Short notes 1. Explain the distribution of terms in categorical Proposition. What are the exceptions to the distribution of terms in 'A' Proposition? A categorical Proposition asserts relationship between the subject term and the predicate term. The doctrine of distribution of terms deals with the assertion of entire denotation or to the partial denotation of these terms. A term is said to be distributed when the reference is to all the indiiduals denoted b! the term. "t is said to be undistributed when the reference is to a part of the denotation of the term. Een when the denotation is not definite# the term is considered to be undistributed. ".e# when there is explicit reference to the entire denotation# a term is said to be distributed. The subject term of the Proposition is distributed# when $uantit! sign 'all' or 'some' come before subject term. "n uniersal Proposition# the reference is to the entire denotation of the subject. Eg% 1. All judges are impartial. "n the aboe example# exa mple# the assertion is about the entire denotation of 'judges'. &. o lemons are sweet "n aboe example# predicate is denied of the entire denotation of the subject. As traditional logicians consider# singular Proposition to be uniersal. "t is to be added if as(ed in $uestion so in singular propositions also subject term is distributed. )istribution of predicate term is depended upon $ualit! of Proposition. The predicate of an affirmatie Proposition is not distributed because in an affirmatie Proposition there is no explicit reference to the denotation of the predicate. Eg% All judges are impartial. The aboe statements do no state whether all impartial persons are judges or not. Therefore# predicate term is ta(en to be undistributed. *ame is with particular affirmatie Proposition. There is one exception to the distribution of predicate in 'A' Proposition. "n normal case 'A' Proposition Proposition being affirmatie affirmatie## the predicate term is not distribut distributed. ed. +ut when subject and predicate are a re same# the predicate is distributed. Eg, +achelor is unmarried man "n aboe example# both terms are distributed. "n case of negatie propositions the predicate term is denied of subject term. ".e# all things denoted b! the predicate are excluded from the subject. Therefore# negatie propositions distribute predicate. Eg% 1. o lemons are sweet Aboe example is E Proposition in which the whole class of lemon -subject is exclude excluded d from from the class class of sweet sweet things things -predi -predicat cate. e. *imil *imilarl! arl!## entire entire denota denotatio tion n of predicate term is excluded from subject term. "n '/' Proposition the predicate is distributed as a part of the denotation of the subject term is excluded from the entire denotation of the predicate. Eg% *ome flowers are not white "n this Proposition# part of class of flowers is excluded from the entire denotation of white things. )istribution of terms can be seen in following diagrams.
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'A' Proposition 'E' Proposition 0" proposition '/' Proposition -plesease draw 2enn 2enn diagram from p.34 of 5.T. +asantani boo( Law and Definition 6 -common introduction 7According to law as integrit!# propositions of law are true# if the! in or follow from the principles principles of justice# justice# fairness# fairness# and procedural due process process that proide the best constructie interpretation of the communit!s legal practice8. 6 9aws empire Aboe word precisel! states the importance of law# and need of it to be defined properl!. And the method# of this definition is gien b! 9ogic. 9et us see that in following laws. 1. 9abo 9abour ur 9aw% 9aw%66 )isablement. According to dictionar! meaning )isablement is6 To deprie of some abilit!. +ut in 9aw# it is not ta(en in this literal sense. The Wor(mans :ompensation Act# 1;&< # states disablement as loss of earning capacit!. And depending on the nature and percentage of loss# the! distinguish )isablement as a Total Total )isableme )isablement6 nt6 "t means means loss of 1==> earning earning capacit! capacit!.. Accordi According ng to *ec. & -1 the total disablement means such a disablement# whether of a temporary or permanent nature as in capacities a worker for all work which he was capable of performing at the time of the accident resulting resulting in disablement. for for e.g. e.g. National Insurance Co. Ltd., V/s Saleem Khan . *aleem 5han use to wor( as a drier of a truc(# met with injuries in an accident. The doctor certified him that he is ph!sicall! impair and loss of ph!sical function was to the extent of 3= percent onl!# but due to such injur!# he was not fit to drie a hea! ehicle. The court held that as he was incapable of doing wor( which he was capable of doing before the accident# it was a case of total disablement. b Partial disablement6 According to *ec &-1-g it means loss of earning capacit! to some extent because of injur! the wor(man cannot do the same (ind of wor( as he was doing before at the time of accident or he cannot do the same wor( as efficientl! as he could do before the accident. /n these bases it is diided in two sub6parts6 i A Temporar! partial disablement6 it means an! disablement# which temporaril! reduce his earning capacit! of a wor(man in an! emplo!ment in which he was engaged at the tie of accident causing the disablement. ii Perma Permanent nent Partia Partiall )isabl )isableme ement nt When When a wor(ma wor(man nss disabl disableme ement nt reduce reducess permanentl! his earning capacit! in eer! field of emplo!ment which he is capable of underta(ing at the time of accident.
