
of the various
hakama resembling loose trousers, and a braided
These years coincide with the T'ang dynasty in China, and until the
e pre-
v.
rules an-' regula-
court dress of the ladies of the Nara period consisted
men and
the
were many
observed, especially as to color.
of a short upper garment and
The
activities constitutes
The court dress was of the greatest importance. The material diflfered
recorded that the chief of this guild was granted
as the
The
activities.
and commoners
officials
the third type.
scribed according to rank. There
artisans
most important functions
and the Ceremc../ of
the Emperor.
men of
Ayabe was formed by
Han, and
had
who were probably
origin, as they claimed descent
and
families,
centuries there
It
or occasions, such as the
travel
to accept an
the as
He petitioned the Emperor to
China and quoted reports from
monks studying there that conditions were bad and dangerous. The T'ang dynasty was on the wane and
the Japanese had reached a stage free
official in
appointment
from foreign
and adapt to
their
where they preferred
a
life
influence. This enabled
them
own
of Chinese culture
taste those aspects
which could be harmoniously blended with manners and customs.
Intellectual pursuits
to assimilate
their traditional
and
art
turned to
native sources of inspiration, and fashion in dress gave
way
to
Japanese style.
ment
called ko-uchigt, after the
worn with it. The many of solid
colors,
and
it
name of
so-called layers
was the
the outermost robe
of these
dresses
were
practice to give careful thought
and consideration to the harmonious combination of the
THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
various colors. Tliis
skillfull selection
of colors was most
important because a shght portion of each garment was visible,
The turies
fourth period of costume embraces ahnost five cen-
of Japan's medieval
hist/
'
v.from 897 until about 1477.
Beginning with the Late Heiarr u*: Fujiwara period (897-1185) and including the Kamakura(i 185-1333), it ends in the middle of the Muromachi period, in 1477.
When
at the close
of the Onin Civil
this great struggle for feudal
War
power ended,
fighting continued in
most provinces and the Ashikaga Shoguns were powerless. Even the Imperial house was almost
penniless
and anarchy prevailed in a great number of the
provii yts until about .
1
500.
The Fujiwara period,
as
previously
noted,. !was
an age of luxury and profusion. The
architecture
of the
nobility, called sliinden-zukuri,
hshed with magnificent paintings by the artists.
From
this
new
palatial
was embel-
class
of secular
time also dates Lady Murasaki's literary
one beneath the other. layer or undergarment at the sleeves,
and
A
line
of color represented by each
was arranged
at the
to
hem of the
fashion prescribed certain
set
at the neckline,
The
color arrangements
kasane-no-irome, or color composition
each
show skirt.
of
dictates
of
known
as
dress-layers,
and
of blended colors was given the name of a flower or was the custom to wear each set of colors at a
a plant. It
particular time in conformity
seasons of the year. Such hibiscus
were apphed
social seasons
and the
as wistaria, azalea, pine,
to these sets,
fully selected color tones
tuated
with the
names
and
and the gradation of care-
produced
a chromatic effect
punc-
by the vermilion of the undermost garment.
The many
social institutions
of the Fujiwara were highly
developed, and in the elaborate ceremonials,
festivals,
music,
masterpiece, Genji Monogatari, and other works, such as the
and other
Miscellany of Set Shonagon, or Pillow Book,
refinement and elegance. Social ethics, manners, and rituals
which provide an
enduring picture of the elegant society and the cokiiil atmosphere created
by the
costume. In the beautiful picture
scrolls
life at
rich
court and
and gorgeous
of makimono, the
Fujiwara court painters and calligraphers have
cultural activities there existed the highest degree
followed the
strictest rules.
delicacy of sentiment
of
Great beauty of thought and
were expressed
in the literature of this
period, with subtle forms of poetry written
on
beautiful paper
left a priceless
of costume and manners of living. The court and the ornaments for personal attire were colorful and
pictorial record
dress
elaborate.
The formal court dress of the nobles called the i-kan,
which was used
by
for ceremonial occasions,
was complemented
high crowned headpiece without a brim called the kammuri. For less formal occasions new forms appeared such a
as the noshi
noshi
and the karagim. Both were outer garments, the becoming the most widely used dress for the men of the
Fujiwara period; the karaginu was reserved for outdoor wear.
The
fashionable dress of the ladies of the nobihty, called
juni-hitoe, also
had the short loose overgarment or
The juni-hitoe,
or twelve-layer dress,
is
karaginu.
more properly
called
court-ladies attire or nyoho shozoku. This dress,
most beautiful
silks
and brocades, consisted
made of the of many layers of
undergarments of various colors, and a very long pleated skirt.
The skirt was tied around the waist over the outer garment or robe, and spread out voluminously in the back. The outer robe was made of a brocaded silk
silk fabric, and the skirt was of with designs which were embroidered, printed, tied-and-
dyed, or painted.
The
skirt
was often further enriched with
decoration of mother-of-pearl, mirrors, and gold or silver
foil.
semiprecious jewels, tiny
A more simplified form of this
twelve-layer dress, widely used by the ladies of the court for everyday wear, was an extremely elegant and graceful garJuni-hitoe, or twelve-layer dress, worn by the ladies of the court during the Fujiwara period (897-1185). This illustration is a
of
juni-hitoe
Taisho
in
worn
at the
enthronement ceremony of the
1915. Tokyo National
Museum.
late
Emperor
scented with incense. Elegant calligraphy was practiced in the
writing of
which were very properly hung on
letters,
a
branch of wiUow, flowering cherry, or plum and delivered
by
The magnificent costume
a personal servant.
constituted
an intrinsic part of this colorful and elegant mamier of living.
The
dress
and
fullness,
men and the women increased in length
of both the
and
and
pleats
folds
became deeper. Conven-
ko-uchigi
and Chinese robe and long
skirt
on
the most formal dress, worn" only
of the
ladies
became
The
rare occasions.
decorative designs of these ceremonial costumes were strictly
regulated according to prescribed forms: the ho costume of the
Emperor was decorated with phoenixes, paulownia, and
bamboo;
Emperor had bamboo and
the robe of an abdicated
paulownia within
circles.
The
dress
of the nobles and feudal
tionalized designs and geometrical patterns became a prominent
lords varied according to the status of the wearer, with the
feature in the tioshi or outer-garment. Closely graded shades
clan crests accompanied
of color were popular and the dyed pictorial designs on
an accessory to the furnishings of a wardrobe, the dress-scent-
almost entirely disappeared. fabrics
were the
The most
which
susogo, in
fabrics
dyed
fashionable
the color tone
grew darker
ing rack was
aij
important item.
when
be folded up
had cloud-like
the rack and scented
of light and dark. In contrast to the
effects
its
code of color combinations and many-layered under-
strict
garments, the
began using
commoners
fabrics
the end of the Fujiwara period
at
with large-scale designs and
figures.
They
more
kosode,
with
its
short and
narrow
sleeves.
simplified dress reflected a strong trend
restraint
This
toward the
and purity which have always characterized the
Japanese refmement of
taste.
Throughout the remainder of the fourth period of costume,
called ichime-gasa,
a very long white silk mantle
known
Contemporary costumes called /z/td^are and 5»/^a» previously ,
worn by the commoners, became popular attire for the everyday use of the samurai caste and later came to typify usual dress. These
two costumes became
with the samurai
class that the suikan
had
made of
to be
was
plain silk fabric, while the fabric for the hitatare
armor, while the jimbaori was a coat worn over the armor.
The more
style
simplified standards of the
which had
their effect
upon
new
architecture
was the age of the samurai, with the warrior in the supremand manners and customs were influenced by
this
new
feudal regime. Nevertheless, after the early years of warfare
new
the
ruling class turned to the cultivation of the arts and
as
tied-and-dyed cloth, figured
Heike Monogatari and the Hogen Mono-
gatari
code of social ethics of Zen, with
training through meditation
with the temper and
ideals
and
its
severe spiritual
self-denial,
accorded well
of the feudal warrior and in turn
The Kamakura period
is
especially rich in picture scrolls,
makimono, which most vividly
living
illustrate the
manner of
and the beautiful costumes of the time. The
karaginu,
or outer-garment originally used for outdoor wear, became
new warrior men of the Heian
the ceremonial attire of the sokutai
290
costume of the
this colorful
of a feudal time, but
class,
while the
period, and the
period and are not only inspiring also beautiful literary
works.
The
Heike Monogatari, written in poetical prose to be chanted to
accompaniment of a lute, reflects the pure Japanese aesthetic
The war
narratives,
which
fortunes of mihtary leaders and
makimono, made
dealt
with the changing
were often reproduced
illustrated stories
in
of great graphic power.
The making of weapons and armor became a great art, on which the decorative work is comparable to any other form of art
at its best,
and
swordsmiths such
affected fashions in dress.
or
as the
belong to
stories
taste.
The samurai penchant for elaboration was tempered by the simplicity of Zen taste. The simple, the center of culture.
of Kamakura times. The great war
life
romances such
the
Kamakura, remained
and fme brocades. The
part of the everyday
soon adopted the fashions of Kyoto, which, despite the estabat
silks,
samurai and their colorful costumes formed a most picturesque
lishment of the Shogun's headquarters
practical
as
conform with and be worn under
Beautiful and rich fabrics were used for the yoroi-hitatare, such
The
and decoration, in turn influenced certain changes in costume.
acy,
especially designed to
of apparel pre-
simplification.
ruling military caste,
It
attire
was reserved for the use of the samurai,
commoners now became popular among
was a trend toward the upper classes.
was
a
deter-
it
called yoroi-hitatare
most
their
so closely associated
outstanding characteristic in the changing fashions of dress
the
as a
mushi-no-tareginu.
mined by the rank and importance of the person. The
by
to
most becoming headpiece which
a
broad-brimmed hat
from the beginning of the Kamakura period (1185-1333) to about the middle of the Muromachi period (c. 1477), the
viously used
it
by the burning of incense placed under
consisted of a shallow,
used these strikingly colorful fabrics for their relatively simple
kimono or
was made of a number of
not in use. Garments were draped over
them. Court maidens wore
from which hung
It
As
floral motifs.
m such a maimer as to allow
lacquered rods tied together
toward the lower part of the garment, and the murago, which
extremely rich and voluminous dress of the nobility, with
by geometrical or
as
this
was
also the
period of the celebrated
Okazaki Masamune. Because the military
families constituted the highest stratum of society,
peculiar to the life of the samurai
on the everyday
life
and
The manner of living,
art
things
of Japan.
the pursuit of amusement, and the
collecting of objects of art
which caused many
all
had an impressive influence
were most expensive
vassals to
become involved
pleasures,
in fmancial
Although some were under economic pressure
difficulties.
through expenditure on war
who
unsuccessfully attempted to invade Japan,
the attempts to keep
brought about
up with the
many of their
it
rising standard
difficulties.
nomic breakdown, together with the
The
The parvenu
fashions adopted
Mongols,
beginning of
was mainly
of the cultural
services against the
conspiracies of various
the feudal
of aristocratic Japanese elegance.
institutions
ing great
which was
crest,
distinctive for
The daimon,
family crests or mon.
known
which eventually culminated in an armed attack on Kamakura
of the samurai and replaced the earlier
summer of
capture in the
1333.
The Hojo regent
Takotoki and more than two hundred of his family and ful retainers
took their
own lives rather
ment of pride. After the
fall
faith-
than suffer the abase-
of the Kamakura Shogunate the
appeared
a style
of
as the suo,
dress for
men
trousers.
The costume
transition,
for
colorful elegance. Various layers
8
Ashikaga Takauji established the Shogunate govern-
is
called the
1573. This era of the Ashikaga Shoguiis
Muromachi
period, after the
name of the
of Kyoto in which they lived and enjoyed a
The new group of
magnificent gardens.
life
section
of ease amid
provincial
daimyo
were quickly influenced by the ancient culture of the Imperial court,
and while they looked upon the nobles with
disdain,
they sought to emulate their manners and refmement.
The
from
the
Shogun,
Ashikaga
third
Shogunate in 1395 to
Yoshiinitsu,
his villa at
retired
Kitayama in Kyoto, where he
built the three-storied structure called
Kinkaku, or Golden
Pavilion, with a picturesque garden around a life
it.
There he lived
of extreme luxury.
at first
with the prevailing elegance of the court nobles.
Although they ultimately were completely subjugated by the traditional
Kyoto
culture, in the early part
of the Muromachi
period they were more inclined to look upon
The and
was
natural reaction different,
China and
which
a strong taste for
as decadent.
it
something
new
led to a resumption
of intercourse with
of Chinese modes,
just as the desire for
to a period
novelty in the Nara period had been responsible for the adoption of T'ang fashions.
the
Ming
court,
commercial to the
Envoys were sent by the Shogunate
and Zen
activities
known
priests are
with China in
to
to have directed
their capacity as advisers
Shogun. The power of Zen increased greatly during
Muromachi period because it encouraged tical wisdom which appealed to the warrior the
a type
of prac-
class,
and Zen
monasteries were the center of Chinese learning. for things Chinese lectual circles
was
a characteristic feature
The mania
of the
intel-
of the Muromachi period, and the great feudal
of simplification
until
achieved
it
it
its
of
through various
form of
present
were gradually eliminated
the voluminous twelve-layer dress, until the kosode or
from
innermost kimono
custom for
became the outside garment.
fuially
ever, at court functions
women
to
and on formal occasions
wear an
How-
was the
it
uchikake, or court lady's cere-
monial outer garment or cloak, over the kosode, frequently tied about the waist and draped loosely over the shoulders. With the elimination of the former layers of harmoniously blended solid colors, a fabrics.
ful
new
treatment of design was adopted for the outer
By about the middle of the Muromachi period beauti-
and colorful
on the
of rather large
pictorial designs
The
kosode fabrics.
size
appeared
trend in fasliion favored the shihori
or tied-and-dyed method for dyed patterns, the most popular style
The feudal warriors of this new aristocracy were not content
also
also started a period
to carry
stages
133
costume
There
consisting of the former
women
which was eventually
feudal lords. In
typical
hitatarc.
undergarment or kosodc worn with the hahama or loose
country was torn by wars due to the rivalry between the great
ment which ruled until
mean-
design of large
together with an almost
identical dress
its
its
became the
nobles of Kyoto and feudal barons, were contributing factors
and
newcomers at the
A new style of costume appeared called the daimon,
of living that
inevitable eco-
by
period were eventually cast aside in favor
this
being the tsuji-ga-hana, or flowers in
crisscross,
was a combination o£ shihori dyeing and hand-painted It
was
at this
time that
were introduced from Ming
silk fabrics
China, including gold brocade or
and fme crepe or
diirimcii.
which
designs.
kitirnii, silk
damask or
donsii,
These imports stimulated the weav-
ing of magnificent Japanese prototypes at Sakai, the foremost port of that time.
From
here these beautiful weaving tech-
niques spread to Kyoto, along with methods of producing certain
woolen
fabrics
and velvets brought to Japan by
Spanish and Portuguese ships. All these fabrics added to the colorful
and magnificent
life at
Kyoto
in the setting
of the
luxurious mansions and exquisite gardens of the Ashikaga.
The
area
was known
the section of
as
Higasliiyama, or East Mountain, after
Kyoto where
the eighth Ashikaga Shogun,
Yoshimasa, built his fabulous Ginkaku
villa
on Higashiyama.
Here, toward the end of the fifteenth century, the
of the Muromachi period reached
its
peak.
years of the fifteenth century the country
plunged into a prolonged
civil
aesthetic life
During
the closing
was once again
war.
barons liked to wear Chinese dress. Yoshimitsu even adopted the
custom of being carried about
in a Chinese enclosed
palanquin. As the years passed during the
Muromachi period,
the Japanese developed a sense of antiquarian sentiment, and the
charm of
traditional things
began to exert
its
influence.
MOMOYAMA SPLENDOR The fifth period of Japanese costume starts around
1477.
The
Ashikaga Shoguns were powerless, the Imperial house was
291
these artisans.
The magnificent brpcadcs of the
Kyoto came
ers in
Costumes became purely Japanese
nishijin-ohi.
gorgeous creations of the
kind of leather
of elegant fashion.
art
named
after
now
which
its
is
weav-
famous
in taste
A
and
particular
murasakigawa came into
tabi called
there also appeared the nagoya-obi, like girdle
Nishijin
into existence, especially the
style,
and
narrow rope-
a
place of origin near Karatsu in
Kyushu. It
was during the
costume
The
Momoyama
period that the Japanese
developed into the elegant kimono and obi.
finally
gradual discarding of successive layers resulted in the
innermost garment or kosode
fuially
becoming the
simplified
when it is realized that until then this was the only garment worn by the kimono. This evolution
lower classes.
It
particularly interesting
now became the common attire of the Japanese
of sex or
regardless
is
social position.
Although the kimono with
elegantly proportioned lines
its
afforded a broad field for the creation of decorative designs, the teclinical processes available in the
were comparatively limited
ment was
No
Nuihaku-type
costume of plaiii-iuciwc
silk,
one half
ii'ith
having an over-all embroidered conventional design of floivering vines on a black ground and the other half large dew-laden leaves
of grass
in
embroidery and
in
until the
in a continuation
was
perfected.
From very
mentation of sumptuous
hangings for temples and monasteries,
the provinces. This period of dress extended through the
the Chinese robe and long skirt.
Momoyama
colorful
or
Tokugawa period
of costume
is
of the Country
known
at
(1615-1867). as
War. The
with the two great
men
The
first
part of this
Middle Ages
Momoyama
period, associated
Momoyama
Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi
or
tsuji-ga-
was not
early times the
as
With
fabrics,
making mandara
well as for decorating
the introduction of the
embroidery was confmed
to articles of costume for ceremonial occasions.
meaning the Age
responsible for bringing order and
unity out of this chaos,
and fmely woven
Jidai,
Scngoku
it
fabrics, especially for the intricate
Buddliist subjects and
almost bankrupt, and continuous warfare prevailed in most of
Edo
of the
of embroidery had been practiced in Japan for the orna-
work of portraying
era
period
greatest develop-
middle of the Edo period that the beautiful yuzen
process of dyeing art
period (1573-1615) and lasted to the end of the
Momoyama
The
hana or tie-and-dye with hand-painted designs, as
gold foil applique and large fans. Monioyatna period
(1573-1615). Tokyo National Museum.
in scope.
its
use
was more or
era the elegant
and simplified
kimono opened up unlimited
Through
less restricted,
style
possibilities.
the
but in the
of the kosode
During
period embroidery became a veritable art form, with
this its
Hideyoshi, was an era of great splendor, of magnificent
magnificent pictorial designs in brilliantly colored silk threads.
mansions and enormous
Many
castles
decorated with great works
The tea ceremony, or cha-no-yu, which had become an institution in the preceding Muromachi of
art.
was now practiced with rehgious Hideyoshi had a passion for
who
it,
zeal.
it
table cult. All the arts reached a climax
and rich
in delicate
forms and
tea master
colors.
and were
Costume
full
inkin fabrics imported from Ming China. This type of work, known as surihaku in Japan, is produced by drawing the design
Rikyu,
of vigor
at the
Momoyama period had become rather men and women were wearing the same
begin-
on the
called nuihaku, or effect is
and both
basic type
detail
The
crafts
of weaving and dyeing were, however, highly
developed, and exquisite and brilliant fabrics were being produced, the fixed
292
mode of attire opening up
a
new
field for
When kosode are made with
the surihaku, or "rubbed-on metal-leaf process," they are
simplified
of apparel consisting simply of the kosode or kimono, and the
with a glue and then applying tiny pieces of gold
fabric
or silver leaf to the prepared lines.
ning of the
obi.
were enriched with designs
worked
of a veri-
to the dignity
fabrics
with gold or silver foil in imitation of the beautiful
period,
Both Nobunaga and
and the great
flourished at this time, raised
of the embroidered
already
one of
show
embroidery and
great refmement.
cuted in nuihaku,
foil,
brilliance, the designs
as
and although the
with
their beautiful
The Momoyama
in individuality in contrast to the earlier designs, for the
most part repeated motifs.
by famous
designs exe-
well as the tied-and-dyed process, gained
artists to
which were
Many kosode were
designed
be executed on the fabric by the dyer
The
or ncedleworker. kosode fabrics
increasingly indigenous character of
exemphfied by an unusual type of design
is
which appeared
Momoyania
in the
period consisting of
divisions into clearly prescribed sections. ticular types
dan-gawari,
and
name applying
katasuso, each
of design and the garment on which called katanii-gawari,
terized
meaning "two
by being divided
ment both
There are
tliree
par-
of these sectional designs, known as hatami-gawari,
in the front
posed of a different
it is
The type
different sides,"
vertically at the
and
both the kind
to
applied.
in the back,
is
charac-
middle of the gar-
with each side com-
Already in the Kamakura period
fabric.
some of the garments were made in
manner, chiefly with
this
the purpose of creating a distinct color contrast, but in the
Momoyama sought.
period a contrast both in design and color was
The type of design
called dan-gawari consists
tioned squares, while the katasuso
by
spaces separated
line motifs
is
resembling clouds. This form
of design continued to be extremely popular
Kambun
of parti-
comprised of design
Edo
era (1661-1673) in the
until
around the
when
period,
the style
began to change to large designs of a rather bold nature covering the entire kosode (Plates 25 and 26). All through the
Momoyama period
and into the early part of the Edo period
the dofiiku, a kind of cloak
which derived from
used by Buddhist monks, continued to be
form of robe
worn by men. The
or ceremonial outer garment of court ladies, also
ucliikake,
continued to be into the
a
Edo
worn throughout
the
Momoyama period and
No
costume of the
brown
silk,
nuihaku
type.
The
material
with a design of court carriages
fine needlework.
The
a flat-weave
is
the most delicate
iit
Momoyama
vertical lines are appliques in gold leaf.
and the flowing
and
heavily laden stems of lilies are in end)roidcry,
Tokyo National Museum.
period, sixteenth century.
era.
called haori,
which
worn, and the
is still
kimono
furisode, a
similar to the kosode but having longer sleeves.
EDO COSTUMES AND FASHIONS
Costume Genroku
For the next two hundred and
1867, during the span of Tokugawa
Edo
or
fully
Tokugawa
dominance known
clearly demarcated.
who
as the
classes
They were divided between
were
the court
occupied the most exalted rank, the warriors,
wielded
economic
to
period, Japanese society experienced the
developed feudal system, in which the
nobles,
who
from 1615
fifty years,
all
affairs,
the
power and
influence in political
and
and the farmers and townspeople. During of the seventeenth century,
this time, in the early years
all
fabrics
time in the Edo period. extravagance,
when
of abundance. At
sic aesthetics,
popular
of the
World ions,
of the southern
seas,
were
Southern Barbarians. Their
called style
enced some fashions in fabrics period progressed,
the
rich
as
Southern Foreigners or
of dress nevertheless
Momoyama
era soon developed into a costly
who
fabrics
kimono
a
Edo
of the
and luxurious
could afford such fme pieces.
period began to use over the
influ-
well as costume. As the
and colorful
art for those this
by way
The men of
form of loose cloak
which adhered
era.
The
blessings parallel
to the traditional clas-
culture of the majority of the
—
a
world of pleasures,
restaurants, theaters, tea pavil-
and houses of assignation, whose
ers,
to Japan
whole of Japan enjoyed the
time there were two separate,
townspeople of Edo was centered on the Ukiyo or Drifting
pleasure haunt of
came
the
this
which was the most prosperous
was an epoch marked by luxury and
and the new, which was represented by the
tastes
with the exception of a few Dutch, Chinese and Koreans. traders, because they
It
cultures, the old culture
foreign traders were forbidden entrance to Japanese ports,
These European
reached their greatest richness in the
era (1688-1704),
singers, actors, bath-house
Edo was
girls,
the Yoshiwara district,
citizens gathered to enjoy the dances
in frivolous
and
of color-prints
a graphic record
the
Edo
dress
period.
and
dissipating amusements.
gay quarters of Yoshiwara were endless variety
citizens included
danc-
and courtesans. The great
plays,
where the
and indulge
The people and
the
skillfully depicted in the
called
Ukiyo-e, which afford
of the magnificent costumes worn during
The Ukiyo-e portray
in excellent detail the
of the funous courtesans and popular
actors,
while other
color prints present a historical record of the costume
worn 293
Tokugawa
during
times.
Throughout the
of the
early part
Edo period until the end of the Genroku era,
No performances
were patronized by the Shoguns and became a regular part of the feudal ceremonial
on most important
occasions.
The
No
costume became incredibly beautiful, and was often made of with designs woven in dazzling colors, or of
silk fabrics
A
gorgeous embroidery with exquisite designs. type of
No
was the
haraori.
costume which combined elegance and splendor Origuially the
silk fabrics
from China,
period the
name was given
silk threads.
costume,
it
When
when
Not long
to brocades havir, g gold
female
roles.
male characters
to all
and
floss-
used to describe a
is
No
kimono worn by actors The costume worn by No an
called
is
atsuita,
or
atstiita
after the
Genroku
patronage, but
it
No appears to have lost
era the
survived in the
more
conservative
traditional qualities
its
and the upper
nobles,
drama developed under
In
were commissioned
to execute the designs.
the art of costume reached such a height of magnifi-
fact,
cence that a peculiar form of fashion display appeared in the
custom
called kosode-niakti. This
unexampled form of human
vanity consisted of hanging a beautiful stretched
between two
trees, in
kimono on
a cord
order to reflect the affluence
of the family. The prevailing manner of living and the ions of the
fash-
Edo period were actually the creation of the people
themselves rather than, as formerly, dictated by the nobility or the aristocrat/c military their
tastes',
class.
Having the wealth
to satisfy
the cultivated townspeople tended toward cos-
tumes that were extravagant and luxurious, while the upper classes
preferred the elegant simplicity of traditional modes.
During Tokugawa times the
hairdress
of women differed
dress in which the front portion of the hair was elaborately puffed
out was called maegauii, while the style with the sides spread out was called
hiii,
and the
tsuto
consisted of gracefully draping
classes.
the patronage of the feudal
daimyo, and the general public of the Edo period found
much too solemn.
reached the level of a fme art in the Genroku era, and
great artists often
according to their social rank and profession. The style of hair-
unusually beautiful.
by educated commoners, the
No
was applied
means China. In the Heian
since kara
because of the appreciation of
circles
The
karaori
refers to a short-sleeved
actors portraying
its official
name
the term karaori
when impersonating karaori
particular
ally
it
In the opening years of the seventeenth cen-
tury there appeared in
Kyoto
new
a
type of performance
which soon developed into the popular drama
called Kabuki.
This form of drama, which evolved from the original per-
formance of a talented young enthusiastically received
fame quickly spread
actress
named Okuui, was
by the people of Kyoto, and her
Okuni and her troupe
to Edo. In 1607
of performers, dancers, and musicians went to Edo, where they achieved great success. The Kabuki drama became an elaborate
and
brilliant affair,
with magnificent and costly
costumes wliich reflected the lavish theater exerted a strong influence
during the Edo period, entertainment. the day
taste
upon
the
of the life
actors.
as it
was the most popular form of
The Ukiyo-e
color prints of famous actors of
were eagerly purchased by theatergoers
in certain roles.
The
entire repertory
of the
styles
worn
HV»t!|«Hi(HVVV«V
of costume
had been fashionable during the many centuries of
Japanese history theater
had
is
represented
a noticeable effect
and the
on the Kabuki
stage.
of the actors being followed
r
with such keen
interest that they influenced fashions.
dress
Yoshiwara courtesans so profusely depicted color prints
The
upon contemporary conduct,
both the behavic
dress,
«^
for their vivid
portrayal of the characters and the beautiful costumes
that
The
of the Japanese
were equally responsible
modes of hairdresiiag, and
in the
Kosode
with a dan-gawari design dyed
in the tsuji-ga-
Collection,
Tokyo.
Ukiyo-e
for setting fashions in
fabric design
extensively copied and popularized
The
Above:
hana method. Motnoyama period (157^1615). Akashi
by
the
which were
common
people.
Right:
Uchikake of white
silk
damask,
embroidered
with
flowing diagonal designs and flowers. This formal gown was worn
The lavish and costly costumes worn by the famous Yoshiwara
by a mistress of Icsada, the thirteenth Tokugawa Shogim. Edo
courtesans, together with the dress of the upper classes, actu-
period, first half nineteenth century.
294
Tokyo National Museum.
the hair in the back. In this period the use of false hair into
vogue and the elaborate
hairpins,
combs, and ornaments.
of the court and the
their
eyebrows and blacken
common classes also
It
was adorned with long
was
women
ladies
the
coiffure
also the fashion for the
court attendants to paint
Married
their teeth.
blackened their teeth and
time shaved off their eyebrows, while used powder and rouge.
Women's
came
women
dress
women at the
of
of
same
all classes
became highly ex-
travagant both in materials and in design during the early part of the
Edo
By the year
mations in an attempt to regulate the
were
stern edicts
1700 the townspeople had reached a high point
of the towTispeople,
Many
issued against townspeople living extra-
vagantly and giving lavish entertainments, and against towns-
people and servants wearing
silks
or cloth mantles. But the
people, having acquired wealth and cultivation, intended to
enjoy the pleasures they could afford.
Many
richly dressed
shopkeepers were arrested, and on occasion a rich merchant
would have
wealth confiscated for a too ostentatious
his
mamier of living. The
period.
lives
in a desperate effort to stop extravagance and pleasures.
and did
edicts
of the Shogunate had
to stop the townspeople
little
little effect
from indulging
in ex-
of affluence and culture, which gave them a position of real
pensive pleasures having become inured to luxury, they simply
importance. Although the mihtary
spent their
class stiU
dignity and high social standing, the
maintained their
commoners now had
most of the money, enabling them to enjoy the many pleasures of life. As the
citizens
developed a strong class character that
competed with the military interests
of the two
classes
caste, it
was
inevitable that the
should clash. After the
Kyoho
era
(1716-1736) the ruling military clique issued various procla-
;
money on more
obvious. During these times tious outer-garment lined
were
costly things that
men would wear
with some rich
also less
an unpreten-
fabric,
and
women
often be seen dressed outwardly as a maidservant
would
while underneath they would be wearing the most beautiful
and costly
silk fabrics.
As the Edo period progressed, the con-
tinuous conflict between the interests of the military and the
merchant classes gradually moderated with the declining economic power of the samurai. Finally they intermingled,
and the Edo period with
came
to an
In 1868 the
Emperor Meiji
commonly
the sovereign,
and
Articles,
its
250 years of peaceful seclusion
end with the restoration of Imperial government.
set
issued the administrative rules for called the Imperial
new
the course for a
Oath of Five
order.
THE KIMONO AND OTHER TRADITIONAL DRESS The Edo period for
exerted a strong native aesthetic influence
and manners of the country, and was responsible developing a truly Japanese taste in dress which laid the
on the
arts
foundations for the present-day
styles.
