HISTORICALLY,
the all lleeged
rece cep ption
of
signals
of
an
extraterrestrial origin dates back to the ver beginnings of radio! In fact, "e find that the recent histor of the investigation into interstellar co##$nications is al#ost co#pletel restricted to the science of radio astrono# % a technolog "hich is &$ite li#ited
d$e to the necessit of obeing the confines of the electro#agnetic spectr$#! 'arl in his career, (r! L! )eorge La"rence recogni*ed this li#itation, and so$ght to overco#e it b introd$cing a #eans of co co## ##$n $nic icat atio ion n "h "hic ich h "a "ass not bo$ o$nd nd b co conv nven enti tion ona al electro#agnetic
la"s!
+iological+
or
+iodna#ic+
co# co ##$ #$n nic icat atio ion n, as La La"r "ren ence ce ca call lled ed it it,, fo fo$n $nd d it itss #e #edi di$# $# co#pletel o$tside of the electro#agnetic spectr$#, and therefore solv so lved ed #a #an n of th thee pr prob oble le#s #s fa faci cing ng the pre reva vail ilin ing g rad adio io-astron ast rono#i o#ical cal #et #ethod hodolo olog g of int inters erstell tellar ar co# co##$n #$nicat ication ion!! To co#prehend the co#plexit of these proble#s, "e #$st brie. deta de tail il th thee hi hist stor oric ical al ba back ckgr gro$ o$nd nd of co conv nven enti tion onal al in inte ters rste tella llarr co##$nications /hereinafter referred to as ICO001! Radio Astronomy and the Birth of ICOMM IC OMM oth o th 2i 2ik kol ola a Tes esla la an and d )$ )$gl glie iel# l#o o 0a 0arc rcon onii "o "o$l $ld d be re#e#bered for their earl prono$nce#ents of receiving +alien+ signals /see +Co##$nicating "ith 0ars+ on 0ars+ on page 331, b$t it "asn4t $ntil 5637 that the birth of radio astrono# and the conse&$ent rec ecep epti tio on of rad adio io si sig gna nals ls of gal alac acti ticc or oriigi gin n he herral alde ded d the beginnings of ICO00! 8arl 9ansk, an A#erican radio engineer, "as the first to pinpoint signals originating fro# the center of the galax! :e needn4t detail his findings here as "e have reprinted the
entir iree
563;
doc$#ent
/see +S +Sho hort rt-" -"av avee
Sign Si gnal alss
fro# fr o#
Interstellar Inters tellar Space+ Space+ on on page 3<1! Shortl after :orld :ar II and thee de th deve velo lop# p#en entt of RA RA(A (AR, R, th thee #i #ili lita tar r be bega gan n fr fre& e&$e $ent ntl l intercepting interc epting radio signals orig originating inating fro# o$ter space! :ith this develop#ent, the first large radio telescopes "o$ld be e#ploed for p$rel scientific p$rposes! The first plan to #onitor the stars for signs of intelligent life "as cond$cted b =rank (rake, the then (irector of the 2ational Radi Ra dio o As Astr tron ono# o# Ob Obse serv rvato ator r /2R /2RAO AO11 at )r )ree een n a ank nk,, :e :est st >irginia in 56?7! The pro@ect "as called +O*#a+, after the
i#aginar land of O*, fro# L! =rank a$#4s :i*ard of O*! The intended targets "ere Ta$ Ceti /55!6 light ears fro# earth1 and 'psilon 'ridani /57!< light ears fro# earth1! After observing for a total ti#e of abo$t ; "eeks in the region of the 5-centi#eter hdrogen band, no signals "ere fo$nd! Th$s ended Bro@ect O*#a % and to this da % no signals have been fo$nd b an standard radiorad io-ast astron rono#i o#ical cal #et #ethod hods! s! 0an 0an soso-cal called led S'T S'TII /Se /Searc arch h for 'xtrat 'xt raterr errest estria riall Int Intell ellige igence nce11 pro pro@ec @ects, ts, and sev severa erall #il #illio lions ns of dollars in f$nding later, have t$rned $p ;3Dnothing! 