CULTURAL STUDIES, MULTICULTURALISM, AND MEDIA CULTURE By Douglas Kellner
Radio, television, fil, and t!e ot!er "rodu#ts of edia #ulture "rovide aterials out of $!i#! $e forge our very identities% our sense of self!ood% our notion of $!at it eans to &e ale or feale% our sense of #lass, of et!ni#ity and ra#e, of nationality, of se'uality% and of (us( and (t!e)( Media iages !el" s!a"e our vie$ of t!e $orld and our dee"est values* $!at $e #onsider good or &ad, "ositive or negative, negative, oral or evil) evil) Media stories stories "rovide "rovide t!e sy&ols, sy&ols, yt!s, and resour#es resour#es t!roug! $!i#! $e #onstitute a #oon #ulture and t!roug! t!e a""ro"riation of $!i#! $e insert ourselves into t!is #ulture) Media s"e#ta#les deonstrate $!o !as ! as "o$er and $!o is "o$erless, $!o is allo$ed to e'er#ise for#e and violen#e, and $!o is not) T!ey draati+e and legitiate t!e "o$er of t!e for#es t!at &e and s!o$ t!e "o$erless t!at t!ey ust stay in t!eir "la#es or &e o""ressed)
e are iersed fro #radle to grave in a edia and #onsuer so#iety and t!us it is i"ortant to learn !o$ to understand, inter"ret, and #riti#i+e its eanings and essages) T!e edia are a "rofound and often is"er#eived sour#e of #ultural "edagogy* T!ey #ontri&ute to edu#ating us !o$ to &e!ave and $!at to t!in-, feel, &elieve, fear, and desire .. and $!at not to) T!e edia are fors of "edagogy $!i#! tea#! us !o$ to &e en and $oen) T!ey s!o$ us !o$ to dress, loo- and #onsue% !o$ to rea#t to e&ers of different so#ial grou"s% !o$ to &e "o"ular and su##essful and !o$ to avoid failure% and !o$ to #onfor to t!e doinant syste of nors, values, "ra#ti#es, and insti institut tution ions) s) Conse/ Conse/uen uently tly,, t!e gainin gaining g of #riti# #riti#al al edia edia litera litera#y #y is an i"ort i"ortant ant resour resour#e #e for individuals and #iti+ens in learning !o$ to #o"e $it! a sedu#tive #ultural environent) Learning !o$ to read, #riti#i+e, and resist so#io.#ultural ani"ulation #an !el" e"o$er oneself in relation to doinant fors of edia and #ulture) It #an en!an#e individual sovereignty vis.a.vis edia #ulture and give "eo"le ore "o$er over t!eir #ultural environent)
In t!is essay, I $ill dis#uss t!e "otential #ontri&utions of a #ultural studies "ers"e#tive to edia #riti/ue and litera#y) In re#ent years, #ultural studies !as eerged as a set of a""roa#!es to t!e study of #ulture and so#iety) T!e "ro0e#t $as inaugurated &y t!e University of Biring!a Centre for Conte"orary Cultural Studies $!i#! develo"ed a variety of #riti#al et!ods for t!e analysis, inter"retation, and #riti#is of #ultural artifa#ts) i123 T!roug! a set of internal de&ates, and res"onding to so#ial struggles and oveents of t!e 2456s and t!e 2476s, t!e Biring!a grou" #ae to fo#us on t!e inter"lay of re"resentations and ideologies of #lass, gender, ra#e, et!ni#ity, and nationality in #ultural te'ts, in#luding edia #ulture) T!ey $ere aong t!e first to study t!e effe#ts of ne$s"a"ers, radio, television, fil, and ot!er "o"ular #ultural fors on audien#es) T!ey also
fo#used on !o$ various audien#es inter"reted and used edia #ulture differently, analy+ing t!e fa#tors t!at ade different audien#es res"ond in #ontrasting # ontrasting $ays to various edia te'ts)
T!roug! studies of yout! su&#ultures, Britis! #ultural studies deonstrated !o$ #ulture #ae to #onstitute distin#t fors of identity and grou" e&ers!i") 8or #ultural studies, edia #ulture "rovides t!e aterials for #onstru#ting vie$s of t!e $orld, &e!avior, and even identities) T!ose $!o un#riti#ally follo$ t!e di#tates of edia #ulture tend to (ainstrea( t!eselves, #onforing to t!e doinant fas!ion, values, and &e!avior) 9et #ultural studies is also interested in !o$ su&#ultural grou"s and individuals resist doinant fors of #ulture and identity, #reating t!eir o$n style and identities) T!ose $!o o&ey ruling dress and fas!ion #odes, &e!avior, and "oliti#al ideologies t!us "rodu#e t!eir identities $it!in ainstrea grou", as e&ers of s"e#ifi# so#ial grou"i grou"ings ngs :su#! :su#! as $!ite, $!ite, iddle iddle.#l .#lass ass #onser #onservat vative ive Aeri Aeri#an #ans;) s;)
Cultural studies insists t!at #ulture ust &e studied $it!in t!e so#ial relations and syste t!roug! $!i#! #ulture is "rodu#ed and #onsued, and t!at t!us study of #ulture is intiately &ound u" $it! t!e study of so#iety, "oliti#s, and e#onoi#s) Cultural studies s!o$s !o$ edia #ulture arti#ulates t!e doinant values, "oliti#al ideologies, and so#ial develo"ents and novelties of t!e era) era) It #on#ei #on#eives ves of U)S) U)S) #ultur #ulturee and so#iet so#iety y as a #ontes #ontested ted terrain terrain $it! $it! variou variouss grou"s grou"s and ideologies struggling for doinan#e :Kellner 244=;) Television, fil, usi#, and ot!er "o"ular #ultur #ultural al fors fors are t!us t!us often often li&era li&erall or #onser #onservat vative ive,, or o##asio o##asional nally ly e'"res e'"resss ore ore radi#a radi#all or o""ositional vie$s)
Cultural studies is valua&le &e#ause it "rovides soe tools t!at ena&le one to read and inter"ret one>s #ulture #riti#ally) It also su&verts distin#tions &et$een (!ig!( and (lo$( #ulture &y #onsidering a $ide #ontinuu of #ultural artifa#ts ranging fro novels to television and &y refusing to ere#t any s"e#ifi# #ultural !ierar#!ies or #anons)
