Contens
Intoduction Assemblages against Totalities
Asseblages against Essences
26
Persons and Networks
47
4
Oganzations and Goveents
Ctes and Naton
94
Index
141
v
Introduction
The purpose of this book is to ntroduce a novel approach to soca otology. Lke any other otologcal nvestigaton t conces tself wth the questio of what knds of enttes we ca legtmately commt ourselves to assert exst The onologcal stance tae here has traditioally been labelled 'realist: a stance usually defied by a commtmet to the mnd-indepedent estence of realty I te case of socal ontology, however ths defnton must be qualifed because most social enites fro small communtes to large natostates would dsappear altogether if human mids ceased to est In this sese social ettes ar clearly ot mindndependet Hece a realist approac to social ontology must asset te autonomy of social entties from the coceptons we have of tem To say that social entites have a realty that s coceptionndependen s smply to assert hat the teories modes ad classifcatons we use to study them may be objectvely wrong that s that they may fal to captue the real istory ad ternal dynamcs of those ettes There are however mportan cases n whch the ve models and classificatons socal scientists use affect the behavour of the ettes beg studed Poltal or medcal cassfcatons usng categores le female refugee or hyperactive chid for eample may teract wth the people beng classfed f they become aware of the fact tat they are beng so classfed I the frst case a woma fleeng terrble condtons in her home country may ecome aware o the crtera to cassify female refugees used by the country to whch she wats to emgrate and change her behavou to ft that crtera In ts case an ontologca
A NW PH OS OPH Y O SO C Y
commtment to the reerent of the term female refugee would be hard to mantan snce the ver use o the term may be creatng ts own referents On the other hand acceptng that the referents of some general terms may n act be movng targets does not undermne socal realsm: w explan the case o the female refugee one has to nvoke n addton to her awareness o the meanng o the term emale refugee, the obectve exstence o a whole set of nsttutonal organatons (couts, mmgra ton agences arports and seaports detenton centres, nsttutonal norms and obects (Jaws bndng court decson, passports and nsttutonal practces (confnng montorng, nterrogatng, ormng the context n hch the nteractons between categores and ther reerents take place. n other words the problem for a realst socal ontology arses here because the meanngs o al general terms shape the very percepton that socal scentsts have o ther referents creatng a vcous crcle but only n some specal cases and n the context of nsttutons and practces that are not reducble to meanngs As the phlosopher an Hackng wrtes: I do not necessarly mean that hperactve chldren as ndvduals on ther own become aware o how they are classed and thus react to the cla ssfcaton. Of course they may , but the nterac ton occurs n the larger matrx of nsttutons and practces surroundng ths classfca ton There as a tme when chldren descrbed as hyperactve were placed n stmfree classrooms classrooms n whch stmul were mnmed, so that chldren would have no occason for excess actvty Desks were far apart The walls had no decoraton The wndows The teacherfor wore a plan black ess wt h no oamentswere Thec urtaned walls were desgned mnmum nose drreecton The classcaton dd not nteract wth the chldren smply because ndvdual chldren had heard the word and changed accordngly. t nteracted wth those who were so descrbed n nsttutons and practces that were predcated upon classyng chldren that way1 n short acknowledgng the exstence of troublesome cases n whch the meanngs o words afect ther own referents n no way compromses a realst aproach to nsttutons and practces. On the contrary, a correct soluton to ths problem seems to demand an ontology n hch the exstence of nsttutonal organatons, nterpersonal networks and many 2
NRODUCON
other social enttes is treated a conception-independent i realist olution is diametrically opposed to the idealit one epoused by phenomenologically influenced ociologits, the o-called social con tructivists In fact, a Hacing point out these sociologists ue the term contruction' in a purely metaphorical sense ignoring it literal meaning, that of building or asembling from parts2 y contrast the realist social ontology to be defended in thi boo i all about obective proceses of asembly a wide range of ocial entitie, from person to nationstates will be treated a aemblage contructed through very specific historical procee proceses in which language play an importan but not a constitutive role A theory of assemblage and of the procee that create and tabilie their hitorical identity, wa created by the philosoper Gille Deleue in the lat decades of te twentieth century hi theory was meant to apply to a wide variety of whole contructed from heterogeneou part Entitie ranging from atom and molecules to biological organisms, pecie and ecosytems may be uefully treated a asemblages and therefore a entitie that ar product of hitorical procee his implie of coure, that one uses the term itorical to include comological and evolutionary itory, not only human istory Asemblage theory may alo be applied to ocial entities but the very fact tat it cuts acro the natureculture divide i evidence of its realist credential It may be obected however tat the relatively few pages dediated to aemblage theory in te wor of Deleue (much of it in partnerhip with Fli Guattar i ardly amout to a fullyfledged theory. 3 And thi i in fact correct ut the concepts ued to pecify the characteritic of asemblages in thoe few pages (concepts uch a epresion or territorialiation) are higly elaborated and connected to yet other concept throughout Deleue wor aing into account the entire networ of ideas wiin wic the concept of aemblage perform it conceptual duties, we do have at leat the rudiment of a theory ut thi, in tu, raises another difficul ty he defi nition of th e concept ue d to ch aracterie assemblages are dipersed troughout Deleuze or part of a definition may be in one boo etended somewhere else, and qualified later in some obscure esay Even in thoe cae where c onceptual definition ar e eay to locate, tey are uually not given in a style that allow for a traightforward interpretation hi would eem to condemn a boo on aemblage theory to pend most of its page doing hermeneutic o idestep ti difficulty I have elwhere recontructed te wole of 3
N W PH LO SOP HY O SO C Y
Deluan ontology, nludng thoe part that bear dretly on aemblage theory, a lear aalyt tyle that make a preoupaton wth what De leue really meat' almot omplty unneeary4 In th book I wll make ue of a mlar trategy: I wll ge my ow defto of the tehnal term ue my ow argument to jutfy them, and ue etrely dfferent theoretal reoure to deelop them Th manur w ll not ompletely elmnate the need to egage n Dleuan hermeeut ut t wll allow me to onfe that part of the ob to footote Reader who fee! that the theory deeloped here o trtly peak Dleue' own ar welome to all t no-aemblage theory', aemblage theory 2.0' or ome other name The frt two apter of th book trodue the fundametal dea of u a reotruted theory of aemblage Th theory mut, frt of al aoun for the of the properte of a whole not reduble to t part In th ynthet futon aemblage theory ha ral that are htorally muh older uh a Hegelan dalet Thu, an mportat tak, oe be arred out n Chapter I, to ontrat aemblage and Hegelan totalte. The man dfferene that aemblage theory the fat that a whole poe ynthet or emergent properte doe not prelude the pobty of analy In other word ulke oran totalte, the part of a aemblage do not form a eamle whole I Chapter 2 I wll argue that one htoral proee ar ued to epla the ythe of nora, orga ad oal aemblae there no eed for eetalm aout for ther edurg dett Th allow aemblage theory to aod one of the ma hortomng of other form of oal realm an ontologal ommtmet to the extee of eene One the ba dea hae been lad out, the net three hapter apply the aemblage approah to a onrete aetudy the problem of the lnk betwee the mro ad the maroleel o f oal realty Tradtoay, th problem ha been framed redutot term Redutom n oal ee often llutrated wth the methodoloal ddualm haratert of mroeonom, n whh all that matter are ratonal deon made by nddual peron n olato from oe aother. ut the pheomeoloal ddualm of oal otrtm alo redutont een though t oepton of the mroleel ot baed on ddal ratoaty but o the route ad ategore that truture nddual eperee In ether oe of thee nddualm there a denal that there et n addto to ratoalty or eperene omethng lke oety a a whole' ut uh an etty oneptualed
4
NRODUCON
as a mer aggregate, that is as a whole without properts that are more than the sum of its parts. For this reason we may refer to these solutions to the micro-macro problem as 'microreductionist The other position that has been historically adopted towards the micromacro problem is that social stru_ure is what really exists individual persons being mere products of the society in whh they are born The young Durkheim the oder Marx and functionalists such as Talcott Parsons are examples of this stance These authors do not deny the eistence of individual persons but assume that once they have been socialized by the famiy and the school they have so intealied the values of the societies or the social classes to which they belong that their allegiane to a given social order may be taken for granted This tends to make the microlevel a mere epiphenomenon and for this reason this stance may be labelled macroreductionist There are many other positions taken in social science towards the problem of the articulation of the micro and the macro including making an intermedate level such as praxis the true core of social reality with both individual agency and social �ructue being byproducts of this fundamental level This seems ot be the stance taken by such prominent contemporary sociologists as Anthony Giddens a stance that may be labelled mesoreductionist5 These three reductionist positions do not of course, exhaust the possibilities There are many social scientists whose work focuses on social entities that are neither micro nor macro: Erving Goffmans work on conversations and other social encounters; Max Webers work on institutional organiations Charles Tillys work on social justice move ents not to mention the large number of sociologists working on the theory of social networks, or the geographers studyng cities and regions. What the work of these authors reveals i s a large number of intermediate leves between the micro and the macro, the ontological status of which has not been properly conceptualized. Assemblage theor can provide the framework in which the contributions of these and other authors
(including the work of those hoding reductionist stances) may be poperly located and the connections bet ween them fully elucidated. This is because assemblages, being wholes whose propertes emerge from the inte racions between parts, can be used to model any of these intermediate entities: interpersonal networks and institutional organiza-
tions are assemblages of people; social justice movements are assemblages of sever a networked communities central govements are assemblages of several organizations; cities are assemblages of people, networks 5
A
NEW PHILOSOPHY OF SOCETY
organiaion a well a o a variey o inra rral oonen ro bilding and ree to ondi or aer and energy ow; naion ae are aeblage o iie he geograhial region organied by iie and he rovine ha everal h region or. Chaer 3 4 and ake he reader on a jorney ha aring a he eronal (and even beronal le lib one ale a a ie all he
I
way o erriorial tae and beyond. I i onlyby exeening hi ward oveen he oveen ha in realiy generae all hee eergen whole ha a reader an ge a ene o he irredible oial olexiy haraeriing he oneorary world hi doe no ily ha he onologial hee ooed here i no aliable o iler or olde oieie: i an be ed in naed or o aly i o oieie wio ie or large enral goveen or exale. I ake on he oher hand no eor o be lilral all y exale oe ro eiher Eroe o he USA. hi ily rele y bee ha oe o he etie o oa! aeblage h a ineeronal nework or iniional organiaion reain axiaely invarian aro dieren lre B even he illraion ro Weern naion are oen kehy and wih he exeion o Chaer , he hioial ae o y exale are no lly exlored. hi hortoing i iied by he a ha y older bliaion have already engaged hioy and hioial dnai and ha in hi book I a exlively inereed in a laiaion o he onologial a o he eniie ha are he a1or o y earlier hioal naaive.6 he hortage o hioial exale i alo inended o rede he ie he reader end a eah level o ale, ha i o inreae he eed o he ward oveen ine or hi book i i he reader exeriene o he joey ro he iro o he aro ha aer he o I i y hoe ha one he olexiy o ha orgoen eriory beween he iro and he aro graed a vieral level he inelleal habi o ivilege one or h oher exree will beoe eaier o break. On he oher hand a olion o he iroaro roble in er o a liiy o oial eniie oeraing a inerediae level o ale all or a ew word o lariy he eaning o he exreion larger· ale I al eaning i geoeri a when when one ay ha a ree i he longe one in a iy, or ha one naionae oie a larger area han anoher. B here iInalo a hyial eaninglengh o he exreion ha goe beyond geoery hyi or exale area and vole are laiied a exensiv roerie a aego ha alo inlde aon o energy and nber o oonen I i in hi laer exenive 6
INRODUCON
sense, not the geometric one that I use the expression 'larger-scale Two interpersonal networks, for eample will be compared in scale by the number of members they contain not by the extent of the geographical area they occupy so that a networ structuring a local community wi be said to be larger than one lining geographically dispersed friends if it has more members regardless of the fact that the latter may span the entire planet Also being larger in only one of the properties differentiating the social entities to be discussed here There are many others properties (such as the density of the connections in a network or the degree of centralization of authority in an organization) that are not extensive but ntesive and that are equally important Finally social entities wi be characterized in tis book not only by their properties but also by their capacities that is by what they are capable of doing when they interact with other social entities To those readers who may be disappointed by the lack of crosscultural comparisons or the absence of detailed analyses of socia mechanisms or the poverty of the historcal vignettes l can only say that none of these worthy tass can be really carried out within an impovershed ontological framework When social scientists pretend to be able to perfor these tasks without ontological foundations they are typically using an implicit, and thereby uncritically acceted ontology There is simply no way out of this dilemma Thus while philosophers cannot and should not pretend to do the wor of social scientists for them they can greatly contribute to the job of ontological clarification This is the tas that this book attempts to perform Manuel DeLanda New York, 2005
7
1 Assemblages against Totalities
Th u f thi chat i t intduc th thy f amblag B thi inductin i nt man a an nd in itlf but a a man t lucidat th ntlgical tatu f th ntiti that a inkd b cilgit and th cial cintit. I th f xaml uch a thi a city a a whl? I th cmmitmnt t at th xitnc f u an ntity lgitimat? And i dnying th ality f uch an n quialn t a cmmitmn t th itnc f nly indiidual and thi famili? Th anw t all th qutin i a dfiniti n, b al btacl mut b md bf jutifying thi ngati n Of all th bacl tanding in th way f an adquat a nlgy nn i a ntnchd a th organismc metaphor. In it la hiticatd fm thi tumblingblck inl making a ufi analgy btwn city and th human bdy and t tulat that ju a bdily gan wk tgth f th ganim a a whl h functin f cial intitutin i t wk in hamny f th bnfit city A hitian f cial thught Hwad Bck and Hay Ban ha ntd th a man y aiant f thi cntu ild mtah m m hiticatd than th Th thy f th mblanc btwn cla gu and intit tin in city and th gan f th indiidual i a ld a thy itlf ha alady ntd it nc in Hindu thugh and ha al calld attntin t th fact that Aittl bk IV f hi Plitic t fth thi ganimic analgy with pcii 8
and claity Th am cnctin aa claly in th witing
. ASSEMBLAGES AGAINST TOTALITIS
Ciceo y, Seneca, and au In te Midde Age eaboate antoomoic anaogie wee dawn by Jon of Saibuy and Nicoa of Cue In te eay moden eiod, Hobbe and Roueau contated te oganim and te tate oding tat te ogaim wa te oduct of natue wie te tate wa an atificia ceation In te ate eigteent and eay nineteet cenuy fancifu notion of te ocia and Kaue, oiticaAen, ogaim aeaed wit wite 1 a Hege Scmittene, anduc aitz Sceing In te ate nineteent centuy te ogaimic metao acieed it fit ytematic deeoment in te wo of Hebet Sece and eaced it innace of infuence a few decade ate i te wo of acott aon te mot imotat figue of e unctionait coo of ocioogy. Afte ti te ue of te ogani a a etao decned a ocioogit ejected functionaim, ome becaue of it emai on ocia integaton and it diegad fo confict ote becaue of it focu on ocia tuctue at te eene of enomeoogica eeience But a moe oiticated fom of te baic etao ti eet coideabe infuence in mot coo of ocioogy and i ti fom t i uc oe difficut to eiminate. i eio inoe not an anaogy but a geea teoy about te eaton between a and woe, woe tat contitute a eae totaity o tat diay an oganic unity e ba cocet in ti teoy i wat we may ca rlan f erry: te comonent at ae contituted by te ey eation tey ae to ote at in te woe A at detaced fom uc a woe ceae to be wa t it i ince beig ti atiua at i oe of it contitutie oete A woe in wic te comonent at ae efubitent and tei eation ae etena to eac ote doe ot oe an oganic unity A Hege wote i i wat contitute te caacte of mecanim naey tat watee eation obtain beween te ting cobied ti eatio i xanus to tem tat doe nt concen tei natue at a, and een if it i accomaied by a embace of unty it emain oting oe tan mposn, mure, aggrgan and te ie Thus, in this conceptio wholes possess a inextricable uity i wich there s a strict recipr ocal deter mination between parts. This version of orga nismic theory is much harder to elimiate because it is not just a atter of rejecting an old worn-out image and because its impact on
ocioogy the work goe beyond fuctionaim A good contemoay eame i
of the influenial sociologist Athoy Giddes, who attempts to
A NW PHILOSOPHY OF SOIY
tacend the dulty of gency ad tuctue by aguing fo thei mutu cottution: gecy i cotituted by it invovemet i pctice whic i tu epoduce tuctue Stutue i conceived oniti behavioua pocedue nd outine and of mteil d ybo eouce neithe one of which poee a epaate exitece outide thei itaiation in actual pactice 3 In tun the pactice whic intatiate ule ad mobiize eouce ae coceived by Gidden contiuou fow of actio 'not compoed of a ggegate o eie epate intention eao ad motive4 he ed eult of thi i eamle whoe in which agency and tuctue mutully cotitute on nothe dilecticy 5 Following egel othe defede of thi appoach ague tht witho elation of inteioity a whole cnnot have emegent popetie becomig a mee aggegatio of the popetie of it compoen may be agued howeve, that whole may be both lyble int epaate pt ad t the ame time he ieducible popetie popetie that emege fom the e between pat A the philoophe ciece Maio Bunge emak the 'poibiity of anayi doe ot enta edu
ASSEMBLAGES A GA INST TOTA LITIS
words te exterorty o relatons les a ertan atonoy or the tes they relate or as elee ts t t les that a relaton ay hane wtot the ters hann Relatons o exterorty also ly that the ro ertes o the oonent arts an never exlan the relat ons wh onsttte a whole that s relatons do not ave as ther ases the roertes te [oonent between whh they o area establshed . . .'8o altoh they ayarts be ased by the exerse oonents aates In at, the reason why the roertes o a whole annot be reded to those o ts arts s tat they are the reslt not o an are aton o the oonen ts' own roertes bt o the atal exer se o ther aates. These aates do deend on a oonents roertes bt annot be reded to the sne they nvolve reerene to the roertes o oter nteratn ettes Relatons o exterorty arantee that asseblaes ay be take aart whle at the sae te allown tat the nteratons between arts ay reslt n a re synthess Whle those avorn the nerorty o relatons tend to se oranss as ther re exale elee ravtates towards other knds o boloal llstratons, sh as te syboss o lants and ollnatn nsets n ths ase we have relatons o exterorty between sel sbs stent oone nts sh as the was and the orhd relatons whh ay beoe obatory n the orse o oevolton Ths llstrates another derene between asseblaes and totaltes A sealess whole s nonevable exet as a synthess o these very arts, that s te lnkaes between ts oonents o loilly ee relatons whh whole whatol t s Bt Whle n an asseblae these ay beake onlytheoily loally neessay relatons relatons ay be nvestated by thoht alone ontnently oblatory ones nvolve a onsderaton o eral qestons, sh as the oevoltonary hstoy o two sees In addton to ths elee onsders eeroenety o oonents an ortant haraterst o asseblaes Ths, he wold onsder eosystes as asseblaes o thosands o derent lant and anal sees bt not the sees theselves, sne natral seleton tends to hooene ther ene ools n what ollows wll not take heteroenety as a onstant roerty o asseblaes as a varable ay bt takealso derent vales Ths wllas allow e to bt onsder no onlythat sees boloal oranss asseblaes, nstead o havn to ntrode another ateoy or the as does elee. Coevn an orans as an asseblae les tat 11
A N W PHLO O P H Y O O TY
despite the tight integratio between its componet organs, the relations between the are ot logically ecessary but oly contigently obligatory: a historical result of their close coevolutio. In this way assemblage teory deprives organismic teories of their most cerised exeplar addition to the exteriority of relations the concept of asseblage is defied alog two dimesios One dimension or axis defies te variable roes wic an assemblage's components ay play from a purey ml role at one extreme of the axis to a urely exve role at te oer extreme These roles are variable ad may occur i mixtures that is a given componen may play a ixture of material ad expressive roles by exercising differen sets of capacities Te other dimension defies variable processes in wih tese componets become involved ad tat either stabilize the identity of a assemblage by icreasing its degree of inteal homogeneity or the degree of sarpness of its boudaries or destabilize it The former are referred to as processes of lzn and the latter as rocesses of delzn Oe and te same assemblage ca ave components working to stabilze its identity as well as components forcing it to cange or eve trasformig it ito a differet asseblage In fac oe ad te same compoent ay participate i both processes by exercising differet sets of capacities Let me give some siple social exapes of tee four variables The coponents of social assemblages playig a material role ay widely but at te very east involve a set of uma bodies properly oriented (physically or psychologically) towards each oter Te classic example of tese assemblages of bodies is face-toface conversations but te interpersonal etworks tat stucture communities as well as the
0
hierarchical orgaiations tat gover cities or ationstates ca also serve as illustratios Community networks and instiutional organiza tions are asseblages of bodies but they also possess a variety of other material componets from food ad physcal labour to simpe tools and complex macies to te buildigs and neigbourhoods servig as their physical locales Illustratig the compoents playing an expressive role eeds soe elaboration because i assemblage theory expressivit caot be reduced to language ad symbols A mai compoent of conversations is of course te contet of the talk ut there are aso many fors of bodily expression (posture dress facial gestures that are not linguisti In addition tere is wat participants express about themselves not by wat tey say but by the way they say i even by their very coice of topic
2
ASSMB AG S AGA INS T TO TA ITI S
hese are onlgstc socal epressos whch matter from the pot of e of a person's reptaton (or the mage he or she tres t project n conersatons) as mch as what the person epresses lngustcally mlarly a mportant component of an nterpersonal etwor s the epressons of soldarty of ts members bt these can be ether lngstc promses, ows or behaoural the soldarty epress by shared acrfce or mtual eenonepressons the absece of wors whch Herarchcal zatons n t,help deped of legtmacy, may orga be emboe lngustcally (n the form of belefs about the sorces of athorty or n the behaor of ther members n the sese that the ery act of obeyng commads n publc n the absece of physca coercon epresses acceptance of egtmate authorty The cocept of terrtoralzato mst be frst of al understood lterally. Faceto-face coersatons always occr n a partcuar pace (a street coer a pb a chrch, ad once the partcpas hae ratfed one aother a coersato acqres weldefned spatal bonares Sm lary many terpersonal networs defne commntes nhabtng spatal terrtores whether ethnc neghborhoods or smal tons wth wel defed borders Organzatons, t sally operate partclar bulngs ad the ursdcton of ther legtmate athorty saly concdes wth the physcal bondares of those bdngs. The eceptos are goermetal organzatons bt ths case too ther rsdctoal bonares te to be geographa: the borders of a town, a pronce or a hole country So, n the frst place processes of terrtoralzaton are processes that defne or sharpe the spatal bodares of actal terrtores Terrtorazato on the other hand, also refers to onspatal pcesses whch ncrease the neal homogenety of an assemblage, such as the sortngofprocesses whch eclde a ceran category of people from membershp an organzato or the segregaton processes whch ncrease the ethnc or racal homogenety of a neghborhood Any process whch ether estabzes spatal boundares or ncreaes nternal heterogeney s consdered eterrtorazng A good eample s com mncaton technology rangng from rtng and a relable postal sece to teegraphs telephones an compters a of whch blr the spatal boudares of socal ettes by elmnatng the need for co presence they enale conersatos to tae pace at a dstance allow terpersoa networs to form a regar correspodence phone cas or compter commncatos an ge organzatons the means to perate dffere contres at the same tme.
A NEW PHILOSOPHY OF SOCITY
Whle the deompoiion f an aemblage ino dfferent part and the aignmen f a maerial or expreie rle o eah component exempifie the analyt ide of he apprah, he concet of territor alzaton play a ynhet role ince it n par hrugh the more or le permanent ariuatin produced by thi proce hat a whole emerge frm t part and manan ideniy nce i ha emerged. But there another ynthecheproce in aemblage heory and hatmantenane complemenof terrtrialzatn role played n he produn dentty by pecalized expree ente uh a gene and word. Althugh De euze conder all enitie een nonbgal and nnoal one a beng capabe f expreon he argue that the htorcal appearane f hee peialed eiie allowed a grea mplefiaon f the kind of whle hat could be aembled n h planet. Let me eabrate th pn aring wh he dea ha phycal or hemcal entte are capable f expren. When aom nera wth radaton ther nternal ructure creae patern in hi radaton thrugh the eete abrion of i wa eengh. In man e photograph th pattern appear of aome a paial arrangemen f lgh andmad ark band (a pectrgraph) whch correlaed in a unique way wh the denty of the chemca pecie o which he aom belong. In other word the abrtn patern xp th dtty of the hemcal pee in the frm f phyca nfrman whch an be ued by atrophyct for example t dentify he chemial elemen preen n a gen celeta prce. On the other hand thi expreiiy i clearly n funtonal n any ene That , whe he informaion paern d hae an obete extene the abence arophyii (r her of may petro graph) theinpattern do no of perform any functon Thee uer pattern be compared to the fingerrin ha are expreie of human organc dentty but tha in he abence f a lawenfremen orgazaton that collet them, ore hem and reriee hem a par of a prce of dentfatn perform no real bogial funcin a all. But Deleuze argue, there hae been criical threhold in he hory of the planet when phycal expreiiy ha beome funcional. The frt threhld the emergence of he genetic cde markng he pont at which nfrmatn pattern eaed depend on he ful hree-dmenon al tructure f an eniy (uch a hat of an aom) and beam a eparate one-dmenional trucure, a lng han of nucle acd. The end threhold the emergence of anguage whle genec lineary tl
ASSEMBLAGES AGAINST TOTALTIES
lned o patal reaion of contguty lngutc ocalzaton dplay a ta a that endow t nformaton pattern wth an een reaer autonomy from ther materal arrer Thee two pealzed lne of expreon mut be condered aemblage n ther own right. Lke all aembage they exhbt a parttowhole relaton: gene are made up of lnear equence of nuleode and are the component part of hromoome; arethe made of lnear part equence of phonet ound or wrtten letter,word and are component of entence ome of thee component part pay a maeral roe a phycal ubtratum for the nformaton and through elaborate mechanm h nformation can be expreed a proein n the cae of genetc matral or a meanng, n he cae of lngut one4 In aemblage theory, thee two pealzed expree meda are ewed a he ba for a econd ynthetc proce While terrtoralzaton prode a frt artculaton of the component the codg performed by gene or word upple a econd artulaton conoldatng the effect of e frt and further tablzng the dentty of emblageY Biologcal organm are example of aemblage yntheized through both terrtoralization and codng bu o are many ocal enttie, uch a herarchca organzaton. The codng proce in the latter wl ary ependng on wheher the ource of legtate authorty n thee herarchie tradonal o r rationalle gal a in modern bure aucrace. In the former the coding performed by narrate etabhng he ared orgn of authorty whle n the latter t effeced by onttution pellng out the rght and obligation aoated wth each formal role I tempng to ee n te fact that both bologcal organm and ome of he mos sib soial uos are doubly arulaed he oure of the appea of the organmc metaphor: the omorphm of the procee gng re to ome bologcal and ocal entte would eplan their reemblance. On he other h and thi real reemb ane hou ld not lene the dea hat ocety a a whoe' like an orgnm nce many ocal aemblage are not hghly coded or hghly terrtoralzed In fact n both the boogcal and the ocal realm there are procee of dcodg yeldng aembage whch do not conform to the organimc metaphor. n biology uch decodng llutrated by anma behaour whch ha ceaed to be rgidy programmed by gene to be learned fro m exper ene n a more flexble way T h decodng prouce for example, errtore the aemblage when anmal hae anmal gone beyond the paie expreongeneraed of normaton S
A N H OSOHY O SOI TY
ptterns ptterns o te ingerprint kind ctivel to use vriet o mens rom eces nd urine to song colour nd silouet te s n expression o teir identit s owners o prticulr geogrpicl re16 socil exmple o te result o process o decoding would be inorml converstions between riends s socil ssemblges converstions do not ve te sme durbilit o eiter interpersonl networks or institutionl orgniztions nd no one would eel tempted to compre tem to orgnisms. But te do involve rules suc s tose governing tu-tking. Te more orml nd rigid te rules te more tese socil encounters m be sid to be coded But in some circustnces tese rules m be wekened giving rise to ssemblges in wic te rticipnts ve more room to express teir convictions nd teir own personl stles Neverteless nd despite te importnce o genetc nd linguist compones or te consolidtion o te identit o biologicl nd socil ssemblges it is crucil not to conceptulize teir lins to oter components s reltions o interiorit In oter words te interctions o genes wit te rest o bods mciner sould not be viewed s i te constituted te deining essence o tt mciner. nd similrl or te interctions o lnguge wit subective experience or wit socil institutions In n sseblge pproc genes nd words re simpl one more component entering into reltions o exteriorit wit vet o oter mteril nd expressive components nd te processes o coding nd decoding bsed on tese specilized lines o expression operte side b side wit nongenetic nd nonlinguistic processes o territoriliztion nd deterritorilition To empsize tis point in te cpters tt ollow I will lws discuss lnguge lst nd s septe component Tis will llow me to distinguis clerl tose exressive components tt re not linguistic but wic re mistkenl treted s i te were smbolic s well s to emsize tt lnguge sould be moved w rom te core o te mtter plce tt it s wrongl occupied or mn decdes now Tere re two more questions tt must be discussed o complete te crcterition o te ssemblge pproc Te irst regrds te processes o ssembl toug wic psicL biologicl nd socil entities come into being processes tt ust be conceptulized s recunt. Tis implies tt ssemblges lws exist in populatins, owever sml te popultions generted b te repeted occurrence o te sme processes s te ssemblges mking up tese collectivities interct wit one noter exercising vriet o cpcities tese
7
AS S MBAG S AGANS T T OTA IT S
a dw h ppa wih pp h w h a a ain a gwh ain avag dib bag ppi Th d gad h pby ha h h ivi ag abag may g whh h b h ppai a h p pa I h wd, h a bw mb a iviy may ad h ain pa aian bw h ydig a a abag wih ppi ad apai w Si h p bhid h ma h dig aa a hv a ppa ag abag w b ad adg h pibiy v ag gg Th ba h a aby p a ay n paa a ad h n h a kid amby p iaza ad dg a iv a gv abag hy a way appahng h pb kig h i- ad ma-v ia ay Th bk hi b w b p givig amp hw w a bdg h v ndivda p ha h a (h a a a hgh a ad bddg ag abag in a in i ad a-a B a h pi w pv gv a ip ai O advaag h p appah ha aw h pa vagy did ga i ik h ak h a wh n abag Wha wd pa, ap, h ak' i a abag appah? Mak hd b vwd i a gazan ha i ak-pa baaa and hi a ak h abag ad pp ad h maia ad piv gd pp xhag I addi a h i ha ad Bad! ag h gana b ad a phyia a h a a a w ad dg yd, a a whih hd a b idd a pn h abag I h , h a abag ha away bn a Bad ay a px iig a ma ak w phap h a ai, wih a dpd viag ad Eah vag had b gh h w b pib g h ma and bak a day. B h aa dii h ni wd ay dpnd h avaiab an ap h diy ad h y h aa i.