'ven 2ASA sho"ed interest for a "hile, spending E?7-F7 #illion since 56F5, b$t in the earl 5667s, the d$#ped S'TI and other pro@ects fro# their b$dget! The S'TI instit$te4s latest endeavor, called Bro@ect Bhoenix, began in =ebr$ar 566G at the Barkes radio astrono# observator in 2e" So$th :ales, A$stralia! So far, the have #anaged to bring in #ore than EF!3 #illion in private donations for their efforts! Stat St atee-of of-t -the he-a -art rt e& e&$i $ip# p#en entt "a "ass $s $sed ed to li list sten en to ab abo$ o$tt 7 77 7 so$t so $the hern rn he he#i #isp sphe here re st star ars, s, sc scan anni ning ng < #i #ill llio ion n ch chan anne nels ls si#$ltaneo$sl at single-Hert* resol$tion $sing the ?; #eter radio telescope! A follo"-$p telescope located 57 #iles a"a allo"ed the# to disting$ish bet"een terrestrial and galactic signals b $tili*ing (oppler shift! $t, still no 'T! Bro#ising signals have all t$rned o$t to be things s$ch as satellites, #ilitar radar, and even T> stations! The haven4t given $p tho$gh, and plan to foc$s on 677 northern he#isphere stars next! The Problem with Radio-astronomical ICOMM The #a@or diffic$lt "ith radio-astrono#ical ICO00 is that at it itss
fo$n fo $nda dati tio on
liees li
so# o#ee ve ver r $n $ncr crea eati tive ve &$ &$an anti tita tati tive ve
ass$#ptions! The basis for the entiret of this research ass$#es that an extraterrestrial civilisation4s technolog is co#parable to,
and has evolved to a state e&$al to o$r o"n! :itho$t tho$ght, acade#ia
cas$all
pres$pposes
that
there
are
#an,
+!!!civilisations intelligent eno$gh to b$ild radio trans#itters,+ and +!!!several #illion civilisations #atching the 'arth4s standard of development !+ !+ $ite an egotistical ass$#ption for a c$lt$re that ad# ad #it itss no so sol$ l$ti tion on to th thee # #st ster erie iess of th theeir o" o"n n an anccie ient nt civilisations eca$se technolog on this planet has evolved in a specific direction /in this case to"ard the &$antitative and #echanistic1 doess not for doe foreor eordain dain tha thatt an oth other er civi civilisa lisatio tion4s n4s tec techno hnolog logica icall evol$tion #$st parallel o$rs! It is &$ite possible, and certainl prob pr obab able le th that at #a #an n civ civili ilisa sati tion onss of ga galac lactic tic or orig igin in #a #a ha have ve techno tec hnolog logica icall ll evo evolved lved to" to"ard ard the per percep ceptive tive and &$a &$alita litative tive!! These #a be the standards b "hich the seek to co##$nicate, and as "e shall see, offer greater s$ccess considering the great distances "ith "hich ICO00 necessitates! Language of the tars The #ost diffic$lt obstacle to overco#e concerning ICO00 lies li es "i "ith th th thee ex exch chan ange ge of in info for# r#at atio ion! n! Si Sinc ncee co conv nven enti tion onal al pres$#ption is so anthropo#orphicall restrained, the acade#ics insist on $sing o$r o"n c$lt$ral and societal develop#ent as a g$ide g$ ide to ch choo oosi sing ng th thee pr prop oper er co cos# s#ic ic li ling ng$i $ist stic ic fo for# r#!! Si Si#p #ple le #essages, binar call signals, pictogra#s, and even an artificial sche#atic lang$age called Lincos called Lincos have have been s$ggested and even tran tr ans# s#it itted ted to the st star ars! s! $ $t, t, ev even en si si#p #ple le la lang ng$a $age ge ca can n po pose se incredible
diffic$lt
for
scholars
"ishing
to
#ake
an
interpretation! 'arlier advanced c$lt$res on o$r o"n planet have left $s "ith inn$#erable "ritings "hich still evade acade#ia4s decr de crp pti tion on!! 've 'ven n th thee la late te sk skep eptic tic an and d #e #ech chan anist ist Ca Carl rl Sa Saga gan n foresa" this con$ndr$#J +'$ropean scholars spent #ore than a
