Puja Tri Sandhyā: Indian Mantras Recomposed and Standardized in Bali

The Journal of Hindu Studies 2014;7:243–272 Advance Access Publication 2 July 2014

doi:10.1093/jhs/hiu021

Puja Tri Sandhy@: Indian Mantras Recomposed and Standardised in Bali Sugi Lanus* Hanacaraka Society *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction The Balinese Hindus did not have a ‘standardised mantra’ for daily prayer until the 1950s. The followers of Balinese Hinduism did not recite Sanskrit mantras—mantras were privileges of the priests—and their religious practices only relied on prayers in Balinese language while presenting offerings at temple festivals and other special occasions of the Balinese calendar. The publication of two booklets containing the Puja Tri Sandhy@ (henceforth PTS)—a series of Sanskrit mantras performed three times a day as a daily prayer—in the 1950s changed the religious practices in Bali. In the 1950s and 1960s, PTS started to become a daily prayer for school children. Initially, it was introduced in a school in Denpasar, and later was followed by other schools in Bali. This ceremony was performed before they started their morning classes. Since its inception, PTS had been periodically revised, both in grammar and in the order of praying, and finally standardised by the Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia (PHDI)1 in 1991, which provided the official guidelines for its implementation as a national standard. Nowadays, Balinese television and radio broadcast PTS three times a day, and in some places people perform it using loudspeakers. ß The Author 2014. Oxford University Press and The Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email [email protected]

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Abstract: This article discusses the process of formulating the Puja Tri Sandhy@— a series of Sanskrit mantras performed three times a day as a daily prayer—which was developed in conjunction with the struggle of Balinese Hinduism for recognition in the context of the modern Indonesian state since the 1950s. It reviews the pre-modern Sanskrit and Old Javanese textual sources from which the Mantra was taken and recompiled in pamhplets and textbooks of Hinduism, and highlights the figures of Hindu intellectuals that played an important role in the composition and the dissemination of this mantra. Having compared the versions of the Mantra contained in early pamphlets published in the 1950s and 1960s and reconstructed its textual genesis, it discusses the role of the Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia— the Hindu council in Indonesia—in standardising the mantras and the ritual practices connected with it, and introducing them in teaching curricula.

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PTS and the ‘struggle’ of Balinese Hindu intellectuals ‘Balinese Hinduism’ (Agama Hindu Bali) is now regarded by a widespread scholarly opinion as the result of a process of reform(ul)ation promoted by Balinese urban intellectuals and religious leaders, which has been going on since the encounter with Western colonial authorities and missionaries in the early 20th century on the one hand, and Indonesian state bureaucrats after the Indonesian independence in 1945 on the other.2 On the ground that Indonesian constitution is based on the ‘Belief in the One, Almighty God’ (Kepercayaan Terhadap Tuhan Yang Maha Esa), the first President of the Indonesian Republic Soekarno established the Ministry of Religious Affairs with the mandate of handling any religious affairs in the country. This ministry indirectly influenced religious beliefs and practices in Indonesia, dividing religious communities into two groups, namely institutionalised religions (agama), recognised by the state, and beliefs (aliran kepercayaan), not recognised as official religions by the state. The first religions to be officially acknowledged by the state were Islam and Christianity; Buddhism and Hinduism, though now state-recognised religions, were initially not recognised as formal religions by the Indonesian government. Until now, all Indonesian citizens are encouraged to adhere to one of the official state religions, and have their formal religion written on their citizen ID cards. In the process of legitimating their cults and rituals to colonial scholars and missionaries first, and then acquiring recognition by the newly born Indonesian state, Balinese Hindu intellectuals were ‘struggling’ to reformulate the teachings of their religion—which derived from a pre-modern Old Javano-Balinese and Sanskrit corpus of Sáiva scriptures3—by following Islamic and Christian templates. The doctrinal canonisation and ritual standardisation, as well as the development of


The majority of the Balinese are not aware of the fact that PTS was re-composed in the 1950s. According to current ‘public memory’, PTS is an old—if not ‘timeless’— custom based on the Sanskrit Vedas, which has been inherited from ancient times through an unbroken line of transmission from generation to generation. In what follows, I discuss the process of reformulating the PTS that came about in conjunction with the Hindu struggle for recognition in the context of the modern Indonesian state. First, I trace the origin of ideas and practices of PTS to pre-modern Old Javano-Balinese textual sources. I then review some figures of prominent Balinese intellectuals and religious leaders who played an important role in the composition and dissemination of the Mantra, and unravel its textual genesis by comparing its different versions as attested in early pamphlets on Hinduism published in Denpasar in the 1950s and 1960s. Further, I highlight the function of the Parisada in encouraging the Hindus to perform daily prayers, thereby leading to the dissemination and standardisation of PTS practice. Finally, I discuss the educational curriculum created by the ministry of education, which since 1975 implemented a national textbook including PTS as an integral part of the beliefs and practices of Indonesian Hinduism.

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The term ‘(tri)sandhy@’ in Old Javano-Balinese texts The term (tri)sandhy@ is well-attested in the Old Javanese literature, which has has survived to us mainly through thousands of Balinese palm-leaf manuscripts


a formal teaching curriculum for Hinduism, were in the 1950s mainly dictated by the new developments in the Indonesian constitutional system, and in minor part caused by internal demands of Balinese Hindus. The reform(ul)ation of mainstream Sáiva religion on the island, which came to be termed Agama Hindu Bali (‘Balinese Hinduism’), may be therefore regarded as a ‘construct’ elaborated by the Balinese Hindu intelligentsia—with the contribution of few notable Indian personalities—to meet the requirements demanded by the Ministry of Religious Affairs. The Ministry in Jakarta sent his staff of bureaucrats to assess and survey Balinese Hinduism. This was mainly enacted through interviews with foremost Hindu religious leaders in Bali, which had the purpose of ascertaining whether Balinese Hinduism met the requirements for being acknowledged as an official religion on a pair with Islam and Christianity. One of the requirements was the belief in the ‘One Almighty God’ (Tuhan Yang Maha Esa). As an answer to this requirement, the Balinese Hindus adopted ‘Ida Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa’ as the generic name for the One Almighty God, which before then had generally been invoked with the various optional names and forms of the Lord Síva (Bhab@ra, Paramasíva, Sad@síva, Mahes´vara, etc.) and other Old Javano-Balinese names such as Sang Hyang Parama-Kawi, Sanghyang Embang, Sanghyang WQnang, etc.4 In the struggle to win official recognition on the one hand, and to internally ‘socialise’ and popularise the teachings to the local community on the other, Balinese religious reformers formulated the ‘Five Hindu Beliefs’ known as Pan˜ca S´[email protected] At that time some doubt arose as to whether the Balinese Hindus had a daily prayer, just like the Muslims had their five-time daily prayer known as Shalat. Responding to this challenge, PTS—the three-time Hindu daily prayer—was then formulated. To be sure, the term itself was no invention; indeed, it was already found not only in Old Javano-Balinese texts, but also in South Asian Sanskrit texts belonging to a variety of Brahmanical, VaiX>ava, and Sáiva traditions, as denoting the practice of three daily acts of worship during the ‘joints’ (sandhy@) of the day: dawn, noon, and twilight.6 These acts could consist in physical (k@yika) ritual practices such as bathing, verbal (v@cika) acts such as uttering mantras (japa) or prayers, and mental (m@nasika) acts such as visualisation (dhy@na), etc. The usual mantra used by orthodox Brahmans for the occasion was the Vedic G@yatra, but other mantras, and notably other versions of the G@yatra, were used by adherents to sectarian traditions, such as the Sáiva. As I will argue below, the Sáiva version of the G@yatra appears to have been followed on Bali.

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(lontar). Zoetmulder’s Old Javanese-English Dictionary (OJED, p. 1651) gives the following gloss of sandhy@: (Skt) union, junction, (esp.) junction of day and night, twilight, junction of the three divisions of the day (morning, noon, evening); the religious acts performed by twiceborn at these divisions, which consist of sipping water, repetition of prayers and mantras (esp. the G@yatra); the period which precedes a yuga.


OJED (pp. 1651–2) lists several attestations of the word and related forms in Old Javanese texts, from the earliest kakawins (e.g. R@m@ya>a) and parwas (e.g. ?diparwa, Agastyaparwa, Brahm@>napur@>a) throughout the late Middle Javanese and JavanoBalinese works. Relevant forms are masandhy@ ‘to perform worship at sandhy@’, pasandhyan ‘place for sandhy@ worship’, sandhy@k@la ‘time of twilight, time for sandhy@ worship’, sandhy@sewana ‘(Skt) worship at the time of sandhy@’, sandhy@sóca ‘purification at the time of sandhy@’, sandhyopas@na ‘worship performed at sandhy@’. OJED (p. 2040) also lists specific references to trisandhy@ (¼ sandhy@traya, p. 1652) ‘morning, noon and evening (the junction of the three divisions of the day)’ and the related form matrisandhy@ ‘to perform worship at the time of the three sandhy@’, trisandhy@sewana ‘worship at dawn, noon and sunset’. Although in the above occurrences of (tri)sandhy@ reference is made to various kinds of worship activities, the texts are sparing in providing us with the details of what exactly these forms of worship consisted in. The R@m@ya>a kakawin tells us that masandhy@ consists in ‘paying an act of worship to God’ (an˙arcane hyan˙, 6.50); similarly, ?diparwa mentions the ‘performance of puja’ (pam+j@) (kawQnan˙an sandhy@k@la, tatk@la ni pam+j@ niren˙ lagi, 27.24), whereas the Uttarak@>da speaks of ‘adoration’ or ‘worship’ (n˙k@ ta wQkasnirar pagawe sandhy@sewana, 42.12). A form of ritual cleansing is implied in ?diparwa 53.28, which mentions sandhy@sóca in connection to the funeral rites of ParakXit (hinaturan ta sira sandhy@sóca saha widhiwidh@na liniku-likuran).7 The As´ramav@saparwa also refers to a ritual bath (masn@na) performed by San˜jaya and Vidura with the assistance of men of religions (mpu) at a penance-grove near the river Gan˙g@; this ritual bath, which is qualified as masandhy@weXana (prob. for masandhy@sewana, cf. OJED p. 1651), serves the purpose of cleansing all sins.8 The Uttarak@>na also describes worship activities at sandhy@ (asandhyopas@na) as taking place near water, e.g. ‘the four seas’ (caturjaladhi, 41.14) or the river Saray+, whose water is used to make a libation (udakatarpa>a, 131.18) and then sipped (anicip)9; elsewehere, the same text speaks of asandhyopas@na in terms of an offering of holy water (udak@n˜jali) made by [email protected] From the context of the above passages as well as similar ones in Old Javanese literature, the deity receiving the libation appears to be Síva in his form as Sun (sív@ditya).11 The Buddhist San˙ Hyan˙ Kamah@y@nikan mentions the practice of yogic absorption as a form of worship to be carried out at a specific place for sandhy@ (3.10 [MS. C]: un˙gwan in˙ asam@dhi pasandhyan pan˙arcanan); R@m@ya>a kakawin 4.25 mentions

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austerities (brata) and the uttering of mantras (japa) performed in a penance-grove (@s´rama) in connection with the [email protected] The 13th-century kakawin Sumanas@ntaka also mentions the performance of p+j@ and japa during that time of the day (kulQm san˙ hyan˙ sandhy@).13 An early, and somewhat more circumstantiated, reference to trisandhy@ is found in the Agastyaparwa, a mythological text of Pur@>ic character written in Old Javanese prose interspersed with Sanskrit s´lokas (10th century AD) that is popular in Bali. The text, in the section that explains the Sáiva lineages and affiliations, ethics, and obligations of the members of the caturwar>a (the four Indic-derived divisions of society), tells us about the duties of a Brahmin appointed as purohita, one of which is to perform p+j@ trisandhy@:

This information is not accompanied by an explanation of what is meant by trisandhy@, suggesting that it must have been already clear at the time the Agastyaparwa was written. The text does not mention any of the mantras connected with it either. Another, arguably later, occurrence of the term (san˙ hyan˙) trisandhy@ is found in the Javano-Balinese Sáiva text Dewa Tattwa. A passage mentions trisandhy@ as a mantra for consecrating temple deposits (pedagin˙an) and statues, being ‘the head of the human realm’ (makahulun in˙ janmapada).15 Elsewhere in the text, trisandhy@ is mentioned in the series of mantras used for the cleansing rituals (pan˙lukatan), along with several other pan˙lukatan names: In purifying the ground of a damaged temple, all the purifying mantras should be recited, such as the agnin˙layan˙, astapun˙ku, somadaya, indranin˙, prabhu wibhuh, nawa dewata, pan˜ca dewa, ganawidhi, trisandhy@, girinatha.16

Among the Pan˙lukatan Mantras listed above, only Astapun˙ku, Nawa Dewata, Pan˜ca Dewa, Girinatha, and Agnin˙layan˙ are still passed down and listed in mantra manuscripts. What mantra or p+j@ is referred to as trisandhy@ in these texts has not been identified yet. The S@rasamuccaya, a compilation of Sanskrit verses with Old Javanese exegesis that is traditionally regarded as an authoritative scripture belonging to the Balinese Sáiva canon, glosses the item sn@na (‘ritual bath’) belonging to the five auxiliary observances (niyama) as trisandhy@sewana ‘worship at dawn, noon and sunset’.17


The activities of the reverend Br@hma>a here [in this world] should be practiced so as to [make] the world free from hindrances: he should carry out the fivefold worldly duty (pan˜cakrama lokik@c@ra) earnestly. If he stays with the King, and if he is appointed by the King as the officiant priest, he must diligently perform worship at the three divisions of the day (am+j@n trisandhy@), waterbath (toyasn@na), ash-bath (bhasmasn@na), mantric bath (mantrasn@na); in this way he performs a libation of water (udak@n˜jali) towards San˙ Hyan˙ S´[email protected]

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The above occurrences raise the question as to which mantras are used during the activities of worship during the time(s) of the day referred to as (tri)sandhy@ in Old Javano-Balinese texts. Although the fact that the texts do not spell out the mantras in question makes it difficult to advance any certain conclusion, it may be assumed that the PTS as it is commonly practiced today in Bali as a daily prayer has a different series of mantras as those originally known to the authors of the texts on palmleaf manuscripts that had been around a long time. In what follows, I shall make an attempt to describe the genesis and development of such ‘new’ (or partly new) set of mantras.

The temple prayer of Balinese people in general consists of three parts: Pengajum (worship to the majesty of God), ngaturang suksma (manifestation of gratefulness), and nunas sinampura or pan˙aksama (apology for sins). The composition of PTS follows the structure of the Balinese common temple worship. PTS consists of six mantras taken from various textual sources that are later combined into a single daily prayer. The six verses of the ‘standarised version’ of the PTS and the sources of the mantras are as follows (quoted verbatim from Sura and Sindhu 1993, pp. 4–5). Regarding to the source manuscripts of PTS, it is fundamental to inspect Sugriwa’s and Pandit Shastri’s account on PTS—these two prolific figures were the key persons behind its composition. The first verse is the famous ‘G@yatri¯ mantra’ (Sugriwa 1960b), apparently quoted from the Weda Parikrama (Pandit Shastri 1951, p. 13). The Weda Parikrama is a ritual manual concerning the recitation of mantras, mainly used by the Balinese Sáiva priests for their daily worship.18 Sylvain Le´vi (1933, p. xviii) found that ‘The full title is Vedaparikramas@rasa:hit@kira>a. Parikrama, in Balinese ritual, is another name of the mandhya p+j@, that is the only form of cult practiced in the daily worship’.19 Goudriaan and Hooykaas (1971, p. 519) thus commented on the existance of the Vedic G@yatra in Bali: This famous stanza in the G@yatra metre (OV. 3, 62, 10) is one of the very few specimens of Vedic poetry found in Bali. It exists complete, albeit in a state of serious mutilation, in two mss: Ho 4/5 and PKRo 9a. In both sources, the G@yatra is preceded by the Vy@hPti. The second p@da of the G@yatra is said also during S+rya Sevan@, at the very end of the ritual (Hooykaas 1966, p. 126), and also, according to one ms, during the full and new moon ritual (Hooykaas 1966, p.180)’.20

Sugriwa (1960b, p. 19) claimed that in Bali ‘the G@yatra mantra was a highly confidential mantra [. . .] uttered repeatedly by the Brahmins when conducting Trisandhy@’. In his diary (years 1951–2) Sugriwa considered the famous G@yatra mantra to be the Brahma G@yatra, and noted that four versions of G@yatra circulated


The source manuscripts of PTS

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in Bali: Brahma G@yatra, ViX>u G@yatra, Síva G@yatra, and Rudra G@yatra. Alternative versions of the ViX>u G@yatra and Rudra G@yatra feature in a collection of various mantras titled Pasupati Mantra.21 Whereas the ViX>u G@yatra and Rudra G@yatra appear to be variation of the famous Vedic G@yatra or Savitra, the Brahma G@yatra reported in this manuscript does not seem related to the [Vedic] G@yatra. In describing one such mantras—titled Rudra G@yatra Dhy@na—Goudriaan and Hooykaas (1971, p. 299) noted that ‘this fragment of four s´lokas has nothing to do with the [Vedic] G@yatra’. In fact, the commonest form of G@yatra to have circulated in Bali seems to have been the so-called Rudra G@yatra (or Tantric G@yatra) variation of the famous Vedic G@yatra or S@vitra. For instance, this is attested as stanza 4 of Stuti 360 (Goudriaan and Hooykaas 1971, p. 226), a version of the Sáiva Pan˜cabrahmamantra dedicated to the five faces or aspects of Síva, which is found—either together or in fragmentary form, and with variations—in the Taittiraya ?ra>yaka (10.43–47, corresponding to Mah@>@r@ya>a UpaniXad 7.3–7, verses 277–86 in Varenne’s edition), in the concluding parts of the five sections of the P@súpatas+tra, as well as in a plethora of Tantric Sáiva sources in Sanskrit. The second verse of PTS was, according to Sugriwa (1960b, p. 19), ‘taken from Yajurweda çirah found in Bali’. On the other hand, Pandit Shastri (1951, p. 14) remarked that the verse was quoted from the Catur Weda. The Yajurweda Sírah or Weda Sírah is nothing other than the N@r@ya>@tharvasírXopaniXad (Le´vi 1933, p. xv), which is on Bali often referred to as the Catur Weda. A compilation of mantras called Yajurweda Síra$ (or just Yayur Weda) is found in a ms. titled Catur Weda Siwa Buddha.22 As reported by Le´vi (1933, p. xvi) and Hooykaas (1966, p. 180), Balinese priests recite a mantra called Weda Síra$ during the full and new moon ritual. The third verse of PTS comes from the Sívastava—a series of Sáiva mantras found in Bali (Le´vi 1933, p. 58; Pandit Shastri 1951, p. 15). The stanza in question worships the Lord Síva as the One Almighty God known under the various names of Mah@deva, `s´vara, Brahm@, ViX>u, Rudra, and PuruXa. Sugriwa (1960b, p. 19) declared that ‘the mantra was taken from Weda Parikrama, a Hindu-Bali scripture’. The fourth, fifth, and sixth verses of the PTS are a series of mantras found in the Weda Parikrama (Pandit Shastri 1951, p. 15). In one of his textbooks of Balinese Hinduism, Sugriwa (1960b, p. 21) remarked that ‘the mantras were quoted from the weda pengaksama; they were five consecutive verses, but only three verses were taken for Tri-Sandhy@’.23 Long before PTS was composed, this series of mantra had been widely known in Bali as weda pangaksama or mantra pengaksama, which is itself a part of S+rya Sewana (Hooykaas 1966, p. 88). This series of five verses was widely spread in Bali and was included in Kusuma Dewa manuscript, a ritual manual for the pamangku priest. In addition to the six verses quoted above, the PTS follows a formalised sequence of ‘performance’. Before the utterance of the six verses, the guideline book for performing the PTS prescribes the performance of @sana or an appropriate posture—either a standing position (pad@sana) or a sitting position (padm@sana for men and bajr@sana for women)—and the performance of a hand-gesture called

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The key persons and early published versions of PTS In his article Books made in Bali, Hooykaas (1963) mentioned the booklet Dasa Sila Agama Bali by Prof. Narendra Dev Pandit Shastri (1951) which ‘had acquired the approval of the Balinese Brahman priests and the authorities’. Hooykaas did not note that the pamphlet contained the Tri Sandhy@ composition. This publication, which contains the five-verse version of the PTS, is to be considered as the pioneer of the printing and public distribution of the Tri Sandhy@. Dasa Sila Agama Bali (‘The Ten Principles of Balinese Religion’) is the first book by Narendra Dev Pandit Shastri—an Indian lecturer of Sanskrit who moved to Bali by 1950.24 In this 16-page publication, Pandit Shastri tried to investigate the common ground between Balinese religion and Hinduism in India. The composition of a prayer called ‘Tri Sandhy@’ was included, along with the 10 common points that Pandit Shastri found between Balinese religion and Indian Hinduism (1951, p. 14–6). This version of Tri Sandhy@ contains only five verses—the sixth mantra was apparently added in the later compositions of PTS. The booklet includes the five mantras and their translations, but does not give the procedure of implementation. It mentions that the first mantra is the ‘G@yatra quoted from Weda Parikrama’ (G@yatra dipetik dari Weda Parikrama), the second mantra is ‘quoted from Catur Weda’ (dipetik dari Catur Weda), the third is the Sívastava, and the fourth and the fifth were quoted from Weda Parikrama too. As reported by Hooykaas, the cover of Dasa Sila Agama Bali reproduces the following dictum: Telah mendapat persetudjuan dari pihak: Pedanda2 dan orang terkemuka lainnja di Bali dan Lombok (‘Agreed upon by PQdandas and other prominent figures in Bali and Lombok’). In the introduction to the book, Pandit Shastri (1951, pp. 2–3) indeed expresses his gratitude to Sugriwa and other figures, including some prominent intellectuals such as I Wajan Bhadra and Dr Roeloef Goris, and a list of clerics, kings (raja), Sáiva priests (pQdanda) and men of letters (sastrawan) who


amusti karana, in which the right and the left thumbs should be put together with the left hand below the right hand while gripping the right hand. The performance continues with breath control (pr@>@y@ma, one of the six stages of Sáiva Xanan˙gayoga) and the cleansing of the hands with mantras (karasoddhana, Skt karasódhana). Pr@n@y@ma is done by (i) inhaling and silently reciting the mantra Om Ang nama$’, (ii) holding the breath and silently reciting the mantra O: Un˙ nama$, and (iii) exhaling and silently reciting the mantra O: Man˙ nama$—these bajamantras being the three syllables constituting the O: (A-U-Ma). Karasoddhana is done by (i) cleansing the right hand with the mantra Om súddha m@m sv@h@ (‘Om, Lord purify me’) and (ii) cleansing the left hand with the mantra Om ati súddha m@m sv@h@ (‘Om, Lord purify me further more’). The sources of these mantras are the ritual compilations known as Puja Parikrama, Weda Parikrama, and Argha P@tra; many other manuscripts contain guidance for pr@>@y@ma and self-purification as the starting part of the p+j@ activities.