8
A NEW PHLOSOPHY OF SOCETY
Roughly, prior to the emergence of steam-driven tranport the average size of these complexes varie between 60 an 70 square kilometres. In the high Mile Ages as European urbanization intensifie these local markets multiplied generating a large population of similar assemblages Then some of the marketplaces belonging to these population were assemble together into regional markets larger assemblages with an average area of to l, 700 square kilometres Each such region typically exhibited a dominant city as its cetre and a recognizable cultural identity both of which are parts of the larger assemblage Next came provnca market, with dimensions about ten times as large as the regional markets they assemble but a lesser degree of inteal homogeneity .19 inally when several such provincial markets were stitched together as they were in Englan in the eighteenth century natona marke emerged This brief description yiels a very ear piture of a series of diferently scaled assemblages some of which are component parts of others which in tu become parts of even larger ones Although I left out the historical details behind the assembly of l<a! marketplaces into regional markets or those behin the creation of national markets it is ear that in each case there was a process through which larger entities emerge from the assembly of smaller ones As Braude! notes of national markets they were 'a network of irregular weave often constructed against all odds: against the overpowerful cities with their own policies against the provinces which resisted cetrazation against foreign intervntion which breached frontiers not to mention the ivergent interests of prouction an exchange20 The situation is indeed even more complex because I am leaving out longdistance trade an the inteational markets to which this type of trade gave rise But even this simplified picture is alreay infinitely beter than the reified generality of the market Let me sumarize the man features of assemblage theory First of all uike wholes in which parts are linked by relations of interiority (that is relations which constitute the very identity of the parts) assemblages are made up of parts which are selfsubsistent an articulated by relations of exteriority so that a part may be etached an mae a component of another assemblage Assemblages are characterized along two dimen sions along the frst imension are specifie the variable roles which component parts may play from a purely material role to a purely expressive one as well as mixtures of the two A second dmension 18
ASSEMBLAGES AGAINST TOTALTES
ch aaczs ocsss n hch hs comonns a nvov ocsss hch sabz o sabz h ny o h assmbag oazaon an oazaon n h vson o assmbag hoy o b us n hs book a h mnson b a an a as nng ocsss n hch scaz xssv ma nvn ocsss hch consoa an gy h ny o h assmbag o on h conay ao h assmbag a can au o mo b oaon h bnng om gnc o ngusc soucs ocsss o cong an cong1 A o hs ocsss a cun an h vaab on synhszs n ouaons o assmbags Whn hs ouaons oh synhc ocsss hch may aso b chaacz as oazaons o congs bu hh ycay nvov ny n mchansms gna agsca assmbags o hch som o h mmbs o h ogna ouaon bcom comonn as To concu hs cha ou k o a som a o h scon o h syn h ascs o assmbag hoy n acua o sak o ocsss o oaaon an cong hch may b nsana by a vay o mchansms ms ha hav an aqua noon o ha a mchansm s n h cas o noganc an oganc assmbags hs mchansms a agy causa bu hy o no ncssay nvov near auay, so h s ask b o an h noon o causay o ncu nonna mchansms Soca assmbags on h oh han conan mchansms hh n aon o causa nacons nvov� rason ad mov. So h scon ask b o sho ha o hs subjcv comonns ay n h anaon o h okng o soa assmbags Th s ask s cuca bcaus h shocomngs o na causay hav on bn us o jusy h b n nxcab oganc uns n oh os h osuaon o a o as a samss b o coca acon o as an nga oay o uncona nnns o as a bock o unm unvsa nconncons has aonay bn ma n ooson o na causay as h gu hong ogh a mchanca o Hnc assmbags a o ac oas h com mchansms bhn h synhss o mgn os mus b oy uca n aon o suyng an xcus o h osuaon o a bock unvs h omua o na causay Sam caus sam c aays has ha amagng cs on h vy concon o h aons bn causs an cs n acua h smbanc o ha omua 19
N W HOSO H O S O
wth the one for logical mplcation (f C, ten E necessarly') has msled many pilosophers into thnking tat the relaton between a cause and ts effect is bascally that the occurrence of the former implies that of the latter. But f causality is to provide te asis for objectve syntheses causal relations must be caracterzed as productive, tat is as a relaton in wch one event (the cause) produces another event (te eect) not ust impes it 22 The events wich are produively connected by causality can be simple or atomistic events suc as mecanical collsions But causality may also connec complex entities such as the component pas that make up a whole In ths case while te entity itself cannot act as a cause because t is not an event a cange n ts definng properties can be a cause since changes even simple quanttatve ones are events For te same reason actions perfoed y a complex entity can also e causes. Linear causalty is typcally defined in terms of atomstic events ut once we depart from these we must consder the role that te internal organzaton of an entity may play in the way it is affected by an external cause is internal orgnzation may for example determine that an exteal cause of large intensty will produce a low-intensity effect (or no effect at all) and vce versa tat small causes may ave large effects hese are cases of nnlinear causalty defined by thresholds below or aove wch exteal causes fail to produce an eect that is tresholds determning te capacites of an entity to be ausally affected n some cases this capacity to be affected may gan te upper hand to te ont tat exteal causes ecome mere trigers or ta�yt for an effect As Bunge puts it in ts case extrinsc causes are effcient solely to the extent to wc they take a grip on te proper nature and inner processes of things23 Catalysis deeply violates nearity since it implies that dfferent causes can lead to one and the same efect as wen a switch from one internal state to anoter is trggered by dfferent stmul and that one and te same cause may produce very different effets d·pending on te part of te whole it acts upon as wen ormones stimulate growt when appled to te tips of a plant but init it wen applied to ts roots24 t is mportant to epasze owever that to refer to nner processes (or to an inteal organization) does not mply tat nonlinear or catalytc interactons are examples of relatons of inteority: inner processes are siply interactons between te component parts of an entity and do not imply that tese pars ar utually consttted These two depaures from linearty violate the frst part of te foula (same cause same effect') ut he seond pat (always) may also be
SSE GES GNS
OIIES
calenged. Violatig this secod part, te part ivolvig trict ecessity resu i tattica causai a for of causaity that becoes iortat te m oe t we start to cosider ot sigle etities but large poulatios of su c etities Thus we oe says tat i a give pouatio of sm oke rs 'Sokig cigarettes causes cacer the clai caot be that oe ree ated evet (sokig) produces the sae evet (the oset of cacer) i every sigle case The geetic predisositios of the ebers of the populatio ust also be take ito accout ad this ipies that the cau se will produce its effect oly i a hig percetage of cases Furterore statistial causality does ot deped o the existece of omplex iteal rocesses i te ebers of a opulatio It ay also obtai without suc iteral orgaizatio give tat outside of laboratory coditios o series of evets ever occurs i coplete isolatio from oter seies wich ay interferewith it Thus eve if we ad a oulatio of geetically ideical uas sokig would still ot always lead to te oset of cacer sice other activities (hysical eercise for exale) ay play a art i couteraig its effects The ost that incease the one ca say about eeral causes i a populatio is that they robabii of te occurrece of a give effect25 t is clear that asseblage theory i which asseblages ca be copoet arts of other assebages (leadig to te ieral orgaia tio behid oliear ad catalytic causaity) ad i whic asseblages are always te roduct of recurret rocesses yieldig populatios (ivovig statistical causality) ca accoodate these cope fors of causal productivity. Ad i doig so it takes away the teptatio to use ealess-web iagery or exape the idea tat there are recirocal fors of deteriatio betwee arts ca be accoodated via oli ear e cai ss ivolv ig feedbac k (such as th e egat ive feedb ack characterizig terostats) echaiss that do ot ily a fusio betwee the arts of a wole. The cace ecouters betwee idepedet series of evets at the suce o statistical causaity ca also cotrbute to eliiate totalities ad the bock uiverse tey iply As Buge puts it;
A further test of te falsity of the doct e of te bock u iver se is the eistece o cace (tat is statisticaly deteied) pheoea ost of the arise fro the coparative idepedece o diferet eities ta is out of teir coparative recirocal cotigecy or irrelevacy The eistece of utually ideedet es of evolutio 1
A N EW PH ILO SOP HY O F SO CI ETY
is in turn ensured by the attenuation of physical interactions with distance , as well as their fin ite spe ed of propagaton - the m ost effective looseners of the tightness of the block universe.26 The two roles that componens play in an assemblage material and expessive ae related to these different forms of causality While aterial components inud the enire repertoe of casal interactions expessive ones typically involve catalysis The odours sounds or colours that territorial anials use as expressions of their identity for example act only as triggers for behavioural responses in both rivals and potential mates both of which must possess coplex nervous systems to be capable of being affeced this way This is also true of genes many of which code for enzyes that ar highly effective and specific catalysts although genes also code for proteins which play a material rle such as being buildingblocks for cellular membranes Language on te other hand typically plays a catalytic ole which assumes that both speakes and listeners have compex internal organizations This internal order however only partially by moe material causes mechanisms (such as possessing isa nervous system)explained and implies elaborate In particular the capacity of human beings to be affected by linguistic tiggers ( as well as by non linguistic expressions of solidaity legitimacy or pestige) demands explanation in which reason for acting are involved and in some cases by explanations involving motv. Roughly while easons may be exemplified by traditional values or persona emotions motives ar a special kind of reason involving explicit choices and goals27 As the sociologist Max eber argued long ago causes reasons and motives are typically combined in the intepretation of social action that is action oriented towards the behaviour of others As he writes: 'A corect causal inerpretation of a concrete couse of action is arived at when the over action and the motives hav e been corre cly apprehended and at the same time their relation has become meaningfully compre hensible28 The fact that Webe speaks of causal interpretations is conveniently ignored by most students of his method of understanding o Vrhn). This method by no means licenses the conclusion that all soial action may be read lie a text or that all social behaviour can be teate d as an enacted document29 The sourc e of this mista en assessment of Webers method is a confusion of two different meanings of the word meaning sgncaton and sgnfan, one refering to semantic ontent the other to importance or relevance That Weber had significance and 22
AEMBLAGE
AGAINT TOTALIT
E
not sign ificatio i mind whe he wote about 'menigfully compre hensible social ctio is clear fro the fct tht he thought his method o rked best when applied to cses involvig mathng men to n end th at is, socil ction ivolvig choices nd gols. 30 Understnd ing or ki ng sense of such ctivities typically ivolves ssessig the adequcy of the way in which a goal is pursued or a poblem solved or the relevance or mportce of give step n the sequence Some of these ll be ssessmens cusl relevnce when thethe sequence nvolves itercting of with mteril objects s i activitiesofofctios black siths carpenters or cooks But eve when it is not mtter of iteractig wth the ateril world judgements about goal-orieted lingui stic performance will typiclly be bout the adequacy of a lie of rgument or the relevace of a piece of iformtio and ot about semtics Menstoends mtching is n exmple of social actio that demans motives s prt of its explnatio Wht about the case of social action involving resons? Some examples of this type of socil ction y not ivolve semantic interprettion at lL These are the cases i which the weight of trditio or the itensity of the feelings may be such tht the socil ctivities ivolved my lie very close to the borderne of what cn ustifbly be called meigfully orieted ction ad indee often o the other side·31 (The other side beig socil ctio explained i purely causal terms as in rections trigge red by habitual o r affective stimul) But there are other cses of explntion by resons tht do not reduce to causl oes and do not volve any deliberate choices by socil ctors In these cases, kig sense of soa! behviour involves givig resons <:h as the belefin the existece of a legitiate order or the dese to live up to te epecttios associted with that order eliefs d desires y be treated spropositios) tti tude s towards meing f decarative towards d tothe this extent otey do involvesenteces referee (th to t is sematics Propositiol attitudes re also ivolved i social ctio explined by motives of couse such s the belief in the cusl adequcy of some ens or the esirabiity of the gols ut in the cse of trditional reasos for ction causal adequc may not be motivtig fctor ad the desirability of a course of action my ot deped on specific gols2 It is oly in this case that the reltions betwee the propositions theselves such as the retios between the propositions tht make up a religious doctrie become crucial to mke sense of social activities And yet even this cse will demd a mixture of semtic 23
A NEW P HILO SO P Y OF SOCIE
itptti f th cd txt ivlvd d f mt f th ltiv imptc f difft p ti f th txt f th xpl ti f cct cu f cti b mthd giv u wy t ppch th quti f mchim i cil mblg: mchim which will lwy ivlv cmplx mixtu f cu d mtiv Nt cwldgig th hybid tu f cil mchim c b uc f miudtdig d mytificti i cil cic xmpl cil ctiviti i which m uccfully mtchd t d tditilly lblld til' B thi lbl bcu th fct tht th ctiviti ivlv pblml vig ill f difft id t ig l mtl fculty l tilty) d tht xpliig th uccful luti f pcticl pblm will ivlv cidti f lvt cul vt uch phyicl itcti with th m t chiv gl t jut culti i ct hd imilly wh givig tditil uti xplti my duc th t itul d cmy (d lbl th itil but thi bcu th fct tht my ihitd i i fct pblmlvig pcdu which hv b lwly fid by ucciv gti h pcticl uti my b vlid by itul ymblim whil t th m tim big cpbl f ldig t uccful cul itcti with mtil titi uch dmtictd plt d i I dditi t pvig th bjc tiv d ubj ctiv cmp cil mchim mut iclud th full vity f cul itct tht i thy mut t it ccut tht th thhld chctiig li culity my vy fm ct t th tht th m xtl cu my ffct but t th th d tht cul guliti th bhviu idividul ct b himlf gu d lyipbbi ltic 34 f t titicl cu lity i v m imp t t wh w cid p pu lti f ct hu i th c f xpl ti by mtiv w my cwldg tht idividul ct cpbl f mig itil chic d tht i m c uch ittil cti ld t th cti f cil itituti (uch th witt ctituti f m md titt whil t th m tim ii t tht th ythi f lg cil mblg i my tim civd th colective unntended cnsequence f ittil cti, tht i, id f ttiticl ult I th c f xplti by th th hd th cllctiv pct my ldy b t it ccut th blif d di ivlvd th ffct f cilti by fmili 24
1
ASSEMAGES AGAINST TOTAITIS
hl Bt th alatn mt n addtn b nvd n bablt tm. Mh a th fft f gn n th bdly aatt f lant and anmal a a matt f bablt nt na aal dtmnm) and that thf n dbng latn w a ntd n th tattal dtbtn f th vaatn n th bdly t th fft f alatn hld alway b td a vaabl and th bt f tdy hld b hw th vaatn dtbtd n a gvnth latn Th nld ntdtn f amblag thy. Th nxt hat wll add th nly mnnt whh lft t h th tlgal dagam f an amblag aft whh th nlgal tat f amblag wll b ly ldatd It w al and th d n f th att-whl latn that fg mnntl y th dtntn btwn amblag and ttalt and hw n m dtal hw amblag thy an hl t fam th blm f th latn h btwn th m and th ma -lvl f al hnm na . On th blm ha bn tly d th th hat wll attmt t fh t a ltn.
25
2 Assemblages agains Essences
Eeniai i he ain rean eed by any cia cieni uiy heir eecin eai. Puaing cia eniie wih an enduing and mindindependen ideniy hee criic wud argue ipie he exience eence deining ha ideniy. B wha exacy are hee eence upped be? Whie vey ew rea day wud ee ngicay cmied ae he exience eerna archeype hee are uber r eeniai in which eence are inrdced when axni he genera caegie prduced by heir caiicain. i heee impran begin hi chape by expaining hw aebage hery de n preuppe he exience eiied generaiie. Taxnic eeniaim a pped i Panic variey ay be aced back he wk he grea phipher Arie wh creaed a mehd r he caiicain eniie in a hreeeve hierachy he gen he pecie and he individua Fr exampe i he genu in uein i anima he ehd demand ha we ind peciic dieence which divide hi genu in we cae r exape w-ed and ued ania hi new eve in rn can be divided i even wer cae by dieence die ence B hee ne u be careuL ince a Ari e ay i i n ppe ay ha an anima which ha he upp ee ne r we ind wih wing and anher wihu he i ne i e xpe n ee crrecy . u i i c rrec ay i ne kind ha cven and anher ha ee ha are n cven; r hee are .
dierence we .'cann Thi mehd ppery wed ind anywhen urhe dierence and ead eachuhe he pin where 26
SSMBLGS
GINS SSN
S
o a ci hua or hor. Th ci may b urhr diidd o cour ic w ca diid uma io o whic ar back or hi muica or o muicaL ju or uju bu h ar o d bu mr accida cobiaio di idiidua wih ror na 2 Thu i i a o c or a h o wa od hioor ca aua kid ha w id h c or ry naur o ii 3 ouioary hory o cour hi i o arum woud b jcd T ror dirai o aima ci ro aohr o ick o Ario xa woud b coidrd ry bi a coni a ho marki h dirc bw oraim T rori o ci ar h ru o ouioary roc a u a hy occurrd coud ha o occurrd Th duri idy o a i ci i accoud or i r o h dir or o aura cio rdaor arai cia ha r accuuaio o ic maria i h dircio o rar adaabiiy, a w a roc hrou which a rroduci commuiy bco arad io wo roriy hy cao wi o o aohr. Whdir ir comuii roc yid ui h dirai rori a ci, h cod o, cad rroduci ioaio ak ho rori mor or durab by coi i oo o xra c ow Thi ioao d o ru i rcy irmab barrir. May a ci or xam maiai hir abiiy o xcha wih or a ci o ir idiy i uy i h oru. Bu h dii b ouda o uy rro duci y ioa d aima i our ay b bracd hrouh h u o biochooy or xa, or hrouh aco o rroiru a ac ha coi h coi aur o boudari I addiio o hari coicy o ir duri rori orai ad ci ar ao aik i ha boh ar bor ad di rroduci ioaio ark h hrod o ciaio a i, h hioica birh o a w ci ad xcio di i uay hiorica dah Wa h ii i ha a biooica ci i a d ya uiu ad iuar a h oraim a coo i bu arr i aiomora ca I or word iiidua orai ar h coo ar o a arr diidua who o h aricuar mbr o a ra caory or aura kid T a oi ai o ay ohr aua kid For xa chmica ci a claiid h riodic ab o m may b riid by a comim o h 27
NEW P LO SOP Y O SOCI EY
es ence of hydoge n oygen o ca on n geneal Bu s poss le acnow ledge h e ojecy of he ale whle efusn g o efy s na ua nds Aoms of a gen speces would e onsdeed nddual enes podced y ecuen pocesses pocesses of ncleosynhess) an place whn nddual sas Een hogh unle ogansms, hese aom dsplay much less aaon he fac ha hey wee o n a concee pocess ges each of hem aohsoy Ths mples ha hee no need e onologcally commed he esence of hydogen n sgeneal o only o he oece ealy of lage poplaons of hydogen aoms The lesson fom hese wo eamples s ha aonm essenalsm eles on a ey specfc appoach o yeld s efed geneales: sas wh fnshe d poducs (dffee n chemca l o olog cal speces dscoe hogh logcal analyss he endng popees ha chaaee hose podcs and hen ma hese se s of pope es no a de fnng essence (o a se of necessay and sffcen condons o long o a naual nd) To aod efcaon we ms nsead focus on he hsoca pocesses ha podce hose poducs wih he em hsocal efeng o cosmologcal and eoluonay hsoy n addon o human hsoy Assemlage heo y a s oulned n he peos ch ape aods aonomc essenalsm hogh hs manue The deny of any assemlage a any leel of scale s always h e podu c of a po cess eoal aon and n some cases, codng) and s always pecaos snce ohe pocesse (deeoalaon and decodng an desae Fo hs eason he onologcal sas of assemlages lage o small s always ha of nque, sngula nddals n ohe wods unle aonomc essenalsm n whch genus speces and nddual ae sepaae onologcal aegoes he onology of assemlages s fla snce conans nohng dffeenly scaled individual singuarities (o haite). As fa as socal onology s concened hs mples ha pesons ae no he only nddual enes noled n socal pocesses also nddal commnes nddual oganaons nddual ces and nddual naonsaes Naual nds on he ohe hand, ae no he only soce of essenals myhs Asole egns hs analyss a a leel aoe ha of naal nds wh he genus anmal and a logcal d(ferenian eaches he leel of speces hose, hman) The queson s f hs speces can e epl aced y nddual snglaes an he sa me e done o hs genea The answe s ha he hghes leels of ologcal classfcaons, ha pofhyla ngdom he leel ncldes plans and anma ls) o een nldng he ha phylum chodaa o whch 28
SSEMBLGES GINS
ESSENCES
a a va ai ma og d a diff am. A y may oidd a aa odypa ommo o al va ad a i ao pfid ig mi oio a g aa o vom i a aizao of ody-pa wi i a omp y diff of mi aio Tfo oy o o opoogia oio a ova oiviy of diff pa of ody a d o pify i. To p i dffy a odypa df a paad of poiili a opoogia pa of a po va dig fo amp pa a T oio of of a pa of poiii i ia aag oy giv a i popi apaii of a amag a o giv a i y a my poi w o id of poi apaii of a amag i o amopo owv op-dd i may i diff amag ii dff of apaii T foma d of poiy pa i mo advad i pyi ad miy w y a f d o a p a pa' . Ti i giv y opoogia ivaia ad aao a w a y dimio of pa dmio a p dg of fdom o va way of agig of o pyia o mia dyamia ym Caia pyi fo amp diovd a poiiii op o voio of may maia opia ad gavaia poma w igy oaid favoig o oom a miimi diff w poia ad ki gy o wod dyami of a a g va y o f aia ym w aad o a iimm poi i poiiiy pa a aao dfig i og-m di ioogia ad oia i o o ad w do o y av appopia foma oo o viga v of i m mo omp paa B w may ypoi a y wi poiiy ao dfid pa pa wi a m mo omp diiio of opoogia vaia aao). W may f o opoogia vaia a unia nquait a y a iga o pa opooga fa a a ad y may diff ym. i diiio of iva igaii a wod pa Aio ga wi idivida iga ii pa i p i oov ik fom o o o wod o a po of ogia diffiaio o of htoal dzntan a i a po ivovg dvg voio of a diff va p a aiz aa ody-pa 29
A NE W PHILOSOPY
O F SOCETY
The taxonomic categories bridging the level of phyla that of specie would epesent the successive points of divegence that histoical l diffeentiated the body-plan. In ad dition to the oles and pocesses described in the pevious chapte assemlages are chaacterized y what Deleuze efes to as a diagram, a se of univesal singlaities that would be the eqivalent of odyplan, o moe precisely that would strcture the space of possibiities associate with the assemlage6 Ths, while persons, communities, oganizations cities and nationstates ae all individual singulaities each of these entities wold a lso be associa ted with a spac e of possibilities chaactei ze y its dimensions repesenting its degees of feedom, and y a set of univesal singulaities n othe wods each of these social assemblages would possess its own diagam. In the previous chapte I showed how a eified generality like 'the maket cold be eplaced by a concete histoical entity such as a national maket: an entity emeging fom the uniication of seveal povincial akets each of which in tn is born fom the stitching together of seveal egional makets, in tn the esl of the historical union of many local maketplaces Each of these dfeently scaled economic ns mst be egaded as an individal singulaity eaing a elation of pattowhole to the immediately lage one, mch as oganisms ae elated species. What would be a social example of a diagam and its nivesal singlaities? Max Wee intoduced a classification fo social entities in tems of what he called deal typs.In his analysis of hieachical oganizations fo example, he found that there ae thee dferent ways in which thei authority may gain legitimacy by efeence to a saced tadition o cstom (as in organized eligion); by complying with ationallegal pocedres (as in eaucacies) o by the shee pesence of a chaisma tic leade as in s mall eligious sects8 I will se this classification in another chapte and add moe detail to the desciption of te thee types. At this point howeve, it is impotant to claify thei ontological staus ecase the term ideal type seems to sggest essences. But we can eliminate these essences by intoducing the diagam of an athoity strctue In this space of possiblities there would be thee univesal singlaities dening exteme foms that athoity stuctes can take The dimensions of the space, that is, the degees of feedom of an authority stucte would inclde the degree which an office o position in a hiearchy is clearly separated f om the incumben t ational legal forms have the most sepaation followed y the taditional and 30
ASSMBLAGES
AGAN ST ESS ENCS
ch arismat forms - an the e gree t o whh the a tv tes o the rga zaton ae r out ze the harsm at o rm wo u have th e east deg e o routnzaton, whe the other two wou be hghly routnze. J short , nvua an unversa sguartes eah n ts own way ao the assembage approah to operate wthout essenes. They aso efe the proper use o anayta tehnques n ths approah. Whe n axon om essenta sm the roe o anayss s pure y og a eompo sg aessary geus nto ts omponent spees by the suessve sovey erees or eampe, n assembage theory anayss mustogo be og a nvove caual nrnon n aly suh as esos mae to a organ wthn an organsm or the posonng o ezymes th a e oowe by observatons o the eet on the whoe's ehavour These nterentons are neee beause the ausa ntera s among parts may be nonnear an must thereore be areuy setage, an beause the entty uer stuy may be ompose o pats operatng at erent spata saes an the orret sae mst be oate9 In short, anass n assembage teory s not oneptua but ausa onerne wth the sovery o the aual mchanm operat ng at a gven spa ta sae O n th e other han t he topo oga stuture eng h agram o an assembage s not atua but vrual and mehanmdpndn apabe o beg reaze n a varety o ata mehansms so t emans a erent orm o anayss The mathemats o phase spae s but one eampe o the orma resoures that must be mobze to revea the quasausa onstrants that struture a spae o poss btes 10 Ca usa an uas ausa orms o a nays s are use ompemeary n assembage theory. To return to the eampe o assa physs: whe ths e ha by the eghteenth entuy areay overe east prnpes (that s a uversa snguarty the or o a mnmum pont) ths not ake the searh or the ausa mehansms through whh atua mnmzaton s aheve n eah eparate ase reunant Both the proutve ausa reatons as we as the quasausa topooga onstrants were part o the overa epanatn o assa phenomena Ths nsght retans ts vaty when appr oahng the more ompe ases o boogy a sooogy. Despte the ompementarty o ausa an quasausa orms o anays n ths boo I w emphasze the ormer Inee, athough I w try to gve eampes o the nner worngs o onrete assembages henever posbe, no attempt w be mae to esrbe every ausa mehansm n eta On the other han, t s mportant to ee how
A NE W PHILO OP Y O F OCIEY
ese measms shuld e prperly epualzed parularly measms rugh hh sal hles emerge frm e era eee er pars Te ques f measm f emergee has ma t sequees fr sal ery eause mpges drely prlem f he linkags btwn h miro and h mcr.Ts realr prlem as ressed slu fr deades eause has ee sse! adly psed. Assemlage hery a help frame he prlem rel us learg e ay fr s eeual slu a slu a wi le gg e deals f eery measm ed Psg he prlem rrely les frs f all geg rd f he de a sal presses ur a ly le els e mr ad e maleels parularly he hese leels are eed erms f refe geerales lke e ddual ad sey as a le Te eample aal markes ge he preus aper ss a ere may mre ha sales If s s he ase e e erms 'mr a 'mar suld e assa ed h fxed eels f sale u used dee e ree pars ad e resulg emerge hle a any gv spaial sal Thus a ge pral marke uld e sdered 'mar relae s mpe regal markes u 'mr relae h aal marke The same apprah uld e used emae se as a le y rdgg he smalles sale ha f ddual perss ad he larges ha f errral saes hrug a arey f ermedaely saled ees Sme emprary slgss ae fa prpsed frame e ques f he mrmar lk us hese erms reakg a lg rad f prlegg e f e sdes f he equa 1 Ge a a eah sale e mus sh a e prperes f he le emerge frm e eras eee pars s apprah may e araerzed as lgally 'mup Bu des suh a mup appra upled h he assump ha ddual perss are he mms leel mm us e medlgal ddualsm f mrems? N ad fr seeral reass rs f all medlgal dduass ke refed geerales (he raal ddual ad use em a ams ay dduals makg raal dess er I assemlage ery perss alays es as par f ppulas h hey saly era h e aer Bu mre praly hle he dey f se perss s ake for graed mrems assemlage heor mus e sh emerge frm he era eee subpronal mpnn Jus ha ese mpes are I ll spefy he e
ASSEMBLA
GES AGA INST ESSENCES
ch ap r u fr w uh p u ha h a ha f ma cr h mall cal cal a ala hr par frm mhlcal vualm ha cv f h mr ucv a a amla a ma cm cplf a pr cm par f larr amla: cvra a hr cal cur h prc a a r pra r h pla fral rl a raa h acqur fral rl a h ma c f wh h rl a pa mak hm par f hr hr wr a larr amla mr frm h rac f hr cmp par h f h par ma acqur w lar a h mr whl rac ac a affc hm Gra fr h m ha h mrc f ujcv ca v a apprpra accu whr w frm hr Ca w u h a prcur llua h apl f aal mark v u p frm h m- lvl Th prlm wh ha amp l ha u ha rla w uccv paal cal a pl rml ll r a pl f Ch Bufr h pa-wh rla a Rua rarl h pl ca . c apl h cp par f w vr r amla rral wr a ual raa. Oraa x a wid nq of scs fr a uclar faml f hr a raaal crpra mpl hal a mll ppl Faml cmp par f cmmu wrk whl m lar raa ca ca a var f wr a hr par uch a wr f fr r cwrkr Sm rpral wr uh a prfal wr cu acr raa hr frm par f a raa a hr c wh lar raa a h fuc a cmp par f h u a mpl Rua-ll rla Slar cpl ar a larr cal rpral wrk ma v r larr amla lk h cal f cmmu ha fm h ac f ma cal uc mvm ual raa u frm larr amla uch a h hrarch f vrm raa ha pra a a aaL prvcal a lcal lvl. cul pcur h ua hr a h Rua ll ha mpl furca w para l u ha wul ll mla A cal mvm wh ha rw a ur fr m v r r mr raa al
A N E W H ilO O H O OCIT