cent ce nt$r $r in en enti tire rel l er erro rone neo$ o$ss at atte te#p #pts ts to de deco code de 'g 'gp pti tian an hieroglphics before the discover of the Rosetta Stone 5F66D and the brilliant attack on its translation b Yo$ng and Cha#pollion! So#e ancient lang$ages, s$ch as the glphs of 'aster Island, the "ritings of the 0aas, and so#e varieties of Cretan script, re#ain co#pletel $ndecoded at the present ti#e ! ! ! ho" can "e expect that a civilisation vastl #ore advanced than "e, and based on entirel entire l differ different ent biological principles, principles, co$ld ever send a #essa #essage ge "e co$ld $nderstandK+ (r! L! )eorge La"rence "as clearl a"are of these facts before he began his pioneering efforts in biodna#ic ICO00! (r! La"rence proposed that certain advanced civilisations "o$ld have developed a #eans of co##$nication $tilising p$rel biological prin pr incip ciples les!! Th This is bi biol olog ogic ical al ex exch chan ange ge of in infor for#a #atio tion n ha hass be been en previo pre vio$sl $sl o$t o$tline lined d in par parts ts I and II of th this is ar artic ticle, le, "h "hic ich h al also so deta de tail il (r (r!! La La"r "ren ence ce4s 4s ex expe peri ri#e #ent ntss in bi biod odn na# a#ic ic tr tran ansf sfer er of infor#ation infor #ation!! (r! La"rence stated that these galactic c$lt$res #a have ha ve co co## ##$n $nica icate ted d b a #e #eth thod od no no" " lo lost st to o$ o$rr ci civil vilis isat atio ion n % eidetic communication % communication % "here the biodna#ic energ transfer acts as the carrier, and the patternate content is the #od$lation! This Th is pa patt tter erna nate te co cont nten entt is th thee ac act$a t$all ;;Deid eidofo ofor#, r#, or co# co#ple plete te eidetic pict$re! :hat #akes this #ethod s$perior to conventional radi ra dio o re rece cept ptio ion n is th thee fa fact ct th that at bi biod odn na# a#ic ic in info for# r#at atio ion n is trans#itted in a longit$dinal point-to-point fashion! One doesn4t have to "ait light ears for the reception of a #essage % it is near ne arl l in insta stant ntan aneo eo$s $s!! Th This is #a #a be lik liken ened ed to si si#p #ple le re re#o #ote te vie"ing, onl in this t his case it is device assisted % ens$ring #ini#al errors! )err >assilatos has done s$bstantial "ork in this field "hich he calls calls Device Device Assisted Remote Viewing % and "ith notable s$ccess! !etermining the Method of Transmission
(r!! La (r La"r "ren ence ce "a "ass not "i "ith tho$ o$tt hi hiss o" o"n n as ass$ s$# #pt ptio ions ns concer con cernin ning g the pos possibl siblee #e #etho thods ds of gala galacti cticc tra trans# ns#iss ission ion!! Of co$rse, "e have to begin so#e"here, and (r! La"rence, being a radio ra dio en engi gine neer er,, fo follo llo"e "ed d th thee si si#p #ple le pr prog ogre ress ssio ion n en entai taile led d in sending and receiving conventional radio co##$nications! This foll fo llo" o"ss th thee R$ R$ss ssia ian n th theo eori rist st Y! Y!I! I! 8$ 8$*n *net et*o *ov4 v4ss o$ o$tl tlin inee of th thee co## co ##$n $nica icati tion on pr proc oces esss vi via a th thee co conc ncep epts ts of co co## ##$n $nic icati ation on,, coding cod ing,, sig signal, nal, and #o #od$la d$latio tion! n! La" La"ren rence4s ce4s ver versio sion n "o$ "o$ld ld be deta taiile led d
th$slJ
Thecommunication /' /'iido dog gra#1
"o$ld
be
