Mikhail Bakhtin

Mikhail Bakhtin /bɑːkˈtiːn ˈtiːn,, bɑːxbɑːx-//;[2] Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin (/bɑːk

P. N. Medvedev, Medvedev , who joined the group later in Vitebsk in  Vitebsk.. Vitebsk was “a cultural centre of the region” the perfect place for Bakhtin “and other intellectuals [to organize] lectures, debates and concerts.” [6] German philosophy was the topic talked about most frequently and, from this point forward, Bakhtin considered himself more a philosopher philosopher than a literary scholar. It was in Nevel, also, that Bakhtin worked tirelessly on a large work concerning moral philosophy that was never published in its entirety. However, in 1919, a short section of this work was published and given the title “Art and Responsibility”. This piece constitutes constitutes Bakhtin’s first published published work. Bakhtin relocated to Vitebsk in 1920. It was here, in 1921, that Bakhtin married Elena Aleksandrovna Okolovich. Later, in 1923, Bakhtin was diagnosed with  osteomyelitis  osteomyelitis,, a bone disease that ultimately led to the amputation of his leg in 1938. This illness hampered his productiv productivity ity and [7] rendered him an invalid.

    ́ н,   pronounced Russian: Михаи Russian: хаи    ́ л Ми Миха ха    ́ йлович йлович Бахти [mʲɪxɐˈil mʲɪˈxa mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪtɕ jləvʲɪtɕ bɐxˈtʲin] bɐxˈtʲin];; 17 November 1895 – 7 March [3] 1975 1975)) was was a Russian philosoph philosopher er,, literary critic critic,, [4] semiotician and scholar who worked on literary on  literary theory,, ethics, and the  philosophy of language. ory language . His His writ writ-ings, on a variety of subjects, inspired scholars working in a number of different traditions (Marxism (Marxism,,  semiotics  semiotics,, structuralism,, religious criticism) and in disciplines as distructuralism verse as literary criticism, history, philosophy, sociology, anthropology anthropology and psychology. psychology. Although Although Bakhtin was active in the debates on aesthetics and literature that took place in the Soviet the Soviet Union in Union in the 1920s, his distinctive position did not become well known until he was rediscovered by Russian scholars in the 1960s.

1

Earl Early y lif life

In 1924, Bakhtin moved to to Leningrad  Leningrad,, where he assumed a position at the Historical Institute and provided consulting services services for the State Publishing Publishing House. It is at this time that Bakhtin decided to share his work with the publi public, c, but just just bef before “On the Quest Questio ionn of the the Me Meth thodo odollogy of Aesthetics in Written Works” was to be published, the journal in which it was to appear stopped publication. This work was eventually published 51 years later. The repression and misplacement of his manuscripts was something that would plague Bakhtin throughout his career. In 1929, “Problems of Dostoevsky’s Dostoevsky’s Art”, Bakhtin’s first major major work, was published. published. It is here that Bakhtin introduces the concept of  dialogism  dialogism.. Howev However, er, just just as this book was introduced, Bakhtin was accused of participating in the Russian the  Russian Orthodox Church's Church's underground movement. movement. The truthfulness truthfulness of this charge is not known, even even today. today. Conseq Consequent uently, ly, during during one of the many purges purges of artists and intellectuals that  Joseph Stalin conducted Stalin  conducted during the early years of his rule, Bakhtin was sentenced sentenced to exile in Siberia in Siberia but  but appealed on the grounds that, in his weakened weakened state, it would would kill him. Instead, he was sentenced to six years of internal exile in Kazakhstan in Kazakhstan..[7]

Bakhtin was born in Oryol in  Oryol,,  Russia  Russia,, to an old family of the nobility. nobility. His father father was the manager manager of a bank and worked worked in several cities. cities. For this reason Bakhtin spent his early childhood years in Oryol, in Vilnius in  Vilnius,, and then in Odessa in  Odessa,, where in 1913 he joined the historical and philological faculty at the local university (the   Odessa University). University ). Katerina Clark and Michael Holquist write: “Odessa..., like Vilnius, was an appropriate setting for a chapter in the life of a man who was to become the philosopher of   heteroglossia and  and   carnival. carnival. The The sam samee sense of fun and irreverence that gave birth to  Babel  Babel's 's Rabelaisian gangster or to the tricks and deceptions of Ostap Bender, Bender, the picaro the  picaro created  created by Ilf by  Ilf and Petrov, Petrov, left its mark on Bakhtin.”[5] He later transferred to Petrograd to  Petrograd Imperial University to University  to join his brother Nikolai. It is here that Bakhtin was greatly influenced by the classicist F. F. Zelinsky, Zelinsky, whose works contain the beginnings of concepts elaborated by Bakhtin.

2

Career

Bakhtin spent these six years working as a book-keeper in the town of Kustanai of Kustanai,, during which time he wrote several importan importantt essays, essays, includi including ng “Discourse “Discourse in the Novel” Novel”.. In 1936 he taught courses at the  Mordovian Pedagogical Institute in Saransk in  Saransk.. An obscure obscure figure figure in a provincia provinciall college, he dropped out of view and taught only occasionally. sionally. In 1937, Bakhtin moved moved to Kimry to  Kimry,, a town located hundred kilometers from Moscow. Here, Bakhtin completed work on a book concerning the 18th-century

Bakhtin Bakhtin complet completed ed his studies studies in 1918. Bakhtin Bakhtin then moved to a small city in western Russia,  Nevel (Pskov Oblast), Oblast ), where he worked as a schoolteacher for two years years.. It was at this this time time that the first first “Bakht “Bakhtin in Circle” formed. formed. The group consisted consisted of intellectuals intellectuals with with varying interests, but all shared a love for the discussion of literary, religious, religious, and political political topics. Included Included in this group were Valentin were  Valentin Voloshinov and, Voloshinov  and, eventually, 1

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3

German novel which was subsequently accepted by the 3 Sovetskii Pisatel' Publishing House. However, the only copy of the manuscript disappeared during the upheaval 3.1 caused by the German invasion.