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were involved in the ‘reform movement’ of the 1940s–1950s, and whose thoughts remain influential in the religious and traditional literature circles to this day.25 Beside the listed figures were the sources of Pandit Shastri’s quest on Balinese religion and Tri Sandhy@, including Sylvain Le´vi’s Sanskrit Text from Bali, which he had apparently in hand as his guideline to explore the ‘Sanskrit aspects’ of Balinese religion.26 In the introduction to his Weda Parikrama of 1953, Pandit Shastri admitted that the Sanskrit mantras were taken and quoted from Le´vi’s book. Looking at the use of such terms as ‘Catur Weda’, ‘Weda Parikrama’, ‘Síwastawa’, as well as the forms of the mantras, one could see that both conform to Sanskrit Text from Bali, which must therefore be regarded as one of the sources—if not the main source—of Pandit Shastri’s Tri Sandhy@ composition (1951, p. 14–6).27 Judging from the statement reported on the cover of the Weda Parikrama, it is possible that the composition of Tri Sandhy@ in Pandit Shastri’s book is also the result of his consultations with Ida PUdanda Made Kemenuh,28 I Wajan Bhadra,29 I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa, and any of the other figures mentioned there. Even though there appears to have been a Tri Sandhy@ composition that obtained the approval of the pQdandas and community leaders already in 1951, this composition was not by then widely known.30 Pandit Shastri and his circle started to introduce Tri Sandhy@ by introducing the G@yatra mantra in public schools. Pandit Shastri, in an interview with Ketut Subagiasta, revealed that ‘At the beginning, Balinese performed Tri Sandhy@ with only one mantra, which was the G@yatra mantra [. . .]’ (Subagiasta 2009, p. 144). The teaching of mantras was considered a ‘private business’, and one that was preserved for Sáiva priests; in fact, this sacred mantra was taught in public for student for the first time by Pandit Shastri himself in 1953 in Denpasar’s Dwijendra School, where he taught Hinduism and Sanskrit.31 In Dwijendra School, Pandit Shastri was surrounded by prominent Balinese teachers and intellectuals. The man of letters I Wayan Reta—the founder of Dwijendra Foundation and Narendra Dev Pandit Shastri’s sidekick—also supported the teaching of the mantra [email protected] I Gusti Made Tamba—a prolific writer and educator, founder of Perguruan Rakjat Saraswati33—was a teammate of Pandit Shastri’s writing and teaching activities. It is in this context and milieu that the prayer with G@yatra mantra began to grow in popularity, along with other (Neo-)Hindu teachings. The Balinese public intellectual I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa, who was also among the founders of the Dwijendra Foundation, participated in the school’s teaching activities. He was widely known and respected as a senior teacher, an expert of Old Javanese literature, and a public authority in the matters of Balinese religion. Since 1929 he had written books and journal articles on Balinese Hindu literature and religion. According to Hooykaas (1963, p. 381), ‘I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa was beyond doubt the most prolific of Balinese authors, and perhaps also the most learned and the most versatile’. His thought became very influential from the 1950s until the 1970s; he was by then regarded as a rare combination of a teacher, a public

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Puja Tri Sandhy@

People who embrace Hinduism both in Bali and in other areas are obliged to pray three times a day, namely: morning, afternoon and evening, which is called ‘Tri-Sandhy@’. Tri means three. San (sam) means good and/or God’s revelation, and dhy@ means to meditate. Thus Tri Sandhy@ means meditate to the presence of God Almighty, three times a day with a good and clean mind.39


intellectual, and a OXi proficient in spiritual matters.34 He was one of the most important figures in the struggle of the Balinese Hindus for gaining official recognition from the Indonesian state.35 Besides the publication of Tri Sandhy@ in its five-verse version by Pandit Shastri (1951, pp. 14–6), a ‘new’ version consisting in a set of six verses was published by Sugriwa in Madjalah Indonesia (April 1953). This version was recommended to be applied by the Balinese Hindus in the series of Nyepi Brata practices for the celebration of the Sáka New Year. In fact this version did not include the G@yatra, let alone put it as the first mantra of the series—that is, the G@yatra that was at a later date standardised as the first verse in the six-verse version of PTS. Three out of the six verses of Sugriwa’s version were later included in the ‘standard’ composition of PTS as the fourth, fifth, and sixth verses. At a later date, Pandit Shastri published an undated book entitled Tri Sandhy@ (see Hooykaas 1963, p. 380). Whereas the composition of PTS in the book entitled Dasa Sila Agama Bali (1951) consists of five mantras, in Tri Sandhy@ it consists of six mantras—that is, including the last verse, added by Sugriwa, which had become part of the standardised version of PTS. The book Tri Sandhy@, published by Bhuvana Saraswati Publications,36 explains the meaning of Tri Sandhy@, guidelines on how to practice the PTS, and the meaning of the Sanskrit words used in it. In addition to the six mantras, the book adds other mantras as well, namely two verses of mantras to be recited before lunch, one verse after lunch, as well as seven verses of mantras for prayer at dusk or at night—thereby reaching a total of sixteen verses. In 1956, Sugriwa published a stenciled book entitled Tri [email protected] Pandit Shastri’s and Sugriwa’s books have an identical composition of PTS. It seems that at that stage both authors agreed to spread the six-verse composition of PTS widely. A difference between the versions by Pandit Shastri and Sugriwa is that the former was written only in Latin script, while the latter was written in Balinese script; furthermore, Sugriwa’s book also gave some explanations and translations in both Balinese language and Indonesian.38 While Pandit Shastri’s book emphasised on the procedure for the implementation of PTS, which he illustrated with drawing of @sana (appropriate posture) and pr@>@y@ma (breathing control), and provided meaning of the Sanskrit words used in the mantras, Sugriwa’s book was intended as an ‘instruction’ advising Hindus to implement PTS as the standard morning, afternoon, and evening prayer. To Sugriwa (1956, p. 2),

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The steps following thereupon were explained with some degree of detail.40 This description has become the convention applied today. All the morning, noon, and evening puja use the same mantras, known today as PTS. Both books taught about asanas (postures) and pranayama (breathing) as the initial stage or preparation before reciting the six mantras. It appears that, after 1956, the publications describing PTS—printed in either Balinese or Latin script, and in Balinese or Indonesian languages—no longer mentioned the two authors,41 and PTS thereby started to ‘belong to the public’, being since then known to the public as an anonymous composition dating back to an ancestral past. The books by Pandit Shastri and Sugriwa had equally important roles in the context of the ‘socialisation’ of PTS. Standing among the foremost exponents of Balinese Hinduism in the 1940s and 1950s, the two figures may be considered as the key persons behind the composition of PTS. Which one of them was the main ‘composer’ of PTS cannot be concluded beyond doubt. I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa and Pandit Shastri had known each other at least since 1951—the year of publication of the first book Tri Sandhy@ by Pandit Shastri, before the Dwijendra school was established. The important contribution of Pandit Shastri and Sugriwa in the emergence of PTS in Bali is that this ‘new’ composition had shaken the ‘old school’ that considered mantras as the unique domain of Sáiva priests and other categories of men of religion. After the publication of the textbooks on Balinese Hinduism in general, and the PTS in particular, knowledge of mantras and procedures for reciting them that were previously only accessible to a limited circle of people became open to general public. In this respect, PTS has made the Balinese people to have access to mantras, which have now become a common feature in the daily life of many Balinese. The first table below (Table 2) compares the earliest versions of PTS by Pandit Shastri, the same composition by Sugriwa and Pandit Shastri of ca. 1956, and the standard version as officialised by PHDI. The second table (Table 3) illustrates the three different versions of Sugriwa’s compositions, showing that he tried to revise the composition of PTS up to the year 1960. Pandit Shastri’s version (195?) and Sugriwa’s version (1956) had been spread and accepted widely; the latter version was adopted and standardised with minor spelling correction by PHDI at a later date.42 The versions of PTS by Sugriwa (1956) and the undated version by Pandit Shastri are virtually identical. Both are ‘more advanced’ in comparison to the earlier Tri Sandhy@ composition featuring in Pandit Shastri’s Dasa Sila Agama Bali (1951), and both include a sixth added stanza. The undated (and anonymously published, although attributable to both Sugriwa and Pandit Shastri) editions published at a later date (see my note 41) followed this ‘common’ version. On the cover of one such books the dictum ‘Agreed upon by: Head of the Religious Office, Province of Bali, Denpasar’ was printed. The inclusion of this formal approval suggests that the process of adoption of PTS as the ‘daily prayer’ of Balinese Hindus had started to take

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Table 1. ‘Standardised version’ of PTS with Indonesian and English translation PTS

Indonesian translationa

English translationb

O: adalah bh+r bhuva$ sva$ Kita memusatkan pikiran pada kecemerlangan dan kemuliaan Sanghyang Widhi, Semoga Ia berikan semangat pikiran kita.

O: is bhur, bhuva$ and sva$. Let us meditate on the light and glory of Sanghyang Widhi, and may He give us spirit to our thoughts!

O: N@r@ya>a adalah semua ini apa yang telah ada dan apa yang akan ada, bebas dari noda, bebas dari kotoran, bebas dari perubahan tak dapat digambarkan, sucilah dewa N@r@ya>a, Ia hanya satu tidak ada yang kedua.

O:, N@r@ya>a is this entire universe, what has been and what will be; free from taint, free from dirt, free from mental constructs and free from appellation; He is N@r@ya>a, the pure God: He is only one and there is no other.

O: Engkau dipanggil Síva, Mah@deva, `s´vara, Parames´vara, Brahma, ViX>u, Rudra dan PuruXa

O:, You are called Síva, Mah@deva, `s´vara, Parames´vara, Brahm@, ViX>u, Rudra, and PuruXa.

O: hamba ini papa, perbuatan hamba papa, diri hamba papa, kelahiran hamba papa, lindungilah hamba Sanghyang Widhi sucikanlah jiwa dan raga hamba.

O:, this servant is sinful, the acts of this servant are sinful, I am filled with sin, my birth is sinful; O Sanghyang Widhi,c protect your servant, purify the mind and body of your servant!

O: ampunilah hamba Sanghyang Widhi, yang memberikan keselamatan kepada semua makhluk, bebaskanlah hamba dari segala dosa, lindungilah oh Sang Hyang Widhi.

O:, forgive me Sanghyang Widhi, who give salvation to all sentient beings! Save me from all this sorrow, guide me, redeem and protect me, O Sang Hyang Widhi!

O: ampunilah dosa anggota badan hamba, ampunilah dosa perkataan hamba, ampunilah dosa pikiran hamba, ampunilah hamba dari kelalaian hamba. O: damai, damai, damai, O:

O:, forgive my sinful deeds, forgive my wrong speech, forgive my sinful mind, forgive me for all those misdeeds and birth! O:, [may there be] peace, peace, peace, O:.

[Verse 1] O: bh+r bhuva$ sva$ tat savitur vare>ya: bhargo devasya dhamahi dhiyo yo na$ pracoday@t

[Verse 2]

[Verse 3] O: tva: síva$ tva: mah@deva$ `s´vara$ parames´vara$ brahm@ viX>usća rudrasća puruXa$ parikartita$

[Verse 4] O: p@po ’ha: p@pakarm@ha: p@p@tma p@pasambhava$ tr@hi m@m pu>narak@kXa sab@hy@bhyantara$ súci$

[Verse 5] O: kXamasva m@: mah@deva sarvapr@>i hitan˙kara m@: moca sarva p@pebhyah p@layasva sad@síva

[Verse 6] O: kX@ntavya$ kayiko doXa$ kX@ntavyo v@ciko mama kX@ntavyo m@naso doXa$ tat pram@d@t kXamasva m@m O: Sánti$ Sánti$ Sánti$ O:

a

This version is the ‘standardised’ Indonesian translation by PHDI (Sura and Sindhu 1993, pp. 5–6; Sudharta et al 2003, pp. 43–4). b The English translations of PTS in this article are based on the ‘standardised’ Indonesian translation by PHDI. c Interestingly, the Indonesian version has replaced the Sanskrit compound pu>narak@kXa$ (‘lotuseyed’) with the name of God, Sang Hyang Widhi.


O: N@r@ya>a evedam sarva: yad bh+ta: yac ca bhavya: niXkalan˙ko niran˜jano nirvikalpo nir@khy@ta$ súddho deva eko n@r@ya>o na dvitayo’sti kasćit

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Table 2. Early versions vis-a`-vis the standardised version of PTS Pandit Shastri’s version (195?) and Sugriwa’s version (1956)b

PHDI’s standardised versionc

Om Bhur bhuwah swah Tat savitur warenyam bhargo dewasya dhimahi dhiyo yo nah pracodayat

Om bh+r bhuwah swah tat sawitur warenyam bhargo dewasya dhamahi dhiyo yo nah pratjoday@t

O: bh+r bhuva$ sva$ tat savitur vare>ya: bhargo devasya dhamahi dhiyo yo na$ pracoday@t

Om Narayanadewadam sarwam yad bhutam yaçca bhawyam niskalo, nirjano nirwikalpo, niraksatah çudho dewo eko, Narayana, na dwitiyo asti kaçcit.