it and perform specialized functions, such as lobbying in the case of special interest organization or collective bargaining in the case of unions and other worker associations. That is social movements are a hybrid of inteersonal networks and institutional organizations And similarly for government hierarchies, which at each jrisdictional scale must form networks with nongovernmental organizations in order to be ableAlltoofimplement decided policies these largercentrally assemblag es exis t as part of poplations: populations of interpersonal networks organizations coalitions and government hierarchies Some members of these poplations carry on their interac tions within physical locales such as neighbourhoods cties or territorial states while others may take a more dispersed form ineracting with each other at a distance thanks to communication and transportation technologies The physical locales themselves being spatial enities do tend to relate to each other in a simple way neighbourhoods are composed of many residential commercial indstrial and governmental buildings; cities are composed of many neighbourhoods and territorial states are composed of many cities as well as of rural villages and unpoplated areas But this apparent simplicity disappears when we add these locales the recrring social activities taking place in them Ths a given city will inclde in its component parts not only neighborhoods bt the communities and organizations inhabiting those neighborhoods t will also inclde many nterpersonal networks existing in dispersed form that is networks no structuring well-defined, localized comm nities as well as organizatons withot a hierarchical structre (such as marketplaces) and ths whout a welldefined spatial jurisdiction or a homogenos internal composition t is possible however to preserve the insight that a reified generality like 'society as a whole can be replaced by a mltiscaled social reality as long as the parttowhoe relation is correctly conceptalized to accommodate all this complexity First of all althogh a whole emerges from the interactions among its parts once it comes into existence it can aect those parts s the philosopher Roy Bhaskar has arged emergent wholes are real becase they are causal agents capable of acting back on the materials out of which they are formed12 In other words, to give a complete explanation of a social process taking place at a given scale we need to elcidate not only mechanisms those behind the emergence of the whole, btmicroacro also the macromicro mechanisms throgh which a whole provides its component parts with onn nd o, 34
S SEMB L GES G INS E SSENC ES
la cing limiaions on ha hey can do hile enabling noel eomanc es 3 n he neoks cha aceiing ighly kni commniies o eamle a vaiey o esoces become available o hei membes o hysical oecion and hel o emoional so and adice B he same densi y o conne cions ca n also consa in membe s Nes abo oken omises naid bes and ohe nohonoed ommimen aels as in hose neoks a oey ha allos hem o ac as nocemen mechanisms olage localeseois noms imilaly manyhich hieachical oganiaions have access o o esoces can be available o esons occying ceain omal osiions in is ahoiy ce he eglaions deining he ghs and oblgaions o hese omal osiions ac as consains on he behavio o he incmbens ecase he caaiies o a hole o consain and enable may go neecised i old be moe accae o say ha hey aod hei monen as oon n sch as he oony o se a esoce (an ooniy ha ma be missed) o he isk o iolaing a limi ( a isk ha may nee be aken) Do hese onclsions sill hold hen e deal ih assemblages ha do no hae a ell-deined ideniy ha is ha do no ossess eihe clea bondaies o a homogenos comosiion sch as lodensiy disesed ineesonal neok s o ogani aions in hich decisionmak ing is no nalied? The anse ha hey do b hee ae some imoan dieences n aicla hese moe o less deeioialied assemblages o se he eiosly inodced eminology can sill oide hei omonens ih esos alhogh hey hae a diminished caaciy o consain hem n a dense neok in hich eveybody knos eveybody else and eole ineac in a vaiey o oles he inomaion ha ciclaes ends o be ell knon all aans ollos ha a noel iee nessomeone ill obably no omha oneis o is someone comonen membes boom osidecome he neok om conneced o membes o he neok hogh a eak link This is he basis o he amos agmen abo he nh o wk lnk.4 Lo densiy neoks ih moe nmeos eak Jinks ae o his eason caable o oiding hei comonen membes ih noel inomaion abo leeing ooniies On he ohe hand disesed neoks ae less caable o slying ohe esoces (eg s in a csis) ha deine he sengh o song links 5 Th ey ae also less ca able o ovidi ng consains sch as enocemen o local noms The esling lo degee o solidaiy i no comensaed o in ohe ays imles ha as a 35
whl e d p er e d cmmun t i e re rder t mbi l z e pl i t c l l y nd l e likelAyimictlr pi cu l get tei r i t e rct n wi t t er cmmun t i e nt pplr lieed u cnttultclnlmrket rgnzptlce Prinwhtchthdecie dvent in mki g i t cet fn)ntmrket inl mrket wel l deprt m et t re , u permrket d plce uppled te ir cpnent prt wt reurce they
A NW HOSOHY OF SOCTY
prvi ltqurreled, phcleteddwnmrket ednrurlireperp tidwere etemrket hb cmewitthent plthwbleceItpprt hwttwere he..erppr uwrd iAltlytew twtpumrket uni pltpyreplciticlpleermetltceemthtwere ehrmde gd ddit eedeltpliwdce, erwi pepl e li ked wekl y t ne nt er d n pprt u n t y t p where nvel fwhrmtic d Teywereltrdedprviwededrecntyptcrlly tdet inered t e eniemtpert tnhe 1 prillycebyitdem d d u ppl y ; wi l e t h e dec n t buy nd e l were itnhtee tiintlet prilcectemeirgedd im pclleedcttvheeuielvetended tce cteqr.uece7 Butf , price re weker cntr int tn0� frml1reultn tndietny ce . tnthereherreThuthe cu, l cpc t e t ey exee when t h e y n t e 1 rct wi t h e i d bve, t e cmmui t i e t r uct u red by net w rk l my n t e rct m g t em e l v e t f r pl i t i c l cl i t nd me r z t my t e rct prt f l rer gvernme t l e rrci e The e l rger e bl ge re emeret whl e n t e e e ju t def i n ed beig prt f plit cl cltin prvide c munity with rece greed lcnimkepletrmet enleitpurtinucyitrgugglfde erntilvnlcledywfregul rmr tdetumeru plrye glcgec theetprv thdeprtdwl uncb epttyycl tgbthieticettnltrle y re ed vermet wi t h f c l re urce whi l e t t h e e t i e bei n g l e l l y cn t r i ed t pert e i u brdit e p t i . t my be bj e ct e d wever t h t t h e e l l i ce nd u brdi t i re t t e ef f ect f tthheeme lrgerthe llemblicegerebutcretf tehde ctbyivtedifv tdule pepl ettt ctcmp e ct v i i n g repreetti ve f ther cmmuite d t e utrity f gvermet lgecy w y exerci with ntedbynlinjurdividcultf fverc lnt. Butertwitp lbclle tjuri ccept dictntti 6
36
asands bat tahs saompop au ust thntatactthsbyaansntof tthsdoacthatythofpop t m own a capactcau s h dc that aows su ch a copos s th concpt cao usredundant n taht yxpcaanatwht on hof tha conct actos socaapocsth s cot cmayo ponnts not b d caus a th macowho. h abuty ca n b natd f th a mny quivan xpanatn amp th not by anot ftaocoansattbtoonsnwbtaon nofwtnah spocs pcomun cothfcsaoup ntt atqusofswhtactoactnchatwasstsshtcousn fnadctcotohacathwods dbn byfo cat d th mayntactb jousntbfdtwnnxpnta nncomun th t snfcoaanitxpon anatas thonsofutthof haco-ddtato as ssunnc somay bcaus thssa such aacocoanat aus s wouond a out c 8 n a m way ay b s a d t o b t h ant act o n t h p a nat o n of an ntoanatona pocss f a su bsttuton of th pop occupyn sadacunt spcpcttfscsdaapontcyssoutanntnstnss(msautanas nhtbyaoctntySuchpsntsuctaacdusubybsbuttotastuhftotanas nthhwount oan d of account atcous onaant pohasbyscandtos popt capact s of t h oan at o n a n oh y t h s a af t s u ch a chan nfnc t woud tbo sdund ant to pa n tuntantntsoan atnosna outwhncoftbyhnc p c f c anas acco and n t o many ot h s u ch s p c a s t s wou d ha f t t outcAndomtappox m a y n a a nt h s a m po n app s t o a as s b a s C t s n tact causay wth on ano th by comptn fo ants f o ua conom othnsn thfoco snnatpshthutaofntssunoundns foa ucs c s u t ch s as f o wat ap o a c u ca t u n a cas a t nd a and c aus f o a swhadow n h b t n t h f o at o n of nw t o wns utu ofncbutcousbyctdp s tassnotonca tthshmfoc ttofhspop asactphystsscaofoucs ntthtos tthadat canoppotn tuanttsh Bs way makt nhabtantpascsnandcudo n chant s n s t o s and m ant s as w as n atofotnshs Soactwhyt nots thsataycausthat ont s tuban h ntcntact onsto tnhbnt thtnhowt pfhooan s of anoth? Bcaus w pacd th mchants by oth chants th ak pacs by oth atASSEMB LAGES AGAINST ESSEC
ES
37
NE W P H LOSOPH Y O SOCY
placs and so on a vry smlar nhbtng ffct old b achvd On th othr hand f sch a rplacmn ld to a vry dffrnt otcom tha old b vdnc that th phnomnon n qston mst b pland by mchansms opratng at a smallr scal and that t old nvolv not only cass bt also rasons and vn motvs Ths socal assmblags largr than ndvdal prsons hav an objctv stncparts bcas thy thm can casally affct th popl ar thr componn lmtng and nablng thm and that bcas thy can casally affct othr assmblags at thr on scal Th fact that n ordr to rcs thr casal capacts ntally as ll as trnally ths assmblags mst s popl as a mdm of ntracton dos not comproms thr ontologcal atonomy any mor than th fact tha popl mst s som of thr bodly parts thr hands or thr ft for ampl) to ntract th th matral orld compromss thr on rlatv atonomy from thr anatomcal componnts And a smlar pont appls at largr scals. hn cts go to ar a rcrrng nt n th ag of cty-stats thy ntract casally throgh thr mltary organzatons hthr ths ntracton shold b vd as on btn organzatons or btn rban cntrs s a qston to b ansrd n trms of casal rdndancy f a ar lasts so long or s foght at sch a larg scal that stratgc dcsonmakng at th organzatonal sca mattrs lss than th haston of rban rsorcs rcrts apons food sppls) thn t old mak sns to v th psod as on nvolvng an ntracton btn rban cntrs snc a sbsttton of on st of mltary organzatons for anothr old lav th ocom rlatvly nchangd Th mltary organzatons cold b s·n as th mdm thogh hch arrng cts (or trrtoral stats) ntract mch as ndvdal offcrs n dffrnt branchs of th ltary ar th mdm of ntracton for th organzatons thmslvs Thr ar thr mor adjstmnts that nd to b mad to th spcfcaton of assmblag thory to mak t capabl of adqaty accontng for a mltscald socal ralty. Th frst s a qalfcaton of th vry concpt of mrgnc l sad abov that on stratgy to avod rfyng gnral catgors as to focs on th procss of prodcton nstad of th lst of proprts charactrzng th fnshd prodct Ths s n fact corrct bt t rns th rsk of placng too mch mphass on th hstorcal brth of a partclar assmblag that s on th procsss bhnd qin mqn th ts dntty dnttybtn at th pns thos hch mst mantan ofths ts brthofand ts procsss dath: no 38
SSMLGS GNS SSNS
zt on would be ble to kee ts dentt wthout the ongong tetons mong ts dmnstte st nd ts eloees no t ld kee ts dentt wthout ongong ehnges ong ts oltl eonom nd elgous ognztons n no ntonstte would su� thout onstnt ntetons between ts tl t nd ts othe ubn etes n tehnl temnolog ths n be eessed b sng tht tetolzng oesses e needed not on hstoll to odue the es dentt eh stl sle but lso to mntn t n the eneoossemblges destblzngtoesses o detetolzton seond qulton s elted to the st gued n the eous te tht ssemblges e lws odued by osses tt e euent nd tht ths mes tht the lws est n oultons Gen oulton o ssemblges t n one sle othe oesses n then genete lgesle s semblges usng membes o th s oulton s omonents Ths sttement s oet but onl not tken to ml n tu hstol sequene Although o the ognl emegene o the e st ognztons eestng oulton o esons hd to be lble not o ouse n stte o ntue but led lnked nto nteesonl netwoks most newl bon ognztons tend to st theseles wth eole om othe eestng ognztons Wth e ew eetons ognztons oe nto beng n wod led oulted b othe ognzton uthemoe whle soe must eest e whole othes be geneted b the mntenne oesses o n led estng whole whe tes e omosed o oultons o ntesonl netwoks nd ognztons t s sml not the se tht these oultons hd to be thee o to the emegene o t n t most netwoks nd ognztons ome nto beng s ts o led estng tes The thd ulton eltes to thebeueston o the sleboe t tul sol oess s to elned As elent I gued whh sometes questons o elene e settled though the onet o usl edundn ut ths does not ml tht elntons wll lws noe sngle st l sle The N oleon eoluton n w e eoluton whh tnsomed w om one onduted though eltel lol bttles o tt ton to one bse d on bttles o nn hl ton n whh the ent e eso ue s o nton wee m obzed s good emle o oess dendng multsled elnton: t noled usl hnges tkng le t the ubn nd ntonl sle (the enh Reoluton whh odued the st mes o motted tzens nsted 39
N W H lO SO H OF SO
T
f epensve mecenaes; causes and easns at the ganzatna scae the beakngdwn f mnthc ames nt autnmus dvsns each wth ts wn nfanty, cavay and atey; and easns and mtves at the pesna scae snce Napen's wn stategc genus and chasma ampfed by hs nfuenta ptn n nepesna netw payed a cuca cataytc e Letfme chaptesganc agument ossca fa The ntgca status anysummaze assembageths nganc s that f a unque sngua hstcay cntngent ndvdua. Athugh the tem ndv dua has cme t efe t ndvdua pesns n ts ntgca sense t cannt be mted t that scae f eaty Much as bgca speces ae nt genea categes f whch anm a a nd pant ga sms ae membes , but agescae ndvdua enttes f whch gansms ae cmpnent pats, s age sca assembages shud be gven the ngca status f ndvdua enttes ndvdua netwks and catns ndvdua ganzatns and gvenm•nts ndvdua ctes and natnstates Ths ntgca manuve aws us t asset that a these ndvdua enttes have an bectve estence ndependeny f u mnds f u cnceptns f tem wthut any cmmtment t essences efed geneates. On the the hand f the manuve t wk, the pat-t whe eatn that epaces essences must be caefuy eucdated The autnmy f whes eatve t t he pat s guaanteed by the fact tha t they can causay affect thse pats n bth a mtng and an enabng way an d by the fact that they can nteact wth each the n a way nt educbe t the pats that s n such a way that an epanatn f the nteactn that ncudes the detas f the cmpnent pats wud be edundant nay, the ntgca status f assembages s tw-sded as acua enttes a the dffeenty scaed sca assembages ae ndvdua snguates, but the pssbtes pen t them at any gven tme ae cnstaned by a dstbut n f un ve sa sng uates the dagam f the assembage whch s nt acua but vtua. ven the cuca e that the pat-twhe eatn pays n a ths t cncude ths chap te I wud ke t cafy tw fut he aspects f t fa I have cnsdeed ny questns f spata scae, the whe beng spatay age t the etent that t s cmpsed f many pats But bgca speces the eampe I use d as a p n t f depatue a s peat e at nge p that s, they endue much nge than the cmpsng gansms and they change at a much swe ate. The fst questn s then Is thee a sma tempa aspect t the pat-t-whe 40
AS SEMBLA
GES AGAINST ESSENCES
elato n ocal aemlag e Then thee t h e matte o pec al entt e scale-fre oth the ologcal ad ocal ealm tat eem to opeate a wy. Thee ae the pecalzed lne o epeo metoed the t chapte nvolvng genetc ad lngutc entte O the one had gene ad od a e moe mc o tha n the ode a d mnd o pe o O the othe they can alo afect macopocee gene dene the human pece a a h ole ad od ca de e elgo comm ad g ele y lage o that pece The ecod elaton? queton Ho do thee aemlage aect the pattohole pe calpoton Te t mpotat tempoal apect o ocal aemlage the elatve uat on o event capale o chagng them Doe t take longe to eect edung and gncant change oganzaton tha n people o eample o longe cte tha ogazato? Hee e mut t dtguh eteen change ought aout y caual nteacton amog ocal aemlage thout ay concou teveto y peon e cage poduced a collectve uteded coequence o etonal acton) m thoe hch ae the eult o deleate plang The ome cae nvolve lo cumulatve pcee o the poduct o epeated teacton o eample dug the eventeeh and eghteeth centue n uope the authoty tuctue o many ogazaton chaged om a om aed on tadtoal legtmacy to oe aed on atonallegal ueaucatc pocedue The change aected ot only govement ueaucace ut alo hoptal chool and pon When tuded n detal hoeve o deleate plan ca e dcened the chage occug though the lo eplacement ove to centue o oe et o daly oute y anothe Although th eplacemet dd volve deco y ndvdual pe o pe o h o may hav e mp ly mtated n one oganzato hat a happeng n aothe motvated y a deedundat e o leg tmacy thethe detal o theea outcome deco ette ae nunde mot cae caually to eplan outcome tood a the eult o epeated nteacto among the meme o a oganzatoal populaton A mla pon apple to chage n uan ettlemet the nteacton among ton though tade ad compet ton o mgat and nvetmet yeld eult ove eteded peod o tme n hch mall ntal advatage accumulate o hch el tmulatng dynamc have tme to amply ntal deece Thu n chage ot eplaale y eeence to tategc plang elatvely log tme-cale can e epected o gncat change to take place But hat aout the othe cae? Do planed change at 41
A E W PHi lO OP Y O F O ETY
organizational or urban scaes reduce to the characteristic duation of individual decisionmaking Enduring and important changes in this other case always involve mobilizan f nrnal rsurc,both materia resources such as energy or money, as we as epressive ones such as soidarity or legitimacy believe it is safe to say that the arger the socia entity targeted for change, the arger the amount of resources that must be obilized iven that resources are always scarce this ipies that spatial scale does have tempora consequences since the necessary means may not be availabe instantaneousy and may need to be accumuated over time n addition resource mobiization must be performed against a variet of sources of inertia at any given scae, from tradition and precedent to the entrenched interests of those that may be affeced by a particular change This impies that the larger the spatial scae of the • change, the more etensive the aliances among the peope invoved have be, and the more enduring their comitment to change has to be Let me iustrate this with two eapes at different spatia scaes resource mobilization perfored within an organization to change the organizaJ tion itself and resource mobilizations performed in a hierarchy of organizations to effect change at the scale of neighbourhoods or entire towns. The first case interorganizational change, ma be illustrated by the need for orga nizations to keep up with rapid technoogica development s. iven a correct assessment by peope in authorit of the opportunities and risks of new technoogies can an organization change fast enough m inl han_ xrnl pur?r more simpl, can the resour ces available to an organization be mobiized at wil n arge comple organizations this may not be possibe Changes in the way an organization operates are bound to affect some departments ore than others, o withdraw resources fro one department to endow another, and this wi generate interna resistance whih must be overcome through negotiation. The possibities of success in these negotiations, in turn, wil depend on the etent to which the forma roes in an authorit structure overap with the informal roes of the intepersona networks formed b empoyees. f a network property (such as the centraty or popuarity of a node) fais to coincide with formal authority, the resut may be confict and staemate in the mobization of resources20 This means that even in the case where the deciion change have been madecompeit by peope of who canaction command subordinates, the very oint impiesobedience delays in from the impementation of 42
G
GT C
the etrally deded plas ad ths loger tme-sales for orgaa to al hage he effet of tmelags proded by the eed to egotate ad sere omplae wt etral desos beomes more promet at larger spatal sales as the ase of hages at rba leels brogt abot by the poles of a atoal goemet he mplemetato of poles deded po by legslate eete or jdal orgazatos typally oles the partpato of may orgazatos sh asoertg brea rat agees hese agees aother eerse dsreto whe poly objetes to atal proedres programmes ad reglato hs t s eessary to obta ther ommtmet to a ge poly's objetes ad ths ommtmet wl ary dfferet agees from tese oer to omplete dfferee hs trodes delays the plemetato proess as the eessary egotatos tae plae hese delays, tr mea that agees ot orgay oled hae tme to realze they hae jrsdto oer portos of the programme or assess that the poly qesto wll mpge o ther terests f these other ages get oled tey omplate the mplemetato proess by ddg to the mber of etopots that must be leared mplemeta to the beomes a proess of otos adstmet of the orgal objetes to a hagg poltal realty wh eah adjstmet olg delays the egotato a d ser g of agreem ets Hstorally falres to meet the orgal obetes of a poly hae ofte refleted the ablty of the mplemetato mahery to moe fast eogh to aptre the agreemets whle they lasted .21 A seod temporal aspet of soal assemblages s ther relate edrae a qesto fdametal soology ge that oe old hardly se the term sttto' to refer to a soal pheomeo whh dd ot last lo ger tha a hma lfe People are ormally bor a world of preosly estg stttos (both stttoal orms ad orgaza tos) ad de leag behd may of those same stttos t beyod mere logety we wold wat to ow whether the proesses hat ostatly mata the detty of soal assemblages yeld a haci lf-pnorrelated wth dfferet spatal sales other words s large spatal eteso orrelated wth log temporal drat? he aswer s that there s o smple orelato. tepersoal ewors ary drato dspersed fredshp etwors do ot edre loger tha the persos that ompose them bt tghtly t etwors of eghbors lg promty do yeld ommtes that se the 43
A NEW PH ILPHY F CETY
death o their parts The durabiit o instittiona organizations aso varies: on the ow side restaurants have an average ie-span o on a ew ears a act that gives them a reutation as the ruities o the organiationa word but some reigious governmenta and even economic organizations can ast or severa centuries Cities in turn whie aso having a range o durations have instances that have endured or ien nia a nd most o them tend to outive an o th e organizations the house Fina athough some territoria states such as arge epires have demonstrated a resiience aowing them to endure at east as ong as cities, nationstates are uch too oung to know just how enduring the can be Thus, in soe cases spatia and tempora scaes do correate, but not in others On the other hand most socia assembages arger than peoe do tend outive them on average even toda when rates o inant ortait have decreased and average human ie epectancies increased In the case o dense interersona net work s par t o the eanation or their reative onger iespans is that their continuit is maintained b the overap o successive generations o neighbous. Simia, in the case o hierarchica organizations, changes o personne are never ta that is there is awa s a n over ap betw een sta amiiar with the dai rouines and new eoees But in addition to this tempora overap there is transission o semantic inormation across generations about the traditions and custos o a particuar communit or about the orma and inorma res deining positions o authorit in a particuar hierarchica organization his transmission o inguistic materias heps aitain the identit o socia assembages across time much as the ow o genetic aterias heps to reserve the identit o bioogica assembages s I said in the previous chater these speciaized media o epression must thems eves be considere d assemba ges inhabit ing t he panet not as singe genera entities but as popuations o concrete individua entities in pa-towhoe reations ouations o individua sounds words and sentences; popuations o individua nuceotides genes and chromosomes On the other hand these assembages are specia in two was. n the irst ace, the are capabe o aab plcat through a hsica temate mechanism in the case o genetic materias and through enorced socia obigation in the case o inguistic materias Popuations o repicators when coued to an iter or sorting device are capabe o guiding change over time aowing the weight o the past to iinge on 44
SSEMBLGES GN
ST ESSENC
ES
pree We te rg dece bae elu ard adapta ppula f replcar ca ac a a learg mecam a ea t rac cage a ermet rug er eral cage e ecd place ee pecalzed aemblage are capable f perag a y: gee are ace cell ge e fucg f rga fluece e beaur f ere rgam ad bacle ter fl defe e reprducte lat f pece laguage ape e m mae belef f per te publc cte f cerat te ral trad f mall cmmue ad t� rt ctut f larg e rgaza a d etre germet 2 Ta te fl f lgutc replca aemblage peratg a !ere patal cale ma al replcae a e a rgazat pe ram a e brac a dffere lcal ad ed part f aff t dal rue defg ace t te e emplee But te fl f lgutc replcar eed ala be ·ertcal frm e geerat aer f te ame cmmut r fr e rgaza t a e brac t prl reprductel laed mcrrgam, t fl ma be ral rducg ale re prcedue r rtual c ater raer a preere e det f cal aemblage Tee caracertc mae geetc ad lguc aemblage rdar aemblage Bu eer pecaL te uld eer be dered a a mre a cmpet par eerg relat f eterr er cmpe part. We tee relat are cceed a errt relat ctue f te er de f te related par bt gee ad rd degeerae eece e cae f aguage maure embded e e f te /y x a te dea a a ere udfferetaed
pemelgcal feld cu up t dcrete ee b te meag f geeral erm Sce ma cae te meag f geeral caeg re g ereped arcularl e e are caegre applg grup f peple a geder r race caegre) e te f e lgu calt f eperece mple tat percept call c tr uced 2 t e ar f t capter I argued ta geeral caegre d refer ag te real rld ad a belee te d e t re em lead drectl eetalm Scal crucm upp ed be a ade t e ee tat b g ta geeral caege mere terepe te me tard ter blc refca Bu barecuplg e dea tat percep rcall 45
A NE W PHLOOPHY OF
O ETY
lngust th the ntlgal assumptn that nly the ntens epeene eally est ths pstn leads detly t a m soca entiam. n the llng haptes as pem a detaled analyss sal assemlages at pgessvely lage spatal sales these danges attempt t eplan mst e ept n mnd patlaly at the utset as supesnal h ndvdual pesns emege m the teatn mpnents nly sme hh ll tun ut t e lngust
46
3 Persons and Networks
lthugh pen a nt the malet analtcal unt that cal cence a tu d act pe n uch a nddual ecnc tanactn ca e ued a unt f anal the a the all etca le c al aemlage cndeed hee t tue that pen eege f te teact f upal cmpnent and that me f thee cmpent a jutfal e called the mallet c al ente Nthng e ptant depend n ettlng th quetn ll e need a pnt f depatue f a ttup ntlgcal mdel and te penal cale ll pde a cnenent ne On the the hand t mut e tated at te utet that the gal cannt e t ettle al the phlphcal quetn egadng ujectt cnune quet that ll pal cntue t pule phlphe f a lng tme t cme All that eed ed a plaule mdel th e uject hch th eemege cn tant aemlage the that afmdel n hch theeet uject a f elatn f extet ae etalhed amg the cntent f epeece gd caddate f uch a mdel a Dleue hmelf agued lng ag can e fund n the phlphcal chl knn a epcm The epct tadtn tl ememeed f t eptemlgcal cla n patcula the clam that all nledge ncludng eal nledge ca ultmatel e educed t ene pen hat amunt t the ame th ng that ee epe ence the fudatn f a nledge But Deleue dceed n the f Dad Hue methng much e nteetng than uch a dated fundatnal eptemlg a del f the gene f ujectt that can ee a an alteate t the dat ne aed n the the f the lngutcalt 47
A NEW HIOSOH O SOIT
of experiene. An empir model onepalize ubjeve expeene fi and foemo n em of stct ene mpreion The dea we deve fom hoe mpeion dea whh may onie he meanng of ome wod) ae no relaed o hem va oial onvenon b are de epa of hoe impeon, dnguihabe fom hem exluivey by he t 1 Fom he pon of view of aembage heory, i ria ha ea h ype of mp eon - no ony viaL aa ofaoy and ae b ao he paiy of paon, from pride and humiliaon t love and haed poe own ngla ind ivi dualiy ha ha eah of hee mpeon i, a Hume ay, 'an ognal eene 2 Th gaanee he heerogeney and hei redby o one anohe In addiion, he nga a of impeion wha diinguhe empi from langagebaed mode in whh a t impeion eognzed a being he mpeon of omehng by menaly laifying i a beonging o a aegory On he ohe hand ome poe mu give hee ingla impeon and idea a ean ny even if ha mple neang he degee of unfomy and onany Th proe a i we known, i he aoaion of dea Can be modeled va elaon of exeioiy? e f v o o n x l t t t ao one a good exampe n he ae of ubjevi y ean operao ang on idea pode aoave link beween hem and n he poe, povide ubjeive expeiene wh i overal oherene Moe peifay he habual gouping of dea hgh elaion of ongy (in pae o ime) heir habiua omparion hrough eaion of re emblane and he haba paing of aue and effe by her pereved onan onunon n a ooe olleon of ndivdal idea no a whoe wh emegen ppeie The aoave reaon eablihed beween dea by hee hee opeao mee he ea of exeoy beaue hey may hange wiho he idea hemeve hangng and he propee of he dea are no ed o expan he opeaon ha are apped o hem 3 Thee hee aoiave operao mu be oneived a ommon o a humany beng aodng o Be oignal qualiie of hman naue4 Speakng of a haed hman naue of oure hod no be aken o mply any ommimen o eenalm ne he human
1
! : ;� �
pe a muh a oningen hoal podion a any human oganm Speewde popee beng mh moe ongaing han
4
·�
PERSONS AND NE
TWORKS
oe o oanm o peon an ndeed eem o nvove a xed nea y naue when onden even a he oan empoa ae b h xy and neey ae a knd o opa uon poded y e muh owe ae o hane o a pee popee o by hh deee o epoduve oaon On he ohe hand a poe whh aon o he emeene o a peewde om o ubjevy eave many eaue ha haaee ndvda peon beonn o ndvda ue Thu whe he haba aoaon o ae and e aow any human ubje o mah mean o end (e o ove paa pobem) he hoe o end depend eney on he paon: o e haba puu o hoe end aoaed wh peaabe o ovey vaued paon and he haa avodane o hoe ned wh pan o neavey vaed one5 The ubje ha emee om h doube poe a pragmatic subjetwhoe behavou m be expaned boh y vn eaon uh a adona vae a we a by an peona move We may mae h mode o he emeene o bjevy n Deee own wod wha an om he mnd no a ubje and one a ubj e n he mnd ae he pnpe o human naue Thee pnpe ae o wo nd pnpe o a oaon an d pnpe o paon whh n ome epe we od peen n he enea om o he pnpe o y The bje he eny whh nde he nene o he pnpe o y pue a oa o an nenon; oane mean n vew o an end and nde he nene o he pnpe o aoaon eabhe eaon amon dea Th he oeon eome a yem The oeon o peepon when oaned and 6
bound beome a yem Th yema eny may be eaed a an aembae by dnh n hoe omponen payn a maea oe om hoe payn an expeve oe and hoe poee ha ve aby om hoe ha deabe The maea oe peomed by he body mehanm behnd he podon o ene mpeon hoe undeyn he body dpoon owad he wde ane o hman paon and emoon and hoe ha eae neuooay he hee aoave opeao houh Hume hme eued o peuae on he nae o hee ehanm he dd eeve ha he ba mpeon emee om he onon o he body om he anma p o om he appaon 49
A N W PHIOSOPHY OF SOC
f bje h e exeral rga 7 T hee mehaim we mu a he energy r labur ha, i he frm f fue aein, i ivlve i he ninuu rui f aiaive lik The exreive rle he her ha, i laye bh by linguii a nlinguii me The mai examle f he laer are he iea erive fm bh enual a aiae imrei. A J remarke befre, he link bew een iea a imrei i n rereenaia ha i n meiae by a veni r a e. Ida d xr imin A Hume u i , he 'iea f re whih we frm in he ark, an ha imrein, whih rike ur eye in unhine iffer nly i egree i aue 8 The mai errirializing re rviig he aemblage wih a able ieniy i abiua ition Habi, fr Hume i a mre werful fre uaining he aiai f iea ha niu reflei, a ernal ieiy i able ly he exe ha habiua r ruie aiain ar e nan ly maia ie 9 fll w ha a y re whih ake he ubj e bak he a e i h a ri r he reain f fix e aiain beween iea (ie. he ae in whih iea are ee a i a dium) a eabilize ernal ieniy Examle f hee eerrirializig ree are n har fi They ilue mae high fever, ixiain, enry erivai an eve eliberae iervei aime a iruing aiy ruine a erfrme, fr examl, rier in erai am Thee, an her ree, an aue a l, r a lea a evere eabilzai, f ubeive ieniy. 1 0 eral ieiy, he her ha, may be eerririalize nly by l f abiiy bu al by augmenain f aaiie here we mu g bey um e a a habi r ru ie he ef fe f he aquiin f nw ki he a yug hil lea wim r rie a biyle, fr examle, a n ew wrl uely e u fr exeriee fie wih new imre i a iea. The new kill i eerri ai zing he exe n ha i allw he hil break wih a ruie by venuring away frm he i a n ew vehile, r inhabi in g reviuly fr bien ae like he ean New kill, in hr, ireae ne aaiie affe an be affee, r u i ifferely, ireae e aaiie ener i vel aembage, he aemblage ha he human by frm wih a biyle, a iee f li grun an a graviainal fiel, fr exame. Of ure, he exerie f a ew kill a n beme ruine ue e iue uh he learig re i ew irein In aiin, while rigi habi may be enugh aiae liear aue an heir
I
•.