WORKS AND IDEAS 

Works and ideas Toward a Philosophy of the Act 

Toward a Philosophy of the Act  was first published in the USSR in 1986 with the title   K filosofii postupka. The

manuscript, written between 1919–1921, was found in bad condition with pages missing and sections of text that were illegible. Consequently, this philosophical essay appears today as a fragment of an unfinished work.  Toward  a Philosophy of the Act  comprises only an introduction, of which the first few pages are missing, and part one of the full text. However, Bakhtin’s intentions for the work were not altogether lost, for he provided an outline in the introduction in which he stated that the essay was to contain four parts.[11] The first part of the essay deals with the analysis of the performed acts or deeds that comprise the actual world; “the world actually experienced, A commemorative plaque marking a building in which Mikhail  and not the merely thinkable world.” For the three subBakhtin worked. sequent and unfinished parts of  Toward a Philosophy of  the Act  Bakhtin states the topics he intends to discuss. He outlines that the second part will deal with aesthetic acAfter the amputation of his leg in 1938, Bakhtin’s health tivity and the ethics of artistic creation; the third with the improved and he became more prolific. In 1940, and un- ethics of politics; and the fourth with religion. [12] til the end of  World War II, Bakhtin lived in Moscow, where he submitted a dissertation on François Rabelais to Toward a Philosophy of the Act  reveals a young Bakhtin the Gorky Institute of World Literature to obtain a post- who is in the process of developing his moral philosograduate title, [8] a dissertation that could not be defended phy by decentralizing the work of  Kant. This text is one until the war ended. In 1946 and 1949, the defense of of Bakhtin’s early works concerning ethics and aesthetics this dissertation divided the scholars of Moscow into two and it is here that Bakhtin lays out three claims regarding groups: those official opponents guiding the defense, who the acknowledgment of the uniqueness of one’s particiaccepted the original and unorthodox manuscript, and pation in Being: those other professors who were against the manuscript’s acceptance. The book’s earthy, anarchic topic was the 1. I both actively and passively participate in Being. cause of many arguments that ceased only when the gov2. My uniqueness is given but it simultaneously exists ernment intervened. Ultimately, Bakhtin was denied a only to the degree to which I actualize this uniquedoctorate (Doctor of Sciences) and granted a lesser deness (in other words, it is in the performed act and gree (Candidate of Sciences) by the State Accrediting Budeed that has yet to be achieved). reau. Later, Bakhtin was invited back to Saransk, where he took on the position of chair of the General Liter3. Because I am actual and irreplaceable I must actuature Department at the Mordovian Pedagogical Instialize my uniqueness. tute. When, in 1957, the Institute changed from a teachers’ college to a university, Bakhtin became head of the Department of Russian and World Literature. In 1961, Bakhtin further states: “It is in relation to the whole actual Bakhtin’s deteriorating health forced him to retire, and unity that my unique thought arises from my unique place in 1969, in search of medical attention, Bakhtin moved in Being.”[13] Bakhtin deals with the concept of moralback to Moscow, where he lived until his deathin 1975.[9] ity whereby he attributes the predominating legalistic noBakhtin’s works and ideas gained popularity after his tion of morality to human moral action. According to death, and he endured difficult conditions for much of his Bakhtin, the I cannot maintain neutrality toward moral manifest themselves as one’s professional life, a time in which information was often and ethical demands which [14] seen as dangerous and therefore often hidden. As a result, voice of consciousness. the details provided now are often of uncertain accuracy. Also contributing to the imprecision of these details is the limited access to Russian archival information during Bakhtin’s life. It is only after the archives became public that scholars realized that much of what they thought they knew about the details of Bakhtin’s life was false or skewed largely by Bakhtin himself. [10]

It is here also that Bakhtin introduces an “architectonic” or schematic model of the human psyche which consists of three components: “I-for-myself”, “I-for-the-other”, and “other-for-me”. The I-for-myself is an unreliable source of identity, and Bakhtin argues that it is the I-forthe-other through which human beings develop a sense of identity because it serves as an amalgamation of the

3.3

Rabelais and His World: carnival and grotesque

way in which others view me. Conversely, other-for-me describes the way in which others incorporate my perceptions of them into their own identities. Identity, as Bakhtin describes it here, does not belong merely to the individual, rather it is shared by all. [15]

3.2   Problems of Dostoyevsky’s Poetics: polyphony and unfinalizability During his time in Leningrad, Bakhtin shifted his view away from the philosophy characteristic of his early works and towards the notion of dialogue. It is at this time that he began his engagement with the work of  Fyodor Dostoevsky. Problems of Dostoyevsky’s Art  is considered to be Bakhtin’s seminal work, and it is here that Bakhtin introduces three important concepts. First, is the concept of the unfinalizable self: individual people cannot be finalized, completely understood, known, or labeled. Though it is possible to understand people and to treat them as if they are completely known, Bakhtin’s conception of unfinalizability respects the possibility that a person can change, and that a person is never fully revealed or fully known in the world. Readers may find that this conception reflects the idea of the “soul"; Bakhtin had strong roots in Christianity and in the Neo-Kantian school led by Hermann Cohen, both of which emphasized the importance of an individual’s potentially infinite capability, worth, and the hidden soul.

3 idea of polyphony is related to the concepts of unfinalizability and self-and-others, since it is the unfinalizability of individuals that creates true polyphony. Bakhtin briefly outlined the polyphonic concept of truth. He criticized the assumption that, if two people disagree, at least one of them must be in error. He challenged philosophers for whom plurality of minds is accidental and superfluous. For Bakhtin, truth is not a statement, a sentence or a phrase. Instead, understanding is a number of mutually addressed, albeit contradictory and logically inconsistent, statements. Understanding needs a multitude of carrying voices. It cannot be held within a single mind, it also cannot be expressed by “a single mouth”. The polyphonic truth requires many simultaneous voices. Bakhtin does not mean to say that many voices carry partial truths that complement each other. A number of different voices do not make the truth if simply “averaged” or “synthesized”. It is the fact of mutual addressivity, of engagement, and of commitment to the context of a reallife event, that distinguishes underatanding from misunderstanding.