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Administration. De# howeer# refused the offer and claimed compensation on the basis of total disablement. "t was held the wor(man was entitled to compensation# not on the basis of total# but partial disablement. :onclusion6 Though dictionar! was stating it as deprie of some abilit!# !et 9aw considered it as loss of earning capacit!# to fit it in labour law# and resole the disputes about claims of compensation# b! wor(men. Therefore# it is best example of *tipulatie definition# coming into life.
Industry The Act came into force on 1st April# 1;4. The object of the Act was to ma(e proision for the inestigating and settlement of industrial disputes and to secure industrial peace through oluntar! negotiation and compulsor! adjudication. The Act relates to all releant aspects of the industrial relations# machiner!# mediation and conciliatio conciliation# n# arbitratio arbitration# n# adjudicatio adjudication n and matters matters incidental incidental thereto. thereto. The section section defines important concepts li(e industr! wor(men# emplo!er# wages# stri(e# loc(out# retrenchment etc.# identical disputes etc The Act proides an exhaustie definition of the term 0"ndustr! )iisible b! stating What it means# What it includes# What it excludes. "ndustr!% According to *ection & -j 7"ndustr!8 7 "ndustr!8 means i An! s!ste s!stemat matic ic actii actiit! t! carrie carried d on b! co6oper co6operati ation on betwee between n an emplo! emplo!er er and his wor(men -whether such wor(men are emplo!ed b! such emplo!er directl! or b! or through an! agenc!# including a contractor for the production# suppl! or distribution of goods of serices with a iew to satisf! human wants or wishes -not being wants or wishes which are merel! spiritual or religious in nature# whether or not 6 -1 an! capital capital has been been inested inested for for the purpos purposee of carr!i carr!ing ng on such Actiit! or -& such actii actiit! t! is carried carried on with the the motie motie to ma(e ma(e an! gain gain /r profit. -b And includes% -1 An! actiit! of the doc( 9abour +oard established under *ection 3A of the doc( Wor(ers Wor(ers -regulation of Emplo!ment Act# 1;F and -& An! actiit! actiit! relating relating to the promotion promotion of sales sales or business, business, or both# carried on b! an establishment. -c +ut does not includ include% e% an! agricu agricultu ltural ral operat operation ion except except where where such such agricu agricult ltural ural operation is carried on in an integrated manner with an! other actiit! -being an! such actiit! as is referred to in the forgoing proisions of this clause and such other actiit! is the predominant one. A new definition of 0"ndustr! has been incorporated b! the Amendment Act of 1;F& Position after the Amendment Act of 1;F&. Pursuant to the decision in the +angalore Water suppl! and *ewage +oard 2. Cajappa -A. ". C. 1;4F *.:. 3F# the ambit of the term 7"ndustr!8 was widened. "nstitution li(e hospit hospitals als and dispens dispensari aries# es# educati educationa onal# l# scient scientifi ificc resear research ch and traini training ng instit institutes utes## institutes engaged in charitable# social and p hilanthropic serices etc# were include if such
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exclude from its scope the said institutions. it ma! further be noted that certain function of the oern oernmen mentt such such as actii actiitie tiess relati relating ng to atomi atomicc energ! energ!## space space and defens defensee research hae also been excluded. :lubs % "n the Badras !m(hana :lub :ase# -1;GF ". *. :. C. 4&# and the cric(et :lubs of "ndia 2. +omba! 9abour Hnion# A"C 1;GF *: &4G# it has been held that where a club render render seric serices es to its members# members# the same same cannot cannot be regard regarded ed as an indust industr! r!.. These These judgments hae been oerruled b! the *upreme :ourt in the +angalore Wa Water ter *uppl! :ase. A club is an industr! if the tests specified aboe are satisfied. Doweer# The Amendment Act# 1;F& exclude a club if it emplo!s less than ten persons. Educational Educational "nstituti "nstitutions% ons% /riginall /riginall!# !# Educational institutions institutions were excluded excluded from the definition of an 7industr!8 as the predominant actiit! of such institutions is to spread education# and not to run a business or trade. The emplo!ment of staff was held to be incidental to the main purpose. "n Hniersit! of )elhi . Camnath -A"C 1;G< * :. 