Critical Geography Critique - UTNIF 2015.docx

UTNIF 2015 Baez and Masterson

Critical Geography K 1

Critical Geography K pace!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!" 1NC!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! # Foreign$%o&estic %istinction!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!12 Borders 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1) Citizenship 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1# Citizenship Biopo*er Internal 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!21 +re,erential Treat&ent 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2ec.rity 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2/ +ostcolonialis&$M.ltic.lt.ralis& 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!25 Borders .reillance 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2" el,are 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2 Internet Freedo& 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -0 +riatization hi,t!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -1 +riatization hi,t 3 I&&igration peci4c!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!-/ I&pacts!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -) thics!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -" Borders Bad 3 ar!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -# 6oot Ca.se!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! - %isco.rse!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!/0 6acis&!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! /2 7lternatie!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!/7lt 3 Border Thin(ing!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! // 7lt 3 8istorical Con,ronation!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! /5 7ssail Totalization!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! /" 7lt Geography o, .9:ects!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! / ;pen Borders!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 50 Foreign$%o&estic +IC!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 52 7ns*ers to 7ns*ers!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!57T +er&!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5/ 7T Fra&e*or(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 55 7T Foreign %o&estic %istinction Good!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!5" 7T Borders Good$Ineita9le!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!5# 7T 6ealis& < .reillance!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5



7T 6ealis&!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! )1 7T 6ealis& 3 Its rong!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! )7t 6ealis& 3 Its Bad!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!)5 7T %e&ocracy oles!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! )) 7T %e&ocracy oles 3 U peci4c!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!)" 7T orld tate!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! "1 7= 7ns*ers!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"2 Borders$tate Ineita9le!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"Borders Good 3 thnic ar!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"5 Borders Good 3 cono&ic >.ality!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!") 7lt Fails < Borders!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! "" tate Good!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! "# 6ealis& Good!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! #0 +er& 3 6ealis&!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! #1 %e&ocracy oles!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!#2 %e&ocracy oles < +eace!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! #/ %e&ocracy oles 3 Minority 6ights!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!#5 7T 6ealis& ? estern %isco.rse!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!#) orld tate oles!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ## U!! ;= The +lanet!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!0 1NC!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 'in(s!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! # @ Colonization 7s First .reillance!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!  @ %o&estication 9y .reillance!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!101 @ Foreign$%o&estic 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 10Ne.tral paces 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!11patiality 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 11/ Citizenship 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 115 .9ersion 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 11) 6e,or& 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 11# ilence 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 120 ec.rity 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!12/ Nonstr.ct.ral 7cco.nts o, 6acis& 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!12) Fl.idity$Border Crossing 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!12#


Critical Geography K -

+riacy$el,are 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1-0 el,are 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1-1 Co.rts 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1-Ne.trality$>.ality 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1-) cono&ic 7.tono&y 'in( ABitcoin!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1-# >.ality 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1/0 Blac($hite Binary 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1/2 hite Fe&inis& 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1/hite Fe&inis& 'in( 3 aior!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1/) Third ae Fe&inis& 'in(s!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1/" +ost<tr.ct.ralis& 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1/# Fo.ca.lt$7ga&9en 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1/ Fo.ca.lt 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 150 8eidegger 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 152 8eidegger 'in( 3 Thro*ness!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!15/ 8eidegger 'in( 3 Being!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!155 8eidegger tarting +oint 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 15) %errida 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 15" %ele.ze 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 15# Incorporation$el,are 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 15 Noniolence 'in( 3 .reillance peci4c!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1)0 Noniolence 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1)1 Noniolence 'in( 3 'i9eral 7cco&&odation!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1)5 &erging Mar(ets 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1)) Internal Colonialis& 'in(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1)" I&pacts!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1)# First +riority!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1) I&pact Fra&ing!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1"1 ;ngoing Colonization!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1"2 Genocide!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1"6oot o, .reillance!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1"5 6oot o, .reillance 3 hite .pre&acy!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1") 6oot o, ar!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1"" Bare 'i,e!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1#-


Critical Geography K /

6oot o, Borders!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1# ;&nicide!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 10 7nthropocentris&!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!11 +rere>.isite to 8eidegger!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!12 I&pact to 8eidegger 'in(s!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1First +riority s! 8eidegger!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1/ T.rns Gender 7=s!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1) ;ntological iolence!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1" 6;B!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1# 7lternatie!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 7lt oles I&perialis&D 6aceD and +ost


7T %e9ate on the 7= 'eads to 6eal Change!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2/1 7T Identity Tied to 'and Bad!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2/2 7T ;er Foc.s on 'and!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2/5 7T Fl.id Borders!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2/" 7T e Need ;9:ectie ays to %eter&ine Indianness!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2/# 7T %e&ocracy oles!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2/ 7T EIndian ? Bad Ter&!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!251 7T Ch.rchill Indicts 3 $11!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 255 7T Ch.rchill Indicts 3 7cade&ic Miscond.ct!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!25) 7= 7ns*ers!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!25" +er&!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25# +er& 3 Totalized Foc.s Bad Aspecially ,or K a=s!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2)0 +er& 3 7nti9lac(ness!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2)1 +er& 3 Noniolence!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2)+er& < %rones!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2)5 +er& 3 %rones 3 piste&ology!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2)) +er& 3 8eidegger!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2)" 7T Uniersality 'in( 3 8eidegger!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2) .reillance 'in( T.rn!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2"0 .reillance 'in( T.rn 3 %rones!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2") .reillance T.rn I&pact!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2"" %o&estic$Foreign %istinction Good!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2"# %o&estic$Foreign %istinction Good < 6acis&!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2" %o&estic$Foreign %istinction Good < +olicy&a(ing!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2#0 %o&estic$Foreign %istinction Good < 7docacy!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2#1 6e,or&s ole!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2#2 6e,or& oles 3 Indigeno.s +eople ant It!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2#Utopianis& Bad!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2#/ Instit.tions Good!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2#5 7t hi,t 79oard or +riate 3 Non.ni>.e!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2#" 7T hi,t 79oard or +riate 3 'in( T.rn!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2## Noniolence T.rn!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!20 Noniolence Good 3 +ers.asion!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!22 Noniolence Good 3 8.&an Nat.re!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!25