The development of
the kimono, which has imdergone a most unusual course through the centuries, has no parallel in the history of costume.
After the Restoration of 1868 the picturesque garments of the nobility
were no longer seen on ordinary occasions, and the
Emperor Meiji European
dress.
himself, as well as the Empress, appeared in
However, the
traditional Japanese
in the simplified and elegant style
it
reached in the
kimono,
Edo period,
has survived as a national dress to the present day. Although
Western
clothes are used for everyday
metropolitan centers, the native dress
is
wear
usually
in urban
and
worn at home,
being loose, more comfortable, and more suitable for Japanese domestic tries,
attire,
differ
life.
there
is
Compared
to the national dress of other coun-
far less distinction
between male and female
nor do the garments of Japanese children
from
those of their elders.
essentially
The widc-slccved kimono 295
'
iK
^LJ
i
r^
No
costume
of the atsuita
material on one side
on the other side
it
is
The
type.
crimson satin and
is
of gold thread. The
design of calligraphy from an anthology of
Japanese-Chinese poetry
is
woven
so finely
seems hand-written. Early Edo period,
it
seventeenth century.
Tokyo National
Mu-
seum.
with
obi or sash
its
Another
is
common
characteristic feature
is
for
both sexes of
all
ages.
the absence of headwear and
ordmary unJined kimono does not
afford the proper protec-
tion against the cold, one, two, and sometimes three robes of
worn. These are lined with
gloves, as well as a complete absence of jewelry or costume
identical cut are
ornament.
layer of cotton covered with a thin layer of
The haori,
outer garments
worn by men include
and the hakama. The kimono
is
with short, deep, square-cut sleeves and a stand-up
roll-collar
of even width throughout. In the front the lapel folds left over right,
forming
kimono an
obi.
width
is
a
V-shaped opening
at the
neck, and the
secured about the waist with the narrow sash called
The kimono
reaches to the ankles,
as at the shoulders,
and
is
A lined kimono made
the kimono, the
rectangular in shape
where
it is
the same
not gathered up over the
Like most Japanese garments, the kimono
of heinp-cloth
worn
the outer
kimono
the other one or
Under is
the
two
kimono
of silk
is
is
is
are
worn
called
and
if
is
made
more than one
is
an uwagi or upper dress and
known
as shitagi
or lower dress.
a cotton shirt called njuhan,
cut exactly like the kimono.
sleeves are
or with a
called a kosode; if it
called a nunoko;
it is
floss,
floss.
It is
white or blue-and-white
which
made of cotton but silk.
A
the
small portion of
the jtihan shows at the neck opening and also extends slightly
kimono. The yukata
com-
usually
beyond
the sleeves of the
made at home, as it requires only the simplest tailoring. It is made from a complete dress-length piece of fabric woven especially for kimono and generally measuring about ten
fortable
kimono
yards in length by eighteen inches in width, and
wasted, because
hempen kimono called a katabira. If these are used for formal summer wear they are black, the only ornament being the
and any
wearer's family crest or mon painted in colors and placed in
girdle.
hemp-cloth, or
silk.
None of the
material
is
is
is
of cotton,
triangular pieces are folded to shape rather than cut, differences
296
of length or width arc adjusted by tucks. Since the
for
summer, worn
or for evening walks.
It is
is
a cool,
home, or
after bathing,
made of cotton and is
usually white
at
with simple designs in blue. Also for summer wear
prescribed positions. There are
two kinds of obi
for
is
a thin
men, the
kdku-obi for formal occasions and the ordinary hcko-ohi for
informal wear.
The
kaku-ohi
is
made of a
stifFsilk
or cotton in
dark colors with a wide center stripe in various colors. The obi
is
about four inches wide, and
around the waist and
tied
wound
is
three times
behind with a double knot having
the short ends turned upward.
An in the
the knees and
fuller
is
worn over
is
and only loosely fastened
cords or himo. inside
The
haori has a
of the body part
beautiful fabrics
is
across the chest
turned-down
above
lined, generally
It is
open in
by two
roll-collar
silk
and the
with colorful and
with elaborate designs sometimes enhanced
with embroidery. The outside fabric
is
black or other dark-
color silk usually having a striped pattern.
formal occasions
kimono
around the body, being provided with
gores or triangular pieces of cloth set in the sides. front
the
jacket. It reaches to slightly
is
always of black
silk
The
haori for
with one, three,
five,
or sometimes seven reproductions of the wearer's family crest or mon painted
two
on white
fabric
was dyed. In the
the family
emblem,
The
circles.
inches in diameter and
were
circles are
left in
clearly prescribed
a single
mon
is
manner of wearing
placed high between the
shoulders. If three are used, the additional
the back of each
elbow
;
two
if five, the additional
the breast of each lapel; and if
all
from one to
reserve at the time the
are placed at
two
are put
on
seven, the fmal pair are
placed inside each elbow.
The
the hakama,
is
sides arc
open
halfway to the bottom, with further play provided by deep tapering
bands
wound
pleats.
The hakama
is
fastened
twice around the waist and
of a fme-quality hard
outer garment called the haori
manner of a coat or
For very formal occasions the proper garment a sort of loose trousers or divided skirt.
The Japanese wear a
silk
generally
is
of dark tones with
special
six
by two long
made
vertical stripes.
kind of sock called
with every
tahi
kind of dress except the informal summer kimono or yukata.
The
tahi is a
article
combination sock and
and
slipper,
the only
is
of footwear permitted to be worn inside the Japanese
house. Tahi are about ankle high, a slightly stiffened sole,
made of cotton
for the big toe, to allow the cord
between
it
or silk with
and provided with a separate space
and the second
toe.
The
on the footwear tahi is
to pass
fastened at the back
with an overlap having metal or horn hook tabs with thread loops on the inner side.
White
occasions, while dark-blue tahi
tahi are
reserved for formal
with white
soles are
always
used for ordinary wear. For normal everyday footwear there is
a particular
kind of sandal called a
zori,
which
is
usually
made of fme rice-straw matting and has a sole of coiled hemprope or some similar material. One of better quality having a rawhide sole
two
is
called a setta. Zori are kept
thick cords or lianao attached
on each
on the foot by
side near the front
and connected with a short piece of cord which between the
first
and second
or snow, or on ground that
toes.
is
is
gripped
When walking in
the rain
dusty or wet, a kind of patten
ViS-C
%iii^
Yukata of white in
cotton with a dark-bhic stenciled design oj a fishnet
which have been caught
Edo
lobsters, crabs, globefish,
period, eighteenth century.
Matsuzakaya
and octopus.
Collection, Kyoto.
Yukata of
white cotton with a sharp and clear dark-blue stencil
design depicting three
famous scenes of Japan, from top
Miyajima, Ama-no-Hashidate, eighteenth century.
Matsuzakaya
to
bottom,
and Matsushima. Edo period, Collection. Kyoto.
called a geta
square ends
is employed. It consists of a wooden sole with made of a lightweight wood such as paulownia,
and raised on two oak or beech blocks
the underside.
set across
The gcta is attached to the foot in the same manner as the zori. The kimono worn by women has a somewhat different cut and design
which allows a
at the waist, it full
from the men's kimono.
has
no sewn tucks
woman of average height to wear
length and slightly sweeping the floor or to tuck
or roll-collar,
eri,
wound
with two cords
to a desired height
The
It
is
up
about the waist.
wider and longer than the
slightly
man's, and the sleeves are a
it
longer but with a greater
little
depth and smaller openings for the hands. Because the wide obi
high, the sleeves are joined to the
rises so
body of
for only ten inches, the rest of their depth being left
kimono
open on the inner
allowing a greater display of the
side, thus
undergarments. For formal occasions three kimono are
with the imier
two having
weather only two are worn. the outer
kimono
plain white
On
but in
eri,
manner
is
gray, pale blue, or
men's
woven around
the lower
portion of the skirt and sleeves, and having the moii blazoned in their proper places.
consists
Mon
are not displayed
The underwear worn by
daily use.
ladies
on kimono
for
beneath the kimono
of a short white cotton petticoat or futano reaching to
the knees; a short chemise or
shita-jiibaii,
or koshimaki which reaches to the
name koshimaki was applied worn by court ladies at the cloth and
tied
feet.
and
a long petticoat
During Edo times the
to a ceremonial surrmier robe palace.
A
kimono of hempen
with a narrow sash was worn underneath,
while the koshimaki was merely wrapped around the body.
The
material
was always black or dark brown and the lining
was crimson. The present for matrons,
koshimaki,
little girls, offers
with the kimono. The plain white or
some
silk
or yukata for
beautiful all
is
of a plain white
light color
women is
or sash
and most
summer kimono
cool
same
men's.
as the
woman
is
the
of her costume, and
most
women
wear obi
traditional fashion to
and brocades that the wearer can afford are acquired for
making an length
obi,
which measures about four or
by about fourteen
varieties
inches in width.
five yards in
The two
principal
of obi are the chuya-obi for informal wear, and the
mam-obi for formal
298
and with the ends opened out to
dress.
their full width.
the back with a large, square-shaped, the material -td be displayed to the knot holds firmly,
which
it
in
two
it
flat
its fullest
It is
tied in
knot which permits
advantage. Although
occasionally requires tightening,
remedied, if the wearer so wishes, by tying a very
is
narrow
folding
width around the body, with the lining inwards,
silk
band, or obijima, around the center portion. prints
of famous courtesans frequently show
the obi tied in front in accordance with an edict of
the Shogunate issued around the year 1780 and applying specifically to courtesans ;
by
however, obi were often
also
worn
others tied in the front during those times.
The
haori has
only been adopted by
women since about the
middle of the seventeenth century and informal wear.
The footwear
same
as for the
men,
geta.
However,
in
for
consisting of the
more
is
reserved for purely
women tabi,
essentially the
is
the zori, and the
women
recent times a zori for
has
appeared which consists of a shaped sole rising to a high plat-
form heel and made
in colorful materials. Because
the tradition of Japanese
women
headwear was necessarily not used except for tremely cold weather. to
It
of men. In
wallet, or hakoseko,
which with
colorful
a
hood
made of
in ex-
women
hanging from the obi
women carry an
magnificently
to carry small articles for personal use.
a portion
The
articles
their stead the
worn partly thrust into
had been
has never been the custom for
wear inro or other such
in the case
it
to have elaborate coiffures,
as
oblong
woven silk, in The hakoseko is
the left side of the opening at the neck,
of it showing.
kimono
patterns
and designs,
so intimately
been taken from the various decorative paintings of famous
The
is
of colorful and elaborate designs. The most gorgeous figured silks
five feet. In recent times
worn by
with a detachable coUar-lapel
the Japanese
by
its
twice
associated with the daily life of the Japanese, have frequently
costly article
ages are permitted
end of about
a longer
wound
is
back a short end of about
either
essentially the
worn by
and
feet
in the
obi most frequently has been
to reduce
a pleasing color contrast
or cotton shita-juban
or han-eri of embroidered designs.
The obi
which
of colorful and beautiful designs for young ladies,
and plain red for
of
two thtf
sides
of double width and folded lengthwise
around the waist, leaving
them with
mon
it is
different
of a heavier material and both
is
with the selvages sewn together. The obi
warm
mauve, with modest designs
either embroidered, painted, or
maru-obi
are alike, because
The correct color for kimono worn by young unmarried
women
The
design.
Ukiyo-e color
especially formal occasions
as prescribed for the
with the lining material of a lighter ground and
silk,
worn
plain black with the wearer's family
is
displayed in the same haori.
the
with canvas, has a facing material of a dark-color
stiffened
The
chuya-obi,
which
is
shghtly
artists
of
These designs often ornament the
earlier times.
beautiful native costume of
young Japanese women with
large conventionalized flowers,
charming
little
waves. Such designs and patterns are not
young
ladies,
birds, trees, or
just reserved for
but are also used on the kimono of matrons,
although smaller in
scale
and
in
more subdued
colors. In the
present-day Japanese costume, the beauty and elegance of its historical
designs.
to
its
background
It reflects
the
is
reflected in exquisite materials
manners and customs
and
that contributed
development and the whole concept of social life during
the great periods
when
feudalism was at
its
height.
XXI
brated
I
HERE ARE Only a few days in the year on
^
which there
not a
is
being cele-
festival
somewhere in Japan. Though almost all are ofa religious
Dolls
recorded in early chronicles that there was a custom
It is
known
during the Heian period (794-1185) of making dolls as liina.
They were made
to represent girls
and boys, and were
nature, there are certain popular family festival days called the
used as playthings by the children of noble families.
Five Seasons festivals or go-sekku which are celebrated through-
accounts further relate that along with the hina a variety of
out the country.
Among them
are the Dolls' Festival
and the
Boys' Festival, which had their origin in ancient Japanese beliefs that the
people could purify themselves through cer-
toys
were made during
this period,
The
such as miniature palaces,
feudal carriages, tiny chests, and dining trays and utensils. For
boys, there were also dolls representing warriors and
men on
tain rituals
and acquire protection from misfortune by driving
horseback. But aside from a few of these references in old
evil spirits
from
records, there
their bodies. This
popular belief was partly
adopted from an ancient Chinese custom and partly from the native Japanese Shinto
Of all
ceremony of purification.
the go-sekku days the Dolls' Festival
and
it
was the one
was the custom
into the river after the purification rite
With
to cast
that
them
had been performed.
the passage of time these talisman figures
became in-
creasingly elaborate and, instead of being cast into the waters after the
ceremony, they were kept
displayed in a ceremonial manner. veritable
as
ornamental objects and
The
figures soon
works of art, representing nobles, court
Usually they were clothed in rich
silk
dolls"
and are intended
ciated for their beauty in it
commonly as
court
garments. These figures,
and many others made from various materials and different techniques, are
became
ladies,
and many other personages.
attendants, ladies-in-waiting,
in
many
referred to as "Japanese
ornamental objects to be appre-
workmanship and costume. Although
has been the general practice to apply the term Japanese doll
to these figures, the English child's plaything in the
shape
word doll correctly means a of a human figure, and should
not be applied to magical figures,
costume
figures. In Japanese,
both to a doll used mental
human
language representing ningyo means
of human shape.
was written about
fme
in
Edo period
clearer, as
much
and many are preserved
of two and a half centuries of Tokugawa Shogunate the art of
collections. In this period
dollmaking reached
its
cuhnination. Whereas in earlier times
forms of culture were restricted to the noble and military
classes,
the rise of the merchant class during the
many
brought about
As
becomes
dolls in those times
peace under the rule of the
all
to dolls in medieval
to be extant. For the
this
new urban
was only natural
Among
their
changes in the
class
acquired
life
more and more
collecting
many
desires
to the art
them
wealth,
it
that their cultural aspirations increased.
was the wish
to
workmanship, dressed in beautiful costumes.
was given
Edo period
of the townspeople.
have
dolls
of dollmaking by the great
for display
of fme
A further impetus interest in
and by the popularity of the Dolls'
The Edo period is noted for the wide variety of made for the affluent townspeople, as well as examples of a more rustic nature made in the provincial
Festival.
beautiful doUs for
villages. It
was
also in this period that the
puppet show was developed to a fme
doU play or hunraku
art.
iiiiigyo refers
plaything and to small orna-
The Chinese
known
votive offerings, and
however, the word
as a child's
figures.
idols,
no evidence pertaining
(161 5- 1 867) the historical record
aroused the greatest fervor. Small figures or images were used as talismans against evil,
is
times and none are
GIRLS'
AND BOYS'
FESTIVALS
character in the Japanese
human
shape or a figure
The custom of celebrating girls originated
the Dolls' Festival specially for
around the middle of the Edo period. The 299
Above:
Dairi-sania dolls
Empress, used for display
name
for this
day
is
Peach-Blossom
Festival,
but
it is
Girls' Festival,
and
is
held every year
third month. Originally
the third
month
on
third day of the
date of celebration
its
was fixed in
according to the old lunar calendar, to coin-
cide with the blooming of the peach this occasion are
They
on the
The doUs
trees.
displayed
not the everyday playthings of children.
which
are ceremonial dolls
handed down from generation
in
many
families
have been
to generation as treasured
the festival are
the Empress, with paper clothing.
the duration of the
mantled, the dolls and other pieces used in the ceremony are carefully placed in boxes
godown. Generally fifteen, in ancient
and stored away in the family
a set of festival doUs consists of at least
costume and arranged on
five or seven step-like tiers
covered with red
to the festival dolls the display includes priate objects, such as
a stand
having
fabric. Li addition
many
other appro-
miniature household accessories and
other articles of fme workmanship. These accessories include
such things
as a cabinet fitted
with tiny drawers, a brazier or
known
as dairi-sama, representing the
occupy the highest
dairi-sama
tier,
mounted on
stands
and two vases
containing sprigs of miniature peach blossoms.
On the second
for
two
tier are
tiny paper lanterns
placed three court ladies and tiny dining trays with
bowls and
dishes,
while court attendants and musicians are
placed on the third and possibly fourth
The part
is
tiers are
reserved for the
many
tiers.
As
a rule the
other objects connected
festival.
other popular festival in which dolls play a prominent the
Iris Festival
day of the
fifth
shohu being the
or Boys' Festival celebrated
month. In Japanese
it is
on the
word for iris, which has been closely associated From early times the iris has
w^ith this festival for centuries.
been regarded fortune and
as possessing
illness,
leaves in the very hot water ticed.
On
this festival
shaped leaves of
iris
miraculous powers against mis-
and the ancient custom of steeping
day
of the Japanese bath little
is still
and these leaves were
Just as the
Peach-Blossom
two-wheeled court 300
carriage.
The
dolls
utensils
most highly valued for
its
prac-
boys used the long blade-
to play soldiers,
a toilet stand with mirror, musical instruments, and an ancient
with porcelain
fifth
called shobu-no-sekku,
on the eaves of houses to keep away the
set
The
and behind them are mini-
also placed
dining trays
Emperor
silks.
and chopsticks,
hibachi,
period,
ature gold-leaf folding screens that also serve as a background
with the
dis-
Edo
Tokyo National Museum.
and Empress dressed in court costumes of costly
monial arrangement in the principal room of the house for is
period, nine-
or display dolls for the Girls' Festival, representing
Emperor and
lower
Then, when the display
Emperor and
Edo
Hina-ningyo,
heirlooms. These dolls are displayed in a prescribed cere-
festival.
the
Tokyo National Museum.
eighteenth century.
popularly called hina matsuri, meaning Dolls' Festival, or
represent
teenth century.
the
proper
wliicli
in the Girls' Festival.
evil spirits.
Festival gradually developed into
a festival for girls around the middle of the
Edo
period, the
up a kind of semi-
made of two pieces of paper, muslin, or silk joined together way as to fdl out in the wind and resemble a fish swimming in the air. Traditionally one carp symbol is hoisted
enclosure outside the entrance gate to the house to contain a
for each son in the family, starting with a large one, perhaps
evolution of the Boys' Festival appears to have followed the
same tlie
pattern.
Around
the beginning of the
custom for samurai on
Within
display.
this
of helmets,
tation
this
day to
set
Edo period it was
enclosure were arranged articles in imispears,
and
halberds, battle streamers,
in such a
measuring
fifteen feet or
more
The
one
the cities the merchants arranged similar displays inside the
strength and perseverance because of
doorways of their shops. Craftsmen soon began
to
miniature reproductions of arms, armor, and other
war,
make fme
well as dolls representing samurai and warriors
as
horseback. In the latter part of the
custom to display these warrior accessories in Festival.
On
Edo period and
dolls
it
exploits are familiar to
all
Girls'
Japanese boys. In
the miniature pieces, such as a long lacquered
for
CLAY AND PORCELAIN DOLLS
many large
bow
with a
The
full
range of Japanese doUs covers a wide variety of
types classified according to the material of
for
which they
are used.
children's playthings
Many
family
handsome
silk
banners bearing the
Boys' Festival
is
the erection of a
tall
bamboo which
or
wooden
pole
in the garden or
on the rooftop,
symbol of
and a long streamer. The streamer, called
fukinagashi,
a carp is
fastened to a hoi iiobori,
to
which
Edo
Museum.
is
fastened the
made of several very narrow strips of silk cloth ring at the top of the pole. The carp symbol, or is
fastened to the pole under the streamer,
Isho-ningyo, a naked doll with changeable a hoy.
were popular playthings in
crest.
A picturesque old custom observed during the season of the
period,
early
clothes in the
nineteenth century.
is
form of
Tokyo National
many
as
their antiquarian
Others are prized for their fme craftsmanship and
magnificent costumes. In the
spears,
are
doUs were made to serve
and are now valued for
interest.
sometimes placed near the display to hold
which they
made, the manner in which they are dressed, and the purpose
A
various long weapons, and
attributes
young boys.
quiver of arrows and a beautifully decorated Japanese sword. is
ability to fight its
and these
of determination are accordingly regarded as a proper example
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
houses a few articles are often placed on display along with
rack
its
waterfalls,
dolls repre-
and Minamoto Yoshitsune, and legendary figures like Kintoki,
whose
and jump
swift streams
their miniature
were displayed
senting famous feudal generals such as
on
way up
diminutive
became the
an arrangement similar to that of the
the tiers of the stand
of
articles
always used for babies.
A
carp has been a symbol of
banners. Later, the display was set up inside the gate, and in
is
and pro-
for the oldest son,
gressing to smaller ones for the younger sons.
parts
Edo period
for children,
dolls
made of clay
and they were produced
of the country. In the urban areas
as
well as in
the country districts these clay dolls were often used as charms against misfortune
and sometimes were placed on
bring the favor of the gods on the crops. clay, they
with gay
were formed
colors.
They
in a
taken from the everyday
were noted
mold,
depict a life
altars to
Made of fme ceramic
fired in a kiln,
and painted
wide variety of subjects mostly of the Japanese. Certain places
for particular types of clay dolls; for example, the
Obunko-ningyo legendary fisherman.
(receptacle
doll)
The Shogun's
representing
these papier-mache howls with lids in the form
early nineteenth century.
Urashima,
gifts to his retainers
a
were often
of dolls. Edo period,
Tokyo National Museum.
301
so-caHed fushimi-ningyo came from the
Fushimi, where the magnificent
known
Fushimi-ningyo dolls are
as a
Edo
to
home industry much the same
called
have been extremely pop-
period. Their production
trades in the Nishijin district.
Kyoto
district in
of Hideyoshi had stood.
and in the large
ular throughout the provinces
early part of the
castle
as the
cities since
the
was carried on
weaving and dyeing
Among more
than three hun-
common
dred different subjects o( fushimi-ningyo, the most
were the seven gods of good fortune, mythological, legendary, and
and genre figures of the contem-
historical personages,
porary everyday
life
of the Edo period.
From very early times
the approaches to Shinto shrines and
Buddhist temples provided an ideal location for shops and
Ukiyo-ningyo, doll
genre
or
of the Ukiyo or Drifting
World of Edo, a
woman
as
maid
representing
serving at a brothel
to
a courtesan.
Edo
period, early eighteenth century.
Tokyo National
Mu-
and
stalls,
dolls
were sold along with other
One of the most
visitors.
objects to attract
picturesque of these approaches
the long, narrow, winding, and steep road up the
where the famous Kiyomizu temple has stood since
in Kyoto, its
founding in the year 805. The colorful shops that line both of this road are
sides
who
the thousands
filled
many
with
dolls
all sorts
of Japanese wares for
temple precincts.
visit the
The making of clay industry in
was
also carried
on
household
as a
other parts of the country, often as a spare-
time occupation of farmers in provincial these provincial examples
sufficiently skilled to create
few
places
for a doll called oranda, sea captain
far
from Nagasaki, which was noted
meaning Holland,
Koga dolls
acha-san,
it
of Nagasaki,
which admirably
The
ejiko
expresses the colorful
doU
prefectures of the island
in a
is
round straw
home
basket,
first
early years
Tokyo
it
shows
how
for
its
from
at
sitting
a tiny Japanese
work
clay doUs
is
baby
in the fields.
Hakata, where
a rather crude product in the
of the Edo period to an
artistic
genre doU, notably
period,
half of the eighteenth
century.
charm of Japanese
the product of local craftsmen in the
while the parents are
Another place noted representing a
An-
the ejiko,
most northeastern regions of the main
hakata-ningyo developed
woman. Edo
is
of Honshu. Dressed in picturesque clothing and
is left at
Saga-ningyo
many of
represents a Chinese holding a chicken.
other provincial doll famous since early times
folk art.
portrayed a
— for example, the one called
depict foreigners
which
since
holding a gun in his hand. Because foreign
sailing ships frequently called at the port
the
were not
new or different types. One of the
where indigenous types were created was the town
of Koga in Kyushu, not
Dutch
Most of
villages.
were copies of the various types of
fushimi-ningyo, as the local dollmakers in general
standing
is
Otowayama
National
those representing actors and dancers. In most of the places
throughout the country where clay doUs have continued to be produced since the Edo period, neither the method of
Museum.
making them nor the model has changed during the
two or
three
There rines
302
also
hundred
past
years.
appeared during the Edo period beautiful figu-
made of porcelain
that
were used
as
ornamental pieces
to
be placed in the tokonoma in the houses of affluent mer-
They
chants.
fortune,
little
represented legendary figures, gods of children,
craftsmanship found in the
good
and many other favorite subjects. The many of these porcelain dolls possesses
same kind of naive native character as found in Old Kutani
ware.
The dollmakers
produced
also
a great variety
of orna-
of Yoshiwara. There ningyo
which
is
a variety
represents
o£ ukiyo-rtingyo
women
in
called
oyama-
contemporary costume
coiffure. They were called oyama-ningyo because oyaina is name applied to Kabuki actors who take the roles of female
and the
characters,
and these doUs were
said to represent
them in these
parts.
mental figures clothed in different costumes to represent people
The head and hands of ukiyo-tiiiigyo were made of wood,
walks of life. Within the category of costume doUs are
while the body was of either rice straw or wood. The crepe
in
all
included ukiyo-iiiugyo,
mitsuore-tiitigyo,
and kimekomi-ningyo.
The type knowai as ukiyo-nitigyo derives its name from the word Ukiyo, meaning the Drifting World or Floating World, as it
was
called in the current language
of the day. Ukiyo-
ningyo realistically portrayed the people and their costume as
seen in the everyday courtesans,
life
of Edo, especially Kabuki
No performers,
m
and others of the pleasure
1^
actors, district
made
same manner
as a real
garment, or by pasting tiny pieces of fabric to the
wooden
or brocade costume was
in the
body. The name generally applied to doll
is
kimekomi-tiingyo,
which
is
category of costume
this
derived from the
kimekonm, meaning to insert in a groove.
word
so called because
It is
the pieces of fabric simulating the costume are fixed with glue at the
ends and inserted into grooves provided for that purpo se
1 7 Ukiyo-ningyo representing a young Kabuki actor imperEdo period, early eighteenth century. Tokyo National Museum.
Left:
^
sonating a warrior.
p & m 1 1 i
<*^*"
v^^^»H|
'W^^
Ukiyo-ningyo,
Below: World. (right).
A daijin or rich Edo
or genre dolls of the
merchant
(left)
and
his
period, early eighteenth century.
Ukiyo
or Drifting
yakko
or servant
Tokyo National
Museum.
^^hB^^
^DHk^?^ '^^HP
m^
^^g^^j
-
303
The name kamo-ningyo iiiitgyo
doll
of
grew on
the
first
within
is
frequently given to these kimekomi-
in keeping with a legend that a Shinto priest this
wood of a willow
bank of the Kamogawa same
this
type from the
classification
called ntitsuore-ttingyo,
which
joints,
figures.
and
was given ing,
this
to
The
them because
of costume doUs are the so-
which
means three-bend
doll,
their characteristic poses are stand-
majority represented
women
little
things. In their principal
with captivating ex-
to six-year-olds,
WOODEN DOLLS
made
as
ornamental figures
and Kabuki
actors,
but the
children and were used as play-
form they portrayed
Wooden
are orna-
were made with movable
literally
Occasionally mitsuore-tiiiigyo were
form of lovely
from babies
tree that
bowing, and squatting in typical Japanese manner.
in the
children,
pressions of tender happiness.
actually are intended to be play-
mitsuore-ningyu
name, wliich
the
in Kyoto. Also included
things for children, in contrast to the others
mental
made
little
Japanese
dolls are divided into three principal types: the
saga-ningyo, the nara-ningyo,
were intended
and the gosho-ningyo. Saga-ningyo
ornamental figures and include a wide
as
variety of subjects taken
from
the everyday
of the Edo
life
period, as well as popular gods and legendary persons.
name
Kyoto
called Saga,
made
to have
from
Said to derive
is
the
fully carved in
where an unknown dollmaker
were painted with
is
of
believed
of this type. Saga-ningyo were
doll
first
wood and
The
a district in the western part
skill-
the parts that represent the costume
rich colors, frequently with portions
of
gold leaf to resemble costly brocades. After these dolls had received the fmishing touches
with
a thick application
and nikawa,
by
the carver, they
kind of glue. The thick layer of
a
were coated
o( gofun, a fme oyster-shell powder, mixture
this
provided an ideal surface for the meticulously painted costume portion with beautiful designs copied from fme
The type of wooden
silks.
was a product
doll called gosho-ningyo
of Kyoto, where they were made during the Edo period. The
word
gosho
means
palace,
down from those times, the
and according to
this
members of the Imperial household and
rule gosho-ningyo represent boys, six years
from tiny
which
body and
tied
a piece
is
the nobles.
by
As a
babies to about a
of cloth covering the front of the
behind the neck and waist. These
were
dolls
in a variety of poses, such as standing, crawling, and
sitting,
sometimes with a musical instrument or other object
in their hands. Their
form
is
rather
plump with an unusually
round head, and the white body
large
gifts
of age, and they are usually clothed only in
haragake,
made
handed
stories
type of doll was used for
is
characterized
by
a
high glossy fmish. The fmest quality gosho-ningyo were carved
from
kiri
Empress
wood, which
tree.
is
also
The limbs and
the
and then fixed together with
known
as the
paulownia or
body were carved
glue.
Many
separately
of gofun and
coats
nikawa were applied to the surface, and polished to produce a very high gloss.
The
eyes, nose,
fmishing touches.
Many
made o£ neri-mono, which was molded was
Shugetsu.
Museum. 304
Edo
or thrce-hend doll, in the form
period, early nineteenth century.
of a
little
boy.
By
Tokyo National
model. in
later
to
two
a layer
a
few
strokes of
the only added
examples of gosho-ningyo were
a composition of sawdust
form the
doll.
called hariko, or papier-mache,
molded from Mitsuore-ningyo,
mouth, and
on the forehead were
paint to simulate hair
and grain
Another
later
whereby the
flour,
method doll
was
of papier-mache that was applied to a
When this layer had dried, it was cut from the model parts
and fixed together to make
ningyo were not only popular as doUs
a
hollow
from the
doll.