When, in subsequentyears, Problems of Dostoyevsky’s Art  was translated into English and published in the West, Bakhtin added a chapter on the concept of “carnival” and the book was published with the slightly different title, Problems of Dostoyevsky’s Poetics . According to Bakhtin, carnival  is the context in which distinct individual voices are heard, flourish and interacttogether. The carnivalcreates the “threshold” situations where regular conventions Second, is the idea of the relationship between the self are broken or reversed and genuine dialogue becomes and others, or other groups. According to Bakhtin, ev- possible. The notion of a carnival was Bakhtin’s way of ery person is influenced by others in an inescapably in- describing Dostoevsky’s polyphonic style: each individtertwined way, and consequently no voice can be said to ual character is strongly defined, and at the same time the be isolated. In an interview with the Novy Mir Editorial reader witnesses the critical influence of each character Staff ('Response to a Question from Novy Mir Editorial upon the other. That is to say, the voices of others are Staff'), Bakhtin once explained that, heard by each individual, and each inescapably shapes the character of the other. In order to understand, it is immensely important for the person who understands to be 3.3 Rabelais and His World : carnival and located outside the object of his or her creative grotesque understanding—in time, in space, in culture. For one cannot even really see one’s own exMain article: Rabelais and His World terior and comprehend it as a whole, and no mirrors or photographs can help; our real exterior can be seen and understood only by other During World War II Bakhtin submitted a dissertation on people, because they are located outside us in the French Renaissance writer  François Rabelais which space, and because they are others. ~New York  was not defended until some years later. The controReview of Books , June 10, 1993. versial ideas discussed within the work caused much disagreement, and it was consequently decided that Bakhtin As such, Bakhtin’s philosophy greatly respected the influ- be denied his doctorate. Thus, due to its content, Rabelais  ences of others on the self, not merely in terms of how a and Folk Culture of the Middle Ages and Renaissance  was person comes to be, but also in how a person thinks and not published until 1965, at which time it was given the how a person sees him- or herself truthfully. title   Rabelais and His World [16] (Russian: Творчество Third, Bakhtin found in Dostoevsky’s work a true rep- Франсуа Рабле и народная культура средневековья resentation of "polyphony", that is, many voices. Each и Ренессанса,   Tvorčestvo Fransua Rable i narodnaja character in Dostoevsky’s work represents a voice that kul'tura srednevekov'ja i Renessansa). speaks for an individual self, distinct from others. This A classic of Renaissance studies, in   Rabelais and His 

4 World , Bakhtin concerns himself with the openness of Gargantua and Pantagruel ; however, the book itself also

serves as an example of such openness. Throughout the text, Bakhtin attempts two things: he seeks to recover sections of  Gargantua and Pantagruel  that, in the past, were either ignored or suppressed, and conducts an analysis of the Renaissance social system in order to discover the balance between language that was permitted and language that was not. It is by means of this analysis that Bakhtin pinpoints two important subtexts: the first is  carnival  (carnivalesque) which Bakhtin describes as a social institution, and the second is  grotesque realism  which is defined as a literary mode. Thus, in  Rabelais and His  World   Bakhtin studies the interaction between the social and the literary, as well as the meaning of the body and the material bodily lower stratum. [17]

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WORKS AND IDEAS 

traditional essay in which Bakhtin reveals how various different texts from the past have ultimately come together to form the modern novel. [27] “Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel” introduces Bakhtin’s concept of chronotope. This essay applies the concept in order to further demonstrate the distinctive quality of the novel. [27] The word  chronotope  literally means “time space” and is defined by Bakhtin as “the intrinsic connectedness of temporal and spatial relationships that are artistically expressed in literature.” [28] For the purpose of his writing, an author must create entire worlds and, in doing so, is forced to make use of the organizing categories of the real world in which he lives. For this reason chronotope is a concept that engages reality.[29]

The final essay, “Discourse in the Novel”, is one of In his chapter on the history of laughter, Bakhtin advances Bakhtin’s most complete statements concerning his phithe notion of its therapeutic and liberating force, arguing losophy of language. It is here that Bakhtin provides a that “laughing truth ... degraded power”.[18] model for a history of discourse and introduces the concept of heteroglossia.[27] The term  heteroglossia refers to the qualities of a language that are extralinguistic, but 3.4 The Dialogic Imagination: chronotope common to all languages. These include qualities such as and heteroglossia perspective, evaluation, and ideological positioning. In this way most languages are incapable of neutrality, for The Dialogic Imagination  (first published as a whole in every word is inextricably bound to the context in which 1975) is a compilation of four essays concerning lan- it exists.[30] guage and the novel: "Epic and Novel" (1941), “From the Prehistory of Novelistic Discourse” (1940), “Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel” (1937–1938), 3.5 Speech Genres and Other Late Essays and “Discourse in the Novel” (1934–1935). It is through the essays contained within   The Dialogic Imagination In  Speech Genres and Other Late Essays  Bakhtin moves that Bakhtin introduces the concepts of  heteroglossia, away from the novel and concerns himself with the probdialogism and   chronotope, making a significant contri- lems of method and the nature of culture. There are six bution to the realm of literary scholarship. [19] Bakhtin essays that comprise this compilation: “Response to a explains the generation of meaning through the “pri- Question from the  Novy Mir  Editorial Staff”, “The  Bilmacy of context over text” (heteroglossia), the hybrid na- dungsroman  and Its Significance in the History of Realture of language (polyglossia) and the relation between ism”, “The Problem of Speech Genres”, “The Problem utterances (intertextuality).[20][21] Heteroglossia is “the of the Text in Linguistics, Philology, and the Human Scibase condition governing the operation of meaning in any ences: An Experiment in Philosophical Analysis”, “From utterance.”[21][22] To make an utterance means to “appro- Notes Made in 1970-71,” and “Toward a Methodology priate the words of others and populate them with one’s for the Human Sciences.” own intention.”[21][23] Bakhtin’s deep insights on dialogi- “Response to a Question from the   Novy Mir   Editorial cality represent a substantive shift from views on the na- Staff” is a transcript of comments made by Bakhtin to ture of language and knowledge by major thinkers such a reporter from a monthly journal called  Novy Mir  that as Ferdinand de Saussure and Immanuel Kant.[24][25] was widely read by Soviet intellectuals. The transcript exIn “Epic and Novel”, Bakhtin demonstrates the novel’s distinct nature by contrasting it with the  epic. By doing so, Bakhtin shows that the novel is well-suited to the post-industrial civilization in which we live because it flourishes on diversity. It is this same diversity that the epic attempts to eliminate from the world. According to Bakhtin, the novel as a genre is unique in that it is able to embrace, ingest, and devour other genres while still maintaining its status as a novel. Other genres, however, cannot emulatethe novel without damaging their own distinct identity. [26]

presses Bakhtin’s opinion of literary scholarship whereby he highlights some of its shortcomings and makes suggestions for improvement.[31]