conv co nver erte ted d in into to a fo for# r# s$ s$it itab able le fo forr tr tran ans# s#is issi sion on /b /bio iod dna na#i #icc sign si gnal al1, 1, th thee co codi ding ng be bein ing g th thee #e #eth thod od of co conv nver ersi sion on,, an and d th thee #od$l #o d$lat atio ion n /p /pat atter terna nate te co cont nten ent1 t1 "o "o$ld $ld be th thee ch chan ange ge in the para#eter erss of th thee e#ission se"i "in ng as the car arrrie ierr of the /biodna#ic1 signal! =or reception, one "o$ld si#pl reverse this process! (r!! La (r La"r "ren ence ce ar arri rived ved at th thes esee co conc ncl$s l$sio ions ns ba base sed d on hi hiss &$alitative analsis of the so$nd e#itted fro# his experi#ental set$p! The #od$lations he heard displaed a character not $nlike other conventional conventional trans#ission trans#issions, s, "hich led hi# to "ork on their i##ediate conversion to vis$al i#ages! At the ver heart of (r! La"rence4s sste# "as a $ni&$e for# of biodna#ic transd$cer "hich enabled hi# to receive and trans#it signals of a biological origin! "ualitati#e to "uantitati#e Analysis$ Biosensor Technology and the Biodynamic Transducer 'arl in (r! La"rence4s career, he began "ork on a series of transd$cers of biodna#ic energ! In order to $tilise &$antitative #eas$r #ea s$ring ing ins instr$ tr$#en #ents, ts, bio biodn dna#i a#icc ene energ rg "o$ "o$ld ld nee need d to be converted or transd$ced into electrical energ! Initial experi#ents
co##en co# #enced ced "it "ith h si# si#ple ple :hea :heatsto tstone ne bri bridge dge cir circ$i c$its ts and plan plantt #aterial as the biosensor! Altho$gh the plant #aterial reacted to biodna#ic sti#$li s$ch as to$ch, and even directed tho$ght, this "as fo$nd to be $n"ield as the plant #aterial "as possessive of itss o" it o"n n co cons nsci cio$ o$sn snes ess! s! It co co$l $ld d ea easi sil l be beco co#e #e fa fati tig$ g$ed ed an and d stressed, or "o$ld si#pl see# $nconcerned "hen experi#ental #atters "ere cond$cted! (r! La"rence then began a sste#atic search of the organic se#icond$ctor librar for an ans"er! He fo$n fo $nd d th that at a si si#p #ple le #i #ixt xt$r $ree of pr prot otei ein n co co#p #ple lexe xes, s, a so sort rt of pri#eval so$p as it "ere, prod$ced re#arkable res$lts! $t, the proble# of t$ning to specific biodna#ic energies still existed! One needed to capt$re individ$al responses to partic$lar sti#$li in or orde derr to r$ r$le le o$ o$tt an an po poss ssib ibil ilit it of $n $n"an "ante ted d ar artif tifac act! t! Th This is necessitated the addition of special s$bstances to the so$p, to be $sed as "hat La"rence ter#ed the +excitation+ #ixt$re! These ranged ran ged fro fro# # org organo ano-#e -#eth thlgl lgloxo oxoll co# co#po po$nds $nds to a var variet iet of #ine #i nera rall co co#p #pos osit itio ions ns % ea each ch "i "ith th th their eir in indiv divid$ id$al al re resp spon onse se characteristics! 2o", the &$alitative reactions of this biological +so$p+ co$ld be directl transd$ced into a &$antitative electrical signal via the $se of high i#pedance a#plifiers, and "hen #ixed "ith a local oscillator, prod$ced the desired o$tp$t signal for analsis!
Pro%ect L&CA Bro@ect LCAS, na#ed after (r! L! )eorge La"rence, "as desi de sign gned ed "it "ith h th thee in inte tent ntio ion n of re re-c -cre reat atin ing g the these se bi biod odn na# a#ic ic interstellar co##$nications experi#ents! 0self and researcher 0ichael 'lse @o$rneed to the High (esert area of the 9osh$a Tree 2ational 0on$#ent for the re-creation! 0an #onths of preparation prepa ration preceded preceded the act$al exper experi#ents i#ents % the fabrication of biosensors and electronic e&$ip#ent, laborator testing, and experi#ent
rehearsal!
The
pro@ect
has
b e en
largel
$nf$nded, ;GDand the total cost of the present experi#ental set$p is $nder E5777!