Gosho-
early part
of
Edo period but were widely used
the
houses to ward off evil
spirits
as talismans
and kept in
and taken on journeys for pro-
In contrast to both the saga-riingyo and gosho-niiigyo, the doll called nara-iiingyo
with very
and
is
color applied.
little
to tradition, the nara-tiiiigyo
Nara.
at
Edo period by
The
teristic roles
were
is
taken from the
No
dolls
in the provinces
of the Kasuga shrine
actors in various charac-
from which the nara-ningyo figures
of No actors used
as
having unique characteristics were made
and display the
of the
typical naive folk art
The
vast territory covering the northeastern portion is
along the rugged seacoast, region are
this
made
is
It is
of
probably the most popular object of folk art that
and other household
It is
believed that during
of turning wooden bowls,
utensils.
Although the kokeshi
most primitive manner by turning on a
cylindrical body,
rounded shoulder
line,
is
a side
dishes,
made
lathe, its plain
and loose-jointed
head produce a unique and charming form. The eyes, nose,
and
Another form of the
hair, each painted
art
of the
doll craftsman
is
htmraku.
China
The puppet drama was
in the eighth century,
found in the
show
called
originally introduced
from
small figures used in the famous Japanese puppet
and for a long time the perform-
ances were confmed to religious functions. As the centuries passed,
it
gradually became a popular entertainment of the
people, and in the seventeenth century
there
at the present time. In the
was a noted player of the
Chozaburo,
it
took the form that
samisen
named Menukiya
who perfected the art by working with
showman of Nishinomiya,
is
Keicho era (1596-1615)
near the city of Kobe.
puppet
a
He
co-
paniment of the chanting of jorun and to the music of the
Edo period the local craftsmen made these kokeshi as
in a
PUPPETS
which were
the famous kokeshi dolls,
line to their regular trade
two
ordinated the art of manipulating the puppets to the accom-
has continued until the present day. the
in only
reminiscent of feudal days. In
originally intended as playthings for children in that part
Japan.
of
Tohoku region. Most of it, with its lying among beautiful mountains and
called the
picturesque villages
mountainous region
or three primary colors.
known
regional craftsmen.
Honshu
this
on the body
the early
more popular performances. The
were evolved were tiny wooden
Many
not found in any other type of
work in
sharp and deep
made during
first
a craftsman
figures portray
original models or prototypes
netsuke.
is
Typical of much of the
a vigorously carved piece
is
The carving
executed with the skilful touch of a sculptor. According
years of the
doll.
are the peculiar local designs painted
tection against accidents.
wooden
fascinating expression that
with thin delicate strokes, portray a
samisen. Joruri can
be described
as
dramatic ballads usually
written with alternating lines of five and seven syllables, and
sung or chanted to the music of the samisen. The puppet show
grew
rapidly in popularity and
ment among
became
a favorite entertain-
many theaters being established in Kyoto, Osaka, and Edo. Toward the close of the seventeenth century a grezt joruri chanter named Takemoto Gidayu, 1651-1714, rose to fame in Osaka as the creator of a new style o{ joruri chanting. He became so famous throughout Japan, and his school attracted so many disciples, that almost all the people, with
--^
Gosho-ningyo wearing
the traditional
haragake
only the front of the body above the waist. teenth century.
Tokyo National Museum.
Edo
wliich covers
period, early nine-
Nara-ningyo, made by Morikawa Tocn, drama
in
which Ushiwaka
(right),
warrior, engages in a duel with Benkei. century.
depicting a scene in a
No
a celebrated twelfth-century
Edo period,
early nineteenth
Tokyo National Museum.
305
mas by him,
'm
the
most noted
are.jT/ie
Love Suicide
at
Amijima
or Ten-no-Amijima, The Courier of Hates or Meido-no-Hikyaku,
The Hell of Oil or Ahura-Jigoku, and The
Battle of Kokusen-ya
or Kokusen-ya-Kassen. Innumerable characters are portrayed
number of puppet heads used
in a joruri drama, but the
many
for a
different costumes
em-
ployed for each head. The heads of bunraku puppets are
real-
performance
limited, with
carved with fme representations of
istically
Many
is
mouth,
are constructed so that the
eyeballs,
and
ears can
be
moved
human
eyelids,
features.
eyebrows,
more effective
to produce a
expression.
There
afe'
two kinds of puppets, namely
tall
and
The
when worked
by
the character-
skillful
manipulators appear to have
operator dolls from the
Tohoku
region in northeastern Japan. Japan
stage joruri chanters
adopted
his style, until finally joruri itself
was
The
rapid rise of the Gidayu school was largely due to the
works of
joruri written
by Chikamatsu Monzaemon,
1653 -1724, a famous writer for the Kabuki theater and Japan's
foremost literary genius.
306
practice
The master
garbed in black hoods and robes. These black
make them is
skilled assistants.
usually clad in a gaily colored costume, while his
less
conspicuous, and their presence on the
overlooked, in keeping with the traditional Japanese
of mentally separating them from the play
as abstract
conceptions. Performances of bunraku are produced in a most
often called gidayu.
fine
is
assistants are
robes
all
of human beings. Each of these large puppets requires
one master operator and two
Travel Bureau.
inches
large ones are at least two-thirds life-size, and
istics
Kokeshi
small and large,
more than twelve
operated from above with presumably invisible strings.
the small ones being not
Among more
than a hiuidred dra-
realistic fashion
the puppets
when conducted by
become
real persons
a master
whose
lives
of the
art,
and
of adventure,
romance, sorrow, and tragedy inspire deep response in the onlookers.
XXII
other
it is
I
HE ORIGIN of the fan in Oriental countries
*
difficult to surmise,
undoubtedly of great antiquity.
traditionally attributed to China,
of dried and
stiffened leaves, an
whose
upon
Korea
The
it.
provenance
Its
is
early fans consisted
arrangement of feathers fixed
into a handle, or a frame of v^^ood with stretched
is
but in one form or an-
some
of fabric
sort
from China by way of
fan passed
to Japan in the earliest centuries
tion of the fan in Japan followed the
of our
era.
The evolu-
same course of develop-
from the main-
ment
as
land,
and the natural aptitude of the Japanese craftsman, with
other branches of the arts introduced
his creative genius, expressed itself in a great variety
Through every period from
for every purpose.
of fans
the seventh
century to the end of feudal times in the nineteenth century, the fan flourished in Japan to such an extent that practically indispensable part
men and women
of aU
it
became a
of the national costume for both
classes.
The ingenuity of the
Japanese
craftsman and the creative imagination of the Japanese
artist
in adapting beautifully expressive designs to the shape of the fan contributed to
its
popularity as an article of use and of
aesthetic elegance.
The invention of the
credited to Japan,
where
tury, although the
Japanese,
who
first
made
indeed
in the seventh cen-
or Chinese fan, called uchiwa
by the
up to the present time.
And
it
was
also the
originated and introduced the particular kind
of fan or hand-screen, splitting
was
is
which was introduced centuries earlier, has remained
in general use
Japanese
flat
it
folding fan
also called uchiwa,
which
is
made by
one end of a piece of bamboo into a form of rays on
which ornamental
silk
end of the bamboo
or paper
is
stretched, while the other
Tenji era (668-672)
who lived in Tamba province near Kyoto,
and whose name has been
The old
lost.
records relate that
famnaker was married to a shrew, and one night when
this
began to
a bat flew into their house, she
not being quick enough to catch
came too
the bat
wings. As the
it
close to the flame
man
picked
revile her
and put
it
floor to put
and
one's dress.
It is
of hitioki cypress. The name
ribs
applied to aU folduig fans had
meaning
to fan or fanning.
But
as the
derived from suye, meaning end
hiro,
meaning wide-spreading,
The
fan
is
a
symbol of good
prosperity, because
it
grows
is
suyehiro,
(in the sense
or,
by
luck,
extension, prosperous.
and
larger as
or folding fan
is
attributed to a famnaker
of the
which
of future), and
especially
of future
opens, the starting
it
point being the rivet end from which the frame expands, just as the
fan
is
road of life widens out toward eternity. The folding
also said to
be the analogue of the imposing and majestic
Fujiyama, the one being the
The
emblem of
the other reversed.
functions of the fan in the everyday
are very comprehensive, as
it is
life
of the Japanese
an accessory of both sexes and
of all ages, besides having been put to every possible use. These uses
and applications have ranged over a wide variety of
purposes: as an insignia of office, as an accessory of ceremonial
costume, ing, as a
as
an art object embellished with a beautiful paint-
medium as a
for writing poetical verse or for
weapon of offense and It is
to be carried
carried
by
when visiting friends.
are presented as gifts
ogi
05/
word ott^ogu, emblem of life, the
origin in the
its
symbolical name for the folding fan in Japan is
he made was
said that the first folding fan
composed of twenty-one
on
professional people
bride at her
wedding ceremony
calli-
it is
when
supposed
Fans of great beauty often
felicitous occasions,
exchanged by a betrothed couple,
fme
defense in battle, as a fire
;
of the
gave him the
this
they appear before the public in polite society
According to accounts in ancient chronicles the invention
its
out
it
idea of a fan that could be folded and carried in the sleeve of
bellows, as a salver.
INVENTION AND STRUCTURE OF THE FAN
husband for
outside. Finally
of a lamp and scorched
up from the
it
in the garden, one of its wings opened,
graphy,
stick serves as a handle.
Fans
as
and always are
well as carried by the
as a traditional
custom.
307
•-^•SV
Folding iron war fan or
with a
Museum of
The
sen mounted with paper and painted
Art. Gift of George
from a
M.
century.
Lefferts,
Metropolitan
The
single pivot.
form the segmental
thin and
when open
division
oya-hone or parent sticks,
narrow
pivot
by means of a
the kaname or crab's eye. is
bit
To
framework
is
a sheet
side in the
be opened and closed paper
fall easily
upon the
many
to thirty-eight,
pieces
with the
times, to
make
number of ribs
the folds in the
in the
and although each
one from the other and always
rounded contour
retain the
of the frame.
TYPES AND USES OF THE FAN Among
frame varies
side
is
usually
the
many
uses to
which Japanese
of the most curious and interesting
is
fans are put,
one
in war. There are
two
types of war fan, the gumbai uchiwa and the gun-sen or tetsu-sen,
which were used by warriors on the
on the other
and defensive weapons, and for
side.
split
is
of the
segments
is
stick constituting the handle.
secured in
skUlfully interwoven.
its
Upon
proper place by fine this delicate
frame and handle
is
thus
The
formed of a
frame-
which have been
entire fan
single piece,
with
which
its is
prevented from splitting beyond the prescribed point for the handle by a well-marked joint or node on the
where the cavity
is
closed
by
The two
bamboo stem, The node
a strong diaphragm.
also provides a structural point for the
bow-shaped spread of
decorative faces of the fan,
which may be
either block-printed or hand-painted, are pasted
308
indi-
origin as a fan of feathers, but they vary only slightly
fixing the
previously decorated with designs.
side
number of different
side only,
are fixed the paper faces of the fan,
the fan.
a
means beating-feather,
made by
a certain point, the rest
work
its
literally
fixed
The uchiwa or flat, stiff fan is constructed on a framework made of a piece of bamboo split into several segments up to
string that
cating
which
of paper together and covering one
ribs visible
Each of the
types of luhiwa,
same manner. The fan must then
covered with paper, fans are sometimes
two
is
of gilded or colored paper. There are
and spread out again when opened. Depending
variety of fan, the
from three
riveted
of paper
pasted on one side and a corresponding second sheet
on the opposite
Heian period, eleventh
Miyajima.
the outside circumference of the frame with a narrow strip
between
of tube and two washers, called this
of hinoki cypress joined with
the roots of various plants, and then firmly secured around
inward to
slightly
ribs
sides with paintings in color.
ribs
keep the fan compact when closed, and the whole at the
Both
sticks that
are fixed
which curve
Court fan having thirty-two strings.
century. Itsukushima shrine,
1910.
of a framework of wood or bamboo
ogi consists
radiating
two
gun
characteristic red sun. Eighteenth
of the frame with a mixture of boiled
rice
on
either
and seaweed or
is
a
flat
field
of battle
signaling.
as offensive
The gumbai
uchiwa
made of iron or wood heavily occasionally of two pieces of hardened
portable hand-screen
lacquered in black, or
leather fastened together,
on
a straight iron handle.
Gumbai
uchiwa were usually decorated with an emblematic design
such
as the sun, the
moon,
the north
star,
the tomoye sign of
Shinto, the Buddhist swastika, or perhaps a family crest.
gun-sen
is
a folding fan in
of fmely wrought iron ribs are usually faces
which the outside or parent
inlaid
The
ribs are
with precious metal; the inside
of iron, although sometimes of bamboo. The
of the gun-sen were of a very strong paper, usually
painted black with a red sun in the center; sometimes the
motif was the
moon or dragon and groups of stars. Through-
out the various periods of Japan's military history these war fans
remained
They appear
a
prominent feature of the
soldier's
equipment.
in ahiiost every painting depicting military ex-
of battle scenes
ploits, especially in the detailed representations
of the
in scroll-paintings
The banners of nobles, were
Heian and Kamakura periods.
late
commanders, which
feudal lords, and
actually standards in a variety
of shapes and materials,
very often had a fan fixed on top of the pole above the ensign.
Many of these standards were huge affairs, such as the military fan bamier of the
Tokugawa
their presence.
them
and
lords,
composed of eighteen
faces
and had
silk
the fan banners
of heavy paper
and gold
attached to the top of a fifteen-foot pole
long
ribs five feet
thicknesses
glued together and covered with
symbol of
as a
The uma jirushi was larger than
borne by princes and feudal
uma jirushi or
family, called the
horse ensign, which was borne before
by
leaf; it
was
a swivel so as to
Another fan frequently seen being held by
rotate in the wind.
camp
warriors in scroll-paintings was they/;/-5e«, a
made of
bling an ucliiwa in shape and
Lacquered war fan known as a
fan resem-
Rogers Fund, 1925.
feathers affixed separately.
From very
early times strictly prescribed rules of etiquette
governed the ceremonial use of the fan
and they are
still
observed
at all
at the
Imperial court,
court functions requiring the
ancient style of costume. Before the fan took
accessory at court,
it
was customary
which had
of the
when
court fans
place as an
and court
wood or ivory called
to be held upright against the lower part
chest, at a certain angle, to give
bearing
its
for the nobles
ladies to carry a short tapered flat staff of
a shahu,
holder a dignified
its
who were
bamboo
from
early times
is
when
manner
fan
in
is
that
courtiers.
The
is
kornori
ribs,
is
upon
said to signify the bat because
which
a bat closes
its
it
is
often carried
by
the
Emperor and
nobles at the Imperial court, held vertically in the right hand. also carried it is
by
the Empress and called akoya-ogi
fastened with ribbons of white
of the two outside parent
or
is
from the seventh century
composed of
a folding fan
plum blossom. The
The
until 1868,
thirty-eight
faces decorated
with the
pine tree, chrysanthemum,
akome-ogi was further decorated with
twelve long streamers of various-colored
silks.
ATTRIBUTES AND APPLICATIONS
ribs
is
fastened a
silk,
fme
on
;
and
tassel
Since the fan
these
to each
four feet
long, consisting of seven silk cords of seven colors, a
symbol
is
regarded by the Japanese
as a
symbol of life
and enters into almost every phase of human used on nearly every occasion and is
and on
festive occasions;
it is
activity,
event of the year.
used as a symbolic insignia in dances,
uses.
The
seventh century,
is
bestowed
suye-hiro-ogi,
as a parting gift
ogi
fifteen to
it
fan
twenty-four
was introduced by the famous
be-
has a host
which was introduced
a folding fan used in the
composed of from Rikyu
it is
The
on ceremonial holidays,
tween friends and lovers to insure reunions, and of other
wings.
court fan dating from the eleventh century,
has twenty-four ribs and
occasions
called akome-ogi,
gave the appearance of
usually having a beautiful paint-
which is pasted colored paper
hi-ogi, a
priests
folded up. Similar fans, differing
were carried by the
koiiiori
by
velvety
by the Emperor and the Shoguii
one of these open court fans with fourteen bamboo
ed design. The
the chukei,
carried
open when the handle end
slightly
same construction
this
is
its soft
have a divergence from the handle
ribs
end
in attendance,
with
similar to the original folding fan,
is
fans adopted
slightly in detail,
It is
court ladies
as the
being partially open
The
of which they are
for fans
emblems of longevity, such
fifteen
suggests the
symbol. These fans
of age upward, including the Emperor. One of
all
a pine
lustrous golden-brown color and pleasant odor.
its
tied
is
floral
wood
a choice
is
which may depict
hinoki cypress
some other
and fan
that keeps the fan
were of
made. Hinoki
or
from the
hinoki ribs lacquered white,
and nobles. The chukei
The
plum blossom,
are called hi-ogi
from
by
dating from the seventh century, which
closed.
tree, a
fan carried by
their appearance in the seventh century,
the ceremonial court fans used
its
varies according to the design motifs,
made
first
their correlated virtues
and elements. The type of knot with which the ribbon
touch,
sories to court dress
and
of the seven colors of the Orient with
appearing before the Imperial family. Flexible
supplanting the shahu, and were carried as prescribed acces-
fifteen years
gumbai uchiwa. Museum ofArt.
Eighteenth century. Metropolitan
pheasant or peacock
in the
No dances, and is
ribs.
tea
The
Rikiu or
master Sen-no-
Rikyu in the seventeenth century and used at the tea ceremony to hold
The
little
fan
is
cakes, especially
composed of
in the middle
—and
it is
on the first day of the
three ribs said to
—two parent
commemorate
New Year.
ribs
and one
the curing of
309
Many fans are intended for purely practical and useful purOne of these is the shibu uchiwa, used chiefly in the
poses.
kitchen in the capacity of bellows; for protection
made from
coated with mucilage
it is
liberally
the astringent juice of un-
ripened persimmons. Even farmers use a special type of fan
from
called an aori,
wimiowing falls
the
word meaning
fan for separating the chaff
ground from
to the
also the mita ogi, a
and composed of
the tnaki uchiwa,
of
six blades
which
built as to allow each
A
is
by
carried
is
form
fan of curious
when opened, and
circular
is
a
feet in height
which
hinoki,
at festivals.
is
as it
There
a curiously shaped basket.
huge fan measuring seven
firemen in professions and is
which
to flap,
from the grain
of the half-segments of the
is
so
circle to
when closed. Then bamboo fans made in the city of Fukui and called mizu uchiwa. They are constructed with waterproof paper that contains a light coating of lacquer to make it impervious to dampness. The mizu uchiwa was invented fold
up against the
central stick or handle
there are the peculiar
Hi-ogi
or court
fm
hinoki cypress
avisistitig oftwciity-four rihs oj
joined with strings. Paintings in gold and silver are on both sides; the illustrated side has a design of clouds, cranes, pine trees,
and
Tokyo National
bamboo. Edo period, early nineteenth century.
around the end of the seventeenth century
Museum.
refrigerant fan;
it is
by evaporation. For
effect
centuries fans
for calligraphic autographs
the illness of Emperor
Murakami by
tea
given to
goddess Kannon. The fans used by dancing are
known
as
mai
ogi,
and are weighted with
give a graceful undulating
and
fro.
These
fans,
movement
as
girls
him by
the
and geisha
a leaden rivet to
they
wave them
teenth century, are made with ten ribs only and are covered
with thick monochrome
on
it.
paper having a mon or crest painted
For the sacred dances performed by
priestesses
and
children at certam religious services at the famous Shinto shrines at Nara, Ise,
and Itsukushima, there are
form reserved
particular
for this purpose.
also fans
There are
of
also fans
of huge proportions carried in the religious processions at the Ise shrine in honor of the sun goddess; these are never used for
crests,
fan
or
is
its
often used as a conventionalized motif for family
shape
is
used
as a
model
for kites, while
charm-
made for children. There are even miniature fans for dolls. The fan is also seen at all Japanese wrestling or sumo bouts as the insignia of the umpire. The umpire's fan
ing
is
fans are
little
in the
form of
a
gioji-no-uchiwa {gioji
umpire
round black-lacquered uchiwa,
means umpire).
to be appointed
poems on
On
It is
called a
said that the first
was named Kiyobayashi. Upon
appointment by the Emperor
Shomu
this
in the eighth century,
Kiyobayashi was presented with a badge of
office in the
as
albums
or literary men.
Kusunoki Masasliige,
fans.
New
day of the
first
provincial towns and
cities,
Year, particularly in the
wandering
street-singers visit
away
by chanting some
houses, door after door, to drive
evil
words of exorcism. They are called manzai strollers and always perform in
pairs.
a fan.
One
drum;
beats a tsuzumi
is
Daikoku and
dressed to represent
the other impersonates Ebisu carrying
While chanting exorcisms they repeat the word manzai,
meaning "ten thousand years of
to you."
life
procession of the Gion Festival in
Kyoto
a
At the great
number of hoko,
the beautifully decorated ornamental towers placed
wooden
coolies directed
on four
wheels, are seen being pulled by hundreds of
by men on
the hoko
making
certain
motions
or signs with fans. As a departure from the regular uses of the fan, the Japanese
which is
a target
have an interesting game called
somewhat resembling
placed on a low stand
two
on
the floor.
people, each facing the target
on the
floor at a given distance.
or target with a fan the wrist
which
strike the target
The game
on
a quick
and
sitting
to hit the cho
and peculiar turn of
causes the fan to reverse itself in the air
with the rivet end. Very often tiny
attached to the edge of the cAo to sound
had been made. All of these
other sports and pastimes in which the fan occupies an
to the highly important
important place.
everyday
life
played by
is
either side
They endeavor
thrown with
ogi otoshi, in
the shape of a butterfly
form of an
310
type of
in Japanese history, inscribed his
signifying
uchiwa, upon which were inscribed characters The Prince of Lions. There are also a number of
were used
artists
part of the fourteenth century
the
massive
any other purpose.
The
first
of famous
one of the noblest characters
to
in use since the seven-
which have been
In the
as a special
dipped in water to increase the cooling
uses
and
of the Japanese.
when
bells
and
were
a successful hit
and many more contribute
vital part the fan plays in the
XXIII cloisonne Enamel
A^
M
^
.^L. Japanese
LTHOUGH
in Japan as early as the eighth
Nara there
century. Preserved in the Shosoin at
many
objects
to the
Emperor Shomu, who died
this
of art and personal use there
sUver mirror
is
that
a beautiful
is
among
twelve-pointed silver mirror of Chinese origin
of
is
not one of the old traditional branches of
was known
art, it
on metal
the art of enameling
the
of the Hirata house developed
a metallic
ground of gilt bronze
enriched with splotches of various colors,
enamel celebrated for ever,
it is
various
for their
its
as
well as a white
purity of tone and substance.
fme enameling on sword mounts
members of
How-
that the
the Hirata family are especially noted.
once belonged
in the year 756. The back made of cloisomie enamel, with thin
DEVELOPMENT OF JAPANESE ENAMELS
gold partitions separating green, brown, and purple-hued enamels
gold base. The mirror
set in a
is
kept in a case of
lacquered hide lined with white ashiginu, which plain weave.
From
in Buddhist ceremonies it
was not
of
ancient times the art of enameling had
been practiced in China, especially for religious
But
a silk
is
and
later for objects
until the closing years
articles
of secular
used use.
of the sixteenth century
All through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, en-
ameling on metal in Japan continued to be applied chiefly a subsidiary decoration, and
it
was not
of the nmeteenth century that independent
made which can
as
until the second quarter art objects
were
correctly be called enamels. Their surfaces
were covered with
vitrified
pastes
applied either in the
that the art
of working with enamels was actually introduced
champleve or the cloisonne technique. This work, in which
into Japan
from China, and because
Japan excels above aU other Far Eastern countries, was origi-
it
resembled the seven
was
called
nated by Kaji Tsunekichi of Nagoya about 1838. Tsunekichi
namely gold,
silver,
was born in Nagoya
precious things mentioned in Buddhist sutras, shippo, literally
meaning
seven-treasures,
agate, amber, emerald, coral,
The
earliest
on small
by Hirata Donin and last
tortoise shell.
the
objects,
and was
practiced
first
members of his family from about
decade of the sixteenth century onward.
in 1802,
became
a samurai,
and
later
studied the art of enameling, which up to that time had been
enamel work in Japan consisted principally of
subsidiary ornament
the
and
it
It is
said that
Hirata was born at Mino-o, a beautiful place not far from
limited to decorating the surfaces of objects with small orna-
mental pieces that were soldered on or
work
inlaid. Tsunekichi's
consisted of covering the entire surface of the metal
object with colored enamels separated just as in the
by thin
metallic fdlets,
medieval European cloisonne enamels. As the
Nagoya. These
demand for this kind of work increased, other craftsmen were encouraged to follow the art, until fmaUy several highly skilled practitioners of cloisonne enamel were active at Nagoya in the method introduced by Tsunekichi. Until 1858, when
kugikakushi are ornamental metal pieces used in classical build-
Japan abolished her policy of isolation, cloisonne enamel was
Osaka, and that
later
he began working in metals
at
Kyoto.
He undoubtedly produced the cloisonne enamel fittings called kugikakushi that were in the Fushimi castle at Momoyama in Kyoto, and in Tokugawa leyasu's
ings to cover the cross. Hirata's
castle at
wooden pegs where
the lintel and upright
enamels were greatly admired by leyasu,
commissioned Hirata in the year 161 1.
as
The
who
metal chaser and maker of cloisonne earliest
Hirata enamels are in a clear,
dark green for the decoration of small objects;
later
members
used exclusively for small objects that were traditionally Japanese. But,
with the opening of certain Japanese ports of
call
and the establishment of intercourse with foreign countries, an overseas
demand developed which
dimensions. As a result, by
called for enamels
of large
about 1865 a large export trade 311
Mirror. Cloisonne on copper.
Left:
By
Hirata Hikoichi.
Design o/tomoye, or Shinto symbol of creation, and two flying birds.
Edo
period, early nineteenth century.
Tokyo
National Museum.
Right:
Edo
birds.
had developed with the countries of Europe and America, in
transparent vitreous mixture called flux,
enamels which had no prototype in Japan, such
minium, and potash. This base or
bases, bowls, censers, boxes,
and so
The majority of
forth.
these objects are without aesthetic merit, clumsy, tically unpleasing, especially
many
because
The
fillets
are laid
is
It is essential
for the enamels to be hard
pure, and the
two must be
the base metal,
skill;
extremely thin; the thin and delicate
on with great care and accuracy; the
colors are
even, and the designs have an authentic quality. Although the colors in these early enamels are rather
somber and somewhat
impure, being of a dull green, a cloudy white, and a blue lacking in lucidity, their depth and certain mellowness fineness,
and charm. The
waxy
softness radiate a
fillets
hardness depends
thin
silica to
are
of exquisite
producing designs of extraordinary delicacy and
cies.
and the metal base
fused at very high temperatures, to
from atmospheric agen-
to corrosion
Fine gold or pure copper, as thin as possible, are the best
metals for a base as
upon the pro-
the other substances in the composition.
make them impervious
executed with extraordinary technical
its
composed of silica,
from
for
portion of
Katsumi.
colored by the addi-
are copied
examples of Japanese cloisonne enamel were
usually of copper,
and
is
artis-
vessels.
earliest
tion of metal oxides,
flux
and
bronzes whose massive forms are incongruous
enameled
lamp
Ito
period, early nineteenth
Tokyo National Museum.
century.
as vases,
By
Mirror. Cloisonne on copper.
Design offlowers and
upon which
champleve enamel
the base plate to
is
to enamel.
The method known
produced by cutting away portions of
make
or troughs, leaving a metal
cells
dividing line which forms the outline of the design. Pulverized
enamel is
filed
is
laid into these cells
and then fused
and fmally made smooth with
a
;
after cooling
it
pumice stone and
polished with rouge and crocus powder. In cloisonne enamel the metal cells are formed
metal, bent and laid
by
delicate ribbon-like strips
on according
to the outline
of
of the design,
elaboration. In the execution of floral motifs, even the edges
then fixed to the metal base with silver solder or by the enamel
of tiny leaves are carefully notched to conform
itself
species,
and the stems of
plants flow gracefully
design, usually in a conventionalized maimer.
were almost always covered with a
and
fishes
were
of tiny
SCHOOLS OF ENAMELING Of the three schools of enameling that appeared toward the
Very
often the decorative
ground
worked motifs
that
eye to follow the intricate network of to
Yasuyuki of Kyoto possessed the
is
characterized
soft,
new standards for excellence. compound of enamel is a clear, colorless.
by
graceful, teclinically flawless examples
with purity of designs and richness of decoration attained in
in
extreme beauty that established
greatest aesthetic quality. In
contrast to the uninspired export ware, the work of Namikawa
iround 1875 succeeded in producing works in cloisomie of
312
champleve
freely
and branches. Despite the gradual decline in quality
the
similar to the
end of the nineteenth century the one founded by Namikawa
difficult for the
this art
is
infmite
is
meet the demands of the export market, a few energetic artists
[n
of the process
theme, usually in a kind of medallion,
contained such diminutive and delicately
vines
rest
with over-all diaper designs of natural or
as the principal
conventionalized motifs.
it is
The
method.
whose grounds
delicate scrollwork
leaves. Stylized birds, flowers, trees,
against grounds
through the
There
variety as well as singular beauty in the designs,
used
to recognizable
harmonious
colors.
The enamel
artists active at this
time
Nagoya, Tokyo, and Yokohama are generally considered
as a
branch of the Kyoto school of Namikawa. But the
guishing feature of the Kyoto school
is its
distin-
elegantly balanced
Cloisonne
Left:
tea
kettle
with
a
conventionalized Chinese peony motif in
dull red,
and
ti'hite
blue,
light
dark yellow,
on deep-green ground. Kaji
Tsunehichi school. Edo period, second quarter
of
Author's
collection.
Right:
Small
on copper, the overall
Edo
Victoria
and
delicate decoration
which generally spreads
work from
entire surface, whereas the
shows a tendency toward
on
a
mand of
color pastes achieved
school in
compounding and
to
ivine pot
century.
of cloisonne
delicate fillets
making an
of geometrical
early
nineteenth
motifs.
century.
and Albert Museum.
across the
the other localities
pictorial effect, placing the design
monochrome ground of subdued
them
design
period,
nineteenth
the
The
tone.
by the
firing vitrifiable
great
com-
of the Kyoto
artists
enamels enabled
produce exquisite examples of cloisomie technically
unequalcd in any other country.
The second of the
three schools of enameling
by Namikawa Sosuke of Tokyo, branch of the Kyoto school.