Cultural studies allo$s us to e'aine and #riti#ally s#rutini+e t!e $!ole range of #ulture $it!out "rior "re0udi#es to$ard one or anot!er sort of #ultural te't, institution, or "ra#ti#e) It also o"ens t!e $ay to$ard ore differentiated "oliti#al, rat!er t!an aest!eti#, valuations of #ultural
artif artifa#ts a#ts in $!i#! $!i#! one atte" atte"ts ts to distin distingui guis! s! #riti# #riti#al al and o""osit o""osition ional al fro fro #onfor #onfori ist st and #onservative oents in a #ultural artifa#t) 8or instan#e, studies of ?olly$ood fil s!o$ !o$ -ey 2456s fils "rooted t!e vie$s of radi#als and t!e #ounter#ulture and !o$ fil in t!e 2476s $as a &attlegrou &attleground nd &et$een li&eral and #onservative #onservative "ositions% "ositions% late 2476s fils, !o$ever, !o$ever, tended tended to$ard to$ard #onservative "ositions t!at !el"ed ele#t Ronald Reagan as "resident :See Kellner and Ryan, 24@@;)
T!ere is an intrinsi#ally #riti#al and "oliti#al diension to t!e "ro0e#t of #ultural studies $!i#! distinguis!es it fro o&0e#tivist and a"oliti#al a#adei# a""roa#!es to t!e study of #ulture and so#iety) Britis! #ultural studies, for e'a"le, analy+ed #ulture !istori#ally in t!e #onte't of its so#ietal origins and effe#ts) It situated #ulture $it!in a t!eory of so#ial "rodu#tion and re"rodu#tion, s"e#ifying t!e $ays t!at #ultural fors served eit!er to furt!er so#ial doination or to ena&le "eo"le to resist and struggle against doination) It analy+ed so#iety as a !ierar#!i#al and antagonisti# set of so#ial relations #!ara#teri+ed &y t!e o""ression of su&ordinate #lass, gender, ra#e, et!ni#, and national national strata) strata) E"loying ras#i>s ras#i>s odel of !egeony !egeony and #ounter!ege #ounter!egeony, ony, it soug!t soug!t to anal analy+ y+ee (!eg (!ege eon oni# i#,( ,( or ruli ruling ng,, so#i so#ial al and and #ult #ultur ural al for# for#es es of doi doina nati tion on and and to see- see- (#ou (#ount nter er!e !ege geon oni# i#(( for# for#es es of resi resist stan an#e #e and and stru struggl ggle) e) T!e T!e "ro0 "ro0e#t e#t $as $as aie aied d at so#i so#ial al transforation and atte"ted to s"e#ify for#es of doination and resistan#e in order to aid t!e "ro#ess "ro#ess of "oliti#al "oliti#al struggle struggle and and ean#i"at ean#i"ation ion fro fro o""ress o""ression ion and and doinatio doination) n)
8or #ultur #ultural al studie studies, s, t!e #on#e"t #on#e"t of ideolo ideology gy is of #entral #entral i"ort i"ortan# an#e, e, for doina doinant nt ii ideologies serve to re"rodu#e so#ial relations of doination and su&ordination) 13 Ideologies of #lass, for instan#e, #ele&rate u""er #lass life and denigrate t!e $or-ing #lass) Ideologies of gender "roote "roote se'ist se'ist re"resenta re"resentations tions of $oen and ideologies ideologies of ra#e utili+e utili+e ra#ist ra#ist re"resenta re"resentations tions of "eo"le of of #olor and and various various inority inority grou"s) grou"s) Ideolog Ideologies ies a-e a-e ine/ualiti ine/ualities es and su&ordin su&ordination ation a""ear a""ear natural and 0ust, and t!us indu#e #onsent to relations of doination) Conte"orary so#ieties are stru#tured &y o""osing grou"s $!o !ave different "oliti#al ideologies :li&eral, #onservative, radi#al, et#); and #ultural studies s"e#ifies $!at, if any, ideologies are o"erative in a given #ultural artifa#t :$!i#! #ould involved, of #ourse, t!e s"e#ifi#ation of ideologi#al #ontradi#tions;) In t!e #ourse of t!is study, I $ill "rovide soe e'a"les of !o$ different ideologies are o"erative in edia #ultural te'ts and $ill a##ordingly "rovide e'a"les of ideologi#al analysis and #riti/ue)
Be#ause of its fo#us on re"resentations of ra#e, gender, and #lass, and its #riti/ue of ideol ideolog ogie iess t!at t!at "ro "root otee vari variou ouss for forss of o""r o""res essi sion on,, #ultu #ultura rall stud studie iess lends lends itse itself lf to a ulti#ultur ulti#ulturalist alist "rogra t!at deonstrat deonstrates es !o$ #ulture #ulture re"rodu#es re"rodu#es #ertain fors fors of ra#is, ra#is, se'is, and &iases against e&ers of su&ordinate #lasses, so#ial grou"s, or alternative life. styles) Multi#ulturalis affirs t!e $ort! of different ty"es of #ulture and #ultural grou"s, #laiing, for instan#e, t!at &la#-, Latino, Asian, Native Aeri#an, gay, and les&ian, and ot!er o""r o""res esse sed d and and arg argin inal al voi# voi#es es !ave !ave t!ei t!eirr o$n o$n vali validi dity ty and and i"o i"ort rtan an#e #e)) An insu insurg rgent ent ulti#ulturalis atte"ts to s!o$ !o$ various "eo"le>s voi#es and e'"erien#es are silen#ed and oitte oitted d fro fro ainst ainstrea rea #ultur #ulturee and struggl struggles es to aid in t!e arti#u arti#ulat lation ion of divers diversee vie$s, vie$s,
e'"erien#es, and #ultural fors, fro grou"s e'#luded fro t!e ainstrea) T!is a-es it a target of #onservative for#es $!o $is! to "reserve t!e e'isting #anons of $!ite ale, Euro. #entri# #entri# "rivilege "rivilege and t!us atta#- ulti#ulturali ulti#ulturalis s in #ultural #ultural $ars raging fro t!e 2456s to t!e "resent over edu#ation, t!e arts, and t!e liits of free e'"ression)
Cultural studies t!us "rootes a ulti#ulturalist "oliti#s and edia "edagogy t!at ais to a-e "eo"le sensitive to !o$ relations of "o$er and doination are (en#oded( in #ultural te'ts, su#! as t!ose of television or fil) But it also s"e#ifies !o$ "eo"le #an resist t!e doinant en#oded eanings and "rodu#e t!eir o$n #riti#al and alternative readings) Cultural studies #an s!o$ !o$ edia #ulture ani"ulates and indo#trinates us, and t!us #an e"o$er individuals to resist t!e doinant eanings in edia #ultural "rodu#ts and to "rodu#e t!eir o$n eanings) It #an also "oint to oents of resistan#e and #riti#is $it!in edia #ulture and t!us !el" "roote develo"ent of ore #riti#al #ons#iousness)