1F4< the *upreme :ourt had earlier held that a Hniersit! was not an industr!# on the ground that its main purpose was to impart education and that it was not run as a business or trade for profit. The *upreme :ourt expressl! oerruled the aboe iew in its decision in the +angalore Water ter *upp *uppl! l! case case.. Dowe Dowee er# r# the the Amend Amendme ment nt Act# ct# 1;F& 1;F& now now clea clearl rl! ! excl exclud udes es educational institutions from the scope of 7industr!8. "t ma! be noted that the amended definition has not been brought into force b! the notification dated &1.=F.1;F. Attributes of an industr!% 1. The actiit actiit! ! must must inol inolee the habitua habituall or s!stema s!stematic tic product production ion or distri distribut bution ion of goods or rendering material serices to a large communit! or a small art of it. &. The actiit! actiit! must must be similar similar in nature nature to the organi organiIation Iation of business business or trade. trade. <. The actiit! actiit! should should not not be in exerci exercise se merel! merel! of goernm goernment ent functions functions.. . The emplo!m emplo!ment ent must not be persona personall such as in the case case of domest domestic ic serants serants.. 3. "n respec respectt of professi professions ons such such as these of doctor doctorss and law!ers law!ers## it was held that that the! do not fall within the scope of the term 7industr!8. :onclusion6 Though word industr! ma! mean for la! man as onl! production house at great scale# b! defining precisel!# it gae man! benefits just li(e to education institute and others# to get rid of hea! taxes and other expenses# and getting subsid!. And hence# it is another practical example of *tipulatie definition. Nuisance The word 0nuisance is deried from the @rench word 0nuire and the 9atin word 0nocere meaning 0to do hurt or to anno! uisance has been defined to be an!thing done to the hurt or anno!ance of the lands# tenements of hereditament of another and not amounting to a trespass# +lac(stone described a 7nuisance8 -nocumentum as something that wor(eth hurt# inconenience# or damage. uisances are of two (inds 1 Public -also (nown as 0general or 0common nuisance and & Priate.
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obstruction# danger or anno!ance to persons who ma! hae occasion to sue an! public right8 for e.g.# obstructing a highwa! or throwing fire crac(ers on road# selling an! food which is not fit for human consumption etc. Public nuisances consist not onl! of those acts which interfere with definite public rights -such as the right to use a public thoroughfare# but also of nuisance which endangers the health# safet! or comfort of the public gen erall!# erall!# such as noise or the escape of noxious apors# gases# fames or an! other deleterious thing affecting the health of the neighborhood. Public nuisance depends on the special damage# the! see the extent of harm caused depending upon the nature of the localit!. That is to sa!# in certain area damages are unaoidable. *o# depending upon each area the courts adopt their standards. @or ex.# in the case of Beath v. Brihton the warden of church sought for an injunction restraining the municipal :orporation from operating the electric power station# which was causing causing some noise. noise. "t was found that due to this noise none of the church members members were personall! anno!ed or the! were reluctant to go to church# and while conducting the serice Priests were not hampered b! the noise. Dence the court held that this (ind of nuisance cannot gie rise to an action for damages. & Priate uisance% A priate priate nuisance is some unauthoriIed use of a mans own propert!# propert!# causing damage to the proper propert! t! of another another## or some some unautho unauthori riIed Ied interf interfere erence nce with with the proper propert! t! and proprietar! rights of another causing damage but not amounting to trespass. Priate nuisance includes obstruction to light and air# wrongful escape of foul gas# or noise# water# filth# germs# etc. "n other famous case (nown as !ollywood Silver "o# "arm limited v. $mmet it was found that the defendant deliberatel! caused his guns to be fired with the main object of scaring the plantiffs siler foxes during their gestation period. Dere# the court too( into consideration the malicious aspect while aoiding damage. :onclusion6 uisance ma! be inconenience or