It
was founded
an outgrowth of the
as
developed a method of con-
cealing the metal partitions in order to enhance the pictorial qualities
of the design. These works are therefore commonly
called cloisonless enamels, although they are not always with-
out cloisons, or partitions, because the design at the
is
beginning with a thin ribbon of metal,
manner
as regular
cloisonne enamel.
However,
usually
m
made
the same
as the
work
progresses these delicate cloisons are covered over and hidden, unless they are
needed to emphasize the design, and the finished
piece reveals only a picture or design motifin beautiful vitrified
enamels.
The work of the third school, whose artists were active in Tokyo and Nagoya, is chiefly characterized by monochromatic and translucid enamels. The inspiration for this work came from the exquisite monochrome porcelams of China, whose beauty and depth of tone resides in the colored glazes which are typically associated with hard-paste porcelain. These glazes consist
of fusible feldspathic rock or
petuntse,
which
is
pow-
dered and mixed with lime, sand, potash or quartz, and other ingredients.
They require a high temperature
to fuse them and
normally they are translucent and perfectly united with the hard paste material, being fired simultaneously. Acting upon the theory that a vitrified enamel at least partially, the
may
be made to perform,
function of a porcelain glaze, these
artists
Bottle-shaped flou'cr holder. Cloisoime on copper, showing a design
of flowers and
butterflies.
Nineteenth century.
By Namikawa
Yasuyuki of Kyoto.
Tokyo National Museum. 313
Tablet of cloisonne on copper, showing a design of
Mount
Fuji with clouds. By Namikawa Sosuke of Tokyo. Nineteenth century. Tokyo National Museum.
of Tokyo and Nagoya produced a variety of beautiful
Admirable
examples of monochrome enamel. Included in the range of
enamels to the designs chiseled in the base and then covering
and straw yellows,
colors are rich canary
aubcrgitie, lapis lazuli, leaf
and
the finest examples, exceptional skill
and
fix the
vase
pompadour,
and dove gray. In
was required
to spread
enamel so that neither the rim nor the interior of a
would show any break
reveal that the base
The
red, rose
grass green,
in the continuity of the color, or
was made of copper instead of porcelain.
other accomplishment of this school was in translucid
results
were produced by
first
the whole with a clear translucent enamel. for instance,
was created by deeply
applying colored
A distinctive design,
chiseling a repeated
wave
motif on a base of gold and applying an over-all glaze of translucent aubergine.
of this method blue,
is
Another example of the achievements
the depiction, through a
medium of azure
of brilliant goldfish and gaily colored carp swinuning
in silvery waves, or birds with bright-colored
plumage soaring
enamels, usually applied over a base having a decorative
among
theme. This was a process of chiseling a design in the metal
lend themselves to the process of translucid enamels are not
base so that
it
was
visible
through the translucent enamel,
which produced beautiful effects of broken and softened lights.
Left:
Incense
burner.
Cloisonne
copper. Design of landscape
By Namikawa Nineteenth
Yasuyuki
century.
on
and temple. of Kyoto.
Tokyo National
Museum.
Right: copper,
Flower
themums. Kyoto.
vase.
on
By Namikawa Yasuyuki of
Nineteenth
National Museum.
314
Cloisonne
showing a design of chrysan-
century.
Tokyo
fleecy clouds.
Although the decorative designs
numerous, the artists of this school were able of art of delicate beauty.
to
that
produce works
XXIV
Shosoin,
the Imperial Repository
I
N THE
godowns
storehouses called
religious ceremonies.
pository,
was given
houses, and
its
early days in Japan every important
temple had within
compound
its
for storing the objects used in
The name
Sho-so,
meaning Chief Re-
one or pair of these store-
to the principal
premises, usually surrounded
including the repository
several
were
itself,
with the various temples. But
Thus
in
Shosoin connected
name
the present time the
at
and
a wall
called Shosoin.
many
the history of Japan there have been
by
are
no
less
But even
mous
size
of the
which
are treated as a single item,
number
textile fabrics,
and
of the Hall of the Great Buddha of the Todaiji monastery
at
Nara, the resplendent capital and cultural center of Japan from
number
number
By
mind one can form some collection
to-
convey the enor-
For example, flower baskets,
few ancient
remain untouched.
Shosoin refers only to the renowned Imperial Repository, a
back
does not begin
3703.
565 pewter dishes ;
Of the
fragments of
more than 66,812 have been mounted for better
preservation, and a still
this
collection.
697; and arrows
wooden
treasure house standing a short distance directly
than 240 kinds of objects included in the different
categories.
and begin
clear picture the
chests filled
keeping these
with more
facts
textiles
and figures
in
idea of the size and variety of the
to appreciate the
remarkably complete
Shosoin treasures give of eighth-century
Japan. In this respect the Shosoin remains unrivaled and alone in the annals of art history.
710 to 794. This repository was originally the Shosoin of the Todaiji monastery, probably built about the same time as the
Hall of the Great Buddha, which was fmished in 751 or 752.
This
wooden
collection of eighth-century art, a
wooden
is
structure has stood for
without
wonder, but
sufficient cause for
parallel.
more than
against the destructive forces of nature and
relics
CEREMONIAL OPENING AND CLOSING
treasure house, serving to preserve a unique
that
have survived virtually intact
its
is
That such
a thousand years
human
turmoil
is
thousands of precious
miraculous.
The
exotic
contents of the famous Imperial Repository serve as a remarkable testimony to the
many high
achievements of the eighth
The Shosoin
is
closed throughout the year, except for the
short period of its annual airing,
which occurs
in the
autumn
and never extends beyond twenty-six days. Even during period, short as
it is,
the Shosoin
is
closed
that
on wet or rainy days.
Until the Mciji period, the treasures sometimes remained un-
touched for years.
opened
A record of 1666 states that the Shosoin was
that year for inspection as "it
The preceding
had not been opened
for
century, the classical epoch in Japanese culture. Like a magic
a long time."
mirror they
next opening and closing following the inspection of 1666
These
reflect
treasures,
and record the
brilliant life
of that time.
divided into some twenty-five different
categories, comprise documents, household furniture, kitchen utensils,
writing equipage, musical instruments, masks and
was
in 1693.
when
Then
the building
date of inspection
was 161 3. The
the Shosoin remained scaled until 1833,
was rcroofed,
were made on some of the
at
which time urgent
treasures
repairs
and the documents were
costumes used in dances, personal ornaments, weapons (swords,
classified. In
bows, arrows, and
year for the purpose of airing the treasures received Imperial
spears),
armor, horse-trappings, medicines,
Buddhist images, temple and accessories, belongings
monies, carpenters'
of the
altar utensils, sutras priests, objects
tools, incense
wood,
and
their
used in cere-
textiles, glass beads,
implements used in games, and miscellaneous things. There
1883 a petition to open the Repository every
sanction and, at the same time, the Imperial household granted to a certain treasures.
number of persons
the privilege of viewing the
Now in the autumn of each year scholars of Oriental
culture frt-m
all
parts
of the world converge upon the
little
315
town of Nara examples of
for the purpose
of studying the remarkable
swing slowly inward on wooden .pivots, and the
and
of a glorious, long-vanished
into the
the arts
crafts
admitted during two weeks of
civilization. Visitors are
amiual airing period. visitors
Due
to the limited space, the
necessarily restricted.
is
Admission
is
its
number of
by card only,
preference being given to those having academic qualifications.
Unfortunately, the view the privileged visitors get of these treasures
is
building
tantalizingly inadequate, as the only lighting in the
through the three doors and
is
depend upon an
viewed
when
it
they are kept in glass
at a distance, as
is
necessary to
Then, too, the objects are
electric flashlight.
cases. It is
only
the relics are taken out of the cases to be photographed,
examined, and measured for the Shosoin Gomotsu the Catalogue of the Imperial Treasures
Ztirokti,
in the Shosoin,
or
of which
eighteen folio volumes are available at the present time, that these precious heirlooms can be
much
examined more closely. Then,
too soon, comes a period of eleven months before the
order.
officials step
dim and silent room to see whether everything is in Then the Middle and finally the South sections are
opened in exactly the same maimer. Once the formal opening is
completed, the Imperial messenger returns immediately to
Tokyo
to report the proceeding to the
"When
Emperor.
the time arrives to close the Repository,
ings are reversed.
from Tokyo
A new signature
in a lacquered box,
of His Majesty
is
is
bound with
a
new
this
Another paper bearing
and
finally the locks
and that
rope tied in special knots, winds a
piece of paper around the ropes and encloses sheath.
brought
and the Imperial messenger,
after seeing that the three locks are properly placed
each
which
happens on the 16th of November, the proceed-
usitally.
his
own
them in a bamboo
seal is
placed around
and fastenings are once again covered
with a wooden box, not to be disturbed for another eleven months.
treasures can again be seen.
closing of the historic Shosoin
The formal opening and deeply impressive.
It is
is
performed in conformity with ancient
custom, though the great formality followed in feudal days has been dispensed with in
more
recent times. In
normal years
the three doors of the Shosoin are opened around the 21st
of October by Imperial command, in order to treasures.
The remaining days
to the photographing, cataloguing, and other
with the preservation of the
November and
at the
the
air
in October are generally given
collection.
are reserved for visitors.
appointed hour, which
is
The
On
work connected two weeks in
first
the day of opening
usually ten o'clock in the
morning, the Imperial messenger accompanied by the
presi-
dent of the Imperial Household Museums, the director of the Imperial Household Museum of Nara, and a few members of the
Museum
staff proceed to the
ascending a temporary
moved
staircase,
his shoes. First a
fastenings
is
but not before each has re-
wooden box covering
removed, disclosing
— of which about each lock—and a paper
the lock
messenger
bearing the
seal
used for
of the Imperial
who was present at the closing of the previous year. ends of string wrapped arotrnd a
seal is fastened to the
bamboo sheath covering when several more steps
the Emperor's signature. Finally, in the procedure have been duly
observed, the paper with the Emperor's signature at the sight
The
is
and
with
a big padlock tied
thirty-five feet, doubled,
rope
This
door of the north section by
of which
all
Imperial signature
returned to
persons present
is
Tokyo. Then,
bow
is
revealed,
in reverence.
put in a lacquered box and after the rest
of the rope
is
later
un-
wound, the lock is opened with a key and removed from the doors. But since the doors are bolted from the inside, they also must be unlocked. Finally the massive double doors, each one of which is more than four feet wide and eleven feet high, 316
Saddle of mulberry
wood
covered with smoked leather and having
a design of birds and flowers in brown. Iron box-stirrups lacquered black attached by iron chaitis.
follows:
Tempyo Shoho fourth
Shosoin, Nara.
The
girth lias the date inscribed as
year, tenth
month
(i.e.,
A.D.
752).
CONSTRUCTION AND PRESERVATION OF THE SHOSOIN
and South
sections.
This type of building, whether intention-
ally or not, solved the vital
problem of ventilation necessary
for the preservation of the treasures contained inside. In dry
This historic treasure house, surrounded by tangular
wooden
structure
trees, is a rec-
made of hiiioki and
asuiiaro
wood.
has a massive, heavily tiled, upward-curving roof resting
It
upon
short columns.
and some
It
twenty-seven
is
The
the roof, forty-five feet. feet
The height from
thirty feet in width.
the projecting eaves
above the ground, and
pillars
and is some 109
faces east
feet,
feet in
the
length
ground
to
and to the ridge of
entire structure
almost nine
is
supported by forty massive
is
arranged in four rows often each. The interior of the
building comprises three sections, namely the North, Middle,
and South. The Middle section
about four
is
the other two, which are almost equal in
an upper and lower floor with an
attic
by
a staircase in the
There
is
Middle
also
room
many of which were
deposited in the Shosoin twelve
and are made of metal,
chiefly for domestic
glass, pottery,
most of the
treasures
out of the building is
were kept
when
the present
with shelves was
fitted
in chests
and
wood, horn,
when
or other materials. Prior to 18 80- 18 82,
arrangement of showcases
of priceless
are thousands
hundred years ago. These objects are ritual use
and
installed,
which were carried
their contents
were
Each
aired.
provided with a massive double door that opens
keeping out the dampness.
form
present
space between being at
treasures, a
the Repository
is
open in order to
air its
temporary balcony, extending the length of the
building, with a staircase in the middle,
is
placed against the
Except for the Middle section, which boards, the Repository architecture. This style
is
is
The section of each log
is
made of thick
typical
of the ancient Japanese storeas
log-cabin construction.
used in the construction was originally
cut as an almost equilateral triangle, and then
the apexes a hexagon
flat
constructed in the aze-kura style of
houses and can best be described
by chamfering
was obtained, with three long
sides
of
about ten to twelve inches and three short sides of about three inches. These roughly
hewn
timbers are laid lengthwise and
crossed at the four corners in the
were used
in the joining.
struction the exterior of the
As
maimer of a log a result
cabin.
No
of this type of con-
North and South
sections
is
deeply corrugated in appearance, while the interior reveals a plain surface.
two
later date
its
buildings, with the
boarded in to form the
Excellent reasons have been
ably remain an open question.
The
sanctity
of the
seals
of the Emperors
who have reigned
over Japan in an unbroken lineage through twenty-six cen-
provided the primary protection for these magni-
turies has
ficent treasures stored in the Shosoin. This respect for the
Japan have
is
due to the reverence and loyalty the people of
at all
times given to their Emperor.
Wars and
fires
have surged to the very doors of this Repository. Once
in
80 and again in 1567 the Hall of the Great
1 1
burned by warriors and other
fires
Buddha was
consumed the nearby
Kofukuji temple, which consisted of one hundred and seventyfive buildings at
its
most flourishing period. Yet no
soldiers
have ever been assigned to guard or protect the Shosoin. stood
safe,
protected solely
by
the Imperial
twelve hundred years. Only three times in
seal, its
for
It
has
more than
long history has
the sanctity of the Imperial seal been violated. In 1040 a thief a hole
stole eight
when
A
it
through the floor of the Shosoin and
Again
in 1230 a thief
bronze mirrors. The
was discovered
that
stole
some
broke through the floor and
last
some
recorded theft was in 1612, treasures
peculiarly characteristic Japanese trait
had been
which
served to protect and preserve these treasures
is
stolen.
also has
the abiding
sentiment of reverence and esteem with which the Japanese
building.
nails
some
as
advanced in support of each theory, so the matter will prob-
treasures.
when
remains a matter of con-
to provide additional storage space for the
number of treasures.
increasing
burned
each year
one building, or
as
Middle section
kind except for the three doors. Then, too, there are no
leading up to the three entrances. During the short period
stiU
It
whether the Shosoin was originally constructed in
jecture
inward. There are no windows, in fact no apertures of any steps
and
air to enter
and in rainy weather the timbers expand, thereby
Imperial seal
section.
in glass showcases placed against the walls
standing in the center of each
section
Each section has
staircase.
circulate,
longer than
extending the entire length of the building, comiected
Crowded objects,
own
its
size.
feet
weather the timbers contract, permitting
The "party
walls" of the Middle section are
corrugated, however, since they are the exterior of the
North
have always regarded hereditary
down from
treasures.
father to son have always
stored with loving care.
The
successive
Heirlooms handed
been cherished and
Emperors
who
have
cared for the treasures in the Imperial Repository from the
day of dedication in 756 to the present time exemplify tradition.
As previously mentioned,
that an inflammable fires,
and
all
wooden
it is
this
indeed miraculous
structure exposed to storms,
kinds of dangers should have remained intact for
twelve centuries. Once in 1254 the North section was struck
by
lightning. Fortunately the
scar can
still
damage was very
slight,
but the
be seen on the wall on the North section. As an
ofFermg of gratitude to the dragon god for extmguishing the fire,
the
Sugimoto shrine was built very near to the Repository.
After each period for airing the treasures, directly after the sealing
of the Repository, a religious ceremony
is
performed
317
''•^^^llJU^JSSSSi*
;
..e-
The Shosoin 318
(treasure house)
of the Todaiji monastery, Nara. Front fagadc facing
east.
Eighth century.
"'5C^. Sugimoto shrine
at the
to entreat protection until the treasures
are again to be aired. According to the records, Ughtning rods
were
erected, apparently for the first time, in 1877.
HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND OF THE
CONTENTS For a more perfect understanding and appreciation of the Shosoin,
it is
necessary to refer to the origin of its establish-
ment. Shomu, 701-756,
who was
the forty-fifth
Japan, ascended the throne in 724.
He was
Emperor of
married to the
Princess Asuka, a daughter of the great Fujiwara-no-Fubito.
when she was created an Empress with the title of Komyo-Kogo, she became the first Fujiwara Empress of Japan. From that time, for twelve centuries, the Emperor In 729,
always selected his consort from the House of Fujiwara, until 1924 when the Crown Prince chose for his wife someone who was not a descendant of Fujiwara-no-Kamatari. (Fujiwarano-Fubito was a son of the great Fujiwara-no-Kamatari; thus they were of the same family.)
After the Imperial installation of the Empress Komyo, an epidemic of smallpox broke out in Japan and spread until it reached the patrician circles of Nara. Frantic efforts were made
by
the
disease.
Emperor and Buddhist
Emperor
his court to
priests
to turn to
religious exhortations
stem the tide of
this
dread
used the occasion to entreat the
Buddhism
for help. Inspired
and encouraged by
by
their
his pious consort,
Shomu conceived the idea of erecting a large image of Buddha in the middle of Nara and
making it, together with its counter-
parts in the provincial temples,
an object of national worship. But the erection of this huge image of the Buddha brought to an acute form the vexing problem of assimilating Bud-
dhism and the ancient Japanese religion of Shintoism. The
Emperor remembered only too well that his title to
the throne
Detail of the Shosoin, showing the aze-kura method of construction. Todaiji monastery, Nara. Eighth century.
depended upon the Shinto doctrine of his divine descent from
We have seen that an answer to this problem
Amaterasu.
found by the famous in the
v^^as
as
well as the religious
Grand Shrine of Ise
in order to learn the wishes of the
sun goddess, and spent seven days and seven nights in prayer
and
fasting at the threshold
of her
shrine.
At the end of this
time a divine voice uttered an oracle which was interpreted propitious to the reconciliation of the
happy omen occurring
two
shortly afterward,
stantiated this interpretation,
faiths.
as
Another
which further sub-
was the dream in which the sun
goddess appeared to the Emperor and announced that the sun
and the Buddha were one and the same. Satisfied
edicts
were
issued in the years 741, 742,
and 743 ordering a
temple with a seven-storied pagoda to be built in every
sutra
was
Great Buddha or Daibutsu, the casting of which was a
The bronze
figure
is
is
the holiest object of the Todaiji.
composed of fifty-six
pedestal
on
seated cross-legged lotus petals,
a
in the traditional posture of preaching, the right ease
of mind, the
siderable quantity
left
tremendous
and the hands are
hand giving
granting wishes. Mercury and a con-
of gold were required for gilding the image,
and because gold was
scarce in Japan, the gilding presented a
problem. But by a miraculous chance a provincial
difficult
governon discovered
a gold
mine
in his territory in 749,
and
he sent several hundred pounds of gold to Nara. This discovery an event of such magnitude that nationwide
as
were decreed. The Emperor Shomu sent messengers
rejoicings
good news
to proclaim the
and
a
ceremony was held
to shrines throughout the realm,
in the Hall
of the Great Buddha,
as
recorded in the Nihon-shoki, or Chronicles of Japan, compiled
to be placed in each temple, together
in the eighth century. According to this record, the Emperor,
with an announcement of the Emperor's intention to construction of the great image of scribed copper plaque
the
A copy in gold letters of the
province throughout the realm.
Konkomyo
The
herculean achievement,
was regarded
with these auspicious revelations, several Imperial
among
these edicts are contained
treasures in the Shosoin.
monk Gyogi, who was deeply interested
advancement of the material
welfare of Japan. According to the tradition, Gyogi journeyed to the
which record some of
Buddha
in Nara.
and members
start
the
Empress, Princess Imperial, ministers of
An
in-
of the Imperial court proceeded to the Todaiji to worship and
and a sutra cover with woven characters
give thanks to the Great Buddha. In the
one of the "This
is
ininisters addressed the
the
state,
name of the Emperor,
Buddha:
word of the Sovereign who
Three Treasures
(the
is
a servant of the
Three Treasures form the Sacred Trinity
of the Buddhist belief and are the Buddha, Dharma or the
Law, and Sangha or the Congregation of Believers), which he himself speaks before the image of Roshana. In
Yamato,
since the beginning
land of
this
of Heaven and Earth, gold,
though it has been brought as an offering from other countries,
was thought not rule
and
.
.
.
rejoiced, feeling that this
the love and blessing of it
But
to exist.
in the east
gold has been found. Hearing
was a
gift
all
our
officials to
Swept along by the
bestowed upon us by
Roshana Buddha.
with reverence and humbly accepted
with us
we we were astonished
of the land which
this
it,
We have received and have brought
worship and give thanks
religious fervor
." .
.
accompanying the
completion of the great image, the devout Emperor
Shomu
abdicated his throne in favor of his daughter in order that he
might renounce temporal
affairs
and devote his life
to spiritual
contemplation and prayer. Accordingly his daughter, the Princess Abe, ascended the throne in August 749 as Empress
Takano, although she
is
generally
known in history under
the
more familiar title of Empress Koken. The fmal ceremony at which the eyes of the gigantic image were touched to imbue it with the spirit of Buddha, known as the "eye-opening" ceremony, occurred on May 26, 752,
was Arm-rest (end view) o/tzu-t'an wood decorated with a marquetry
of ivory and
320
gold. Eighth century. Shosoiii,
Nara.
the traditional anniversary
also the bicentenary
Japan.
which
of the birth of Buddha and
of the introduction of Buddhism into
On that particular day the Great Hall, filled with flow-
ers
and incense, and lighted with
candles, presented a spectacle
of untold Oriental splendor. Magnificent offerings were heaped on the
altar
before the
ancient musical performance
immense bronze image and the
known
as gigaku
was given on
platforms especially erected for the occasion outside the temple.
Among
the treasures in the ShosoLn are 164 gigaku masks be-
lieved to have been used in connection with the religious services observed at the Todaiji, especially this
"eye-opening"
ceremony. Then, before the great idol and in the presence of the Imperial family, the musicians, the dancers, and the ten
thousand attending
"opened" by the lieved,
priests, the eyes
of the Great Buddha were
was done,
priest Bodhisena. This
by painting
be-
it is
in the pupils of the eyes with ink and a
very large writing brush to symbolize bringing the statue to life,
To
the fmal touch in the creation.
the brush
were
tied
long cords, each several hundred yards long, which were held in the hands
of the thousands of people assembled for the
them
occasion, thus permitting
to participate in the "eye-
opening" ceremony.
One of the
big ball of light-blue
silk cord,
on which
is
ceremony.
written that
May
treasures in the Shosoin
is
a
with a paper tag attached to
it
was used in the "eye-opening"
it
26, 752.
Hundreds of other
belonging to the original "eye-
relics
opening" ceremony are preserved in the Shosoin, and more than a hundred of these are dated. Pieces of the Imperial jeweled headdresses original chests
worn by Shomu and Komyo, and the two
which contained them,
paper tags attached to them, dated
belonged to
Shomu and
comprise
pearls,
and silver
settings,
rock
still
exist.
May 26,
the other to
crystal, coral,
Notations on
752, state that one
Komyo. The fragments
colored glass beads, gold
and parts of the lacquered silk gauze cover-
ing the framework.
It
believed that the crowns were
is
fashioned in the style of T'ang ceremonial headdresses. Ac-
cording to a
later record, the
dress, as well as three others
Emperor Shomu's jeweled head-
and a number of ceremonial robes,
were taken out of the Repository
them on April
14, 1242, to
Emperor Gosaga on April
in the chests containing
be used at the coronation of the 18.
When
the headdresses
were
returned to the Repository after the enthronement, the contents
into
of the chests were examined and found to be broken
many pieces. Apparently the men carrying
been unaware of
their precious contents.
Of
the chests interest
had
is
Five-stringed
Left:
designs of flowers shell,
biwa
and
(hack view) of tzu-t'an
wood with
birds inlaid with mother-of-pearl, tortoise
and amber. The amber for
the centers
offlowers and leaves
is
such a manner that the colors applied on the ground beneath
used
in
may
be seen. Eighth century. Shosoin, Nara.
an
unusually large writing brush, with an imitation mottled
bamboo
stem, measuring
more than two
an engraved inscription stating that
it
feet in length. It has
was used
for the "eye-
opening" ceremony of September 22, 1185. The inscription calls it
used
the
Tempyo
at the original
as well as at the
Brush, thus suggesting that
it
was the one
"eye-opening" of the Great Buddha in 752,
subsequent one in 11 85,
when
the
Right:
Five-stringed
biwa
(front
with mother-of-pearl, amber, and
guard of a band of depicting a
man
tortoise
view) 0/ tzu-t'an wood inlaid
tortoise shell,
shell
riding on a camel
having a plectrum
inlaid with
mother-of-pearl,
and playing on an instrument
with a plectrum. Eighth century. Shosoin, Nara.
ceremony
was repeated for the new head of the Great Buddha, the original
321
Four-stringed
Left:
genkan
(rear vieiv)
of tzu-t'an wood inlaid with mother-of-
and
pearl, amber,
tortoise shell depicting a
design of jeweled streamers fkenianj held in the beaks
of two parrot-like
around a central
rosette.
birds flying
Eighth century.
Shosoin, Nara.
Right:
Four-stringed genksin (front view)
of tzu-t'an wood inlaid with mother-ofpearl, amber, circular
and
leather
tortoise shell,
plectrum
having a
guard.
Eighth
century. Shosoin, Nara.
head having been destroyed, in the Great Hall in
11
80.
There
is
also
consumed the
mother of the Emperor-Abdicant Shomu. Seventeen flower
an inkstick, broken into three
baskets used to hold flowers during Buddhist ceremonies bear
fire that
pieces
and mended, with an attached paper
stick a
"Tempyo
1 1 85 at
tag, calling the
Treasure" and recording that
it
was used in
the "eye-opening" ceremony, thereby indicating the
same history for the inkstick
as for the
writing brush.
The next important dates in the history of the Shosoin are two religious ceremonies held before the Great Buddha, from both of which a number of dated
relics survive.
The
first
was
a great gathering of the Ninno-ye, a religious service held in
adoration of the
Ninno
ceremony was held on the 322
on May 6, 753. The second when a commemorative religious
sutra,
occurred on August 30, 755,
first
anniversary of the death of the
From the earlier ceremony are three bags for screens made of hemp cloth, printed or stamped with a design of flowers and birds. Written on each one is a description of the screen it contained, the date May 6, 753, and the name Todaiji. The description on one bag relates that the hemp cloth was made in 749 in the province of Kozuke and was sent as a corvee cloth. The next date is June 3, 756, the day on which the Emperor-Abdicant Shomu died. In appraising the Emperor this date.
Shomu's contribution it it,
and
that
development of Japanese
to the
must be remembered
that
Buddhism gave new
Shomu, through
his
devout
faith
culture,
direction to
and
his interest
in the spiritual well-being
of his people, was thus an impelling
force in fostering that culture.
EMPRESS KOMYO'S DEEDS OF GIFT Unquestionably the most important treasures preserved in
which belonged
the Shosoin are those
Emperor Shomu,
to the
and so the most important date in the history of the Shosoin July 22, 756,
marking the forty-ninth day
after the death
is
of
Shomu, when an elaborate religious ceremony was performed and prayers were offered
for the repose
the custom to the present time.
widow,
On that
Dowager Komyo,
the Empress
of his day
soul, as
is still
his grief-stricken
dedicated
all
Shomu's
Em-
personal belongings to the Great Buddha, the image the
peror had ordered to be cast
more than
little
decade
a
earlier.
These included arms and armor, musical instruments, manuscripts,
virtu,
mirrors, screens, ceremonial robes, and objects of
numbering more than 650 of ancient
veritable shrine
stick
scroll
first
the Repository a
Deeds of
hemp
of white
of tzu-t'an wood. The
make
Accompanying
art.
treasures are five Kenmotsucho or
form of a long
that
all
wound around
paper,
and
eloquence she
he
a supplication that
to the Sacred Hall
the Empress
late Emmay fmally be admitted
of the
of the Buddha of Light. With touching
recalls
her late husband's
wisdom and
and resolves by the performance of good deeds
husband's Todaiji is
by
a prayer
to the Great Buddha for the repose
peror's soul
spirit.
Emperor
he had used in the palace. This
document begins with
Dowager
life
article dedi-
a passage to the effect
these articles are either treasures that the late utensils that
a
and most important of these
end of the long inventory is
had handled or historic
these rare
Gift, each in the
Kenmotsucho bears a detailed description of each cated; at the
form
items. These offerings
the nucleus of the collection, and
To
end she donates these
this
by way of offering
to the
Buddha. The
saintly
to help her
relics to scroll,
the
which
dated July 22, 756, concludes with the signatures of five
court dignitaries, and
is
which almost cover
entire surface.
its
stamped with 489 Imperial
sacred reUcs described in the
seals,
A large number of the
Deed of Gift are still extant in the
Repository.
Many of the
Imperial
relics,
the provenance of
which
will
be considered later, are of surpassing beauty and craftsmanship.
A fine example of fuiished workmanship is a sword embellished with gold and tachi,
silver
and described
with a shagreen-covered rich
mount of silver
hilt
style.
The sword,
and lacquered scabbard, has a
gilt floral designs,
colored glass balls and crystals
Of
in the Kenmotsucho as hara
or Chinese slung sword, because of its
set
and
is
jeweled with
Lacquered ewer of bamboo basketwork covered with chth and lacquered with an over-all decoration offlowers, birds, and animals in a silver bird's head.
heidatsu.
The
lid
and
the
mouth form
the shape of a
Eighth century. Shosoin, Nara.
over vermilion pigment.
the arm-rests described in the Kenmotsucho, one type
is
323
bolster- or pillow-shaped, entirely covered
Another type of arm-rest today in a Japanese It is
rests
with brocade.
of the same shape as those used
is
home when
sitting
on the matted
floor.
made of wood, and the oblong top, provided with a pad, on end-supports mounted on a shaped base. The example
in the Repository
with
is
of tzu-t'an
important item Great Buddha.
wood and
is
richly decorated
ivory and gold. Screens are an
floral designs inlaid in
among the many treasures dedicated to One hundred screens, each comprising
panels, except for a pair
with
the Kemnotsucho of National Treasures.
On
August
screens.