“The   Bildungsroman  and Its Significance in the History of  Realism" is a fragment from one of Bakhtin’s lost books. The publishing house to which Bakhtin had submitted the full manuscript was blown up during the German invasion and Bakhtin was in possession of only the prospectus. However, due to a shortage of paper, Bakhtin began using this remaining section to roll cigarettes. So only a portion of the opening section remains. This re“From the Prehistory of Novelistic Discourse” is a less maining section deals primarily with Goethe.[32]

5 “The Problem of Speech Genres" deals with the difference between Saussurean linguistics  and language as a living dialogue (translinguistics). In a relatively short space, this essay takes up a topic about which Bakhtin had planned to write a book, making the essay a rather dense and complex read. It is here that Bakhtin distinguishes between literary and everyday language. According to Bakhtin, genres exist not merely in language, but rather in communication. In dealing with genres, Bakhtin indicates that they have been studied only within the realm of rhetoric and literature, but each discipline draws largely on genres that exist outside both rhetoric and literature. These extraliterary genres have remained largely unexplored. Bakhtin makes the distinction between primary genres and secondary genres, whereby primary genres legislate those words, phrases, and expressions that are acceptable in everyday life, and secondary genres are characterized by various types of text such as legal, scientific, etc.[33] “The Problem of the Text in Linguistics, Philology, and the Human Sciences: An Experiment in Philosophical Analysis” is a compilation of the thoughts Bakhtin recorded in his notebooks. These notes focus mostly on the problems of the text, but various other sections of the paper discuss topics he has taken up elsewhere, such as speech genres, the status of the author, and the distinct nature of the human sciences. However, “The Problem of the Text” deals primarily with dialogue and the way in which a text relates to its context. Speakers, Bakhtin claims, shape an utterance according to three variables: the object of discourse, the immediate addressee, and a superaddressee . This is what Bakhtin describes as the tertiary nature of dialogue.[34]

4

Disputed texts

Some of the works which bear the names of Bakhtin’s close friends V. N. Vološinov and P. N. Medvedev have been attributed to Bakhtin – particularly   Marxism and  Philosophy of Language  and  The Formal Method in Literary Scholarship. These claims originated in the early 1970s and received their earliest full articulation in English in Clark and Holquist’s 1984 biography of Bakhtin. In the years since then, however, most scholars have come to agree that Vološinov and Medvedev ought to be considered the true authors of these works. Although Bakhtin undoubtedly influenced these scholars and may even have had a hand in composing the works attributed to them, it now seems clear that if it was necessary to attribute authorship of these works to one person, Vološinov and Medvedev respectively should receive credit. [37] Bakhtin had a difficult life and career, and few of his works were published in an authoritative form during his lifetime.[38] As a result, there is substantial disagreement over matters that are normally taken for granted: in which discipline he worked (was he a philosopher or literary critic?), how to periodize his work, and even which texts he wrote (see below). He is known for a series of concepts that have been used and adapted in a number of disciplines: dialogism, the carnivalesque, the chronotope, heteroglossia and “outsidedness” (the English translation of a Russian term vnenakhodimost,  sometimes rendered into English—from French rather than from Russian—as “exotopy”). Together these concepts outline a distinctive philosophy of language and culture that has at its center the claims that all discourse is in essence a dialogical exchange and that this endows all language with a particular ethical or ethico-political force.

“From Notes Made in 1970-71” appears also as a collection of fragments extracted from notebooks Bakhtin kept during the years of 1970 and 1971. It is here that Bakhtin discusses interpretation and its endless possibilities. Ac- 5 Legacy cording to Bakhtin, humans have a habit of making narrow interpretations, but such limited interpretations only As a literary theorist, Bakhtin is associated with the serve to weaken the richness of the past. [35] Russian Formalists, and his work is compared with that The final essay, “Toward a Methodology for the Human of Yuri Lotman; in 1963 Roman Jakobson mentioned Sciences”, originates from notes Bakhtin wrote during him as one of the few intelligent critics of Formalism. [39] the mid-seventies and is the last piece of writing Bakhtin During the 1920s, Bakhtin’s work tended to focus on produced before he died. In this essay he makes a dis- ethics and aesthetics in general. Early pieces such as tinction between dialectic and dialogics and comments on Towards a Philosophy of the Act  and   Author and Hero the difference between the text and the aesthetic object. in Aesthetic Activity  are indebted to the philosophical It is here also, that Bakhtin differentiates himself from trends of the time—particularly the Marburg School the Formalists, who, he felt, underestimated the impor- Neo-Kantianism  of Hermann Cohen, including  Ernst tance of content while oversimplifying change, and the Cassirer,  Max Scheler  and, to a lesser extent,   Nicolai Structuralists, who too rigidly adhered to the concept of Hartmann. Bakhtin began to be discovered by scholars in “code.”[36] 1963,[39] but it was only after his death in 1975 that authors such as Julia Kristeva and Tzvetan Todorov brought Bakhtin to the attention of the Francophone world, and from there his popularity in the United States, the United Kingdom, and many other countries continued to grow. In the late 1980s, Bakhtin’s work experienced a surge of popularity in the West.

6 Bakhtin’s primary works include   Toward a Philosophy of the Act,  an unfinished portion of a philosophical essay; Problems of Dostoyevsky’s Art, to which Bakhtin later added a chapter on the concept of carnival and published with the title  Problems of Dostoyevsky’s Poetics ;  Rabelais  and His World,  which explores the openness of the Rabelaisian novel;   The Dialogic Imagination,  whereby the four essays that comprise the work introduce the concepts of dialogism, heteroglossia, and chronotope; and  Speech Genres and Other Late Essays,  a collection of essays in which Bakhtin concerns himself with method and culture.