Critical Geography K )

7T U too ;ppressie ,or Noniolence to or(!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2) Bitcoin 'in( T.rn!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2# Fo.ca.lt No 'in($+rere>.isite!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2 Fo.ca.lt 3 6oot Ca.se!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!-01 Fe&inis& 'in( T.rn!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!-02 7T ;ntology$piste&ology!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -07lt Fails 3 ettler Colonialis&!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!-0/ 7lt Fails < Neoli9!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -05 Corporations T.rn!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -0) 6ed +edagogy Bad!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -0# ssentialis& T.rn!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!-0 tatic Identity Bad!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!-11 6o&anticization T.rn!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -1Co&&odi4cation T.rn!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -1" Fetishization T.rn!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -20 icti&ization T.rn!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -21 +roperty T.rn!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!-2%ichoto&ies T.rn!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!-2/ 7T +rior H.estions!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -25 7T 6oot Ca.se!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -2) EIndian ? Bad Ter&!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!-2" Ch.rchill Indicts!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! -2 Ch.rchill Indicts 3 Not a Natie 7&erican!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!--1 &ith Indict!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! --2


Critical Geography K "

Space


Critical Geography K #

1NC Their construction of the “domestic” space entrenches sovereignty and implies antagonism between the internal and external. ariman !"! A6o9ert 8ari&an is an 7&erican scholar o, rhetoric and p.9lic c.lt.re! 8e receied his B7 ,ro& Macalester College in 1"-D and receied his M7 in 1"5 and +h% in 1" ,ro& the Uniersity o, Minnesota! +ost<6ealis& The 6hetorical T.rn in International 6elations! MU +ressD 7.g -1D 1)! Google Boo(s! MMG

et those A&ysel, incl.ded *ho la&ent the e@cesses o, soereigntyD *hether in a.tocratic or pop.lar ,or&sD cannot do *itho.t it all criti>.es &.st ta(e it on as a point o, re,erenceD i, not a starting point! The least interesting

treat&ents o, this the&e are those that conde&n soereignty and go on to constr.ct a ,antasy *orld that *o.ld co&e into 9eing *ere it dissoled altogether! BetterD thenD to critici#e those theories that treat the state and sovereignty as an unproblematic unity. Follo*ing the lead o, Ja&es T.llyD one can ta(e &atters a step ,.rther and lin( the reigning :.ridical notion o, the state to a legalistic constr.ction o, the sel,! T.lly characterizes :.ridical theorizing as the do&inant ideology o, &odern political tho.ght and arg.es that it

contains the ,ollo*ing ele&ents! The state is represented as an independentD territorial &onopoly o, political po*er! +olitical po*er is the right to (ill in order to en,orce .niersal r.le o, either o9:ect rights or s.9:ectie rightsD s.ch as rights D s.ch as rightsD nat.ral la*D co&&on goodD traditionD &a:ority *illD &odernizationD or the constit.tion! +olitical po*er is e@ercises either directly 9y so&e soereign 9ody A&onarchD co&&.nity as a *holeD elite or indirectly 9y so&e representatie 9ody!!!to *ho& po*er is either delegated or alienated 9y a soereign o*er!25 The ast &a:ority o, soereignty analysts can lie *ith this! oereignty tri.&phedD F! 8! 8insley insistsD 9eca.se it &ore or less had to the consent *as sooner or later .naoida9le 9eca.se &en hae tho.ght po*er ine@ercise ter&s o,o,soereigntyD or atso least ca&e oer*hel&ingly this *ay gien pri&ary to ens.reo,e=ectie po*erD the &ore as the gro*ing co&ple@itytoo,thin( the co&&.nity *asasering to need e&phasize the i&portance o, the state! e hae little choice 9.t to stic( *ith the soereignty ,or one ery 9asic reason  The internal &echanis& o, the &odern 9ody politic *o.ld grind to a halt o,

the ass.&ption that there *as a 4nal and a9sol.te a.thority *ithin in *ere to 9e a9andoned! In international practice the e@istence o, a soereign a.thority *ithin the separate co&&.nity is .niersally recognized as the essential >.ali4cation o, its &e&9ership in the international co&&.nity !2) The state is $sovereign in the domestic context$ and this soereignty >.ali4es it ,or that agonistic arenaD the international syste&! 8arold 'as(iLs >.ali4ersD artic.lated in 121D that the orthodo@ theory o, soereignty in ,act coerces the parts into a .nity and there9y places itsel, at the disposal o, the social gro.p *hichD at any gien historic &o&entD happens to do&inate the li,e o, the sateD2" ,alls o.t o, the &ost acco.nts o, the standard narratie! oereignty is rei4ed and one does notD la&ents 'as(.D in>.ire into the p.rposes ,or *hich this partic.lar order is &aintained! indeedD the United tates .pre&e Co.rt hasD ,ro& ti&e to ti&eD :oined the chor.s 6.les co&e and go goern&ents end and ,or&s o, goern&ents change 9.t soereignty s.ries! 7 political society cannot end.re *itho.t a s.pre&e *ill so&e*here! oereignty is neer held in s.spense!2# ;ne &ore 9rie, restate&ent o, the classic theory Aa internallyD soereignty is po*er to order a do&estic arenaD Athe *ord do&estic i&plying that s.ch order has already 9een achieedD A9 e@ternallyD

soereign po*ers e@ist in a syste& o, at least theoretical independence and e>.ality *hose relations are controlled 9y principles *hich are the reerse o, those *hich co&pro&ise the internal str.ct.re o, statesD on the strong or classical constr.ction o, soereignty! 7 &odi4ed de,ense createsD or seesD an analogy i, not a ho&ology 9et*een :.ridical ter&s o, internal and e@ternal r.le! Central to the classical acco.nt is the notion o, legal s.9:ectiityD dra*n ,ro& the 6o&ans and lodged in t*o carriers the pater,a&iliasD and the ,orce o, co&&and or *ill in la*D :.sD deried ,ro& the pop.lo.s