Of these show
The amber is used for the center of the manner that the colors applied on
the ground underneath are visible. is
a
The plectrum guard, which
wide horizontal band under the strings where the plectrum of a
band of tortoise
of mother-of-pearl depicting a palm
this
with
in designs
flowers and leaves in such a
strikes, consists
solid
tree
with an inlay
shell
and
a
man
plectrum sides
dyed crimson and
is
with designs of flowers,
playing a
The ivory
musical instrument while riding on a camel.
minutely carved on both
is
birds,
and animals. Some of the
carving cut through the surface stain of the ivory. Both the
two
screens
758,
by two
were withdrawn between the were taken out in
814. This
which lists sixty-
eight screens. At the present time some forty panels remain,
One of the
twelve of which are in two six-paneled screens.
style
birds.
worked
shell,
106 screens described in the Kenmotsucho, the
that
6,
exactly with the official record of 856,
latter is
mother-of-pearl, amber, and tortoise
of flowers and
example made of
sides are richly inlaid
carved designs are in color, the color being added where the
November
years 787 and 793 and thirty-six tallies
a beautiful fiv(;-stringed
single
dedication was followed on
records
by
wood. The back and
six
26, 756,
an additional two pair of screens were dedicated and
tzu-t'an
the
mentioned in
four panels, are
in the collection
especiaUy noteworthy, being executed in the T'ang
of secular painting. Each of the panels depicts a young
biwa and the plectrum are identified with the ones described in the Kenmotsucho.
A
magnificent genkan, a four-stringed
musical instrument which also belongs to the lute resembles a banjo with
shaped body,
is
its
also in the collection
mentioned in the Kenmotsucho. the circular back
is
class
and
long fretted neck and tambourine-
and is
identified
with one
made o{ tzu-t'an wood and
It is
elaborately decorated with a central rosette
lady standing under a pine tree, wearing a dress decorated
around which are flying two exotic birds holding long
Most of the feathers have fallen off, show-
streamers in their beaks, the design being executed in an inlay
with
birds' feathers.
ing only the outline drawing done in ink. Her face and hands are delicately tinted
and she has light-blue beauty
forehead and on either side
spots
on her
charmingly evoking the gay and elegant court
life
of
Nara period (710-794). Some of the stringed instruments, particidar, are remarkable for their rarity and superb crafts-
the in
manship. The biwa, which belongs to the lute
class
pear-shaped body continuing into a fretted neck,
Box
for
go game board of transparent
inlaid with lines of deer horn to
Under is
is
and has
a
represented
horse-hoof or buffalo horn
form an over-all hexagonal pattern.
the transparent pieces a floral design in gold
and
silver leaf
laid alternately on the green ground. Eighth century. Shosoin,
Nara.
is
silver,
a lacquered
regarded
as
one of the most beautiful known examples of ancient decorated lacquer. In this style of decoration,
known
as
hyomon in
Japanese documents, thin sheets of gold and silver are cut into
various motifs in the form of men, animals, birds, flowers,
and similar surface.
Go
subjects,
Then
and
inlaid or
the entire surface
embedded
is
in the lacquer
covered with additional
game board veneered with tzu-t'an wood inlaid with deer horn tvoods. The sides are decorated with a carved
and various colored
and colored horn inlay of men and
beasts, flowers
draiver contains a receptacle, one in the
other in the
go 324
One of the most
remarkable of the stringed musical instruments
Chinese kin profusely inlaid with gold and
of her mouth.
Musical instruments are an entrancing category of the collection,
of mother-of-pearl, amber, and tortoise shell.
pieces.
form of a
form of a
and
birds.
tortoise,
Each
and
the
terrapin; their backs hollowed out to receive
Eighth century. Shosoin, Nara.
layers
of lacquer that are
and
reveal the inlay,
that the Chinese kin
Kenmotsucho
as
later
ground or rubbed down to
finally polished. It is
interesting to note
is
not the original kin mentioned in the
being decorated in hyomon, but rather a subdecorated in hyomon. According to the
stitute for it also
Decem-
Shosoin archives the original kin was withdrawn on ber
and the present one was substituted on July
4, 814,
The present kin bears The Chinese kin is
the inscription that
heidatsu,
The making of
A
is
also
silver heidatsu.
the shape of a bird's head and a silver chain
is
attached to the
which
is
A
it
board for the game of
the Eastern equivalent of checkers, and the
was kept are recorded
board, in the form of a
in the Kenmotsucho.
low square
stand,
stringing lines of ivory to
Beneath the top
is
a
form squares
narrow
frieze
The
is
inlaid
go
rests
with
game.
for playing the
which
box
about twenty
is
inches square and four inches high, and the top
on an open
Displaying a similar quality of fmished craftsmanship and
mentioned in the Kenmotsucho
also
and construction of the sugoroku gaming board
size
essentially the
same
the Eastern equivalent of
as the
The drawers
out, the other
are so constructed that if one
pulled
manner.
receptacle in the
form of a
a receptacle in the
One drawer tortoise
form of a
provided with a
is
and the other drawer has
terrapin, the backs
hollowed out to contain the go
Each
pieces.
of both being
side
of the
frieze
divided into four panels banded with a geometrical repeat
design, inlaid with ivory, deer horn,
woods. The panels are decorated with deer-horn inlay of flowers and birds.
men and
and various colored a carved
and colored
animals in hunting scenes and
The box, which
is
provided with a
lid, is
covered entirely with buffalo horn inlaid with stringing
lines
of deer horn to form a parquetry of hexagons. The box further enriched with a floral motif in gold alternately
on
a green
and
is
silver leaf laid
groimd and centered in each hexagon
under the transparent surface of horn.
It is
backgammon. is
made of tzu-t'an and
of wood, colored deer
horn, bamboo, and ivory, in an over-all design of flowers,
and similar motifs. The box strips
for the sugoroku
worked in an
board
is
over-all lozenge
pattern, each lozenge enclosing a floral
motif The Kenmotsucho
Of these
only six remain, three
mentions sugoroku
also
dice.
having rounded corners and three being perfect cubes.
A
comes out automatically, and the closing oper-
ates in a similar
is
is
go board.
richly inlaid with various other kinds
birds,
kazama in Japan. The narrow frieze is fitted with two drawers, one diagonally across from the other, each having a loose-ring
game of
The
is
made of braided bamboo
called
is
a board for the
which
box-like construction. This type of decorative openwork, a very ancient Chinese platform,
is
sugoroku,
which originated in
handle.
openwork design
and a phoenix. Eighth
lion
are another interesting category of the Imperial
treasures preserved in the Shosoin.
which
Silver incense burner decorated with an engraved
of flower and leaf scrolls containing a century. Shosoin, Nara.
and handle.
Games
in
which
a gracefully pro-
is
The inside The lid and the pouring spout form
finished in plain lacquer.
go,
in
being too
exquisitely decorated
It is
and animals in
birds,
as
made of bamboo basketwork
covered with cloth and lacquered.
with flowers,
being
as
was prohibited
heidatsu
splendid example of silver heidatsu,
portioned lacquered wine ewer
lid
not foimd
and sometimes the two terms are regarded
minutely described in the Kenmotsucho,
is
is
A similar style of decoration is known as
China during the reign of Su Tsung (756-762) costly.
in 795.
the only object in the Repository de-
scribed as being in hyomon. Apparently the term in Chinese records.
interchangeable.
14, 817.
was made
it
second Kenmotsucho
—bearing
the same
date as
the
Kenmotsucho of National Treasures, July 22, 756, and the same five signatures, is
a
and stamped with forty-three Imperial
Deed of Gift of Medicines,
offering to the Great
seals
—
Buddha
twenty-one chests filled with sixty different kinds of medicines. Also written on a lists
the
scroll
name of each
of white hemp paper,
medicine,
its
of its container. At the conclusion of the list in part, says in effect that
a long inventory
weight, and a description is
a prayer which,
any person suffering from
illness
should apply to the High Priests of the Temple; that those
may be either cured or may enjoy a long life and
persons partaking of these medicines
spared from after death least
all
ailments that they
may
;
live in eternal Paradise
with the Buddha. At
twenty-six of the sixty different kinds of medicines
described in the
Deed of Gift
stUl
remain in the Repository.
325
In addition to the medicines there are also least thirty-five accessories,
such
still
in existence at
as the original
bags bearing
tory
three remaining Keninotsucho preserved in the Reposi-
important offerings made to the Todaiji
cite additional
by the Empress Dowager Komyo. One of August
which
few of the
original items
mentioned remain.
the articles stiU extant are four pairs cloth,
dated
these,
26, 756, offers folding screens, patterned rugs, etc.,
a
;
and a spherical
Among
of slippers made of hemp
burner decorated with
silver incense
over-all pierced floral scrolls.
Another Kcnmotsucho, dated
July 10, 758, offers scrolls
of writings by
renowned fourth-century
calligrapher,
Hsien-chih,
who,
in calligraphy.
like his
Of
more illustrious
Hsi-chih, the
his son,
4, 781.
Wang
father, also excelled
Wang
none remain. According
last
One
manuscript, listed as Zasshu or
form of manu-
written by the Emperor Shomu. stanzas selected
rJynasties
the copying
manuscript,
At
the end of the scroll
was completed on October Toka
titled
6, 758, offers
folding screens bearing the handwritings of Prince Fujiwara-
is
and T'ang
a notation that
Another
13, 731.
Model
Letter Writer,
described' in the Kcnmotsucho as having been written
Empress Komyo. The scroU, which paper, comprises thirty-six
A
model
is
hemp
written on white
and
letters
is
by the
a corresponding
number of
replies.
An
described in the Kcnmotsucho as being in the hand
Essay,
is
third manuscript, titled Gakki-ron or
of the Empress Komyo. The e;say
II, 744,
is
famous Chinese one
a
scroll bears the date
No-
and the signature "third daughter of
Fuji-
vember
of the Kcnmotsucho, dated November
A
Rissci or
later in the
How-
is
of more than 140
consists
It
and the Sui (589-618)
(265-589),
(618-906) dynasties.
Twelve were returned
in 820 ajid never returned.
Miscellany,
from Chinese poems written during the Six
written in the third century.
were again taken out
A
described in the Kcnmotsucho of National Treasures as being
were taken
all
same month, and the remaining eight volumes in 784. ever, they
to
scripts.
the rolls
documents preserved in the Shosoin, out on September
Wang
and by
the twenty rolls or volumes of
Hsi-chih's calligraphy recorded,
The
of
covered with brocade and enriched with embroidered
flowers
to this gift as her rarest treasure.
Several items of unusual interest are in the
the names of the medicines.
The
who in the dedication refers None of these screens remain.
no-Fubito, the father of Komyo,
The
wara."
According to the Kcnmotsucho of National Treasures, these three scrolls, as well as a
the
number of other
Emperor Shomu, were kept
objects belonging to
in a red lacquered cabinet.
The reverence with which
the Japanese have always regarded
their hereditary treasures
aptly revealed in a statement
is
made
in the Kcnmotsucho regarding the history of this cabinet. states that the cabinet was bequeathed by the
reigned 673-686, to the Empress
Emperor
Mommu,
Jito,
It
Emperor Temmu,
reigned 690-696, to the
reigned 697-707, to the Empress Gensho,
reigned 715-723, to the Emperor Shomu, reigned 724-748
and to the Empress Koken, reigned 749-758, before
The
offered to the Great Buddha.
cabinet,
which
is
to
forty inches high, thirty-four inches wide,
and seventeen inches deep.
openwork
was
wood
with transparent lacquer permitting the grain of the
show through,
it
covered
is
called kazama,
on
It rests
a base
of decorative
and has two long doors enriched
gilt copper mounts. Of particular interest among the many personal belongings of the Emperor Shomu kept in this cabinet are six ivory foot-rules. None are exactly equal in size.
with
They average around
thirty centimeters in length, three centi-
meters in width, and one centimeter in thickness. stained red
and carved on both
of animals,
birds,
on both
sides.
and flowers.
sides
is
are
Two are stained blue and carved
The carving on one
stained foot-rules
Two
with continuous designs
side
of one of these blue-
divided into ten equal parts.
It is
thought
that these carved ivories probably served as paperweights
rather than as standard measures. rules are
white and plain. Each
lines into ten equal sections,
again into ten equal parts.
Red
lacquered cabinet or bookcase coated with a transparent lacquer
permitting the grain of the
with
gilt
wood
to
show through and
decorated
copper mounts. Eighth century. Shosoin, Nara.
is
The remaining two
and each section
One
foot-
divided by fmely carved
foot-rule
is
is
subdivided
only seven miUi-
od^SiiBtS
i^ meters shorter than the standard foot measure of the present time.
fe*^^'^r*^
THE SHOSOIN RECORDS THROUGH THE CENTURIES
.^;t^>t).^K
<^'^
In addition to the five Kciimotsucho preserved in the Shosoin,
there are also twelve important ancient scrolls, each bearing a
title
and each consisting of a number of sheets of documents
mounted
into a scroll. These
documents
relate chiefly to the
withdrawal, return, or substitution of objects stored in the Repository, to Imperial
of the
treasures.
gifts,
and to the airing and inspection
Mention has already been made of the docu-
ment dated April
28, 784, concerning the return
Wang
of
Hsi-chih's calligraphies, and also the removal of the lacquered
Chinese kin and
its
subsequent replacement, which became
the occasion of one of the notable substitutions entered in the
Shosoin records.
humane and
of marked
scroll
Gold Dust and
Petitions for
sheets
A
Cassia.
of the
interest because
prompting
religious purposes
The
bears the
it
scroll
title
comprises two
of paper, each with a separate petition and each having
a character "gi" or "yoroshi," the sign of the Imperial sanction,
acknowledging
that the request
dated February 11, 757,
is
is
approved.
One document,
from the Department of Temple-
building, asking for 2016 ryo of gold dust. Another scroll,
bearing the
Withdrawn
title
Shutsunyucho or
or Entered
ments dealing with
A
Memorandum of Articles
and comprising twelve
articles
sheets
of docu-
put in or taken out of the Reposi-
tory from October 30, 756, to September 10, 781, refers to the
gold dust, saying that 2016 ryo of gold dust was given on
February
14, 757, to the
gilding the
m^i^
Department of Temple-building for
image of the Great Buddha. The other document
in the Petitions for
Gold Dust and Cassia, dated April 20, 759,
from the Charitable Medical
Institution
hundred kin of cassia (cinnamon). There in the Shosoin records referring to one
of cassia taken out August
is
is
asks for
also
another entry
hundred and
'./S0'
one
and
fifty
kin
28, 764, for the Seyaku-in, a charity
institution for the distribution
of medicines. These examples
serve to illustrate the methodical recording of each detail con-
cerning these Imperial It is
relics.
interesting to note that the Kenmotsucho of Medicines
records, "keishin (cassia) 560 kin third, fourth,
and
fifth chests."
and bags; these kept in the
One of the
scrolls consists
of
fourteen sheets of documents bearing dates from 757 to 123 1,
concerning
articles
of Imperial dedication.
It
includes
lists
of
the Imperial gifts stored in the chests in the Shosoin, and descriptive accounts
Two
of other Imperial objects dedicated.
Ivory foot-rule
Left: scrolls,
one
titled
Memorandum of Rare
Treasures, dated
gust 13, 787, and the other titled Inventory
Auscarlet,
at the Airing,
dated
birds,
113J4 3I8
and flowers
view)
dyed
other colors. Length
in
inches, width
inch.
Right:
(front
with the carved designs of animals,
1
ij 8 inches, thickness
Eighth century.
Shosoin,
Ivory foot-rule (rear view).
Shosoin, Nara.
Nara,
five Kenmotsucho, gives
them great
truth treasures in themselves
historic value.
They are
—^perhaps the rarest of
all
in
those
preserved within the walls of the Shosoin.
An
elaborate
marking the
and impressive commemorative
first
service,
anniversary of the abdicated Emperor
Shomu's death, was held
at the
Todaiji
on May
24, 757. In
the Shosoin there are one hundred and three flower baskets
bearing the same date, which were used to hold flowers during the Buddhist ceremonies at the Todaiji. There are also ten gilt-bronze cylindrical bells called chintaku, each having a
tongue with a decorative metal pendant. Nine of these bear the engraved inscription "Todaiji
May
24, 757."
It is
presumed from the inscription
were used on some kind of banner or ornament. Eight other similar shape. There is
written,
Of interest cated
for Todaiji
that they
mai, probably as
show some
fragment of a white
also a
is
"Bag
bells
bells
Maeban Chintaku,
bag on which
silk
Maeban Chintaku, May 24,
are a pair of ceremonial plows and
by the Empress Koken on February
an
variation in
757."
brooms dediwhich
15, 758,
according to the lunar calendar then in use was the ne-no-hi, or
in
Day of the Rat
first
day
it
was customary
which the Emperor
the
room
in
custom came
in the first
in ancient tilled
month of the
China
to be observed in Japan,
raised. Later, the
and the Empress Koken
probably used the plow and the broom on the
plow
is
them
painted in gold and
silver,
of one
lacquered and
on
a gesso-like composition.
inscription saying that
it
was dedicated
to
Day of the Rat, first month, 758. The two brooms are made of brushwood and are called bead-
the Todaiji ne-no-hi
is
Rat Day
colter
with the handle ornamented with
decorative paintings applied
Each plow bears an
of the other
colter
first
The
to the Great Buddha.
new, while the
On this
ceremony
the field and the Empress swept
which the silkworms were
before offering
year.
to observe a
on
the
brooms, since originally they were "jeweled" with glass beads,
though now only a few of the beads remain. There also survive Gih-bronze chintaku of cylindrical form with a tongue suspended
broom stands, and batik-dyed plain silk sashs to tie the covers. On July 23, 760, the Empress Dowager Komyo died, and
by a decorative metal piece. Eighth century. Shosoin, Nara.
through her piety and munificence left an artistic legacy unique in the history of art. Intrigue and conspiracy, fuly 23, 793, are inventory reports of the officials commissioned to
examine the
treasures at the airing.
tains a statement that the report
The second
was made in
report con-
triphcate,
one for
the Imperial palace, a second for the office records of the
Todaiji monastery, and a third for the Shosoin archives. inspector's report
of the
treasures, dated
the subject of another scroll, and
The meticulous
care
it
also
October
was made in
An
15, 811, is triplicate.
expended in the compilation of these
havior of the ex-Empress
licentious be-
rebellion of Emi-no-Oshikatsu, provided the motive for with-
drawing
a large quantity
of arms and armor from the Reposi-
tory on October 10, 764. in 758 in favor of the
The Empress Koken had
Emperor
exercise her royal power.
Dokyo,
a capable but
rapid rise to
Her
abdicated
Jonin, but she continued to
adviser
was a
monk named
thoroughly unscrupulous man, whose
power through
ancient inventories and other documents recording the entry,
the jealousy of Fujiwara
withdrawal, or return of various objects, together with the
who
328
stemming from the
Koken and resulting in the disastrous
the ex-Empress's favors aroused
Nakamaro, known
also as Oshikatsu,
supported the young Emperor, precipitating an open
An
rebellion.
Imperial edict was issued requesting that the
and armor kept in the Repository be sent to the Imperial
arnis
Accordingly on October
palace.
lo, 764, ninety-nine suits
of
armor, eighty-eight swords, 103 bows, and ninety-six quivers completely equipped with arrows, and an additional 290
arrows were withdrawn from the Repository and never re-
As
turned.
of Oshikatsu's
a result
ex-Empress
revolt, the
Koken once again ascended the throne, as the Empress Shotoku. The
was
rebellion
finally crushed,
and many of his followers were
March
Todaiji on
A visit paid to the
by the Empress Shotoku
767,
6,
but not before Oshikatsu
slain in 765.
is
note-
worthy, for on that day she presented to the Great Buddha a
handsome
pair
of silver
jars
decorated with chased bands of
hunting scenes depicting horsemen with bows and arrows in pursuit of boar and deer, executed in a characteristic T'ang style.
The Emperor Konin, who succeeded the Empress Shotoku, was followed on
who, soon
his death in
782 by the Emperor
after his accession,
moved
thus bringing to a close the glorious
was the growing
political
and economic power of
a subject
of grave concern to the aristocracy. The
Kwammu
wisely reasoned that if the court was to
Buddhism,
Emperor
Nara period. One of the
prompting the removal of the
principal deciding factors capital
escape the domination of Buddhism,
move vised
from
it
was
was necessary
Nara
to remain at
He
influential ecclesiastics.
the Imperial palace to
Nagaoka in
to re-
later,
when
accordingly
784, but the court
of the city was
until the building
completed. Almost a decade city
it
a city so rich in temples and monasteries super-
by wealthy and
removed
Kwammu,
the capital froin Nara,
the building of the
was nearing completion, an Imperial
edict
was issued
ordering the removal of the capital from Nagaoka to Heian, the ancient
With
name for Kyoto, which was only five miles distant.
the removal of the capital in 794 the scene of Imperial
interest
and
Heian-kyo
which remained the until
was moved
it
capital for
to
and
Tokyo
substitutions
the Great Buddha at
is
more than in 1868.
chiefly a record
more important
few presentations were made
A
shaku,
pad but in
later
914.
It is
is
a
is
aspects to.
as a
form of memorandum
mark of rank in
Gilt-bronze chiiitaku, lozenge-shaped in section and ornamented with bosses near the top, with the tongue suspended by a metal piece
having two openings
to
hold small
bells
as decoration. Eighth
century. Shosoin, Nara.
of which
Actually very
kind of flattened scepter used in
times carried as a
gift is a
of withdrawals,
to the Great Buddha during this
by the court nobles
of the Emperor, Another
which
history of the
and of airings and inspections by the
Imperial commission, the
ancient times
to
a thousand years,
The
have to a large extent already been referred
period.
Nara
of Peace and TranquUlity"
(kyo)
Shosoin from 794 until 950 returns,
from
activity shifted
— "Capital
main part of the collection had virtually remained the same, despite the several changes, the principal ones of which have already been mentioned. indicates that the
Until the year 950 the Shosoin contained only the offerings
the presence
made by the Imperial family to the Great Buddha, and although
inscribed with the date, June 25, 905. 30,
these offerings were placed in the care of the Todaiji, they were under Imperial supervision and were Imperially sealed.
True
In the year 950, however, the contents of a pair of ecclesiasti-
sUver bowl bearing the date
December
interesting to note that a report entitled
A
Record of Various Properties, compiled in 856, exactly one
cally-sealed treasure houses
hundred years
damaged
after the original dedication to the Great Buddha,
of the Todaiji, which had been
in a violent storm,
were moved into the South 329
to
it
some later
at
date, give the atxression
of these
ecclesiastical
treasures in 950 as the logical reason for enlarging the original
Repository.
The next milestone
in the history of the Shosoin
occurred in 11 17 when, on September
4,
Abdicant Shirakawa issued an order to make
the
Emperor-
a detailed
inven-
tory of the ecclesiastic treasures stored in the South section.
The
report revealed that
some of
the important relics had
been removed from the South section to the Imperiallysealed
North and Middle
the Great
Buddha by
sections.
Thus, the offerings made to
came to be intermingled with
the people
the Imperial presentations.
Undoubtedly the most
interesting years in the art history of
the Shosoin are the early years, until around the middle of the
twelfth century.
The "Tempyo Treasure" brush and "Tempyo
Treasure" inkstick were taken out of the Repository on
September
22,
1
185, in order to
the "eye-opening"
again observed for the
"Tempyo" brush and
May
be used the following day
new head of
inkstick
the Great Buddha.
were used
191 5, in the "eye-opening"
2,
The
for a third time
30, 1261, the
the Imperial relics and
on
ceremony of the Great
On
Buddha, whose head had been completely reburnished.
September
at
ceremony of the Great Buddha, which was
Emperor-Abdicant Gosaga inspected
withdrew
same time nine
at the
kesa or
Buddhist robes, which he kept out for a year and several days.
He
fmally returned
them on October
5,
1262, because, ac-
cording to the records, he had been severely reprimanded in a
dream.
by
the
It
seems that these nine kesa were especially treasured
Emperor Shomu and they
item in the long
list
in the Kenmotsucho
and although the top Glass ewer with a slight
tint
of pale-green
color
and a narrow
and pouring
lip.
mouth
deteriorated, they trace
still
silk in
is
The
of the
in almost perfect condition,
retain their original
form without any
silk lining
still
remains
kesa.
later history
inspections
first
several examples has badly
of mending. Most of the original
in several
Eighth century. Shosoin, Nara.
were the very
of National Treasures. At the present time
the top silk of two of these kesa
tapering neck terminating in a broad shallow leaf-shaped
also
of treasures offered to the Great Buddha
of the Shosoin
is
chiefly a record
of
and airings and of repairs to the building. In the
years 1193 and 1230 the three sections were opened for the
of the Shosoin, and the Imperial rehcs were moved
section
into the
North and Middle
North and Middle sealed
sections.
sections
and the South
Due
to this change, the
The
all
The
as a result
of rain
the Imperially-sealed Reposi-
three sections con-
three years later, in 1246.
The buUding was
when
1603, and also later in the
same century in 1693,
sealed,
and soon thereafter
three sections
was completely
were put under the
of the Imperial Household Department.
supporters of the theory that the Middle section of the
Shosoin was not a part of the original building, but was added
330
on
tory and the treasures were stored temporarily in a storehouse
the link of the Repository with the Todaiji
direct supervision
started
belonging to the Todaiji. They were returned to the Shosoin
were Imperially
severed. Finally in 1884
were
made by
tinued to be sealed in this manner until probably 1872, three sections
leakage, repairs
of the Shosoin were Imperially-
section, containing offerings
the people, was ecclesiastically sealed.
all
purpose of repairing the building. In 1243,
some of the paired.
treasures, especially screen panels,
Between the
at
which time
were
also re-
years 1833 and 1836 the entire building
was reroofed, and urgent treasures
again repaired in
repairs
were made on some of the
and the documents were put in order. In 1882 the
present system of glass showcases with shelves was completed,
and the
treasures
were arranged on them and catalogued.
In the present arrangement of treasures, an attempt has been
made
to keep in the
to the original
lists
North
section only those reUcs traceable
of offerings contained
Kenmot-
in the five
time to time and that replicas of certain treasures have been
and are being made. The work of restoration
well as of
as
putting in order countless things wliich have been
con-
left in
more
sucho
and in other ancient documents, although there are
fusion for centuries, such as an ancient chest containing
some
exceptions. In order to protect the Shosoin against a
than sixty thousand colored glass beads used originally in
possible fire, a large tract
of adjacent land was acquired in
more ground outmore than sixteen acres.
1886 and enclosed within a wall, to which side the wall
Finally in
the
was added,
March
compound
totaling in
all
was
191 3, a provisional warehouse
built in
to contain the treasures temporarily while the
Shosoin was being entirely taken apart and carefully reconstructed using
all
the available original materials.
December of that same
struction
was
treasures
were not returned
visional chests
warehouse
still
a
much
until
The recon-
year, but the
October 1914. The pro-
some of the empty ancient
contains
and fragments of
compound style
finished in
textiles.
There
is
also in the
same
smaller storehouse, also in the azekura
of building, called the Shogozo, which was offered
a gift
by
the Todaiji
as
and formally accepted by the Imperial
Household Department in 1894. This contains 4960 ancient copies of sutras;
some of which were copied
scrolls
in
of
China
in the Sui dynasty (589-618) and the subsequent T'ang dynasty
(618-906), while almost fifteen
hundred of the
scrolls
copied in Japan during the Nara period (710-794). ferro-concrete repository has been builtwithin the
and
after various tests
have been completed
all
were
A new
compound,
the treasures
moved into it from the old repository. With respect to the treasures stored in the Shosoin, it should be mentioned that urgent repairs of objects are made from
will be
different kinds
of decoration,
still
Of the
continues.
treasures
preserved in the Shosoin, some 532 objects are dated, of which
The
488 objects bear an eighth-century date.
be written on a tag attached to an the article
is
kept, or
on the
inscription
on
article,
a
Some
article itself.
may
bag in which inscriptions
are carved or incised, but the majority are written in black or
occasionally red ink.
Nara inspection
Although some of the articles bear
date, the articles themselves are
period. Articles in
tlie
a post-
of the Nara
collection later than the eighth century
are negligible, perhaps less than 2 per cent.
The debt of early
Japanese art to China
in this superlative collection
Shosoin.
The T'ang
nearly
of the
all
art
influence
Many of
form and doubtedly
their
that
it is
Some of the
it is
in
almost certain they
Imperial
from the Chinese court
sovereigns of Japan, while other treasures ability
intact in the
clearly in evidence as
provenance in Central Asia or in
of ornament
in China. gifts
is
the relics arc so characteristically T'ang in
in style
were made
indelibly written
of the Nara period, with the exception of a
few examples having Persia.
is
of relics preserved
relics
were un-
to the reigning
were
in
all
prob-
purchased in China by priests and scholars who, as
members
of missions, traveled extensively
Other examples
on the mainland.
by
in the collection are directly inspired
Korean copies of Chinese work and
it is
presumed
that they
Pottery bowl having a white
body
covered
with
a
white
glaze inside and outside streak-
ed
ivith
green.
The bowl
is
without a foot rim and cannot stand upright without support.
Eighth century. Shosoin, Nara.
331
were executed by or under the direction of Korean artists. It must be remembered, however, that the artistic development in Japan under foreign tutelage
rapid and
real.
By
century was
after the seventh
the eighth century Japan
had arrived
at
and emulated. Envoys from many countries Arabia, India
—appeared
extent Greek,
is
much of
the art of the T'ang
these gifts
of foreign origin or
influence passed
are several examples
and
textiles that
Persia,
of glass
were
either
not possible to
vessels,
pottery
say.
jars,
Notable
metalwork,
brought from Central Asia, or
or Greece, or are fme reproductions of objects origin-
ating in those regions. China
dynasty and,
as
was then under the T'ang
perhaps the most powerful country in the
world, possessed a civilization which was universally admired
332
so
a lesser
some of
of sophisticated workmanship which were undoubtedly made is
and to
Persia,
gifts,
apparent in
period. Ultimately
by whose hand it
—Turkey,
the Chinese court bearing
that Occidental influence, especially Persian
mature craftsmanship, so the collection contains many objects
in Japan, but
at
from the court
Imperial Repository.
in
China
The thousands of
to Japan
and to the
relics stored in the
Shosoin, their extraordinary variety, their antiquity, and their
marvelous
state
of preservation make the collection unique.
As examples of the
arts
and
crafts
they provide, a picture of court reflecting the pageantry
zation.
of a
life
of an ancient culture, in the eighth century
brilliant,
long-vanished
civili-
XXV
I
HE PRIMITIVE ART and unique culture of the
centuries. Specific jobs are assigned to each; those set apart for
*
Ainu have been declining rapidly
the
since the
Meiji period, 1868-1912, and persons skilled in the old handi-
but extinct.
craft techniques are all
The Ainu
race
itself,
bering 16,000 in Hokkaido, will soon be extinct too.
num-
The Ainu,
have entered Japan from the north. Archaeological evidence
were
that they
at
one time spread over the whole
archipelago before the arrival of the ancestors of the Japanese.