damages# but it must be consider at certain extent# een court has to neglect certain nuisance# as gien in public nuisance. +ut# one can precise its demarcation line b! defining it precisel! and obsering the definition minutel!. Thus# stipulatie stipulatie definition pla!s it role# to justif! the erdict. %. &he Law of Contract' :ontract is the word we use and participate in da! to da! life. "n eer! transaction from purchasing to commutating# we are in contract with serice giing person. +ut the real contract problems come in business or partnership and so on. Bain purpose of 9aw of :ontract is to ensure 0what a man has been promised shall be performed and what a man has been led to expect shall be fulfilled -*ir William Anson. :ontracts are also of different t!pes as Expressed and implied# in fact or $uasi contract etc. but major concern is consent of parties. PACT PACT"E* "E* A) ")EB*6 To enter in to a contract# it is essential for both the parties to agree to the same things in same sense# in which the! are said to be ad idem. The word thing must be considered in the wide sense6
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"f the! attach different meanings to the language which the! use# it is obious there is no agreement. Thus# it is important for the two parties to define the term or agree on the meaning of the terms of contract. "f two persons enter into an apparent contract concerning a particular shipJ person are misled b! similarl! of name or person or mista(en identit!# there would be no contract between them. :und! . 9indsa! -1F4F1;.19C +om. G;46 "n this case# +len(arn too( adantage of the similarit! of names with +len(iron a respectable firm -the signature loo( li(e +len(irons one and deliered the goods to +lan(aron# who sold the goods to :und! and did not pa! 9indsa! and :o. "n a suit b! 9indsa! and :o. against :und!# it was held that owing to the mista(e caused b! +lan(aron# there was no real agreement between him and 9indsa! and :o. and that :und! got no title to the goods. @ree :onsent% :onsent is not enough for a contract# consent must be free. Hnder section 1# consent is said to be free when it is not caused b! 1 coercion & unde underr infl influe uenc ncee < @raud Bisr Bisrep epre rese sent ntat atio ion n 3 Bista(e As stated aboe free consent is necessar! for alidit! of a contract. A contract is oidable if there is no free consent i.e. if the consent is gien under an! of the first four circumstances# the contract is oidable at the option of the part! whose consent was so caused. A :ontract is oid it consent is caused b! coercion. According to *ec. 13 coercion is defined as# 0the committing committing of an! act forbidden or the threat threateni ening# ng# the unlawf unlawful ul detain detaining ing of an! proper propert! t! to the prejudice prejudice of an! person person whatsoeer or the unlawful threatening to detain an! propert! to prejudice of an! person whateer. :ases J "llustration (ananya)amma V. *lworesetti # A Dindu widow was forced to adopt K under the threat that her husbands husbands corpse corpse would not be allowed to be remoed unless she adopted K. The adoption was held to be oid able as haing been induced b! coercion with the intention of wounding the feeling of the widow -non6remoal of the husbands corpse. other factor# which inalidates consent# is undue influence. *ec. 1G states that a contract is said to be induced b! 0undue influence on the following grounds. When the relation between the parties is such that6 1 /ne is in a position to dominate the will of the other & /r uses that position to obtain an unfair adantage oer the other. @urther# *ec. 1G gies three examples when a person is deemed to be in a position do dominate the will of another. a Where Where he holds holds a real real of apparen apparentt author authorit! it! oer oer the the other other of of b Where he stands in fiduciar! relation to the other or
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Examples A# haing adanced mone! to his son + during his minorit!# upon + coming of age# obtains b! misuse of parental influence# a bond from +# for a greater amount than the sum gien in adance# A emplo!s undue influence. "n a leading English case# Al(ard 2. *(inner -1FF46
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“Logic is often defined as the study of Laws of Thought.” -Cohen and Nagel.
&hese laws are -articularly ta)en into consideration (1) Law of Identity. (2) Law of contradiction. (3) Law of excluded iddle.