A #riti#al #ultural studies .. e&odied in any of t!e arti#les #olle#ted in t!is reader .. t!us develo"s #on#e"ts and analyses t!at $ill ena&le readers to analyti#ally disse#t t!e artifa#ts of #onte"orary edia #ulture and to gain "o$er over t!eir #ultural environent) By e'"osing t!e entire field of #ulture to -no$ledgea&le s#rutiny, #ultural studies "rovides a &road, #o"re!ensive frae$or- to underta-e studies of #ulture, "oliti#s, and so#iety for t!e "ur"oses of individual e"o$erent and so#ial and "oliti#al struggle and transforation) In t!e follo$ing "ages, I $ill t!erefore indi#ate soe of t!e #!ief #o"onents of t!e ty"e of #ultural studies t!at I find ost useful)
Co"onents of a Criti#al Cultural Studies
At its strongest, #ultural studies #ontains a t!ree.fold "ro0e#t of analy+ing t!e "rodu#tion and "oliti#al "oliti#al e#onoy of #ulture, #ulture, #ultural #ultural te'ts, te'ts, and t!e audien#e audien#e re#e"tion re#e"tion of t!ose te'ts and t!eir effe#ts) T!is #o"re!ensive a""roa#! avoids too narro$ly fo#using on one diension of t!e "ro0e#t to t!e e'#lusion of ot!ers) To avoid su#! liitations, I $ould t!us "ro"ose a ulti."ers"e#tival a""roa#! t!at :a; dis#usses "rodu#tion and "oliti#al e#onoy, :&; engages in te'tual analysis, and :#; studies t!e re#e"tion and use of #ultural te'ts)iii13
Be#ause it !as &een negle#ted in any odes of re#ent #ultural studies, it is i"ortant to stress t!e i"ortan#e of analy+ing #ultural te'ts $it!in t!eir syste of "rodu#tion and distri&ution, often referred referred to as t!e "oliti#al "oliti#al e#onoy of #ulture) #ulture)iv13 Inserting te'ts into t!e syste of #ulture $it!in $!i#! t!ey are "rodu#ed and distri&uted #an !el" elu#idate features and effe#ts of t!e te'ts t!at te'tual analysis alone ig!t iss or do$n"lay) Rat!er t!an &eing antit!eti#al a""roa#!es to #ulture, "oliti#al e#onoy #an a#tually #ontri&ute to te'tual analysis and #riti/ue) T!e syste of "rodu#tion "rodu#tion often often deterines deterines $!at $!at sort of artifa artifa#ts #ts $ill $ill &e "rodu#ed, "rodu#ed, $!at stru#tu stru#tural ral liits liits t!ere t!ere $ill &e as to $!at #an and #annot &e said and s!o$n, s!o$n, and $!at sort of audien#e audien#e effe#ts effe#ts t!e te't ay generate)
Study of t!e #odes of television, fil, or "o"ular usi#, for instan#e, is en!an#ed &y studying t!e forulas and #onventions of "rodu#tion) T!ese #ultural fors are stru#tured &y $ell. defined rules and #onventions, and t!e study of t!e "rodu#tion of #ulture #an !el" elu#idate t!e #odes a#tually in "lay) Be#ause of t!e deands of t!e forat of radio or usi# television, for instan#e, ost "o"ular songs are t!ree to five inutes, fitting into t!e forat of t!e distri&ution syste) Be#ause of t!eir #ontrol &y giant #or"orations oriented "riarily to$ard "rofit, fil and television "rodu#tion in t!e U)S) is doinated &y s"e#ifi# genres su#! as tal- and gae s!o$s, soa" o"eras, situation #oedies, a#tionadventure series, reality TF, and so on) T!is e#onoi# fa#tor e'"lains $!y t!ere are #y#les of #ertain genres and su&genres, se/uelania in t!e fil industry, #rossovers of "o"ular fils into television series, and a #ertain !oogeneity in "rodu#ts #onstituted $it!in systes of "rodu#tion ar-ed &y rigid generi# #odes, forulai# #onventions, and $ell. defined ideologi#al &oundaries)
Li-e$ise, study of "oliti#al e#onoy #an !el" deterine t!e liits and range of "oliti#al and ideologi#al dis#ourses and effe#ts) My study of television in t!e United States, for instan#e, dis#lo dis#losed sed t!at t!at ta-eov ta-eover er of t!e televi televisio sion n net$or net$or-s -s &y a0or a0or trans transnat nation ional al #or"or #or"orati ations ons and #ouni#ations #ongloerates $as "art of a (rig!t turn( $it!in U)S) so#iety in t!e 24@6s $!ere&y "o$erful "o$erful #or"orate #or"orate grou"s $on #ontrol #ontrol of t!e state and t!e ainstrea ainstrea edia :Kellner :Kellner,, 2446;) 8or e'a"le, during t!e 24@6s all t!ree net$or-s $ere ta-en over &y a0or #or"orate #ongloerates* ABC $as ta-en over in 24@= &y Ca"ital Cities, NBC $as ta-en over &y E, and CBS $as ta-en over over &y t!e Tis#! Tis#! 8inan#i 8inan#ial al rou") rou") Bot! ABC ABC and NBC soug!t soug!t #or"or #or"orate ate erger ergerss and t!is t!is otivation, along $it! ot!er &enefits derived fro Reaganis, ig!t $ell !ave influen#ed t!e to do$n"l do$n"lay ay #riti# #riti#is iss s of Reagan Reagan and to genera generally lly su""or su""ortt !is #onser #onservat vative ive "rogra "rogras s,, ilita ilitary ry adventures, and siulated "residen#y)
Cor"orate #ongloerati+ation !as intensified furt!er and today AGL and Tie arner, Disney, and ot!er glo&al edia #ongloerates #ontrol ever ore doains of t!e "rodu#tion and distri&ution of #ulture :M#C!esney 666;) In t!is glo&al #onte't, one #annot really analy+e t!e role of t!e edia in t!e ulf $ar, for instan#e, $it!out analy+ing t!e "rodu#tion and "oliti#al e#onoy of ne$s and inforation, as $ell as t!e a#tual te't of t!e ulf $ar and its re#e"tion &y its audien#e
:see Kellner, 244;) Li-e$ise, t!e o$ners!i" &y #onservative #or"orations of doinant edia #or"orations !el"s e'"lain ainstrea edia su""ort of t!e Bus! adinistration and t!eir "oli#ies, su#! as t!e $ar in Afg!anistan Afg!anistan :Kellner 662;)