Their origins remain
them
peoples
races,
Ainu is
to
handicraft,
chiefly
by
Hokkaido; Japan's northernmost island,
of which weaving
is
the
most important,
designs peculiar to northern peoples
Ainu mythical
spirits.
rites is
who and
for their livelihood
religious beliefs include an unseen
gods, demons, and ancestral
include the carved
textile
work
wood, bone and horn,
in
dyeing; while those allotted to the
weaving, knitting,
women
are
work
in
and
embroidery,
sewing,
leather.
men
Beginning in early boyhood, Ainu
wood
carving decorative designs in call rnakiri.
The
practice the art
perfected designs are found in the carved
wood, such
decoration on a variety of articles in
shaped like the quivers but shorter, also decorated at one end with
wood, and used
the
disks
flat
mounts
as
inlaid
arrow
elliptical in section,
of lead hammered into
to hold a Japanese knife
scabbard on the flattened side;
and knife sheaths
as
of wood,
quivers, elliptical in section; peculiar ornaments
its
of
with knives which they
wooden sword
with
scabbards
with bone and horn shallow wooden ;
spoons of spatula shape for the ritual of serving sake to the
Islands.
on hunting and fishing
whose primitive distinguishes
remnant of the Neo-
last
Manchuria and Japan. The Ainu
and part of the Kurile
characterized
depend
being remotely cormected
who ranged eastward in prehistoric times across
now confmed
Sakhalin,
as
perhaps a
the northern hemisphere to are
anthropologists regard
;
Mongolians; others,
as
with early Caucasic lithic
unknown some
men
and
who have no racial affinities with the Japanese, are believed to shows
Ainu Folk Art
A
world of
peculiarity
which
the worship of the bear
gods wooden sake vessels for rituals bowls for food weaver's ;
;
;
and other household
shuttles,
these knife-carved designs
utensils.
Many of the
were inspired by the designs of centuries had
their provenance. Characteristic
past in
which they
Ainu male designs rep-
harmonious combination of these
resent a
motifs in
were taken from nature. Others
stylistic
elements,
complicated rope pattern which ornamented the Jomon-type
work but have lost much of their original individuality in the examples of more recent times, while the component parts have become more
earthenware of the Neolithic age in Japan, and by the deco-
obscure in their intermingling.
and the curious
Festival
of the Bear, celebrated in the autumn
of each year. Ainu designs appear to have been inspired by the
rative design
and ornament on ancient Chinese
ritual bronzes.
Although Ainu designs appear to have been influenced by these design elements of early times, they have
Ainu forms
in character
and
feeling,
become
true
and have nothing in
common with those of other races or other countries. Perhaps it is
because Ainu
life
modern civilization
has remained untouched
that
by foreign or
Ainu designs have retained
their
pure
Like the handicrafts of other primitive people, the custom
men and women has prevailed
for
distinguishable in the earlier
Unlike the male designs on the handicrafts of wood, bone,
and horn, the female designs on
unchanged in the technical
textiles
have remained almost
their original primitive forms, partly because
manner of the work does not allow
expression so often found in
weaver must observe essential difi^erences
women
traditional forms.
of allotting work between
which remain
wood
the flexible
carving, and because the
certain religious precepts.
There are no
between the designs executed by
men and
other than those which characteristically result
working
in different techniques
childhood, the Ainu
woman
and
different materials.
from
From
practiced the art of drawing
333
;
;
^T
^^ifi?/ST.:y*i.-
!f^J^MJippAJP^ik4ti^;^k^jy^>i^jPLSgy-^^^
Ornamental quiver of carved wood. Ainu,
first
nineteenth
the
half of
century.
Courtesy Tokyo National
Museum.
symmetrical designs with her fingers on the foreshore of the beaches where the sand
hard after the tide has gone out
is left
drawing and erasing again and again variety of designs.
him
work and he in
woman's
;
turn carves a
wooden
knife, called a rnenoko makiri,
affectionate gift to her.
Ainu which periods, or
Carved wood hige-bera
mastered a
em-
clothing beautifully decorated with applique and
broidery
Top:
until she has
When she finds her future mate, she makes
still
The
exist are
from around
sheath for her
which
is
his
oldest truly native textiles
from the
late
Edo
most of the
to the early Meiji
the end of the eighteenth to the
first
half of the nineteenth centuries. In Ainu culture, the primitive or moustache raisers.
Ainu,
half of the nineteenth century. Courtesy Tokyo National
first
Museum.
age tive
is
prior to the Meiji period,
Ainu
culture prevailed.
1
868-1912,
During the
era
when
the distinc-
from
the middle
of the Meiji to the Taisho period, 1912-1926, the purity of Center:
Carved wood spatula-shaped
half of the nineteenth century. Courtesy
ritual spoons.
Ainu,
their textde designs
began to
decline.
first
Tokyo National Museum.
DESIGN MOTIFS Bottom :
Swords with carved wood
hilts
and scabbards. Ainu,
half of the nineteenth century. Courtesy Tokyo National
first
Museum.
Ainu
textile designs, illustrated
most
effectively
on the
robes and characterized by bold and striking geometric motifs, often in a labyrinthine manner, are executed in applique work.
334
Khives with carved wood
Left:
and sheaths. Ainu,
hilts
first
half
of the nineteenth century. Courtesy Tokyo National Museum.
Below:
Tobacco pouch and pipe case of carved wood. Ainu,
half of the nineteenth century. Couitesy Tokyo National
By
method
this
chiefly easily
from
the straight and curved lines handed
the patterns
reproduced.
have been
The
on ancient Jomon pottery
salient features
classified into
two
one
categories;
meaning smoothly flowing, and spirals,
of Ainu
is
is
is
called aiushi, or thorned,
down more
textile design
called moreu,
applied to the so-called
which look much more like sharply pointed
the other
are
and
is
C scrolls;
applied to brace-
shaped patterns or geometrical designs in which the angles
end in
a thornlike projection
made by
a concluding stitch
of
the sewing thread. All these spirals and braces, with their thorns, are
worked together
in a vast
number of design com-
binations to produce an endless variety of motifs.
They
arc
first
Museum.
back of the robe, a feature seen more frequently in certain parts
of the Ainu country than in
others.
This quality of adhering to ancient religious
beliefs gives
simple power and remarkable character to Ainu textile designs.
Many
of the early extant robes are worked with double and
triple applique
broidery.
ornament and frequently enhanced with em-
With
the advance of time, the powerful effect of
the traditional designs rateness
all
became weaker
motifs of later times have principles
until decorative elabo-
The
but replaced the early designs.
of Ainu
become
traditional design;
in nature, mingle with pure
Jomon
decorative
inconsistent with the true
some, wholly different
patterns,
and in others the
syrmnetrical even to the smallest detail, a distinctive feature
motifs have been extended to such proportions that the
thought to come from some ancient belief in which a design
original design
having mystical' powers should protect
all
A singular characteristic of the design on Ainu
costume
is
skirt,
having its origin, too, in
a
and on the
occult powers. These upper
panded
to
cuffs,
lost.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
most probably
mythological belief that
in the costume should be protected
but
that
the motifs are usually applied only at the neck, the upper part
of the back, around the
is all
of the body evenly.
all
openings
by magical designs having
and lower designs are often ex-
become one continuous design covering
the entire
The
pliable native fabric used
bark cloth.
It is
made from
bark of certain indigenous no-ki, a
by the Ainu
the fibers taken trees
for clothing
from
is
a
the brownish
ofHokkaidosuchasthei/i/Hrt-
kind of linden or basswood, and the ohyotamo, a kind
335
of elm
of the
;
also
from the bleached,
irakusa, a
soft
white fibers from the bark
genus of the nettle plant called
urtica
in Karafuto in the southern part of Sakhalin.
stripped
by the men, who bring
of about
five feet,
older
is
into the villages in lengths
with the hard outer coating removed. The
women separate it into thin layers, which they split into
very slender yarnlike v*ind
A
it
and found
The bark
number of
Hokkaido or the main
island
cotton,
sijk,
the ends with tiny knots,
strips, join
into balls of about one
it
fibers
pound
and
each.
not native to the Ainu country of
islands to the north are
brought in from the
of Honshu and the China mainland. They are
But the
fibers
used in making the
bands for the hanging swords are taken from the bark of the tst4ru-umetnodoki, or Celastrus shrubs
of the ulmus
tree.
These
yarn, while the weft threads are
unborn
foetus or
and
vines,
fibers are often used
made of
and the
fibers
only
warp
as
the hair of the
dyed with the skin of the root of the
seal
hamanashi.
Ainu
fabrics are always
woven of pure vegetable-dyed
yarn on which other yarn-dyed materials are appliqued to
form the designs or the yarn
times
is
it is
are
worked with embroidery. Much of
dyed with the raw juice of certain
dyed by steeping
it
fruits,
but some-
in coloring decoctions
made by
boiling certain parts of native plants found in the surrounding
Some of these
forests.
colors are yellow,
from the bark of the
evergreen orange tree or yellov^^wood brown, from the bark ;
of the stalks
Jiati-no-ki,
or alder tree; blue-green, from leaves and
of the ezotaisei or
common woad, which has been super-
seded by the indigo plant; purple, from the juice of the black, tasteless
berry of the gankoran or crowberry
;
red,
from the
skin of the root of the hamanashi, the familiar shrub
Top:
whose
Bark-cloth robe with applique and embroidery. Ainu, early
nineteenth century. Courtesy Japan Textile Color Design Center,
Osaka; Collection Tokyo National Museum.
Center:
Bark-cloth robe with applique and embroidery. Ainu,
early nineteenth century. Courtesy
Center. Osaka; Collection Prof.
Japan Textile Color Design
Sakuzaemon Kodama, Sapporo,
Hokkaido.
Bottom:
Ainu
bark-cloth robe with applique
and embroidery.
Early nineteenth century. Courtesy Japan Textile Color Design Center, Osaka; Collection
336
Mr. Hiromichi Kono.
deep-red, roselike flowers of
autumn
where
Japan,
from
are so colorful it is
chips of
summer and
red berries of
on the sandy beaches of northern
popularly called the hamanasu
wood of the
onko, or
yew
tree
;
;
another red
from
a yellow
the bark of the cork tree.
The weaving
done on a most primitive kind of loom
is
called an izari-hata, or back-strap
fastened to a stout
some sturdy
hook
loom. The warp yarns are
fixed in the floor or, out of doors, to
object such as the trunk of a tree.
The
other
warp
ends are fastened to the waist of the weaver by a cord, the necessary tension being supplied sits
on the
ment
floor or
by her body. The weaver
ground with the whole weaving arrange-
attached to her waist.
The loom
consists
of a comblike
frame, resting on her ankles, through which the warp yarns pass a ;
beam which is raised by hand
;
a spatula-shaped
wooden
with a beautifully carved over-aU design, and a
shuttle
on which
the cloth
about fifteen
is
feet long, the
The weaving
inches.
rolled as
is
width of the cloth about
done with
roller
made. The warp yarns are
it is
exactness.
fifteen
The knots
in the
bark yarn are carefully kept on the under side of the cloth,
and
as the
weaving progresses, the weaver keeps moving her
rigid position
toward the fixed end of the warp. This feature
has caused the weaving equipment to be called izari-hata, literally, a
creeping-along loom.
Only patterns of simple vertical stripes were woven on such a device, but a rich variety
woven
in with a kind
ground of plain weave
of complex geometric designs were
of weft-patterned double weave on a for
sword hangers. This technique was
perhaps derived from the Ainu method of weaving mats,
which was more like braiding than weaving each warp yarn ;
was picked up individually with
Top:
Ainu
a pinlike tool. Except for this
bark-cloth robe with embroidery design. Early nine-
teenth century. Courtesy Japan Te.xtileCoIorDesignCenter,
Collection
Center:
Osaka;
Tokyo National Museum.
Bark-cloth robe with embroidery design. Ainu, early
nineteenth century. Courtesy Japan Textile Color Design Center,
Osaka; Collection Prof. Sakuzaemon Kodama, Sapporo, Hokkaido.
Bottom:
Ainu
bark-cloth robe of applique
and patchwork. Early
nineteenth century. Courtesy Japan Textile Color Design Center,
Osaka; Collection Abashiri Kyodo Museum, Abashiri, Hokkaido.
337
method of pattern weaving, reserved
for
sword hangers, the
Ainu used only apphque work and embroidery
to
produce
Ainu applique
is
cloth to the out.
The
ground
other
two
divided into
or putting the cloth on, a
categories.
One
is
tiuno-
method of stitching bands of
fabric according to a design already laid
method is called kiri-fuse, or cutting and apply-
ing, or kiri-nuki, cutting out, in
which
a piece
of cloth
is
cut
according to a design previously dravwi and stitched onto the
ground to
Ainu
as a
fabric. In
embroidery, there are two methods applied
In one, a stem or crewel stitch
textiles.
buttonhole
stitch,
Ainu
is
used, as well
perhaps derived from their leather
hark-cloth robe with applique design. Early
nineteenth century. Courtesy Japan Textile Color
Design
Center,
University.
338
also a satin stitch
Osaka;
Collection
Hokkaido
and a type of chain
stitch
seems to have come from China. The other method oki-nui, or placing
the designs for their textiles.
oki,
patchwork;
and sewing,
and sometimes bark or a design
With
a
method in which
leather cords are laid
and fixed with
stitch
their limited materials
on
is
which called
thick yarns
the fabric in
work.
and primitive techniques, the
Ainu have created remarkably well made
textiles
did designs and harmonious color tones. Perhaps
with splenit is
because
of their ancient culture, untouched by the passage of time, and their
pure religious behefs, which they have clung to from
remote antiquity,
that they
have been able to produce such
unique work'.
Applique and patchwork bark-cloth early nineteenth century. Courtesy
robe.
Color Design Center, Osaka; Collection
Museum, Tambaichi.
Ainu,
Japan Textile Tenri
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A
Sketch
of
Its
Ind e:x
Achala, 117
atsuita,
acha-san, 302
atsu-niku-bori, 127
Achiki (scholar), 14
Atsuta shrine, 14, 105
and embroidery, 292; an enameling, 311; and flower arrangemen
agakane. See copper
Awaji,
173-74, 176-94, 206; and gardening, 161, 16
aikuchi, 119
awase-ko, 221
167; and incense ceremony, 221
ai-no-ma, 135
Awataguchi of Yamashiro, 107
253, 254, 270;
Ainu
Awate
folk art, 333-38
294, 296
17, 221,
238
137-46,
136,
aya, 278,
Akae-inachi, 246
aze-kura architectiu'e, 317
Akasaka-style tsuba, 127
Azuchi, 21, 42, 235
279
and
51; in sculpture, 67-78;
badger motif, 24
akoya-ogi, 309
baiu,
alder trees, 336
bakufu, 18-22. See also specific Shogunates
bushido, 19, 176
amado, 150, 154
ban, 99
Atnakuni (swordsmith), 105 Ama-Kurikara, 117
Banko
Buson, Yosa-no-, 46, 47, 48 bussho, 76 Butsu (Nyorai), 68-69ff. See
216
pottery, 238-39 bark cloth, 335-38
Ama-no-hashidate, 162 16,
24, 48, 79,
Kannon;
Gay
Beauties of the Yoshiwara
Quarters (Haru-
nobu), 59
98, 130, 158, 320 Ame-no-Murkumo-no-Tsurugi, 105
Before the House of a Recluse (Shubun), 35
Ameno-uzumeno-mikoto, 79
bells,
68, 69, 70, 72,
Kamakura Daibutsu
Amida-do, 140 Amitabha Buddha. See Amida
Moimds
Period, 67, 91, 92, 97,
Haniwa
culture
ando (andon), 158
Animals
at
Play (Toba Sojo), 30
Aoi Matsuri, 134 Aoki-Mokubei, 243 aori,
architecture, 78, 94, 129-60,
212-14
of,
calligraphy, 31, 290, 310, 326 Caricature of Birds and Beasts
Bidatsu, Emperor, 15 bin (hairstyle), birodo,
birodo-yuzen, 281
ceramics. See clay; porcelain; pottery; specif 54, 133, 135,
209
champlev^ enamel, 311, 312 Ch'ang-an,
chanoma, 157
Bodhisena
cha-no-yu, 209 ff.
321
126-27
15,
17
chosen, (tea whisks), 218,
(Bodhisattvas),
68,
chashaku, 69,
75.
See also
Jizo Bosatsu; etc.
bowls, 2i7fF., 231
Asakusa Kannon temple, 60 asanuno, 278
Boy's
Festival, 38, 205-6,
(tea
chaya-tsuji,
ff,
219
(bamboo spoon),
2i7ff.
and sword mount; bowls). See bowls
chasing, metal. See swords
chawan
258 329, 331 bows and arrows, 113-16, 315, 329
224
261
219
Bodhisattvas. See Bosatsus
Daruma;
pewter and, 94
chakin,
283-84
textiles,
objects chaire, 2i7fr.,
Bodhi Dharuma. See Daruma
Bosatsus
31
cedarwood, 152-53 censers, 100
Bishamon, 25, 65, 117 Biwa, Lake, 21, 42, 48,
(priest),
(Toba Sojo),
cascades, garden, 167, 168
294
281
Bosatsu Karmon, 27, 69, 70
asa-cha, 215
254
32-33
arm
arsenic,
29, 76, 140, 141,
bento bako, 261
bori,
Shosoin Repository, 320, 323 arrows and arrowheads, 112 ff., 115-16,315,329
Byodoin temple, calendars, 26, 57
305
Arita ware, 244-46, 247 rests, at
etc.
Butsudan, 158
Benten, 25, 65
block printing, 23, 51-66;
310
Dainicl
97-98, loo-i, 104; chintaku, 328, 329
biwa (musical instrument), 321, 324 Bizen ware, 107, 217, 230, 239-40
applique work, Ainu, 334, 338 Arashiyama, 168
also
byobu, 44, 148, 157
Benkei, figure
236
Amida, Amida Nyorai, 29-30,
227, 229. See also
4
Nyorai; Great Buddha (Daibutsu); Nyoiri
bear festival, 333
Amaterasu-o-mi-kami, 13-14,
Ancient Burial
ff.,
ceremon
Bunjin-Ga (Nanga) school, 46-49 bunraku puppet show, 299, 305-6
150
bangi,
22, 250
76, 78, 140. See also
tea
bugaku, 79, 80, 81, 82-83, 85, 267
akome-ogi, 309
(potter),
;
209 fF.
Akasuru Yoshinari, 88
Ameya
an
and lacque and masks, dance-drama, 79fl
98-101, 102; and painting, 27-31, 33
aiushi textiles, 335
Amakusa,
157-58;
15s.
227;
83-84, 87, 116; and metalwork, 91, 94, 9
(Kyoto), 230, 238
district
132,
129,
ceramics,
286
cherry blossoms, 26, 115, 205
Chido (gigaku
299-301
character), 81
214
bridges, 167, 171
chigai-dana (tana), 150, 155, 156,
brocades, 278, 280, 282, 288, 291, 294
chigi, 131,
Ashikaga Shogunate, 20-21, 40, 41, 256, 257. See also Muromachi Period; Yoshimasa;
bronzes, 70-73, 97-104. See also specific objects
Yoshimitsu Ashiyagama, 92, 96
Buddha,
Chikamatsu Monzaemon, 306 Chikudan, Tanomura, 48 Chikusen family, 243 China and Chinese influence, 13, 14, 15-16, li 19-20, 331-32; and archery, 114; and arch
asaye, ashi,
123
67ff.,
117, 212. See also
specific images, manifestations,
Buddhism; Amida,
i.e.,
Kamion, Sakyamuni
Ashiya, 96
Buddha and Attendant
Ashura, 74, 75 AsiJca Period,
brushes, painting, 50
8, 15, 16,
137, 253, 277,
287
27, 67-70, 98, 113, 129,
Buddhism, {See also
Divinities,
28
134
tecture (kara-yo), 78, 129, 132, 137. 138, I4<
I4-I7ff., 25-26, 276, 277, 319-23
141, 143, 148, 163;
Zen Buddhism); and
tume, 288, 291; and flower arranging, 17:
architecture.
and calendar, 26; and
co;
34
and incense, 221; and kakemono, 38; and and landscape gardening, 162, 163, 167; and metals, 91, 94, 97, 98, 103; and painting, 27-31, 37, 40, 46, 48; and
Dariima (Dharnta) and His DiscipleEka {Htii-K'o),
lacquer, 253, 256, 258;
pottery, 227, 228, 243, 245; and sculpture, 67,
and
68, 71, 75, 78;
280
textiles, 277, 278,
33
ekagami, 94^ 98 e-maki. See makimono
Date Masamune, 143
embroidery, 277
deer motif, 24, 170
Emma-o, 29
de-miisulo, 136
Emma-ten, 29
dengaku, 85, 86, 87
enamel, 125, 311-14 Engakuji temple, 141, 143 engraving, metal. See Swords and sword moimts
292, 334-38
ff.,
chi-naga-shi, 117
Dengyo-Daishi, 18
Chinese Gates. See Kara-mon
Descent of
Chinese lion, 78 Ch'ing dynasty, 46, 48, 243 Mnkinbori, 258, 264
Deva,
chinso,
do-bashi, 171
Enshu Ryu school, 212 Enshu school of floral arrangements,
dofuku, 293
Eshin-Sozu, 84
Amida
do,
dogame, 119
chirimen, 280, 291
dogen
Cho Densu
127
160
25, 33, a68,
Enshu, Kobori. See Kobori Enshu
269
10
Mntaku, 328, 329 Chion-in temple, loi
chochin, 158,
Mountains, 29
Enryakuji temple, 18
Dharma (Daruma),
37
chiu-niku-bori,
across the
25, 69, 78
evergreen orange
232
(priest), 19,
,
'
tree,
36
ewers, 247, 251, 323, 325, 330
dogu, 67
"eye-opening" ceremony,
Dojinsai, 210
ezotaisei,
Dolls'
Chojiro (potter), 229, 235, 236
17,
320-22, 330
336
Festival
Festival),
(Girls'
38,
204-5,
261-62, 299-301
fabrics,
86, 333-38. See also
277
donsu, 280, 282, 291
chopsticks, 121, 217, 223, 224, 226
doshaku-ga, 37
Chorio (Chinese warrior), 120
dotaku, 93, 97, 129
Chosa, 229, 237
Double Aspect Shinto, 16 dove motif, 24
Feather Robe, The, 87
Chronicles ofJapan. See Nihon-Shoki
dozo, 154
feudal system, 18
chrysanthemums,
dragons, 24, 136
dorje, 100,
36
206
Costume
Famous Places in Edo (Hiroshige), 63 Famous Places in Japan (Hiroshige), 63 Famous Places in Kyoto (Hiroshige), 63 Famous Places in Osaka (Hiroshige), 63 Famous Sights of the Eastern Capital (Hokusai), 62
Chojo-Hime, 84 Chokushimon, 143
26,
fF.
Dokyo, 328
(Mincho), 33, 37
Chogen, Shunjobo, 141
Chou Mao-shu,
175, 194
loi
FenoUosa, Ernest
F.,
54
ff.,
45, 148-50. See also
Edo,
Kamakura, Momoyama, Muromachi periods;
Chuguji nunnery, 69, 71, 277
Drifting World. See
chukei,
309 Chumon (Horyuji temple), 73, 74, 137, 139
dry-lacquer techniques, 73-74, 253 dry-landscape gardens, 163, 164, 168
Fifty-three
chuso, 103
dyeing of
Fifty-three Stations along the Tokaido (Hokusai),
fabrics,
Ukiyo
samurai
278ff 283-86, 290, 336-37 ,
chuya-obi, 298
Stages
Early Herb Festival, 204
cocks, sacrifice of, 132
Eastern-Sea
Collection of Insects
(Utamaro), 60
Way.
See Tokaido
fish-roe pattern, 126
Ebisu motif, 25, 310
colours
"five
echigo crepe, 283
copper, 93-94, 102, 103
Echi Yoshifune, 88
five metals, 91
cork
Edo
Five Seasons
337
cosmetics, 288, 295; boxes for, 254, 255
costume, 215, 287-98, 335-38. See
also textiles;
of clothing
specific items
courtesans, as subjects, 53, 54, 59-60, 294, 298
crane motif, 25
cypress. See hiba
Tokyo), 44-45, 64. See also Edo (Tokugawa) Period; Drifting World of {See Ukiyo) (later
Edo (Tokugawa) Period, 9, 21-22, 24, 45, 276 {See also Tokugawa family; specific objects); 292, 293
wood;
hinoki cypress
ff,;
dolls, 299,
ing, 194; gardens,
302-3; flower arrang-
164; incense, 222; inro,
267-68, 270; lacquer, 257-58; daggers, 119 Daibutsu. See Great
Buddha
Daigo, Emperor, 210 Daigo-ji pagoda, 29, 139
Daijingu shrines. See 25, 65,
metalwork,
iaimyo nanako, 126 Dainichi, Dainichi Nyorai, 69, 75, 117
castle), 21,
142
See Hachibu-shu
iai-sho, 106, 118, 122,
Eight Swords shrine, 105
123
iaisho-no-soroimono, 122
Eight Views of Indoor Life (Harunobu), 59
Daitoku, Otsu-e of, 50
Einin era, 143
Daitokuji, 143, 155, 156, 163, 165
Eiraku, Zengoro, 240, 241
takkatsu kanshitsu,
Eiraku ware, 240-41, 243
73-74
iamask, 280, 282, 291 lances, 79 fT. (See also
Eisai (priest), 19, 209,
costume; masks; specific
dances); fans for, 310
Daruma (Bodhi Dharuma),
(42
210
Eisen, Keisai, 66
Eishen, Kano, 137
Eitoku, Kano, 21, 37, 41, 44, 46, 176
294 25, 33, 268,
269
ejiko,
302
38, 204, 205, 206, 299.
275, 276
313,314,315.322,328 bamboo, 274
flutes,
footware, 297-98, 326
fox motif, 24 fu, 10
fubako, 261
124
fudamoto, 222, 225 153
Eight Supernatural Guardians of Sakyamuni.
Daisen-in, 163, 165
flint,
fuda, 224, 225
54. 63. 65.
elements,
flowers and flower holders, 26, 169, 173-208,
54; pottery, 231; sculpture, 78; textiles, 278,
Eigaku, Kano, 45 Eight Famous Views of Lake Biwa (Hiroshige),
310
festivals,
fuchi, 118, 119,
281-82, 283; yatate, 273
iaimon, 291
seasons,
See also specific festivals
arms, 93, 94, 102, 117, 119, 122, 123-25; No masks, 88; painting, prints, 46, 48, 53,
Egret castle (Himcji
Ise shrines
(directions,
virtues)", 26
architecture, 129, 136, 143, 145, 150; costume,
crepe fabrics, 280, 291
lan-gawari, 293,
(Hiroshige),
Fishing with Cormorants (Tan-yu), 40
Confucianism, 26, 46, 212. 258
Daikoku,
Tokaido
61
cloisonne enamel, 125, 311-14
tree,
of the
63,64
fudazutsu, 224, 225, 226 fude, 273
Fudo (Buddhist divinity), 25, Fuji, Mount, 26, 62, 63, 307 fuji tea
117, 167
ceremony, 215
Fujiwara family, 16, 18, 86, 113, 134, 140. See also Fujiwara (Late Heian) Period; specific
members Fujiwara Mototsune, 135 Fujiwara Nakamaro, 328-29 Fujiwara-no-Fubito, 319, 326 Fujiwara-no-Katamari, 319
Fujiwara-no-Michinaga, 140, 255 Fujiwara (Late Heian) Period, 8-9, 74.