Critical Geography K 

6o&an.s constr.cted as a .ni4ed s.9:ect! :.st as the pater,a&ilias *as the soleD sel,.al *ills co&posed o, all ,athers c.l&inated in a center o, co&&on legal s.9:ectiityD the *ill or oice o, a9stractD collectie legal personality!2 Traces o, this constr.ction appear in all &odern theories o, soereignty<
The domestic%international distinction allows unlimited surveillance and sovereign violence against those not considered domestic. &onahan '((" ATorinD +ro,essor o, Co&&.nication t.dies at the Uniersity o, North Carolina at Chapel 8ill! 8is research ,oc.ses on instit.tional trans,or&ations *ith ne* technologiesD *ith a partic.lar e&phasis on s.reillance and sec.rity progra&sD E.reillance and ec.rity 3 Technological +olitics and +o*er in eryday 'i,eD epte&9er 2#th 200)D +age 1" In this chapter I arg.e that in,or&ation

technologies are pro,o.ndly political instr.&ents i&plicated in the ,orti4cation o, e@ternal 9orders o, the estern *orld ! MoreoerD co.pled *ith 9io&etric technologiesD the ario.s syste&s in .se ,or reg.lating 9order tracD 9order patrolD i&&igrationD and asyl.& policy esta9lish ,or&s o, identity politics that transform geographical borders into lived and embodied identities! The ne@t section descri9es so&e o, the changing practices and policies regarding the United tates3 Me@ico 9order and one o, the UOs e@ternal 9ordersD the Ger&any3+oland 9orderD .ntil the accession o, ten ne* &e&9er states on May 1D 200/! The third section descri9es ho*D speci4cally in .ropeD one traditional

*ay to enter the 4rst *orld legallyD the application ,or political asyl.&D is grad.ally 9loc(edD leaing &any re,.gees little option 9.t to :oin the ran(s o, the cri&inalized Eillegal aliensD or les sans
9io&etrics in partic.larD constit.te increased leels o, s.reillance ,or 9oth estern citizens and non<estern i&&igrantsD re,.geesD and isitors in *ays that &ore o,ten than not are practically immune to democratic controls. In that senseD the in,or&atization o, the 9order is generally pro9le&atic! 8o*eerD the di=erent identities prod.ced in this generalized s.reillance re>.ire a care,.l di=erential assess&ent o, the politics o, technological identi4cation rather than a treat&ent o, it in general ter&s as one pheno&enon!

Statism and nationalism ma)e extinction inevitable. *olitics+ ,berystwyth -niversity+ where he was formerly .. Carr *rofessor and ead of /epartment. 0ealism and orld *olitics edited by 2en 3ooth pp. 45675! -! 6eiing grand international theory ,or the PGreat 6ec(oningO 7s it *as in the 9eginningD theorists

o,

International +olitics today ,ace a T*enty earsO Crisis! 6ealis&helps .s .nderstand part o, *hy *e are *here *e areD historicallyD 9eca.se it helped to constit.te todayOs *orld a=airs 9y rei,yingD a9oe allD statis& and its historical ad:.nct nationalis&! These ideas hae contri9.ted to the gro*th o, the &ost po*er,.l str.ct.res thro.gh recent cent.riesD



shaping the collectie h.&an conscio.sness a9o.t liing glo9ally! 8.&an(ind *ill not cope *ell *ith its PGreat 6ec(oningOD ho*eerD i, political o.tloo(s re&ain rooted in the 9.siness
h.&anity thro.gh o.r .nco&&on collectie challenges this cent.ry! I, this proes to 9e the caseD then the middle decades of this century are set to be a potential turning point in world history co¶9le to the Thirty earsO ar! That periodof widespread con:ict and disorder tested the era o, religio.s *ar to the li&itD and led to a,ace di=erent conception o, the liing glo9ally! The dyna&ics o, statis& and nationalis& a si&ilar test! 8o* PGreat 6ec(oningO plays o.tD and its a,ter&athD *ill depend greatly on ho* the &ost po*er,.l agents in *orld politics collectiely thin( a9o.t liing glo9ally oer the ne@t ,e* decades! Con,ronted 9y the existential reality o, liing on a s&aller and &ore cro*ded planet at a ti&e o, old pro9le&s and ne* challengesD *ith the .neen distri9.tion o, 9asics s.ch as ,oodD energy and *aterD st.dents o, International +olitics hae a special responsibility in contri9.ting to ho* the *orld thin(s a9o.t the *orld! This calls ,or 9ig.ires &ore than red.ctionis&D &icro.ence o, geno&esD *itho.t *orrying a9o.t the &essy processes that led ,ro& one geno&e in one generation to another in the ne@t ! ! ! these &.st 9e 9ro.ght togetherO!/) oD ,or e@a&pleD Pgenocentis&O is re:ected in ,ao.r o, a co&prehensie e@planation that *o.ld incl.de 9oth eol.tion and deelop&ent! In the sa&e *ayD a deelop&ental theory o, international politics re>.ires a co&prehensie pict.re integrating *orld historyD cono&icsD and ociology *ith International +olitics!/" Finally reQe@iity Athe Pstrategic &onitoringO o, o.r ideas! t.dents o, International +olitics 3 *itho.t e@aggerating o.r inQ.ence 3 hae a role in shaping the collectie conscio.sness a9o.t liing glo9ally! The strategic &onitoring o, the disciplineD and o, the state o, the *orldD cannot 9.t lead to the concl.sion that global business7as7usual will simply perpetuate a

world that is not wor)ing for many fellow humans and for m uch of the natural world on which all depend.