PRSO
S AD TWORKS
onsan s, hy ar no ouh o al ih oninar auss ha a mor aaiv lxib skills ina y hr is h qusio o h rol lay by hos xrssiv oonns ha ar iuisi Ths mus b inrou rsi h onsr ain aais rlaio o irioriy a osrain ha as I sai bor rus ou a o-Kaian osiuiv rol or laua. Morovr i us b k i m i ha laua am rlaiv ly la i h hisory o h voluon o h huma sis s an iln sis s illnia sussully oi ih viroma halls usin a ula ko abou aus-an rlaions Hum hims arus ha h abiiy o mah mas o s ( i h aaiy or ausal rasoni) is o a xlusivly human abiliy bu may b obsrv in ohr animals hih us i or hir o rsrvaio an h roaaio o hir sis .1 o o b omaib ih assmbla hory any iv aoun o laua mus b aabl o xlaii is irs mrn o h basis o a rior onliuisi orm o inlin n h ohr han h anua iay mr i aum hos rior orms o ili bhaviour hrouh is mu h rar On iiuly ih h assoiaionis aroah a iiuly on oin ou by is riis is h mov rom siml ias o or olx os I Hum's aou or isa h omlx ia o a a oul b rou by ombii siml ias or a rain olour sha aroma as a so o Bu his ombiaorial aaiy as h omar o ha o aua ivn a iioary ih a ini numbr o ors a s o ramaia ruls a rou an inini umbr o llorm sns. t z rom h oin o vi o assmbla hory hr is o roblm i simly ai his ombiaor ial ro uiviy o laua o ha o assoiaioism as lo a s h ho ry o rammar ha aouns or i (a svral xisi horis o) a also ass h vouioary s (i ha h orma oraors i osulas b aabl o mri om a rior oiuisi orm o subiviy 3 Assumin ha hav a liuisi hory ha ms a h rquirms h main o laua a h rsonal sa is h shai o In h Huma aou h ir b bi 4 an isbli rlaiv o a iv ia is simly a qusio o insiy Giv ha ias ar loinsiy rias o imrssios blivi i hm simy brins hm losr o hos imrssios, hih is hy a oi Hum [a] ia assn o s ir rom a iiious ia 15 his noion o bli as li orass sharly ih ha o
5
A NEW PH
OOHY O
F OC ET Y
modern pilosopers wo stress te role of language As said in Capte a beef may be considered an attitude towards a proposition tat is towrds te meaning of a sentence stating (truly or falsely) matters of fact Given tat declarative sentences are an important example of t cominatorial productivity of anguage and tat witin assemblage teoy tis productivity is accepted as real we must take seriously t defition of belief as a Humean propositional attitude On may te oter do not rule out te notion since we adoptand sucti a attitde wit dferent degrees of intensity and in many cases it is t intesity of a given belief more tat te corresponding proposition tat drives soc ial action. us so me people may b e willing to die fo r a cae if tey believe tat martyrdom wil guarantee eternal rewards but ti willngness to sacrifice temselves is more closely linked to te intensity of teir devotion tan to te spefic semantic content of te beief (say a certin number of virgins waiting in eaven a content wic could be alteed witout altering te beaviour e importance of intensity over desire, semnt content is clearer oter Humean propositional wic may take as objectsinpurely ideasattitudes (a desiresuc for as a specific ste or sound or a particular visua experience) atoug tey may also be irected towards propositions as in te case of a desire for eternal salvtion is brief sketc of ow subjectivity may be anded witin assembage teory can ardly be te last word but it will be enoug to proide us wit a point of departure e subject or person emerging from te assembly of subpersona components (impressions ideas propositionl attitudes, abits, skills as te rigt capacities to act pragmatically,
(ie to matc meansto customary ends) as well as socially, to select ends forany a variet of abitual reasons tat need not invove con scious decision On te oter and given tat te processes tat produce assemblages are aways iterative (ie tat tey always yield populations we must immediatey add tose aspects of subjectivity tat emerge from te interactions between persons. ome of tese interactions may be viewed as taking pace witin assemblages, abeit ones wit muc sorter lifespans ese epemeral assemblages may be referred to as socia encounters, and of te many different types of social encounters we may single out a particularly relevant one conversations between two or more persos e most important researc in tis regard is witout doubt represented by te work of te socioogist Erving Goffman wo studied 52
PR SONS ND
NETORKS
e a in which converation add another laer of identit to peron e pubc mag o psna the proect in their encounter with other an age that ha e to do with who the are than who the want be o m an' anai of converation end itef to an aembage pp roach firt of al for it tre on reation of eteriorit He define ubect matter a the cla of event which occur during copreence and b virtue of coprence The utimate behaviora materia are the glane geture poitioning and verbal tatement that people continuoul feed into the ituation whethe r intended or not. Thee are the xtal gn f ntatn and invvmnt - tate of mind and bod not ordinari eamined with repect to their ocial organization6 n addition offan approach emphaize the propetie f nveration that cannot be reduced to their component part uch a that of poeing a itual quibim which ma be threatened if A good eampe of nvolvement or attention are not proper allocated threat to ritual tabilit are embarraing event uch a inguitic err mipr onunci ation or miue of word lack of availabiit of a w ord whe n needd) or breache f etiuett making fun of a tutterer caling a mitatement a ie ince thee inciden divert attention from the converation itef to the norm which the participant mutua enforce When uch threat occur it i the ituation ite that becoe embarraing: whie the participant who committed the error ma feel humiiated particular l if the o ther do not a low hi m or her to av e face, the other participant ma ao fee embarraed about the inciden itelf
o that the entire ituation uffer and mut be repaired The degree to whch repair i necear i direct linked to the intenit of the diruption Goffman write a humiiating event place a participant in a tate of ritua dieuiibrium or digrace and an attempt mut be made to reet abi h a a tifactor ritua tate for th em . The iage of euilibrium i apt here becaue the length and intenit of the corrective effort i nicel adapted to the peritence and intenit of the threat17 an aembage a conv�ration poee omponent performing both material and expreive roe. The main material component i pn: human bodie correct aembled in pace coe enough to hear each other and phical orientedand toward one another component i the atention involvemen needed nother to keep ateria 53
A NE IOSO Y O SO IE TY
e coveion going, ell e lo pe epng i dieqiliim Wile in ouie conveion i lbou my coi o imple bi oe occion my demnd e eecie of ill, c c e cpciy o peven cg embme o oe) nd oie (e cciy o minin one compoe de poenilly em ing cicmnce) 8 Tee e e miiml componen plying meil ole B ecologicl veio (uc elepone o compue neo my me c pyicl copeece uecey ledig o e lo of ome meil compone (pil poimiy) bu dding oe e ecnologicl device emelve ell e ifuce needed o lin my c device Aloug e flo of od mig up e conen of nveion clely ply n impon epeive ole evey picipn in convion i lo epeing clim o cei pblic peon oug evey fcil gee bodily poe deploymen of ( file o deploy) poie nd c coice of bjec me nd in mny oe y Te
epeion of ee ideniy clim mu be done cefully i pefomed in uc y e imge pojeced cnno be eily dicedied by oe Ay given coveion ill peen i icipn i oppouniie o epe fvoble infomio ou emelve ell i i o epe nfvouble fc Since i ifomio become p of one epuion i ill ffec e ideniy clim one cn ffod o epe in e e encone. Te viey of men og ic clim o public peo cn e epeed coniue e min nongiic epeive componen of ee emblge. A conveio my be id o be eioied y bevioul pocee defininge ypiclly ode in pce nd inply ime Te pil of conveion ell defned, becue of ondie e pyicl equieme of opeece ply bece e picip emelve ify ec oe legiime ineco nd eude neby peon fom iding io e coveion A Goffm p i en e poce of ecipocl ificion occu e peon o ifed ene ino te of lk - ey ve decled emelve officilly ope o oe noe fo puoe of poen commnicion nd guee ogee o mini flo of od.19 Coveion lo ve boundie in ime defined by conveniol y of iniiing nd emiing n encone ell emol ode pecifyin g e ing o f u duing e encone Any even o eie of even deilie e conveion o 54
ERSO NS ANO N T ORKS
lur b ondar ie ay be conide red deer riori alzn g Ebarra en r ulaon are exaple o he orer: o he exen ha clai o a publcl accepable el crulae n onveraon an daage done o ee public iage i a poenial hrea o he negriy o e uaon an dcue crical pon in he ine o huliaion, or a ple aer whch regainng copoure becoe ipoible, ebar raen counicaed o all paricpan and he converaion cllap e. 0 Beyond h, here are even whch ay ranor a caual c ver aion ino a heaed dcion and, i he iuaon no corr eced, o a igh Thee even ar alo deerriorialzng inall a echological nvenon ha allow a converaon o ake place a a ance aec deny no by changing no oe oher or o ial encouner bu b blrring paal boundare orcing parici pan o copenae or he lack o copreen ce in a v are o oher wa The role perored by language n hee aeblage raghor ard, given ha wha con caed in hee exchange are word an d nence a I argued n gnicance a previou chaper heewo lnguc eneo have boh Bu gncaon and and hee denon eanng one eanc he oher pragac hould never be coned21 ne way in whch he pragaic dienon o language can be brough up i by hnkng o he coneqence o ayng oehng Goan argue w he poble excepion o acviie deliberaely inended o k e all oher huan acve have pragac conequence In any cae hee conequence ar relaivel well known n advance, ue o her very high probabiliy o ocurrence and are no hereore probleac B oher uaon are boh con equen ial and probleaic. ee call encouner Te er apple coue olnguic any vnful ooe fful.22 ype oheocal o which a ave a o inal coponen uch a he encouner o eney are on a baleeld Bu ay alo be ued o dinguih converaion in which roine and relavely nigncan word are exchanged ro hoe n which ubje c aer o grea iporance o he paripan beng dcued and in which he oucoe o he dicon i no eay o predic in advance ro he pon o view o he ideniy cla one can ake in ocial encouner evenulne change he diribuon o opporunie and rik In pariclar, only evenul iuaon allow parcpan e expreve pobly o dislyig c(courage negriy por anhp) Thi a gncan opporun becaue evenul encouner are relavel rare and, i he opporuny i no ed, parcpan can
55
NEW HilSHY F SCIE enha nce hei epuaions i a long-las ing mane sice claims o so chaace can only be challeged by he oc<·uece of anoher pobleaic event o by he ohe paipans.23 When covesaios (and ohe social encoues) ae epeaed wi he sae paicipans, o wih ovelapping ses of paicipas lasing social eniies end o emege: iepesonal newoks Po h asseblage oin of view inepesonal newoks ae pehaps he socia eniies ha ae he easies o handle given ha in newok heoy he ephasis is always on elaios of exeioiy. Tha is i is the pa o rcuing lnk, as well as he popeies of hose links which foms he subjec of sudy no he aibues of he pesos occupyig posiions in a ewok. These aibues (sch as gede o ace ae clealy vey ipoan in he sudy of huma ieacios bu some of e eegen popeies of newoks ed 1 eain he same despie changes in hose 1 abes This iplies ha he popeies of he links canno be ifeed fo he popeies of he pesons linked The popeies of links include snh hei is he fequency ineacio aong he pesos ccpying givenhaposiions as well asof he emoional cone of he elaio; hei psn absn. he absences indicaing he exisece of bodes sepaaing oe newok fom anohe o one cliqe fo anohe wihin a given newok ad hei eipy ha is he symey o asy mme y of he obligaions eailed by he link.24 I addiion he oveall ewok has popeies of is own oe of he os impoa of which is deny a measue of he inesiy of onnec iviy amog in diec li nk s 25 Roughly if he fiends o f y fien ds (ha is my indiec links know he fiends of you fieds and hy
know hehas fiends of eveybody fiends i apevious given comuiy ewok a high densiy As else's agued in he chape in he a highdesiy newok infoaion abo ansgessions of local os becoes kown o all membes of a comuniy which implies ha he newok iself has he capaciy o soe local epuaios and via osacis and ohe penalies he capaciy o dee poenial cheaes Anohe ipoa popey is a ewoks abiy a popey ha may be sudied eihe in ems of he aides of he pesons involved o in es of some sysemaic inedepedece bewee aiudes due o posions in a newok he fis case a newok is sable if he aiudes of pesons owads embes of a newok do fiends no poduce psychological esionohe as wold a siuaio whee he of my fiends ae acu ally y eeies n h e secon d case wha aes is how a
6
ERSNS ND NEWR S opey of he posons n a neok such as he popey of ben aby as defned by he nube of needay lnks has effecs on h e people occupyn hose pos ons akn he oe lkely o adop la audes oads hd paes 6 Densy and sably n u sodarty. Ths s also an a y endo a couny h a hh deee of een popey o he exen ha one and he sae deee of sol day ay be copable h a aey cobnaons pesonal and oes soe ebes ay be o oaed by heoffeelns of easons oeheness hch en noled n he affas of he couny oduces n he ohes by alus and ye ohes by sc calculaons of ecpocy Coponens pefon a aeal ole n hese asseblaes nclude n addon o he physcal bodes of he people noled he e and eney hey us spend n anann elaonshps o esouces hch ae alays n sho supply and hch l he nube of fends and conacs a peson can hae The aneance of elaons noles oe hanof us han also ncludes he and ech ane physcal ad feuen lke ak conesaons n ca e o f ohe eople s chl den of eoonal suppo such as n adce n dffcul saons As happens hee ess n any counes a dson of lao n hs ead h oen end n o pefo a dspopoona e aou n of he ok noled n he anenance of elaons27 Coponens playn an epesse ole nclude a lae aey of nonlnusc dsplays of solday and us Cean oune acs such as han dnne oehe hehe on a daly bass o on specal holdays o on o chuch and ohe collece uals see boh o epess solday and o pefo anenance asks28 Ohe acs such as he shan of adesy as happens dun a ske n a okes couny o he deonsaed llnness o ake sacfces fo he couny boh expess and buld us The poan pon s ha hen coes o epess solday acon speak loude han ods Epesse coponens also nclude any es capable of sen as a bade of deny The ey ac of usn he acula dalec of a lanuae spoken n a en couny fo eaple epesses he fac ha he use belons o ha ouny a splay of pde of ebeshp hch coexss h haee lnus nfoaon counaed by ods.29 neesonal neoks ae sube o a ae of cenpeal and cnfual foces ha ae he an souces of eoalzaon and deeoalaon Aon he foe he os poan s he
57
A NEW PHILOSOPHY OF SOCIETY
existence of confictbetw een derent communities. Conict has the ee o exaggerting the d istinction between ' us n d them, tht is i sharpens the boundari es between insiders nd outsiders While hig density itself trnsor s networks into enorce ent mechanisms t presence o conict increases the ctivities ded icted to policing communits borders not only the physical boun daries of a neighbou hood or small town b ut the degree to which c ommunt conrols i members ehaviour and promotes inteal h o mogeneity In oth words conlict sharpe ns the identity o a commu nity This implies th soli dr ity c nn ot alw s be viewed s desirabl e propet since in th presence o conict it results in prcices o so cial exclusion and t placing o constraints on members utonomy whi ch eatl reduce thei scope t o be different 30 E xamples of centrifugal forces inc lud e ny poces h at decreases a n etworks densit such as socil mobilit n seculazation Socil mobilit we k ens links by making people les interdependent nd by promoting greter cceptance o dierenc hrough less local and more cosmopolitn attitudes Seculrztio implies, among other things the elimination of some o the ritul which, like chuchgoing are important to the aintenance of traditiona
solidat Transpo ttion and communication technologies ar othe sources o dterritorialization tht reduce or eliminate co-presence (ie they crete disperse d inerpersonal networks) Geogrphicl dispersion demands tht commu nity members be more acti ve n the mintennce o links given tht conne ctions will tend to be w der and weaker and that readmde ituals or the epression of solidri t my not be avilble1 There re a var iety of roles ht linguistic components play n these
·
tors a iportant which rebetween the shared two or more eer ge asexample prt ooconlict communities ie the narratives o u s verss them) as well s the mostly stereotpe d ethnic or racial ctego ris used in them As the historic l sociologi st hrles ll hs argued these stories concentrte on uniied spc e an d time settings nd on actors with clear motivtions nd ixed ttributes nd thereore do not rell y cpture the actual caus structure o a giv en conlictive situation parti cularl one that has lasted a long time The se narratives tend t leav out anything relted to collective uninte nded conse quences o inten tional ction an process o
assemblgesthtn catqore
ccumultion or nce concentration of resourc t too slowbytothe be physical deected b direct eperie cts ismediated e s well as any social es environment2 But the role these stories pa in the assemblge is not 58
PERSONS AND NTWORKS rresenting the facts but rigidifying the identities of the conflicting rie s the narratives being part of a process of grup bnda the strutin. In the case of ethnic communities for instance, nforcement of identity stories and categories occurs chiefly at the oundary As Tilly writes 'You can be more or less Muslim, even to the oint when other Muslims deny your Muslimness, yet at the boundary ith Jews you still fall unmistakably ito the Muslim category3 In the rminology of assemblage theory stories of conflict (and the categories or insiders and outsiders associated with them) serve code and onsolidate the effects of territorialization on interpersonal networks. Speaking of conflict between communities already impes that like a ssemblages inteersonal networks exist in populatios Interactions among members of these populations may sometimes lead to the ormation of political aliances or coalitions among communities, lliances beig the paradigmati case of relations of exteriority in the social realm 4 In some case s all ian ces lead to the emergence of large r scale entities such as oal justce movemens In Tillys view a social movement is composed of at least two coective actors each comprising one or several allied communities with well-defied boundaries sharpened by conflict Oe of the communities (or coalitio of communities must be attempting to orrect a wrong or to gain a right of which it has been unjustly deprived; the other one is there to rival the laims of the first, that is to defend advantages which would be threatened by its success In other words a movement typically breeds a countermovement both of which should be considered compoet parts of the overall assemblage In addition the assemblage must include at least one govementa organization defined by its control over aw enforcement and milita ry resouces The aggri eved commu nity s go al is t o achieve recognition as a valid ieocutor on the part of the govern ental organization that is to be treated as a legitimate maker of collective claims a goal that must be achieved against strong opposition from the countermovement As Tilly writes: Claim makin g becomes poit ical when g ovemets or more generaly individuals or organizations that control concentrated means of coercion become parties to the claims, as claiman ts obects of claims, or stake holders Whe leaders of two ethnic factios compete for reognitio a vlid 1erloutor for the ir ethic ctego for eample the government to which interlocutors would speak
59
A NE W PHILO SOPHY O F SOC ETY
ineviably figre as sake holders. Conenion occrs everywhere coenis poliics involves govemens a leas as hird paries35
but
Tilly disc sses how he me ans hro gh whi ch poliical clais are ad nderwen a dramaic ransformaio in Grea Briain bewee 75 an 85 Clai-makig oved away from achinebreaking physica aacksdifferen on ax se collecrs, and oher forscharacerisic of direc acion oward h very of expressive displays of oday's mov · mens iclding pblic meeings deonsraions marches peiions pamphles saeens in ass edia posing or wearing of idenifyin signs and deliberae adop ion of disincive s log an s 6 The ne reperoires of coenion as he calls he play he main expresiv role in hese assemblages Drng he Idsrial Revolion and afer wards an aggreved comniy (or coaliion of comniies) had express ha i was respectable unifed, umeousand commted in shor 1 ha was a legimae collecive aker of claims in he eyes of boh i
t
rivals an d h e go ve me7 Of co rse , h e possession of hese proper ie s may be expressed lingisically Nerosness for exampe may be expressed by pbshing a saemen abo he qaniy of sppori em bers b i will be dis played more convincingly by asse mbling a ver large crowd in a pariclar place in own Respecabiliy may als be expressed i lingisic for b i will be displayed ore dramaicall if a large crowd manages o sage a peacefl and ordered deonsraion Lingisic saeen abo he degree of niy in a coaliion are eay o ake b for he same reason ny w be expreed ore forceflly by concered acion ad al sppor The change in conenion reperoires dring he eigheenh ad nine een h cenries implie s h a some componen pars swiched fr o a maerial o an expressive role B here are oher maerial componens Given ha expressing respecabiliy nmerosness commien and ni y silaneosly is n o an ea sy ask havin g neros eb ers mak es pres eni ng a ni fied fron ore pro blea ic for exam ple a la re invesen of eergy on he pa of organiers o hold he oveen ge her i s req ire d As Tilly wrie s he acal wor k o f org aniz ers consiss recrrenly of paching ogeher provisional coaliions egoia ing which of he liple agedas paricipans bring wih hem will find pblic voice i n hei r col leci ve acion sppressin g risky acics and above all hidig backsage srggle fro pblic view .8 n addiion given he fac ha a governmen organiaion is always pa of hese assemblges 60
P ERSONS AN NETWORKS
h li of componn prformin a marial rol m incld h apon anirio ar and h phyical corol of donraor by poli c and ary forc Th variy and concnraion of man of co rcion i an imporan componn bca h willinn and abiliy of ov mn oraniaion t hm vari ih circmanc and hi variaion afford val commnii diffrn oppornii and rik: a ar ay hav j brokn o and h ovmn mih nd o rcr i mr of on of h comnii or on h conary a ar a hav ndd and h xcpional ovrnmn conrol drin arim ay hav bn rlaxd promoin a wav of drrd aim; h ar may hav bn won or lo incrain or dcrain h arainin powr of h ovrnmnal oraniaion and hnc h chanc of h collciv acor caim o b ccfly hard and o on. 39 Qion of rriorialiaion ar dircly linkd o h chan in rproir of connion Whn dirc xprion of diconn wa ominan h oal o f a pariclar movmn w r mor local and hor rm Th wich o h nw rproir implid a mov oard m raic lonr oal and hi in rn involvd h craion of ndrin oraniaion w olidify ain and concnra rorc n hr word accompanyn h wic o h n xpriv rproir hr wa a imlano chan in h yp of collciv niy ha promod ho claim from ahorid commnii o h speialized assocatn, of which nion and ohr workr oraniaion ar only on ampl40 Th oraniaion playd a ky rol in ailiin h niy of a movmn B hr ar ohr proc ha ay chan or abili hi idniy forcin paricipan invn nw rai and vn o rdfin hir rl Amon hm ar ha Tilly rfr o a re yle. Th involv may imlain dynaic poiiv fdback) in hich [on cociv acor] ccfl clai makin nd o imla nw dmand on h pa r of oh r acor Ta happn bca o acor rconi prvioly inviibl oppornii ohr mla nwly dvid man of acion and il ohr find hmlv hr a n d by h n co mr . Exp an ion of cai m aki n occ r p o poin hr ihrdroy ablihach hmlv hiro poiion xha hirrival nri oJr orriidify ccmb a rprion calld forh y ho who inr claim makin 6
N W PLOSOPY O
SOTY
threaten s . Over suc a cyc le early phases multip ly inno vati ons i collective action, create relatively open spaces for new collecti experiments, and thus give the impression of a total break with th past During later phases more moderate claimants withdraw from th public arena leaving more radical and marginal activists inreasing! isolated and vulnerable Each large cycle of tis kind leaves its traces i the political system: of new groups relation between citizens andformation public authorities ·newalalteration of publicofdiscourse and creation of new forms of collective action41
l
There i finally the question of the effect of linguistic components o these assemblages Tily discusses the crucial role played by general ter designating cia aee. Given that prior to a conflict a particular social group may have already been classified by government organization under a religious ethnic raal or other category, one of te o social moveents i s to change that class ificat ion B ut the reason such a cange is important for the members of a given movement is not because categories directly shape perception (as social constructivists would ave it) but because of the eqa /ea! ih ad bia which are attached by governent organizations to a given classification, as well as the practices of exclusion segregation and hoarding of opportunities wich so people out into ranked groups'2 Thus activists trying to change a given category are not negotiating over meanings as if changing the semantic content of a word automatically meant a real change in the opportunities and risks face by a given social group but over access to resour s income educ ation, health servi ces a nd r elief from co nstraint s In shor struggl es over categories are more about their and economic significance than their linguistic signification This conudes the assemblage analysis of social justice movemens ut there are other large soial entities tat are also composed of coalitions of networked communities an whose identity is also shaped by conflict with oter such groups as well as by their relations to government organizations ca cae To of classes is to say that the population of networks inhabiting a partiular country ave differential acess to a variety of resources and are unevenly exposed to a variety of contrains In other wod the istence of social cla presupposes that there are processes taking place in populations of
�
J
networks that so them out into ranks in such a way that the persons composing those networks are bo with different life opportunities and
PR SONS ND NTWOR
KS
is To speak o raked ditributions o etworks however, is not to i pl that te rakig is simple as in a societ eatl divided ito upper idd le ad lower classes This as Till argues, isrepresets te plexit o the relations o inequalit betwee groups43 While the atio o a etwor k in a give hiera rchical distributio o resources does reate a set o shared interests or the persons composing the network ganizatios needed and i an cases to ocus coheret collectiveexpressio attetio on tose coonareinerests give the a more as ell as to serve as istrumens o collective action when pursuig those iterests i order to extract ew rights ro the overnment These rganizatios when the exist must also be considered part o the asse blage The conteporar sociologist who has done the most empirical work in the stud o these resource distributios is Pierre Bourdieu In Bourdieus view the asmmetrical degree o access and command over esources acts as a orce that dierentiates a populatio o persons sortig emnot i tolimit ranked older theories o socia does hisgroups analsisUnlike to <oomic resorces andclasses, heceBourdiu dos not iew classes solel i terms o icome distributios o in terms o control ver te meas o productio To iacial and idustrial resources he dds cultural ones such as possessig a general education or spalized techical kowledge, as well as owig the diplomas licences and credentials eeded to proit legitimatel rom such knowledge This distinction correspods roughl to the one betwee aterial and expressive resources i assemblage th�or I additio, Bourdieu ephasizes the relations that arise between positios in these distributios Exaples o sh relatios are beig be bw beweethat is the relatios that exist between raked groups The also nclude rxmy ot spatial proximit but the relatio tat exists between two roups with siilar command over ecoomic and cultural resources he rever the happe to be located geographicall These and other relatio ns he views as relatios o exteriorit44 The mai empiral iding that must be explained accordig to ourd ieu is the statistical correlatio between o the one had positios in resource distributions ad on the other a more or less coherent lie tle a term whih iudes both material and expressive compoents the oods and services a given goup teds to own or purchase; the set o anners ad bodil postures it teds to exhibit the political and cultural engage i witin a taces it teds to take ad the ativities it teds
3
who e vai e y o h o c a y di e e i a e d e d ( u h a ecooi popeciicic elappiio a)beweeohae wod wha eed o be a : c ou e d o i p ace de ed b y di e en i a co o ov eouceeuadexpaa e vaii oou ehed obo eacvedviyapoi iicaiocoe akiaioad yhea oudi dipac eee eo oup o obecevaedioppo u i e ad i k codi i o he day o d a o h e deve o pe o a duab e e ieo<vdCo boohoeoyhahabi aeeypa addiaipoway kiboe wadwohoo hhdioeecopoe paoud aeybeeuaa oiadeapiuabjwou iyedeci eedeaoeb beohaaoebehave pheeuaz ia ioaao ohaiepa iboiiiiyoh aa ae hea hedueeeo hi � paaappoach iacuhb a oceu oudi o di p u edow h habi u w h a h h deee o aubehioa d ioca behav o he exo e(uhhaaahde idi ee
PRSO NS N D N WORKS
te btu, t te ltte tt detemne wen nd we u ept on e llowed Te bt ten beome mte poe tt • ke poble te fee poduton of ll te togt peepton, nd to n neen t n te p u l ondton of t poduton nd only to e 46 not neey follow Bodeu n t egd H epl obevton tt membe of ptul l tend to dply te me bt my be ommodted wtot ntodng mte poe We m y gee, fo exmple , tt te l nt o w we e bo oee t own bt, w e egully tnmtted to new eneton, nd tt t e to pel tnng to develop unque kll pvlege tt n lo be nded down nd peeved n ttfowd wy T wold ount fo te eltve omogenety of defnng et of bt nd kl wtout umng n mmedte ubmon to ode ndeed n te emblge ppo bmon o obede ne nnot be tke n fo gn ted nd m t lwy be ounted fo n tem of pef enfoement menm Te denty of te netwok tutng etn ommunte n be u menm, n be te moe nlytl enfoement pte of moden ogn ton to be dued n te next pte Te mn teoetl fnton of te btu, tt of mppng poton n pe of eoe dtbuton to pe of poble lfe-tyle, mt lo be modfed Boudeu oneve of t pe of poton n btt ol pe defn ed by two dmenon w e l eonom ptl nd ultul ptl Howeve eoe dtbton neve ext n n btt pe but e lwy ntmtely elted to onete ol entte ntepeonl netwok nd ognton Not only e mny eoue ( oldty o legtmy) emegent popete of tee entte but eoe t t ve dffeent ogn nt l eoue lke ol o ol; tenologl eoue lke m ne nd poeed mtel ultl eoue lke dplom o lene e ete ontolled by ognton o poded by tem Indeed ome of te nkng o otng poee tt mntn te dffeentl e to eonom nd ultl ptl e elton tt ext not between people bt between nttutonl ognton One my wonde wy teot of te ttue of ee Bode n omt melf te extene of u n nlkely mte poe ke te btu In wt woldvew we my k, n move mke ene? Te nwe not d to fnd Boudeu beleve n te lngutlty of expeene, nd teefoe, e beleve tt l tt
6
A NE P HI OSOPH Y O SO IETY
ees to be ccounte fo is the constuctio of subjective expeiec though liguistic ctegoies47 his is somethig tht the otion of th hbitus s set of clssificto schemes fo both peception n ctio c o quite well. ht such n impott utho c be le st b th iffeet neoKti ppoch ephsizes the ee ot ol fo theo of expeiece (such s the Huen moel I use stt thi chpte) but lso fo iffeent coception of the ole of liguisti ctegoies in socil pocesses such s tht evelope b Chles ill As I si befoe stoies n ctegoie pl bou -efiig ole in 's view bu these e l g oup bounis not pheomeologicl l expeece boes i uges us to focus ot o the linguistic lbel fo ctego but o the outcome of sotig pctices i given popultion tht is, o the pctices of iclusio exclusio tht pouce cocetel boue goups. I othe wos, stuggles ove ctegoie e bout el bouies septing goups with iffeetil ights 1 obligtions, bouies th must be foce though viet of oliguistic phsicl intevetios, fom impose segegtion on cetin eighbouhoos to foce migtions o elloctios of etie ities. Efoceet of ctegoicl bouies m so involve viet of subte but evetheless effective mens of selectivel incluig o focibl excluig membes of ceti ctegoies fom foml positios i ogiztios A impot t exm ple of this is the mtching o titionll efine ctegoies with those cete itell b ecoomic ogiztions. hus, set of steeotpe beliefs bout ethic goup wiel ispese i popultio, m be mtche to job ctegoies s efie b specific commecil o iustil ogiztion excluig ebes of tht goup fom some positios focig them ito
J
I
� i
othes.48 his tching of extel intenl ctegoies is impott becuse, s ill gues the dubili of the inequlit betwee goups be less tte of cst sexist o xeophobic ctegoies th bout the w i which these ctegoies ffect the ve esig of ogiztons foml stuctue of oles positions49 I conclusio we m coceptulize socil clsses s ssemblges of intepesol etwos istitutiol ogiztios Both the net woe comuities n the ogiztios i which thei como iteests cstllize must be thought s hvig iffeetil ccess to esouces some plig mtel some n expessive ole s well s possessig istictive lfestleof compose both mteil expessive elemets A viet pctices ofofexclusio iclusion
ERSONS AND
NET ORKS
erf rm the main territrialzing wrk while linguiti ategrie de e eult f uh a territrializatin, nlidating the identit f a la Tee identifing undarie hwever mut e een a ntingent and reariu Sial milit r examle an at a a deterritrializing e lurring the rder etween lae and tehnlgial innva n intrduing nvel reure ma further differentiate eah la n everal mmunitie nfliting gru Thu aet a ulatin f etrked i rted ut we intma ial laethat wthut having t aee that thee lae frm a imle hierarh exet n territrial tate n hih lae are relativel mall and undifferentiated Finall, a in the ae f ial jutie mvement, nt nl the li ting mmunitie mut e taken int aunt ut al the ernment rganizatin t whih the mut addre their laim and lbing efft ine it i extrating right frm uh rganizatin hat a given itin in a reure ditriutin ma e imrved Th ilie nt nl that we have a gd aemlage aunt f ltal ranizatin, entitie eing an authrit truture irreduile t newrk linkage, ut a an aunt f the larger aemlage, like a ederal gvernment that litial rganizatin ma frm Thu ur ntlgial anali mut ntinue uward t reah thee larger ale ithut intrduing an ilegitimate entitie Thi i the tak t e ndertaken in the fllwng ha ter.
4 Organizatons an Governments
Hisilly isiiol gaizis have adped may diffee forms. Eve if we w o empoa fame f efeee ad fos l
ll
he ls wo o hee eies hee is si gea vaiey ogaizail fms gig fm eaively deelzed bazaas a make-pes elized miliy d govemeal beaaie Fo he ppse f alysig he ogi sas f hese soil eiies hweve i is eessy ofo hs hisoi viey he se. O ask wil be gealy simplfied if we oee o alysi o hse gaizis ivolved i he mprv ordnon f sia ai B eve fs g he bs e f ogaiz aio s h se mads as oppsed o pies o oodiae lleive iviy sil eave vey lge vaiey of fos. We fhe simplify a
assemblage lysisif ahiy we ee o We wha ll he hesesepae gizis shae omm sre. hse emes h ply epessive le ha is hose mpoes ha epess he lgm of he ahiy fm hose playig a meia le hoe ivolved i he normnof obediee wih woyig ab e mpoes ha vy from oe hiehial gaizi o he fom faoy eipme d weapos o opoae logos ad miliay ifms. These my be dded le whe mig a assemblage aalysis of ee ogaizaioal fms Ma Webe who my be osideed he fode f ogaizo he f disigished heeImpeve ypes f uhiy sres adig he e hei egiimy odiaio f so! aiviya o aodig o his lssifiio i oim defied by hee 8
ORGANZAIO
NS AN D GOVER
NMNS
ee om o hee ideal ype and hei ie One eee i eeplied by a peely eiien beaay in whih a le e epaaion o poiion o oie o he peon oupying i ha aieved1 In addiion, he phee o opeene o he inben be lealy deined by wien eulaion and ay deand i alized ehnial aining eed by oiia eainaion Finally, ion poiion o oie u o poiion a hieahia uueaein lealy whih o ubodinaion beween no peon l iied in oe o o lega oniion Webe ee o hi eee on a aionallegal o apue boh he oniuional and ehnial o i ode and o indiae ha obedien i owed o he ieonal ode iel ha i ha legiiy e on boh he lealiy nd ehnal opeene o lai o ahoiy2 eond eeme om i eepliied by eligiou oganizaion o onahial govenen in whih poiion o ahoiy ae jiied xluively in e o adiional le nd eeonie inheied e nd aued be aed Even in he ae whee he ole o o peeden i bea o hed o ao w o he in ae oduion o nove l piee pa lilaion (o ohe ognizaional hange) he lae i jiied by inepeing he aed hioy no by poining ou i ue unional one uene Unlike he peviou ype a ul epaaion o poiion o oupan doe no ei he leade o hie enjoying a ee o peonal egaive wihin whih he one o legiiae oand i le open and whih ay be oe i e biay. Webe ee o h i eee o adiionl given ha volunay biion i no an ipeonal ode b a aed adiion a peoniied by a eade 3 Finally Webe ingle o anohe eee o o ipeive oodinaion in whih neihe ba legaiy no aed peeden ei a oue o egiay Roine onol o olleive aion on eihe bai i eiially epudiaed by an individual who i eaed by ollowe a a lede by viue o eonal haia Hioially he kind o indvidual h have played hi ole have anged o pophe o eopl wih a epuaion o heapei o legal wido o leade in he u n and heoe o wa4 Thi oganizaional ype dipay he lea dgee o epaaion o oie o inube and i eeed o a haiai. Webe aiiaion i uel o vaiey o eaon Fi o alL any gven popuion o oganiaion, even oday, will end o diplay a eeogeneo opoiion o hoiy e appoiaing he 69
A E W H LO SO H O F SOC E
xrm orms. hus a onarhal radonal govrnmn ma ox n on and h sam rroral sa h od buraura agn and h a var of saran groups d b harsma lad Sondl and mor mporanl man organaons nd o b mxur· of dfrn auhor fons ha s h ll somhr n h md of h onnuum rahr han los o s xrms Wbr hs
dsusss suh mxurs n onmporar arrangmn l a buraura ommandd b an ldorganaonal offal ho unl ar burauras appond on h bass of hr hnal noldg na hav bn d on h bass of prsonal harsma or radonal uso orovr buraura agns hos lga dvs from sus full mahng mans o nds also hav a ndn o ransform man no nds ha s h nd dspla a formas and rmona adhrn o ruls and produrs vd as nds n hmslvs.5 Dsp h oxsn of h hr auhor sruurs n om onmporar rrora sas on h ohr hand h las 200 ars nssd h propagaon of h raonallgal form hroughou organaonal popuaons nhabng mos modrn rroral sas, no n s xrm form hn a las n mxurs domnad b hs hs ma s hs assmblag n hh h rlaon s of bn omponns ar xmplfd b a hroug hh som prsons ransfr rghs of onrol ovr a subs of h aon ohr prsons paru larl mpo ran or ov r s onl n hs p of auhor sruur ha organaonal rsours a assoad h a poson no h h prson oupng hs sr sparaon rsuls n an assmblag h laru mrgn proprs n hh an xplanaon o f h bhavour of h organ a on dos n o n o nlud a dsrpon of h prsonal hararss of h ladrs or n hh suh a dsrpon oud b ausall rdundan Wh a full sparaon of off from numbn h organaon slf ma b onsdrd a goalornd orpora aor As h soologs Jam Colman pus , hs ns vd from h ousd, a b rgardd as aors no lss han ndvduals ar Nvrhlss fro h nsd h ma b harard as auhor sruurs As assmblags hrarhal organaons possss a var of omponns plang an xprssv rol. Som of hs ar lngus suh as blfs n h lgma of auhor, bu man ar no n h radonal p for n xampl, hr arha man lns of ruals hr horograph spa and m xprss lgma smpll b 70
OGANZAONS AND GOVNMNS