{See
Heain Period;
specific objects); architec-
ture, 129, 135, 142;
armor, 112, 113; costume,
also
289; gardens, 162, 163
;
lacquer, 254; painting,
Festival
Girls'
(Dolls'
Festival),
38,
204-5,
261-62, 299-301
27, 29, 31-33; sculpture, 70, 75-78
Fujiwara Sukechika, 162
(Utamaro), 60
Fujiwara Toyonari, 84
Barrier, 65
hakoseko, 298
Upper, Middle, and Lower Classes
Girls of the
Fujiwara Takayoshi, 32
Hakone
Hakozaki
shrine, 134
Hakurojo (Himeji)
castle, 21,
go (game boards), 324, 325
hamanashi (hamanasu), 336-37
godowns, 154
Hamano
go-gusoku, 94, loi
hana, 174
fukiagejima, 167
gohai, 134
hana-chiru-sato,
fukinagashi, 301
gohei, 106
hanagami-bukuro, 270
Fujiyama. See Fuji,
Mount
Fukeshu, 270
Shozui, 125
fukinuki yatai, 31, 32
Goju-no-to, 137
Han
fuki-ye, 286
go
hane, 225
kin, 91
Fukuhara Bunzo, 88
goko-rei, 100,
Fukukenjaku Kannon, 77
gold, 91-92, 93-94, 124-25. See also specific
Fuku Kensaku Kannon, 73
1
01
Fukurokuji, 25, 50, 65, 267
dynasty, 97
Haniwa
culture, 67,
Ancient Burial
11/50
Golden Beetle shrine, 27, 72, 253 Golden Hall (Kondo-Horyuji temple),
Fukuoka, 280
225
hango, 215
uses
Fukui, 310
hannya mask, 90
72, 137, 139, 253
funa-hijiki, 136
gomoku-zogan, 127
haragake, 304, 305
fundame, 226, 263, 264, 268, 269
Goncourt,
Moon
Bridge, 167
Gongen
285, 293
fiirisode,
Edmond
298
haramaki, 112
136
hari ishime, 126
hariko,
fusuma, 36, 37, 42, 45, 150, 152, 153-54, 155
gonome nanako, 126 good-luck symbols, 25, 65 Gosaga, Emperor, 321, 330
futaku, 139
go-sekku. See Five Seasons festivals
Hashiguchi, Goyo, 66
futano, 298
gosho-ningyo, 304-5
hashirakake, 52, 58
Goshun, Matsumura, 46
hassun,
gosu, 245
hasu. See lotus
Fushiini castles, 21, 42
fushimi-ningYO, 302
fula-oki,
219
futon, 157
Fuzoku Sandan Musume (Utamaro), 60
Gotoba, Emperor,
gama
ishime,
Goto
games, 222-25,
Go
324, 325
3 10,
gankoran, 336 gardens,
159,
161-72. See also tea ceremony
gateways, 171. See
Gautama,
also specific gates,
temples
Sakyamuni
69. See also
Geku
Saijiro (ceramicist),
grasses, 168,
Gemmyo, Emperor,
138, 161
Gempei Wars, 50
no
hearths, 216, 218
Buddha
{Daibutsu) of
Kamakura,
16,
17, 71,
72-73, 320-22, 323, 329,
330; Hall of, loi, 139, 145, 315, 317 Great Eastern Monastery. See Todaiji Temple
Great Shrine of Izumo, 130, 131-32
Genji-no-ma, 142
guri, 260, 264,
genkan, 322, 324 22,
46, 92,
124, 125, 258, 286,
29 Genshin, 76 Gensho, Empress, 326
Gesuke (No mask
carver),
266
province
Ginkakuji, 20, 156, 163, 176, 193, 210
ginyo
280
(hishiki),
222, 223, 224, 226
24, 78;
no, in, 112-13 by
the
Hachiman Dai Bosatsu, 115 Hachimangu shrine, 19 Hachiman style, 131, 132, 133, 134 Hagi pottery (hagi yaki), 229, 230, 237-38 Hagoromo, 87
(Kit
158
226
wood, 152
Hideyori, Toyotomi, 143 Hideyoshi, Toyotomi, 21, 42, 124, 143, 257, 292; Eitoku and, 41, 44; and
hakama, 287, 288, 291, 296, 297 Hakata, 19, 20, 105, 134, 209, 280, 302
and Hiei,
294-95
K
and swordmakers, 109, no ceremony, pottery, 21, 211, 21;
shrine, 135; tea
228, 235, 236, 292;
Period, 8
hakeme, 263
hiba
Mountain Brook
hidasuki ware, 240
Osaki shrine, 134, 135
hairdress, 287, 288,
276
297
hibashi, 223, 224,
Gion Gion
shrine, 17, 135,
heko-obi,
hibachi,
320
giobu-nashi-ji, 263
gio {gyo) style, 164, 175
Heike Monogatari, 290
Gyogi,
Hahuko
310
278-79
325 Heijo-kyo. See Nara
gyodo, 79, 82, 83-84
175
ginyo-basami, 223, 224, 226
Festival,
textiles,
heidatsu,
Mincho), 33 hi, 117
(gio) style, 164,
Hachiman,
and bugaku,
94, 98, 100, 102, 112, 117; pail
gyo
Hachijo-jima, 283
147;
dolls, 299; lacquer, 254; n
27-33; sculpture, 74-78; tea ceremony,
Hermitage
gifu-chochin, 160
Mino
work,
helmets,
gidayu school, 305-6
Gifu prefecture. See
139-40,
Guze Kannon, 69-70
Hachibu-shu, 74, 82, 84; Ashura, 74, 75
gigaku, 79-82, 321
136,
134,
guri bori, 126
16,
also Fuji
Hell Scroll, 30
88-89
298
ginran,
71, 78,
costume, 288;
gumbai uchiwa, 308, 309 gun-sen, 308-9
geta,
Heian Period, 8-9, 17-18, 261 (See
(Late Heian) Period); architecture, 129
Genji Monogatari {Tale ofGenji), 18, 32, 43, 55,
era,
hedges, garden, 171-72
169
genji-gumo, 44
142, 254
298
hats, 290,
festival, 90 Hayashi Razan, 274
251
102
Nara,
shrine, 98, 130-31
Genroku
121, 123,
Great Buddha (Daibutsu) of Todaiji Temple,
Geiami, 193
217
Hatsuuma
Yoshihiro,
Great
56-58
Hatamoto, 274
1 1
gozame ishime, 126 Gozayemon, Numanami, 238-39
Gangoji monastery, 68
51,
hasami bako, 261
124, 125
126
304
Harunobu, Suzuki,
Goto family of sword-mount makers, Gakki-ron, 326
268
artist),
hara-kiri, 119, 121
de, 54, 59
style, 134, 135,
(lacquer
haori, 293, 296, 297,
gongs, 100, loi
240
furo,
227, 229, 287
han-no-ki, 336
Hanzan
Full
129,
Mounds
hannia, 225 67, 69,
Golden Pavilion, 20 Go-mizunoo, Emperor, 46
fukusa, 215, 219, 223, 278, 284
153
Mount,
Utamaro
18, 75, 135, 139,
Hie shrine (Lake Biwa), 133, 135 Hie shrine (Tokyo), 24 Hie
style, 131, 133,
higaki-rinzu, 292
135
prints
209
c
1
Higashi Honganji temple, 171
Horyuji temple,
Higashiyama, 21, 163, 210, 256
277 Hosokawa Katsumoto, 163
Iwashimi^u shrine, 134
Hosso
hige-hera,
Higo
67-74 passim,
17, 27,
15,
80,
83, 99, 137, 139,
334
school, tsuba of, 122
sect, 16,
ivory, 272
_,
Iwato, Princess, 105 iyo-kasuri,
283
Hotel, 25, 58, 65, 240, 266
izari-bata,
337
houses, 129, 130, 147-60
Izumiyama, 231, 244, 247
Hozen, Zengoro, 240, 241
Izumo province,
himo, 271, 272
hozuki-chochin, 160
Izumo-Taisha, 130, 131-32
hina, 299 Hina Matsuri. See Doll's Festival
Hundred Views of Fuji,
hina ningyo, 300
hyomon, 254, 324-25
hiki-me, 116
Himeji
castle, 21,
Himi Munetada,
153
88
77
A
(Hokusai), 62
hyakuman-to, 17
'
Jidai Matsuri,
Jigoku Zoshi, 30
cypress,
131,
specific objects
132,
152,
154.
See also
made of
310
hi-ogi, 309,
ichiboku, 75, 76
Jikoku, 25
Ichigo, Goto, 123
jimbaori,
Emperor, 254 ichime-gasa, 290 ichiraku netsuke, 272
Hirado, 244, 250, 251 156 ff.,
263
hirame, 262, 263 hirame-nashi-ji, 223, 263
hira-niwa, 166
Hirata Donin, 125, 311
masters, 212, 235
Hirata Hikoichi, 312
Igarashi, Shinsai,
hira-zogan, 127
ikaki-ji,
256
i-kan,
hisashi,
Ikcnobo school, 173
hitori-koro, 222, 223, 224,
226
hiuchi-bukuro, 275-76 See
289 201
Jodoji monastery, 141
ff.
Imbe, 239
Jodo sect, 29, 76, 84, 140 Jogan era (Early Heian), See also Heian Period
imono, 217
Jokei (potter), 236
Imperial Oath of Five Articles, 22, 295
Jomon
hiuchi-kama (hiuchi-kane), 276
Imperial Regalia. See Three Sacred Treasures
Hiunkaku,
Inari, 24, 90,
21, 157
Hiza-maru (sword),
m
incense
Hize-kiri (sword), 11 ho, 288,
106 utensils,
221-26, 258,
Hogen Monogalari, 290 hogyo (pyramidal) roofs, 145, 146
Jonin, Emperor, 17, 328
211
(tea master),
joruri, 305,
306
Josetsu (painter), 39
Goto, 123
India ink, 49
Josin,
Indian-style architecture. See Tenjiku-yo
juban, 296
Ingen, 145
juni-hitoe, 279,
Jujo, Goto, 123
hojo, 163
inkstone box, 254, 256
Jurakudai, 21, 42, 143, 236
Hojo
inlaying. See specific materials, objects
Jurojin, 25, 65
104
family, 19-20
Hojo, Goto, 123
inro, 23, 258,
Hojo Takotoki, 20, 291 Hojo Tokimasa, 19
irakusa,
hoke-kyo, 225
iris,
Hokke-do,
Kabori Masakazu, 212
336
irimoya. See hipped-and-gabled roofs
140
Kabuki, 22, 269, 294, 303. See kabura-ya, 116
169
Iris
Festival (Boys' Festival), 38, 205-6,
Iris
Gardens of Horikiri (Hiroshige), 64
hoko, 310
iron, 95-96, 125. See also specific objects
Hokoji temple, 137
Ise
Hokuendo
Ise shrines, 14, 16,
(Kofukuji monastery), 142
299-301
Monogalari, 51, 193
17,98, 105, 130, 131, 132, 321
kabulo,
1
10, III,
1
12-13
kabuto-gane, 123 kaede, 152
kaeru-mata, 137, 138
Kaga, no, 127, 286
Hokusai, Katsushika, 54, 60, 61-62, 63
Iseno, Sodezaki, 56
kaga bosho, iio
Hollyhock
Isezaki, 263
kagai, 124
Festival, 134
289
265-70
Hokkeji, 29
73, 139,
homa-shiki, 75
Ishikawa
Goemon, 145 Ishikawa Tatsuemon, 88
kagamibula netsuke, 269, 272
Honami family, 109 Honami Kosetsu, 109-10, 235 Honami Kotoku, no
ishime style, 126
Ishiyamadera, 142, 144
Kagemitsu (swordsmith), 106 Kagikawa Kujiro, 258
Ishiyama temple, 65, 66, 142, 144
Kagikawa
isho-ningyo, 301
kago, 261
hongawara
style,
146
hon-zogan, 127 ho-o, 24,
Hoodo,
254 29, 76, 140, 141,
Itani
254
Hoju, 94 283-84
ilazome,
horaijima, 167
Ito
Horikiri Shobuen (Hiroshige), 64
Ito Shinsui,
Horokaku mandara, 28
Itsukushima shrine, 85, 115, 136,
344
74, 75, 129, 288.
culture, 67, 227, 228, 333, 334. See also
inkstone, 273
hoji-gin,
8,
NeoUthic age Jo-o
ceremony and
260, 290, 314, 325, 326
290
Empress, 326
Jocho, 70, 76 ff.,
Imperial palace (Kyoto), 18, 148, 149, 171
flint
309 jinsha, 1 30-37
Jo-an teahouse, 213, 214
Imari ware, 231, 244-46, 247, 251
290
261
jin-sen,
Jito,
Ikeda, Taishin, 258
See ginyo
jinrikisha,
Jizo Bosalsu, 78
Ikebana, 173-208
hishaku, 219
114
Jishogi temple. See Ginkakuji
264
Hisanobu, Kano, 44, 45 135
14,
274 Jingo, Empress, 113, 114, 132, 134, 287 Jingu shrines, 98, 105, 130-31
jisshu-ko, 225
Hiroshige, Ando, 54, 56, 62-66, 142, 239
hiuchi-ishi.
Jimmu Tenno, Emperor,
Tokugawa, 125, 145, 258 Tokugawa, 294 leyasu, Tokugawa, 21-22, 45, 53, 112, 150, 152, 153, 257; and enamels, 311; mausoleum of (Toshogu), 102, 135, 136, 137; and tea
Iga pottery, 230
290
jimigaki style, 126
jinchu-yalale,
lesada,
Hirata family, 125
hitatare,
,
leniitsu,
hira-makie, 226, 255
hishiki.
'
Ichijo,
Hirada Tokosai, 124 hirajoin,
261-62
jigane, 109
hinawa, 276 hinoki
130, 131
Katsumi, 312 66
kaga yuzen, 286
school, 258
Kagoshima, 283 kagura, 79, 85
Kaikei (sculptor), 77-78 kaiki,
280
Kairaku-en ware, 240-41
also
color prints
Kaisando (Eihoji temple), 141
kashi,
Kaji Tsunekichi, 313
ff.,
kakemono-e, 52
Kakiemon ware,
Kiryu, 283 kiseru, 275 Kiso-Fukushima, 66
124
231, 244, 245, 246, 247-48, 251
kakihan, 265
Kitano, 21, 211; shrine, 32, 40, 135
shrine, 24, 31, 86, 134, 170, style, 131, 133,
240
Kiyomasu,
(first
umpire), 310
Torii, 55
Kiyomizu temple, 17, Kiyomizu ware, 243
296 126-27
kata-kiri-bori,
Kitano-Temmen-guEngi (NobuzaneFujiwara), 32 Kiyobayashi
134
kasumi technique, 32, 34 katabira,
286
Kiso Kaido, 63, 66
Kasuga Gongen Reigenki, 31
Kasuga Kasuga
217, 280
kakisarasa,
288
kasuga, 170 42, 155, 160, 201, 215,
38,
338
kirizuma (gabled) roofs, 145, 146
kashira, 118, 119, 123,
kakakusa-gawara, 146 33
kiri-nuki,
Kashii-no-Miya, 287
269, 271
(artist),
kakemono,
260
kasane-no-irome, 289
218
kaishi, 215,
Kajikawa
kasane,
217
kaiseki, 215,
145, 243
kakoi, 215
katami-gawari, 293
kizami-ban, 224
kaku-obi, 297
katana, 106, 118, 120, 122
Kizoemon, Sakaida. See Kakiemon ware
kamakura-bori, 255, 264, 266
katana kake, 261
knives, 92, 119
Kamakura Kamakura
katari-be, 13
Koami
katasuso, 293
ko-awase, 225
Kato Tamikichi, 234
kobako, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 260
Katsuogi, 131
koban, 224, 225, 226
Katsura Detached Palace, 149, 150, 159, 164,
kobashi, 223,
Daibuisu (Great Buddha), 71, 78, 102 Period,
9,
18-20, 266, 280. {See also
specific objects); architecture in, 129, 135-36,
140
147, 148-49;
ff.,
costume
in,
289, 290-91
and flower arranging, 176; gardening
in, 163,
171; lacquer in, 255; painting, 27, 33-34, 37; pottery, 228; sculpture in, 77, 78, 102; swords
and armor, no, 113
Kawamoto Hansuke, Kawanobe Itcho, 258
Koben (sculptor), 78 Kobe pottery, 237
243
Kobo
Kazan, Wanatabe, 47, 48
kamashimo-zashi, 124
kettles, 92, 96, 216, 217, 219,
kambata, 282
kebori,
127
kambun, 281
Kegon
sect,
kame
era, 274, 281, 282,
(tortoise),
kei, 100,
293
Keicho
24-25
1
226
Kobayashi Kiyochika, 66
170, 172
kamashimo, 119
Kambun
334, 335
ff.,
family, 256, 258, 269
Daishi, 74-75, 209
kobon, 222
313
Kobori Enshu, 16
koboshi,
164, 170
219
Kodaijingu (Naiku) shrine, 98, 130, 131
01
era, 282, 283,
Kodaiji temple, 257
305
keman, 97, 100
kodansu, 256, 260
ken (sword), 105, 117
kodo,
kammuri, 289
ken-kiyo, 107
kodogu (incense utensils), 224, 225
kamo
Kenmolsucho, 323
kamidana, 157-58
Kammu, Emperor,
18,
m
(or origamo), 278
Kamogamo
Kamogawa, 284
kensui,
85
kamogawa dyeing. See yuzen
Kamomachi,
Koetsu, Hon-ami, 229, 257, 269
Kofukuji temple,
219
keiiwa-kiseru,
142, 144
kiakujinto (guest's
actor- writer), 86-87, 88
isle),
16, 74, 77, 88, 142,
kogai, 92, 120, 121,
274 Kenzan, Ogata, 230, 242
kanagi, 264
Kanami (No
kodogu (sword mounts), 122
ff.
Kenninji temple, 209
shrine, 132, 133, 134
221-26
in
Kogarasu-maru (sword), kogu. See kobako
167, 168
226
Kibitsu shrine, 134, 136
kogutate, 222, 223, 224,
kanamono, 122
Kichijo-ten, 28
kohai, 134
kanchoban, 97, 99
kicho, 148
kohaku, 282
Kane-ie (sword-mount maker), 125
ki-hachijo, 283
Koho-an monastery, 155
Kan-ei
kiku-go-saku,
era, 124,
Kanemoto
247
in
Kikujido, netsuke
(swordsmith), ic6
koicha, 215, 218, of,
271
219
Kimbusanji temple, 100
kojiri,
Kankyu-an
kimekomi-ningyo, 302
Kojo-in monastery, 148
teahouse, 213
Kano
school, 20, 41-45,
See also specific
73, 77, 78, 142
members
e.
g.,
252, 269.
Mitsunobu,
Tan-yu, Toriyama Sekien kanshitsu,
kimono, 279, 281-82, 284, 290 also kosode) tray, 260
ff.,
;
151, 251,
kin,
295-98 {See
(tea master),
217
ko-katana, 120
kokechi {shibori), 283, 285, 291
Kokedera (Saihoji) temple, 162, 163 Kokei (sculptor), 77-78 Koken, Empress, 17, 264, 277, 283,
324-25
kinchaku, 276 kingin-e,
264
Kinkakuji, 20
73-74
119
Kojomi
kimon, 18
Kannon, 27, 29, 30, 69-70, 71-72, Kano Natsuo (sword maker), 119
276
Kojiki, 13, 14, 79, 105, 129,
Kangaku-in monastery, 155 kannabe, 217
kinko, 123
Kokitsune-maru (sword), 106
karaginu, 289, 290
kinkoto, 105
Kokuli, kingdom
kara-kane, 97, 102-3
Kinkozan family, 238
Koma
kin-makie, 264
Koma-inu, 78
kinran, 280, 291
Koma
294 Karasaki, 209
kinran-de porcelain, 240
ko-miyo, 136
Kara-Shishi, 78
kiri (pointer),
Karatsu, 229, 230, 231, 234
kiri
kara-kusa, 245 143, 156;
Toshogu, 135
karaori, 282,
Kara-yo architecture,
kinumo. See
78,
140,
141,
143,
163
kari-mata, 116
kiri-fuse,
Karura mask, 8i
kirikane, 223, 225, 226, 259,
Kasamori
kifin motif,
shrine, 59
Komyo-Kogo, Empress, 323
338
24
motif, 25
komori, 309
komuso, 270
264
kiribame zogan, 127
14
Kito-ye, 258
Komoku
223, 224, 226
kare sansui. See dry-landscape gardens
of,
family, 258
Komo-Hana-no-Saku-ya-Hime, 26
mo
(wood), 26, 115, 116, 152, 304
kiribame,
320, 326,
328, 329
Kanyei-ji temple, 18
Kara-mon: Daitokuji,
317
122
262
ff.,
17,
283,
319,
321,
326, 328
Kondo (Golden
Hall-Horyuji temple), 67, 69,
72, 137. 139. 253
345
Kongo
Rikishi (Ni-o), 73, 74
lacquer, 73, 92, 93, 94, 253-64. See also specific
Konin, Emperor, 329
objects
Konin era. See Jogan era Konoye, Emperor, 113 Koraizayemon (potter), 229, 238 Korea,
Landscape and Flowers (Kano Eitoku), 37 Landscape with Figures (Ike-no-Taiga), 45 lanters, loi, 102-3, 158-60,
14, 15, 19-20, 67, 70, 71, 98,
331-32 {See
Paikche;
also
Silla);
Meiwa
era,
274
mekiki, 109-10
Empress
lead, 93, 94, 102
menuki, 119, 120, 122, 124
textiles,
costume, 277, 287-88 Korin, Ogata, 43, 46, 242, 258, 269, 278 koro, 223-25,
meisho-ko, 225
169-71
Lao-tzu, 212
and
Menukiya Chozaburo, 305
leather. See specific objects literature, 32-34, 46-49,
illustrating
225 (5ej
books {See coloj
also poetry);
226
metsuke, 222
Michinaga,
prints)
lost-wax process, 70-71, 95, 97 lotus, 26, 206; ponds, 167, 169
Koryuji temple, 17 Koryusai, Isoda, 56, 58
Fujiwara-no.
Middle Class, The (Utamaro), 60
koshiki. See ginyo
koshimaki, 298
maegami, 294
Mimashi,
tnagatama, 287 Mahabharata, 221
Mimpei, Kashu, 238
kosode-rr.aku,
290
ff.,
296
294
koto (old swords), ioj-6
mat
290
ko-uchige, 289,
ogi, 3
75, 139, 209,
kozuka, 92, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124
makimono, 32-34,
kozulsumi, 224, 226
makiri, 333,
69. See also
Miroku (Miroku
also
289, 290
Makura-no-Soshi {Pillow Book),
Makuzu-Chozo, 243
Kukai (Kobe hum, 10
Kunimune
18;
Yoriie,
115;
18,
289
Mino,
123, 235,
temple, 145
Bosatsu),
Miroku (No mask
277
(Hokusai), 62
Manners and Customs (Harunobu), 59 Mansion of Pleasures. See Jurakudai
mishima, 229, 234, 237
kura, 154
mansions, Shinden-Zukuri, 147-50
mitarashi,
mitokoromono, 122, 123, 124
26
mita ogi, 310
107
manuscripts, in Shosoin Repository, 327
kurikala,
120
m(jji.r ill strollers,
310
130
Mitsunaga, 30
trees, 152, 168,
Mitsunobu, Kano, 44 Mitsunobu, Tosa, 40,
175
Kiisaitagi-no-Tsurugi (sword), 105
Mappo, 100
Kusunoki Masashige, 310
maru-bori, 127
Kutani ware, 231, 250-52
maru-obi, 298
kuwa, 152
Maruyama Okyo,
Kuwana, 238-39
Masamune, Okazaki,
kwaichu, 270
Masanari, Shiomi, 258
Mitsuyuki Tojo, 121
kwaichu-yatate, 274
Masanobu, Kano, 20, 36, 41 Masanobu, Okumura, 55, 56
Miura Chikusen, 243
Masatsugu, netsukc by, 271 Masayoshi (swordsmith), 107, 124 masks, 79-90, iii, 113
Miyajima,
master's ble, 167, 168
Kwakkyo, 112
Kwammu, Kwanyu Kwanze
Emperor, 329
(Chinese warrior), 120 family, 88-89
*
41,
96
Mitsunori, Goto, 123
Mitsuoki, Tosa, 33, 40 mitsuore-ningyo, 303, 304
44, 46, 145
106, 108, iio-ii, 112, 290
Mitsuotomo Kikuoka, 118
miya-gata, 171 85, 115
Miyazaki, Yuzensai, 286
Miyoshi family, 109
Kyo-o-Gokokuji temple. See Toji temple
Matabei, Iwasa, 51
mizusashi, 218, 219 mizu uchiwa, 310 mizuya, 212, 214, 217, 222
Kyoho
mats. See tatami
mo, 287, 288
matsu. See pine trees
mokoshi, 139, 141
kyogeti dances, masks, 79, 85, 88,
era,
89-90
mala, 225
295
kyokechi, 283, 284
Kyoto, 17-18
ff.,
53, 77, 96,
Period); architecture in,
147
ff.
;
costume
broidery gardens
work 39,
of,
in,
277-78; enameling
of, 162, 163, 171
45, 46;
kyo-yuzen. See yuzen
346
139-40, 143,
;
in, 312,
em313;
inro of, 268; lacquer
262; painting
in, 29,
artist),
of,
280, 282-83, 284,
Malzukaze, 87 Matsumoto Koshiro IV
Matsushima, 143 medieval period.
Muromachi
mokume, 264 mokume-ji, 128
(actor), 61
mokushin kanshilsu See
Fujiwara,
Kamakura,
periods
Meiji, Emperor, 22, 48,
in,
momiji, 152
123, 221, 295
flowers, 194;
and incense, 222; and
Mommu, Emperor, loi, Momoyama Period, 9,
326 21
{See
also
specific
objects); architecture, 129, 135, 136, 143, 150;
Meiji Period, 9, 22; and architecture, 129; and
258
(wood-core dry lacquer),
73. 74
momen-lsumugi, 279
Medley of Tales of Revenge, 61 meibutsu-kire, 280 Meiji, Empress, 66
286; yatate of, 274
(lacquer
Heian
pottery of, 229, 230, 237,
241-43, 251; textiles
Kyui
133,
also
290; dolls of, 304;
of, 254, 255, 261,
42,
329 {See
See also
Miscellany of Sei Shonagon, 18, 289
kuri-jiri,
kwaiken, 119
71.
carver), 88
manji,
maple
27,
mirrors, 93, 94, 97-98, 129, 311, 312
Kuniteru (swordsmith), 107 Kuniyoshi, 66
Julius, 61
115;
Maitreya
Kunisada, Utagawa, 66
Kurth,
Yorioshi,
77, 115
236
Mioju (swordsmith), 107
28, 29,
115,
50, 115;
minogame, 24
Miroku (Miroku
Manga
in,
dynasty, 46, 48, 103, 145, 240, 243, 245,
mamori katana, 118 mandara,
(swordsmith), 106
Yoichi,
mamemaki, 86
Mampukuji
Daishi), 74-75, 209
Tametomo,
291, 292
kugikakushi, 311
of, 155
75i 76, 102,
176; Sanetomo, 18-19;
Ming
Kublai Khan, 19-20, 280 Kujo, Prince, 155 Kujo-kan, interior
250
80, 81
Yoritomo, 18, 19, 24, 75, Mincho, Kitsuzan, 33, 37
334 tnaki uchiwa, 310
Kannon
54, 87, loi, 155
kilns,
Mimpei ware, 238 Minamoto clan, 18-19,
makie, 264
255
Miidera temple,
Mikawachi
Bosatsu)
Koya, Mount (Koyasan),
Kuan- Yin,
,
10
Maitreya, 71, 100. See
Koushi Kiyomitsu, 88
Fujiwara-no-
Michinaga, Koami, 256, 269 midaro kago, 260
Machi-yakko, 274
kosode, 193, 279, 281-82, 284, 286,
See
Michinaga
Maeda family, 286 Maeda Toshiharu (ceramicist), 251
koshikake, 211, 212, 216, 218
46, 48;
meisen fabric, 283
161,221,
Jingo's invasion, 113, 132, 287; and pottery,
228-29, 231, 234, 237, 248;
270; and lacquer, 258; and painting, and pottery, 250
inro, 268,
costume, 291 93; gardens, 164; lacquer work, 256-57, 264; metalwork, 96, 102, 115, 122,
painting,
125;
ceremony
41-45;
sculpture,
tea
78;
211 -12, 264; textiles
in,
in,
279,
281
Nara, 14, 15-16, 24, 29, 67, 77, 138-39. See also Nara Period; Shosoin Repository; specific temples; etc.
man, 291, 298
Buddhism;
specific monasteries
Nara Period,
Mongols, 19-20, 280
tory;
monkey
133-34.
motif, 24
nunome-zogan, 127
16-17 {See
8,
also
objects);
specific
Shosoin Reposi-
architecture,
costume,
141-42;
138-39.
nyobu shozoku. See juni-hitae
288;
nyoi, 95
gardening,
Mononobe
253; metalwork, 93, 94, 98-99, 102, 117; painting, 27-28; pottery, 227-28; sculpture,
tnorett,
335
161-62;
incense,
Moribana, 193, 194, 199, 200, 202
71-74;
Mori family, 237 Morikawa Toen, 305 Mori Terumoto, 238 Mori Yusetsu, 239
textiles,
Nara school of chasers, 125 Nara Toshiteru, 125 Nara Yasuchika, 125
Moriya, 117
narcissus, 208
Moronobu, Hishikawa, 51, 54-55 Motonobu, Kano, 21, 36, 41 Motonori (sword decorator), 120
nashi-ji, 126, 226, 256,
Mountain
Villa (Tessai),
moustache
raisers,
seals of,
221;
265; tea drinking
lacquer,
in,
209;
277-78, 283
49
Obaku
sect,
145
obi, 292, 296, 297, 298
263
Festival, 160
obunko-ningyo, 301
Oda Nobunaga,
no,
20-21,
citadel of, 21, 42, 235;
41, 43;
and
ne-no-hi, 328
220, 235, 292 67, 91,
129, 287. See also
culture
Neri-kuyo. See
Oda
Urakusai, 213, 214
Gyodo
Oei
era,
134
model
Ofuji
netsuke, 23, 266, 270, 271-73, 275, 276
Ogawa Shomin, ogi,
(girl
for prints), 57
258
Murakami, Emperor, 210 Ise, no, 111-12
New
New
mura-nashi-ji, 263
Nichiren
murasakigawa, 292
Nihon, 13
ogi otoshi,
Nihon-Shoki (Nihongi), 13-14, 79, 129, 277, 320 nijiriguchi, 214, 217, 220
Ogura Ryuson, 66
Nijo Castle, 42, 149, 150, 151 Nika Byakudo, 28
ohyotamo, 335-36
Nikko (No mask carver), 88 Nikko shrines, 102, 136-37
Ojin,
niku-bori, 127
O-Jukko, 221
niku-tsuki-no-men, 89
Okawachi (Okochi), ware,
Nin'ami-Dohachi, 243
Okera-Mairi ceremony, 276
musical instruments, 321, 322, 324
ningyo, 299
oki-chigi,
Muso Kokushi,
nini,
18, 32, 142, 254,
289
Muroji temple, 140
Muromachi
(Ashikaga) Period,
9,
20-21 (See
also specific objects); architecture,
140, 179-50; costume, 289, 290, 291
63;
No
mttshi-no-tareginu,
Myochin
plays, 87; painting, 37
ceremony, 210;
40, 41; tea
gardens,
metalwork, 95,
255-56, 257;
lacquer,
100, 102, 122;
129, 136, ;
textiles,
ff.,
279-81
290
162, 163
Young Leaves, 56
Year, 38, loi, 123, 204, 276, 310 sect,
307
ff-
ogi-daruki, 141
Ogino
225
Isaburo, 56
310
Ohiroma,
143, 151
ojime, 266, 267, 271, 275,
276
Hime-Okami, Emperor, 134
Ojiya fabrics, 283
ff.
109
244, 248
134
okimono, 113
Ninigi-no-Mikoto,
family, 95, 113
14, 98,
115
okina sambasu dance, 88
Myo-e-Shonin, 209 Myoju, Umetada, 115, 125
Ninnaji, Prince, 241
oki-nui,
Ninno-ye, 322
Okita (Utamaro's model), 60
Myoshinji temple, loi
Ninomaru
Okochi ware,
Okuda-Eisen, 243
Nabeshima, 229, 231, 244, 247, 248-49
Ninsei ware, 230, 238, 240, 241-242, 243 Ni-o, 73, 74, 77
Nishi-Honganji temple, 21, 42, 143, 150, 151,
omoto plant, 208
Nagaoka, 17, 329 Nagare style, 131,
Nakasendo (Kiso Kaido), Nageire
floral
Nagoya,
14, 105,
63,
palace, 149, 150, 151
nishijin-obi,
66
arrangement, 176, 193-94, 202
nishiki.
292
See brocades
nishiki-de, 246,
Okuni
338 244, 248
(actress),
294
Onamuchi-no-Mikoto, 131 One Hundred Views of Edo (Hiroshige),
157, 171
132, 133 Nagasaki, 46, 54, 247, 258
Onjoji temple. See Miidera temple
Nai-Jin, 140, 141
Niwo, 25
Onogora-jima, 13
shrine
(Ise),
98, 130, 131
nakadachi, 218
naka-jima, 162
Nakatomi
clan, 14
Namikawa Sosuke, 313, 314 Namikawa Yasuyuki, 312, 313, 314 nanako
style,
126
nishiki-e,
niye,
No
66
oni-gawara, 151
247
nagoya-obi, 292
Naiku
63,
oni (devils), 25-26, 83
57 Nishimura Soin, 240
152
292;
odawara-chochin, 160
neri-mono, 304
Patterns for
257,
and Eitoku,
ceremony, masters, 211, 212,
tea
Muramasa of
Murasaki Shikibu, Lady,
221,
Azuchi
14,
Dainichi
etc.