Om n@r@yan@d ewadam sarwam, yad bh+tam yastja bh@wyam niskalo nirdjano nirwikalpo nir@ksatah, çuddho dewa eko n@r@yanah na dwitayo’sti kastjit

O: N@r@ya>a evedam sarva: yad bh+ta: yac ca bhavya: niXkalan˙ko niran˜jano nirvikalpo nir@khy@ta$ súddho deva eko n@r@ya>o na dvitayo’sti kasćit.

Twam Çiwah twam Mahadewah, Içwarah Parameçwarah Brahma Wisnuçca Rudraçca Purusah parikirtitah.

Om twam çiwas twam mah@dewah, açwarah parameçwarah brahm@ wisnus tja rudras tja purusah parikartitah.

O: tva: síva$ tva: mah@deva$ `s´vara$ parames´vara$ brahm@ viX>usća rudrasća puruXa$ parikartita$

Om! papo ’ham papakarma ’ham papatma papasambhawah trahi mam pundarikaksa sab ah yabhyantarasuci

Om p@po’ham p@pakarm@’ham p@p@tm@ papa sambhawah tr@hi m@m pundarak@ksah sa b@hyabhyantarah çutjih

O: p@po’ha: p@pakarm@ha: p@p@tma p@pasambhava$ tr@hi m@m pu>narak@kXa sab@hy@bhyantara$ súci$

Om! ksamaswa mam Mahadewa sarwaprani hitangkarah Mam moca sarwapapebhyo palayaswa Sadaçiwah

Om ksamaswa m@m mah@dewa sarwapr@ni hit@nkarah m@m motja sarwa p@pebhyah p@layaswa sad@ çiwa

O: kXamasva m@: mah@deva sarvapr@>i hitan˙kara m@: moca sarva p@pebhyah p@layasva sad@síva

Om ksantawyah k@jik@ dos@h ksantawyo w@tjik@ mama ksantawyo m@nas@ dosas tat pram@d@t ksamaswa m@m

O: kX@ntavya$ kayiko doXa$ kX@ntavyo v@ciko mama kX@ntavyo m@naso doXa$ tat pram@d@t kXamasva m@m O: Sánti$ Sánti$ Sánti$ O:

a

This version is quoted verbatim from Dasa Sila Agama Bali (Pandit Shastri 1951, pp. 13–6). This version is quoted verbatim from Pandit Shastri’s version (195?), which used the Soewandi Spelling System (SSS). SSS was replaced by The Enhanced Indonesian Spelling System (Ejaan Yang Disempurnakan, abbreviated EYD), the latest Indonesian spelling system, in 1972. Soewandi-toEYD letter changes: tj becomes c; dj becomes j; j becomes y; nj becomes ny; sj becomes sy; ch becomes kh. Pandit Shastri’s version (195?) corresponds to Sugriwa’s version of 1956: see Table 3, column 2. c This version is quoted verbatim from PHDI’s standardised version (Sura and Sindhu 1993, pp. 5–6). b


Pandit Shastri’s version (1951)a

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place—although, unfortunately, no specific date can be provided in this respect. As I mentioned above, it appears that after 1956 both Pandit Shastri and Sugriwa agreed to spread the PTS composition without mentioning their name as authors. Later publications on PTS


I Ketut Gde Bambang Rawi, who is popularly known as the pioneer of a systematic presentation of the Balinese calendar, published a book in 1958 called Pustaka Agama Hindu Bali (‘Hindu-Balinese Religion Reader’). This book contained procedures for performing PTS. Rawi intervened on the order of the kXama mantras, which were used in the existing version of PTS as the forth, fifth, and sixth mantras, and followed instead the traditional order of the kXama mantras as found in some lontar manuscripts.43 Rawi’s composition was equal to the later version of Sugriwa’s Tri Sandhy@ (1960b)—see Table 3, third column. Buku Peladjaran Agama Hindu Bali (‘Hindu-Balinese Religion Textbook’), written by I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa, was published in 1960 in three volumes. As written in the front cover page, this book was intended for the religion teacher of secondary education, other schools, and the general public. This was a ‘textbook’ teaching guidelines that were based on Sugriwa’s experiences as an educator.44 Volume II (Sugriwa, 1960b) explained in detail how to carry out the PTS. This book was the very first one that taught school teachers how to instruct the students in PTS. It explained in great detail the preparatory steps in performing PTS, including some useful practical tips for teacher to instruct their students. The book also discussed the origins of the mantras and how they are pronounced. 45 In this text book, Sugriwa changed the order of the kXama mantras so as to follow the one implemented by Rawi. A stenciled pamphlet on PTS was once published by the ‘Kantor Agama Wilajah Bali Selatan’ (Religious Office of South Bali); regrettably, neither year of publication nor author is mentioned. The pamphlet used the Balinese script for Sanskrit mantras and Latin script and Indonesian language for their description and translation. Another (anonymously published) booklet, entitled Tri Sandhya Sewana, was published in 1964 by the ‘Kantor Agama Wilajah Bali Selatan’, Denpasar. From these booklets it appears that the ‘Kantor Agama Wilajah Bali Selatan’ was the first state agency to publish the PTS. These publications show that the PTS had been adopted by the state institutions as an official form of worship of Balinese Hindus. It may be argued that the PTS version published by Bhuvana Sarawasti Publications, which bore the approval by the ‘Head of the Religious Office, Province of Bali, Denpasar’, was probably issued after the publication of the PTS version of the Religious Office, of South Bali. Upadeça,46 the most influential book in the ‘spread’ of the concept of Hinduism in Bali, was compiled and published by the Parisada in 1964. The book was written in the form of a conversation between teacher (OXi Dharmakirti) and student (Suyasa) similar to the presentation of the UpaniXads. It described in a systematic and yet simple way the basic concepts of Balinese Hinduism. Insofar as it explained

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Table 3. Three version of Sugriwa’s composition Sugriwa’s handwritten version (1956)b

Sugriwa’s text book version (1960b)c

Om radityasya paranjotih, rakta tejo namostute, çweta pangkaja madhyaste, Bhaskara ya namo namaswaha.

O: bh+r bhuwah swah tat sawitur ware>ya:, bhargo dewasya dhamahi, dhiyo yo nah pracodayat.

Om bhur bhuwah swa$, tat sawitur ware>yam, bhargo dewasya dimahi, dyo yo na$ pracodaya.

Om trang hrih sah Parama-çiwa-raditya ya nama swaha. Om trang hrih sah surya ya namah. Om trang hrih sah çiwa-surya paran tejah swa rupa ya nama swaha.

O: naraya>a deweda: sarwa:, yad bh+ta:, yasća bhawya:, niXkalo, nirjano nirwakalpo, nirakXata$ súddho dewo eko, nar@ya>a na dwitiyo, aswi kasćit.

O: Narayanad ewadam sarwam, Yad bh+tam Yaçca bhawyam, niskalo nirjano nirwikalpo, niraksatah çuddho dewo eko, Narayana nadwitiyo asti kaçcit.

Om istamba meru pariwata samasta lokam bim badhi dewaya wajikaraya

Twa: síwa$ twa: mahadewah, as´wara$ parames´warah, brahma wiX>usća rudrasća puruXah, parikirtitah.

O: twam Çiwah twam Mah@dewah, `çwarah Parameçwarah, Brahm@ WiX>uçca R+draçca, PuruXah Parikirtitah.

Om papa ham papo atma ham papatma papa sambhawah trahi mam pundarikaksa sabahya byantara suci

O: p@po’ha:, p@pokarmaha:, p@p@tma p@pasambhawah, trahi m@m pu>narik@kXa, sab@hy@bhya>tara súci.

O: ksama swa mam Mahadewah, Sarwa pr@>i hitangkarah, Mamocca sarwa papebyo, Pala ya swa Sada Çiwah.

Om ksama swa mam Mahadewa sarwa prani hitangkarah mam moca sarwa papebhyo phalaya swa sadaçiwa.

O: kXamaswa ma: mah@dewa, sarwapr@>i hitan˙karah, m@: moca sarwa p@pebhyo, palayasw@ sadasíwah.

O: p@po ham p@po karma ham, pap@tma papa sambhawah, trahi mam pu>narik@kXa, sabahy@bhyantara çuci

jambo ratiwa gaganaya samasta netram ambara bindu çaranaya namo namaste diwyapo murtti pramaçwara bhaskaranam jyotih samudra pariraksita natha naya bhuh sapta loka bhuwana netraya sarwa netram aditya dewa çaranaya namaste kalaya kastha rawi bhaskara baladewa bhaktya murtti pariwarta suniskutaya ratnaya ratna mani bhusita sayutaya trailokya natha çaranaya namo namaste

(continued)


Sugriwa’s early version (1953)a

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Table 3. Continued Sugriwa’s early version (1953)a

Sugriwa’s handwritten version (1956)b

Sugriwa’s text book version (1960b)c

Om ksantawya kayika dosah ksantawya wacika mama, ksantawya manasa dosah tat pramadham ksama swa mam.

O: kX@ntawya k@yika dosah, kXantawya wacika mama, kXantawya manasa dosah tat pramada: kXama swama:. O: Sá>ti Sá>ti Sá>ti O:.

O: ksantawya kayika dosah, ksantawya wacika mama; ksantawyo manasa doXah; tat prama dam kXama swa mam. Ç@nti-ç@nti-ç@nti, Hrih, O:.d

a

the philosophical essence of PTS, its mantras and the procedure to perform it, this book played an important role in disseminating the PTS on the island. The inclusion of PTS in this book sanctioned its recognition from the Parisada: its approval and adoption as a daily prayer for Balinese Hindus on the one hand, and the need to ‘socialise’ it to the public on the other. The PTS composition in the Upadeça followed the 1956 version of Sugriwa and the undated version of Pandit Shastri (see Table 2, second column). Since the presentation of Upadeça was in the form of dialogue, and not accompanied by an explanation of the original source and the ‘composer’ of the PTS, this book was likely to raise the impression that the six verses of this mantra were passed down from ancient times, when they were delivered by a OXi directly to his pupil. This conversation form also made the contents easy to be understood by laymen, and contributed to the overall impression that the PTS has had its


Sugriwa recommend this version to be applied for the Nyepi Day prayer in 1953. It was published in Madjalah Indonesia 4, April 1953 (Sugriwa 2008, pp. 15–6). b This version is taken from the stenciled pamphlet entitled Tri Sandhy@ by Sugriwa (1956), handwritten in Balinese script, published by Toko Buku Bali Mas. I have compared the handwriting of this manuscript with Sugriwa’s handwriting, and I am confident to attribute it to I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa himself. Meanwhile, the other handwritten version by Sugriwa was probably written by someone else. Journalist I Wayan Westa refers the following: ‘Once I have interviewed Ida Bagus Bhaskara. He admitted that he wrote the Balinese script of the Tri Sandhy@ book. Sugriwa assigned Ida Bagus Gede Bhaskara to write its Balinese scripts and publish it. Ida Bagus Bhaskara was a staff at the newly formed Dinas Agama Otonoom Daerah Bali (Autonomous Regional Departement for Religious Affairs in Bali)’ (interview with I Wayan Westa, 2013). According I Gusti Made Sutjatja, ‘since Bhaskara’s handwriting was considered good, he often assigned by Sugriwa to write Balinese script’ (interview with I Gusti Made Sutjatja, 2012). c This version is quoted verbatim from Buku Peladjaran Agama Hindu Bali II (Sugriwa 1960b, pp. 19–22). d The closing line of this version had Hrih between Ç@nti-ç@nti-ç@nti and Om. According to Prof. I Made Titib (personal communication of author, 2013) I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa during his classes explained that Hrih was the bajamantra (‘seed-mantra’) of Buddhism in the Old Javanese and Balinese traditions, corresponding to the Ongkara of the Balinese Hindus. The version of PTS with the word hrih in the closing line is the version taught in schools (Sugriwa 1960b).