Loo-ing to$ard entertainent, one #annot fully gras" t!e Madonna "!enoenon $it!out analy+ing !er ar-eting strategies, !er "oliti#al environent, !er #ultural artifa#ts, and t!eir effe#ts :Kellner, 244=;) In a siilar fas!ion, younger feale "o" usi# stars and grou"s su#! as Maria! Carey, Britney S"ears, Hennifer Lo"e+, or N �Syn# also de"loy t!e tools of t!e glaour industry and edia s"e#ta#le to a-e #ertain stars i#ons of fas!ion, &eauty, style, and se'uality, as $ell as "urveyors "urveyors of usi#) usi#) And in in a""raising a""raising t!e full full so#ial so#ial i"a#t i"a#t of "ornogra "ornogra"!y "!y,, one needs needs to &e a$are a$are of t!e se' industry and t!e "rodu#tion "ro#ess of, say, "ornogra"!i# fils, and not 0ust d$ell on t!e te'ts t!eselves and t!eir effe#ts on audien#es)
8urt!reore, in an era of glo&ali+ation, one ust &e a$are of t!e glo&al net$or-s t!at "rodu#e "rodu#e and distri&ut distri&utee #ultural #ultural in t!e interests interests of "rofit "rofit and #or"orate #or"orate !egeony) !egeony) 9et "oliti#al "oliti#al e#onoy alone does not !old t!e -ey to #ultural studies and i"ortant as it is, it !as liitations as a single a""roa#!) Soe "oliti#al e#onoy analyses redu#e t!e eanings and effe#ts of te'ts to rat!er #ir#us#ri&ed and redu#tive ideologi#al fun#tions, arguing t!at edia #ulture erely refle#ts t!e ideology of t!e ruling e#onoi# elite t!at #ontrols t!e #ulture industries and is not!ing ore t!an a ve!i#le for #a"italist ideology) It is true t!at edia #ulture over$!elingly su""orts #a"italist values, &ut it is also a site of intense struggle &et$een different ra#es, #lasses, gender, and so#ial grou"s) T!us, in order to fully gras" t!e nature and effe#ts of edia #ulture, one needs to develo" et!ods to analy+e t!e full range of its eanings and effe#ts)
Te'tual Analysis
T!e "rodu#ts of edia #ulture re/uire ultidiensional #lose te'tual readings to analy+e t!eir various fors of dis#ourses, ideologi#al "ositions, narrative strategies, iage #onstru#tion, and effe#ts) T!ere !ave &een a $ide range of ty"es of te'tual #riti#is of edia #ulture, ranging fro /uantitative #ontent analysis t!at disse#ts t!e nu&er of, say, e"isodes of violen#e in a te't, to /ualitative study t!at e'aines iages of $oen, &la#-s, or ot!er grou"s, or t!at a""lies various #riti#al t!eories to un"a#- t!e eanings of t!e te'ts or to e'"li#ate !o$ te'ts fun#tion to "rodu#e eaning) eaning) Traditiona Traditionally lly,, t!e /ualitati /ualitative ve analysis analysis of te'ts te'ts !as &een t!e tas- of formalist literary #riti#is, $!i#! e'"li#ates t!e #entral eanings, values, sy&ols, and ideologies in #ultural artifa#ts &y attending attending to t!e foral foral "ro"erties "ro"erties of iaginative iaginative literatur literaturee te'ts te'ts �. su#! as style, ver&al iagery, #!ara#teri+ation, narrative stru#ture and "oint of vie$, and ot!er foral eleents of t!e artifa#t) 8ro t!e 2456s on, !o$ever, literary.foralist te'tual analysis !as &een en!an#ed &y et!ods et!ods derived fro semiotics , a syste for investigating t!e #reation of eaning not only in
$ritten $ritten languages &ut also in ot!er, nonver&al nonver&al #odes, su#! as t!e visual and auditory auditory languages of fil and TF)
Seioti#s Seioti#s analy+es !o$ linguisti# linguisti# and nonlinguis nonlinguisti# ti# #ultural �signs� for systes of eanings, as $!en giving soeone a rose is inter"reted as a sign of love, or getting an A on a #ollege "a"er is a sign of astery of t!e rules of t!e s"e#ifi# assignent) Seioti# analysis #an &e criticism :t!e study of #onventions #onne#ted $it! genre criticism #onventions governing governing esta&lis! esta&lis!ed ed ty"es of #ultural #ultural fors, su#! as soa" o"eras; to reveal !o$ t!e #odes and fors of "arti#ular genres follo$ #ertain eanings) eanings) Situation Situation #oedies, #oedies, for instan#e, instan#e, #lassi#al #lassi#ally ly follo$ follo$ a #onfli#tr #onfli#tresolut esolution ion odel t!at deonstrates !o$ to solve #ertain so#ial "ro&les &y #orre#t a#tions and values, and t!us "rovide orality tales of "ro"er and i"ro"er &e!avior) Soa" o"eras, &y #ontrast, "roliferate "ro&les and "rovide "rovide essages essages #on#erning #on#erning t!e enduran#e enduran#e and suffering suffering needed to get t!roug! t!roug! life�s endless iseries, $!ile generating "ositive and negative odels of so#ial &e!avior) And advertising s!o$s !o$ #oodity solutions solve "ro&les of "o"ularity "o "ularity,, a##e"tan#e, su##ess, and t!e li-e)
A seioti# and genre analysis of t!e fil Ra&o :24@; for instan#e, $ould s!o$ !o$ it follo$s t!e #onventions of t!e ?olly$ood genre of t!e $ar fil t!at draati+es #onfli#ts &et$een t!e U)S) and its (eneies( :see Kellner 244=;) Seioti#s des#ri&es !o$ t!e iages of t!e villains are #onstru#ted a##ording to t!e #odes of orld ar II ovies and !o$ t!e resolution of t!e #onfli#t and !a""y ending follo$s t!e traditional ?olly$ood #lassi#al #inea $!i#! "ortrays t!e vi#tory of good over evil) Seioti# analysis $ould also in#lude study of t!e stri#tly #ineati# and foral eleents of a fil li-e Ra&o, disse#ting t!e $ays t!at #aera angles "resent Ra&o as a god, or slo$ otion iages of !i gliding t!roug! t!e 0ungle #ode !i as a for#e of nature) Seioti# analysis of 662 fil Fanilla S-y #ould engage !o$ Caeron Cro$e�s fil "resents a rea-e of a 2447 S"anis! fil, and !o$ t!e use of #ele&rity stars To Cruise and