Nayeshirogawa, 237 negoro-nuri, 255, 264
Jomon
mulberry wood, 152 Munechika of Satsuma, 106 Munesuke, Myochin, 95, 113
also
Nyorai; Nyoirin- Kannon; Yakushi Nyorai;
Obon
Neohthic age,
moxa, 273 mukozuke, 217, 218
Nyoirin Kannon, 29, 69-70, 71 Nyorai (Butsu), 68-69 ff. See
nyubai, 50
natsume, 261
334
nuno-oki, 338
129,
monogalari-e, 32 clan, 14
in
nuno, 278
nunoko, 295
nara-iiiugyo, 304, 305
monasteries. See
Nuke-maru (sword),
onko, 337
Ono-no-Imoko, 173
109 (drama), 79, 84, 85, 86-90, 282, 292, 293,
Oribe, Furuta, 165, 212, 220, 229, 232, 234, 235
294, 296, 305
Noami, 193 Noble Eight-fold
Oribe ware, 232, 234, 235 Path, 26
noble metals, 91-93. See
also
origamo, 279
gold; silver
Nobunaga. See Oda Nobunaga
Nan-endo, 77
Nobuzane
Nanga school, 46-49 Nangawara kilns, 247
Nonko
Nanzenji temple, 145, 164
noshi, 289,
Naonobu, Kano, 45
Nozoki-bashi, 171
Fujiwara, 32
(potter),
oranda, 302
236
norimono, 261
290
ori-iro,
282
Osaka,
15, 21, 22, 42, 257, 274 Osaki Hachiman shrine, 134, 135 osaye, 223, 224, 226
o-seppa, 121
Oshikatsu, 328-29
Ota Dokan,
53
347
Otowayama, Mount. See Kiyomizu temple
Rikei. See Koraizayemon
Sampei, Kanac, 231
Otsu, 48, 49
Rikishi mask, 81
samurai, 19, 217, 276, 290, 301. See
otsu-e, 48, 49,
Rikiu (Rikyu)
50
Rikka (Rikkwa) flower arrangement, 174-75,
Owari, 21, 105 ox-drawn carriages,
261, 262
Oyamukui, 24 Oyashima, 13 Oyashiro (Izume-Taisha)
shrine,
130,
pottery, 220, 228
131-32
oyashiro (taisha) style, 131, 132
112
ozen, 217, 260
pagodas, 67, 137, 139-40, 145, 171. See
also
Paikche, 14, 67, 70, 80 painters
and painting,
san-san-kudo, 259
sect,
27-50 (See
mediums and
painters);
also specific
materials for, 49-50
palanquins, 261
paulownia
236
19
Sansetsu,
121 artist),
258
tree.
278
roji,
See
kiri
(wood)
sarugaku, 85, 86, 87 saru-te,
272
Satsimia, 103, 236, 237, 283
216
164, 212, 213,
123
sashi netsuke,
223, 225, 264, 267
rokechi, 283,
sawari, 103
284
scabbards, 119, 120, 122, 124
Rokkakudo, 173 Rokubei family, 243
peach blossom, 38, 204, 300
165-66
sansui, ' ,
rocks, 163, 167, 172 ro-iro,
39, 45, 143
Kano, 45 Sanshu-no-Shinki. See Three Sacred Treasures
282
Ritsuo (lacquer
TO,
20,
Sanju-Sangen-do, 78, 142
Rinzai
ff.,
Riumon, 167
taho-to
Sanetomo Minamoto, 18-19
Sanno-Sama, 24 Sanraku, Kano, 21,
riobitsu,
arms
san-gusoku, loo-i
Rinjo (Mitsuzane) Kanzayemcm Goto, 121 rinzu,
also
and armor; feudal system sandalwood, 152 sand-bowls, 175, 199
193. 198
Bikyu, Sen-no-, 21, 211-12, 214, 217, 235, 292; and fans, 309; and flowers, 200, 211; and gardens, 165; and lacquer, 264; and
oyama-nitigyo, 303
oyoroi,
309-10
ogi,
Peinlre des Maisons Vertes (Goncourt), 59
Rokuonji temple, 21
39 ff., 148, 157; garden, 171-72; at Shosoin Repository, 322, 323, 324 scrolls, 32-34, 326, 327, 331. See also kakemono
peonies, 206
Rokusoan
pegasus motif, 24
screens,
teahouse, 211
sculpture, 67-78. See also specific materials, objects
ronin, 121
seals,
pewter, 94-95, 315
roofs, 145-46. See also architecture
seasons, 26, 168, 197, 201. See also Five Seasons
Phoenix Hall, 29, 76, 140, 141, 254 phoenix motif, 24, 254
rope, 276; sacred Shinto, 14, 106, 147
picnic box, 261, 262
rozan, 167
Petitions for
Gold Dust and Cassia, 327
Views of Famous Bridges Provinces (Hokusai), 62
Picturesque
211, 222
roseitei,
in
Several
Ryoanji temple,
Ryobu,
163, 164
festivals
seigo,
279
Seiko
(lake),
167
Shonagon, 18
Sei
16
265
Seisuiji
temple. See
Pine Breeze, The, 87
Ryokei, Kano, 145 ryu. See dragons
semba-sura, 25
pine needles, 202
Ryuko-in tearoom, 214
sen,
Ryumonji
Sengoku Jidai, 292
Pillow Book, 18, 289
pine
trees, 26, 167, 168, 174,
175
in Snow (Maruyama Okyo), 44 Pink and White Plum Blossoms (Korin Ogata), 43
Pine Trees
and smoking
pipes
utensils, 91, 92, 261, 263,
274-75. 276, 335 pit houses,
129
Kiyomizu temple
Sekigahara, 21
pottery, 237
108
Senju-in of Yamato, 107
ryusa netsuke, 272
Sen-ke, 174 sahi,
Sennin of Horaizan, 58
214
sentoku, 103
sabi-ji,
264
Sacred
Rope of Shinto,
14, 106,
plum, 26, 167, 168, 174, 204 Plum Tree and Birds (Sanraku), 39
Sadamune (swordsmith),
poetry, 201, 225, 260, 273, 289, 310, 326
pommels, sword, 123
106,
147
no
seppa, 121
seppa
dqi,
1
21
Sadatsune of Satsuma, 126
Sesshu, 21, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39-40, 96
saddle,
setsubun (tsuina), 83, 85-86, 134, 170
porcelain, 231-52, 301-4
mulberry-wood, 316 Moronobu), 55 Saga, Emperor, 209
Seto ware, 228, 230, 231, 232-34, 235, 236, 243
Saffron Flower (Hishikawa
pottery, 227-52, 331. See also specific objects
Saga (town), 248, 304
seven gods of good luck, 25, 65, 240
prehistoric culture,
saga-ningyo, 302, 304-5
sha,
sagemono, 270
shagetsu,
prints, 23,
51-66;
8,
13
14.
textiles,
See also specific arts
283-86
ff".
setta,
297
278 225
pruning, landscape gardening and, 168
Saicho, 74-75. 209
Shakamuni Butsu. See Sakyamuni Shaka Nyorai. See Sakyamuni
puppets, 299, 305-6
Saihoji temple, 162, 163
shaku, 309, 329
Pure Land
Saijiro,
protohistory,
8.
sect.
See also specific arts
See Jodo sect
120
sage-o,
shakudo, 92, 103-4, 118, 126
Goto, 251
Saimyoji temple, 142, 144
shakuhachi, 274
Quail, 33
Sakai, 280, 291
shakujo, 99, 100
quivers, 116, 273, 334
sakazuki, 258-60
Sharaku, Toshusai, 61
sake and sake utensils, 217, 237, 255, 258-60. ra,
See
278
raden, raigo
264
ceremony, 84
Raku
pottery, 217, 229-30, 235-37, 243
Ramayana, 221
also
wine
utensils
Shariden (Engakuji temple), 141, 143 shells, use in
lacquer work, 264 285, 291
sakura. See cherry blossoms
shibori, 283,
Sakura-no-baba, 274
shibuichi, 93, 103,
Sakyamuni, 68,
shibumi, 23
69, 75, 212; eight supernatural
guardians of (See Hachibu-shu)
ramma, 151, 152, 154
sambo-gin, 104
rankan-bashi, 171
Samboin temple,
104
shibu uchiwa, 310 shichifukujin (seven
143, 166, 169
gods of good
luck), 25, 65,
240
rankei-gata, 171
same, 119
shichu (hipped-ridge) roofs, 145, 146
Record of Ancient Matters. See Kojiki
same-nuri, 119
shi-ga-jiku, 38
Reisho Tokaido, 63, 66 Renge-o-in (Sanju-Sangen-do), 78, 142
samisen, 305
Shigaraki palace, 72
Sammon
Shigemasa (Hiroshige), 66
348
gate, 145
Shigenaga, Nishimura, 56, 58 Shigenobu (Hiroshige), 66
Shonzui ware, 240, 243, 244 Shoryo ceremony, 83-84 Shosoin Repository,
38
shi-jiku,
armor
Shijo-Maruyama school, 46 260
shikishi bako,
incense 22, 53,
258
17, 264, 266, 283,
315-32;
bows and arrows at, enamel on mirror at, 311;
112, 329;
at,
114, 315, 329;
Shikoku excavations, 97 Shimabara district (Kyoto),
Suiboku painting, 37-40
221; masks
at,
at,
80; pottery at, 228,
331
Shimazu Yoshiro, 229, 237
Taishi, Prince, 15, 68, 117, 173, 253,
277, 288; and Horyuji temple, 15, 67, 83, 139
shimenawa, 14, 106, 147
suikan,
290
Suiko, Empress, 15, 67, 79, 137, 173, 221, 253,
277 Suiko-o mask, 82
Emperor, 131
Suinin,
Shotoku
ff.
Sui dynasty, 16, 138, 253, 326
sukashi-bori, 127
Sukehiro, 121
Shimizu Rokubei, 243
Shozui Hamano, 123
Sukenobu, Nishikawa, 55-56
Shimmei
shrubs, 168, 169
sukiya, 213
Shubun, Tensho, 35, 38-39, 41 Shugetsu (dollmaker), 304
sumi, 273
shina-no-ki, 335
shujinto (master's isle), 167, 168
sumi-zogen, 127
shinden-zukuri mansion style, 18, 147-50, 162,
shukin-donsu, 280
sumo, 310
shrine style, 131
Shimogamo
Shuko
289
163, 164,
Shingon
shrine, 133, 134
ilA'lS
shin, 164,
(tea master),
Shimkei (lacquer
28 29, 75, 77, 139, 255 Shinmachi (Osako), 22
shunkei-nuri,
shin-no-hana, 174, 175
Shunkei
tea jars,
shu~nuri,
264
sect,
109
shinogi,
Sumiyoshi-Myqjin
Sung dynasty,
210-11, 222, 228 233, 264
artist),
shrine, 105
264
suo,
233
291
surihaku,
292
Suruga, 105
Shino Soshin, 222, 229
Shuonan monastery, 141
Susano-o-no-Mikoto,
Shino ware, 230, 233, 234-35
shusu, 282
susogo,
Shiruhoji temple, 86
shutters. See
shinshu,
silks,
94
Shinto, 13-14, 34, 102, 276 (See also specific architecture,
shrines);
deities,
mask ceremonies,
dances,
family
129,
82,
83,
130-37; 848".;
157-58, 276; motifs, 23, 24, 26;
amado
278
49,
13, 14, 105, 131
290
and sutra boxes, Su Tsung, 325 Su Tung-P'o, 49 Suyamadeva, 29
sutras
See also specific items
291.
ff.,
105, 287
Silla, 14,
silver, 91,
256
37, 141,
sun goddess. See Amaterasu-o-mi-kami
92-93, 94. See also specific uses
Silver Pavilion, 20, 156, 163, 176, 193,
210
suyehiro,
307
98, 100, loi, 254, 255
ff.
Siva, 117
suye-hiro-ogi,
Buddhism, 16-17, 319-20;
Six Dynasties, 327
suyu, 150
Six Patriarchs of the Hosso Sect (Kokei), 77 Sixty-nine Stages of the Kiso Kaido, 63, 66
suzuri, 273
105, 106
swords and sword mounts,
Shiotsuchi-no-Okina, 96
Six Views of the Tamagawa (Harunobi), 59 Sketches from the Boat Window (Chikuden), 48
shippo, 311
Sketches of Insects and Fishes (Kazan), 47
shirabyoshi, 87
smoking
Shiragaki pottery, 230
Shirakawa, Emperor, 330
335 Snow-covered Street by the Canal (Hiroshige), 66
Shirayama Shosai, 258
so,
shiro-kane. See silver
Soami, 163, 164, 165, 193
Tachibana, Lady, 72
sode-gaki, 172
Soga family, 14, 15 Sogyo Hachiman, 78
Tachibana family, 113 Tachibana-no-Oiratsume, Princess, 277 taffeta, 280, 282
Sojo, Goto, 123
taho-to,
altars,
reconciliation with in sculpture, 78
(new swords), Shiogama, 96
shinio
shirotaye,
278
shiro yagi,
238
Shishi, 78, 81
Shishinden (Imperial palace), 148, 149
296
utensils, 91, 92, 261, 263,
309
suzuri-bako, 254, 256
103-4,
105-12,
23, 91, 92, 93, 95,
117-28;
Ainu,
164, 175
tabako bon, 261, 275 tabi,
292, 297
tachi,
290
118, 122-23
139-40, 142, 144
somada, 258
Shi Tenno, 25, 78
sometsuke, 245
Taika Reform
Shitermoji temple, 137
Soraku-gun, 142
Taimadera temple, 84
shita-juban,
sokutai, 288,
298
shizuri,
278
Shobei
(tea master),
139
sorin,
217 204
shochikubai, 26, 197,
Tawaraya,
43,
Taira-no-Tadamori, iii
46
taisha style, 130, 131, 132
Shogozo storehouse, 331
Soto
Shogunates,
soup bowl, lacquer, 258
Taizan family, 238
spoons, 217
Tajimi, 141
18-22.
See also specific families,
Shoguns Sho-Heki-Ga, 42 shoin, 150, 155,
sect,
Spring and
156
Taisho, Emperor, 289
19
ff.,
334
Autumn (Kano Hisanobu), 41
stencil dyeing, 283,
shoji, 150, 154, 155,
stones, stone objects in gardens,
215
284
Stork Chambers (Nishi-Honganji temple), 143,
Shokin-tei pavilion,
stroll gardens,
stupas, 99,
Shomeimon
Sue pottery
Shomu, Emperor,
16, 72, 205, 209, 221, 279;
and Shosoin Repository, 319
fT, 326, 327,
328
17, 112, 283, 311,
sugi,
262, 263, 267,
1
takarabune (gods of good luck), 25, 65
164-65, 170
Takaramono, 25
01, 102, 142 {sue yaki), 227,
152-53
Sugimoto
ff.,
271
Takanaobu, Kano, 44, 45
151
Shokokuji, 39 Gate, 148
Takahashi-Dohachi, 243 takamakie, 223, 225, 226, 256
Shoka flower arrangement, 175 Sho Kannon, 71-72 59
127
takahari-chochin, 160
163, 167-71,
211, 213
1
taka-bori,
Takahara Goroshichi, 247
Star Festival, 38, 206, 277
shoin-zukuri style, 149-50, 163
shojo,
278
Taira clan, 18, 75, 77, 102, iii, 113, 115, 255
Soseki (Muso Kokushi), 162, 163 Sotatsu,
edict, 15, 253,
tainoya, i^'j
soroimono, 122, 124
shobu-no-sekku. See Boy's Festival
336,
274-75, 276,
Taiga, Ike-no- (Taigado), 45, 48 Taiho code, 15, 253, 278
shitagi,
334,
337-38; swordmakers, traditions, 110-12
shrine,
sugoroku, 325
239
Takatori, 229
Takauji, Ashikaga, 20, 21, 109, 291
317-18
Takawaka lemon, 280 Takayoshi, Fujiwara, 32
349
1
taka-zogan, 127
Takemikazuchi
tinder pouch, 275-76 (general),
24
tsugaru-rtiiri,
tobacco pouches, 274-75, 276, 335
takigino dance, 88
Toba
Ta-Kondo
(Kofukiji monastery), 142 talc squares. See ginyo
142,
254 Tamakaji Zokuku, 264 Tamamushi-no-Zushi. See Golden Beetle Shrine Tamba pottery, 230 tame-nuri, 264 tana, 150, 155, 156, 201,
216
Tanabata, 38, 206, 277 T'ang dynasty, 15, 16,
18, 67,
138, 148, 175; ;
331
;
;
209
tango-no-sekku. See Boys' Festival tanka, 225
Tanuki the badger, 24 Tan-yu, Kano, 40, 42, 45, 136, 145, 151, 278 Taoism, 26, 209, 212 Tasuna (sculptor), 68 tatami mats, 148, 150, 152,
214
Tatcno, 237 Tatsuke Kukio, 267
tea
tea
kettles);
20, 21, 96, 209-20, 292;
164,
209
169,
work
lacquer
ff;
kettles
and
for (See
and, 256, 258, 261; ;
for,
228-30 ff.
{See also bowls; pottery)
Tea and Wine
Parties,
47
326
136,
309
Period; specific
of, 102;
and painting,
41. 44-45. 46
in,
82;
enameling
321, 322, 330
Tori Busshi, 68, 69 Torii (school), 55; Kiyomasu, 55; Kiyomitsu, 55, 57;
Kiyonobu,
55, 56;
Kiyonaga,
55, 59
244, 132, 136
Toshogu
Tenjiku-yo architecture, 138, 140-41, 142 Tenjin-Sama, 32, 135 Tenryuji temple, 163
Tensho era, 213, 214, 274, 280 Terumoto, 229 Tomioka,
48,
To-To
308-9
Mitsunobu;
277-86, 333-38. See also costume Thirty-six Views of Fuji (Hokusai), 62, 63
Thousand-handed Kannon, 78, 142 Three Sacred Treasures, 14, 98, 105, 131 tied-and-dyed technique, 179, 282, 283,
285, 291
roof, 146, 151
103
24,
90
Byodoin temple
Uji-Yamada. See
Ise shrines
uki-e,
56
u-kin. See shakudo
Ukiyo (and Ukiyo-e),
22, 48-49, 51, 52-53
269, 283, 293, 294, 302, 303. ukiyo-ningyo, 302, 303
ulmus
tree,
ff.,
S« a/it) Yoshiwara
336
Umctada Hikobei no-jo Motoshiga, Umctada Myoju, 115, 125
112,
113
umpires: incense ceremony, 222; sumo, 310 ungen, 139 (sculptor),
77-78
uragawara, 120
urushi-e,
264
Usa shrine, 132, 134 Ushiwaka (warrior), 305 usucha, 215, 219
shrine, 102, 135, 136, 137
(Yakushiji temple), 138, 139
Toyoharu, Utagawa, 56 Toyohiro, Utagawa, 56, 63 Toyokuni, Utagawa, 56, 60
usumono, 278 usu-niku-bori, 127
Utagawa utai,
Toyonari, Fujiwara. See Fujiwara Toyonari
Toyonobu, Ishikawa, 56 Toyotomi Hideyoshi. See Hideyoshi, Toyotomi
school, 56, 63
87
Utamaro, Kitagawa, 54, 59-61 Utsushidono, 134 uwagi, 296
Uyeno,
18
Uzumasadera, vajra, 100,
the, 17
loi
vajra bells, 100, lor
trays, 217, 222, 226, 260,
261 Treasure Hall (Horyuji temple). See Golden Hall Treasure Ship with the Seven Gods of Good Fortune (Hiroshige), 65 trees, 26, 167-68, 172, 174, 198, 199. See also specific kinds
True Record of Various
Ugatama-no-Mikoto, Uji, 209. See also
Urashima, 301
traveling box, 261
textiles,
uchikake, 291, 293, 294 uchiwa, 307, 308, 310
Unobouiye (helmet-maker), iio
41, 44, 269. Seealso
Toyouke-daijingu (Geku), 98, 130-31 Toyouke-o-mi-kami, 130-31 toys, 299 ff.
49
twelve-layer dress, 279, 289
Unkei
Toshodaiji, 139
130
154, 156
278, 282
Unkokuji temple, 39
Toshiyoshi arrowhead, 114
sect, 18,
tin, 93, 94, I02,
tora-no-ko-watashi, 163
torii,
Tsuyama, Okayama, tsi4zure-ori,
umajirushi, 309
Toshiro-Karamono ware, 233 Toshiro of Owari, 228, 232-33, 234
Tenji era, 307
350
Shoguns); mausoleums
247
21-22, 64,
Mitsuoki
28-29, 74-75, 76, 77, 139 Ten Famous Places in Edo (Hiroshige), 63 tengu (mythical being), 11
tiles,
18,
Edo (Tokugawa)
Tosa school, 40 131,
Ten, 68, 69
telsu-sen,
(Arita merchant),
tortoise (kame), 24-25, 167
lenchi kongen architecture,
Tessai,
153, 155, 156^ jgo;
Toriyama Sekien, 59
261
Temmu, Emperor, Temmyo, 96 Temmyogama, 96 Tempyo Treasures,
Tendai
tsutai-ishi, 169 Tsutaya Juzaburo, 59 tstito, 294
tomoyegawara, 146
ceremony,
pewter for tea leaves, 95 pottery
lebake,
Tokoku, netsuke by, 270 tokonoma, 38, 42, 113, 150,
117
tsuru-umemodoki, i}6
in, 312, 313, 314 to-kyo (shrine brackets), 133, 137-38, 141 tomoye, 26
126
fans and, 309 10; floral art and, 176 ff;
gardens,
Tsunekichi, Kaji, 311 tsurugi (ken), 105,
'
157
family,
216
-
,
{See also
156
Tsume-Gumi, 141 tsumugi, 279
region, 305
Tokuemon Tokugawa
292
119
tsukubai, 213,
222
237;
278
and
21, 210,
Tokaido, 54, 63, 64-65, 66, 239 Rissei, 326 Tokimasa, Hojo. See Hojo Tokimasa toko,
148, 157
tsuji-ga-hana, 279, 291,
tsukiyama-niwa, 165-67
'
Toka
bugaku
Tatto, Shiba, 68 taye,
264
togidashi-zogan, 127
170
See guri
tsukejoin,
togidashi, 258, 259, 263,
Togudo,
tsuitate,
tsukaito,
116
togari-ya,
Tokugawa Period. See Edo (Tokugawa) Period Tokuwaka Tadamasa, 88 Tokyo (formerly Edo), 21, 22, 24, 227,
282
tatsuta ishime,
80
tokowaki. See tana
119
tale nishiki,
at,
flower arrangements in, 201; and incense ceremony, 222; tearoom, 214, 215, 217
Tankei (sculptor), 78, 142 tanto,
masks
Toji temple, 84, 143, 144, 145
and bugaku, 82; and costume, 288 and lacquer, 253; and painting, 27, 28; poems from, 326; and sculpture, 71 sutra scrolls from, and tea,
tsui-shiu.
Todaiji temple. 16, 72-73, 78, 138, 139, 140-41, 142, 145 {See also Shosoin Repository); great
Tohuku
50, 115
tsuina {setsubun), 83, 85-86, 134,
169
bell, loi;
121-25, 126, 127
264
tsuge, "^72
Sojo, 30, 33
tobi-ishi,
Tale o/Genji (Gertji Monogatari), 18, 32, 43, 55,
Tametomo (Minamoto-no-),
tsuba, 23, 92, 93, 103,
10
to,
Takemoto Gidayu, 305-6
Properties,
329
valley lantern, 171 vases, flower,
198-201
vehicles, lacquered,
ff.,
236, 239, 246
261-62
velvet, 281
Views along the Banks of 62
the
Sumida (Hokusai),
Views of Famous Bridges (Hokusai), 62
Views of Famous Places
in
Edo
in the
Four Seasons
(Hiroshige), 63
26
virtues, five,
yosegi,
yosemune (hipped-ridge) roofs, 145, 146 Yoshimasa, Ashikaga, 20, 21, 156, 163, 176,
Yamato-e style, 34-35, 40, 41-42, 46 Yamato-Hime, Princess, 105 Yamato-Takeru, Prince, 105, 276
wabi, 214
wakasa-nuri, 264 wakizashi, 106, 118, 119, 120, 122, 124
Yamauba mask,
wakyo, 98 garden,
walls (See also architecture):
Wang
Yamamura, 66 Yamaraya, 29 Yamashiro, Awataguchi of, 107 Yamato, 14, 15, 129, 138, 227
171-72
Hsi-chih, 326
76
193, 200, 210, 221, 222, 256 Yoshimichi (swordsmith), 107
Yoshimitsu, Ashikaga, 20, 21, 86, 87,
Yoshinobu, Tokugawa, 22
85
yanagi (willow-leaf arrowheads), 114, 115, 116
Yoshiwara district (Edo),
yanagi-ya, 116
Yoshiwara Pillow, 53 Yoyuki (archer), 114
Wani, 14
yano-ne, 115
wari-kogai, 120, 121
Yasaka shrine,
watakusi, 116
Yasha (No mask
water basins, stone, 172, 213, 216
Yashima, battle
waterfalls, 167, 172
Yasuchika Tsuchiya, 124
Yuin tearoom, 214
Yasuji Inoue, 66
Yujo, Goto, 103-4, 123
Waters
in
Wa-yo
Their Thousand Aspects (Hokusai), 62
architecture, 140, 141-42, 144
Wazen, Zengoro, 240 weaving. See
textiles
17, 135,
276
carver), 88
of,
no
Yoshinao, Tokugawa, 152
Yuan
294
dynasty, 37, 48, 256
Yuasa Matashichiro, 115 yuiitsu shimmei, 130,
115
22, 53, 59, 286, 293,
yasuri-me, 107
yukata, 296, 297
Yasutsuna (swordsmith), 105 Yata-no-Kagami, 98, 131
yukimi-doro, 171
132
Yukimitsu, Tosa, 40
Yumedono,
well buckets, 201
yatate,
White Egret Descending from Flight toward Purple
yatsuhashi, 171
Yumedono Kannon, 69-70
Iris (Hiroshige), 64 White Path Crossing Two Rivers, 28
Ya-Tsurugi shrine, 105
yumihari-chochin, 160
Yatsushiri, 229
Yuntiharizuki, 115
wind-bells, 139
ya-wa, 215
Yuzen, Fukae, 286
wind wine
deity, 25
Yayoi earthenware, 227, 228
yuzen dye technique, 281, 284, 285, 286, 292
utensils, 246, 247, 251, 313, 325. See also
yebira.
sake and sake utensils
273-74
67, 69, 139
See quivers
Ycbisu, 65
zaramaki, 126
yeboshi, 106
Zasshu, 326
206
yellowwood, 336
woad, common, 336
Yenjo, Goto, 123
Zeami (No actor-writer), 86-87, 88 Zen Buddhism, 19, 21, 23, 257, 291; and
Winter Landscape (Sesshu), 35 wistaria,
Women
Dressing for a
Niwaka
Celebration (Uta-
yew
maro), 59
wood,
use
of.
specific objects,
wood-block
wood
yeto-ko, 225
See
architecture;
sculpture;
woods
prints, 23,
51-66;
textiles,
283-84
orchid, 208
tree,
Yoichi (Minamoto), 115 Yojiro (kettle-maker), 92
yoko
wormwood,
Yokoya
273
writing equipment, 242, 257, 259, 262, 273-74,
nishiki,
282
(kingdom), 80
Soyo, 125
Yomeimon,
68
yori-ilo-ori,
zogan, 127
282
zogan-nuri, 264
Yorioshi (Minamoto), 115
Yoritomo (Minamoto),
Shimsho, 258
motif, 25
zodiac, 26, 225
Yakushiji, 16, 28, 71, 73, 138, 139
Yamamoto
Zensenko, 221
Zocho
136, 137
yakuro, 266
Yakushi Nyorai, 27, 69, 73
Zengoro family, 240-41
zinc, 103
Yoriie (Minamoto), 18
1 1
yakimono, 217
;
37 ff; and sculpture, 77, 78; and tea ceremony, 96, 209 ff., 220, 228
Zeshin, Shibata, 258 15,
yoraku, 246 yajiri,
;
,
33.
Zenrinji, 29
school, 125; Sochi, 125; Somin, 125;
Yomei, Emperor,
321, 330
Wu
337
Yi dynasty, 234, 237, 238 yogomi, 215
woolens, 278-79
archi-
and clothing, 290; and flower arranging, 176-94; and gardens, 163 164, 168 and No plays, 87 and painting, tecture, 141, 147, 155, 156;
zokuku-nuri, 264 zonsei-nuri, zori, 297,
255 yoritsuki, 212, 216,
18, 19, 24, 75, 77, 115,
220
264
298
Zuiganji temple, 143
351
{cotitiiiucd frotv front flap)
•
The
•
Motifs in
•
Meaning bchmd
stcii
painting
r|
\
'
...
printmaking
'
Jaj^
"''
t
'
'ey
were
made
(15
P-1
•
Decorative and useful
•
Approach
nietai\.
to sculpture
lacquer
• Processes in
work
and netsuke
• hiro
History and contents of Shosoin, the Imperial
•
Repository
H.
•
Diagrammatic
•
Wood
and
analysis
textile
of floral
BATTERSON BOGER, Ade Boger,
wife, Louise
art
work of the Ainu culture collaborator with his
in the
writmg of The Dic-
tioimry of Antiques and the Decorative Arts, tells his
own
The Traditioual Arts of Japan came to
how
story of
be written:
"Although the brokerage business coUectmg
work
my
is
is
my
vocation,
the preparatory
book was done durnig the years of my near Osaka and within commuting distance
for this
residence
of Kyoto, where time
Most of
avocation.
I
spent the greater part of my leisure
with collector friends and seeing
visiting
much
of Japan's great works of art. Because of my busnicss and social connections with many prominent Japanese collectors,
I
and studying
had many rare opportunities of seeing priceless objects o'l art. hi many of the
very rich families, an untold amount of valuable
had never been removed from the family
possessions
godowns, where they were stored against
fire. It
was
pieces especially
my
as a
rare privilege to
protection
have choice
brought from the godowns for
me
to study.
"To improve my knowledge of Japanese arts, I a book that would give me basic
began to look for
information in a clear and complete manner. There
was no book available
was
and
is
that
would be taining
all
a
in existence.
The only information
number of specialized books, decided to compile a work that
in a great
why
I
complete guide to the Japanese
arts,
con-
the necessary information, historical back-
ground, traditions, and descriptive text."
Jacket
period,
ilhistratioiis:
Front
by Kinyosai; Back
—
Lacquer painting, Edo
— Yakushiji temple, Nara.
DOUBLEDAY & Garden City,
CO., INC.
New
York