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Adoption and standardisation by PHDI The ‘endorsement’ from the ‘Kantor Agama Wilajah Bali Selatan’ (Religious Office of South Bali) on the Tri Sandhy@ Sewana published in 1964 clearly indicates that PTS had been by then adopted by the institution as a daily prayer that needed to be socialised. This was reinforced by the inclusion of PTS in the Upadeça, published by ‘Parisada Dharma Hindu Bali’47 in the same year. This book quickly became the reference handbook for religious courses held by the Parisada throughout Bali, as well as in other islands in Indonesia that had Hindu followers. Although the PTS had apparently been adopted and socialised through printed sources as part of the Parisada’s agenda, it is only in 1980 that the term Tri Sandhy@ appeared in the official writings of that religious body. A decree of PHDI Mahasabha IV48 mandated that ‘The head office of PHDI is to compose a practical guideline for worship and meditation for the Hindus’.49 Furthermore: The head office of PHDI is to provide the record of the melody and rhythm of Tri Sandhy@, Warga Sari and other hymns and spiritual songs to be used as guidelines or basic standards for Hindu people.50


standard form since classical times. As recognised by the priests and the wider community of Bali, Upadeça was the most successful book that became an instrument to raise systematic religious awareness in Bali. From 1964 to 1967, Upadeça was still in the form of a stenciled pamphlet; it was then printed and bound since 1967, provided with a cover picture depicting a teacher and a pupil entertaining a conversation. Since then Upadeça has been reprinted several times. This book provided the standard guidelines to community leaders and teachers in various religious courses in Bali over at least two decades, and was distributed for free to the involved parties. After the publication of Upadeça, which was acknowledged as being able to raise ‘religious understanding’ in the community, the Parisada appointed a team to write textbooks of Hinduism for elementary school children from grade I to grade VI. The year 1970 saw the publication, in six volumes, of Saraswati, Batjaan Pendidikan Agama Hindu (‘Saraswati: Reader of Hindu Religious Education’). Volume IV describes PTS (PHD 1970c, p. 2). Since the changes in the national curriculum in 1975, PTS was included in all level of education textbook, from elementary to high school. The cover of Buku Pendidikan Agama Hindu untuk Sekolah Dasar Kelas III (‘Religious Education Textbook for Elementary School Grade III’), which also described PTS, explicitly mentions that the book was designed on the basis of the 1975 curriculum (Wenten 1979). The dissemination of PTS in published form flourished ever since. As the various versions of the PTS contained in books from different publishers inevitably differed, the PHDI started to feel the need to standardise the arrangement of the order, spelling, and translation of the PTS. This work was implemented in 1991.

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Given that the teachings and practices of PTS were considered not uniform as far as the hands gesture of praying were concerned, the PHDI Mahasabha V of 1986 decided in a decree51 that the hand gesture in Tri Sandhy@ were to be brought into uniformity. The issue was described as follow: There are three types of hand gestures to worship Sang Hyang Widhi, namely: mudra, anjali and mamustika karana. Mudra: used by the priest in the worship. Anjali: used in prayer. Mamustika karana: used in performing Tri Sandhy@ or in certain mantras. Thus, the hand gesture in doing Tri Sandhy@ is Memustikarana.52

1. Establish—with the Paruman Sulinggih [‘council of priest’] of PHDI of the Province of Bali—the Krama ning Sembah [‘the proper series of temple prayer’] to be a guideline for the Hindus across Indonesia in conducting worship. 2. The head office of PHDI should publish a handbook for praying for the Siwaratri, Saraswati, Galungan and others religious festivals. 3. Establish the the revision of the text of Tri Sandhy@ that has been formulated by Paruman Sulinggih (council of priests) and mandated the board member of the head office of PHDI the period 1991-1996 to disseminate the revised text of the Tri [email protected] After the publication of the ‘final version’ of PTS in 1993, the Parisada through the provision of Mahasabha VII in 1996, encouraged ‘the even distribution of some religious manuals or guidelines published by or on the recommendation of PHDI’ (Dana 2005, p. 98). One of these guidelines was the revised version of PTS. The Mahasabha VII encouraged the expansion of Hinduism by designing programs for religious education through the mass media at the national and local levels. Since the year 2000s, PTS is broadcasted more expansively on Balinese radio and TV channels.


Since there were small differences between the text and translation of PTS as recorded in different books, it was considered necessary to ‘re-study’ the text of PTS, both phonetically/orthographically and grammatically. One of the figures who played an important role in the improvement of the text of PTS was I Gede Sura, a prominent Balinese scholar of Sanskrit and Hinduism.53 He delivered a paper on the revisions of PTS to a limited circle of people, among whom were priests and PHDI figures, in Paruman Sulinggih PHDI Bali in 1989. His revisions of the text of PTS were accepted by the Paruman Sulinggih PHDI Bali, and implemented accordingly. This revised version was later used as the principal matter of discussion for the VI Mahasabha of PHDI, held in Jakarta in 1991 (interview with I Gede Sura, 2012). The provision of Mahasabha VI,54 dated 13 September 1991, stated:

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My experience in learning PTS In this last section I find it important to share my experience as a Balinese Hindu of the ‘second generation’, who formally learnt PTS and recite it as part of everyday life in a variety of ceremonies and official occasions in Bali. The first time I learned PTS was in primary schools in 1981. When I asked my grandfather G.W. Kaler about the mantras of PTS I had just learned in school, he said that PTS was unknown to his generation. For him and his generation, PTS was at best a ‘prayer for school children’. He also remarked that, in his time, it was just the pQdanda who had the privilege of reciting mantras (maweda).58 For him, PTS contained sacred mantras, and was thus inappropriate to be spelled or recited by those who had not been initiated through the diksa ceremony, which bestows the entitlement to perform religious duties. I told what I heard from my grandfather to my father, Mangku Gede Lanus, who gave me a book containing PTS—the Upadeça—that I could read and study by myself. It was interesting for me to note how my grandfather and my father had a very different perspective on this mantra: the former representing the ‘old school’ generation, who said that maweda could only be performed by the initiated, the latter representing the ‘open school’ generation, who agreed with the teaching of the mantra G@yatra for school children. Later I found out that my father learned PTS through a course or a workshop on Hinduism held in the village of Bubunan (Buleleng, North Bali), organised by the Parisada around in the year 1967 or 1968. Upadeça was the textbook used in the course. Before that,


Monitoring the implementation of the PTS in Bali became part of ‘The Traditional Village Contest’ (Lomba Desa Adat), which was first held in 1992. The Bali Governor’s Decree of the Traditional Village Contest (Keputusan Gubernur Kepala Daerah Tingkat I Bali, Nomor 720 Tahun 1992 tentang Pedoman Pembinaan dan Penilaian Lomba Desa Adat, Subak dan Subak) listed as criteria of the scoring for the village contest ‘the completeness and perfection of the application of Tri Hita Karana philosophy of traditional village life which includes elements of Parhyangan (religious elements), Pawongan (human elements), and Palemahan (environment elements)’.56 The decree also mentioned that some elements of Parhyangan were in need of assessment, namely whether the implementation of Tri Sandhy@ and the temple-worship activities connected with it were ‘well socialised’ (memasyarakat), and how they were performed.57 Since the beginning of the contest in 1992, many village temples in Bali are equipped with loudspeakers that broadcast PTS three times a day. During the past ten years, in my small hamlet in North Bali, each household must send a representative of their families in turn to the pura desa (village temple) to recite PTS with loudspeakers in the afternoon. The puja is heard in the four corners of the village.

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my father did not know about PTS because until then it had been only taught in schools in South Bali, while he himself went to school in North Bali. I practiced PTS, and followed its gradual ‘development’, from elementary school to college. During that period I noticed that there had been fundamental changes in the PTS, such as for example in the accompanying hand gestures, which were refashioned three times; in the sequence of the mantra, where the fifth and the fourth stanzas were swapped; and in some words from the mantra itself, which had also been revised. Conclusion

Acknowledgements I would like to thank Andrea Acri for his useful comments on an early draft of this article, as well as Putu Nur Ayomi for her support in conveying my thoughts in English. My gratitude also goes to I Gede Sura for his support and suggestions, IdU Rsi Agung Wayabya Suprabhu Sogata Karang (I Gusti Bagus Sudhyatmaka Sugriwa) and Sugriwa’s family for providing me with private writings of the late I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa, Mrs Pandit Shastri for her willingness to be interviewed and for presenting me with the books of Pandit Shastri, the staff of the Library of Museum


My analysis shows that the daily prayer of Balinese (and Indonesian) Hindus, the PTS, was composed in the 1950s and continued to be improved until the 1990s. The composition of this mantra was however not an uniquely ‘Indian build-up’ that was imported to Bali so as to fill a gap, but was rather the result of recomposing and reconfiguring some Sanskrit elements—such as the G@yatra in its ‘Tantric’ form and other Stutis—that were adopted, and internalised, for centuries in Bali. Balinese intellectual circles, the emergence of stenciled and printed publications, as well as the creation of the Parisada as central authority governing religious matters all played a major role in the recomposition and the dissemination of PTS. Following these dynamics, PTS became increasingly entangled with, and adjusted to, Balinese temple ceremonies and other rituals. The ‘recomposition’ of PTS corresponded to the social dynamics of the 1950s that became the trigger for its formulation: Balinese Hindu religious leaders were struggling for the recognition of Balinese Hinduism as an official religion of the Republic of Indonesia, which was just formed about a decade earlier; the Balinese education system was in need for a teaching module and unified curriculum on Hinduism; the Balinese Hindu community required guidelines for a standard daily prayer that was open to all classes, thereby eroding the exclusive status of the priesthood as holder of mantras and breaking the code of secrecy known as aywa wera.59 It therefore appears that, triggered by some outside forces, the Balinese Hindus had their own ways of ‘creating tradition’ and ‘making consensus’ to reinvent and reorganise their religious practices and beliefs.

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Bali, Bali Documentation Center, Widya Wahana, PNRI, Sanata Dharma University Library, and Suryadi, who generously sent me some materials from KITLV’s collections. Abbreviations OJED Old Javanese-English Dictionary (see Zoetmulder 1982) PHDI Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia PTS P+j@ Tri Sandhy@ Manuscript Sources

References Acri, A., 2006. ‘The Sanskrit-Old Javanese Tutur literature from Bali. The textual basis of Sáivism in Ancient Indonesia.’ Rivista di Studi Sudasiatici 1: 107–13. Acri, A., 2011. A new perspective for ‘Balinese Hinduism’ in the light of the pre-modern religious discourse. A textual-historical approach. In: Picard, M., Madinier, R. (eds). The politics of religion in Java and Bali. Syncretism, orthodoxy, and religious contention, pp. 143–67. London/New York: Routledge. Acri, A., 2013. ‘Modern hindu intellectuals and ancient texts: reforming Sáiva yoga in Bali.’ Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia and Oceania 169-1: 68–103. Agastia, I. B. G., 2013. ‘I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa Penyusun Puja Trisandhy@.’ Seminar Nasional Aktualisasi Pemikiran Cendekiawan Bali, I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa. Denpasar, 19 January 2013. Agastyaparwa. ‘Agastyaparwa, uitgegeven, geommenteered en vertaald.’ Bijdrage tot de Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunden, 90, pp. 329–419: (ed. J. Gonda, 1933). Ananda-Kusuma, I. G., 1979. Pergolakan Hindu Dharma I-II. Klungkung: Satya Hindu Dharma Indonesia. Bakker, F. L., 1993. The struggle of the Hindu Balinese intellectuals: Developments in modern Hindu thinking in independent Indonesia. Amsterdam: VU University Press. [PhD thesis, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam]. Bakker, F. L., 1997. ‘Balinese Hinduism and the Indonesian state; recent developments.’ Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 153: 15–41. Dana, I.N. (ed). 2005. Kompilasi Dokumen Literer 45 Tahun Parisada. Jakarta: PHDI Pusat. Gubernur Daerah Tingkat I Bali. 1992. Keputusan Gubernur Kepala Daerah Tingkat I Bali, Nomor 720 Tahun 1992 tentang Pedoman Pembinaan dan Penilaian Lomba Desa Adat,


Catur Weda Siwa Buddha. [Lontar Manuscript, MA/I/7, Pusat Dokumentasi Budaya Bali, Denpasar]. Dewa Tattwa. [Lontar Manuscript, Cabinet 8 B No. 2, Pusat Dokumentasi Budaya Bali, Denpasar]. Pasupati Mantra. [Lontar Manuscript, Cabinet 3 B MA (Mantra Astawa) No 8, Pusat Dokumentasi Budaya Bali, Denpasar]. Puja Argha Patra. [Lontar Manuscript, MA/I/3, Pusat Dokumentasi Budaya Bali, Denpasar]. Puja Argha Patra. [Lontar Manuscript, MA/I/4, Pusat Dokumentasi Budaya Bali, Denpasar]. Puja Argha Patra. [Lontar Manuscript, MA/I/5, Pusat Dokumentasi Budaya Bali, Denpasar]. Puja Parikrama. [Lontar Manuscript, MA/VI/3, Pusat Dokumentasi Budaya Bali, Denpasar]. Usana Bali. [Lontar Manuscript, Private collection of Sugi Lanus, Bali].