The! hae been ta(en as necessar! condition for alid thin(ing. /ne cannot thin( or gie an! proof without these fundamental laws. These are called as 7Hniersal postulates of Ceasoning.8 NSalient features of Laws of &houht. These laws are presupposition of alid thin(ing, are inexorable and iniolable are formal in character and lastl! are independent of each other and nor can be reduced to other. -1 Law -1 Law of Identity. "n accordance with this# it states that in deductie argument the meaning of the term must remain same throughout. E.g.% "f we sa! that since boo(s are meant to be read# the boo(s in ban( must be read. Dere we iolate the rule of "dentit!. "dentit!. !eraclitus and "uddhists den! the alidit! of this law# because according to them# eer!thing is momentar!# so# nothing remains same in the next moment. +ut# this criticism is inalid# because# there is a fundamental difference in the realm of things and thin(ing# that is ideas and a nd objects are not subject to same laws. "t is said that sometimes# one proposition can be true at one time and false at other o ther times. E.g.% "ndia has congress got. "t is true in present reference# while false in past and doubtful in future This objection is also best on misunderstanding. *ince it is in complete statement and b! completing it# we can remoe the agueness that is India is India has congress go#t. in sept 2$$%. 2$$%. @or the conclusion alue of the 9aw of "dentit!# the law of "dentit! does not mean that
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E.g.% A thing cannot be white or non6white n on6white at the same gien time and in same space. :oherence# Thought has no irtue of ph!sical world is certainl! a condition for human thin(ing. 9i(e 9aw of "dentit! it is challenged as proposition ma! be both true ( false. false. E.g.% The *un is rising. The *un is not rising. +ut# it is also best on conclusion of time and place of prediction. To $uote :ohen and agel# 7 "eing in the first pair of expression' expression' the time in prediction is not specified specified in the second pair' the place in prediction is omitted' omitted' if these omissions are supplied' in neither of the pairs are propositions contradictory. "t is popularl! called *ophism of the 9iar. "t states 66 if man sa!s ' I am lying and he is spea(ing the truth# the proposition is true. +ut# he is not spea( ing the truth, the proposition is false# pointing out the mista(e inoled in criticism. criticism. 7*he difficulty arises from concluding a Cohen and Nael hae rightl! said 7*he group of words words or sentence with a proposition proposition which alone is true or false. The sentence# 7 I am lying would indicate a proposition onl! if referred to some other assertion of the spea(er that would thus be characteriIed as a lie. "n such a case# paradox obiousl! anishes. &onc.% &onc.% Thus# it is understood that# just as the world of ph!sical things follow the 9aw of ature# similarl!# similarl!# the world of Thought follows The 9aw of Thought. -< Law -< Law of +xcluded iddle. According to this law# an!thing must be either true or false. E.g.% A piece piece of Toffee can be either sweet or o r not sweet. evons0 7*he #ery name of Law expresses the fact that there is no third or middle course.
Though in a wa!# this law of thought are related to each other# because# what law of contradiction states is implied in law of "dentit!. "dentit!. The truth of Proposition does impl! the falsehood of its opposition. +ut# to bring out this implication# we need another statement# which is
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&riticism, (2) Another argument is based upon a ground that it is against change# while change is the law of ature. E.g.% "n a deeloping person# the proposition that 7De is mature or immature8 ma! both be wrong. Doweer# there is a mista(e in statement# as the meaning of maturit! is not fixed. Cohen and Nagel rightl! rightl! object it as# 7*his 7*his ob-ection doesnt deny that the principle since the latter simply states that one of the pair of contradictories contradictories must be true' but' does not tell us which one. &riticism, (3) M.*.Bill objects on the ground that there is possibilit! of a meaningless proposition. E.g.% Cam is son of a +arren Women. *o# this objection is pointing out that an! an ! law of thought refers to proposition or things and meaningless expression# is not proposition. 9ogical positiist states that# it is meaning which ma(es an assertion as proposition. Beaningless proposition are 7pseudo8. Therefore# criticism is triial. &onc. Thus# &onc. Thus# it is understood that just as the world of ph !sical thing follows of the 9aw of ature# similarl!# the world of thought follows the 9aw of Thought. $ductions
9i(e opposition of Proposition# een in eduction# ed uction# conclusion is drawn from onl! one Proposition and so it is t!pe of immediate inference. Eductions are those forms of immediate inference in which# from a gien Proposition# we deduce another propositions# differing from it in subject# in predicate or in both. The truth of the conclusion is implied b! the truth of the premises. There are seen (inds of eductions among which two are fundamental as remaining fie are arried at b! the operation of these two (inds. These are,
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no term can be distributed in the conerse unless it is distributed in the original Proposition. :/2EC*E /@ A99 @/HC 5")* /@ PC/P/*"T"/* 1. A Proposition% Proposition% The conerse of A Proposition is " Proposition# because in conerse original predicate becomes subject. "n A Proposition the predicate term is not distributed. Therefore# it cannot be distributed in the conerse. Eg%
[email protected] A % All bald men are sensitie A will be
[email protected] [email protected] "% *ome *ensitie beings are bald ba ld men. :onerse of A Proposition is " Proposition which is called conersion per accidents as there is change in $uantit!. Doweer# the denotation of both the terms is the same# the conerse of A Proposition can be A Proposition# which is called *imple :onerse. &. E Proposition% :onerse of E Proposition P roposition is E Proposition. Eg%
9.@. of E% o ghost is beautiful
-will be
9.@. of E% o beautiful being is ghost <. " Proposition% 9i(e E Proposition conerse of " Proposition is " Proposition. 9i(e E Q A Proposition# " Proposition is called simple conerse. "n simple conersion# con ersion# the conerse is e$uialent to the original propositions. :onerse of / Proposition is not possible This is because the conerse of / Proposition iolates the rule of distribution of terms. /ne of the rules of conersion is that the $ualit! of conerse must be the same as that of the gien Proposition. The gien Proposition is is negatie. *o conerse will be negatie. negatie. The conerse being negatie will distribute distribute its predicate. predicate. -egatie propositions distribute their predicate. The predicate of the conerse con erse is the subject of the gien Proposition. This term is not distributed in the gien Proposition. Therefore# it cannot be distributed in the conerse.. "f the conersion of / Proposition is attempted# it will commit fallac! o f illicit conersion.
