Scope of human development
Human development is a development model that is about much more than the rise or fall of national incomes. It is about creating an environment in which people can develop their full potential and lead productive, creative lives in accordance with their needs and interests, thus bringing the focus back onto people. People are the real wealth of nations. Development is thus about expanding the choices people have, to lead lives that they value and improving the human condition so that people will get the chance to lead full lives. lives.[1] And it is thus thus about much more than economic growth, which is only a means —if a very important one —of enlarging people’s choices choices..[2]
Fundamental to enlarging these choices is building human capabilities —the range of things that people can do or be in life. Human development disperses the concentration of the distribution of goods and services that underprivileged people need and center its ideas on human decisions. decisions.[3]By investing in people, we enable growth and empower people thus developing human capabilities.[4] The most basic capabilities for human development are to lead long and healthy lives, to be knowledgeable, to have access to the resources and social services, needed for a decent standard of living and to be able to participate in the life of the community. Without these, many choices are simply not available, and many opportunities in life remain inaccessible .[5]
There are four basic pillars of human development: equity, sustainability, production and empowerment. Equity is the idea of fairness for every person; we each have the right to an education and health care. Secondly, sustainability is the view that we all have the right to earn a living that can sustain us and have access to a more even distribution of goods amongst populations. In addition, production is used to show how the government needs more efficient social programs for its people. Lastly, empowerment is providing people who are powerless to be given power such as women. women.[6]
This way of looking at development, often forgotten in the immediate concern with accumulating commodities and financial wealth, is not new. Philosophers, economists and political leaders have long emphasized human well-being as the purpose, the end, of development. As Aristotle said in ancient Greece, “Wealth is evidently not the good we are seeking, for it is merely useful for the sake of something else.”[7]
Developed countries are seen as those who have a continuous progress in the indexes of life. The countries that have seemed to excel are viewed as having better policies than those who have remained stagnant.[8]
[edit]Human [edit]Human rights and human development
In seeking that something else, human development shares a common vision with human rights. rights. The goal is human freedom. Therefore, human development is interconnected with human rights and human freedom because in well-managed prisons life expectancy and literacy as measured by the Human Development Index could be quite high.[9] And in pursuing pursuing capabil capabilities ities and realizing realizing rights, rights, this freedom freedom is vital. vital. People must be free to exercise their choices and to participate in decision-making that affects their lives. Human development and human rights are mutually reinforcing, helping to secure the well-being and dignity of all people, building self-respect and the respect of others. [10]
[edit]Health [edit]Health and human development
Development is undermined by health concerns as it both directly and indirectly influences growth to be lower. HIV/AIDS in addition to malaria has negatively influenced development and increased poverty in places such as Africa. Achieving adequate health standards is important for the success of development and the abolition of poverty. [11]
[edit]Human Development Report
The Human Development Report (HDR) is released by the United Nations and contains the Human Development Index. There is not only a global Human Development Report but there are regional and national reports as well that specifically show certain areas. Within the report there are four main indexes: Human Development Index, Gender-related Development Index, Gender Empowerment Measure and the Human Poverty Index.[12]
The Human Development Index is a way for people and nations to see the policy flaws of regions and countries. Although the releasing of this information is believed to encourage countries to alter their policies, there is no evidence demonstrating changes nor is there any motivation for countries to do so.[13]
Human Development Index
Main article: Human Development Index The Human Development Index (HDI) is the normalized measure of life expectancy,literacy, education, standard of living, and GDP per capita for countries worldwide. It is an improved standard means of measuring well-being, especially child welfare and thus human development.[14] Although this index makes an effort to simplify human development, it is much more complex than any index or set of indicators.[15]
The 2007 report showed a small increase in world HDI in comparison with last year's report. This rise was fueled by a general improvement in the developing world, especially of the least developed countries group. This marked improvement at the bottom was offset with a decrease in HDI of high income countries.
[edit]Human Poverty Index
In order to reflect the gaps in the Human Development Index, the United Nations came out with the Human Poverty Index (HPI) in 1997. The HPI measures the deficiencies in the three indexes of the human development index: long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living. The HPI is meant to provide a broader view of human development and is adapted to developed countries to reveal social exclusion. [16]
[edit]United Nations Millennium Development Goals
In September 2000, the United Nations came up with the eight millennium development goals. The eight millennium development goals are: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger - achieve universal primary education - promote gender equality and empower women - reduce child mortality - improve maternal health - combat HIV/AIDS and other diseases - ensure environmental sustainability - develop a global partnership
for development The United Nations made a commitment to accomplish these goals by 2015 and thus make an attempt to promote human development.