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Subak dan Subak Abian Di Propinsi Daerah Tingkat I Bali. Kantor Gubernur Daerah Tingkat I Bali, Denpasar [Keputusan Gubernur Bali]. Filliozat, J., 1962. ‘Nouvelles recherches sur l’hindouisme et son expansion.’ Journal des Savants 3–4: 193–212. Goudriaan, T., Hooykaas, C., 1971. Stuti and Stava (Bauddha, Sáiva and VaiX>ava) of Balinese Brahman priests. Amsterdam/London: North-Holland Publishing Company. Hooykaas, C., 1963. ‘Books made in Bali.’ Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 119: 371–86. Hooykaas, C., 1964. ‘Weda and Sisya, Rsi and Bhujangga in present-day Bali.’ Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 120: 231–44. Hooykaas, C., 1966. Surya-Sevana: the way to God of a Balinese Síva Priest. Amsterdam: NorthHolland Publishing Company. Hooykaas, C., 1973. Balinese Bauddha Brahmans. Amsterdam/London: North-Holland Publishing Company. Kantor Agama Wilajah Bali Selatan. 1964. Tri Sandhya Sewana. Denpasar: Kantor Agama Wilajah Bali Selatan. Levi, S., 1933. Sanskrit texts from Bali. Baroda: Oriental Institute. Mah@n@r@ya>a UpaniXad. 1960. Le Mah@ N@r@ya>a UpaniXad, Texte, Traduction, Notes by J. Varenne, Paris: Edition de Boccard. Pandit Shastri, N. D., 1951. Dasa Sila Agama Bali. Denpasar: Bhuvana Saraswati Publications. Pandit Shastri, N. D., 1953. Weda Parikram@. (With the collaboration of I. G. M. Tamba). Denpasar: Bhuvana Saraswati Publications. Pandit Shastri, N. D., 1955a. Inti Sari Agama Hindu. (With the collaboration of I. G. M. Tamba). Denpasar: Balimas. Pandit Shastri, N. D., 1955b. Sedjarah Agama Hindu. (With the collaboration of I. G. M. Tamba). Denpasar: Balimas. Pandit Shastri, N. D., 1955c. Dharmopadeça (Pengadjaran Ciwa-Buddha): djilid ke-1. Denpasar: Bhuvana Saraswati Publications. Pandit Shastri, N. D., 195?. Tri Sandhya. Denpasar: Bhuvana Saraswati Publications. Parisada Dharma Hindu Bali (PDHB). 1960. Dharma Prawrtti Sastra. Denpasar: Parisada Dharma Hindu Bali. Parisada Dharma Hindu Bali (PDHB). 1963. Weda Sanggraha. Denpasar: Parisada Dharma Hindu Bali. Parisada Dharma Hindu Bali (PDHB). 1967. Upadeça: Pewesik Rsi Dharmakerti Kepada Sisya Suyasa Tentang Agama Hindu. Denpasar: Parisada Dharma Hindu Bali. Parisada Hindu Dharma (PHD). 1970a. Piodalan Ekadasa Warsa Parisada Hindu Dharma, 19591970: om dirghayur astu H. U. T. ke-XI, Denpasar. Denpasar: Parisada Hindu Dharma Pusat. Parisada Hindu Dharma (PHD). 1970b. Pokok2 Sedjarah Parisada Hindu Dharma. Denpasar: Bag. Penjalur-Penerbitan P.H.D. Pusat. Parisada Hindu Dharma (PHD). 1970c. Saraswati, Batjaan Pendidikan Agama Hindu. untuk Sekolah Dasar Klas IV. Denpasar: Parisada Hindu Dharma Pusat. Pendit, N. S., 1979. Mencari Inovasi, Biografi I Gusti Made Tamba dan sejarah perkembangan PR Saraswati. Jakarta: Gunung Agung. Picard, M., 2011. ‘Balinese religion in search of recognition, from Agama Hindu Bali to Agama Hindu (1945-1965).’ Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 167: 482–510. Pudja, G., 1991. Wedaparikrama. Jakarta: Lembaga Penyelenggara Penterjemah Penterjemah Kitab Sudi Weda. R@m@ya>a Kakawin. 1980. (ed. and trans.). Soewito Santoso. New Delhi: International Aacdemy of Indian Culture. Ramstedt, M., 2004. Hinduism in modern Indonesia, a minority religion between local, national, and global interests. London: RoutledgeCurzon.

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Notes 1 The Parisada—the Hindu council in Indonesia—established on 23 February 1959, its name was ‘Parisada Dharma Hindu Bali’ (PDHB). Since the Parisada was not limited solely to the Balinese people, during its first congress (mahasabha), in 1964, the Parisada Dharma Hindu Bali changed its name to ‘Parisada Hindu Dharma’ (PHD). Consequently, in 1986, after having opened a branch in every province of the Indonesian Republic, the Parisada Hindu Dharma became the ‘Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia’ (PHDI) (Picard 2011, p. 505). For the history of the Parisada, cf. PHD (1970a, 1970b) and Dana (2005). 2 Among the many studies focusing on this aspect of Balinese Hinduism, cf. in particular those by Bakker (1993, 1997), Subagiasta (2009), and Picard (2011). 3 For this argument, cf. Acri (2006, 2011, 2013). 4 Sang Hyang Widhi is the central deity invoked during Sáiva and Bauddha Tantric ritual in Bali. As noted by Le´vi (1933: xiv): ‘At the chief festivals, four pUdandas Sáiva officiate with one pUdanda Bauddha; the pUdandas Sáiva enjoy a right over the four


Rawi, I. K. B. G., 1958. Pustaka Agama Hindu Bali. Denpasar: Pustaka Balimas. S@ra-samuccaya (a Classical Indonesian Compendium of high ideals. 1962. (ed. and trans.). Raghu Vira. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture. Subagiasta, K., 2009. Reformasi Agama Hindu dalam Perubahan Sosial di Bali 1950-1959. Surabaya: Paramita. Sudharta, T. R., Oka Punia Atmaja, I. B., 2001. Upadesá, Tentang Ajaran-ajaran Agama Hindu. Denpasar: Departemen Hindu dan Budha Departemen Agama RI. Sudharta, T. R. et al. 2003. Pedoman Sembahyang. Denpasar: Pemerintah Daerah Tk I Bali. Sugriwa, I. G. B., 1953. ‘Hari Raya Nyepi.’ Majalah Indonesia 4. April 1953. Sugriwa, I. G. B., 1954. ‘Tjeramah Agama Terhadap Rombongan Mahasiswa Pada Tanggal 19 Oktober 1953 Di Balai Masjarakat Denpasar.’ Bahasa dan Budaja 6. Agustus 1954. Sugriwa, I. G. B., 195?. Tri Sandhya, Tjara melakukan persembahyangan tiga kali sehari, jaitu: Pagi sore dan malam. Denpasar: Toko Buku Balimas. Sugriwa, I. G. B., 1956. Tri Sandhya, Tjara melakukan persembahyangan tiga kali sehari, jaitu: Pagi sore dan malam. Denpasar: Toko Buku Balimas. Sugriwa, I. G. B., 1960a. Buku Peladjaran Agama Hindu Bali I. Denpasar: Pustaka Bali Mas. Sugriwa, I. G. B., 1960b. Buku Peladjaran Agama Hindu Bali II. Denpasar: Pustaka Bali Mas. Sugriwa, I. G. B., 1960c. Buku Peladjaran Agama Hindu Bali III. Denpasar: Pustaka Bali Mas. Sugriwa, I. G. B., 2008. Hari raya Nyepi, Çiwa-Buddha Bhinneka Tunggal Ika: karya tercecer. Denpasar: Yayasan Dharma Sastra. Sura, I. G., Sindhu, I. B. K., 1993. Tri Sandhya dan Kramaning Sembah. Denpasar: Yayasan Guna Werddhi. Tagore, R., 2010. Letters from Java: Rabindranath Tagore’s Tour of South-East Asia 1927. S. Roy (ed.) and S. Roy and I. Chaudhurani (trans.). Santiniketan: Visva-Bharati Publishing Department. ‘Tri Sandhy@ Dirintis dari Dwijendra.’ Bali Post (18 Juli 2008), p. 2. Uttarak@>na. 1999. The Indonesian R@m@ya>a; The Uttarak@>na. I G. P. Phalgunadi (ed. and trans.). New Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan. Wenten, I. G., 1979. Pendidikan Agama Hindu untuk Sekolah Dasar Kelas III Sesuai dengan kurikulum SD 1975. Singaraja: Indra Jaya. Zoetmulder, P. J., 1982. Old Javanese-English Dictionary. (With the collaboration of S.O. Robson; 2 vols).’s-Gravenhage: Nijhoff.

