Arabic Standardization BRAHIM CHAKRANI
History of and Motivation for Arabic Standardization Understanding the process of language standardization in the Arab world necessitates probing into the sociohistorical factors that motivate the attitudes that Arabs have toward their language. Records of the existence of standardized Arabic dates to the fifth century CE; yet it is unclear whether or not this standard is the literary outcome of many dialects or represents one particular dialect (Hourani, 2002). Local dialects of Arabic within the Arab peninsula contributed to the emergence of a standardized form of Arabic, called fusha called fusha (Standard Arabic [SA], literally “the eloquent language”). This resulted in an unprecedented amount of knowledge production, using the medium of SA. Language for the Arabs played a central role in expressing and maintaining their cultural cultural history and was regarded as the diwan (‘record’) of the entire speech community (Cachia, diwan (‘record’) 2002). Some scholars have argued that due to the role Arabic came to play in the construction of the Arabic speech community, the members of that community possessed a more profound and intimate knowledge of their language than did speakers of other languages (Versteegh, 1997). Such in-depth knowledge and development of the language called for the restriction of borrowed words, which are considered dakhila (‘intruding’). dakhila (‘intruding’).
Standardization as a Means of Language Maintenance With the expansion of the Muslim empire, many non-Arabs adopted Islam. These new Muslims quickly learned SA (Cachia, 2002) as an assertion of their new religious identity. This adoption represented an instance of positive linguistic assimilation with Arabs as they came into contact with local languages and cultures of the new converts (Mansour, 1993). Consequently, Arabic was not only the language of religion but also a literary and scientific language in the Arab world (Hourani, 2002). lahn (‘deviant, divergent speech’) in the speech of Arabs noticed the introduction of lahn the growing number of non-Arab Muslims. In addition, the expansion of the Muslim empire marked the beginning of the divergence between SA and spoken dialects of Arabic (Versteegh, 1997). In fact, the renowned scholar Ibn Khaldoun, considered by some scholars to be the father of sociology (Kalpakian, 2008), argued that Arabic standardization was introduced due to this divergence from Arabic speech norms. Ibn Khaldoun argued that grammatical rules for SA were introduced given the growing concern for the religious texts becoming incomprehensible due to potential language change, as these linguistic changes occur through hearing (Versteegh, 1997). Therefore, he maintained that Arabs’ codification of SA was able to reverse such divergence and maintain linguistic continuity. The task of standardizing Arabic was given to the famous Arabic scholar Ad-Du ali by the ruler of Basra, Ibn abiihi (Shehadeh, 2007), as well as to Sibawayh, a non-native Arabic speaker, considered the father of Arabic grammar (Versteegh, 1997) and whose influence on grammar continues today. Standardization stems from the need to preserve linguistic
The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, Linguistics , Edited by Carol A. Chapelle. © 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. DOI: 10.1002/978140 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0036 5198431.wbeal0036
2
arabic standardization
congruity and continuity of the Arabs with each other and with the past. In light of diverging dialects in the entire Arabic-speaking community, establishing the grammar of SA meant, for the Arabs, maintaining unity, conformity, and stability, rather than asserting linguistic difference.
Dialect Ideology Access to understanding local Arabic dialects is only possible through the listener’s ability to understand SA, as the link between these dialects can only be established through the attainment of the standard language. Greeting expressions such as Iraqi Arabic Sh lunak?, its Moroccan equivalent La bas lik?, or the Levantine expression Kifak? (all translated as ‘How are you?’) are all related to SA. These expressions would be unintelligible or morphophonologically opaque to speakers of other Arabic dialects, unless they possess access to the standard variety. Many scholars have asserted the importance of investigation of the vernacular languages alongside the standard language in their function and use (Milroy & Milroy, 1999). However, given the diglossic nature of the Arab world (Ferguson, 2000) and due to the covert prestige Arabs attach to their local dialects, the vernacular languages in the Arabic context cannot substitute for the standard language. As with the Swiss German language situation (Watts, 1999), the standardization of any one dialect to the exclusion of others would constitute a disconnect from the wider Arabic-speaking community. Moreover, Arabs, due to their attachment to their local dialects, do not view the standardization of any local dialect, including their own, as capable of representing the entire Arabic-speaking community. In fact, in the 1930s, when a few Egyptians called for the standardization of the Egyptian dialect to replace SA in Egypt (Haeri, 2003), these calls were rejected by most Egyptians, given their attachment to SA and their desire for linguistic unity with the greater Arab community. Arabs view the relationship between SA and the dialects as that of richness and complementation, rather than conflict and opposition. ‘
The Colonial Encounter The recent colonial encounter of the Arab world with European countries and the contact of Arabic speakers with transplanted European languages have resulted in a linguistic domination of Western languages in the Arab world. The modernization of SA took shape through this language contact. Abdulaziz (1986) argues that the standardization process in the modernization of Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) meant an extensive lexical, morphological, and syntactic influence by and borrowing from Western donor languages, especially English. Colonial language policies in the Arab world led to the strengthening of standardization as an assertion of linguistic independence from the colonial powers (Tazi, 1986). In fact, the rise of Arab nationalism in the postcolonial context increased the need for Arabs to assert their linguistic identity, maintain their linguistic unity through MSA, and implement Arabization policies to assert the presence of SA in functional domains formerly allocated to European languages (Chakrani, 2010). With the standardization of SA and the increasing literacy rate, speakers from different parts of the Arab world are able, with a minimal education, to communicate using the standard language (Abdulaziz, 1986). SEE ALSO: Academies of the Arabic Language and the Standardization of Arabic; Standardization in Human Language Technology
arabic standardization
3
References Abdulaziz, M. H. (1986). Factors in the development of modern Arabic usage. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 62, 11–24. Cachia, P. (2002). Arabic literature: An overview. London, England: Routledge. Chakrani, B. (2010). A sociolinguistic investigation of language attitudes among youth in Morocco (Unpublished dissertation). University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Ferguson, C. A. (2000). Diglossia. In L. Wei (Ed.), The bilingualism reader (pp. 65–80). London, England: Routledge. (Reprinted from Word [1959], 15, 325–40) Haeri, N. (2003). Sacred language, ordinary people: Dilemmas of culture and politics in Egypt . New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Hourani, A. (2002). A history of the Arab peoples. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. Kalpakian, J. (2008). Ibn Khaldun’s influence on current international relations theory. Journal of North African Studies, 13(3), 357–70. Mansour, G. (1993). Multilingualism and nation building. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Milroy, J., & Milroy, L. (1999). Authority in language: Investigating standard English. London, England: Routledge. Shehadeh, H. (2007). AlLugha Al Arabiyya wal Lahja Al aamiyya. Retrieved September 9, 2009 from http://www.ahewar.org/debat/show.art.asp?aid 108961. Tazi, A. (1986). Harakat al-Ta ariib fiy Al-Maghrib. Proceedings of Ta ariibu Al-Ta aliim Al- Aaliy wa Al-Jaami iy fiy Rubu i Al-Qarn Al-Akhiir, 90–114. Versteegh, K. (1997). Landmarks in linguistic thought. Vol. III . London, England: Routledge. Watts, R. J. (1999). The ideology of dialect in Switzerland. In J. Blommaert (Ed.), Language ideological debates (pp. 67–142). Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter. ‘
‘
=
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
Suggested Readings Albirini, A. (2010). The structure and functions of codeswitching between Standard Arabic and Dialectal Arabic (Unpublished dissertation). University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Ferguson, C. A. (1959). The Arabic Koine. Language, 35, 616–30.