The Philippines has published five national human development reports since 1994. These reports have acquired a reputation for factually based, insightful and well writt en analyses of human development issues in t he Philippines. The PHDR is today a highly respected publication not just in the Philippines but also in the community of nations.
In October 2000, at the conclusion of the Second General Forum on Human Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, when the first annual National Human Development Report Awards Programme was launched, the PHDR 2000 was among the awardees. PHDR 2000 won awards in three categories: Excellence in the Innovative Use of Human Development Measurement Tools, Excellence in Presentation and Design, and Excellence in Participation and Policy Impact.
The issue of the Philippine Human Development Report in 1994 introduced to Philippine readers the concept of Human Development, explaining its difference from the more traditional measure of development like per capita income and the significance of measures of life expectation and literacy and education in the promotion of human development. For the first time, it computed the Human Development Index (HDI) for each of the country’s regions and drew out policy implications of the index for action of national and regional authorities.
Succeeding issues dwelt on specific themes, defining and analyzing these and deriving policy suggestions from them. The 1997 issue highlighted the theme of Gender focusing on the enhancement of women’s capabilities and opportunities to make choices. This report noted the significant gains attained by the Philippines in increasing women’s access to education and jobs in certain sectors, and participation in elections as voters and candidates. The report of 2000 focused on Education. After documenting what is called an alarming decline in the quality of Philippine education it outlined a general framework for dealing with the problem. The latest issue, PHDR 2002, focused on the Employment, more specifically on the nature of unemployment in the Philippines, the profile of the unemployed and quality of employment, and recommended ways and means of generating employment opportunities’ to enable people to live in prosperity and dignity. Each of these issues also came up with the latest computations of provincial HDI’s.
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Life expectancy is one of the indicators of human development. Current female life expectancy at birth rose by 1.5 years while
current male life expectancy at birth rose by 2.0 years from the 2000-2005 projections. The current projected female life expectancy remains higher at 71.64 years compared to men at 66.11 years (2005-2010 projection, NSO).
•
The Family Planning Survey (FPS) conducted by NSO in 2006 revealed that for every 100,000 live births in the Philippines, 162
women die during pregnancy and childbirth or shortly after childbirth. The ratio of maternal deaths to live births slightly declined from an estimate of 172 deaths from the National Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) in 1998, and 209 deaths from the National Demographic Survey (NDS) conducted in 1993.
•
The ratio of maternal deaths to live births slightly declined in 2006 from an estimate of 172 deaths from the National Demographic
and Health Survey (NDHS) in 1998, and 209 deaths from the National Demographic Survey (NDS) conducted in 1993.
•
At 22 percent decrease rate from the 1990 baseline, the decrease of the current maternal mortality ratio is still far from the 53 deaths MDG target for 2015.
•
In 2006, 6 out of 10 married women, 15 to 49 years old, were at risk of conceiving a child with an elevated risk of mortality.
•
These women were considered at risk either because they were impregnated at an early age (less than 18 years) or too old (age 35 or older) or have more than 3 previous births at an unacceptably short birth interval (under 24 months). The estimate was higher than the 2005 estimate of 50.6 percent (around 5 out of 10 women).
•
In 2006, 51 in every 100 women or 50.6 percent of child-bearing age were using a family planning method.
•
For women who are using modern methods, the 2006 estimate was 35.9 percent (around 36 for every 100 women) from the previous 36.0 percent in 2005.
•
Traditional methods such as Withdrawal, Calendar/Rhythm/Periodic Abstinence, etc. were still used by women with 14.8 percent (around 15 for every 100 women) in 2006 and 13.2 percent in 2005.
•
The most preferred contraceptive method used by women in 2006 is pills at 16.6 percent with a slight decrease from 17.1 percent in 2005. Female sterilization came next at 10.4 percent, which slightly increased from 9.4 percent in 2005.
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The public sector continues to be the main provider of modern family planning methods in 2006. For female ligation, 7 out of 10 women had their operations in government hospitals; 8 out of 10 women had their IUD in public facilities; and 9 out of 10 women had their injectables also from public facilities. Pills (7 out of 10 users) and condoms (8 out of 10 users) were purchased/acquired in the private sector.
•
The 2008 NDHS revealed that most pregnant women (91.1%) received antenatal care from skilled providers like doctors, nurses and midwives. About 39.1 percent of them received care from medical doctors, 50.6 percent received care from midwives, 1.4 percent from nurses, 5.0 percent from hilots, while 3.8 percent of pregnant women received no antenatal care at all.