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9.@. of A% All journalists are pessimists -oberse is 9.@. of E% o journalists are non6pessimists. E Propositions%6 /berse of E Proposition is A Proposition.
3.
9.@. of E% o capitalists are far6sighted 9.@. of A% All capitalists are non6far6sighted. " Proposition%6 /berse of " Proposition is / Proposition.
%.
9.@. of "% *ome laI! persons are successful -oberse is 9.@. of /% *ome laI! persons are not non6successful. / Proposition%6 /berse of / Proposition is " Proposition.
+.
9.@. of /% *ome "talians are not dar( haired -oberse is 9.@. of "% *ome "talians are non6dar( haired @rom aboe examples# we hae seen in oberse the $uantit! has remained the same# though the $ualit! has changed. /bersion is simpl! a wa! of obtaining a negatie e$uialent for an affirmatie Proposition# or an affirmatie e$uialent for a negatie Proposition.
2.
4rite 4r ite a note note on on the the im-o im-ort rtanc ancee of of anal analoy oy 5
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a7. &o ma)e -redictions'0
Analogies are used to ma(e prediction which enables us to find man! phenomena of science. As Dalle! belieed li(e planets# een comets hae o rbit and li(e orbit of planet can be calculated in the same wa! orbit of a comet also can be calculated. /n the basis of analog! of regularit! in the moement of comets he said or he predicted that comet will appear in 143F. 87. &o ma)e choices'0
Analogies are used to choose between alternatie h!pothesis. As to derie at particular theor! scientist ta(e h!pothesis and the! examine these ta(en h!pothesis and with help of analog! the! chosen the h!pothesis.
3. 4hat is *N*L9: 5 $#-lain the factors on which its value de-ends 5
The obsered instances resemble one another an other in being members of the same class. That is wh! the obsered instances collectiel! constitute eidence for the generaliIation. The generaliIation includes both obsered and unobsered instances resemble the obsered one's in being members of the same class. *ince the obsered instances possess a certain propert!# it it is belieed that the unobsered instances# being members of the same class# will also possess it. This argument from resemblance is called analog!. ILL emphasises characteristic of analog!# analog!# when he defines induction. induction. *o we can sa! analog! is form of inductie argument. The pattern of analogical argument is, P1 is obsered to hae properties C1# C&# C<# .... CR$
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@urther 5e!nes proposed four concepts in determining the alue of analog!# the! are# 26. &otal -ositive analoy'0
All characteristics (nown as well as un(nown in which two -or more things resemble are the total positie analog!. analog !. 36. Known -ositive analoy'0
The (nown between two things are the (nown positie analog!. %6. &otal neative analoy'0
All the characteristics -(nown as well as un(nown in wh ich things differ constitute the total negatie analog!. +6. Known neative analoy'0
The (nown differences between two things constitute the (n own negatie analog!. To determine the alue of analog!# though these four concepts are used but for us it is not possible to (now all the resemblances# een not all differences. We We can (now onl! some of them. *o while judging the probabilit! of an argument from analog!# we hae to depend upon the (nown positie analog! and the (nown negatie analog!. Thus# 1S. When the (nown positie analog! -resemblances consists of important properties# the conclusion of analog! has a high degree of probabilit!. That is to sa! to derie at a t conclusion# when we consider important properties of two things which resemble with each other# then the analog! has high degree of probabilities%