T!e te'tual analysis of #ultural studies t!us #o&ines foralist analysis $it! #riti/ue of !o$ #ultural eanings #onvey s"e#ifi# ideologies of gender, ra#e, #lass, se'uality, nation, and ot!er ideologi#al ideologi#al diensions diensions)) Ideological textual analysis s!ould de"loy a $ide range of et!ods to fully e'"li#ate ea#! diension and to s!o$ !o$ t!ey fit into te'tual systes) Ea#! #riti#al et!od fo#uses on #ertain features of a te't fro a s"e#ifi# "ers"e#tive* t!e "ers"e#tive s"otlig!ts, or illuinates, soe features of a te't $!ile ignoring ot!ers) Mar'ist et!ods tend to fo#us on #lass, for instan#e, $!ile feinist a""roa#!es $ill !ig!lig!t gender, #riti#al ra#e t!eory s"otlig!ts ra#e and et!ni#ity, and gay and les&ian t!eories e'"li#ate se'uality)
Farious rious #riti# #riti#al al et!od et!odss !ave !ave t!eir t!eir o$n strengt strengt!s !s and liita liitati tions, ons, t!eir t!eir o"ti#s o"ti#s and &linds"ots &linds"ots)) Traditi Traditionally onally,, Mar'ian Mar'ian ideology ideology #riti/ues #riti/ues !ave &een strong strong on #lass and !istori#al !istori#al #onte'tuali+ation and $ea- on foral analysis, $!ile soe versions are !ig!ly �redu#tionist,� redu#ing redu#ing te'tual te'tual analysis analysis to denun#iati denun#iation on of ruling ruling #lass #lass ideology ideology)) 8einis e'#els in gender analysis and in soe versions is forally so"!isti#ated, dra$ing on su#! et!ods as "sy#!oanalysis and seioti#s, alt!oug! soe versions are redu#tive and early feinis often liited itself to analysis of iages of gender) Psychoanalysis in turn #alls for t!e inter"retation of un#ons#ious #ontents and eaning, $!i#! #an arti#ulate latent eanings in a te't, as $!en Alfred ?it#!#o#- �s drea se/uen#es "ro0e#t #ineati# sy&ols t!at illuinate !is #!ara#ters� dileas, or $!en t!e iage iage of t!e feale feale #!ara# #!ara#ter ter in Bonnie Bonnie and Clyde Clyde :2457; :2457; fraed fraed agains againstt t!e &ar of !er &ed suggests !er se'ual frustration, i"risonent in iddle #lass faily life, and need for revolt)
Gf #ourse, #ourse, ea#! ea#! readin reading g of a te't te't is only one "ossi&le "ossi&le reading reading fro fro one #riti#>s #riti#>s subject position , no atter !o$ ulti"ers"e#tival, and ay or ay not &e t!e reading "referred &y audien#es :$!i#! t!eselves $ill &e signifi#antly different a##ording to t!eir #lass, ra#e, gender, et!ni#ity et!ni#ity,, ideologies, ideologies, and so on;) Be#ause Be#ause t!ere t!ere is a s"lit s"lit &et$een &et$een textual encoding and audience decoding, t!ere is al$ays t!e "ossi&ility of a ulti"li#ity of readings of any te't of edia #ulture :?all, :?all, 24@6&;) T!ere T!ere are liits liits to t!e o"enness o"enness or polysemic nature of any te't, of #ourse, and te'tual analysis #an e'"li#ate t!e "araeters of "ossi&le readings and delineate "ers"e#tives t!at ai at illuinating t!e te't and its #ultural and ideologi#al effe#ts) Su#! analysis also "rovides t!e aterials for #riti#i+ing isreadings, or readings t!at are one.sided and in#o"lete) 9et to furt!er #arry t!roug! a #ultural studies analysis, one ust also e'aine !o$ diverse audien#es a#tually read edia te'ts, and atte"t to deterine $!at effe#ts t!ey !ave on audien#e t!oug!t and &e!avior)
Audience Reception and Use of Media Culture All te'ts te'ts are su&0e# su&0e#tt to ulti" ulti"le le readin readings gs de"end de"ending ing on t!e "ers"e "ers"e#ti #tives ves and su&0e# su&0e#tt "ositions "ositions of t!e reader) reader) Me&ers Me&ers of distin#t distin#t genders, genders, #lasses, #lasses, ra#es, ra#es, nations, nations, regions, regions, se'ual "referen#es "referen#es,, and "oliti#al "oliti#al ideologies ideologies are going to read te'ts different differently ly,, and #ultural #ultural studies studies #an illuinate $!y diverse audien#es inter"ret te'ts in various, soeties #onfli#ting, $ays) It is indeed one of t!e erits of #ultural studies to !ave fo#used on audien#e re#e"tion in re#ent years and t!is fo#us "rovides one of its a0or #ontri&utions, t!oug! t!ere are also soe liitations and "ro&les $it! t!e standard #ultural studies a""roa#!es to t!e audien#e)v1=3
A standa standard rd $ay to dis# dis#ov over er !o$ !o$ audi audien en#e #ess read read te't te'tss is to enga engage ge in ethnographic research, in an atte" atte"tt to deter deterine ine !o$ te'ts te'ts effe# effe#tt audien#e audien#ess and s!a"e s!a"e t!eir t!eir &elief &eliefss and &e!avior) &e!avior) Ent!nogra"!i Ent!nogra"!i## #ultural #ultural studies studies !ave !ave indi#ated indi#ated soe of of t!e various various $ays $ays t!at audien#es audien#es use use and a""ro"riate te'ts, often to e"o$er t!eselves) Rad$ay>s study of $oen>s use of ?arle/uin novels :24@;, for e'a"le, s!o$s !o$ t!ese &oo-s "rovide es#a"is for $oen and #ould &e understood as re"rodu#ing traditional $oen>s roles, &e!avior, and attitudes) 9et, t!ey #an also e"o$er $oen &y "rooting fantasies of a different life and ay t!us ins"ire revolt against ale doination) Gr, t!ey ay enfor#e, in ot!er audien#es, feale su&ission to ale doination and tra" $oen in ideologies of roan#e, in $!i#! su&ission to