•
The 2006 FPS also revealed that 6 out of 10 birth deliveries or 56.5 percent occurred at home; 27.1 percent (3 out of 10) in public health facilities; and 15.3 percent (2 out of 10) in private health facilities. Most birth deliveries occurring at home were attended by Hilots (traditional midwives) at 50.4 percent (5 out of 10 birth deliveries). Likewise, medical doctors were the leading birth attendants in cities and other urban areas at 50.9 percent (5 out of 10 birth deliveries).
•
The 2003 National Nutrition Survey revealed the prevalence of 5 nutrition-related and lifestyle risk factors, namely 1) dyslipidemia, 2) diabetes 3) hypertension 4) smoking and 5) obesity. Based on the results, hypertension remained relatively high. Smoking is the most common lifestyle risk factor. The prevalence of smoking in women is relatively low at 12.1 percent compared to that of men at 56.3 percent.
•
On the same note, 26.6 percent of pregnant women and 11.7 percent lactating women are underweight. Anemia remains a health problem among pregnant and lactating women at 43.9 percent and 42.2 percent respectively.
•
From January to December 2009, the Department of Health recorded 835 HIV Ab Seropositive cases, 806 of which are asymptomatic and 29 are full-blown AIDS, 1 of which already died. The DOH’s HIV/AIDS Registry documented a total of 4,424 reported cases of HIV Ab Seropositive from January 1984 to December 2009.
•
Of the total reported cases, 3,592 (8 out of 10) were asymptomatic or in a stage of chronic infection during which there are no symptoms of HIV infection, and 832 (2 out of 10) were full-blown AIDS resulting to 318 documented deaths.
•
As of December 2009, women with HIV/AIDS were recorded at 1,181 cases (26.76%) with 58.37 percent belonging to 25-39 age group and another 21.60 percent in the 15-24 age group. HIV/AIDS cases for men were higher at 3,232 cases (73.24%) with 58.92 percent aged 25-39 years and 14.87 percent aged 15-24 years. There were 11 cases with no reported age and gender.
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Of the total 4,424 HIV Seropositive cases, 1,348 were OFWs, of which 3 out of 10 were women.
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Sexual intercourse was still the leading mode of transmission accounting for 99 percent of the total cases and nearly 100 percent of the OFW cases. Heterosexual intercourse accounted for 55 percent; homosexual intercourse, 29 percent; and bisexual intercourse, 15 percent.
The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion, the Sacrament of the Altar , the Blessed Sacrament, the Lord's Supper , and other names, is a sacrament or ordinance that Christians celebrate in accordance with the instruction that, according to the New Testament, Jesus gave at his Last Supperto do in his memory what he did when he gave his disciples bread, saying, "This is my body", and wine, saying, "This is my blood". [1][2]
There are different interpretations of the significance of the Eucharist, but "there is more of a consensus among Christians about the meaning of the Eucharist than would appear from the confessional debates over the sacramental presence, the effects of the Eucharist, and the proper auspices under which it may be celebrated."[1]
The phrase "the Eucharist" may refer not only to the rite but also to the consecrated bread (leavened or unleavened) and wine or, unfermented grape juice (in some Protestant denominations) or water (inMormonism), used in the rite,[3] and, in this sense, communicants may speak of "receiving the Eucharist", as well as "celebrating the Eucharist".
Names and their origin
Eucharist, from Greek εὐ χαριστία (eucharistia), means "thanksgiving". The verb εὐχαριστὐ , the usual word for "to thank" in the Septuagintand the New Testament, is found in the major texts concerning the Lord's Supper, including the earliest:
For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it, and said, "This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me." (1 Corinthians 11:23-24 )
The Lord's Supper (Κυριακ ὐ ν δεὐ πνον) derives from 1 Corinthians 11:20-21.
When you come together, it is not the Lord's Supper you eat, for as you eat, each of you goes ahead without waiting for anybody else. One remains hungry, another gets drunk.
Communion is a translation; other translations are "participation", "sharing", "fellowship"[4] of the Greek κοινωνία (koinōnía) in 1 Corinthian s 10:16. The King James Version has
The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the communion of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not thecommunion of the body of Christ?[5]
[edit]Terminology for the Eucharist
"Eucharist" (noun). The word is derived from Greek "εὐχαριστία" (transliterated as "eucharistia"), which means thankfulness,
gratitude, giving of thanks. Today, "the Eucharist" is the name still used by the Eastern Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Reformed/Presbyterian, United Methodists, and Lutherans. Most Protestant traditions rarely use this term, preferring either "Communion", "the Lord's Supper", or "the Breaking of Bread".