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directions, and the pUdanda Bauddha commands only the southern region. Above them both stands San˙ Hyan˙ Vidi “the divine Vidhi”, a kind of Fatum presiding over the universe’. These consist in five Hindu beliefs: (i) Belief in Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa and its manifestations, including the ancestors; (ii) Belief in the Atman (the Divine Self); (iii) Belief in Karmaphala (the law of karma); (iv) Belief in Samsara or Purnarbhawa (reincarnation); (v) Belief in Moksa (self-realization and liberation from samsara). It appears that the formulation of these five articles of faith was modelled on the Pancasila, the official philosopical foundation of the Indonesian state, and possibly also the Five Pillars of Islam. Trisandhy@ consists of two Sanskrit words: tri and sandhy@. Tri means ‘three’; sandhy@ comes from the prefix sa: (‘with’) and dh@ (‘put’, ‘hold’), which together mean ‘to join together’. Sandhy@ denotes the time when the day alters; the trisandhy@s are the fixed timings of the day when different states meet: dawn (when the night meets the morning), midday, and dusk (when the day turns into night). These times are seen as critical; in order to avoid danger and promote safety and peace, people are encouraged to pray to God at those fixed times (interview with I Gede Sura, 2012). Cf. also the form asandhy@sóca (‘to perform sandhy@sóca’) in kakawin R@maparasúwijaya, 61.9 (OJED p. 1651). As´ramav@saparwa 154.7: Hana ta alih nira lumampah, s@yan˙k@la natan˙ ta ri Gan˙g@ sira, matan˙yan pakon san˙ Vidura, san˙ San˜jaya, man˙inQp, ri surup in˙ ravi de nira lumampah, ya man˙inQp ta sira rin˙ patapan, masn@na masandhyaveXana sira, pinarivPta de nira mpu sira kabeh sinan˙graha rin˙ sarvva pu>ya aradin yath@sákti. Uttarak@>na 131.18: asandhyopas@na an˙udakatarpa>@nicip wwe san˙ hyan˙ Saray+. Uttarak@>na 105.3: asandhyopas@na ta bhab@ra R@ma man˙arpa>@kQn udak@n˜jali. Cf. OJED s.v. sandhy@ (p. 1651), udak@n˜jali and udakatarpa>a (p. 2098). R@m@ya>a kakawin 4.25: umeh kulQm tQka / rikan@n˙ @s´rama sandhyawela ya / tamatar malupen˙ brat@japa. Sumanas@ntaka 39.7: kulQm san˙ hyan˙ sandhy@ diwasa nin˙ am+j@japa-japa (as quoted in OJED p. 1651). Agastyaparwa (p. 68 l. 12–69 l. 3): Kunan˙ ulah san˙ br@hma>a man˙ke ulahakQna nira, yatanyan nirvighna n˙ bhuvana: agQlQma ta sira magave pan˜cakarma lokik@c@ra, yan sQnan˙ sira tamolah rin˙ r@ja, n˙univeh yan pinakapurohita de san˙ prabhu, agQlQma ta sir@m+j@ matrisandhya, toyasn@na, bhasmasn@na, mantrasn@na; man˙kan@n˙anakQn udak@n˜jali ri san˙ hyan˙ sív@ditya. Lontar Dewa Tattwa, p. 24a–24b: Ong san˙ hyan˙ prQtiwi jati, makadi san˙ hyan˙ akasa, san˙ hyan˙ candra dhatya lintan˙ tran˙gana, makadi san˙ hyan˙ pan˜cadewata, san˙ hyan˙ nawadewata, hulun anQda krQtanugraha rin˙ padanira pukulun, manusínira an˙adQgakQn wawan˙unan arc@ meru arcana, panghyan˙-hyan˙ in˙ san˙ hyan˙ trisandhy@ makahulun in˙ janmapada. On˙ san˙ ban˙ tan˙ an˙ in˙, nan˙ man˙ sin˙ wan˙ yan˙, tlas. Given the highly technical and cryptic—and apparently corrupt—character of this passage, I am not confident enough to suggest a full translation. Dewa Tattwa, p. 33a: Mwan˙ an˙lukat natar kayan˙an rusak, sahananin˙ pan˙lukatan wQnan˙ un˜caran˙, lwirnya: agnin˙layan˙, astapun˙ku, somadaya, indranin˙, prabhu wibhuh, nawa dewata, pan˜ca dewa, ganawidhi, trisandhy@, girinatha. S@rasamuccaya 266.9: sn@na trisandhy@sewana, madyusa ri k@la nin˙ sandhy@.

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18 Parikrama is ‘proper order of things, right behavior, customs (ritual) sanctioned by tradition’ (OJED, p. 1301). Hooykaas (1964, p. 231) comments on what is meant by the Weda among Balinese: ‘For a quarter of a century we have known that the Weda in Bali is something quite different from the Veda in India. [. . .] the brahmin Siwapriest in Bali, when stating that he was engrossed in his surya-sewana, weda-parikrama or ma-weda, in reality was reciting (partly Tantric) mantra and stawa’. 19 There are two books that use the title of Parikrama Weda: (i) Weda Parikrama by Narendra Dev Pandit (1953, in collaboration with I Gusti Made Tamba), the content of which is nothing but excerpts and translations from Sanskrit Vedic texts, the Bhagavad Gat@, and Balinese Sanskrit mantras collected in lontars bearing the title Weda Parikrama, as found in Bali by Sylvian Le´vi (1933); (ii). Weda Parikrama by G. Pudja (1991), which contains a collection of procedures for performing the daily Sáiva ritual of S+rya Sewana, and miscellanous mantras, taken from various sources such as the editions and studies by Le´vi, Hooykaas, etc. 20 In his letters written in Karang Asem, Bali, on 31 August 1927, Rabindranath Tagore noted that ‘The Brahmins [. . .] had no sacred thread. On inquiry we learnt that they knew the name G@yatra, but had lost the exact words of the verse; some of them could repeat only bits of it’ (Tagore 2010, p. 70). 21 I am currently editing and translating the text as transmitted from a manuscript, originally from the Gedong Kirtya library, now kept at the Pusat Dokumentasi Budaya Bali in Denpasar (Cabinet 3 B, Astawa Mantra No. 8). 22 Having compared the manuscript of the Catur Weda Siwa Buddha with the pamphlet Weda Sanggraha published in 1963 by the Parisada Dharma Hindu Bali, it seems to me that the Catur Weda Síwa Buddha manuscript might actually come from the pamphlet Weda Sanggraha, which itself appears to derive from Sylvain Le´vi’s Sanskrit Texts from Bali (1933). Pudja (1991, p. 9) pointed out that Sanskrit Texts from Bali was transliterated into Balinese script by the Parisada Dharma Hindu Bali and re-issued as Weda Sanggraha. This booklet was to be distributed to the religious leaders who attended the great ceremony of Eka Dasa Rudra at the temple of Besakih in 1963. 23 The complete series of the kXama-mantras found in the manuscripts is as follows (Sanskrit quoted in its actual form): Om˙ kXamasva m@m˙ mah@deva, sarvapr@>i hitan˙kara / m@m˙ moca sarva p@pebhya$, p@layasva sad@ síva //1// p@po ’ham˙ p@pakarm@ham˙, p@p@tma p@pasambhava$ / tr@hi m@m pu>narak@kXa, sab@hy@bhyantara$ súci$ //2// kX@ntavya$ kayiko doXa$, kX@ntavyo v@cika mama / kX@ntavyo manasa dosa$, tat pram@d@t kXamasva m@m //3// hanakXara: hanapadam, hanamantra: tathaiva ca / hanabhakti: hanavardhi:, sad@síwa n@m@stu te //4// Om˙ mantra: hana: kriy@hana:, bhaktihana: mahes´vara / tat p+jita: mah@deva, parip+r>a: tad@stu me //5//. This series of mantras were included in the Lontar Puja Parikrama (pp. 22b–23a) and Lontar Puja Argha Patra collected by Bali’s Documentation Center. 24 As pointed out by Hooykaas (1963, p. 380), ‘Prof. Narendra Dev Pandit, Shastri, B.A. (Hons. in Sanskrit), B.T. (Pb), wrote at least 8 pamphlets and books, all were printed and published by Bhuvana Sarasvati Publications, Denpasar, Bali. [. . .] The activities of Pandit appear to be those of a Hindu who tries, at an elementary level, to restore the links with India, which had snapped centuries ago’. Michel Picard (2011, p. 494) argues that, ‘contrary to what has been reported by several authors (Bakker

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1993:57, 227; Ramstedt 2004, p.11), Shastri himself contended that he had never been sent to Bali by the Aˆrya Samaj with the aim of Hinduizing the people of Bali. He claimed that he had come to Bali by chance and that, to his surprise, he had discovered that the Balinese were Hindus like himself, even though they had forgotten most of what Hinduism was about, a result of being kept in ignorance of religious matters by their priests. Thus he decided to bring the Balinese back into the fold of Hinduism, for fear that if they persisted along their natural inclination, which is animism, they would become an easy prey to proselytizing, not so much by Muslims but by Christians—and worse, communists’. In a personal interview with Mrs Pandit Shastri (2013), she declared that her husband was originally from Lahore, where he studied and taught Sanskrit. After the partition of India and Pakistan, he lost contact with his family. Before he came to Bali, Pandit Shastri traveled around Indonesia between the year 1948–9 and later stayed in Bali; although he never returned to India, he still maintained strong contacts with Indian intellectual networks, from which he received books and journal about Hinduism. The current Director of the International Academy of Indian Culture, Lokesh Chandra, informed Michel Picard that Pandit Shastri was a student of his father, Raghu Vira; this could possibly have happened when Raghu Vira was the Head of the Sanskrit Department in Sanatana Dharma College in Lahore. Raghu Vira (30 December 1902–14 May 1963) was an outstanding Indian scholar and Hindu nationalist, founder of the International Academy of Indian Culture. He visited Bali several times, investigating Balinese manuscripts at the Gedong Kirtya library in Singaraja and meeting Balinese intellectuals and religious leaders such as Mrs Gedong Oka, I Wajan Bhadra, and Oka Punyatmadja (Oka Punia Atmaja), Tjok Rai Sudharta etc., who were arguably inspired by his studies. 25 ‘Saja mengutjapkan diperbanjak terimakasih kepada sekalian saudara-saudara seagama, jang telah memberikan pertolongan kepada saja dalam mempeladjari dan mengemukakan pokok2 kepercayaan ini yang bersifat inti-sari dan asazi. Terutama saja merasa berhutang budi kepada saudara2 Wajan Bhadra, Ida Putu Maron, Ida Pedanda Made Kamenuh, Ida Padanda Gede Ngendjung dan Dr. Goris. Para Padanda2 dan orang2 jang tertjantum namanja dibawah ini telah menjetudjui isinja kitab ini. 1. Ida Padanda Made Aseman, Sanur. 2. Ida Putu Maron, Denpasar. 3. Ida Padanda Made Kamenuh, Ketua Pusat Paruman Para Pandita Singaradja. 4. Ida Padanda Gede Ngenjung Singaradja. 5. Tuan Wajan Bhadra, the Director of Gedong Kirtya Singaradja. 6. Tuan Anak Agung Pandji Tisna (Anggauta of D.P.R.) Singaradja. 7. Ida Bagus Ktut Djelantik Banjar. 8. Ida Anak Agung Anglurah Ktut Karangasem. 9. Ida Padanda Made Badjra Tabanan. 10. Ida Padanda Gde Manuabe Djambarana. 11. Ida Padanda Gde Made Sewali Wesnawa Mataram Lombok. 12. Ida Padanda Ktut Buruan, Pagesangan Lombok. 13. I Gusti Agung Djalantik Blambangan Cakranagara Lombok. 14. Gusti Bagus Sugriva Singaradja’. 26 Yet, in the introduction of Sanskrit Text from Bali, Le´vi (1933, p. xix) admitted that he ‘could not succeed in tracing a Sanskrit Indian text of the Sandhy@ worship combining S+rya and Síva, as does our text, in one deity, Parama ?dityasíva or Parama Sív@ditya. Even concerning the T@ntrika Sandhy@ generaly, particulars are difficult to state’. 27 Sanskrit Text from Bali consists of seven divisions, as follows: (i) Caturveda, (ii) Vedaparikrama, (iii) Stotras, (iv) Buddhaveda, (v) K@rakasam˙graha, (vi) Collectanea, and (vii) The Old-Javanese Mah@ Bh@rata and Its Sanskrit Introductory Verses.