The alternative is grassroots resistance against the surveillance state and empire. The decontextuali#ed+ with this and retrenches the narrative that ordinary people have nothing to fear from a reformed surveillance system. 2undnani and 2umarD 7r.n K.ndnaniD pro,essor at NUD and a.thor on do&estic s.reillance %eepa K.&ar is a pro,essor o, Middle ast t.dies at 6.tgers



UniersityD '(15A7r.n K.ndnani and %eepa K.&arD pring 2015D E6aceD s.reillanceD and e&pireD http$$isreie*!org$iss.e$)$race
practices the&seles hae also o,ten 9een the target o, organized opposition! In the 120s and 1"0sD the s.reillance state *as press.red to contract in the ,ace o, p.9lic disapproal! The anti*ar actiists *ho 9ro(e into an FBI 4eld oce in MediaD +ennsylaniaD in 1"1 and stole classi4ed doc.&ents &anaged to e@pose C;INT'+6;D ,or instanceD leading to its sh.t do*n! AB.t those responsi9le ,or this FBI progra& *ere neer 9ro.ght to :.stice ,or their actiities and si&ilar techni>.es contin.ed to 9e .sed later againstD ,or e@a&ple in the 1#0sD the 7&erican Indian Moe&entD and the Co&&ittee in olidarity *ith the +eople o, l alador!)# +.9lic concern a9o.t state s.reillance in the 1"0s led to the Ch.rch co&&ittee report on goern&ent spying and the 8andsch. g.idelines that reg.lated the Ne* or( +olice

Those concerns 9egan to 9e s*ept aside in the 1#0s *ith the ar on %r.gs andD especiallyD later *ith the ar on Terror ! hile signi4cant sections o, the p.9lic &ay hae consented to the sec.rity stateD those *ho hae 9een a&ong its greatest icti&sRthe radical 'e,tD anti*ar actiistsD racial :.stice and Blac( li9eration ca&paignersD and opponents o, U ,oreign policy in 'atin 7&erica and the Middle astR.nderstand its *or(ings ! TodayD *e are once again in a period o, reelationD concernD and de9ate on national sec.rity s.reillance! ?et if %epart&entOs spying on political actiities!

real change is to be brought about+ the racial history of surveillance will need to be fully confronted@or opposition to surveillance will once again be easily defeated by racial security narratives ! The signi4cance o, the no*den lea(s is that they hae laid o.t the depth o, the N7Os &ass s.reillance *ith the (ind o, proo, that only an insider can hae! The res.lt has 9een a generalized leel o, alar& as people hae 9eco&e a*are o, ho* intr.sie s.reillance is in o.r societyD 9.t that alar& re&ains constrained *ithin a p.9lic de9ate that is highly a9stractD legalisticD and centered on the priacy rights o, the *hite &iddle class!

An the one hand+ most civil liberties advocates are focused on the technical details of potential legal reforms and new oversight mechanisms to safeguard privacy. Such initiatives are li)ely to bring little change because they fail to confront the racist and imperialist core of the surveillance system. ;n the other handD &ost technologists 9eliee the pro9le& o, goern&ent s.reillance can 9e 4@ed si&ply 9y .sing 9etter encryption tools!hile

encryption tools are .se,.l in increasing the reso.rces that a goern&ent agency *o.ld need to &onitor an indiid.alD they do nothing to .nrael the larger s.reillance apparat.s! Mean*hileD [email protected]es o, U tech corporations

e@press concerns a9o.t loss o, sales to ,oreign c.sto&ers concerned a9o.t the priacy o, data! In ashington and ilicon alleyD *hat sho.ld 9e a de9ate a9o.t 9asic political ,reedo&s is si&ply a >.estion o, corporate pro4ts!) 7nother and perhaps deeper pro9le& is the .se o, i&ages o, state s.reillance that do not ade>.ately 4t the c.rrent sit.ationRs.ch as George ;r*ellOs disc.ssion o, totalitarian s.reillance! d*ard no*den hi&sel, re&ar(ed that ;r*ell *arned .s o, the dangers o, the type o, goern&ent s.reillance *e ,ace today!"0 6e,erence to ;r*ellOs 1#/ has 9een *idespread in the c.rrent de9ate indeedD sales o, the 9oo( *ere said to hae soared ,ollo*ing no*denOs reelations!"1 The arg.&ent that digital s.reillance is a ne* ,or& o, Big Brother isD on one leelD s.pported 9y the eidence! For

those in certain targeted gro.psRM.sli&sD le,t< *ing ca&paignersD radical :o.rnalistsRstate s.reillance certainly loo(s ;r*ellian! B.t this leel o, scr.tiny is not ,aced 9y the general p.9lic ! The pict.re o, s.reillance today is there,ore >.ite di=erent ,ro& the classic i&ages o, s.reillance that *e 4nd in ;r*ellOs 1#/D *hich ass.&es an .ndi=erentiated &ass pop.lation s.9:ect to goern&ent control! hat *e hae instead today in the United tates is total s.reillanceD not on eeryoneD 9.t on ery speci4c gro.ps o, peopleD de4ned 9y their raceD religionD or political ideology people that N7 ocials re,er to as the E9ad g.ys! In March 201/D 6ic( 'edgettD dep.ty director o, the N7D told an a.dience EContrary to so&e o, the st.= thatOs 9een printedD *e donOt sit there and grind o.t &etadata pro4les o, aerage people! I, yo.Ore not connected to one o, those alid intelligence targetsD yo. are not o, interest to .s!"2 In the national sec.rity *orldD Econnected to can 9e the 9asis ,or targeting a *hole racial or political co&&.nity soD een ass.&ing the acc.racy o, this co&&entD it

points to the *ays that

national sec.rity s.reillance can dra* entire co&&.nities into its *e9D reass.ring Eaerage people Acode ,or the nor&atie *hite &iddle class*hile that they are not to 9e tro.9led!In the eyes o, the national sec.rity stateD this aerage person &.st also e@press no political ie*s critical o, the stat.s >.o! Better oersight o, the spra*ling national sec.rity apparat.s and greater .se o, encryption in digital co&&.nication sho.ld 9e *elco&ed! B.t 9y the&seles these are li(ely to do little &ore than reass.re technologistsDwhile



raciali#ed populations and political dissenters continue to experience massive surveillance. This is why the most e>ective challenges to the national security state have come not from legal reformers or technologists but from grassroots campaigning by the raciali#ed groups most a>ected! In Ne* or(D the ca&paign against the N+%Os s.reillance o,