n orm ng o pa age n the har mat typ e the behavi or o e ader ha t expree egima y n he ene tha t h e or he obi ged to exp re a trong harater n one even aion aer another. n e ratona ega pe t i the very a hat proede work in a thnia ene tha that hey regary prode the dered otome a expree her egitimay. n the oher hand, gven hat omeme not eay o evaate whether a proedre reay work, even n he o tehna or ganaton the on ep o raionaity may be ed n a prey eremona way w a depend on the extent o whh the ay o the oome good or ere o a tehnia proe an be eaiy evaated The more ompex he otp and prodtion roee, the more nerain the evaaon and the e ear the ehna expreon o egitmay n thee irm tane t make ene or organaon when domenng and tying her eeny oher organaon, to tk to eremona rta o raionaiy to ber hemeve rom rm.7 n he manare o ma-proded good or exampe he tehna apet i trong and he eremona reativey weak b n menta heah n ega agenie and hoo, he vaation o otpt may beome argey ermonia pariary when o governmen agenie thee organaon expre ther egitimay ing ene or permt n he other hand, and regarde o he mixte o tehnia and eremona omponent, the �v fg f by member o an organiaion ie a diret expreon o egimay. n other word, dpay o obediene when oberved by other member, drety aert th egmay o ahory, whie at o diobedene drey haenge t berved diobedene partary when i goe npnihed i detrmenta o he morae o a grop o bordinate n the raonaeg a orm where bodnae rrender right o onro expeing oetive bene whih hen ranate ino perona reward dobediene endanger hi benea tehna oome n the radiona orm where bordnate gve p onro on he ba o ared preeden diobediene haenge he vaidity o that preedent Th, pnhng dobe dene n order o mak e an exampe o the rangreo r neeary a athorty rtre, and to thi exten pnhment may be ad to ay an expre ive roe. Pnhment however a oponen th a pay tipe roe he organaton n qeon pend me deberatng eton h a how to t a ype o pnhment to a tpe o nraton h mehing o aegore wi invove ngt omponent And then 71
NW PH i l O SOP HY O F S OC T Y
urse here s rture and phsal nemen w s pushmen wh a ear maeral aspe Le all sal assemblages he maeral rle rgazas s rs a rems plaed b hua bdes I s hese bdes wh are ulmael he arget pushment Bu pue ausal nerens n h human bd a re l the m st bus rm enreme au hr Oher a eremen teues parularl headraallegal r set dse prates es led mntrng dspln he subrdnate members and he huma bdes pressed b rgazas peang the raallegal m auhr Mhe Fuaul dsusse s h w he legm a hs rm eled as lawers a legal shars elabraed usans r he nratual relans a h bass luar submssn bu als hw these legmang dsurse had be mplemeed b a nndsurse, dsplar mpen f whh had ue dere rgns n n udal r legslate rgaza s bu n mlar es. Bh mpes nerged n he aplen
l .,
sae he undans whh as Fuaul wes were lad ut n nl b jurss bu als b slders n nl unselrs state bu als unr ers n nl he men he urs bu als he men he amps The Rman reeree ha ampaned hs rmatn eral bears wth hs duble nde zens and legnares, law ad maures Whle urss r phlsphers were seekg he pa a prmal mdel r the srun r resrutn he sal bd he slders ad wth hem he ehnans dsplne were elabrang predures r the nddual and llee er bdes9
.;1
These ere predures nle rs all a spe use phsal spae and tme Human bdes must be dsrbuted n spae ad un rul e ras and alate mntrng Eer subrdnae mus be assgned a dee plae wheher a ed la a an e r a ps n a prdun le, s tha bsera mplane a be rutzed. The mdel r hs analal use spae was he mlar amp where he gemer he pahs he number ad dsrbun he ens the rentan her eranes, he dspsn les and ranks were eal dened' 0 A slarl sr parg me was perrmed n whh wrng rates were esablshed upats mpsed les and repes regulaed 72
ORGANZATON AND GOVERNMENT
e he use o meabes o orbd e wasg o me may be o oas og, e deo o ag proedues we-deed e sequees, puuaed by ess ad eamaos, owes muh t ary eors ease e ee·y o ames ough e 11 poso o obgaoy hyhms o maues' ceaseless To s sr spaa ad empora parog we mus add inspeto ermaet regstrato o he s o ompoes o he payg a maea oe 1 2 Pemae egsao s he em assembagead sed by Fouau o reer o he eao ad soage o eods o he hao u r ad perormae o soders sudes, meda paes, kes ad psoers, as a meas o eoe reguaos Tese pemae eods ae a eaey ree soa pheomeo a ew eu es od a mos, so a mpoa as o he hso a s o oa e e g po a wh e threshod of descrto(he mmum o sgae whh a pee o ormao mus hae o be woy o arg) was owered so as o ude ommo peope ad o jus he
saed seua o heeuy gea egmzg araes As es Fouau arguesorom he gures eg�eh o, he ug o rea o g s o o ger a po edu e o erozao uo as a proedure o objeao ad subeo' .13 The ormao suabe o ese permae eods was, u e oupu o a aey o ew orms o eamao: rom he sua speos o paes by doors assess I her sae o ea, o he ess admseed sudes o measue e ge o soders o be dgee o he eag, o e quesoaes eued o wokes o be hed Whe peousy a physas sua speo was regua a d reaey as, ow s duao was eeded ad s requey made moebewee uorm sudes Whe beore soos essbeame wee a moe ha oess heyaow sowy ohg sysema way o deemg assessg ad omparg ddua apaes ouo wh peae regsao he oupu o amaos aowed he aumuao o doumes er serao, he ogazao o omparae eds makg possbe o assy o 14 orm aegores, o deerme aerages, o oms Wha proesses sabe ad maa he dey o hese assem age s? Te spaa boudaes deg he ms o a auoy rure are dey ked o s jursdto. some ases, hs usdo he ases was hey o e budg a orgazao,eds bu aoer w physa eed we beyodhousg hem ad de w h h e geograp a boud ares o a ee y a poe o r 3
A NEW PL
OSO PY O SO C Y
even ntn e stblt f tese stnl bunes wll epen n te legtm s well n te nus efement An pes tt lls nt qest te etent f legtmte tt su s s between gntns wt velppng usts estble te bunes n f te nflt s nt eslve mpmse te entt Smll lk f enm, mlt legl eses t enfefustnl lms n m blu gntnl res ofAnte ucceion. se etetlt utt sttes s entt. Webe susses g emple f tese estblng evets wen e els wt te pesses tt tnsfm smll set ule b smt lee nt ne f te te tw gntl fms Su sets e ptll vleble t suessn ses fte lees et gven te eltve st f smt qultes e sltn s t routnzete suessn pess ete b mkng sm eet (sg te gnt t beme ttl) b wtng tenl qlftn w lee must meet ts bemg tnllegl As Webe wtes sm s penmen tpl f ppet elgus mvements n f epnsve pltl mvemets te el stges Bt s sn s te pst f tt s well estblse n bve ll s sn s ntl ve lge msses f peple ests t gves w t te fes f eve tne15 Rutntn, teefe s ul tetlg pess n utt stutues ll tee s te quest f te le f lnguge n tese ssemblges. e es wtten emntns tt ete nt ' enfement ptes e g emple f lngst mpet but t must be kept n mn tt te k f wtg vlve ee s f te logstpe ve mtel fm f wtg metn g eltvel smple fts bt vsts sgs sptls tte llness sls nt te tpe f wtg tt les tself t enless uns f emeneut ntepettn It mst be t ste wt te mpnents f tt stutues tt pl stgtfw lngust le s s te se tets l stes but gns w n te ttl tpe must be nsttl ntepete entepete b te numbets f etn les s s pests te wtten nsttuts f bueu· s w n se f nflt f ntees must ls be ntepete b spele funtes s s uges Atnll n egles f te fm f ut tee s te le ple b group bee, emegent ppet f w s nvegee t sme kn f nsenss e eene f gp belefs m be nese
i
J
74
O R GNIZIONS N
D G OVE RNMEN S
fue if ome eialie membe o f an oaniaion (oo eae lawe) ouinel enae in aumen an iuion an oe anale an laifiaion, a anfom a elaivel looe e of belief ino a moe emai eni omeime efee o a a ioe Te emaii of ee e of belief ma influene no onl aie of leiimiaion b alo aie of enfoemen Tu aoin o Fouaul e ue of emanene ae an ime inenifiaion of ineion ananalial e ineae an e oe of eo all onibue o e evelomen of moe o le aeqae enial nowe in e ae of ome iore u a linial meiine peao an iminal law knowlee a in n ineae e aaiie of enfoemen of oe wo eloe i6 Ti omlee e aaeiaion of iniional oaniaion a aemblae Bu a I ai above beie an aoi e oraniaion alo oe an exenal ieni a enin oaliee eniie A oanaion exi a a of olaion of oe oaniaion wi wi e inea, an in ee ineaion e will exeie aaiie a belon o em a oial ao aaiie a anno be eue o oe of eon o ineeonal newo Te queion now i wen oaniaion exeie ei own aaiie wiin a olaion of oe oroae ao o lae wole emee? O o i iffeenl, a ee ieaie an nework of oaniaion wi oeie an aaiie of ei own? Te be examle of a iea of oaniaion i e ovenmen of a lae naionae in wi oaniaion ma exi a e naional ovinial an loal level, ineain ea oe an oeain wiin a omlex e of ovelain uiiion A oo examle of a newok of oaniaion i a e of lie an iibuo oviin in an anlin e ouu of a lae inuial oaniaion an linke o ea oe ou e elaion a ominan oaniaion Aemblae eo ol al o ee lae eniie in a aifowa wa iven a bo ieaie an newok en o ila imila oeie a iffeen ale Tee wi be on e oe an iffeene wi ei ale ounera beaue e imlemen aion of aei lan beome moe oblemai an e olleive uninene onequene of inenional aion beome moe omi nen a lae ale Te fi queion a nee o be anwee wen oniein ee lae aemblae i e in of elaion of exeioi a fom beween ei omonen a wen ei ineaion ae 75
A EW PHLOSOPHY OF SOCETY
repeated over time As I argued above an organization becomes an acto lO the etent that its resources (physical technological legal financial) are linked to formal positions or offices not to t heir incumben ts Most autors recognize the key role played by these resources but they tend t take for granted the actual proces f thei aquisition, even though this process is hardly automatic and it is often probleatic for any give organization In particular organizations must engage in specifi transactions with one another in order to solve the acquisition problem relaon of dependeneas these and in so doing they may develop echanges become more or less regular The sociologists Jeffrey Pfeffer and Gerald Salancik have developed a useful approach to resource dependencies and to the capaity that one oganization may have t affect the behaviour of another when such dependencies are asymme trical To define the se r elati ons of exteriority Pfeffer and Salancik begin by focusing on a given rganization and a given resource and determine the relative imporance of the resource Relative importance is measured both by the magntude of the resource crtalty. being echanged as well as by its As they write:
·
The relative magnitude of an exchange as a determinant of the impor tance of a resou rce i s measurabl by assessing the proportion of total inputs or the proportion of total outputs accounted for by the echange. An organization that creates only one product or service is more dependent on its customers than an organization that has a variety of outputs that are disposed of in a variety of markets Similarly, oganizations which require one primary input for their oerations will be more dependent on the sources of supply for that input than organizations that use multiple inputs each in relatively small propor ions [The ! second dimension of impor tanc e conc erns the criti cali ty of the inpu t or output to the o rganization Criticality measures the ability of th e organization t o continue functioning in the absence of th e resour ce or in the absence of the market for the ou tput A resource may be critical to the organization even though t comprises a small proportion of the total input Few offices could function without electric power even though the utility may be a reatively small component of the organization's expenditures17 n addition to the relative importance of a resource there is the ontrol and question of is oncentration dined by the degree of 6
l
I
ORGANIZATONS
AN D GOVERNM ENTS
subtitv o th ou Contol to th pt o on
g nzton to dmn th loon o ou o noh pt dvd om ownhp gh ph o th ou o govmn gulton Subttutvt on th ont to h tn to whh dpndnt ognzton pbl o png gvn upp o th ou b noth Th l tntv u th o gvn ou th mo onnttd t 8 ou xhng m o o b mm o poL n hh th ognzon m bom ndpndnt But th mmt o th xhng bokn long both th mpon nd onon dmnon thn th ontong ognzton u th p to nlun th bhvou o th dpndnt on P nd nk t ou tht no mpotnt o th ognzon ot t tuton o dpndn gdl o how onnttd h ou o gd o how mpotnt th ou unl t ontolld b tv w ognzton th o ognzton wl ot b ptull dpndnt on n o hm9 Rou dpndn xt n both ognztonl ntok nd hh Whl n th ltt th n ddton uthot on llowng n ognton wh ntonwd judon to gv d to noth optng t mo o th pt to ommnd on gul nd pdtbl b w tp dpnd not onl o th lgtm o uthot but o on th tul onol o nnl ou Howv o th pupo o gvng n mbg nl o h lg ntt t l b mp to bn th h n whh gtmt uthot bnt o tht th on lton o xtot ut dl wth ou dpndn mntond bov nwok o ndutl ognzton povd good xmpl o th bu mpotnt to dtguh h two xm om dng ontnuum o p blt Th wo m m b htzd b dnt ttg opng wth ou dpndn Th t opng ttg nv ov th l mn ton o dpndn b h dt bopton o ognzton though vt ntgon ht b th uton o ognzton tht h upp nput o o hndl ouput om th bobng m Th ttg ld g ognzton ht tvl l-unt nd tht n u on om o to bom domnnt nod n th ntwok20 Th llow thm ontol vt o w uppl poton nd dtbuto thtohv notn bn ntgtd ho domnnt 77
A EW I OO Y OF O CIE Y
eian autoakes in the 970s fo eaple wee apable o thei subontatos in a oletely subodinate osition thei failities igoously inseted thei quality ontol poedues on itoed and e en the q uality and depth o f the i ana geent ditated t the In a patiula in dusty a few of thes e a oeist as sepaate entities foring what is aled an gy. hi sepaat ion ing ayof be stengthened eisteneials of the sha infoation aonbygthe ogoposti
atiped least inient those ounties whee atels ae illegal Neetheless a gou of suh ial oganizations ay beoe linked to one anothe though indiet eans Vey lage fis tend to hae the foal authoity stutue efeed to as a joint stok ooation' in whih ontol and owneship ae sepaated the foe n the hands of pofessional anages the latte dispesed aong any stokholdes eesented by a boad of dietos Indiet links aong joint stok ooations ay fo though the poess of kg s: the boad of
I
dietos ofindusty) a gienay opoation (belonging the as autoobile inlude ebes of fo eaple to suh banks o insuane opanies who ay also to othe boads he oelap in boad ebeship indietly links these oganizations and pote ts the against th e ossibil ity o f eent s suh as unilateally tiggeed pie was he seond oping stategy inoles not aoiding but beneting fo • esoue intedependenies his stategy yields netwoks of elatiely sall fis in whih no oganization is lealy doinant and in whih the lak of eonoies of sale is opensated fo by m f HHm any sall fis aggloeated in the sae geogahial egion tend to attat talented people who an find a aiety of job oppotunities thee poduing o e tie an auula tion o f skilled lab ou that in tu tends to epand the nube of fis in the egion hus een though these industial s opete against eah othe they also benefit fo thei and th e oon huan esoues this akes aail able to the entie egion n addition the absene of olete doination of subont aos e an s th at the elations between fis and thei supplies an inole oe oopeation in soe ases foing a elation of onsultatie oodination in whih fis do not oand thei supplies delie oponents that eet with the in the ey desi of a autoobile industy in the 1970s iustates the fist stategy soe 7
OR GA ZA O S A D GO V S
dut ra rego Ita uc a te we-tuded cae of Ea Raga are a perfect exape of t he ecod o e I the eary 980 th e 000 fr, of aufacturg cetre of th rego coted of about 22 c oy a a fracto epoed ore ta 00 epoee wth a arge percetage of te fr egagg te deg of cerac tete a d ace ad etaworkg product5 The two etree for re to wch dfferet wayad of we copgtey wth depedece are rarey actuaed are reource ey are o for a cert a aou t of te everthee t t pobe to copare tue doated by oe or the oter tree for I thee coparo t portat to cude ot o th dutra f theeve but ao a varety of other uc a uverte trade aocato ad uo ce t te etre aebage that dpa certa recurret caractertc Aaee Saea tud of two Aerca dutra rego voved the maufacture of coputer Sco Vae orte Cafoa ad Route 128wrte: Boto cotrat the properte of thee aebage Saea Sco Vae ha a regoa etworkbaed dutra te that proote coectve earg ad febe adutet aog pecat dee prducer of a cope of reated tecooge The oca etwork ad ope abour arket ecouage eperetato ad Copae cope te teey wh e at te ae te earg fro oe aother about chagg arket ad through fora coucato ad coaboratve practce ad ooe tea tructure coucato aogked fr dvo ad thecourage outde horota ad cutoer The fuctoa boudare wth fr are porou a etwork yte, a are the boudare betwee fr theeve ad betwee fr ad oca ttuto uch a trade aocato ad uve rte Te out e 1 28 rego c otra t doated by a a uber of reatve tegrated corporato t dutra yte baed o depedet fr that terae a wde rage o prodctve actvte Practce of ecrecy ad corporate oaty gove reato betwee fr ad ter cutoer upper, ad copet a regoa cuture tat ecourage tabty ad e tor reace Corporate erarche eure that authorty rea ce traed ad forat o fow vert cay Te bouda re betwee ad
wre ndfsrsncann hbe swneeneenden f rs anfrscaysens 2 6 ns h s rean fa nsay ahearcnen s fsbe aneWen exareeerraeae f rrsesasTeasassweefbrer aasgerehsefarerganza xres e y f exre n h e f r s a ce h e exres s y f rganz a na bea r n h e sense as bea r ay send angenrenreneannanyargan nsn chzfaynaycen n'ens nnnsbe'enernexnssedccasyfesaheserwAnebers ehras f n g f e aasssgecseaknaebsfab hygh we ay c a y be asraaegecr sfgnsfecanancec srharance s f sgnIfncahe n)frbs exfreeassesfsr ens ff I exa rgan an snnneand e fngw ffr ' resexae rcese cananfarab aeezcaearsns nfwradesaeBha ndeen can chs e exres s s e eans dy r qey drng negans r dsay s 1 J nance sany c nes wf anneenence deands sbseexres r b Acexres snfsc sfesways weaknes anceners snebyyrn, yan ahad enayrgan erys nnfzafceafnhraheern a s weaknes s eands f d n an rg an z a ns s n ce h e a e r can s e e as acf sccess ns f easnewbrcnaase rgan z a n as an n c a n f e bab y ndresaryrcesan ayrs ae hanareesercnanex rseence fce r sexres s ns f s n s be baanced w h cera n Here wha a e r s s h e aance f he s-cae rag ey f he cns a s e escna ne rrgan ce cnzaafwesecn nafafreaccera ayr resAnyrggeracnrcesTa sereen rdenesfasshchgenas acsce ansrsebyfnssherehcersdacssregar eadns nbeffgr ways f ak n g exres s ns f a ck f s ar y ar f an rgan z a n' s rea n a n ways f ak n g ba re a ns hae aers e ecn c cns e eher er creanegssfecdene a rgann zearersnsnar neakwnerksgqences aann a aThgen ges fayreghenenfn2rceen Te nn n g s c exres s y f rgan z a na bea s n f crse ceey nreae ang age snce he acns f rganza so ns are csey nke rcess es f esn akng akng ace A NW PHilOOPH
Y O OCY
not
gannzaoemnal neewoksdsma nconaebes,weenndeedea dswoncex onemebewfoeenmsmodes a edcoson-lesmakdecenng moalz eed on les ecencasealofzedneacn neg cassmealol oneslage Bfmsn e casofeddecf eensonsqewlsobens,escacedas belonefsabo e basoss ofsbbelle esefs onsaboes ofa be ORGAZAO AD GOVRM
bo egee e embes oeoos degeecofodeenden ofnansoandldolagool eef!nmsaoneowe alnololscoml aeg le acl wmoe, nesgs edemands belcbelcomonen efsefaes abo oabeldeseOnfse owads eqesooens and, wen we moe beond s a e g c dec s o nm ak n g o of e of s aeg e s a c l a l wen s c a o n n ol es cas a l n e en o ns n eal , es e bel e f s smlemen no be el a e d o e mae a l comonen s of e as s e mbl a ge a els adged andn gs ofcase ons bebweene moe mae oal leses oadeqa ces eacasesae bellendes s embod, genea e casaeasmaoldeendenc adeqac eal ands ofsesanandsglacaslaalmasemac ncnol ealsonolge,eMan elnao ee eofseasoe seesemblngoe oces aelgesaefdeomsaofo eneg ces lanoogsecsmfoom asn oage o ans o a o n Labo s k l ed o nsk l ed, s ma e a l comonen . Mone o o ma be cons d eed o lesaoces a maoeloal olAse sosemse execolenogs aHowad s cclOdma ons cas ees foloweof eneg makes os s b l e e c cl a o n of mone and e man l a o n of mone can conol e flow of eneg 2 deeomeoegwaaoleoexz anAoemeee nsnglfNeoemsfwmoksexe canogan ofbmaksmdzaalf lefenonsemsand esasoma ofneeosekdmoe ol eodalzoelaes ewee geoga okfn andoce agglcal dec ba onlegobn oegngman acceseass .oneess eseonse ofnewaoks len ofanasedeenden fomed n fse ocanebeandsad o beangglneenalozedalzeda l Lageage nmbe aoomosof econom fms onc geoga ncons, caal loecaofon as mob easoln acqmakesedesa ecefmsan feedom f om gl deeo aolnzdaaeen cons ns ofgeawen a nal nonaleensexefedsoaswen .naB oglnalobalecoo fzaaconaalbeaonse bonda , aesdeemeesofofomalazgea e implemntaon
81
NW P
LOS O P Y OF SO T Y
se-uficient frm are haer than thoe of mal nterdependent on point to a different form of territoriazation, a doe the fact that i economie of cale the ue of human reource tend to be ve utnzed and deciionmaking hghy centralized. In economie o agglomeration on the other and not ony kiled abour a crucia component implyng that te eparaton of planning from doing i no nearyorathe ha but ttme aotat tend to be mc more mobie: turnove rate average a technical expert pend in the a gven job tend to be two or tree year n the cae of network of nterdependent firm a contrated wth an entre lfetme n te cae of many expet workng for arge cooraton 29 In thi other ene network domnated by large ndependent firm are more territoraized tan toe inkn mal interdependent one. Whle the aembage of organizaton popuating Sicon Valey and Route realze pont nar different etreme of the contnuum of form they ao nteract wth one another nce many of tee organization beong to the ame induty Th implie that there are in addton procee of terrtoralization and deterritoralization com mon to bot extreme form thoe involved in the tabzaton of the · dentity of an entre indutry. he ntegrating and reguating actvitie of organizaton u ch a a a iu aiain are a key component of thee procee. ndutry aociation are intrumenta n eading their member toward conenu on many normative quetion which affect the coectvey partcuary te etting of indutrywde technoogca tandard Trade aocaton can erve a cearingoue for informaton about an indutry' ae prce and cot alowng their member to coordnate ome of their activite. They ao redue interorganizationa varaton by ponorng reear<·h (the reut of wch are hared among member) and promoting productdefntion and poductuaty gude lne30 The degree of organzatona unformity i alo increaed by the creation of behavioura nor by pofeonal and worker aociation nrm that may be nformal and nonenforceabe but which neverthee help to tandardze occupationa behavour expectation and wages 31 An mportant deterrtoriazing factor affeting both form i a turbuent environment uch a that created by a hih ra nnvain n product or procee. What matter here the reaton between te ra te of cha nge ini de organi zaton a ra te aected b y a variety of ou rce of organizatona neta and te rate of change of technologe outde of tem n the ame ndutry in other countre or in dfferent ndutre
8
ORNZONS ND OVRNMNS
he ae cuny. Wen cndeng ene indue e ae e nc ened i he aby e ebe ganan adap (gien m al ough e a ganan can adap han e abiy t xral hk, pacuay hen e eea ck bece nn uu32 T he exen ha e capacy ack cninu hck eand a cecie epe an ene ganaina nek he ain e nek n e cnnuu 1 ay deemine he di n ucce aue Te hap epaan panning ing chaaceic ecne cae i he numbe pepe n a ganan a ae ined n adaping cange ie he ae e acie ae gana n a nd e ue ked abu a e i ea epeiece n addin e cnuae dinain beeen and uppie chaaceic ecne ggean ay exend e benei eang by dng he ene ek The ae e ae nnan, e e a gen nek enei he cecie eanng pce he ai exee nd e e nadeuae he eucen appac an gpy age bece hae aeady enned ne nguc cpnen hee aebage bu an euay pan ne i e en cnac (and he ageeen) i ganiain ue a a ean gae e eec nedepend ence. A e ak ng dec n e cnen cnac i ay depending n he pedc abiy e cneuence ganana acin e e eenu e iuain in ch a nac pduced e e abu i be ned n he anicipan cneuence In ac cnac de n he een hich e dng need pecy a cnngencie and eenuae in adance n nniuina ecnic eape a dncn ade eeen epyen cnac and ae cnac i he ae peening e pbe cningency ancipain an e e. nde ed en ee pbe ae gea (due dependencie ceaed y peciaied aciney exape h banc ecnic pedc ha an ganain i i ae epyen Onac by exape pucang a ch i peuy dea in e incpee ake 33 n addn e dicuy peened by nac (gien ied ainay and hney) a decin ue ne ane ype cnacua ay depend n e cce he cu cnacua neean and enceen heea an epyen cnac can be enced inenay and cnic e neean
83
EW PHilOSOP O SOCI
hdd v rbtrto ss cotrcts ms b forcd by co ts tp rtt o co cts hd d v tgto 34 h fct tht jdc rprtto of cotrct obgtos y b soms dd mps tht th popto of orgztos c pr mst cd ddto to frs trd o r g gv tos d os tr st of govrt s th vry g dfto d forct of propry ghts by gov crts th vrot hch dstr d comrc ] t fr dpd to c rry ot thr t rs ctos 35 Uk dst ork domtd by f rg fms gomt orgztos tr hrrchy th dfd thorty strctr I so dstr torks y gv rs to form thorty rtos t th rgc of at bt ths typcy f to hv th cpcts f hrrchy I th 80s for p bfor crts r ot U som rrod comps ttptd to gv thr tork gs a mor hrrchc fo sg thr cotos s
l
body ptg rs d procdrsbtdfd ctr offc s dc ctv rsotos to crt org bod · cpb of pshg votos of th crts rs 36 I t d ht ttrd thos crts r qstos of sodrty mo do frms ot of th gtmcy of thr thory Wh t s t govrt hrrchs o th othr hd gtmcy s ot y th prssv compot of th ssmbg t s rsor hch or y govrmts c s to crt dpdcs by ccs or crtfcts to orgztos or pfssos Bfor dscssg ho hrrchs of orgztos c b d sbg ppoc kspc svr possb to dscss thI st vb th dscr rg vrtyFrst of f ctr govrmts hv tk hstorcy I thrfor dcsso to thos hch procsss of dfrtto hv y st comp foms tht s thos hch thr s cr d or og ctv gstv d jdc orgzto hch ths dffrttd fctos r prformd smt dffrt gog phc scs th to sc th sc of pr stts d th oc sc of cty govrmt If ths cop c tckd th smpr forms shod prst o
f s th t t d th o of · d sy cs o c b b
Second, of all the different forms hat coplex ce ntral govern take
will focus on the federalist form, since it
th i s
1
hierarch ical structure mos clearly. Finally, t simplify the pres tion , 1
OR G Z O S D GO V R M S
pk mos of eampes fm a sge ase of das vee: he UA I addiio o ag he eade abo hese spiaios I s ake fou peay emaks Avodg he se of oeps ke he ae s impoa o oy bease sh efed geeas ae o gae oooga ees b aso bease sh oos a oo ooh hey fai o ape he eaos of eoy ha amogha he sheeogeeos ogaaios foig a goveme oo of hs heeogeeiy fo eahy Who a me e oud make he sake of hikg ha hee is o gap beee he formulation o public poli and its actual ipleentation,o ha vemes apaes t evee eay a eaed a a o he desos ade b soe eeed peseaves t pefom h eveos Bu sdes of he poess of impem�ao have so js ho dff s o go fom a dome smmazg a t be aheved o he poess of hoosg he gh agees o a o e poy,sages o maa he ommie ad fo of ifuds eqed dffee ad i geea o esue ompae a og ha ofa aoa sae ad oa govemea ogaaos h oveappg dos I ay ases ea oy deisios ed p eihe o mpemeed o haged beod eogiio Joi ao b ay goveea ogaaos is hs objevey ompe ad pobema o somehg ha a be ake fo gaed3 O ose, he ompe eao beee po fomuao ad mpemeao a be epeed as ha he o atves fo a �ass eb a eeao ha oud bg s bak o a ooih oep Bu afomaompemeaoefomao a so be modeed as a o ea poes ivo edba k a poess of havg doesfe o he ab o assess he ee of goa aaime ad he disbo of aoy beee eeed ad appoed offas'3 he seod pema eak epads o hs as po he ea os beee goveme ogaiaios saffed b e ed offias a s demoa o epeseave ogaaos ad hose by oeeed aee beaas ae pobema a deepe sese I ode fo beauaes o be effe a shap epaaton between olics and adnistation s eessay ha s he epese o a p he eeoa bodypoess of beaas soaed fom heis ogees fofessoa B hems moebehs sepaao aheved he gae he sese ha beaaes ae o esposve o pb oes 8
N PH OSOPHY O F SO TY
as xpssd n lctoal outcos In oth wods th sam actos th pomot cncy tnd to undmn lgtacy at last n dmocat gms On lnt o ths conlct s comon to any soca aton that nol dlgaton o authoty In on modl (th pnpaagnt modl th pl s amd lk ths how can mpoy s th pncpals mak su that no chatng and shkng wll occu thy ha lss xpts than th agnts thy h and to whom thy dlgat exi authoty? In ths modl th asc conlct mgs o ymmes.and may app d at lag scals caus nth psdn s no lgsatos (no th spct stas ha th spcalzd knowldg ndd to assss th poanc o uaucacs39 But ts las out oth poms that do not ha countpats at smal scals In patcula th y xpts asymts that aou uaucacs may tund aganst thm snc n any ca ss (atoc pow phamacutcal poducts nancal pocsss) th ndusts that go mnt agncs a supposd to gulat suppy th wth th y tchnca nomaton thy nd to noc gulatons In oth wods gulatoy agncs may co capt o spcal ntsts that s dpndnt on th tchncal soucs uth odng th alady qustona lgtmacy 40 Th t hd and out h p n ay ma ks conc n dstnctons tha t a cucal wthn assmlag thoy ut that a not ncssaly dawn n oth appoachs Fst o all w ust dstngush twn th hachy o oganzatons omng a da o oth om o) gonmnt o th ttoal ntty such as hachy contos Th ttoal ntty ncluds sd gonmnt oganzatons an nt populaton o oth oganzatons; populatons o psons and ntpsona twoks cts gons and poncs and gopoltca atons o xtoty wth oth ttoal ntts hn a poltca oluton changs on gonnt gm y anoth an autocatc gm y a dmocatc on o xapl t typcaly as untouchd th pous unqual atons twn cts gons and poncs not to mnton th gostatgc poston o th county lat to oth counts On th oth hand ths dstcton shoud ad cauly snc ost hachs o ogazatons a not ally spaal om th ttoy thy gon and pat o what dns th dntty s xcsng actual contol o th ods o that ttoy Unlk ntpsonal ntwoks o nsttutona
�
oganzatons whch thanks to comuncaton tchnologs ay xst wthout wlldnd spatal oundas (o n n tual om on th
ORGAN ZA O N A ND GOVERN
MEN
In terne t) complex organizational hierarchie can hardly be conceptua ld outide the territor the onrol or the reource (natural an ograpic) asociated with that territory. Nevertele, in what f llo w will emphaize the haracteritic o the aemblage o[ rgnization iteH leaving the anali o the territorial apect or the nxt chapter n adition to ditinguihing te hierarchical aemblage o organiza tin rom the kingdom empire or nation-tate that it control it i potant to eparate or the purpoe o analyi te enring aemblage el ro it interaction with other organzaton with coalition o nework or with poplation o indiviual peron Some o thee interaction ma alo ield aemblage contitting complex political iuation: aeblage that are large-cale countepart o converation ong peron n the previou chapter cue Charle Tilly' iea bot ocial jtice movement a aemblage o coation o network n government organization acting a interlocutor ill ee pblic emontration a largecale converation between a moveent, a onterovement and the poce More generall he write that whether n te ritual execution proceion celebration and militia marche o the earl Frenc Revolution or the pblic eeting petition dive lobying emontration and aociationorming o contemporary Wetern ocial movement we witne the converational cobination o nceant proviaton innovation and contraint.41 Lke peronal converation in which claim to a publc perona are de b t paicipant converation between organzation or etween organzation and network coalition) alo nvolve clai aking and collective prouction o ientte the entitie o an ethnic onit or o an indutral ector or example But like peronal onveration tee interaction are highl epiodi and do not neearl change the identt o the governent itel except in the ae o political revolution Alo converation ar onl one example o ocial encounter a term that encopae a we variet o epiodi e mblag e a point tat applie at larger cale a well Th in wat ollow will gve an aemblage anali o the hierarchal aemblage o organization rt and then ad a ingle example o the large variet o piod ic aeblage it orm through it interacton. A in all aemblage poeing a comand tructre te expreive role plae b thoe component involved n the legitimization o authort while the material role i plaed by omponent nvolved in t 7
A NE W P OSOPY O S
O ETY
enforcemen I he US for ace here are o an orce legmacy a h cale, e conon an he elecoral proce T conon of core a lngc compoen a bndng wr ocme pecfyng amog oher hng he relaon bee execve leglave an jdcal organzaon a ell a hoe ewe organzaon operang wh naoaL ae ad local jrdcon elecoral proce a nonlngc compoe endong eleced offc w legmacy o he exen a ocome expre he wll of poplaon B he mere ceremoal condc of elecon doe no i !ac enre ha here ll be proporoal repreenaon of e fer grop n he elecorae here are echcal feare o procedre, ch a ow are voe aggregaed or ho wner eleced, ha mpge recly on he qeo of ho ell preferece of a poplao are expree elecoal ocome ence ho repreeave ad legmae are he rel here are for example vong yem n hch voer oly have voe annwhch hchvoer e candae voecan n (plraly yem ge mayh voemore ha hey allocae form (approval vog; ad yem n ch voe deerme o a ye• orno choce b a rankng of he candae preference vong) Th capace of hee vong yem o expre acal rbon t collecve preferece are e dfferen a are her vlnerable raegc or accal) vong ha vog o for oe real preferenc b o preven omeoe ele from wnng42 lhogh mahemaca agree o ch y em be - and g ven a vong may b performe fo many fferen poe here may no be a be choce all agree ha ch plaly vong echncally he or n moder ao a e US may be explane by o rvval' vale I hee re e only wo orce of legmacy he he problem breacrace wol be nolble and lea o conno cre brea cra are no elece offcal o hey cano ra legmacy fro elecoral ocome and he cono moly le abo he a of brea crac e an abo e legmacy of elegang o he nvegave proecoral an adjcag aory a delegao hh wol eem o volae he docrne of eparaon of power. 43 B here oher Iorce of ha n he raonal-legal We dcng eory of are aory menone formWebers he eccal effcency of procere elf an expreo of legmacy
88
ORGANIZATONS AND
GOVERN
ME NTS
Fe an ngland where bureauraies eerge prior to emorati ries an were staffed with members of an elite publi servie nial effiien often plae this legiimizing role But in the USA the osite historial sequene ourre so that it was onl in te ontex of Great D epression of t e I 90s tha t disi ntereste expertise wa s used as ag mati justifiation for the existene of ueauraies Een ten ever istrust of speiaist knowledge as opposed to te more ralist knowledge possessed b eleted offiials mae tis a e arious expression So another expression of lgitima soon are: the faiess of the procedures use in ureauraies, as well as egree to whih these preu·s were stanardize aross all issions an agenies hese questions were oifie in in the inistrative Proedue At As with te fairness of oting proeures tere are tehnial issues involed so te problem is not one of gtiating the meaning of the wor fair In the hearings onuted for exaple the roles of judge an proseuor regulator not be plaed b the sae staff member without introuing ias he t had to therefore reate a speial group of eaing examiners isolate su onflits of interest in orer to inrease the legitima of aministrative justie45 Mu a s psi al pu nis ent an d onfine ent an be use t o enfore autorit on iniviual persons militar an polie organizations an e us b entral govements to seure ompliane fro bueauraies an lal offiials Sstemati reliane on phsial fore, howeer signals an ustale for of autoit so other ateria omponents must be added to tese to align enforeent and legitima residents an legislators ve th apait to ontro ureaurats in a ariet of was presients ave te power of appointment an remova of ke personneL as well as ntrol of fianial resoures legislators an exerise ontrol desgnng ureaurai es, th at is, the an buil inenties again st and srking into the er legal manates that establsh the goals an legal f of a new agen Careful quantitatie stuies based on te prnipal aent odel have sown that exeutive an oganizations not nl a ve these apaities but t hat the atu all exerise t e 6 Congress lso as oversigt oittees tat monitor bureaurati effiien an t ots an perfor juiial reviews to ake sure that ue proess is rspeed in the ondut of administratie justie Wen onsiering presses of territorialization it is iportant to between the ientit of individual poliies an the ienit of
9
A NEW H LOSO H O F SO C ET
the assem lage of ogaizatios itself T he elative political autoomy ueaucacies is clealy ot a stailizig facto i the fome case, ut it so i the latte Befoe a meit system ad a <:aee civil sevice we istituted i the USA i 883, fo eample, ueaucatic offices we cosideed spoils to e give to the wies of a electio. that spo ea' the idetity of the etie assemlage could e affected y
·
shifts iwas pulic opiio But oce a ecame cetai degee politics achieved ueaucacies soucesofofisulatio cotiuityfo a logtem coheece I a sese, sice the legal madate that rigs ueaucatic agecy ito eistece may elect policies diffeet fo those of cuetly elected officials, political isulatio may povide mechaism fo policy itegatio acoss diffeet admiistatios Give that the elative autoomy of ueaucacies is patly ased o epetise asymmetries, a mai teitoializig pocess is the lzation of civil sevice pesoel, a professioalizatio that has diffeet foms i diffeet coutries I Face, fo eample it closely lied to the taiig of civil sevats i elite uivesities polytechics a commo educatioal asis that istilled a sprt de c o potetial cadidates I Eglad it was though o·the-jo taii that epetise was passed to ew ecuits a leag pocess that fostee loyalty to the office itself as opposed to its cuet icumets48 Amog the deteritoializig pocesses that affect the idetity of the assemlages fom withi (as opposed to fom without, as i politi evolutios two stad out coups d'tat ad costitutioal cises fome ivolves a chage of egime foced o cetal ogaizatios othe govemet ogaizatios, typically militay oes, o y ogaiza tios that have wested cotol of the a1y fom the eecutive ach. coup dtat is ot oly destaili g as a evet Eve whe it is ove ew icumets will typically possess vey little legitimacy (i the eyes othe govemet ogaizatios as well as the est of the populatio will have to esot to physical coeo as the mai istumet authoity efocemet.49 Costitutioal cises ca have a wide vaiety o ; causes, such as a successio cisis due to amiguous electoal esults Bu a csis may ivolve a moe comple situatio i which diffee govemet ogaizatios ae pitted agaist each othe. Eecutive ogaizatios fo eample may efuse to ecogize the legitimacy o legislative oes, callig fo thei dissolutio, while at the same time legislative ody may questio the legitimacy of a pesidets actios ad all fo his impeachmet (Somethig lie this happeed i Russia i
RGNZ
N ND G
VER NMN
!93.) On te othe had the colict may involve not two brance o ern ment ut organiation operatig at dierent geogaphical cale hen local or tate goverment reue to obey central command e nneteent cetury o eample, te conlct over lavey n te USA rve d inoluble via eiting mechaim (uch a Supeme Cout ci io), provoked te eceio o eleve outher tate ad ad to reovedoutlawed by civilthe war and by the cotiutional amedmet tat entually practice There i inally te quetio o the role that linguitic component ay i tee aemblage. I mentioned above the variety o mea tat cutive legilative and judicial organiatio ave to cotrol bureau race Tho e mean howeve r are mot ly o trategic value be ig ueul ecuring oveall compliance but powerle to detemine peciic come give at adminitrative agecie may ue teir relative iulation rom politic to ae te implementatio o centrally decided lice T actical mea, uc h a te u nambiguou wording o the srcinal lcy documet (or tatute), ut alo be ued to maitan the integty policy decio 5° I alo metioned the t crucal bindig document n man y countie the bai or more or le codied o rm o nsttutnl ar bs law Tee law not oly coolidate the idetity o te emblage (ie tey perorm a codig operation to complemet te eect o teritorialatio) they alo limit te ind o othe law gilative orgaiatio may create Thee oter law vary i teir degree o codicatio and i te etet to wic cutom ad precedet may aect their interpretation a i te dierece between te mmn law revalent i England ad it e-colonie ad the more ytemati le recedentbound lw prevalent in te coutie o Cotinetal uope and teir ecolonie ee and oter writte law orm the ntitutioal eviroment or te ecoomic orgaiation that I dicued beo e a ell a or all the oter ocial aemblage we ave conidered o ar5 i brig m e t o te quetion o t e more o le epiodic interactio etw een hierarcical aemblage o organiation and oter ocial enitie O all te derent iteraction will pick a ingle one, nteraction with a populato o peron, and o all te dierent politca itua tion in which tee iteraction may take place I wll elect the itu ation created by the eitece o armed conict whether eternal o teal On te materal ide ti ituatio cal or both recrutmet o eple ometime volu ntary, ometime oerced a well a te
A NW PHilOSOPHY O
F SO C TY