:e began the experi#ent "ith a hori*on-to-hori*on scan of the sk to see if there "as an indication of biodna#ic signals pres pr esen ent! t! It "a "ass i# i##e #edi diat atel el dis disco cover vered ed th that at on onee of th thee ne ne"l "l constr con str$cte $cted d pie pieces ces of e&$ e&$ip# ip#ent ent,, the act act$al $al elec electro tronic nic sens sensing ing apparat$s, s$ffered fro# electro#agnetic interference, and had to be re#oved fro# the experi#ent! An older $nit "as " as inserted in its place pla ce and per perfor for#ed #ed to o$r exp expect ectatio ations ns "ith no int interf erfere erence nce proble#s! O$r initial targets "o$ld be t"o galaxies in the rsa 0a@or constellationJ 0<5 and 0<! These "ere chosen beca$se of all the searches cond$cted, (r! La"rence had the greatest s$ccess ther th ere! e! O$ O$rr ho hori ri*o *onn-to to-h -hor ori* i*on on sc scan anni ning ng co cont ntin in$e $ed d sl slo" o"l l to ens$re proper f$nctioning of the e&$ip#ent, and event$all "o$ld foc$s in on the target area! O$r first pass at 0<5 revealed nothing! I "as concerned that the older e&$ip#ent "asn4t sensitive eno$gh and I began t$ning knobs! 2othing happened! As "e settled into the ca#psite, "e decided to leave the telescope and biosensor foc$ fo c$se sed d in on th thee ta targ rget et ar area ea fo forr a" a"hi hile le!! I re re#e #e#b #ber ered ed (r (r!! La"r La "ren ence ce4s 4s no note tess re rega gard rdin ing g ho ho" " se seve vera rall "e "eek ekss "o "o$l $ld d go b "itho$t the detection of an signal, b$t I "as still beco#ing so#e"hat disco$raged and i#patient b the lack of reception of signals, and contin$ed to believe the e&$ip#ent #a be to bla#e! S$dde S$ ddenl nl, , b$ b$rs rsts ts of #o #od$l d$lat atio ion n po po$r $red ed o$ o$tt of the sp speak eaker ers! s! I i##ediatel checked the e&$ip#ent to #ake s$re there "asn4t a #alf$ #a lf$nc ncti tion on!! 've 'ver rth thing ing "a "ass in or order der!! Th Thee b$ b$rs rsts ts las laste ted d on onl l abo$ ab o$tt te ten n se seco conds nds,, an and d th then en as if no noth thin ing g ha had d ha happ ppen ened, ed, th thee e&$ip#ent ret$rned to the idle state! This "o$ld happen one #ore ti#e the entire evening! oth instances "ere capt$red to cassette tape for f$rther analsis! :e feel confident that this pro@ect confir#ed (r! La"rence find fi ndin ings gs!! Th Ther eree is no do do$b $btt th that at so so#e #e ki kind nd of bi biod odn na# a#ic ic signal ;?D "as "as received fro# the direction of the constellation rsa
0a@or! Ideall, a re#ote biodna#ic station "o$ld be set $p to #onitor this area on a contin$ing basis so #ore infor#ation co$ld be obtained and analsed! :e #a ret$rn to the proble# of interpretation of these signals at a later ti#e, b$t for no", the reception of biodna#ic infor#ation fro# space has once again been verified! Conclusion Hope Ho pef$ f$ll ll, , th ther eree "i "ill ll be eno no$g $gh h in inte terres estt an and d ti ti#e #e to cont co ntin$ in$ee in th this is ex expe peri ri#e #ent ntal al di dire recti ction on!! Th Thee ne need ed fo forr be bette tterr e&$i e& $ip# p#en ent, t, an and d co cons nsta tant nt #o #oni nito tori ring ng ar aree es esse sent ntia iall to s$ s$ch ch a pro@ect, b$t "itho$t proper f$nding, #a be delaed for several ears! Still, "e contin$e experi#entation on the transfer of biological infor#ation, and are no" "orking to"ard develop#ent of si si#p #ple le pr prac actic tical al ap appli plica cati tion onss of th this is te tech chno nolo log g!! :o :ork rkin ing g o$tsi o$ tside de of th thee ele elect ctro ro#a #agn gnet etic ic sp spec ectr tr$# $# in into to th thee do do#a #ain in of biological energies opens $p a vast ne" area of research far exceeding
the
sing$lar
e#plo#ent
of
interstellar
co##$nications! Technologies "hich co$ld arise fro# this p$rs$it are #anifold, and applications s$ch as point-to-point terrestrial co##$n co# #$nicat ication ions, s, and por portab table le bio biodn dna#i a#icc dete detecto ctors rs #a be a part of the near f$t$re!
References 5!
Galactic Life Unveiled - The Phenomenon of Biological ommunication Between Advanced Life in !pace !pace and "ts !u#liminal $ffects on Terrestrial Terrestrial %an,, b L! )eorge La"rence! orderlands, 566F! 2o" available in o$r %an standard xerographic for#atJ MN M N73 73<< <<,, &Galactic Life Unveiled& D D
!
+0et +0 etho hods ds and and Rec Recei eive verr for for iol iolog ogic ical al (at (ata a Tran Transp spor ort, t,++ L! )eo )eorg rgee La"rence! Abandoned patent, 56<5!
3!