Media #ulture "rovides aterials for individuals to #reate identities and eanings and #ultural studies dete#ts uses of #ultural fors) Teenagers use video gaes and usi# television as an es#a"e fro t!e deands of a dis#i"linary so#iety) Males use s"orts as a terrain of fantasy identifi#ation, in $!i#! t!ey feel e"o$ered as (t!eir( tea or star triu"!s) Su#! s"orts events also generate a for of #ounity, #urrently &eing lost in t!e "rivati+ed edia and #onsuer #ulture of our tie) Indeed, Indeed, fandos fandos of all sorts, sorts, ranging ranging fro Star TreTre- fans :(Tre--ie :(Tre--ies(; s(; to devotees devotees of Buffy Buffy t!e Fa"ire Fa"ire Slayer, or various soa" o"eras, also for #ounities t!at ena&le "eo"le to relate to ot!ers $!o s!are t!eir interests and !o&&ies) Soe fans, in fa#t, a#tively re#reate t!eir favorite #ultural fors, su#! as re$riting t!e s#ri"ts of "referred s!o$s, soeties in t!e fors of slas! $!i#! redefine #!ara#ters� se'uality, or in t!e fors of usi# "oa#!ing or rea-ing su#! as �fil-ing� :see e'a"les in Le$is 244 and Hen-ins 244;)
T!is e"!asis on audien#e re#e"tion and a""ro"riation !el"s #ultural studies over#oe t!e "revious "revious one.sided one.sided te'tualis te'tualistt orientati orientations ons to #ulture) #ulture) It also dire#ts dire#ts fo#us on t!e a#tual a#tual "oliti#al "oliti#al effe#ts t!at te'ts !ave and !o$ audien#es use te'ts) In fa#t, soeties audien#es su&vert t!e intentions of t!e "rodu#ers or anagers of t!e #ultural industries t!at su""ly t!e, as $!en astute young edia users laug! at o&vious atte"ts to !y"e #ertain #!ara#ters, s!o$s, or "rodu#ts :see de Certeau, 24@ for ore e'a"les of audien#es #onstru#ting eaning and engaging in "ra#ti#es in #riti#al and su&versive $ays;) Audien#e resear#! #an reveal !o$ "eo"le are a#tually using #ultural te'ts te'ts and $!at $!at sort sort of effe# effe#ts ts t!ey are !aving !aving on everyd everyday ay life) life) Co&in Co&ining ing /uanti /uantitat tative ive and /ualitative resear#!, ne$ re#e"tion studies, in#luding soe of t!e essays in t!is reader, are "roviding i"ortant #ontri&utions into !o$ audien#es a#tually intera#t $it! #ultural te'ts :see t!e studies in Le$is 244 and Ang 2445, and Lee and C!o and '' in t!is te't for furt!er ela&oration of de#oding and audien#e re#e"tion;)
9et t!ere are several "ro&les t!at I see $it! re#e"tion studies as t!ey !ave &een #onstituted $it!in #ultural studies, "arti#ularly in t!e U)S) 8irst, t!ere is a danger t!at #lass $ill &e do$n"layed as a signifi#ant varia&le t!at stru#tures audien#e de#oding and use of #ultural te'ts) Cultural studies in England $ere "arti#ularly sensitive to #lass differen#es .. as $ell as su&#ultural differen#es .. in
t!e use and re#e"tion of #ultural te'ts, &ut I !ave noted any dissertations, &oo-s, and arti#les in #ultural studies in t!e U)S) $!ere attention to #lass !as &een do$n"layed or is issing altoget!er) T!is is not sur"rising as a negle#t of #lass as a #onstitutive feature of #ulture and so#iety is an endei# defi#ien#y in t!e Aeri#an a#adey in ost dis#i"lines)
T!ere is also t!e reverse danger, !o$ever, of e'aggerating t!e #onstitutive for#e of #lass, and do$n"laying, or ignoring, su#! ot!er varia&les as gender or et!ni#ity) Staiger :244; notes t!at 8is-e, 8is-e, &uildi &uilding ng on ?artle ?artley y, lists lists seven seven (su&0e (su&0e#ti #tivity vity "ositi "ositions ons(( t!at t!at are i"ort i"ortant ant in #ultur #ultural al re#e"tion, (self, gender, age.grou", faily, #lass, nation, et!ni#ity,( and "ro"oses adding se'ual orientation) All of t!ese fa#tors, and no dou&t ore, intera#t in s!a"ing !o$ audien#es re#eive and use te'ts and ust &e ta-en into a##ount in studying #ultural re#e"tion, for audien#es de#ode and use te'ts a##ording to t!e s"e#ifi# #onstituents of t!eir #lass, ra#e or et!ni#ity, gender, se'ual "referen#es "referen#es and so on)
8urt!erore, I $ould $arn against a tenden#y to roanti#i+e t!e �a#tive audien#e,� &y #laiing #laiing t!at all audien#es audien#es "rodu#e t!eir o$n eanings eanings and denying denying t!at edia #ulture ay !ave "o$erful "o$erful ani"ulati ani"ulative ve effe#ts) effe#ts) T!ere T!ere is a tenden#y $it!in $it!in t!e #ultural #ultural studies studies tradition tradition of re#e"tion re#e"tion resear#! to di#!otoi+e &et$een doinant and o""ositional readings :?all, 24@6&, a di#!otoy $!i#! $!i#! stru#t stru#ture uress u#! u#! of 8is-e> 8is-e>ss $or-;) $or-;) (Doin (Doinant ant(( readin readings gs are t!ose t!ose in $!i#! $!i#! audien audien#es #es a""ro"riate te'ts in line $it! t!e interests of t!e doinant #ulture and t!e ideologi#al intentions of a te't, as $!en audien#es feel "leasure in t!e restoration of ale "o$er, la$ and order, and so#ial sta&ility at t!e end of a fil li-e Die ?ard, after t!e !ero and re"resentatives of aut!ority eliinate t!e terrorists $!o !ad ta-en over a !ig!.rise #or"orate !ead/uarters) An (o""ositional( reading, &y #ontrast, #ele&rates t!e resistan#e to t!is reading in audien#e a""ro"riation of a te't% for e'a"le, 8is-e :244; o&serves resistan#e to doinant readings $!en !oeless individuals in a s!elter #!eered t!e destru#tion of "oli#e and aut!ority figures, during re"eated vie$ings of a video.ta"e of Die ?ard)
Alt!oug! t!is #an &e a useful distin#tion, t!ere is a tenden#y in #ultural studies to #ele&rate resistan#e "er se $it!out distinguis!ing &et$een ty"es and fors of resistan#e :a siilar "ro&le resides resides $it! indis#riinat indis#riinatee #ele&ration #ele&ration of audien#e audien#e "leasure "leasure in #ertain #ertain re#e"tion re#e"tion studies;) studies;) 8or e'a"le, e'a"le, resistan#e resistan#e to so#ial aut!ority aut!ority &y t!e !oeless !oeless eviden#ed in t!eir vie$ing vie$ing of Die ?ard #ould serve to strengt!en &rutal as#ulist &e!avior and en#ourage anifestations of "!ysi#al violen#e to solve so#ial "ro&les) Hean.