ecear axaion o pa for war The cenral policie i which goa are aed (a draf reoluion a change i fical polic) mu ino conideraion reiance from he arge group, o he conceion and poliical dialogue The iuaion ma e framed reourcedepedence erm axe and mar recrui are uch imporan reource for a governme ha i come o deped o populaio o oain hem, hereb becoming ubjec o i demand fac acordig o harle Till, hi i exacl how modern righ ciienhip came ino eing i u rope i he eveeenh a nd ceurie a govermen egaged in he expaion of heir armie of he axe eeded o pa for hem had o bargain wih he a 2 group and ield o heir demand for poliical paricipaion O he expreive ide hee iuaion cal for a varie of mean ome molic ome direcl expre ive o reghen he u i of govermen and he populaio The claica example i he effec he Frech Revoluio had o he compoiion of armie ha i h 1
i s
change from in mercenar oal ciie arme The mea wih ued oheeffc hi change differenocourie however varied exiin · ource of legiimac Two of he form of egiimac dicued b Weber radiioal ad raionalegal have couerpar a larger cae n om courie he bond uiing a populaion are iheried or come rom og radiion o ha he aion' precede he ae n ohr he od emerge from he haring of he ame law, ha i he ae precede he naion 53 Counrie ha followed he ae-onaion pa (uch a France or Engand ended o favou newl iveed of parioim fag, oah ahem naiona hoida miar parade official celebraion Thoe more ha followed he naiooae (erman) ended oward popul expreio uig more o e coheren nhee of popuar elemen creaed b inelecual eie However, ju a Weber' ideal pe rarel exi i pue form blood and law a ource of naional ui were never muuall excluive Mo courie ued a mix of hee wo ouce of legiimac when ralig heir popula ion for war An d u imael regardle of wha combinaion of expreive mean a give goverme ued he ulimae dipla of parioim ha alwa been he wilinge of ciien o die for her counr a expreed ehaviourall o he alefield. reali or hrea armed conflic i ielf a powerful errioriali ingThe force, makig peopleofrall behind heir governmen ad cloe rank wih each oher Much a he oidari bindig a communi ma be 9
O RGANIZAIONS
AN D GO VER NMENS
asfrmed n sca ecusin when cnfic wih her cmmunies apens heir sense f us versus hem eerna war can ransfrm a pe emina aachmen a cunrys radins and insuins a sense f supeririy reaive enemy cunres and her aies ay which n eed n nvve cmpari sns wih hers s ransfrmed hsy and enphbia Inerna war, n he her hand can ac as a eerririaizng frce eher by desabizing a gvernmen hrugh san s and ur r by drasicay changing is very ideny fm n e regme anher as n sucssfu piic a rev u ns ne ps da, revuns g beynd neracins beween gvernmen aniains. The mnimum assembage a recurren ne in pas vuins incudes a ppuain ha ha� undergne a perid f reave prspery and risng epecains fwed by a perid f pivan when hse epecains ar frusraed a srugge beween inan cains and hse wh chaenge hem and dispays f vurabiy y gvernmen rganizans such as a decrease in heir enfrcemen capaces due a fisca criss a bad ecnmy r a miary efea abrad 54 Whe fr he cizens f a gven cunry eerna warfare may n ave a defne spaia dimensn, n he sense ha hey may fm nphbc beiefs whu a cear sense f he rriria siuain f us versus h em, fr gver nmen rganiza ns is is n ypcay h e case uness h e hrea cmes frm e rrris rganizains acing a ny errir ia ase r ms f heir mdern hisry, hwever gvernmena ierarches have peraed whin cncree gepica eniies suh as nan-saes ingdms r empires Mrever nernaina aw as i eve ped i n h e Wes afer he peace reay ha ended he Thi ry Years ar n he seveneenh cenuy was inimaey reaed spaia esns such as ega definiins f sveregny whn bunded spaa errires and gesaegic quesins defining he miiary ppunies and rsks ha dfferen rganzaina hierarchies had face Thus we ave reached he ms f wha can be anaysed whu reference he paia aspecs f assembages In he fwng chaper I w reurn he anayss f gvemen rganizains and f he prcesses ha prduced dern nan-saes, nce I have dea wih he spaia aspecs f asembages a smaer scaes, frm buidings and neighburhds iies and he hierarches and newrs ha urban cenres frm
93
5 Cities and Nations
Interpersona networks and institutional organiations may be studie without reference to their location in space because communicatio j tenoogies allow their defining linkages and formal positions to b created and maintained at a distance but as we move to arger sca spatia relations become crucial Social entities like cities for exam composed of entire popuations of persons networks and can ardy be conceptalied wthout a physical infrastrucure of budings streets and various conduits for the circulation of matter an energy defined in part by their spatial relations one anoter In fac sociologsts discovered the socia reations generated by territoriality i te 920s when the famous Cicago schoo began its studies of contexts viewed bot as spatia localities as well as sites structured time by abitual or customary practices1 More recently socioogists suc
J
as Anthony Giddens influenced in part by the work of urba geographers have returned to this teme reconceptuaiing social territories throug the notion of a 'regionaed ocae As Gidden writes:
settings of interaction, Locales refer to the use of space to provide the te settings of interacion in turn beng essential specifying ctxtualty .. Locales may range from a room in a ouse a street corner the sop floor of a facory towns and cities. to te territorialy demarcated areas occupied by nation-states But ocales are typically internally regonalzed regions of within critical impo rtan ce in constituand tingtecontexts inertem actionare of One of t he
4
1
CTES
AN D NATONS
an r uing th trm 'ca rathr than pac i that th r prti ting ar mpyd in a chrnic way by agnt in t cn titutin ncuntr acr pac and im !Lca can b] t pping pac in which th phyica mbiity agnt trajctri i arrtd r curtaid r th duratin ncuntr r cia ccain Rg inaiatin hu d b undr t d nt mry a cai atin in pac but a rrring t th ning timpac n atin rutinid cia practic Thu a privat hu i a ca hich i a tatin r a arg cutr intractin in th cur a typica day Hu in cntmprary citi a rginaid int r ha and rm But th variu n th hu ar nd irnty in tm a w a pac Th rm dwntair ar charactriticay ud mty in dayight hur whi bdrm ar whr ndividua rtir t at night iddn dcriptin rginaid ca a phyica trritri tucturd in tim by cia rhythm nd it nicy t an ambag aprach prviding hi dinitin i augmntd with th priv nt with which ca and rgin ditinguih thmv rm ach thr Th tr n rhythmic r prdic rutin hwvr wud t prnt a prbm I hav argud in prviu chaptr tha cpt in th mt unvntu ituatin rtn bhavur mut mpmntd wth dibrat dciin-making in th xpanatin cia actin Bu whn tudying th ct human bhaviur n th m urban cmpnnt th mphai n rutin activity i utiid ca a th hitrian Frnand Braud rmind u urban rm tnd t chang trmy wy A hu a h ay whrvr it may b i a nduring t hing and it ba r wit n t th w pac c iviati n tur bnt n prrving maintaining rpating 3 ivn thi wn it m crrct t mphai th human activiti that ar rguar thy ha v a chanc t mping n urban rm i n th ng ru n ch a th urny t wrk r y t hp that gv citi thir daiy rhythm On th thr hand in th ca whr w witn itrica accratin thi w pac w wi hav t add chic t utin inc accratin n t chang urban rm typicay impi ba k with traditin and hnc dibrat dign Lt u nw giv an ambag anayi th rginaid ca ar ti ng with indiv idua bu iding Th matria r in b ui ding i payd it a by th cmpnnt that aw thm t b uccu ad-
5
A N HI OSO HY O SOCI ETY
bearing struure. Fr udng that are a ew tre hgh the
theee perr th ta n cnjunctn wth cun ndependent ea ut arge geentaL regu and bdng ut ae ue re phtcated technque a ec e ta er A c raper degne r n w we radca change n a be needed nce a crtca heght ha een reached uch a the ue an ntercnnected rn r tee rae whch begnnng n the erated wa r her ad-earng dute tranrng the ere curtan Other cpnent pang a atera re are deternng the conntivi the regn a udng I cae tatn where the da path nd dua pern cne rge the hat udde the u e cnnected t each ther t aw r crcuatn huan bde and a aret ther atera entte I pe dweng th cnnectt eected a dr hawa tarcae hapng the w pepe and b wndw r the crc ar and gh In taer udng n the ther hand tranprtatn techng a be needed Thu the ae decade aw the ntrductn the nerna etac rae a wtneed tranran d echanca tng dece nt the eare eeatr and a crrepndng tranratn n he ertca cnnectt udng Change n cnnectt n turn pnge n a aret wa n te ca acte perred n a gen cae Fernand Braude! eape argue hat the cnnectt e redenta udng the eghteenth centur changed draatca at the ae te that uncn the r becae re pecazed wth the bedr partcuar becng a detached regn A he wrte the cnnectt cnrated harp wth that whch characerzed bdng
f
In a Paran twn he the eenteenth cent n the rt r whch wa the ne tre reered r the wner the hue a the r ante cha er an gae re a nd ed pened each ther and were ete hard t te apart Eerne ncudn ch erant n detc errand had t g thrugh a the t rea tar 5 the A hundred ear ater e r had bece puc whe ther were trct prate part a a reut the ac that the rutne crcuatn
ITIES AND
NATION S
rug a ou wa ow cotrad by a drt dtrbuto o door ad allway Pracy a wa cratd by t w rgoalato of t local J ordtal budg t cag coctty rugt about by lator alrd t o o t crculato o ploy rom a orotal a rtcal orm, wr rm wr t abl to cur arby buldg to accommodat a largr umbr o r A t urba gograpr am Vac wrt
lO
or t acal dtrct [t mcacal lt wa o crtcal portac bcau muc o t momt tdd to b tral to a r at r arl y dd gro up o mploy a gl orgaato or a modt umbr o commoly rlatd orgaato I tat tuato t walg o lmt could b racd wt a w adact bldg, a t tructur bult ou a lgal commuty, a mdcal o, or a ry larg gl urac compay It m to m ot a t all a matt r o cac tat t arlt ycrapr to b bult, to Nw Yor ad Ccago wr cotructd prdomatly or urac compa ad wr amog t arlt buldg to b quppd wt lator arg mtropo lta wpapr wr otr arly trat to t cotructo o ycr apr aga dg a grat adatag plg larg umbr o worr o top ac otr ad tu, by latr bg abl t cur rapd proal commucato. 6
T troducto o tal traportato alo ad pr ct Tu t apartmt buldg tat wr cotructd pror to t lator Par or ampl dpayd a clar rtcal tratcato wc t ocal atu o t abtat dcrad wt gt Atr t ator wa trodcd t tratcato o rgo wa rrd, wt apartmt gr up prg crad tatu Otr pr compot ary wt t act oud by t buldg t ca o rd tal b uldg t dt ct urtur o tr tal rgo ad t dcorat trat mt o wall loor a d cl g a ot play d a rol t marg o ocalcla trrtor Ottatou dpay t artoc ratc om o Raac Italy a Braud! rmd u, wr act a way o ug luxury a a ma o dom at o But a go o to argu t luu ry wa purly pr c u tl m ay ct ur latr t wa ot aocatd wt ay d o matral comort 8 I t ca o ublc buldg partcularly mportat ampl ar catdral
A NEW P HLO SOP HY O SOE Y
crces msques d syggues lcles sed fr servces rcesss d relgs ceremnes Tese buldngs demrce scred errry frm rfe e rug e exressv se f gemery d rr 1 medevl Eure fr exmle verll crucfrm se rcded clsers d rymc ers snedgl ss wndws w ere ll scred errrl mrkers N db
·
sl exresss w es relgus rereses T fvuls f sme Efe glscexsed c curc fr sce w e r sere f rbs rdng uwrds exress exsve scedg m we � sued mrk scred err ry. Ts yscl exress f crse ms wrk n cnjncn w lgusc es e belef fr exmle eve s bve e er bu s reducble em W re e rcesses sb lze r desblze e dey f e se ssemblges? e Cese d d slmc cvlzs, s well mng e Eure r, e weg f rd seems ve bee lms verwelmgly sblzg we cmes buldg ecque d merls s well s e evl u f furure d er e lems nerr decr Ts evlu wen k lce ccrred glcl ce Te b f , n e er d d deerrrlz e[fecs lug ese were frs cfed e Eure rc Fs grely ccelered e ce wc e nerr nd exerr decr n f buldgs evlved, lug ws n ul e 700s e re f cge rxmed e seed wc we ve becme ccsmed dy 9 Te es bed fs ws jus e desre mrk scl-clss errres rg e wy bdes nd mes were dressed bu ls derved frm e fc Eure rscrces s er dsgsg exressve mrkers cnsly nder re by e ncresed scl mbly f rc mercs d rss Ts resled srllng rms rce drve cge As Brdel wres
�
ve lwys ug fs resled lrge exe frm e desre f e rvleged dsgus emselves wever e cs frm e msses f llwe d; se brrer Pressre frm fllwers d mrs bvusly mde e ce qucke d f s ws e cse ws becuse rsery gred rvleges ce nmber f vx d sed em e fre. ner rcess deerrrlzg e dey f buldgs s drsc cges n e r e s wc gve em em rl ry m I e c se f 98
CITIES AND N
ATIONS
gos ossess g uoy s ucue cges ee c ces f leg mo o eoceme my ffec e dey of loc les As e w foceme oues el ced ol d oe s e seveee d ege ures, fo exmle ey geeed dsc egolo d oecvy e buld gs of fcoes sos os ls d scool s A s cel Foucul wes ese buldgs ve cecue s o loge bul smly o be see s w oseous lces o o obseve e eel sce cf e geomey of foesses bu o em e culed d deled co ol o ed e vsble ose wo e sd e Te o ld smle sc em of cofeme d eclo sue ck w lls, evy ge eve s e eg o levg beg o b e el ced by e clculo of oegs of flled d emy sces ssges d seces l We c eed ese emks o oe yes of locles suc s offce buldgs Te bodes of bueucs fo exle mus lso be lyclly dsrbued sce ed dow o e offces d seed frm y cvy o decly eled e jobs Te yscl seo of offces, ddes wes sules ec fom e oe d ves mesue of uoomy o ose w em d lso seves s oweful m of ecy. 1 Te cges boug bou by fso, o by e dscy use of sce, ledy o o e fc buldgs exs collecves of sm l ssemblges sce bo cses we e coceed w ow ew foms oge ove e oug ee oulo. Tese oulos of buldgs u fom lge ssemblges suc s esdel egbouoods, commecl dusl o goveme dscs o eve mol (o mmorl oes suc s ed-lg dss comoes ly el o eessve ole ese lge ssemblges O e mel sde, we mus ls ll e yscl locles defg sos fo e eodc eseco of e lfe s of egbous e locl sque, cuces, ubs sos s well s e sees odg e ecessy coecvy mog em A wole degoud fsucue sg w we d sewge es d codus fo e gs oweed ely see lgg ws dded e eee ceuy d e wee cobued w eccy cbles d eleoe wes.
9
A NW P
LSP Y S Y
O the ide it a th e exter ior o f bi ldig, that i, t decoratio or lac k of it of the ir facade, th at defi ed the eroality o eighborhood reidetial eighborhood here treet e of house · arro ad their layot fored a cole aze the ftage reaied rather lai Hece exreive exterior aear firt i b bildig. Thee ere tyically located o a cetral are i hih t rrodig ace ad oeed vita that oortitie for vial exeriece effect ehaced by a i, traight treet leadig to t chrch adiitrative bildig or oet Aritocratic reideti bildig oied blic oe by the fifteeth cetry a the Eroea deliberately to ick obervable ite for the locatio of rich hoe Oly he eogh ace a left oe arod thee cold exreive otetatio ad the itercla coetitio that fee it begi to toch the exteral rface1 Beide oeig vita cetral are of a to layed aother exreive role a a cetr deteriig the locatio of reidetial eighborhood ith roxiit
.
j
to it exreig ocial retige Thi cocetric a ' charactetic o fgreater a y Eoe a edieval to, b tarrageet a o re revale oth of the Al. I the orth here erchat or crafte doiate their etleet, a arketlace occied the cetre of the city, ad acceibity to it deteried the deirability of a locatio. Thi fctioa rather tha ocial earatio led to a ore egalitaria for o exreivity articlarly i thoe laed to aed 'bati hic ere ed i the late iddle a a ea to coloize ecooica lly backard area ithi Ee4 Next e t lit the rocee that hae the bodarie ad a give eighborhood The icreae the iteral hoogeeity of rocee of natin an ratinare aog thoe that erfor thi territorializig fctio. A Jae Vace rite: The activitie that gro i citie ho a trog tedecy to coe together i liited area of ecializatio dra ito a cogregatio by the itealizig likage aog the Whether it be the e f hared orce of aterial, the ellig to a coo body of a cutoer the ractice of a give religio or the eakig of arti clar the ititt ioal ractice ha e the roce of cogregatio hich i iterally idced ad highly reoive to atter of cale. A fe ero doig a articlar thig orally cogregate bt ot i a obvio cog regatio Whe ber are
00
S ND
NO NS
increased to the point that they present an arealy extensive pattern, l conrast to a then a geographical congregation is to be seen congregation is a similarly extensive grouping of ostensibly similar individuals induced by external forces. Instead of being drawn together tey are forced together by segregation15 Commercial and industrial neighbourhoods have often been subject to similar crafts and trades he processes of congregation and ave traditionally tended to congregate whie certain noxious activities like slaughtering have often been the target of institutional segregation But residenial neighourhoods too acquire relatively ell-defined oders and a uniform intea composition through these processes The case of institutionalized segregation is perhaps the clearest example ice in this case both the boundaries and composition of a neighbour hood are codified la and enforce d governmen organizat ions ut congregation may also res ult in a rela tively hoogenous coposit ion (b ace ethnic group class language) eve hen one assumes a desire by residets to Jve in a relatively integrated neighbourhood f people ho do not actively discriminate also prefer not to be in the miority whether elative to their immediate neighbours or relative to their overall proportion in the neighbourhood there ill be critical thresholds in the compositio of a neighbourhood beyond hich a chain reaion taes place causig a light away from the locale by oe of the groups16 mportant examples of processes of deterritorialiation are increased eographal moblan d the effect of la ret on the allo cation of uses for a particular neighbourhood or district As the sociologists ho pioneered urban studies pointed out long ago segregation sharpens the oundaries of residential areas hereas transportation tends to blur them 17 A good example of the destabilizing effects of the icreased mobility afforded by echaical transportation are the changes that origclass neighbour hoods underent toards the end of the nineteenth century hese eighbouhoods had sharply defined borders hen the journey to or as on foot but as the electric trolley became available the need to live near the factory was removed and ne woringclass suburbs ith more porous boundaries emerged Vance summarizes the situation thus: he fundaental assemblage of buildings ad uses i the Engsh industrial city was the oring class district composed of ro housing ranged around one or several factories and served by quite ocal shops
0
A E POSOP
Y OF SOCIEY
and pu The locang faco a he fac ecaue he hou la ou ee long and he vuall un veal a of gon g o wok on foo The eul wa he ceaon of a c o even a mopol mall ve defne neghouhood, whch conaned he lfe of mo pople ave fo eekl o le fequen v o he make uae, h make hal o he ee make fo he ung of m of clohn houe fuhng, o pehale food Th paochal eence enfoced condon of wok and houng and he econom unavalal of acce o mechancal anpoaon. Onl lae n h nneeenh cenu hen h ccle he olle and fnall cheap ecuon o he eade an egan o come no he fe o he wokng cla, dd an appecale eakng ou of h nao geogaphcal fame of lfe occu. nceaed geogaphcal mol n un neaced wh he a n hh land-agnmen and land-ue wee deemned o poduce moe dac change n he den of neghouhood enal auhoe have ala had a a n hee allocave decon and he ll do he onng egulaon havng a eoalng ffec Landen, on he ohe hand, when he ecame u ffcenl flud o gve e econom peculaon, wee a poweful deeoalzng foce dvocng he eaon fo landownehp fom an condeaon of he acve akng place n and pomong he elavel apd dplacemen of on landue anohe al uan ocolog efeed o h phenom enon a land-succession, afe he ecologcal poce n hch a gven aemlage of plan gve wa o anohe aemlage a an ecoe gow oad clma m of vegeaon nead of plan hee ocolog eeepanon concenedawa hfom landue andcene. modeed a a concenc a c The h coeucceon a aken ove a cenal une dc, enccled a one n anon wh lgh manufacue and deeoang edenal neghouhood Ne came a ng o f okngcl a negh ouho od, foll owed mddl e- and uppe-cla neghouhood and fnall he uu o he commue one Thoe eal ude, howeve focued on a ngle c hcago and dd no gve a ful eplanaon of he mechanm nvol ved n ucce on. The concenc-ng model eem o e vald fo man ce n he US hee ncome do onnenal end o e uope wh dance c' cene u no fo man pa of heefom he aevee he cae 102
0
CIIS AND
NAION
S
T may explaned by the lder age f Eurpean te and the fat tat, as I entined befre prmty t te entre wa very pretgu earlier i ther try. At the re the dplaement f redentl by comeral ue in te nneteent entury wa a knd f terrtal vain wh prdued the entral hppng dtrt Whle a whle aler latn wa determned by prxity t the prt r te ralrad n te latin f retal p beame inreangly determned by tat ntenty f pedetran traff and te nvergene f trnprtatn the J e21 Havng nquered t territry near the entre retal telf dffer entated nt pealty hp (wth mre latnal freedm) and dty-bnng p uh a the entrally lated departent tre the frt example f wh emerged n Par n te 8502 In additn ret ln g ha d t pe te wi t atvte nvl vng t e eh ange of nfratn a t ur amng brker banker ur er and the r raffker f knwled ge and t hp w t the ffe pa e ough t ut y tee erve prvder Eventually taer buldng dereaed the inteny f te mpettn by givng the terrtry a vertal dfferenta n wth hp upyng te firt flr and ffe te hgher up planng te pre f landuein already invlve ging eynd indvdual neghburhd t a nderatn f ppulatn r llet vite f neghbud nterat ng wit ne a nther Mrever sine tee interatn depend n te relatve latn f meber f tee ppulatin wt repet t a entral lale landuen mple te etene f larger aemblage f whih neghburd and ditrt ae pnent part: twn and te e dentty f thee larger aemblage in turn ay be affeted by the uen pree tang plae witn te I argued abve the entre f a ty partlarly wen tere a ingle ne a prvleged lale wi play a large rle n defning t dentty ent ral uare ay we t latn t the buld ng wh erved a a nuleu fr the urban ettlement a hur r a atle r example and t ti extent ay ee a an eprein f te to al rgn f te twn Lewie wen the entre upied by a aretplae the eral arater f the twn epreed by that very fat u wen a ty le t m t tral dentity ay be affeted h ultplatn f entre urred in any u ntrie after I 945 a uburbanzatn an d th e nreae d e f autbile ade te ty' re a le prming plae fr retal atvte and a ppng entre in utlying latn beame ireaingly n 103
A NE W PHI L OSOPHY OF SOCETY
But even before the prolieration of suburbs and industrial lands, the identity o urban settlements depended on their with their surundings. Until relatively recenty this meant countyside and its rural villages. A town may emerge within a existing rural area a process referred to as ;yndm, or on the contrary may be planted in an area lacking previous rural inhabitants with lie on asurrounding areasoraan process But projected wheter itoutwards is through rural implosion urbancalled eplosion the difference between town and countryside is established it diference that constitutes them both a difference in their mi of activities and in their density of population. The distinction of activities is based on the oldest orm o division of labou: that agricultural activities on the one hand and those of commerce and formal government on the other Until the last two centuries separation o activities was not abrupty discontinuous towns k vegeta ble gard ens an d raised far m animals wth in t heir wal ls whi le ru villages engaged in small-scale industy.4 The distinction in terms demographic density also aed in sharpness but it was always the; owever blurred Some big villages may hae been larger than so small towns ut the latter always packed more people into the sa amount of space The relations between town and counside may be characterized terms o the resources with which they supply one another. A mediev town o inabitants for example needed the land of about t vages (or kilometres) to generate enough ood for its inhabitans25 But those villages in tu needed services rom the town from th commercial services povded by its marketplace to the legal mediaL inancal and educational serves suppled by its organiations as well a the miitary protection aforded by its walls and armes Yet despite t mutu ality of resource dependencies cities hav e always t end ed to domnat the countryside because o te cumulative lmulain g nam that characterie them There are many models of these dynamics som stressing the mutual stimulation beteen the accumulation o workers in a place and te availability o economic investment private or public in that place others focusing on the mutual smulation between diferent economic activities that supply each other with materials and services and povide demand for each other's products. In all models however spati concentration itself creates the aourable economic environment that support s furher or con tinued concentration 6 These selfstimu latin
�· l
104
CITIS AND
NATIO NS
na mis a ma twns grw muh astr than thir utrsid rasing thir inlu and braing th smmtr th rsur ndnis n at an assmblag aalsis urba ntrs must ta it aunt t nl twn ad untrsid but als th ggrahial rgin th t u This rgin is a imrtat sur mnts laing a atrial rlsttlmnt i th assmblag sit and rtuitis situati a vids itTh withggrahial a rang bjtiv vn urba i d riss th litati ad avidan whih dds n atins tr atins btwn sial ntitis (rss ntwrs rgai d hsial ad hmial ns (rivrs as tsi miral dsits additin t lgal mnts thr ar ths maig u th irastrutur a it that is its hsial rm and its nntivi Whil th hsial rm sm tws ma rsult rm a mr rgatin its nighburhds sm asts its tivit ths latd t itwid mhanial trasrtatin) td t hav rrtis tir w and ar aabl ating th rm th ighburhds tmslvs Th bst aml s rhas that lmtivs. Thir larg ass mad thm hard t st as wl as t alrat again ad this andd th strutin lvatd r udrgrud tras whvr th had t intrmsh with dstrian trai Th sam hsial nstraints dtrmind a itrval tw r thr mils btw train sts dirtl in uning th satial distributin th suburbs whih rw aud railrad statins giving this distributi its haratristi adli sha7 Th mnts laig a rssiv rl i an urba assmblag als b a mr aggrgatin ths its ighburhds r g nd ths t's ta r aml th sihutt whih th mass a twns rsidnial huss ad buildings as wl as th dratd ts its hurhs ad ubli buildings ut against th s In sm ass this skn is a mr aggrgat but th rhthmi rtiti rhittural mtis blris ad stls miart s dms and sirs vn smstas watrtwrs and ura s and th wa ths tis la in utrint with th surrunding aturs th ds a ma rsult in a whl that is mr tha a siml sum8 Eith r wa slins hwvr humbl grtd r turis th s inmig l at th dirt arahs t a it nstitutig a ind visual sigatur its trritrial idtit This was artiularl tru r th blurrig it bundaris b suburbs and industrial 105
A NW P HilO SOPHY OF SOCITY
hnelns b ces enoe h lge s ksc pes c onne o hs pscl epessv even n ese ne conons n some hoeve s he checl hson Spo Kosoff emns s pocess ogh hc ol n ne sklnes become eol nvolve ve of vsl epesenons, sch s hose fon n pnngs n pns me oss2 Tpscl e pocesses ssble c one s en concen bohkng he of s boes ell se hmn pcces hn hose boes n pcl e fom ken b dl n ncen Geek ons, fo exmple sbsnl p of e ene o he l homes n smme mons o n mes of oble Ts cso n n ffece e pocess of congegon fome neghbooos hn ons: esens ene o congege e l plce of ogn n mnne e geogpc loles3 on ml es me he nhbs of Geek on e hn he ben s s Ths combnon of fcos esle ons h n sense blene h he conses n heefoe no hve shpl efne en Te oppose cse s exemplfe b meevl Eopen ons hee fofe lls pove no poecon fo e l poplon ng sege b lso sense sec gns nefne oses sense hch even n e bsen I of ove conflc helpe o mke cens no clel efne nses on e sone lls mke e pon beon hc he eclsv of censp n s pvleges ene nlke he Geek cse n censp col be hel b hose ho pcse l of esenc" � vell meevl ns h mc she en s locles T ces s B e! es ee e Wess fs foc s of posm n e po sm e nspe s long o be mo e cohe en n m < moe conscos hn he eol kn ch emege onl slol in : he fs ses The nve on n ncen Geece n he lle meevl o epesen wo eeme foms hch c bones m ke " n eesng nemee cse w s ce e b e se of he s bb n h nne een cen n s polfeon n h e ene ee s fs sbbs n nsl hnelns smpl ble he oe bones of ces ch ohese ene e cene n henc he ol en fe he Secon Wol no onl he e hc sbbs occpe b he ve of e lnses (e olesl mnfcng n ofce spce mlple, eceng he comple
31
CITES A N D NATIONS
combinatins that used t harat eriz e th e ld entral business distri t As ted befe, this press reated brand new entres in the suburban nd. n se ases the urban reals arund these entres were s self ffiien t that the daily paths f their residents ul d be ntai n ed within tei r liits32 Thus by reating a true ulti-enred uban spae, urban g rwth and the hang es in nnetivty bru ght abut by the tbile free wayanaysis ate dfassingular a pw erful dete rritrialiing s usualand an the asseblage individual enities ustfr e e ple ented by a stud y f the ppula tins fre d by thse entities A iprta nt prperty f ppulatins f tw ns an d ities is the birth rate of new urban settleens, as well as the rate at whih ld seleents isappear These deterine the verall r ubnznf a partiular egraphial regin In the ase f Eurpe, baniatin intensfed in the leventh and twelfth entuies, aelerated again in the sixteenth and iked up speed ne re in the enturies fllwing the Industrial Revlutin. Between 3 and 4 and between 6 and 7 bth he huan ppulatin and the verall rate f urbaniatin d elined3 he first wave f itybuilding tk plae against the bakgrund f feu dalis reating densely upied areas in whih a ertain autny fr feudal relatins u d be ahieve d the ity's land st bel nged t a ish p r a prin e bu t th e ity as a whle pa id the re as wel l as areas their shakles ith lwer urban density in whih ities uld nt shed Higher density affeted nt nly the relatins f ities with feudal rganiatins, aking the re nratual and less diretly tributary but als the intensity f the eni interains between ities. n the perid between the years and I 3 ities in the lwdensity feudal areas (Spain, Frane England) did nt develp systeati relatins ang theselves, reaining within relatively lsed pliteni dains in whih trade relatinshps were stly lal n the high density areas nrthe Italy Flanders the Netherlands se pas f Gerany, n the ther hand, the regularity f trade was greater, its vlue higher and t vered uh larger areas This led t the generain f re systeati and enduring relatins ang urban entres reating the nditins fr the eergene f larger asseblages: hierarhies and netwrks f ities Muh as the dfferentiatin between a ity and its surrunding unryside invlved breaking the syetry f its resure dependenies thrugh sestiulating auulatns, ther uulative pr esses related t differentia deg rees f autny fr e udal rganizatins, the relative speed f different frs f transprta
A N EW PH LOSOPHY OF
SOC ETY
on d fferences n volue and nens y of ra de desroyed possibliy of a unformly sed populaion of owns wh symme resource dependencies In formal models of uran dynaics assemblages of cies of sies e erge fro a sequence of symmery-breaking evens, a s each confrons cenrpeal processes, like he capure of populaon,
th
men and raffc oher resources, as well as cenrfugal ongeso polluion he ipping-poin when one ones, se oflike forces begins � domin ae h e oher a own may g row eplosvely o r shrnk o a sall n he shadow of a larger one 34 In compuer simulaons he acu paern ha emerges is no unque as i here eised a sngle opiJ paern o whch he urban d ynaics a lways ende d bu is, on For; conrary hghly sensiive o he acual hsocal sequence of evens his reason he emergen paern of uban ceres s lke a meory of h symerybreakng sequence fossilied n he spaial srucure of sysem' recu rrena eergen in hesplaes. e for al els s one faliar geographers herarchy paern of cenral In mod s orginal cenral-plae heoy was an aemp o descrbe he herarchical relaon among regularly spaced urban cenres, wih larger ones dsplaying greaer degree of servce dfferenaon an saller ones In h herarches ha eerged n medieval urope for eaple he smae owns offered a small markeplace and a church as serves o her rural surroundngs medum-sied owns added o his markeng funco ore elaborae regious servces as well as soe siple admnisrav and educaional ones, such as couny jails and schools which he offered ino urn her mulplied counrysides well as lowerranked owns Larger owns, he asvarey of o markeng adinsrave and religiou s serv ces a nd add ed new ones , such a s he sophs cae educa onal services provided b y unvers ies 6 In shor n a cenra l place herarchy each rank offers all he services of he mmedaely lower rank and a few ore and hese added servces creae resourc dependencies across ranks To hese i mus be added he economi dependences whch rade ay creae since larger owns ypcally offere a larger variey of producs han saller ones as well as polcal dependencies derved from he fac ha he large s owns a he op of h to herarchy were usually regonal or provincial capals In addiion landloked cenralplae hierarches rade among he uropean popula on of owns in he Middle ges generaed eensive newrks f mrm 108
I S AN D NAIONS
ports in which cities wee not geogaphicay ied centes but changing
l ys unctions o outpost s As th e uban histoians Hohenbe g an d Lees ite nstead o a hieachical nesting o sia centes distinguished ainly by the nube and ay o seices oeed, a aitie netwok] pesents an odeing o unctionally copeentay cities and uban settleents The key systeic popety o a city is nodality athe than centality, wheeas hieachical dieences deive only patly o sie and oe o the natue o the doinant uban unction onto and innovation cone the ost powe and status ollowed by tansission o goods and essages, and inally by eecution o outine poduction tasks. Since netwok cties easiy eecise contol at a distance the inluence o a town has lile to do with popinquity and even less with onal contol ove teitoy ach node in these on a subset o typicay econoic vities not shaed withnetwoks the est, specialied with the doinant nodes onopoliing those t hat yielded the ost poits Since ates o po it vay istoically as souces o supply change o as ashion switches deand one uuy poduct to anothe, the i o activities in each node o te netwok also changed and this in tun, aected the doinance elations between nodes o this eason the position o doinant node, coe as it is soeties eeed to changed ove tie athough it s always occupied by a poweul aitie pot The sequence o cities ccupying the coe was oughy this enice was doinant in the uteenth centu olowed Antwep in London the iteenh the iteenth Asteda in thebyseventeenh in theenoa net intwo entuies and New Yok in the twentieth.8 Besides econoic speciala tion, Hohenbeg and Lees e nti on contol at a distn ce a s a chaactei stic city netwoks, a elative independence o spatial poiity ade ssibl e by the uch highe speed o ta nspot ation by sea elative to that ve lnd aste tanspotation iplied that nodes in the netwok wee in a sense close to each othe than to the landlocked ities in thei own ackyad news goods oney people even contagious deceases all ta velled o e apidly o node to node than they did o one cental lace anothe centalplace hiachies and aitie netwoks have asseblages As to ie ent coponents playing ateial and epessive oles Mateially, 109
NEW PIOSO
P OF SOCIE
they vay n oth geogaphcal stuaton and connectvy On he ha nd the geo gaphcal stng of ce al places always gave them ove land esouces, famland n patcula By contas the ctes matme netwoks paculaly the domnant nodes, wee elavely n these tems Vence was so ecologcally depved was condemne tade fom the star and Amstedam had to e constantly eclamng fom the sea. n te1s of connevty oads lnked cntal followng the anks o the heachy thee wee seldom dec connectng he smalle wns to the egonal captal Also the slownss o teestal tanspotaton oced owns o cluse snce the sevces offeed y lage cenes could only enjoyed smalle ones wee locaed at elatvely shot dstances e dstance nhatans would e wllng to walk o ge he needed sevce pos wee not sujet to these consans No only wee log ess of a pole m gven the faste speed of the shps ut they could all decly connected one anohe egadless of ank The ky to connecvty was he sea Dung he fst wave of uanaton nstance he wo nland seas he MedeaneanAdac and ChannelNoh SeaBaltc, seved to unte adng centes ahe h to sepa ae the m'. 39 Afte th at, fst the Ala nt c Ocean, and late on Pacc ecame he connectng waes of a newok tha y th seventeenth century had acqued gloal propotons Whle the eessve components of h ese assem lages may e a aggegate of those of he towns ha ae the component parts, h aggegate may have a pate o f ts on In he case of cenal places f w agne tavellng fom the smalles and smples towns up he anks we each he egonal captal hs epeence would e veal a patte nceased compley n he epessve eleents gvng towns mo { pesonaly talle and moe decoated chuches and cenal plaas, lavsh elgous and secula ceemones a geate varey o steet wokshop actvtes s well as moe dvesed ad colouul make· places In he case of maitme newoks t was not the nceased a dffeenaon of one and the same egonal cultue tha epessed donant p osto n u he gatheng of epessons m all ove the wold he coe ctes n pacula, always ha d the hghe st cost of lv ng and h e · hghes ae of nfaton so evey commodty fom aound the word howeve e otc tend ed o fow owads he hgh pces. These wold ces pu all the deghts on dsplay wies Baude eomng unvesal waehouses nventoes of he possle verale Noah's Aks. 110
CITS AND NAIONS
ei toliion in hee elge i pefoe y he poee hat give n enie egion ein hoogeneiy The lge entl l e ofen plying the ole of politil pil ttte lente people om the loenke on people ho ought ith he linguiti n nonlinguiti eleent of thei on lol ultue Ove ime hee p i tl gthee elote n ynheie hee eleent into oe le hoogenou pout hih then eepoe k to the lle ee.4 The hghe pegeof the oe ifeenite ultue the top te mgne fo he hoitne igatoy ptten of ltul poue n gve he yntheie ulul pou the en t popgte houghou he egion Longitne tae on the ohe han h eteitoialiing efet The noe o iie netok ften plye he ole of gaeway he ude opening up to oeign iviaion, o they houe moe olouful n vie popultion ving lage popoion o foeign mehn thn i he entl ple iie po ofee thei inhin he oppotunity to e in oe egul on ith ouie n thei lien nne e n e The eitene of oinnt noe iplie ht the oe oopolin ultue of un neok not egaliin u i heteogeneiy peeve ine it a upeipoe on titionl peiphey ith no tempt t integion o gul ynhei42 Moving fom the le of iy elge to h of teitoil tte my e one in n t y imply noting tht he lnloke egion ognie y entlple hiehie an the ol egion tutue y iime netok e ty oponen pt of ntion tte Bu hi oul leve out he hioil poe ehin the opt ion of it ie into l ge eniie , el l he eitn e offee y un ene to uh n inegtion In Euope he ouome of thi poe vie, epening on he egmen of the popultion of itie th involve In he enely unie egion itie nge to lo on he ylliion of teioil te until the nineeenth enuy hile in he ea o lo eniy they ee quikly oe In ptiul unlike he enlple hiehie ju eine, thoe ht eege in he e hee feuli eine oinn ene o opt itoe f ith eeively lge iie the top Thee ipopoionely populou n poeful ente foe the nuleu ou n hih epie, kingom n nione ge y lo eion f eioy, n in tie, hey ee the ntionl pil of thee lage emge
111
A N IOO OF
OC
Atou t incorp ortion o f citis i t sit d svn t cnturis ws prformd trou vrity of mns dirct miit intrvntions wr oftn invovd. n som css t rurs of ido wr oct or mpirs md cis to t trritry o wic citis cims itimtd by inritnc or rri but oftn nforcd tro t us of ornizd vionc But wrfr so infuncd t outcom t cotst btwn citis d trrtori stts indircty trou t ormous ps tt ris nd fortifid frontirs ipid. Ony · cntrizd ovrmnts, comdin t nir rsourcs of nd its inbitnts, cod fford to sty in t rms rcs tt btwn nw wpos (suc s mobi rtiry nd dfnsv ions As t istorin Pu Knndy writs • ;'
Mi it ry fctors or bttr ostrtic fctors pd to sp trritori boundris of ts nw ntionstts wi t wrs nducd ntion cosciousss i ntiv fsio t st tt Eismn rnd to t Spirds Swds to t Dn Dutc rbs to t tir formr Hbsb ovrords Abov L it wr n d spciy t nw tcnqus wic fvour d t ro of infntry ris d pnsiv fortifictions nd fts wi ipd birnt stts to spd or mony tn vr bfor, to s co rrspodi ount n rvnu s n t s t fw y rs Eizbts End or in Piip s pin, s muc s trqur of ovrnmnt pnditurs ws dvotd to wr or to db rpymnts for prvious wrs Miitry nd v ndvors my no wys v bn t d'e of t nw ntion-stts but t crtiny ws tir ost pnsiv nd prssin ctivty.