5

LEGACY 

Bakhtin “concentrates heavily on language and its general use.”[47] Leslie Baxter observes: “Communication scholars have much to gain from conversing with Bakhtin’s dialogism.” [48] Kim argues that “theories of human communication through verbal dialogue or literary representations” such as the ones Bakhtin studied “will apply to virtually every academic discipline in the human sciences.”[49] Bakhtin’s theories on dialogism influence interpersonal communication research, and “dialogism represents a methodological turn towards the messy reality of communication, in all its many language [50] In the 1920s there was a “Bakhtin school” in Russia, in forms.” In order to understand Bakhtin as a communiline with the discourse analysis of Ferdinand de Saussure cation scholar one must take all forms of communication into account. While Bakhtin’s works focused primarily and Roman Jakobson.[40] on text, interpersonal communication is also key, especially when the two are related in terms of culture. Kim states that “culture as Geertz and Bakhtin allude to can be 5.1 Influence generally transmitted through communication or recipro[51] He is known today for his interest in a wide variety of cal interaction such as a dialogue.” subjects, ideas, vocabularies, and periods, as well as his use of authorial disguises, and for his influence (alongside György Lukács) on the growth of Western scholarship on the novel as a premiere literary genre. As a result of the breadth of topics with which he dealt, Bakhtin has influenced such Western schools of theory 5.2.1 Interpersonal communication as Neo-Marxism, Structuralism, Social constructionism, and Semiotics. Bakhtin’s works have also been useful in anthropology, especially theories of ritual. [41] However, “Any concrete utterance is a link in the chain of speech his influence on such groups has, somewhat paradoxi- communication of a particular sphere. The very boundcally, resulted in narrowing the scope of Bakhtin’s work. aries of the utterance are determined by a change of According to Clark and Holquist, rarely do those who in- speech subjects. Utterances are not indifferent to one ancorporate Bakhtin’s ideas into theories of their own ap- other, and are not self-sufficient; they are aware of and preciate his work in its entirety.[42] mutually reflect one another... Every utterance must be While Bakhtin is traditionally seen as a literary critic, regarded as primarily a response to preceding utterances there can be no denying his impact on the realm of of the given sphere (we understand the word ‘response’ rhetorical theory. Among his many theories and ideas here in the broadest sense). Each utterance refutes afBakhtin indicates that style is a developmental process, firms, supplements, and relies upon the others, presupoccurring both within the user of language and language poses them to be known, and somehow takes them into itself. His work instills in the reader an awareness of tone account... Therefore, each kind of utterance is filled with and expression that arises from the careful formation of various kinds of responsive reactions to other utterances [52] verbal phrasing. By means of his writing, Bakhtin has of the given sphere of speech communication.” This enriched the experience of verbal and written expression is reminiscent of the inter-personal theory of communiwhich ultimately aids the formal teaching of writing. [43] cation turn-taking. This means that every utterance is reSome even suggest that Bakhtin introduces a new mean- lated to another utterance, true to turn-taking in which ing to rhetoric because of his tendency to reject the sep- the conversational norms are followed in order for a conaration of language and ideology. [44] As Leslie Baxter versation to have a cohesive flow in which individuals reexplains, for Bakhtin, “Because all language use is rid- spond to one another. If, for example, an utterance does dled with multiple voices (to be understood more gener- not pertain to a previous utterance then a conversation ally as discourses, ideologies, perspectives, or themes), is not occurring. However, the utterance will likely permeaning-making in general can be understood as the in- tain to an utterance that the individual once heard- meaning it is, in fact, interrelated, just not in the context of terplay of those voices.” [45] that particular conversation. As Kim explains, “the entire world can be viewed as  polyglossic or multi-voiced since every individual possesses their own unique world 5.2 Bakhtin and communication studies view which must be taken into consideration through diBakhtin’s communication legacy reachesbeyond rhetoric, alogical interaction.”[53] This world view must be considsocial constructionism and semiotics as he has been ered when a conversation is occurring in order to better called “the philosopher of human communication.”[46] understand its cultural and communicative significance.

7 5.2.2

Communication and culture

“Bakhtin’s life work can be understood as a critique of the monologization of the human experience that he perceived in the dominant linguistic, literary, philosophical, and political theories of his time.” [54] True to his roots of social constructionism and post-modernism Bakhtin “was critical of efforts to reduce the unfinalizable, open, and multivocal process of meaning-making in determinate, closed, totalizing ways.” [54] According to Bakhtin, the meaning found in any dialogue is unique to the sender and recipient based upon their personal understanding of the world as influenced by the socio-cultural background. “Bakhtin’s dialogism opens up space for communication scholars to conceive of difference in new ways” meaning they must take the background of a subject into consideration when conducting research into their understanding of any text as “a dialogic perspective argues that difference (of all kinds) is basic to the human experience.” [54] Kim argues that “his ideas of art as a vehicle oriented towards interaction with its audience in order to express or communicate any sort of intention is reminiscent of Clifford Geertz’s theories on culture.” [53] Culture and communication become inextricably linked to one another as one’s understanding, according to Bakhtin, of a given utterance, text, or message, is contingent upon their culture background and experience. 5.2.3

Bakhtin’s favorite subjects, Dostoyevsky.

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Bibliography •

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Bakhtin, M.M. (1963) Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics , (Russian) Moscow: Khudozhestvennaja literatura.

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Carnivalesque and communication •

Sheckel’s contends that“what [... Bakhtin] terms the ‘carnivalesque’ is tied to the body and the public exhibition of its more private functions [...] it served also as a communication event [...] anti-authority communication events [...] can also be deemed ‘carnivalesque’.”[55] Essentially, the act of turning society around through communication, whether it be in the form of text, protest, or otherwise serves as a communicative form of carnival, according to Bakhtin. Steele furthers the idea of carnivalesque in communication as she argues that it is found in corporate communication. Steele states “that ritualized sales meetings, annual employee picnics, retirement roasts and similar corporate events fit the category of carnival.” [56] Carnival cannot help but be linked to communication and culture as Steele points out that “in addition to qualities of inversion, ambivalence, and excess, carnival’s themes typically include a fascination with the body, particularly its little-glorified or 'lower strata' parts, and dichotomies between ‘high’ or ‘low’.”.[57] The high and low binary is particularly relevant in communication as certain verbiage is considered high, while slang is considered low. Moreover, much of popular communication including television shows, books, and movies fall into high and low brow categories. This is particularly prevalent in Bakhtin’s native Russia, where postmodernist writers such as  Boris Akunin have worked to change low brow communication forms (such as the mystery novel) into higher literary works of art by making constant references to one of

Bakhtin, M.M. (1929) Problems of Dostoevsky’s Art , (Russian) Leningrad: Priboj.