M.sli&s has dra*n its strength ,ro& 9.ilding alliances *ith other gro.ps a=ected 9y racial pro4ling 'atinos and Blac(s *ho s.=er ,ro& h.gely disproportionate rates o, stop and ,ris(! In Cali,orniaOs Bay 7reaDa ca&paign against a %epart&ent o, 8o&eland ec.rity<,.nded %o&ain 7*areness Center *as s.ccess,.l 9eca.se ario.s constit.encies *ere a9le to .nite on the iss.eD incl.ding ho&eless peopleD the poorD ! i&ilarlyD a de&ographics .nit planned 9y the 'os 7ngeles +olice M.sli&sD and *hich Blac(s*o.ld %epart&entD hae pro4led co&&.nities on the 9asis o, race and religionD *as sh.t do*n a,ter a ca&paign that .nited ario.s gro.ps de4ned 9y race and class! The lesson here is thatD *hile the national sec.rity state ai&s to create ,ear and to diide peopleDactiists can organize and 9.ild alliances across race lines to oerco&e that ,ear! To the e@tent that the national sec.rity state has targeted ;cc.pyD the anti*ar &oe&entD eniron&ental rights actiistsD radical :o.rnalists and ca&paignersD and *histle9lo*ersD these gro.ps hae graitated to*ards opposition to the national sec.rity state! B.t .nderstanding the centrality o, race and e&pire to national sec.rity s.reillance &eans 4nding a 9asis ,or .nity across di=erent gro.ps *ho e@perience si&ilar (inds o, policing M.sli&D 'atino$aD 7sianD Blac(D and *hite dissidents and radicals!

It is on such a basis that we can see the beginnings of an e >ective multiracial opposition to the surveillance state and empire.


Critical Geography K 1-

Boreign%/omestic /istinction /omestic and international surveillance strategies are inextricably bound7 the armative9s attempt to constitute them as separate entities allows the same tactics to continue in the “international sphere” and the -.S. Draham !9 Atephen! Cities as Battlespace The Ne* Military Ur9anis&! City1-!/ A200 -#-
@a&ples here range ,ro& U Christian F.nda&entalistsD thro.gh the British National +arty to 7.striaOs Freedo& +artyD the French National Front and ItalyOs Forza Italia! ThefastEgrowing and sprawling

cosmopolitan neighbourhoods of the est9s cities+ meanwhile+ are often cast by such groups in the same A rientalist terms as the megaEcities of the Dlobal South+ as places radically external to the vulnerable nationR threatening or enemy territories every bit as foreign as 3aghdad or Da#a. +arado@icallyD the imaginations of geography which underpin the new military urbanism tend to treat colonial frontiers and estern 8homelands9 as fundamentally separate domainsRclashes o, ciilizations in a&.el 8.ntingtonOs incendiary proposition A1#Reen

as the sec.rityD &ilitary and intelligence doctrine addressing 9oth increasingly ,.ses! Such imaginations of geography wor) to deny the ways in which the cities in both domains are increasingly lin)ed by migration and investment :ows to constitute each other. In rendering all &i@ed.p cities as pro9le&atic spaces 9eyond the r.ral or [email protected] heartlands o, a.thentic national co&&.nitiesD telling &oe&ents in representations o, cities occ.r 9et*een colonial peripheries and capitalist heartlands! The constr.ction o, sectarian enclaes &odelled on Israeli practice 9y U ,orces in Baghdad ,ro& 200-D ,or e@a&pleD

*as *idely descri9ed 9y U sec.rity personnel as the deelop&ent o, Ustyle Pgated co&&.nitiesO in the co.ntry! In the a,ter&ath o, the deastation o, Ne* ;rleans 9y 8.rricane Katrina in late 2005D &ean*hileD U 7r&y ;cers tal(ed o, the need to Pta(e 9ac(O the City ,ro& Ira>istyle Pins.rgentsO! 7s eerD thenD the i&aginations o, .r9an li,e in colonized zones interact po*er,.lly *ith that in the cities o, the colonizers! IndeedD the pro:ection o, colonial

tropes and sec.rity e@e&plars into postcolonial &etropoles in capitalist heartlands is ,.elled 9y a ne* Pinner city ;rientalis&O A8o*ell and hryoc(D 200-! This relies on the widespread depiction amongst rightist security or military commentators of immigrant districts within the est9s cities as 8bac)ward9 #ones threatening the body politic of the estern city and nation ! In FranceD ,or

e@a&pleD post*ar state planning *or(ed to concept.alize the &assD peripheral ho.sing pro:ects o, the 9anlie.es as Pnear peripheralO reserations attached toD 9.t distant ,ro&D the co.ntryOs &etropolitan centres AKip,er and Goone*ardenaD 200"! Bitter &e&ories o, the 7lgerian and other anticolonial *ars sat.rate the French ,arrightOs disco.rse a9o.t *aning P*hiteO po*er and the Pinsec.rityO ca.sed 9y the 9anlie.esRa process that has led to a dra&atic &o9ilization o, state sec.rity ,orces in and aro.nd the &ain i&&igrant ho.sing co&ple@es!