1,
d d
istoric prod tt sd t ft of uonoous citis cn b frd by two critic dts nd priod tt witnssd wrfr incrsi ormousy in bot itnsity nd orpic sop first dt rs t yr wn t tin city-stts wr first invdd nd brout to tir ns by rmis frm byond t Aps t Frnc rmis undr rs V wos o ws to nforc trritori cims on t indo of Nps scond dt cbrts t sini of t pc trty of Wstpi, ndin t irty Yrs Wr btwn t rst trritori ntity t t tim t toic Hbsbur mpir nd inc btwn Frnc Swdn nd ost of Protsttid stts Wn t pc trty ws finy sind by t ustd 112
' l
CIIES ND
NON S
partc an a unfed, geooltcally tablng Germany had been r ea ed at the centre of Euroe and the fronter that defned he i e ntty of terrtoral ate a wel a the balance of ower beween t em were onoldated. Although the crucal legal concet of 'so veregnty had been formalzed ror to the war (by Jean Bodn n 576) t wa d urng t he ea ce onf erence that t wa fr ue d n ractce ro defne the dentty of terrtoral tate a legal ente44 Thu
t ernatonal law may be ad to have been the offrng of that war A I argued n the revou chater, t mortant not to confue errtoral tate a oo e wth he organatonal herarche at govern them Geooltcal factor are roerte of the former bu not 648 of the later Paul Kennedy argue gven the fact that after arfare tycally nvolved any natonal actor geograhy affected the te o a naton not merely through uch eleent a a country clate raw maeral, fertlty of agrculure and acce to trade roe moran though they all were to t over all roerty - but raher [ va] the crtcal ue of trategcal on dng thee mullateral war Wa a artcular naton able to concentrate energe uon one fnt or dd t have to fght on everal? Dd t hare common border wh weak tate or owerful one? Wa t chefly a land ower a ea ower or a hybrd and what advantage and dadvanage dd that brng? Could aly ull out of a great war n Cenral uroe f t whed to? Could t ecure addtona reource from overea?45 Bu f errtoral tate cannot be reduced o her cvlan and mltary rganaton he atter do form the man actor whoe roun actvte gve thee larget of regonaled ocale her emoral tructure A good xamle of the new organatonal actvte that were requred after 648 were he fcal and monetary olce a well a the overall yem of ulc fnance needed o conduct largecale warfare On the cono mc de there were actvte guded by a heerogeneou ody of ragmac elef referred to a mercanl The central belef of h dotrne wa that he weath of a naton wa baed on the amount of recou metal gold and lver) that accuulated wthn t border Th on eary olcy t ear today baed on mtaken belef aout he caual relaton betwen economc factr On the other hand nce one ean of reventng the ouward flow of recou meal wa to 11
A NW P
OS O PY O F SOCI
Y
dcourage mport and th n turn noled the promoton of l manufacture and of nternal economc growth mercantlm a tate collecte unntended coneuence that dd beneft terrtoral the long run 46 For th reaon hweer t hard to conder the peo makng mercant polc decon the releant ocal actor n th ca Another reaon to conder the actte of organzaton th e man o ·
of teporaltotructure terrtoral tate that man the capact necear conduct for a ound fcal polc were theofproduct of slo rganzanal ernig, a feat frt acheed n England between the ea of 688 and 756 A Braude! we Th fnancal reoluton whch culmnated n a tranformaton pulc credt wa onl made poble b a preou thoroughgo remodelng of the kngdom fnance along clearl defned General peakng n 640 and tll n 660 Englh tructure were er mlar to thoe of France. On nether de of
<
Channel centralzed publc fnance under thetoeclue control the tatedd et Too much had been abandoned the prate of tacoll ector who were a t he ame tme off cal mone len der t fnance r who had ther own aff ar n m nd and to off ceholder dd not depend on the tate nce the had purchaed ther pot to menton the contant appeal that were made to the Ct of Londo jut a the kng of France wa alwa callng on the goodwll of Par The Englh reform whch conted n gettng rd of parat ntermedare wa accomplhed teadl and wth dcreton h wt any dicrib plan f n.47 An aemblage anal of organzatonal herarche ha alread bee ketched n the preou chapter o what reman to be analed th terrtoral tate themele Amng the component plang a matera role we mut lt all the reource contaned wthn a countr fronter not onl t natural reource (agultural land and mneral depot o coal o precou etal but alo t deographc one that , t a huan populaton ewed a reror of ar and na recrut well a of potental tapaer A wth all locale the materal apect al nole ueton of connectt between regon ueton that n th cae nole the geographcal regon preoul organzed b cte Terrtoral tate dd not create thee regon nor the pronce that eeral uch regon ormed but the dd affect ther nterconnecto 11
CI E AN
NAON
ugh h e uldg f ew ad a d caal Th hw f e ample a ced gee eeal pncal mae ceae he f al make e eghee h ceu a pc e n wch aal p al plaed a ke cen alz g le. And a Bau de! ague whu he nal make he mde ae wuld e a pue fc8 he cue (Face Gema he USA accmplhed fea fll wng ceu h ug h he u e f lc m e a d eegaph he th(' had en f eam edwed lad apa w he peed Jcked f lg cagg he alace f pwe ewee ladlced caal eg ad he ce ad gng naal capal a a p. Wh he e f alad a Hheeg ad ee e alugh ma adal de ad gaewa cn ued fluh he pul f eal capal ade face and eepe culd gw uchecked Wh he ccena f pwe ad wealh hee ce cmmaded e deg f al ew and lae f e mwa ad ecued he ln wch fuue da depeded Wee ce he ade ue ad waewa had deemed ua lca and e he ua ew al apa nw accmmdaed e epa eed f he gea 49 ce f lcal affc ad da cnec On he eee de he m mpa eample wa e ue f aal capal a a mean dpla ceal cn. T wa acheed ug e -called Gad ae f uan deg peeed upe he alu gemen f he eeeeh ad eghee eue ala ce ceaed he ac eeme f he Gad ae u wa Face afe 650 ha hee elemen ecame cdfied a le: edeal lck wh ufm facade acg a fame f eepg a whch culmaed w a elk umpal ach au e, ac ng a a ual make lg ad w de eelned aeue a ue f he eg mdfied pgap f damac effec ad he da f all he eleme gad gemec cfgua 50 l ugh he ue f ml ad ual epeea wa al pa f gal appach uan deg ca e agued ha e eal eacal f he Gand a e a d caeful l plae d mapul a f a c ual epeece phcall epeed e cncea f we T ue Sp Kff 115
W PH
OS OP HY O SOC Y
the Grd Mer i rutely ited with etrlized
we redly ee why The very expivee it ll fr, d btrti f it ptter preuppe utgled deii pre d the wherewithl t mplih wt h bee lid Whe uh lerut uthrity t be hd the Grd remi pper . . It w t idet tht Whigt w ly meri ity t elbrte the rd Mer uequivlly Ti w the ly ity i the Uited Stte tht hd dmiitrti hwever deputized, beig uder diret uthrity Cgre lewhere e uld ly rert t perui, d try dve wht eve r frgmet f the ve rll pl e uld thrugh tgle f the dmrti pre The preum pti f pwer expli the ppel f the Grd Mer fr the regim e f the Thir tie fr the like f u li Hitler d St li The tbility f the idetity f trritr il tte dep ed i p degr ee f uif rmit y ethi religiu , liguiti, metr leg l ) tht rgizti d itie mge t rete it brder. g exmple f hmgeizti t thi le iwithi the reti f t lguge I the re whih hd bee ltiized durig the R mpire fr exmpl eh etrl ple hierrhy d it w dmi dile, t he prdut f the diverget evluti tht pke r vulgr L uderwet fter the imperil fl Befre the rie f til pitl etire rge f rme dilet tht reulted frm thi diverg differetiti exited eve me itie umulted mre pre fr their w veri But teritril tte beg t lidte h grip the ble f pwer hged I me e, peil rgizi ffiil lguge were reted dify the grmmr dilet f th dmit pitldemie) d t publih ffiil tditirie bk f rrt pruiti Thi difiti hwever, did mge t prpgte the ew rtifiil lguge thrughut the eir territry. Tt pre hd t wit util te ieteeth etur fr th reti f tiwide ytem f mpulry elemetry eduti i the tdrd ve the my regi d their itie reited thi impiti d mged t preerve teir w liguiti idetity reite tht w ure f etripetl fre lthugh i m utrie uh Switzerld, plitil tbility exit with multi ligulim, i the d be detbilizig fre 52 Belgium) eve biligulim h prved
116
a
t
C ND NON
n addon o nna nfomy oaaon a hs sa has a d saa manng h say of h dfnng fons of a n y Ths say has wo ass h on of h dffn fows vng aoss h od and h ndan of h fons hmss a fs o h fa ha h annaon o ssson of a ag of and hangs h gogaha dny of a oa sa hogh hs ns nd no no wafa amd a oa anson o v wa amd a ssson) hy ofn do and hs shows moan of doyng as na h od o onsng a fofaons fo h onsodaon of fons. A fw dads af ay of Wshaa was sgnd fo am Fan dd mos sos o h aon of ohn dfns ondas ogh h ssma onson of foss owns m was d ads saa sashad songhods sd n o a ow ns m n h hands of asn Ps d Vaan h an ay ngn Fans dfnng ods am nay mgna, ananng h dfnsv a n h Fnh Rvoon Vaan do ow s of fo sss n h n ohn an d so has n fon s so sysmaa ad o ah oh ha on wod whn asho f Fnh foss gns a h way fom h Swss od o h hann'5 gaon and ad aoss naona ods nd o oma h ffo o a a sng naona dny, and o hs n hy may onsdd doang Th ay o d h may of fons dnds o a ag dg on h ondons nd whh a oa ny oms no ng Thos kngdoms and ms ha ysad n h fda aas of Eo had an as ask ang nna homogny han hos n h dnsy and aas ha had o o wh h s sovgny dvd fom h osn of many onomos ysas5 may, oa sas on fom h oas of a os m o fom h ak of fom oona ossssons an fnd hmsvs wh nsa fons ng aoss aas hognos n angag, hny o gon: a saon whh as agans a sa dny and omas od ono A mo sysma hang o od ono and oa say has sd sn a as h svnnh ny As h dny of h modn n aona sysm was ysang dng h Thy Yas Wa h y of Asdam had om h domnan n of a ansnaona ad a nd d nwok ha wa s amos a s goa a s anyhng ha ss
117
A NE W PH OSOPH Y O SOC ETY
today. f the rise of kingdoms, empires and nation-states territorializing pressures on ities by reducing their autonomy mariti� networks not only resisted these presses but were capable ten, still are today of deterritoializing the constitutive boundaries territorial states The pressure on these oundaries has intensified il recent decades as the ease with which financial resources can flow acro state boundaries the degree of differentiation of the internatio division of labour, and the moility of legal and illegal workers all increased hat networs of cities and the transnational oganizations based o those cities can operate over and give coherence , large geographic �: areas cutting across state boundaies has been recognized since t t pioneering work of Fernand Braude! who refers to these areas as 'world· economie s. 55 It is too early however to tell whether these wo economies are as real as the other regionalized locales that have ee ) analysed in this chapter Some of the processes that are supposed to endo these economic locales with coherence such as the movement o pres across large geographical areas folloing lo temral rhythms (the socalled Kondratief waves remain con trover• siaL But hat is ear even at this stage of our understanding is tha ? approaches ased on reductionist social ontologies do not do justie to th � historical data his is partilarly true of macroreductionist approache such as the socalled worldsystems analysis pioneered y \ Wallerstein in which Bradels srcinal idea is combined with theories o uneven exchange developed by atin American theorists6 In Waller steins vie for example only one va lid unit of soa l an alysis ha s existe since the end of the hirty Years War the entire world-system Explanations at the level of nationstates are viewed as illegitimate sinc the position of countries in the worldsystem determines their ve nature.57 n assemlage approach on the other hand is mor compatible with Bradels srcinal idea Although he does not use the concept of assemblage he views social wholes as sets of sets givin each differently scaled entity its own relative autonomy without fusing i with the others into a seamless whole 8 It has been the pose of this book to argue the merits of such nonreductionist approach an approach in which every soa] entity i shown to emerge fom the interactions among entities operating at a smaller scale he fact that the emergent holes react back on th eir components to constrain them and enable them does not result in
.�
.·
,
a
118
a
CS AND
NAO NS
ame totaty ah ee of ae retan a reate atonomy and an t erefore be a egtmate nt of anay Preerng the otooga dependene of eah ae not ony bo attempt at mroredtonm a n neoaa eonom) and maroredtonm a n word ytem anay) bt ao aow the ntegraton of the aabe nght t at dfferent oa entt hae deoped whe worng at a pef ptotempora ae from the etremey hort draton of the ma ntte tded by rng Goffman to the etremey ong daton of the arge ntt e tde d by Fer nand Br ade! Aembage the ory ppe the ramewor wher e the o e of thee two athor and of t he ma ny other hoe wor ha nened th boo an ome together to form a hor tht doe not harmonze t dfferent omponent bt ntero them he repetng ther heterogenety.
ll
Notes
Introduction a Hackg Th Soial Construcin f Wha?adg, MA Hava isi ss 1 999 . 0 3 bid 49 3 F assag s ass blag h s ll s Dl u ad Flx uaa Touand Plateau Mia lis MN : vsiy f M sa ss 1 9 7 9 1 32 37, 55 Maul Lada Inniv Scinc and Virual hiloophyd: iuu 2002 5. Maga Ah Rali Social h. T Mhgnti Apprach abdg abdg Uvsi ss 1 995 ) Ah ds a ia iqu scilgical hs bu saks f cla' ah ha dui My cduis, adus ad sducis a l bld dwwad fla uwad flati ad cal flai b h 6 Maul Lada War in th Ag f Intll(qn Mahn Nw Yk Z Bks , 1 99 1 ; Ma ul DLad a, A Thuand Yar fNn-Linar H N Yk Z Bks 997).
Chapter l . Hwad Bk ad Ha l Ba s Sial Thugh frm r Sn w Yk: D, 191 677 2 W.F Hgl Th Scn f L,As NY Hua Bks 1 999 Vlu Bk 2 71 L Ehass igal 3 Sucu s "xa ididuals as y acs, ad a
OTES
nstantiated in social praices it is in a certain sense more internal than The eteror to their actiities in a Durkhemian sense (Athony Giddes Constuion of Sociey[erkeley CA nversty of Caiornia Press, I 986] p. 25).
4 Ibid, page J 5 Anthony Giddens, Cenral Problems n ocal Theoerkeley CA Uiversty of California Press 99), p 53 6 ario nge Causalty and Mode Scence( New York Dover 1 99 p 1 5 Daloues II (New York Columbia Gilles Delee and Claire Parnet Uiversty ress 00, p. Giles Deleuze, Emprcsm and ubjecv(New York Colubia University ress 1991 ) , p 98 Deleuze is here discssing a specific type of compon ent ean ideas (and this is what the srcina quote refers to, bt the point apples to any other type of coponet 9. Ths Deleze writes What is an assemblage? It s a ultplicity whch is made p o heterogeneos terms and whch establishes liasons relations between t he across ages, sexes ad reign s df ferent na t res h us the
assemblages only nty s that of a cfnctonng it s a symbioss a sypathy It is never filiations which are portant but aliances, alloys these are not successions, les of descent, but contagions, Dalogues p 9 epdemics the wind (Deleuze and Paet, The ecusion of lines of descent, such as hey est among organisms and een spees, shows th at h e eans to ecl de he !ater fr o the defition of an assem blage. n his work wit h li Ga ar, De le uz e distinguishes betw een assebages on the one had and sraa on the other. iological orgaisms and inst tional organizations wold be classfed by them as strata I wl not retain ths dstincton here for reasos eplaed below in note 21 0
Deeze Gatarand seepresse' slightly different terminology. In they partuar nstead oand materia' roles or components talk of segments of content and epression' We may draw some conclusions of the nature of Assemblages from ths On a firs horizontal axis an assemblage comprises two segments, one o f mahnc content the other of expresson On the one hand t is a assembage of bodes, of actions and passions and termnging of bodies col/eive assemblaBe of reacting to one aother on the other hand t is a enuncaion of acts and stateents, of ncrporeal trasforatons attribted to bdes. hen on a verica as the assemblage has both errioral sdes. or reterritoralized sdes which stabilize and cuing
ed
A NE PH OS O PH O F SO E
Wi h e ecepion of he em eioiali zai on I will aoi d uing an thi comp ex eminolog in i book lo inead of wo dimenion ee, a manue whic allow me o ge id of he diincion bew aa and aemblage, a explained in noe hi diincion between lingui ic a nd nonlingui ic expeion i omew obcued in he peiou noe b e efeene o expeie componen collecie aemblage of enunciaion unle one inepe i a efe no o e emanic conen of aemen but o hei locuiona fo ha i, o wha e expe a peec ac'. ee Deleuze and Guaa A Thd Plt p 80 A an ae, een if we inepe aemen' hi wa e definiion aemblage i ill inconvenien in ha i eem o appl onl o ocial cae (unle one ake inogan and biologal eniie a capabe of poduci aemen) wich goe diecl again he idea ha aembage heo applie equall well o phic biolog and ocolog. ee alo noe 2. Edwin C emble Phl c It tt d lpmtCa mbide MA: MI Pe 66), pp 26-7. Deleuze and Guaa Thd Plt p. 62 Deleuze and Gua diin gui e ub ance an d e fom of he maeiai an d expei o aemblage Maeali inole no meel ubance bu fomed ubance and epeii i no puel foma b u i inole i o ubance h pealizaion o gene and wod i en concepualized a he epaaio beween he ubance and fom of expeion In wa follow I wll no ic o hi emnolog I wl pea of phical o diec expeii o efe o fo eample facial expeion o e expei of bho and efe o lang uage a a pecialized medium of epeion u he eade ho uld keep a mind ha facial expeion ae efeed o b Deleuze and Guaa ubance of e peion and languag e a fo of expeion A he wie 'On he ohe hand language become he new fom of expeio n . . ubance inoled i fundamenall ocal ubance whh bing ino pla aiou oganic elemen no onl he lanx, bu e mouh and lip an e oeall mo of he face' ibid, p ) In addiion he poee wich eioialize o deeioialize gene an wod hould be included he maeia of language fo example become eioalized wih he emegence of wiing u hi paia ideni ma become deeioialized when caing in tone o inke i icipion on pape become modulaion in elecomagneic feld a adio anmiion of poken language, o eeiion boadca of wie language Deeoiaizaion of he expeie pa of language ha i i emanic nen ae ickie o conepualize Deleuze gie om indicaion of how hi concepualizaion ma be puud In paicula e igle ou ceain emanic eniie a plaing a ke ole in he 122
NS
!8 ! 9
proce ses infinitive verbs, proper noun indefinite artices ee ibid pp 263 Deleuze and Guattari refer to thi ynthesis of hoe out of component as a proces of dobl clo (i bi d pp 0- (This proces is aid to synhesize strata not assemblages , bu t see below, note 2 ) Ibid p 36 istria ll th e ancien t Greek itie, located far from th eir main conteporary empires, but not so far that they could not benefit from their advanced civiizations, may have suppied the condition in which conversations between friends broe free from the rigidity of imiar enconters esehere ee Giles Deeuze and li Guattari, Wh Phlooph? (Ne w Yor: oumbia niverity Pre 99 p 8 The Greek cae is in fact a combinaton of deterritoriaizaon and decoding ere Deleuze and Guattari stress the former but I woud argue that deding is also invoved ernand Braude The p o h Wold (New ork arper Ro ) pp 280-82 bid pp 282
20 Ibid p 28 2 Th i dep ars from Deeuze an d Guatar is o n version of as embl age theo ry ince they defne asembage along to nor three dimensions, but they are then forced introduce two categorie of actua enities trata and asembages To use this oppoition ould unnecesarily compicate the presenation particuarly when the same objective may be achieved by adding a third dimension to the concept of asembage That they though the oppostion beteen trata and assembages as reative ie that asembage are a kind of strata or vice vera i cear from the folowing rom this standpoint we ma oppose the consitency of asemblages to the tratification of miieus But once again, this opposition is ony relative entirey rela tive ust a s milieus sing between a stratum state and a movement of destratification assemblage ing beteen a tertorial cosure that tend to retratify the and a deterritorializing movement that connects them to the omos Thu it is not rising that the distincton we ere seeking is not between assembage and something else but beteen two limits of any poibe asembage Deeuze and Guatta A houd Plu p 33 In addition Deeuze distnguishes between to form of deterritoriaiza tion The frst form la dol refer processe which destabize the identty of an aemblage opening it up to transformations hich may yied another identity in a process caled 'reterritoriaization The second form is uite dierent and it is referred to as bol dolo In this second form it invoves a much more radica 123
A NE W PH IL OS OHY O F S OCIETY
dett hage : deed a o of dett atogether but thout fag t a udfferetated hao. Abage ext a aua et bt t trute of the poee of aeb what gve thee proee the reurret ature or what expa that the a be repeated the fr pae ot atu a but vr tua Whe detetoraz ato aboute t ea that the proe ha departed fro aa reat to reah the vrt u de o th ee the ter o ou th ' ou ter -a tua ? to the t reate the pae ofaet utpte whha defe theproe vr tu ahh tr u ture of aebage The t o t refer red ad oded the quote above are o the oe had a hgh terrtorazed aebage ad o the other the pae of aee tag th vrtua tutre of a aebage ked b reato of eterorit 2 Chapter I d u the q ueto of the vrtua t ru t ur of aeb age u the oept of te dagra of a aebage 2 uge Causlity and Mode Scencep 47. Ibd p. 178 Bu ge red t both Spo za ad L ebz th the trodut o of effe t er au at o Ge eeue o t ue th tradto he he gve qua portae to apate to affet ad apaite to be affeted 4 Wee Ibd 49 . Sao centfi Explntion nd the Caual tructure of the Wol ( Preto NJ Pret o Uvert Pre 98 4 pp 04 6. Buge Cusalty and Mod Sence,pp 100 27. R Peter The Conept of otvtion odo Routedge Kega Pau 1960), p 29 8. Ma Weber e Theo of ocal n d conomc Orgnztion Ne York Free Pre of Geoe 964) p 99 The oept of ut ue I epoue eeta a eot oe 9. Beevg th Max Weber that a a aa upeded web f he he ha pu I take uure to be thoe web ad the s(qnijane
aa of t to be therefore ot a expereta iee earh of a but a eretve oe earh of eag Cfford Geertz Thk derpto toar d a terpre tve theo r of u t re he Interpretto of Culture [Ne Y ork Ba Book 97 ] p [ epha] Geert goe o to peak of tructure of gfiato a f th epreo eat the ae thg a eb of gfae a auvre whch be utrate the error I a dug here. O he other had t ut adtted that Geert thk derpto of uta prate are deed o auabe a a startng pont a oia epaato ad th regarde h reeto of epaatr tratege favour of derpte oe Weber Theo of oil nd noc Organiton p 9!
! Ibd p. 6. 2 Ibd p 1 1 Weber d u e four dea tp e of oa at o ! ato
2
NOTES
ointd towards th matchin of mans to indiidually chosn nds; 2 act on orintd motionally 3 ) act on orintd by habituation t o a tradton and (4 action orntd towards an absolut valu, that is, action nolvi n a consci ous blif in t h absolut a lu of som thica asthtic rlious, or othr form of bhaiour, ntrly fo its own sak and indpndntly of any prospcts of trnal succss' 33 bd p 1 34 Thu s cau sal xplanation dpnds on bin abl to dtrmin that thr i s a probability whch in th dal cas can b numrically statd but is always n som sns calculabl that a n nt ort or subjct) will b followd or accompanid by anohr vnt' (ibid p 99) Chapter 2
2.