"The Lord's Supper", the term used in 1 Corinthians 11:20 . Most denominations use the term, but generally not as their basic,
routine term. The use is predominant among Baptist groups, who generally avoid using the term "Communion", due to its use (though in a more limited sense) by the Roman Catholic Church. Many evangelical Anglicans will often use this term rather than "Eucharist".
"The Breaking of Bread", a phrase that appears in the New Testament in contexts in which, according to some, it may refer to
celebration of the Eucharist: Luke 24:35; Acts 2:42, 2:46, 20:7; 1 Corint hians 10:16.
"Communion" (from Latin communio, "sharing in common") or "Holy Communion",[6] used, with different meanings, by Roman
Catholics, Orthodox, Anglicans, and many Protestants, including Lutherans. Orthodox, Catholics, Anglicans, and Lutherans apply this term not to the Eucharistic rite as a whole, but only to the partaking of the consecrated bread and wine, and to these consecrated elements themselves. In their understanding, it is possible to participate in the celebration of the Eucharistic rite without necessarily "receiving Holy Communion" (partaking of the consecrated elements. Most groups that originated in the Protestant Reformation usually apply this term instead to the whole rite. The meaning of the term "Communion" here is multivocal in that it also refers to the relationship of the participating Christians, as individuals or as Church, with God and with other Christians (see Communion (Christian)).
"Mass", used in the Latin Rite Roman Catholic Church, Anglo-Catholicism, the Church of Sweden, the Church of Norway and
some other forms of Western Christianity. Among the many other terms used in the Roman Catholic Church are "Holy Mass", "the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord", the "Holy Sacrifice of the Mass", and the "Holy Mysteries".[7]
The "Blessed Sacrament" and the "Blessed Sacrament of the Altar" are common terms used by Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and
Lutherans for the consecrated elements, especially when reserved in the Church tabernacle. In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints the term "The Sacrament" is used of the rite. "Sacrament of the Altar" is in common use also among Lutherans.
"The Divine Liturgy" is used in Byzantine Rite traditions, whether in the Eastern Orthodox Church or among the Eastern Catholic
Churches. These also speak of "the Divine Mysteries", especially in reference to the consecrated elements, which they also call "the Holy Gifts".
The "Divine Service" is the title for the liturgy used in Lutheran churches and is used by most conservative Lutheran churches to
refer to the Eucharist.
In Oriental Orthodoxy the terms "Oblation" (Syriac, Coptic and Armenian Churches) and "Consecration" (Ethiopian Church) are
used. Likewise, in the Gaelic language of Ireland and Scotland the word "Aifreann", usually translated into English as "Mass", is derived fromLate Latin "Offerendum", meaning "oblation", "offering".
The many other expressions used include "Table of the Lord" (cf. 1 Corinthians 10:16 ), the "Lord's Body" (cf. 1 Corinthians 11:29 ),
"Holy of Holies".
History
Further information: Origin of the Eucharist Christ with the Eucharist ,Vicente Juan Masip, 16th century.
[edit]Biblical basis The Last Supper appears in all three Synoptic Gospels: Matthew, Mark, and Luke; and in the First Epistle to the Corinthians,[1][8][9] while the last-named of these also indicates something of how early Christians celebrated what Paul the Apostle called the Lord's Supper. As well as the Eucharistic dialogue in Johnchapter 6.
[edit]Paul the Apostle and the Lord's Supper In his First Epistle to the Corinthians (c 54-55), Paul the Apostle gives the earliest recorded description of Jesus' Last Supper : "The Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it, and said, 'This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.' In the same way also the cup, after supper, saying, 'This cup is the new covenant in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me'." [10]
[edit]Gospels The synoptic gospels, first Mark,[11] and then Matthew[12] and Luke,[13] depict Jesus as presiding over the Last Supper. References to Jesus' body and blood foreshadow his crucifixion, and he identifies them as a new covenant.[14] In the gospel of John, the account of the Last Supper has no mention of Jesus taking bread and wine and speaking of them as his body and blood; instead it recounts his humble act of washing the disciples' feet, the prophecy of the betrayal, which set in motion the events that would lead to the cross, and his long discourse in response to some questions posed by his followers, in which he went on to speak of the importance of the unity of the disciples with him and each other.[14] [15]
[edit]Agape feast The expression The Lord's Supper , derived from St. Paul's usage in 1 Corinthians 11:17-34 , may have originally referred to the Agape feast, the shared communal meal with which the Eucharist was originally associated. [16] The Agape feast is mentioned in Jude 12. But The Lord's Supper is now commonly used in reference to a celebration involving no food other than the sacramental bread and wine.