Critical Geography K 1/

“Fnternational” surveillance techni
contemporary right9s con:ation of terrorism and migration

that simple acts of migration are now often being deemed to be little more than acts of warfare. This discursive shift has been termed the 8weaponi#ation9 of migration ACatoD 200#Rthe shi,t a*ay ,ro& e&phases on &oral o9ligations to o=er hospitality to re,.gees toward criminali#ing or dehumani#ing migrants9 bodies as weapons against purportedly homogenous and ethnoEnationalist bases of national power. 8ere the latest de9ates a9o.t Pasy&&etricOD Pirreg.larO or Plo* intensity *arOD *here nothing can 9e de4ned o.tside o, 9o.ndless and neerending de4nitions o, political iolenceD 9l.r .nco&,orta9ly into the gro*ing cla&o.r o, de&onization 9y right and ,arright co&&entators o, the estOs diasporic and increasingly cos&opolitan cities! a&.el 8.ntington A2005D ta(ing his Pclash o, ciilizationsO thesis A1# ,.rtherD no* arg.es that the ery ,a9ric o, U po*er and national identity is .nder threat not :.st 9eca.se o, glo9al Isla&ist terroris& 9.t 9eca.se non*hite and especially 'atino gro.ps are colonizingD and do&inatingD U &etropolitan areas! 7dopting s.ch Manichean i&aginations o, the *orldD U &ilitary theorist illia& 'ind A200/ has arg.ed that prosaic acts o, i&&igration ,ro& the Glo9al o.th to the NorthOs cities &.st no* 9e .nderstood as acts o, *ar,are! PIn Fo.rth Generation *arOD 'ind *ritesD Pinasion 9y i&&igration can 9e at least as dangero.s as inasion 9y a state ar&y!O Under *hat he calls the Ppoisono.s ideology o, &.ltic.lt.ralis&OD 'ind arg.es that &igrants *ithin estern nations can no* la.nch Pa ho&egro*n ariety o, Fo.rth Generation *arD *hich is 9y ,ar the &ost dangero.s (indO! Gien the t*o*ay &oe&ent o, the

e@e&plars o, the ne* &ilitary .r9anis& 9et*een estern cities and those on colonial ,rontiersD ,.elled 9y the instinctie anti.r9anis& o, national sec.rity statesD it is no surprise that cities in both domains are starting to display startling similarities as well as their more obvious di>erences. In 9othD hardD &ilitary

style 9ordersD ,ences and chec(points aro.nd de,ended enclaes and Psec.rity zonesOD s.peri&posed on the *ider and &ore open cityD are proli,erating! GerseyE barrier blast walls+ identity chec)points+ computeri#ed CC TH+ biometric surveillance and military styles of access control protect archipelagos of forti=ed enclaves from an outside deemed unruly+ impoverished or dangerous. In the ,or&er caseD these enco&pass green zonesD *ar prisonsD ethnic and

sectarian neigh9o.rhoods and &ilitary 9ases in the latter they are gro*ing aro.nd strategic 4nancial districtsD e&9assy zonesD to.rist spacesD airport and port co&ple@esD sport eent spacesD gated co&&.nities and e@port processing zones! Fn both domains+ e>orts to identify urban

populations are lin)ed with similar systems of surveillance+ trac)ing and targeting dangerous bodies amidst the mass of urban life ! e thus see parallel deployments of highEtech satellites+ drones+ 8intelligent9 closed circuit TH+ 8nonElethal9 weaponry and biometric surveillance in the very di>erent contexts of cities at home and abroad ! 7nd in 9oth do&ainsD 4nally + there is a similar sense that new doctrines of perpetual war are being used to permanently treat all urban residents as perpetual targets whose benign nature+ rather than being assumed+ now needs to be continually demonstrated to complex architectures of surveillance or data mining as



the subIect m oves around the city. .ch &oes are 9ac(ed 9y parallel legal

s.spensions targeting gro.ps dee&ed threatening *ith special restrictionsD pre e&ptie arrests or a priori incarceration *ithin glo9estraddling e@tralegal tort.re ca&ps and g.lags! hilst these ario.s archipelagos o, enclaes ,.nction in a *ide ariety o, *ays they are si&ilar in that they replace .r9an traditions o, open access *ith sec.rity syste&s that ,orce people to proe legiti&acy as they gain access! Ur9an theorists and philosophers no* *onder *hether the possi9ilities o, the city as a (ey political ,o.ndation ,or dissent and collectie &o9ilization *ithin ciil society are 9eing replaced 9y co&ple@ geographies &ade .p o, ario.s syste&s o, enclaes and ca&ps *hich lin( together *hilst *ithdra*ing ,ro& the .r9an o.tside 9eyond the *alls or accesscontrol syste&s AGraha& and MarinD 2001 %i(en and 'a.stsenD 2005D p! )/! Fn such a context one wonders whether urban securiti#ation might

reach a level in the future which would e>ectively decouple the strategic economic role of cities as drivers of capital accumulation from their historic role as centres for the mobili#ation of democratic dissent.


Critical Geography K 1)

Fnternational surveillance strategies are paralleled in the -.S. and serve to create an us%them distinction in order to identify and destroy the “others” within the -.S. Graham 6’ (Stephen, “Cities and the 'War on Terror'”. 2006. International Jornal o! "r#an and $e%ional $esear&h, olme 0, Isse 2. )%s. 2** + 26. -/

+rogra&&es o, organizedD political iolence hae al*ays 9een legiti&ized and s.stained thro.gh co&ple@ i&aginatie geographies! This ter&R ,ollo*ing the *or( o, d*ard aid A200- and %ere( Gregory A15 R denotes the *ays in *hich i&perialist societies tend to 9e constr.cted thro.gh nor&alizingD 9inary :.dg&ents a9o.t 9oth P,oreignO and colonized territories and the sitGoone*ardena at the Pheart o, hae e&pireO! Kip,er and A2005 called .ch i&aginatie geographies arePho&eO cr.cialspaces to *hat *hich the Pcolonial splitting o, realityO that s.stains all e&pires ! d*ard aid A200-D ,or e@a&pleD arg.es that i&aginatie geographies hae long 9een cr.cial in s.staining ;rientalist treat&ents o, the 7ra9 *orld as ;ther a&ongst estern colonial po*ers! 7s %ere( Gregory A200/a 1# p.ts itD s.ch geographies ,.nction 9y P,oldVingW distance into di=erence thro.gh a series o, spatializationsO! They operate 8by multiplying partitions and enclosures that serve to demarcate “the same” from “the other O! 7ndD as Pi&aginations gien s.9stanceOD or Parchitect.res o, en&ityOD they do geopolitical *or( 9y designating the ,a&iliar