Aristotl h Mphycs(Buffalo, NY : Promthus oos 1 99 1 ) p 1 On is cad that which subsists as such accordin to accidnt in on way, an d in anothr that which subsists ssntially thin is calld on accordin to accidnt, for instanc Coriscus and hat is musical and th
musical oriscus is on andusth thin to say oriscus and what is music a asfortoitsay Corisc thsam mu sicia n also, o sa y th musical and th just is on ith sayin th ust mu sician oris cus For all ths ar calld on accordin to accidnt (1bid .• p 9 3 Th ry natur of a thin wll not, accor dinly, b found i n any of t hos thin s that ar not th spci s of a nus but in ths only, for ths s to b prdicatd not accordin t o participation o passion , nor as a n acci dn (ibid, p 13) 4 Michal T Ghislin Mphy nd h Orn f pc lbany NY: tat Un rs ity o f Nw Yor 1 99) , p 8 5 For a full discussion of th ontoloical and pistmoloical aspcts of phas
6
spac, s Manul DLanda Innve Sc nd Vrul Phlphy London Continuum 00) h For Dluz's most xtndd discussion of diarams, s Gills Du Fuul Minna polis MN: Unirsity of Min nsota Prss 1 988 pp ·441 and 12 Th stru ct ur of a spac of poss blit is is somt ms rrr d to as a multplcity, a trm that in rnch is uivalnt to manifold th dffrntal omtry spacs usd n th construction of phas spac Dluz sot ims uss t h trms mu ltiplicity and diaram' as syno nyms Thus, h says that vry diaram is a spatio-tmporal multiplicity bd p 34) But h also uss altrnativ formulations that do not nvolv th mathmatics of phas spac Thus h dfns a diaram as a display rlatons of o o of a dstrib uton of capaci tis afct and b afctd
2
A NE PHLOSOPH O
SOE T
(bid, pp. 71- Snc capacit may xit wthout bng xrcid i inc thy may xit a poibilt) thy or a pobilty pac an d a dagram would dplay whatvr tructur thi pac ha. Elwhr hi dniton dpart rom thi patal orm H argu that unlik a ablag whr th matral and xprv rol (or th contnt an th xpron ar clarly ditinguhd th diagram o an amblag involv unmaled unn and unned mae Thi man that diagra hav an abtact tructur n whch th priv and th matal ar not drntatd a drntaton that mrg only whn th dagram abot divrgntly actualzd n concrt amblag On way o thining th ta o dagram i thror a th product o a ull dtrritorliza tion o a concrt amblag nc t th oppot proc (trtorila priv ton or actualization that drtat th matral rom th S Gill luz and Flix Guattar huand Plaeau (Mnnapoli MN nivrity o Mnnota Pr 1987 p 14 Fnaly whil multiplcty' and diagra ar omtm ud intr changably at othr tm thy rr to parat ntit th tructur o rponibl or th poblity pac on th on hand and th agncy abolut dtrrtorialzation th abtract machin or uaicaual oprator on th othr For a dtaild xplanation o th noton and thir rlaton Danda Inene ene and ual Phlhy Ch 2 and 3. 7. Bcau luz do no t ubcrib to th muical ocial ontology t ha t a laborating hr h nvr ay that ach o th ntiti {ntrona ntwor ntitutonal organzation cti tc) hav thir own diagram On th contrary h art that th diagra i coxtnv with th ocia ld (luz Fuaul p 34. Dluz gv a ampl o ocial ild contporary dciplinary oct th ovrign ocit' that cam bor thm prmitiv ocit udal ociti tc (ibd pp 34) n th ocial ontology a prnting thr i no uch thing a octy a a whol or an ovrall ocal ld' o am braking n a rathr dratic way with luz hr Thi mpli that th tr micro and macro a ud in thi boo do not crrpond to luz molcular and molar' But om corrpondnc ay tll b achivd at vry lvl o cal w may hav on th on hand population o mrontiti populaton charactrizd by ntnv proprti uch a rat o growth or th rat at which om componnt propagat within thm; and o n th o thr hand om o th mmbr o th populaton may b caught nto largr macronti rgularzd and routind Th ntt blongng to th populaton could b n a lcular whl th ntit caught n th largr aggrgat would b molar particularly i th macrontty i highly trritoralizd. Th rmar otn th dirnc but do not compltly liminat thm Fo 126
NOTE
hund Pleu te meua and te ma ee eeue and Guatta 217 8 Ma Webe he he ( l nd Enm Onn e Y Fee Pe f Gene 9 4 . 2 8-0 9 Wam Bete and Rbet C Radn ein Gmlei Dem in nd Llin ee n ien huh Pnen NJ Pnetn Unvety Pe 99 29 L 10 Ge ete eue, Ne Cumb nvety e 1990 19 On te andene eeue meme e a abut daam a f tey temeve ee aue f aembae ae e effe Tu e e tat e daam at a a nn unfyn mmanent aue . te aue f e nete aembae tat eeute t eatn' eeue uul 7. n te a deade te d ne f y eu ae d a n d demma n a ne f m - a fm unftunaey at a dne te eve e demma tef Te eenna nft beteen ndvdua and etvt tee a been eed a a nft beeen m y and ma y . u d e t ben by ue n at t euatn f m ndvdua etemey meadn a
ndeeddffeene e atemt an fndbeany e eatn t e m ma Tee n ef ema efeent f m ma a u Tey ae anayta nta uetn emeen eve tn ema unt nt antan ema unt emeve Jeffey C. Aeande Atn and t envnmen n Jefey C Aeande Bead Geen Rad Mn e J. Smee ed he M-M Link [Bee ey CA nvety f Caf na Pe 987 290-9 n e ame vume ante t te: A fundamena dntn u a tat beeen m and ma mut be enea and anayta nt ted t a fed ae. By t tandad e ndvdua en ued fm ann be eated a nnay m and tefet y nn en a unateaby ma Rate denatn m and ma ae my eatve t ea te and n atua t te anayt ue at and Te vea au e f a ven amy membe e may be ma eatve e' eatn t a ean n u membe but m eatve t te tatu f e neae n a maae eane yem te maae ytem n tun may be m eatve t a myt e Te jb atfatn f a e may be ma eatve t e ya te n e den bu m eatve t e uaty f e jb. Tat n tu may be m eatve t te mae efeny f te faty ban e m eave t te fnana ndn f e atn, m eatve t te mettvene f te nduy te bune ye f te nat n a teatna enm y ae eve 127
A NE PH I OS OPH OF SO CET
mir rlativ t th idlgial spirit f th ag (Da R Grsti upak mir ad ma lik small wth larg ad pat wh whl ibid p Ry haska A Reast Theo of cienc Ld Vrs , p 114. Whi haskars ralism ms vry s t Duzs i sm aspts it i impatibl with it baus haskar is a slfdlard sstialist As writs gral t lassify a grup f thigs tgthr i si t all thm by th sam am prsupps s that thy p ssss a ral ss r a tu r i mm, thugh it ds t prsu pps that th ral ss at ur i kw A hmist wi ll la ssify diamds , gr aph it ad blak ar b tgthr baus h blivs that thy pssss a ral ss i mm whih may b id tifid a s th atm i r ltri strut u f arb ( bid p 20) 3 Ptr dtrm ad Rihard wdbg ia mhaism a itrdu ty ssay i Socal Mechanms. An Analytcal Approach t ocal Tho, ds) Ptr dstrm ad Rihard Swdbrg (Cambrdg Cambridg Uivrsity Prs s 8 pp 23 h auth rs prps th r diff rt t yp f mhaism mar-mr mirmir ad miro-maro h first typ wuld figur i plaatis f th rlatis btw a sial situati ivlvig la rg silg ial phm a (s uh as th distr ibut i f im r pwr i a ppulati ad idividual sial atrs h largsal pss may, fr ampl rat diffrt pptuitis ad risks fr diff r atrs w h must ilud ths pprtuis ad risks as part thir rass at h sd typ rfrs m ai l y t sial- psyh lgi al mhaisms, that is t th mtal prsss xplaiig th makig partiular disis (i th as f mtivs) r t th prsss bhid th rmati f habits, th prduti f mtis r th aquisit i f bl ifs (i th as f rass Fially, th third typ rfrs t mhaisms gvrig th itratis amg idivdual atrs whih grat lltiv utms h pr blm i s tha t t h trms mir' ad mar ar us d i th ir abslut ss with mir rfrig t idividual prss ad mar dsigatig sity as a whl But i assmblag thry th distiti btw mir ad marlvls is rlativ t sal Rlatviig th distiti implis that thir third t f mhaism mirmir, a b limiatd si at ay gv sal it rdus t th miromar at th mmedaly mallr scae Ad similarly fr what w may trm ma-mar mhisms. Wh mar rfrs t ttal sity thr is d t sidr th tratis btw whls But th disti ti is rlatvid w d d t sidr that whls mad ut f idividual prss suh as i tprsal twrks r isitutial rgaizatis ma y itra with athr as whls h 8
NOES
erm mcrmcr, weve e
mpery, pped t u e dec f feud rd cr veri p t Bude! rue t e evdec e reti pri ce ery e tweft cetury dicte tt tey were edy fuctut evdece t by te "mder mrke eed d mt cciy be ked eter embryc t wttw ew rk bid p 28 18 A Grfk e Fom of xpantone w Hve C T Y e Uiv ert y Pe 18!), pp 862 A te c Aty Gidde rue uke te cmpe f pyc ey wt emee perte uc bre metic y v prperte tt re mre t te um f e prpertie f t p cpper, d meme ed e p f c embe edm cme pe frm. ey mie te cmpe prt f bre eit eptey pr ter cm teer d frmi y bu um cr rec be cmpeet e d et i eprti fm e e cpper, ti d ed d Tey d cme eer nha t frm ew e y by e r fui r c ' A y Gdde Th onttuton of oty [Bekey, CA: Uiverity f fri Pre 18] pp. 1712) Gdde t crrect tci te mted ccep f emere ce t mpe y t r y emerece Bu e wr tk 1 v up ccepti mpe urreder t e ptwe reti fv u f eme web Te exmpe f be w ued by Emie Durkem rue fr e extece f c emeret prperie See Emie Durkeim Th u o oooa MthodNew Yrk Te Free Pe 182), p Pu DM Nde prd revted reti d cutu pec i trcue Nwok and Oanatonp 132 Immntaton Berkeey CA 2 Jeffrey L Pem d A Widvky Uverty f C Pre 1 84 ) p 2 2 T bty perte cr ce pcury u rii ve bt eetic d uc me re mre mc' t y f te ete f wc tey fm pt. But Deeue d Gur ee t 'mecut epei peey wt ive ee d wrd er by t 29
A NE PH ilOSOP HY O F SOCE TY
pou·e oe cope eaio ewee he ico a he aco Se Deeuze a uaai A Tond ls p . ee L Bege a Tho a Luc a T ol Consron of Ray New o Acho B oo 7
Chapter 3 A he pecepio of he hua i eoe hemee i o wo i which I ha ca IMRSSIONS a IDEAS The iffeece ewi he coi i he egee of foce a ieie wih which hey ie upo he i a ae hei way io ou hough a cocioue. Thoe pecepio which ee wih he o foce a ioece we ay ae iprssion; a ue hi ae I copehe a ou eaio paio a eoio a hey ae hei fi appeaace i he ou By da I ea he fai iage of hee i hi ig a ea oig . Dai Hue A Trts of n atr[Loo eg ui 1 ] p 4. [ephai i h ogia] . Ii p 4 . Hue i fac ae a iicio ewee eaio which ay chag wihou chagig he eae iea coigui ieiy cauaiy a ho i which hi i o he cae eeace coaiey egee of quaiy a pop oio of qua iy ii . pp 7- Thi wou ee o coaic he aee ha a i ewee iea ae eaio of eeioiy Ye a Deeuze ague hi i o o The fou eaio which o ee o epe o iea impy a copaio ha i a opeaio which i Eprci and eeio o he iea eig copae See ie Deeuze bct New Yo Co uia i ei y e 1 1 pp. 4 Hue A Trts of an arp. 0 A Dee uz pu i . . ifpicipe he piciofpe a ociaio ep ai ha ha iea ae a iea ociae oy he heofpaio ca epai a paicua ahe ha aohe i a ociae a a gie o e . . Eey hig ae pace a l f he picipe of aociaio poie he uec wih i eeay fo wheea he picipe of he paio poie i wih i igua coe Deeuze Epr and Sby pp 10) Ii p Dee uze i hee coaig a aeage o coecio wi h a ye Thi i iia o he coa he aw i hi ae wo ewee aemage a aa A I agu e i hape pefe o ea wih hi coa o a a ichooy ewee wo ype u a a hi ieio chaaceizig aeage wih highy coe aeage eig aa 7 Hue A Trt of an trp 7 Ii p 1 130
NOT
9. bi p 308. 1 0. On he eecs nes s see ibi p 1 72. 1 1 . Ibi p 308 1. he s us criique he cbinl pvery ssciinis is Jerry A Fr n Zenn W Pylyshyn Cnnecinis n cniive rchcure criicl nlysis n Jhn Hueln e Mind Des(qn . Phlosphy, Psychlgy and Artjal Intelligence (Cbrie MA: M Press 1997) pp 30950 Fr isussin recen ssciinis exensins h y cpense Cnnectnism r his pvery see Wili Bechel nd Aele Abrhsen and the Mnd An ntrductn t Parallel Dstrbuted cessing n Networks C brie MA n Oxr Bsil Blckel l 1 99 1 ) pp 1 0 1; Any Clrk cocogntn Phlsphy Cgnt Scence and Parllel Dstuted Pressng C brie MA M Press, 1 990) pp 1 43-5 1 . 1 3 A hery rr h ees bh he cbin ril pr uciviy requireen s ll s he evluinry ne s elli rris A The f LanHuage and nfomaton: A athematcal Appah Oxr Clrenn Press !98 } 1 ive ully evluinry hisry rel lnues n ile
Nnlnear st Ne Yrk Natue ne Bks 1997 3 nly bes n ur 14. Hue A eatse f uman p. 144. A belieCh cn ie s n iin l rce o vivciy 5 bi . p 46 16 Ervin n nterctn Rtual Essays n Face-tace Behavour(Ne Yrk Pnhen Bks, 1967) p y ilics 1 7. bi p 9 18. 1bi. p 103. 1 9 bid p 34 20 bi, p 103. 2 1 Anlycl phi lsphers r eces inue ih syn x n senics, re beinnn urn run n inclue his pric diensin hus I Hckin in his nlysis he er 'scil nsrucin eliberely resiss skin he quesin h is is seni cnen? n sks insed h is is pin (ie h is is siniicne) Se In ckin The a/ nstuction f What? (Cbe MA Hrvr Universiy Press 000) p. 5. An ru en h ques in s si niicnce re n h e s e s quesi ns siniic in cn be un in Denis C Phillips Phlsphy Scence and Sial nui (O r Pern Press 1 98 7) p 1 09 2. n nteactn tual pp 162-. 3 . bi. pp 1 8-1 9 24. Jhn c Soal New Anas1nn: Se Publicins 2000) pp 3 1 n 75 131
A N W P IP
Y CIT
Y
bid . pp 0 Ibid p I bid p 9 Sec also Graham Crow Socal Slidarites(Bukigham: Open Uiversity ress 00 pp Crow, Scial Slidritespp I J 90 9 O loal dialets as badges of idetity see William Labov 'The soial settig of lig uisti hage' i Silinguiti Pttes Philadelphia N Uiersity o esylvai a Press 9 p 0 Crow Scil Slidritie,pp I 9 bid pp . Charles Tily Strie Ientitie nd Plitil ChangeLaham MD Rowma Littlefield 00 pp 9 . Ch arles Tily Drabl nequltyBerkeley CA Uieity of Califoria ress I 99 9 p 4 Gies Deleuze ad Flix uattari Anti-Oedps Mieapolis MN Uiveity of Miesota Press) pp I4 I Tilly Stres, denitie and ltil Chnge p J 2. Tily is perhaps the most
&
oheret adoate of realism i soial theory today although his fear o essees has made espouse realist' a ratherthat watered-dow versio of itinHe delares himself to behim a relatioa is someoe who beliees the mididepedet eiste of relatios but ot of the eities that eter ito relatios although he grudgigly akowledges the eistee o huma beigs with physiologal eeds. Eduig etities i his aout presuppose essee s a d arc t hus l ess worthy of ommitmet s he put s it soial explaatios a be either i terms of essees or i terms of bods ee Tilly Drble nequalityp 4 But first of al l a "mitmet to eitie s eed ot iole es sees at a ll i the etities are aoued for by the historial proes that produed them eodly alhough soial iteratio is ideed relatioal i the sese that
9 40
the apaities eerised by thedo soial ators reduible to the ators defiig properties apaities deped o are the ot eistee of these edurig properies ad thus o the eistee of edurig etities. Fially to subordiate etities t relatios omes dageusly lose to a ommitmet to relatios of iteriority that is to wholes i whih the pas are ostituted by the very relatios whih yield the whole bid p 90 Ibid p. 4 bid p 9 bid pp 0 bid pp 3
l
4 Tilly 0 bid pp 4 J 0 Srie. dntte nd Pltal hanH
132
NT
43
44.
No general popuaion arger than a ocal communiy ever mainains a coheren syem of raificaion in a rong ene of he word; even he o-caled cae ysems of India accommodaed grea variaion in rank orders from vilage o village n genera rank orders remain incon ien, apparen raa conain considerable heerogeneiy and mobiliy bs dviding ines (bid pp 89) The idea of fference or gap is a he basi of he very noion of pa
ha i a e of disinc and coexiing posiion which are eeior t one anoher and which are defined in rel ai on o one anoher hro ugh heir mutua xtrriand heir relaions of proimiy viciniy or disance as well as hrough relaions of order uch as above beow or bwn Cerain properies of members of he pebourgeoie can for eample be deduced from he fac ha hey occupy an inermediae posiion beween w o ereme siions wihou being obje cively idenifiable or subecivey idenifed wih one o he oher posiion Piere Bordieu raia Rean Sandf ord 1 99] CA: Sanf ord Univers iy Press p 6 [emphasis in the original]) 45 Pierre Bourdieu Th Lgi f rai Cam bridg e Poiy P res 1 99 0 p 4 (my ialics 46 bid p A more generous reading of he habius along asembage heory line woud be as he opological diagram of he se of habi and rouine ha make up individual persons ha i a he rucure of he space of possibiiies for differen combinaions of habis and skills 47 'o far a he s ocial wo rd i conce rned he neoKania n he ory whic h gives language and more generaly represenaions a specifically ymbolic efficacy in he conrucion of realiy is perfecy uifed By rucung he percepion ha socia agens have of he socia world he ac of naming heps o esabish he srucure of his world (Pierr e Bo urdi eu Languag and ymb wr[Cambridg e Harvard Universi y Pres 9 9 ! p 1 0 ) 4 illy Durab nqua p 6 49 bid p. 36
Chapter 4 I
Ma Weber Th Th a and Enmi Organzain New York Free ress of Glencoe 1 964 ) p bid pp 3836 bid p 348 4 bid p. 39. A eber pu i even in he mos raional bureaucracy he very belief in legaiy comes o be esablished and habiual and his means i is pary
> 5.
radiional ibid p 32) 133
A PH
OSOPHY
O SOY
6 Jmes S lem, Foudao o oa Tho mbridge Belkp ress 2000 p 66 7 si k wrker mus t be treted b dtr us i g epted medi l predures whether the wrer s treted effetie is less imprtt A bus mp must serie required rutes whether r t there re m pssegers. uiersit must miti pprprite deprtmets idepedet f the deprtmets erlmet tiit tht is hs ritu sigifie it mitis pperes d idtes rgizti Jh W Meer d Bri Rw Istitutilized rgiztis fl struture s mth d erem i Wlter W well d ul J iggi [eds] Th ew Iuoam Oazaoa ays hig L Uiersit f hig ress 1991] p 55 8 W Rihrd Stt d Jh W. eer he rgizti f sietl se trs prpsitis d er eidee i well d DiMggi eds Th ew uoam Oaaoa ay p 1 24. Vluble s this stitutil wk i sg m be it is ftl flwed i e sese it relies sil strutiism d its idelist tlg Hee despite the ppret regiti tht there re re tehil questis ied i the perti f sme gitis ultimte wht uts s tehl is ust mere eti tht is mtter f defiiti sserti whih m kes the distiti betwee tehil d ereil ftrs useless 9 ihe uu t Dcp ad Puh Th h oPo New Yrk Vitge Bks 1979 p 169 10 Ibid p 171 bid p 153 12 bid pp 195-6 13 Ibid pp 191-2. 1 4 bid, p 1 90 1 5 Weber Th Tho o oa! ad Ecoomc Oaao p 63 16 I Deuzes ppliti f ssembge lsis t uults wrk he sige s u t t he buildi gs f hspit ls d priss s the mteri l mpets s the frm f tet d the disurses f mediie r r imilg s th e epressie mpets r the frm f epressi See Gilles eleuze Foucau ieplis MN Uiersit f iest ress 1988, p 62 1 7 Jeffre feffer d Gerld R Sli T Xa C o Oao ouc Dpdc PpcvStfrd Stfrd Uiersit ress 2003 p 46 18 Ibid pp 4850 19. Ibid p 5 1 Despite th ese usefu l isights there is mjr s hrtmig t the ther f resure depedee he uthrs reie sil struti ism t hi but the w i whih rgizt (r rher, its dmiisrte stff pereies its reltis with ther rgitis eds 134
NOTS
0 1
4 8 0 1
U
hm h dals nl usn ha a n ganzans nvnmn s ad b hs lans whh auall pas ann s h pu Nng ha an ganans nvnmn s nad ad b annal psss nds sh h us m haass h bv nvnmn haass h dsn pss b whh ganza ns sl and gn nman (bd p 4) Bu wh wuld ann wan sh ann awa m h bv dsbun ppuns and sks ha an nvnmn ads an ganan? I s nl b psvng h dsnn bwn al ppuns au sus ( al sks lsng aunm) and h awanss ha an ganzan ma ma n hav hm ha n an spak mssd ppuns ( undsmad sks') and h s ha suh msakn valuans ma hav n an ganzans abl p wh al dpndns h nn an nad nvnmn s n a, u uslss, bu h a ha h sa! nsuvs pa h h su dpndn an b s asl spaad m h s sh ws ha s l s msl mnal ah han hnal Ibd h al . Pwll Nh mak n Hah. Nwk s The Soology of Organzaton ganan n Mhal Handl (d), (husand Oas Sag, 00) p. hn R . uns and Jams L Sugn, Olgpls pan npual and mpal vdn mak suu vln n a R l and an . Samuls (ds) The Economy as a Syem of Por (Nw Bunswk N ansan Pss, 18 Pa ul Hhnbg and L n n Hl n Ls, The Makng of Urban Europe lOO 950 (ambdg, MA Havad Unvs Pss, 18) p 0 hal Bs, The N Compeon (ambdg : Havad Unvs Pss 0 pp 141 bd p 0 nnal Sanan Regonal Advanage. ulre and Competon n Slon Vall and Roue 128 (ambdg M: Havad Unv Pss, 1 pp - P and Salank The Exteal Conrol of Organzaon pp Bs The ew ompeonpp -40 Hwad Odum and labh Odum Energy Ba for Man and aue (Nw k: MawHl 8 ), p. 41 Sanan, Regonal Adanage pp 4 P and Salank The Exeal Conrol of Oanaon, pp 8- al . Pwll and Paul J. Magg h n a g vsd: nsu nal smhsm and llv anal n gananal lds n Pwll and Magg (ds The ew Intionam n Organaonal Analy pp. - 135
A N W OS OY O F S O ITY 3 3 . M T Hnnn n Jhn rmn Oranzatonal Ecologymrg MA Hrvr Unvry Pr 9 9) p 66. 3. vr E Wmn Trnn nm n rgnn ry
3
Organizaton Theo Nw rk fr n vr E Wmn , Unvry Pr 99, p 223 vr E. Wmn, hr rnr n npn n rgnn p 96 T fu f nn un n m m nrrw ny ng wn mkng uyng r wn n \�rrh n rn mrk n vr h p ru nrpnn my r n prur vn f ur mng rgnn f mr , n n f ru mnn y muh rgr frm my pn n pru r v wh r m r u y mpmnry T n u prn f m wh nr n mk r uy u mk r pr T rung nrpnn my n r pnhp n nr fr rnfr xng r png f hng nr n vn prnn S G Rhrn T rgnn f nury n Pr J uky n Jnhn M , Firms, Organiations and Contrts fr xfr Unvry Pr 2 pp 9-63 Trry M M Th p f ruur wr ry f pu urury n Organiation Theo p 2 The New Cmpetitonp 2 Jffry L Prmn n Arn Wvky Implementatn rky, A Unvry f f Pr 9 n A Mmnn n Pu A Sr mplementaton and Publi Pli Lnm M Unvry Pr f Amr 99, p 9 n W n Rr W Wrmn Bureaurat Dnami ur Wvw Pr 99 pp 22-3 Pfffr n Snk The External Control of Organzatons pp 2 r Ty Stores. denttes and Politial ChangeLnm M Rwmn & Lf 22, p 3 Hnnu Nn Compang Votng ytems rrh R 97), pp 23 Jm 0 rmn ss and Letma The Administrtive Proess and !97) pp Amerian Government mrg mrg Unvy Pr
o
36 37 3 39 2 3
6 9 6 7 9
I pp 6 I pp 293 n 676. W n Wrmn Bureaurat namc pp 337 I p Rf Trn Breaucratzaton n Norhwestern urope 188-985 Lnn Rug 99 pp 236
NOS
50 David Sanders, an fliial nal(Lon don: Macmilan 1 9 8 1 ) pp 5-10 While some discrepancy beween sauory objecives and policy 51 desions is almos ineviable ( for no oer reason an disagreemens abou how general rules apply o specific cases) suc differences can be reduced if he saue sipulaes unambiguous obecives assigns implemenaion to sympaeic agencies who will give i hig prioriy minimizes te number of veo poins and provides sufficien incenives suc as subsidies or compensaory canges in unrelaed policies o overcome recalciran officials provides sufficien financial resouces o conduc he echnical analyses and process individual cases and biases he decision rules and access poins in favour of programme oeives. Mazmanian and Sabaier mplmnaion and l ol p 36) 52 ouglass Nor nion inal Cang and Enm mn New Yok Ca mbridge Univers iy Press 1 995 ) pp 1 2-3 1 5 T ill y, S dn and lal Canq p 1 29 54 TK. Oommen Cinip Nanal nd EnCambridge oliy r ess 1 997) . See p 34 for he difference beween sa e led and sa eseeking na ionalisms and pp 1 3 545 fr mix ures in con cree ases 55 arles Tilly Big ag Hg Cmpaion New Yor Ru ssell Sage Founda ion 1 984 pp 1 031 1
Chapter 5 I . Rober E Park The ciy s uggesions for invesi gaion of h uman behavi ou in e urban environmen' in Rober E Park and Ernes W Burgess eds) T Ci ica go IL : Univer siy of Cicago ress 1 984) pp 4 2 Anony Giddens T Conn f y Berkeley A Universiy of California Press 1 98 ), pp 1 1 1 9 Giddens reamen of regiona lied locales is sim ilar o e leue and Gua ari s conce p of a erriory a concep ey develop in relaion o animal erriories bu ha is no confined o is example To see e paralle we mus add Giddens definiion in terms of rymic o periodic rouines e expressive marking of boundaries A erriory is in hi s sense an ac of rhym a a s become expres sive Gilles Dleuze and lix Guaari Toand laa Minneapolis MN Universi y of Minn esoa Press 987) p 3 1 5 Acually , ere are hree elemens i n e definiion of a err iorial assemblage. ne needs a block of spaceime consiued by h e periodic r epeiion of [a] componen ibi d p 3) made ino a erriory by marking is boundaries drawing a circle aound a uncerain and fragile cenre o organie a limied space ibid p 3 ! 1 ) And i n add ii on o rym a nd bou ndar y her e mus b e e possibiliy of opening up e circle of venuri ng aw ay from ome roug a
t
A NW P H O SOP H Y OF S OC IT Y
gap in th bordr This of cours corrspond to th procss of dtrrtoriaizaton whch can opn up an as�mbag to fuur possibti or vn chang its idntity Fand Braud! The Structres of Eveday Life Brky CA: Unirsity of Caifoia Prs 1 9 92 p 267 4 Jams E Vanc Jr The Continuing Ciy.Urba Moholog n Wetern Civilizatio B a timor, MD John s H opkin s Unirsty Pr 1 990 pp 2 -. 5 Braud! The tructre of Eveday Le, p 0 6 Va nc Jr The Cotinuig City p 416. 7 Ibid p 7 Braud!, The truture f Eveday Le p 10 9 bid p 1 7. 10 bd p 4 I I Mch Fou cau t Dipne ad Punh The Brth of roN w York Vntag Book, 1 979) p 1 7. 1 iddn The Costitutio of oetyp. 12 1 . Vanc Jr The Coinuin Ci p. 7 1 4 Iid , pp. 1 0 a n d 1 4- 'Th cra rphoogica tr uth arnd i n th ba tids was th at ntr a ccssib and proport onat ay out of th town on of th mor concrt xprssions of functiona quaty and a strong bu wark n its df n ibid p 200 ) 1 . d pp 6-7 1 6 A th c onomi st Thoma Shing has hown th dynacs bhnd th s procss ar thos of pop rponding to an nvironn whch conts o pop rponding t ach othr gvn a group of pops prfrncs to v in proxiity to mar groups ach dcson ad to ov nto or out of a nghbourhood w chang th nghbouhood itf infuncng th futur dcson of currnt rsdnt and of pop wanting ridnc thr S Thoas C Schng Miromotve and Marobehaiour Nw York: Noron I97 Ch 4 I 7 Robrt E Park, Th cy Park an d Bu rgs he Citp 9 1 an r The Cotuig Ci p 16 19 Ernst W Burg Th grwth of th city in Park and Burgs
The Ctp
50.
20 Pau M Hohnrg an d Lyn n Hon he Makig of rban Europe 0 C ambrdg MA Har ard Univrity Pr I 9 p 29 9 1 . a nc Jr he Cotinig Ctp 409 Ibd p p 4 1 I Ibid pp 74-7 24 Braud! e trtures of Eveday Lepp 44-9 Ibid. p 46 6 Maahsa Fujita Pau rugan and hony J Vnabs 138
he patia
NO
Em t R_s ad Itata ad(abride, MA MI Pess, 1 999) 4 ee also Peter M. Alle, t ad Rg as f-O_ag tm (Amsterda Gordo reah 1 997 ) 27 27. Vae r h tu_ 373 28. Deleue ad Guattari view rhthially reeated otis ad the outer oits the reate with the eeral milieu as the two was i whih eressive omoet seloraize i teitoal assemblaes iludi aimal assemblaes, trasormi what was mere siature ito a stle ee Deleuze ad Guattari, A huad Patau 317 29. Sio Kosto h t hapd ba Patt ad Mag thughut Ht (Lodo ll ih Pess 99 1 , 285. 30 Vae r h u_ t 56. 3 1 raud el h tutu f Evda f 512 32 Vae r h tu_ t 502 3 3 . Hoheber ad Holle Le es h Mag ba Eup 2023 (or the eriod bet wee the ear s 1 000 ad 1 300) ; 1 0 7 500- 800) a d 2 720 1 8001 900) 34. Fujita t a h pata Em . 34. 35. Alle, t ad g a fOgazg tm 53 36 Hoeber ad Holle ees h Mag f ba Eup 5 1. 37 Ibid 240 38 Ferad raude h Pptv f th Wd(New York Harer Row 1979) 2731 39 Hoheber ad Holle Lees h Ma f ba Eup 66 40 raude!, h Pptv f th Wd 3 031 . 4 1 Hoheber ad Holle Lees, h Mag f ba Eup 6 42 Ibid" 28I 43 Paul eed h R ad Fa f th Gat Pw Em hag ad Mta tm t 2 (New ork Ra do House 1 987 70 71. 44. rai arer Itata aw ad Itata Rat (Lodo: otiuu, 2000 58. For the iveear eotiatio eriod see eore Parker, h h Ya ' Wa Lodo Routlede ea Paul, 987) 1 7078 45 Keed, h ad Fa f th at Pw 86 (ehasis i the oriial) 46 Ferad raudl h Wh f mmc (New York Harer & Row I 979) 5445 47 Ibid 525 ( ehasis 48. rael, h tuctus f Evda 527 49 Hoheb er a d Holle Le es h Mag f ba Eup 242. 0 osto h t hapd 2 1 5
139
A N W H LO SOHY O
SOCT Y
5 Ib id. p 2 I 7 52. I atempted to synthesize a avaibe material on te potia isory 5 54
of
anguages and diaects i Mane DeLanda, A Thousand Years ofNonlinea Hiso (New York: Zone Books, 997 C Crstoper Dy The Forress in he Age of Vauban and Frederck he Geat London Roedge Kegan Pa 985 p 87 eter Tayor Poliial eographyew Yor Longa 985 pp 5
J.
&
Brad int roded he term 'wo d-eonomy 55 as a oerent econoic area in Fend rade!,
t disss e edit erran ea
The Medierranean. And he
Medierranean World n he ge of hlII, Vo I B rke ey C A Uniers ity of
5 57
Caliornia ress 995) p 49. Braude! attrib tes t e orgna on ept two German soars in Braude! The ersecve ofhe World p 4 n 4. Iane Wa er tin World-Sysems Analys An nroduconDa C Dke Universty ress 2004 pp 7 Ib d p . Wa ersten s marored tio nsm deries dret y o is se Hegeian totaiies to oneptaie arge-scae soca enttie See ane Waerstein The Capalis WorldEonomyCabrdge abrdge Uniersiy ress 99 p 4
58 Brade The Wheels of ommere,p 458
0
Index
Arie 269 Asemblge Cdi ng/D ed ing 1 51 6 1 9 28, 59 6 91 Diagrm 3 1 1 2 5 f 6 Expr sive mp onn 1 2. 1 6 22 50 54-5, 5 60, 1 . 88-9 92 97-8, 1 00 10 5-6 1 1 5-16 Mri1 ompe 1 2, 22 49 50 5 3 5. 601 , 2-3 8 1 89 91 2 95-7 99 105 1 1 0 1 14-1 5 Teri ilzai n I eerri tria t 2, 1 6 1 9 28 50 55 58 , 61 -2 67. 73 8 1- 89-90 92 3 98-9 1 01 -3 1 067 1 16 -1 8 Tey -5 1 0- 1 9 2 L 28. 30 H4 3840 1 2 1 9 10) 1 22 !23 ( 2 1 , 1 30 ( 6
(!
13
Cv rs
2, 16 3 3 52-5 87
eeue Gi
34 10-1 1 1 4 47 9
Emgece 4 6 1 0, 4 1 32 34, 389 4 57 0 108 129 (f 19) Efrceme nt 6 5 , 68, 72 80 84, 89 En 4 26- 3 1 45 48, 1 2 3 5 Expanati: by Ce 1 9-24 3 1 . 36- 1 by Re n ive 22 39-40, 49 57 64, 95 by Topg ial Cor an 3 1 Mihel idd Ahoy
72-3 5 99 5 9-1 0 94-5 99
Gomn, rig 5 52 5, 1 1 9 Govt 3 3 4 , 36 59 6 8493 n
Burd Pir 636 Brude! Fernad 71 8 9 5 7. 1 06 1 0 1 1 1 5 1 18 ge ;i 1 0 21
a ig 2 ge G W '- 1 0 me, Dvid 4 75 1
p ie 1 1 1 1 2 1 29 5 3-8 75 89 tie 5 34 3 9 4 1 , 94 1 03- 1 2 1 1 5-1 6 kman Jme 0
Identiy 4 1 0 12 . 1 4· 1 5 26 28 33 48-50, 54 , 5' 87. 8 990 1 02-3 06 1 16 Impleme in 43, 8 1 . 85
141
NDX
Institutinl Orgaiztin
5-6, 1 21 3
1 5 3 3-5 379 41 ·4 66. 68-75 77- 9 834 88-90 1 1 3 1 4
tesity 7 48 52, 53 55 56 107 ntrprsnl Ntwrk 5-6 1 2-1 3 33-5 434, 56-9 66
Lngge
2-3 1 2 141 6 23
4, 51 , 55
58 62 66 745 8 L 83 9 1 1 6 1 22
(f 14) egitmcy
13 68-71 84 86, 88-9
Mrkt 1 7-1 8 30 2 36 l l 5 Mir-cr Prbl 46 17 32 127 . 128 ( 1) Otolgy pli
346 42 63-5 70, 76S
1 6-1 7 2 1 245 34 39 4 1
Sele Wb 4 910 19 21 Sgnific 223 5 5 62 80 glriis: dvidl 27-8, '0 40 48 Uiral 29-31 40 i lases 62-7 al Cotrti 3 45 62, 66 1 3 3
(f 47 34 8 1 9
cl Mveent 3 34 36, 59-62 idrity 13 57 80 bjity 323 4752 Tprlity 40 Trritoril ta 93 l l l-1 3, 1 1 418 Tlly, rle 5 58-63, 66, 87 92
6-7 1 0-l 1 7 27-9 37 56 76
Vn Js Rt f Exteriority
! 0-1 1 1 6 1 8 45 478
53 56 59 63 75-6
142
I 04,
1 2, 7 28 , 40 1 26 f 7 )
59 , 75 99, 1 07
Prpi
Reorce 108
112-13
Knnedy Pal
of terrty 9-1 L 1 6, 1 8 20, 45 1 32 35 o rttoWh 1 5 27 30 3 340
Webr. M 92
97 1001 5 224 30 68-9 74 88