[edit]Early Christian sources The Didache (Greek: teaching) is an early Church order, including, among other features, instructions for Baptism and the Eucharist. Most scholars date it to the early 2nd century,[17] and distinguish in it two separate Eucharistic traditions, the earlier tradition in chapter 10 and the later one preceding it in chapter 9.[18][19] The Eucharist is mentioned again in chapter 14.[20]
Ignatius of Antioch (ca. 35 or 50-between 98 and 117), one of the Apostolic Fathers,[21] mentions the Eucharist as "the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ", [22] and Justin Martyr speaks of it as more than a meal: "the food over which the prayer of thanksgiving, the word received from Christ, has been said ... is the flesh and blood of this Jesus who became flesh ... and the deacons carry some to those who are absent."
Eucharistic theology
Main article: Eucharistic theology Many Christian denominations classify the Eucharist as a sacrament.[24] Some Protestants prefer to call it an ordinance, viewing it not as a specific channel of divine grace but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ.
Most Christians, even those who deny that there is any real change in the elements used, recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, when, and why Christ is present.[25] Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach that the consecrated elements truly become the body and blood of Jesus Christ. Transubstantiation is the metaphysical explanation given by Roman Catholics as to how this transformation occurs. Lutherans believe that the body and blood of Jesus are present "in, with and under" the forms of bread and wine, a concept known as the sacramental union. The Reformed churches , following the teachings of John Calvin, believe in a immaterial, spiritual (or "pneumatic") presence of Christ by the power of the Holy Spirit and received by faith. Anglicans adhere to a range of views although the teaching on the matter in the Articles of Religion conforms with continental Reformed theology. Some Christians reject the concept of the real presence, believing that the Eucharist is only a memorial of the death of Christ.
The Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry document of the World Council of Churches, attempting to present the common understanding of the Eucharist on the part of the generality of Christians, describes it as "essentially the sacrament of the gift which God makes to us in Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit", "Thanksgiving to the Father", "Anamnesis or Memorial of Christ", "the sacrament of the unique sacrifice of Christ, who ever lives to make intercession for us", "the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, the sacrament of his real presence", "Invocation of the Spirit", "Communion of the Faithful", and "Meal of the Kingdom".
[edit]Ritual and liturgy
[edit]Catho
Main article: Eucharist in the Catholic
See also: Mass (liturgy) The Catholic Church teaches that when the bread and wine are consecrated in the Eucharist, they cease to be bread and wine, and become, respectively, the body and blood of Christ, each of which is accompanied by the other and by Christ's soul and divinity. The empirical appearance and physical properties are not changed, but for Catholics, the reality is. The consecration of the bread (known as thehost) and wine represents the separation of Jesus' body from his blood at Calvary. However, since he has risen, the Church teaches that his body and blood can no longer be truly separated. Where one is, the other must be. Therefore, although the priest (or minister) says, "The body of Christ", when administering the host, and, "The blood of Christ", when presenting the chalice, the communicant who receives either one receives Christ, whole and entire.
The Catholic Church sees as the main basis for this belief the words of Jesus himself at his Last Supper: the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew 26:26-28; Mark 14:22-24; Luke 22:19-20) and Saint Paul's1 Corinthians 11:23-25 recount that in that context Jesus said of what to all appearances were bread and wine: "This is my body … this is my blood." The Roman Catholic understanding of these words, from the
Patristic authors onward, has emphasized their roots in the covenantal history of the Old Testament. The interpretation of Christ's words against this Old Testament background coheres with and supports belief in the Real Presence.[26] In 1551 the Council of Trent definitively declared: "Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread, it has always been the conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares again, that by the consecration of the bread and wine there takes place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ our Lord and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood. This change the holy Catholic Church has fittingly and properly called transubstantiation. " [27][28] The Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215 had spoken of "Jesus Christ, whose body and blood are truly contained in the sacrament of the altar under the forms of bread and wine; the bread being changed (transsubstantiatis ) by divine power into the body, and the wine into the blood."[29] The attempt by some twentieth-century Catholic theologians to present the Eucharistic change as an alteration of significance (transignificationr ather than transubstantiation) was rejected by Pope Paul VI in his 1965 encyclical letter Mysterium fidei In his 1968 Credo of the People of God , he reiterated that any theological explanation of the doctrine must hold to the twofold claim that, after the consecration, 1) Christ's body and blood are really present; and 2) bread and wine are really absent; and this presence and absence is real and not merely something in the mind of the believer.
On entering a church, Roman Catholics genuflect to the consecrated host in the tabernacle that holds the consecrated host, in order to acknowledge respectfully the presence of Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament, a presence to which a red votive candle or sanctuary lamp kept burning close to such a tabernacle draws attention.