space inha9ited 9y a p.tatie P.sOD and opposing it to the .n,a&iliar geographies inha9ited 9y a p.tatie ;ther R the Pthe&O *ho 9eco&e the legiti&ate target ,or &ilitary or colonial po*er Ai9id! 1#! I&aginatie geographies th.s tend to 9e characterized 9y star( 9inaries o, place attach&ent! Not s.rprisinglyD these tend to 9e partic.larly po*er,.l and .nco&pro&ising d.ring ti&es o, *ar! 7s Ken 8e*itt A1#- 25# has arg.edD P*ar ! ! ! &o9ilizes the highly charged and dangero.s dialectic o, place attach&ent the perceied antithesis o, Eo.r places or ho&eland and Etheirs O! ery o,tenD s.ch

polarizations are &an.,act.red and recycled disc.rsiely thro.gh racist and i&perial state and &ilitary disco.rses and propagandaD 9ac(ed .p 9y pop.lar ! TogetherD these wor) to produce 8an unbridled c.lt.ral representations sentimentali#ing of one9s own while dehumani#ing the enemy9s people and

landO Ai9id! 25#! To 8e*ittD such binaried constructions 8seem an essential step in cultivating readiness to destroy the latterO Ai9id! 25#! The p.rpose o, this article is to de&onstrate that the B.sh ad&inistrationOs P*ar on terrorO rests ,.nda&entally on s.ch t*o
geographies separating the .r9an places o, a p.tatie U Pho&elandO ,ro& those 7ra9 cities p.rported to 9e the so.rces o, PterroristO threats against U national interests! .ch re*or(ings o, pop.lar and political i&aginatie geographies operate 9y pro:ecting placesD and partic.larly citiesD into t*o &.t.ally [email protected]eD &.t.ally constit.tieD classi4cations thoseD in B.shOs ,a&o.s phraseD *ho are either P*ith .sO or Pagainst .sO Asee Graha&D 200/! Binaried portrayals s.ggesting an a9sol.te separateness 9et*een Pho&elandO cities and the 7ra9 cities o, the target ;ther are po*er,.lly rein,orced 9y neoconseratie geopolitical ideologies A6o9erts et al!D 200-! These stress the s.pposed disconnection o, co.ntries dee&ed to 9e hot9eds o, threats to U interests ,ro& nor&alized processes o, neoli9eral glo9alization! Nor&atielyD they e&phasize the i&peratie o, integrating s.ch territories into processes o, neoli9eral glo9alizationD i, necessary thro.gh the .se o, Ppre A6o9erts et al!D 200-! Tho&as BarnettOs inQ.ential The +entagonOs Ne* Map A200/ is one e@a&ple o, a range o, neoli9eral i&aginary geopolitical renderings o, the *orld seized .pon 9y the B.sh ad&inistration as s.pporting the P*ar on terrorO! BarnettOs glo9alD 9inary sche&a stresses the p.tatie PdisconnectionO o, the U &ilitaryOs target zones in the Middle astD 7,rica and Central 7&erica R or *hat he calls the Pnon< integrating gapO R ,ro& the rest o, the *orldD a zone *hich is seen to 9e integrating 9enignly thro.gh processes o, neoli9eral capitalis& to constit.te *hat Barnett calls a P,.nctioning


Critical Geography K 1"

such attempts at constructing a mutually exclusive binary R a sec.ritized PinsideO coreO! In a *orld o, intensi,ying transnational &igrationD transportD capital and &edia Qo*sD ho*eerD

enclosing the .r9an places o, the U &pireOs Pho&elandOD and an .r9anizing Po.tsideOD *here U &ilitary po*er can preD and ho&eland sec.rity contracts in U citiesD to the sa&e cartel o, B.sh<,riendly oil co&paniesD de,ence and sec.rity contractors and Ppriate &ilitary corporationsO A8areyD 200- Chatter:eeD 200/ Boal et al!D 2005! hilst dra&aticD the imaginative geographies .nderpinning the P*ar on terrorO are ,ar ,ro& srcinal Asee %rierD 2001! In ,actD they revivify long7established colonial and Arientalist tropes

to represent &iddle astern culture as intrinsically barbaric+ infantile+ bac)ward or threatening from the point of view of estern colonial powers AGregoryD 200/a! 7ra9 citiesD &oreoerD hae long 9een represented 9y estern po*ers as dar(D e@oticD la9yrinthine and str.ct.reless places that need to 9e P.neiledO ,or the prod.ction o, PorderO thro.gh the ostensi9ly s.perior scienti4cD planning and &ilitary technologies o, the occ.pying est! 3y burying

8disturbing similarities between “us” and “them” in a discourse that systematically produces the Third orld as Ather9+ such Arientalism deploys considerable 8symbolic violence9 AG.stersonD 1 11)! This is doneD

cr.ciallyD in order to prod.ce 9oth P Ethe Third orld and Ethe estO Ai9id! 11)!


Critical Geography K 1#

3orders Jin) 3orders are a urocentric notion which re7inscribe racism+ patriarchy and are responsible for the spreading of state power *aasi '((5 V7nssiD 7nssi +aasi is +ro,essor and 8ead o, the %epart&ent o,

GeographyD Uniersity o, ;.l.D Finland! EBordering paceD Chapter 1 The Changing %isco.rses on +olitical Bo.ndaries Mapping the Bac(gro.ndsD Conte@ts and ContentsD pp 1"<1W 7ltho.gh regional

trans,or&ation see&s to 9e a perpet.ally accelerating pheno&enonD *e hae ,or a long ti&e 9een .sed to liing *ith certain large
hegemonic masculinityD pro,essional :.risdictionsD scienti4c controersiesD gro.p

rightsD i&&igration or contentio.s politicsD and this list is 9y no &eans [email protected]e!X Geographers hae also e@panded their traditional ideas o, political 9o.ndaries as ,rozen lines and hae 9eg.n to &ap the roles and ,.nctions o, 9o.ndaries as instit.tionsD sy&9ols and disco.rses that are YspreadL eery*here in society D so that they are not con4ned to the 9order areas the&seles A+aasiD 1)! 7ttention has 9een paid to boundary7drawing practicesD *hether concept.al and cartographicD i&aginary and act.alD or social and aesthetic A;LT.athail and %al9yD 1#! These practices are always part of broader social action and hae typically 9een D i!e! the construction of based on the processes of KAtheringL symbolic%cultural boundaries between KusL and Kthe AtherL. patializations o, identityD nation and dangerD ,or instanceD are e@a&ples o, 9o.ndary