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  Bakhtin, M.M. (1968)   Rabelais and His World . Trans. Hélène Iswolsky. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.  Bakhtin, M.M. (1975)  Questions of Literature and  Aesthetics , (Russian) Moscow: Progress.  Bakhtin, M.M. (1979)   [The] Aesthetics of Verbal  Art , (Russian) Moscow: Iskusstvo.  Bakhtin, M.M. (1981)   The Dialogic Imagination:  Four Essays . Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin and London: University of Texas Press. Bakhtin, M.M. (1984) Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics . Ed. and trans. Caryl Emerson. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.   Bakhtin, M.M. (1986) Speech Genres andOther Late Essays . Trans. Vern W. McGee. Austin, Tx: University of Texas Press.  Bakhtin, M.M. (1990)  Art and Answerability . Ed. Michael Holquist and Vadim Liapunov. Trans. Vadim Liapunov and Kenneth Brostrom. Austin: University of Texas Press [written 1919–1924, published 1974-1979]  Bakhtin, M.M. (1993)  Toward a Philosophy of the Act . Ed. Vadim Liapunov and Michael Holquist. Trans. Vadim Liapunov. Austin: University of Texas Press.   Bakhtin, M.M. (1996–2012)  Collected Writings , 6 vols., (Russian) Moscow: Russkie slovari.   Bakhtin, M.M., V.D. Duvakin, S.G. Bocharov (2002),   M.M. Bakhtin: Conversations with V.D. Duvakin (Russian), Soglasie.  Bakhtin, M.M. (2004) “Dialogic Origin and Dialogic Pedagogy of Grammar: Stylistics in Teaching Russian Language in Secondary School”. Trans. Lydia Razran Stone.   Journal of Russian and East  European Psychology  42(6): 12–49.  Bakhtin, M.M. (2014) “Bakhtin on Shakespeare: Excerpt from ‘Additions and Changes to  Rabelais ’”. Trans. Sergeiy Sandler.  PMLA 129(3): 522–537.

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See also •

 Dialogical Self

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 Hubert Hermans

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 Lev Vygotsky

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 Menippean satire

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 Nikolai Marr

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 Pavel Medvedev

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  Voskresenie

Notes

[1] Y. Mazour-Matusevich (2009),   Nietzsche’s Influence on Bakhtin’s Aesthetics of Grotesque Realism , CLCWeb  11 :2 [2]   “Bakhtin”.  Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary.

NOTES 

[22] Holquist and Emerson 1981, p. 428 [23] Bakhtin [24] Holquist, 1990 [25] Hirschkop, Ken; Shepherd, David G (1989), Bakhtin and  cultural theory, Manchester University Press ND, p. 8, ISBN 978-0-7190-2615-7, retrieved 2011-04-26 Unlike Kant, Bakhtin positions aesthetic activity and experience over abstraction. Bakhtin also clashes with Saussure’s view of “langue is a 'social fact'", since Bakhtin views Saussure’s society as a “disturbing homogenous collective” [26] Holquist xxxii [27] Holquist 1981, p. xxxiii [28] Bakhtin 84 [29] Clark and Holquist 278 [30] Farmer xviii [31] Holquist xi.

[3] Gary Saul Morson and Caryl Emerson,  Mikhail Bakhtin:  [32] Holquist xiii. Creation of a Prosaics , Stanford University Press, 1990, p. [33] Holquist xv. xiv. [4] Maranhão 1990, p.197

[34] Holquist xvii-xviii.

[5] Katerina Clark and Michael Holquist,   Mikhail Bakhtin (Harvard University Press, 1984: ISBN 0-674-57417-6), p. 27.

[35] Holquist xix. [36] Holquist xx-xxi.

[6]   “Mikhail Bakhtin (Russian philosopher and literary critic) [37] Bota and Bronckart. - Britannica Online Encyclopedia”. Britannica.com. [38] Brandist The Bakhtin Circle, 1-26 1975-03-07. Retrieved 2013-03-23. [39] Holquist Dialogism, p.183 [7]  "Мемория. Михаил Бахтин" (in Russian). polit.ru. Retrieved 26 November 2015. [40] Peter Ludwig Berger  Redeeming Laughter: The Comic Dimension of Human Experience  (1997) p.86 [8] Holquist Dialogism: Bakhtin and His World  p.10 [41] Lipset, David and Eric K. Silverman (2005) “Dialogics of [9] Holquist xxi-xxvi the Body: The Moral and the Grotesque in Two Sepik River Societies.”  Journal of Ritual Studies  19 (2) 17-52. [10] Hirschkop 2 [11] Liapunov xvii

[42] Clark and Holquist 3.

[12] Bakhtin 54

[43] Schuster 1-2.

[13] Bakhtin 41

[44] Klancher 24.

[14] Hirschkop 12-14

[45] Baxter, Leslie (2006).  Communication as...: Perspectives  on theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. p. 101.

[15] Emerson and Morson [16] Holquist xxv [17] Clark and Holquist 297-299 [18] Iswolsky 1965, p. 92f. [19] Holquist xxvi [20] Maranhão 1990, p.4 [21]  James V. Wertsch (1998) Mind As Action

[46] Danow, David (1991).   The Thought of Mikhail Bakhtin:  From Word to Culture. New York: St. Martin’s Press. pp. 3–4. [47] Gary, Kim (2004). “Mikhail Bakhtin: The philosopher of human communication”.   The University of Western Ontario Journal of Anthropology 12  (1): 53–62 [54]. [48] Baxter, Leslie (2011).   Voicing relationships: A dialogic   perspective. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publishing, Inc. p. 35.