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28 Ida Padanda Made Kemenuh, a thinker and member of Balinese clergy, was very active in organising religious meetings and counseling in Bali, Lombok, and Java. As reported by Picard (2011, p. 487), Kemenuh was in 1937 among the founders of Paruman Para Pandita (PPP), which he also chaired, and which subsequently became the Paruman Para Pandita Bali Lombok. According to Picard, ‘The aim of this organization, officially established on 6 November 1948, was to unify the Agama Siwa-Budha while adapting the adat prevailing in Bali and Lombok to contemporary social conditions’. Kemenuh authored an 11-page pamphlet on Balinese Hinduism entitled Dasa Sila Agama Hindu Bali (Pustaka Bali Mas, 1955)—not to be confused with Dasa Sila Agama Bali by Pandit Shastri. 29 I Wajan Bhadra was a prominent Balinese intellectual and Old Javanese scholar, who served as Director of Gedong Kirtya in Singaraja. Bhadra wrote articles and books in Dutch as he was in close contact and cooperation with foreign researchers, such as Roeloef Goris. He met Raghu Vira on the occasion of the latter’s visit to the Kirtya library. 30 The composition of Tri Sandhy@ in Pandit Shastri’s book (1951) has not been widely known. This is possibly due to the fact that this book was only printed once and had a limited spread. Until now, I have not found a single scholar who ever mentioned this book as the first publication of Tri Sandhy@. Agastia (2013) mentions a testimonial note written by Ida Bagus Gede Bhaskara, a staff of the Autonomous Region Office of Balinese Religion, who declared to have met I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa in 1956 while he was working on a book entitled Tri Sandhy@. Based on that note, Agastia concluded that PTS was composed by I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa around 1956. Agastia was not aware that the composition of Tri Sandhy@ had already been included in the book Dasa Sila Agama Hindu Bali by Pandit Shastri, which was published in 1951. 31 The Dwijendra Foundation once held a seminar entitled ‘Deepening the meaning of Tri Sandhy@’, during which it became clear that Tri Sandhy@ was first introduced in the Dwijendra school. In that seminar, some notable figures educated in Dwijendra school confirmed that Narendra Dev Pandit Shastri was the pioneer of the teaching of G@yatra mantra (Bali Post, page 2, 18 July 2008). The Dwijendra middle school, established in 1953, emphasised the teaching of Balinese Hinduism as an integral part of its curriculum (Sugriwa 1954, p. 45). 32 Interview of the author with I Gede Sura, 2012. 33 Perguruan Rakjat Saraswati may be considered as the pioneer of modern educational institution in Bali, with a curriculum inspired by the Taman Siswa and the educational principles of Rabindranath Tagore, established in Denpasar by I Gusti Made Tamba in 1946 (Picard 2011, p. 495). I Gusti Made Tamba was an innovator of Balinese modern education. He went to Taman Siswa school in Denpasar, Solo and Batavia/Jakarta (Pendit 1979). He was a close friend of I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa (interview with IGM Sutjaja, son of IGM Tamba, 2012). 34 The statue of I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa stands in front Hindu Dharma State Institute. His pupils considered him as a spiritual teacher, and he is accepted as the Balinese Hindu ‘MahaPXi’ in the modern era. 35 According to Sugriwa’s daughter, I Gusti Ayu Surtjani, ‘Pandit Shastri and other scholars, and many priests as well, used to visit Sugriwa’s house to discuss and consult religion issues’ (interview with author, 2013). Sugriwa himself was a

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42 43 44 45


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member of Dewan Pemerintahan Daerah (Regional Government Board) and Dewan Nasional (National Board)—an advisory board to President Soekarno. As noted on his personal diary, Sugriwa had to go to Jakarta every month to attend meetings at the Istana Negara (Presidential Palace) in his capacity as a member of National Board from 1957 to 1959. Bhuvana Saraswati Publications, which was also supported by I Gusti Made Tamba, published all the works of Narendra Dev Pandit Shastri, and also most of those by I Gusti Made Tamba. This is apparently based on an undated edition of the mantra, also published as a stenciled pamphlet entitled Tri Sandhy@. To this day, this is the only book that presents a translation of the G@yatra mantra and PTS mantras into Balinese language. ‘Orang-orang jang menganut Agama Hindu baik di Bali maupun dimana sadja dia berada, wadjib melakukan persembahyangan tiga kali sehari, jaitu: pagi, sore dan malam jang disebut “Tri-Sandhy@”. Tri artinja tiga. San (sam) artinya baik dan/atau sabda Tuhan, dhya artinja menjipta. Djadi Tri Sandhy@ artinja tiga kali dengan fikiran jang baik (bersih) mentjipta kehadapan Tuhan Jang Maha Esa’. The instruction regarding PTS in this book is a little more modest than that taught in the school textbook (Sugriwa, 1960b), which inserts a pause for meditation between the first three and the last three verses. This activity is called ngili atma, and is meant to guide and enlighten the Soul before continuing with the three closing verses of the ksama mantra. Ngili atma is performed with the following mantras: (i) ‘Om ang hPdaya namah. Om rah phat astra ya namah. Om hrang hring sah ParamaSíw@mPta ya namah’; (ii) ‘Om ang Síw@tmane namah’. For instance, a book entitled Tri Sandhy@—clearly an updated version of Pandit Shastri’s earlier publication—with printed (i.e. not handwritted) Balinese script was published by Bhuvana Saraswati Publications with neither the author’s name nor the date of publication. Similarly, the originally handwritten version of Sugriwa’s Tri Sandhy@ was re-printed at a later date by Toko Buku Bali Mas, yet without a mention of the original author; one edition did not bear a date of publication, while the other has the marginalia ‘Universal Press Denpasar ’56’ printed on the back cover—the KITLV Library catalogue and Filliozat (1962, p. 209) indicate that the year of publication is indeed 1956. Shri Rsi Ananda Kusuma (1979, p. 42–4) tried to add one verse of Indra Puja to the composition of PTS, but the additional mantra was never widely accepted. For the complete series of kXama-mantra found in the manuscripts, see note 40. As reported by Made Titib and I Gede Sura, two of his former students, during an interview with the author in 2013. Sugriwa (1960b, pp. 1–3) explained that ‘Students can easily and quickly memorize Veda-stavas when accompanied by guru-lagu or the rhythm of the mantras. In general, one p@da of Veda-stavas consists of eight syllables. The name of this metre is S´loka [. . .] If the sentence consists of more than 8 syllables [. . .] it can be recited in S´ruti rhythm, but it actually has a specific guru-lagu called: S´@rd+laWikradhita’. I Gede Sura (interview 2012) and I Wayan Westa (interview 2013) informed me that I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa disagreed to recite the PTS according to the ‘India-way’, and he taught his students to use ‘S´@rd+la-Wikradhita-style’ in reciting

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51

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the PTS—in spite of the fact that ‘S´@rd+lavikradita’ is the name of a complex Sanskrit metre consisting in a series of 4x19 syllables. Nowadays the art of reciting mantras in ‘S´@rd+la-Wikradhita-style’ is known as nyruti. Despite of the still debatable definition of nyruti, the reciting styles of PTS now broadcasted widely through radios and TVs are considered as nyruti. This book was the work of a team of anonymous authors. Only recently it was revealed that it constituted of seven experts of Balinese Hinduism (Sudharta and Punia Atmaja 2001, p. v–vi), namely: (i) Ida Bagus Mantra (Chairman of Parisada Hindu Dharma Bali and Dean of The Faculty of Letter, Udayana University); (ii) Ida Pedanda Wayan Gde Sidemen (Head of Department of Religious Affairs of Udayana Regional Military Office); (iii) Ida Bagus Gede Dosther (Head of the Executive Assistant District Attorney, and Secretary General of Parisada Hindu Dharma Bali); (iv) Ida Bagus Oka Punia Atmaja (Lecturer at the Faculty of Letters, Udayana University); (v) Tjokorde Rai Sudharta (Lecturer at the Faculty of Letters, Udayana University, and Head of the Office of Religious Affairs, Bali Province); (vi) Ida Bagus Alit (Head of Division Sub-Office of the Office of Religious Affairs, Bali Province); (vii) I Nyoman Mereta (Staff of Education Dept. of The Office of Religious Affairs, Bali Province). Sudharta explained that the team’s members were ‘quarantined’ at Ida Bagus Mantra’s official house pavilion to complete the draft of the book in two weeks. Tjok Rai Sudharta later assigned to edit and format the draft-book into a dialogue between a PXi (spitual teacher) and his síXya (pupil). This book is considered as the most successful book on the guidelines of Balinese Hinduism in the modern period. The Upadesá (Sudharta and Punia Atmaja 2001) updated the PTS following the standardized version of PHDI. ‘Parisada Dharma Hindu Bali’ (PDHB) was the origin of PHDI, see note 1. PDHB published Dharma Prawrtti Sastra—the first official guidelines of Balinese Hinduism in the modern era—in 1960, and followed by other guidelines, such as Weda Sanggraha (1963) and Upadeça (1967). Mahasabha IV, Assessment Year 1980, 27 September 1980, No. V/KEP/PHDP/1980, Concerning Religious Regulation (Tentang Tata Keagamaan) (Dana 2005, p. 61). ‘Parisada Hindu Dharma Pusat agar menyusun Pedoman Persembahyangan dan meditasi bagi Umat Hindu yang praktis’. ‘Parisada Hindu Dharma Pusat agar dapat mengusahakan rekaman guru-lagu irama Tri Sandhya, Kidung Warga Sari dan lagu-lagu keagamaan lainnya, untuk dijadikan Pedoman/ Standar dasar bagi Umat Hindu’. Decree of 27 February 1986, No. III/TAP/M.SABHA/1986, ‘Concerning Religious Regulation’ (Tentang Tata Keagamaan) (Dana 2005, p. 81), among whose concerns was to bring the hand gestures of Tri Sandhy@ into uniformity. ‘Sikap tangan dalam Tri Sandhya. Ada tiga jenis sikap tangan dalam melakukan pemujaan terhadap Sang Hyang Widhi yaitu: Mudra, anjali dan mamustika karana. Mudra: dipakai oleh Sulinggih di dalam mapuja. Anjali: dipakai dalam sembahyang. Mamustika karana: dipakai dalam melakukan Tri Sandhya atau dalam mengucapkan mantra-mantra tertentu. Dengan demikian maka sikap tangan dalam melakukan Tri Sandhya adalah Memustikarana’. I Gede Sura was one of the key actors behind the language ‘revision’ of PTS. Apart from being a long-standing teacher of Sanskrit and Hinduism, he acted as former


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director of the Dwijendra Foundation and former Rector of the State Hindu Dharma Institute. He was close to the ‘inner circle’ of such prominent Balinese Hindu intellectuals as I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa, I Wayan Reta, Ida Bagus Mantra, Oka Punyatmadja, Gede Pudja, Tjok Rai Sudharta, etc. Sura is one of the key persons of the translation of dozens of important Old Javanese texts preserved on lontars collected by the Pusat Dokumentasi Budaya Bali in Denpasar. Decree No. I/TAP/M.SABHA/1991. ‘1). Menetapkan bersama Paruman Sulinggih Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia Propinsi Bali tentang Kramaning Sembah untuk menjadi ketetapan Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia hingga menjadi pegangan Umat Hindu diseluruh Indonesia dalam melakukan persembahyangan. 2). Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia Pusat hendaknya menerbitkan juga buku pedoman tentang persembahyangan untuk Hari Raya Siwaratri, Saraswati, Galungan dan lain-lainnya. 3). Menetapkan tentang perbaikan terhadap edit ulang teks Tri Sandhy@ yang telah dirumuskan oleh Pesamuhan Sulunggih Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia dan menugaskan Pengurus Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia Pusat masa bhakti 1991/1996 untuk menyebarluaskan teks Tri Sandhy@ yang telah diperbaiki itu’ (Dana 2005, p. 91). ‘Penilaian didasarkan atas kelengkapan dan kesempurnaan penerapan Falsafah Tri Hita Karana dalam kehidupan Desa Adat yang meliputi unsur Parhyangan, unsur Pawongan dan unsur Palemahan’. ‘Pelaksanaan Tri Sandhy@ dan tata persembahyangan. a). memasyarakat/tidaknya Puja Tri Sandhy@ tersebut; b). tata cara pelaksanaan Tri Sandhy@ dan persembahyangan’. To my grandfather’s generation, the word weda still retained the general meaning of ‘mantra’ it originally had in Old Javanese (cf. Old Javanese-English Dictionary s.v., ‘the books of holy revelation; sacred formulas and texts in general; the recitation of these’). In some temples in Bali, such as Pura Tirtha Empul, Gianyar, we can find bale maweda (special building for priest to recite mantra). Hooykaas (1964, p. 231) comments on what is meant by the Weda among Balinese: ‘For a quarter of a century we have known that the Weda in Bali is something quite different from the Veda in India [. . .] the brahmin Siwa-priest in Bali, when stating that he was engrossed in his surya-sewana, weda-parikrama or ma-weda, in reality was reciting (partly Tantric) mantra and stawa’. Aywa wera is a phrase that is common for Balinese, especially in palm leaf manuscripts, in which there is a threat that we would become buduh (mentally ill), kapongor atau tulah (cursed) if we carelessly recite mantras or spell. This expression also tells us that the contents of some manuscripts are secrets and can be confusing. In order to reveal the secrets, one must follow a certain procedure or looking for an appropriate teacher.

Puja Tri Sandhyā: Indian Mantras Recomposed and Standardized in Bali

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