&ut diffi#ult diffi#ult dis#riinatio dis#riinations ns ust &e ade as to $!et!er $!et!er t!e resistan# resistan#e, e, o""osition o""ositional al reading, reading, or "leasure "leasure in in a given given e'"erie e'"erien#e n#e is "rogressi "rogressive ve or rea#tionary rea#tionary,, ean#i"a ean#i"atory tory or destru#t destru#tive) ive)
T!us, $!ile e"!asis on t!e audien#e and re#e"tion $as an e'#ellent #orre#tion to t!e one. side sidedn dnes esss of "ure "urely ly te't te'tua uall analy analysi sis, s, I &eli &eliev evee t!at t!at in re#e re#ent nt year yearss #ult #ultur ural al studi studies es !as !as overe"!asi+ed re#e"tion and te'tual analysis, $!ile undere"!asi+ing t!e "rodu#tion of #ulture and its "oliti#al e#onoy) T!is ty"e of #ultural studies fetis!i+es audien#e re#e"tion studies and negle#ts &ot! "rodu#tion and te'tual analysis, t!us "rodu#ing "o"ulist #ele&rations of t!e te't and audien#e "leasure in its use of #ultural artifa#ts) T!is a""roa#!, ta-en to an e'tree, $ould lose its #riti#al "ers"e#tive and $ould lead to a "ositive gloss on audien#e e'"erien#e of $!atever is &eing studied) Su#! studies also ig!t lose sig!t of t!e ani"ulative and #onservative effe#ts of #ertain ty"es of edia #ulture and t!us serve t!e interests of t!e #ultural industries as t!ey are "resently #onstituted)
A ne$ $ay, in fa#t, to resear#! edia effe#ts is to use t!e data &ases $!i#! #olle#t edia te'ts su#! as Dialogue or Ne'isLe'is and to tra#e t!e effe#ts of edia artifa#ts li-e T!e .8iles, Buffy, t!e Fa"ire Slayer, or advertising #or"orations li-e Ni-e and M#Donalds, t!roug! analysis of referen#es to t!e in t!e edia) Li-e$ise, t!ere is a ne$ terrain of Internet audien#e resear#! $!i#! studies !o$ fans a#t in #!at roos devoted to t!eir favorite artifa#ts of edia #ulture, #reate t!eir o$n fansites, or #onstru#t artifa#ts t!at dis#lose !o$ t!ey are living out t!e fantasies and s#ri"ts of t!e #ulture industries)
To$ard To$ard a Cultural Studies t!at is Criti#al, Multi#ultural, and Multi"ers"e#tival
To avoid t!e one.si one.sided dednes nesss of te'tua te'tuall analys analysis is a""roa a""roa#!es #!es,, or audien# audien#ee and re#e"t re#e"tion ion studie studies, s, I "ro"os "ro"osee t!at t!at #ultur #ultural al studi studies es itself itself &e ulti" ulti"ers ers"e#t "e#tiva ival, l, gettin getting g at #ultur #ulturee fro fro t!e "ers"e#tiv "ers"e#tives es of "oliti#al "oliti#al e#onoy, e#onoy, te't analysis, analysis, and audien#e audien#e re#e"tion, re#e"tion, as outlined a&ove) a&ove) Te'tual Te'tual analysis s!ould utili+e a ulti"li#ity of "ers"e#tives and #riti#al et!ods, and audien#e re#e"tion studie studiess s!ould s!ould deline delineate ate t!e $ide $ide range range of su&0e# su&0e#tt "ositi "ositions ons,, or "ers"e "ers"e#ti #tives ves,, t!roug t!roug! ! $!i#! $!i#!