9 [49] Kim, Gary.   “Mikhail Bakhtin: The philosopher of human communication” (54).”.   The University of Western Ontario Journal of Anthropology 12  (1): 53–62. [50] White, E.J.  “akhtinian dialogism: A philosophical and methodological route to dialogue and difference?" (PDF).

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[51] Kim, Gary (2004).   “Mikhail Bakhtin: The philosopher of human communication.”. The University of Western Ontario Journal of Anthropology 12  (1): 53–62 [54]. •

[52] Bakhtin, Mikhail (1986).  Speech genres and other late essays . Texas: University of Austin. p. 91. [53] Kim, Gary (2004). “Mikhail Bakhtin: The philosopher of human communication”.   The University of Western Ontario Journal of Anthropology 12  (1): 53–62 [54].

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[54] Baxter, Leslie (2006).   Communication as...:Perspectives  on theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publishing, Inc. p. 102. •

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References •

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 Boer, Roland (еd),   Bakhtin and Genre Theory in Biblical Studies . Atlanta/Leiden, Society of Biblical Literature/Brill, 2007. •

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 Bota, Cristian, and Jean-Paul Bronckart.   Bakhtine démasqué: Histoire d'un menteur, d'une escroquerie et d'un délire collectif . Paris: Droz, 2011.

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  Brandist, Craig.

The Bakhtin Circle: Philoso phy, Culture and Politics   London, Sterling, Virginia:

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Pluto Press, 2002. •

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Carner, Grant Calvin Sr (1995) “Confluence, Bakhtin, and Alejo Carpentier’s Contextos in Selena and Anna Karenina” Doctoral Dissertation (Comparative Literature) University of California at Riverside.  Clark, Katerina, and Michael Holquist.   Mikhail  Bakhtin. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.  Emerson, Caryl, and Gary Saul Morson. “Mikhail Bakhtin.” The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism . Eds. Michael Groden, Martin Kreiswirth and Imre Szeman. Second Edition 2005. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 25 Jan. 2006 .

  David Hayman   Toward a Mechanics of Mode:  Beyond Bakhtin   NOVEL: A Forum on Fiction, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Winter, 1983), pp. 101–120 doi:10.2307/1345079  Jane H. Hill  The Refiguration of the Anthropology of Language  (review of Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics) Cultural Anthropology , Vol. 1, No. 1 (Feb., 1986), pp. 89–102 Hirschkop, Ken. “Bakhtin in the sober light of day.” and David Shepherd. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2001. 1-25.

[57] Goodman, M.B. (1994). Corporate communication: Theory and Practice. Albany: SUNY. p. 249.

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 Green, Barbara. Mikhail Bakhtin and Biblical Scholarship: An Introduction. SBL Semeia Studies 38. Atlanta: SBL, 2000.

Bakhtin and Cultural Theory . Eds. Ken Hirschkop

[55] Sheckels, T.F. (2006). Maryland politics and political  communication: 1950-2005. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. p. 35. [56] Goodman, M.B. (1994). Corporate communication: Theory and Practice. Albany: SUNY. p. 242.

 Farmer, Frank. “Introduction.”   Landmark Essays  on Bakhtin, Rhetoric, and Writing . Ed. Frank Farmer. Mahwah: Hermagoras Press, 1998. xixxiii.

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  Hirschkop, Ken. Mikhail Bakhtin: An Aesthetic   for Democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.  Holquist, Michael. [1990]   Dialogism: Bakhtin and  His World  , Second Edition. Routledge, 2002.   Holquist, Michael. “Introduction.”   Speech Genres  and Other Late Essays . By Mikhail Bakhtin. Eds. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986. ix-xxiii. Holquist, Michael.   Introduction   to Mikhail Bakhtin’s   The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays . Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1981. xv-xxxiv Holquist, M., & C. Emerson (1981). Glossary. In MM Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by MM Bakhtin. Klancher, Jon. “Bakhtin’s Rhetoric.” Landmark Essays on Bakhtin, Rhetoric, and Writing . Ed. Frank Farmer. Mahwah: Hermagoras Press, 1998. 23-32.   Liapunov, Vadim.  Toward a Philosophy of the Act . By Mikhail Bakhtin. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993.  Lipset, David and Eric K. Silverman, “Dialogics of the Body: The Moral and the Grotesque in Two Sepik River Societies.” Journal of Ritual Studies Vol. 19, No. 2, 2005, 17-52.   Magee, Paul. 'Poetry as Extorreor Monolothe: Finnegans Wake on Bakhtin'.  Cordite Poetry Review 41, 2013.

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 Maranhão, Tullio (1990)  The Interpretation of Dialogue  University of Chicago Press  ISBN 0-22650433-6   Meletinsky, Eleazar Moiseevich,   The Poetics of  Myth  (Translated by Guy Lanoue and Alexandre Sadetsky) 2000 Routledge ISBN 0-415-92898-2

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 Morson, Gary Saul, and Caryl Emerson.   Mikhail  Bakhtin: Creation of a Prosaics . Stanford University Press, 1990.  O'Callaghan, Patrick.   Monologism and Dialogism in Private Law  The Journal Jurisprudence, Vol. 7, 2010. 405-440.

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 Pechey, Graham.  Mikhail Bakhtin: The Word in the World . London: Routledge, 2007.   ISBN 978-0415-42419-6

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Schuster, Charles I. “Mikhail Bakhtin as Rhetorical Theorist.”   Landmark Essays on Bakhtin, Rhetoric, and Writing . Ed. Frank Farmer. Mahwah: Hermagoras Press, 1998. 1-14.   Thorn, Judith. “The Lived Horizon of My Being: The Substantiation of the Self & the Discourse of Resistance in Rigoberta Menchu, Mm Bakhtin and Victor Montejo.” University of Arizona Press. 1996.   Townsend, Alex, Autonomous Voices: An Exploration of Polyphony in the Novels of Samuel Richardson, 2003, Oxford, Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt/M., New York, Wien, 2003, ISBN 9783-906769-80-6 / US-ISBN 978-0-8204-5917-2

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 Sheinberg, Esti (2000-12-29).  Irony, satire, parody and the grotesque in the music of Shostakovich . UK: Ashgate. p. 378.  ISBN 0-7546-0226-5. Archived from the original on 2007-10-17.   Vice, Sue.   Introducing Bakhtin . Manchester University Press, 1997  Voloshinov, V.N. Marxism and the Philosophy of Language. New York & London: Seminar Press. 1973

New York, St Martin’s Press, 1996  ISBN 0-71904777-3 •

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  Mayerfeld Bell, Michael and Gardiner, Michael. Bakhtin and the Human Sciences. No last words . London-Thousand Oaks-New Delhi: SAGE Publications. 1998.  Michael Gardiner  Mikhail Bakhtin . SAGE Publications 2002 ISBN 978-0-7619-7447-5.