+Interstellar Co##$nication,+ L! Co##$nication,+ L! )eorge La"rence, $lectronics La"rence, $lectronics 'orld , 2!Y!,
;!
+2e" +2e " :or :orlds lds Re Reve veale aled d b b Liv Living ing Tr Tran ansd sd$c $cer ers, s,++ L! L! )eo )eorg rgee La"rence, $lectrical La"rence, $lectrical Review, Review, London, 9$ne , 56F!
G!
+io + iolo logi gica call Sig Signa nals ls fro fro# # O$t O$ter er Sp Space ace,+ ,+ L! )e )eor orge ge La La"r "ren ence, ce, *uman *uman Dimensions,, H( Instit$te, $ffalo, !, S$##er, 56F3, pp! 5?-5
?!
+Cin +C ine# e#a a 777 777JJ The The $es $estt for for 'xtr 'xtrate aterr rres estr tria iall >ideo >ideo,+ ,+ L! L! )eor )eorge ge La"rence, $lectronics La"rence, $lectronics and Technolog+ Toda+ Toda+,, 0arch-April 566!
F!
+Interstellar Co##$nications Signals,+ L! Signals,+ L! )eorge La"rence, 'cola Instit$te $lletin NFP?A, Reprinted in ,ournal in ,ournal of Borderland Research, Research, >ol! 6, 2o! ; /9$l-A$g 56F31! M (ull-te)t
+Are :e Receiving iological Signals fro# O$ter SpaceK,+ L! )eorge La"rence, Popular La"rence, Popular $lectronics, $lectronics, April 5665! M (ull-te)t
6!
+The +T he Star Starlan land d )alac )alactic tic Tra Trans ns#i #iss ssio ion n Theat Theatre re,+ ,+ L! L! )eorg )eorgee La"re La"renc nce! e! np$blished!
57!
+iolo +i ologic gical al I#age I#age Tran Trans#i s#issi ssion, on,++ L! )eor )eorge ge La"re La"rence nce,, 56<6! 56<6!
np$blished! 55!
ontact with the !tars, !tars , Reinhard re$er, Oxford, S!=!, 56<! MhttpJPPa#*n!toP5p$RCQ httpJPPa#*n!toP5p$RCQ
5!
+Thee )alact +Th )alactic ic )a#bl )a#blee - S'TI S'TI Resea Research rchers ers ol oldl dl Co#b Co#b the Cos# Cos#os os for for Stellar Radio Stations,+ 0ichael 0echanic, Popular 0echanic, Popular ommunications, ommunications, 0arch, 566F!
53! %essages (rom the !tars, !tars, Ian Ridpath, Harper Ro", 56F
The !earch for Life on ther 'orlds, 'orlds , Captain (avid C! Hol#es, S2, anta#, 56?F! MhttpJPPa#*n!toP5$xF*s MhttpJPPa#*n!toP5$xF*s
5G! "s An+one ut There. , 9ack Stonele "ith A!T! :alton, :arner, 56F;! MhttpJPPa#*n!toP5$xg(F httpJPPa#*n!toP5$xg(F 5?! "ntelligent Life in the Universe Universe,, I!S! Shklovskii and Carl Sagan, (elta, 56?
5F!
'e are /ot Alone, Alone , :alter S$llivan, 0c)ra"-Hill, 56?;! MhttpJPPa#*n!toP5o0lpv
5
harge and (ield $ffects in Bios+stems Bios+stems,, b :!9! Aston, Abac$s Bress, T$rnbridge, 8 56<;, pp! ;65-;6
56! $lectroph+siological %ethods in in Biological Research, Research , b 9! $res, Acade#ic Bress, 2!Y!, 56?F! MhttpJPPa#*n!toP>#r2v> MhttpJPPa#*n!toP>#r2v> 7! rganic !emiconductors, !emiconductors , b =! )$t#ann and L!'! Lons, :ile, 2!Y!, 56?F! MhttpJPPa#*n!toP>#r90B MhttpJPPa#*n!toP>#r90B 5!! 5
+io + iose sens nsor ors+ s+ b C! C!R! R! Lo Lo"e "e,, Trends in Biotechnolog+, Biotechnolog+ , 'lsevier,
A#sterda#, J3, 56<;, pp! G6-?G! ! Biosensors0 (undamentals and Applications Applications,, b A!=!B! T$rner, Oxford niv! Bress, Oxford, 8, 56#rRr M httpJPPa#*n!toP>#rRr