audien#es a""ro"riate #ulture) T!is re/uires a ulti#ultural a""roa#! t!at sees t!e i"ortan#e of analy+ing t!e diensions of #lass, ra#e and et!ni#ity, and gender and se'ual "referen#e $it!in t!e te'ts of edia #ulture, $!ile studying as $ell t!eir i"a#t on !o$ audien#es read and inter"ret edia #ulture)
In addition, a #riti#al #ultural studies atta#-s se'is, ra#is, or &ias against s"e#ifi# so#ial grou"s :i)e) gays, intelle#tuals, and so on;, and #riti#i+es te'ts t!at "roote any -ind of doination or o""ression) As an e'a"le of !o$ #onsiderations of "rodu#tion, te'tual analysis, and audien#e readings #an fruitfully interse#t in #ultural studies, let us refle#t on t!e Madonna "!enoenon) Madonna first a""eared in t!e oent of Reaganis and e&odied t!e aterialisti# and #onsuer. oriented et!os of t!e 24@6s :(Material irl(;) S!e also a""eared in a tie of draati# iage "roliferat "roliferation, ion, asso#ia asso#iated ted $it! $it! MTF, MTF, fas!i fas!ion on fever, fever, and intense intense ar-eti ar-eting ng of "rodu#ts) "rodu#ts) Madonna Madonna $as $as one of t!e first MTF usi# video su"erstars $!o #ons#iously #rafted iages to attra#t a ass audien#e) ?er early usi# videos $ere aied at teen.age girls :t!e Madonna $anna.&e�s;, &ut s!e soon in#or"orated &la#-, ?is"ani#, and inority audien#es $it! !er iages of interra#ial se' and ulti#ultural (faily( in !er #on#erts) S!e also a""ealed to gay and les&ian audien#es, as $ell as to feinist and a#adei# audien#es, as !er videos &e#ae ore #o"le' and "oliti#al :i)e) (Li-e a
T!us, Madonna>s "o"ularity $as in large "art a fun#tion of !er ar-eting strategies and !er "rodu#tion "rodu#tion of usi# videos and iages iages t!at a""ealed a""ealed to diverse diverse audien#es) audien#es) To #on#e"tuali+e #on#e"tuali+e t!e eanings and effe#ts in !er usi#, fils, #on#erts, and "u&li# relations stunts re/uires t!at !er artif artifa#ts a#ts &e inter" inter"ret reted ed $it!in $it!in t!e #onte' #onte'tt of t!eir t!eir "rodu#t "rodu#tion ion and re#e"t re#e"tion ion,, $!i#! $!i#! involv involves es dis#ussion of MTF, t!e usi# industry, #on#erts, ar-eting, and t!e "rodu#tion of iages :see Kellner 244=;) Understanding Madonna>s "o"ularity also re/uires fo#us on audien#es, not 0ust as individuals, &ut as e&ers of s"e#ifi# grou"s, su#! as teen.age girls, $!o $ere e"o$ered in t!eir stru strugg ggle less for for indi indivi vidu dual al iden identi tity ty &y Madon Madonna, na, or gays, gays, $!o $ere $ere also also e"o e"o$e $ere red d &y !er !er in#or"oration of alternative iages of se'uality $it!in "o"ular ainstrea #ultural artifa#ts) 9et a""raising t!e "oliti#s and effe#ts of Madonna also re/uires analysis of !o$ !er $or- ig!t erely re"rodu#e a #onsuer #ulture t!at defines identity in ters of iages and #onsu"tion) It $ould a-e an interesting "ro0e#t to e'aine !o$ forer Madonna fans vie$ t!e evolution and re#ent in#arnations of t!e su"erstar, su#! as !er arriage and 662 Dro$ned orld tour, as $ell as to e'aine !o$ #onte"orary fans vie$ Madonna in an age t!at e&ra#es younger teen "o" singers li-e Britney S"ears or Maria! M#Carey)
In s!ort, s!ort, a #ultur #ultural al studie studiess t!at t!at is #riti# #riti#al al and ulti# ulti#ult ultura urall "rovid "rovides es #o"re #o"re!en !ensiv sivee a""roa#!es to #ulture t!at #an &e a""lied to a $ide variety of artifa#ts fro "ornogra"!y to Madonna, fro MTF to TF ne$s, or to s"e#ifi# events li-e t!e 666 U)S) "residential ele#tion :Kellner 662;, or edia re"resentations of t!e 662 terrorist atta#-s on t!e U)S) and t!e U)S) res"onse) res"onse) Its #o"re!ensiv #o"re!ensivee "ers"e#tiv "ers"e#tives es en#o"ass en#o"ass "oliti#al "oliti#al e#onoy, e#onoy, te'tual analysis, analysis, and
audien#e resear#! and "rovide #riti#al and "oliti#al "ers"e#tives t!at ena&le individuals to disse#t t!e eanings, essages, and effe#ts of doinant #ultural fors) Cultural studies is t!us "art of a #riti#al edia "edagogy t!at ena&les individuals to resist edia ani"ulation and to in#rease t!eir freedo freedo and individualit individuality y) It #an e"o$er "eo"le to gain sovereignty sovereignty over t!eir #ulture #ulture and to &e a&le to struggle for alternative #ultures and "oliti#al #!ange) Cultural studies is t!us not 0ust anot!er a#adei# fad, &ut #an &e "art of a struggle for a &etter so#iety and a &etter life)
References
Agger, Ben :244; Cultural Studies) London* 8aler
Ang, Ien :24@=; at#!ing Dallas) Ne$ 9or-* Met!eun)
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Notes
i[1]. For more information on British cultural studies, see Hall 1980b; Johnson 198!"; Fis#e Fis#e 198; $%&onner 1989; 'urner 1990; (rossber) 1989; *))er 199+; and the articles collected in (rossber), elson, 'riechler 'riechler 199+; -urin) -uri n) 199+, 1998; and -urham -u rham and ellner +000. / mi)ht note that the Fran#furt chool also ro2ided much material for a critical cultural studies in their 3or#s on mass culture cultu re from the 1940s throu)h the resent; on the relation bet3een the Fran#furt chool and British cultural studies, see ellner 199". ii[+]. $n the concet of ideolo)5, see ellner, 19"8 and 19"9; the &entre for &ontemorar5 &ultural tudies, 1980; ellner and 65an, 1988; and 'homson, 1990. iii[4]. 'his model 3as adumbrated in Hall, 1980a and Johnson, 198!8" and )uided much of the earl5 Birmin)ham 3or#. *round the mid71980s, ho3e2er, the Birmin)ham )rou be)an to increasin)l5 ne)lect the roduction and olitical econom5 of culture some belie2e that this 3as al3a5s a roblem 3ith their 3or# and much of their studies became more academic, cut o: from olitical stru))le. / am thus tr5in) to recature the sirit of the earl5 Birmin)ham roect, reconstructed for our contemorar5 moment. For a fuller de2eloment of m5 concetion of cultural studies, see ellner, 199+, 199<, and +001. i2[=]. 'he term >olitical econom5> calls attention to the fact that the roduction and distribution of culture ta#es lace 3ithin a seci?c economic s5stem, constituted b5 relations bet3een the state and econom5. econom5. For instance, in the @nited tates a caitalist econom5 dictates that cultural roduction is )o2erned b5 la3s of the mar#et, but the democratic imerati2es of the s5stem mean that there is some re)ulation of culture b5 the state. 'here are often tensions 3ithin a )i2en societ5 concernin) ho3 man5 acti2ities should be )o2erned b5 the imerati2es of the mar#et, or economics, alone and ho3 much state re)ulation or inter2ention is desirable, desir able, to assure a 3ider di2ersit5 of broadcast ro)rammin), for instance, or the rohibition of henomena a)reed to be harmful, such as ci)arette ad2ertisin) or orno)rah5. ee ellner, 1990. 2[<]. &ultural studies 3hich ha2e focused on audience recetion include Brunsdon and Aorle5, 19"8; 6ad3a5, 1984; *n), 198<; Aorle5, 198; Fis#e, Fis#e, 1989a and 1989b; Jen#ins 199+; e3is 199+; and *n) 199.