(French) Jean-Paul Bronckart, Cristian Bota: ISBN 2-600-00545-5

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External links  The Bakhtin Circle, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

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 The Bakhtin Centre (University of Sheffield)

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 A Bakhtin profile (James P. Zappen)

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  Bakhtin Timeline

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 “INTERNATIONAL MAN OF MYSTERY - The Battle over Mikhail Bakhtin” by Matt Steinglass in Lingua Franca (April 1998)  Philology in Runet. A special search through the M. M. Bakhtin’s works.

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 Carnival, Carnivalesque and the Grotesque Body

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 Bakhtin and Religion: A Feeling for Faith

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  excerpts from Rabelais and his world 

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  Page on Bakhtin with a photo

  Young, Robert J.C., 'Back to Bakhtin', in   Torn Halves: Political Conflict in Literary and Cultural  Theory  Manchester: Manchester University Press;

 Maja Soboleva: Die Philosophie Michail Bachtins. Von der existentiellen Ontologie zur dialogischen Vernunft. Georg Olms Verlag, Hildesheim 2009. Bakhtine démasqué : Histoire d'un menteur, d'une escroquerie et d'un délire collectif , Editeur : Droz,

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 Vladislav Krasnov  Solzhenitsyn and   Dostoevsky A study in the Polyphonic Novel by  Vladislav Krasnov University of Georgia Press ISBN  0-8203-0472-7

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  Stacy Burton   Bakhtin, Temporality, and Modern Vol. 48, No. 1 (Winter, 1996), pp. 39–64 doi:10.2307/1771629

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Maria Shevtsova,   Dialogism in the Novel and  Bakhtin’s Theory of Culture  New Literary History, Vol. 23, No. 3, History, Politics, and Culture (Summer, 1992), pp. 747–763 doi:10.2307/469228 Narrative: Writing “the Whole Triumphant Murderous Unstoppable Chute”   Comparative Literature,

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EXTERNAL LINKS 

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 Absurdist Monthly Review - The Writers Magazine of The New Absurdist Movement  Polyphony of  Brothers Karamazov  likened to Bach fugue [Shockwave Player required]  Description of Bakhtin’s work and how it was “discovered” by Western scholars  Languagehat blog on the veracity of the “smoking incident”

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Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 •

Text

  Mikhail Bakhtin  Source:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Bakhtin?oldid=707069978 Contributors:  Danny, Wheat, Ronz, RodC,

Charles Matthews, Tpbradbury, David Shay, Rbellin, Geogre, Andris, Andycjp, Blankfaze, Mukerjee, Gene s, Reagle, Yossarian, MakeRocketGoNow, Flex, D6, Duja, Alex Golub, Kwamikagami, Jpgordon, Prsephone1674, Nlight, Jeodesic, Nicholas Cimini, Ghirlandajo, Japanese Searobin, Marasmusine, Wuken.shih~enwiki, MGTom, Stefanomione, BD2412, Avram, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Mikedelsol, Ground Zero, Sodin, Bihzad, BMF81, Scoo, Peter Grey, YurikBot, Wavelength, Feldmarshmellon, Mnewmanqc, Pigman, Aeusoes1, Dsol, Maunus, 21655, Veridis, Curpsbot-unicodify, Blablabla, SmackBot, PiCo, InverseHypercube, Am2pearc, Chairman S., Eskimbot, Sebesta, Hmains, Bluebot, Josteinn, Oldseed, Sumahoy, Jwy, Dreadstar, LoveMonkey, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, Euchiasmus, James A Whitson, Mattbarton.exe, Jaiwills, Erwin, Jim.dvorak, Darry2385, Dekaels~enwiki, Jztinfinity, Peter1c, Vtatai, Cydebot, Aristophanes68, Languagehat, Travelbird, Thijs!bot, Llewellyn of the Lakes, Rlitwin, Phuff, Zigzig20s, JAnDbot, Frankie816, MSBOT, Ling.Nut, AsgardBot, Ludvikus, Fuseau, Rhondalorraine, KarBOT, CommonsDelinker, Bjerke, Sarahmoore1, M8lton, Maproom, Johnbod, Wikiwikiwikiscratch, James Seneca, Ajaime, Mariocossio~enwiki, Hxhbot, Monegasque, Jlwelsh, Vojvodaen, Smilo Don, Sk2007, SummerWithMorons, TheOldJacobite, Niceguyedc, DragonBot, CohesionBot, SvAbhinava, Alpha Ralpha Boulevard, EmyP, SchreiberBike, Deerstop, Danwalk, Pfsheckarski, Oldekop, Shipsonty, Earcanal, Addbot, Fyrael, Ronhjones, Mdmangold, Crazylikeastudent, Grashoofd, Тиверополник, Lightbot, Greyhood, Viethavvh, Vels, Acmilan15, Luckas-bot, Ectuohy, AnomieBOT, Momoricks, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Srich32977, Almabot, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, INeverCry, FrescoBot, P kusch, Diomedea Exulans, Tomcat7, RedBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Ken Hirschkop, Madxolar, Oracleofottawa, LilyKitty, 777sms, Bfest2k6, TjBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Léon66, Zloyvolsheb, Translatio, Hell of howling, Brigade Piron, Raghith, Movses-bot, BrekekekexKoaxKoax, Very trivial, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Ymblanter, CitationCleanerBot, WikiHannibal, Minsbot, Bakhtinman, Maikolaser, JYBot, Norbert.elias, VIAFbot, Lekoren, Biogeographist, Dani0rad, Crmarsha, Eksilverman, OccultZone, KasparBot, Laughing sandbags, Grant Carner, Tenzin yangkyi, Janus3821 and Anonymous: 128

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