Critical Geography K 1

policyD &edia disco.rses and pop.lar c.lt.re A+aasiD 200-a!X 7nother topical e@a&ple o, 9o.ndary< prod.cing practices concerns geopolitically challenging spatializations 9ased on s.pra
9o.ndaries *ill nor&ally raise dra&atic >.estions on s.ch the&es as citizenshipD identityD political loyaltyD [email protected] incl.sion and the ends o, the state! These >.estions are increasingly i&portant in the present *orldD characterized as it is 9y the Qo*s o, econo&ic assetsD in,or&ationD re,.gees and i&&igrants! Inspired 9y these see&ingly 9order.estionD and *e certainly *ill not 9e a9le to *rite 9o.ndaries o= in o.r acade&ic disc.ssions! hat is

needed is a deeper scr.tiny o, the social practices and disco.rses in *hich 9o.ndaries are prod.ced and reprod.ced! I *ill arg.e in this paper that state po*er and the ideas o, soereigntyD citizenship and identity still proide the socialD political and c.lt.ral ,ra&e*or( ,or YreadingL the [email protected] 9.t si&.ltaneo.sly re
perspectie is there,ore ineita9le in any acco.nt on the &eanings o, political 9o.ndaries! This paper *ill there,ore 9egin *ith a 9rie, analysis o, the history o, state territorialityD 9e,ore reQecting on di=erent 9o.ndary dra*ing practices and the &eanings o, 9o.ndaries as ideologiesD ,or&s o, sy&9olis& and &ar(ers o, identity! 7 critical analysis *ill then 9e &ade o, the contrasting 9o.ndary narraties that are c.rrently e&erging in the glo9alizing *orld! This *ill 9e ,ollo*ed 9y so&e ðodological s.ggestions ,or ,.t.re 9order research!

3orders turn the case. Salter (5AMar( B! +ro,essor at the chool o, +olitical t.diesD Uniersity o, ;tta*a +h!%!D +olitical cienceD Uniersity o, British Col.&9iaD anco.erD 1 M!c!D International 6elationsD 'ondon chool o, cono&icsD 'ondonD 15 B!7! A8onsD +olitics and 'i9eral t.diesD Broc( UniersityD t! CatharinesD 1/ E7t the Threshold o, ec.rity 7 Theory o, International Borders Glo9al .reillance and +olicing BordersD ec.rityD IdentityD + -)<50D 2005D lia Z.rei( and Mar( B! alterD eds!TK8 e &ight point to three dyna&ics o, this 9order control &echanis& the *ea(nesses o, 9io&etricsD the reliance on technological 4@es to an inherently psycho




Citi#enship Jin) ?ou reinscribe the colonial practice of citi#enship at the root of modern surveillance practices. 3erdaD doctoral candidate at he +rinceton depart&ent o, sociologyD '(14 Aael BerdaD EManaging %angero.s +op.lations Colonial 'egacies o, ec.rity and .reillanceD 'ate 201-D http$$papers!ssrn!co&$sol-$papers!c,&[ a9stractid?22"0)CHF Fe* actiities reeal the po*er o, the &odern state &ore than &onitoring 9ordersD control o, pop.lation &oe&ent AMongia 1 classi4cation o, s.9:ects and segregation o, gro.psAoysal 1/ and iss.ing identity cards ATorpey \ Caplan 2001! Constr.cting &apsD &onitoring entry o, ,oreignersD processing passports are all central to political regi&es as they are constr.cted and e@perienced 9y 9oth ciil serants and the p.9lic AG.pta 2012! In colonial regi&esD

direct iolence proed ine=ectie *hen s.9:ects Qed ,ro& the control o, the stateD so &ore sophisticated ,or&s o, control thro.gh doc.&entation and s.reillance *ere deeloped Acott 200! +artic.larly in British coloniesD a plethora o, s.reillance ðods *ere esta9lished to &onitor Edangero.s pop.lations AKe&p 200/ traelling passesD distinctie zones and per&it regi&es in gypt AMitchell 2002D India and +a(istan AZa&indarD 200" o.th 7,rica Aans 1" and Israel Ahenha and Berda 200! istories of surveillance of

movement in North ,merica and urope have shown their fundamental ties to the ma)ing of citi#enship MZa&indar 200"! 8o*eerD in colonies and post<

colonies these technologies *ere perpet.ated to control displace&ent and [email protected] o, those classi4ed as re,.gees AZ.rei( 2011D intr.dersD illegal aliensD and &igrant *or(ers! The legacies o, colonial syste&s that &anaged pop.lation &oe&ent ,or sec.rity p.rposesD contri9.ted to the c.rrent glo9al &o9ility regi&e organized aro.nd a trinity o, threats I&&igrationD cri&e and terror Aha&ir 2005! The shi,t ,ro& sec.ring territory to &onitoring pop.lation 9egins in colonies! colonial po*ers seized political soereignty oer territories ,orthe p.rposes o, hen e@traction or strategic po*erD they treated s.9:ect pop.lations as ,.nda&entally in,erior Atein&etz 200#! Colonial state ad&inistrations .sed t*o sets o, la*s and practices that hae 9een de4ned as Ethe r.le o, colonial di=erence AChatter:ee 1- la*s ,or the r.lersD and la*s ,or the s.9:ect pop.lations! Contin.o.s

iolence and e@traction ðods e@acer9ated the hostility o, local pop.lations that *ere 9eca&e ocially ie*ed as s.spect and dangero.s! Michele Fo.ca.lt o&itted the ad&inistratie history o, the colonies *hen he o9sered the shi,t ,ro& estphalian soereignty to practices o, goern&entalityD *hich he de4ned as a Epo*er that has the pop.lation as its targetD political econo&y as its &a:or ,or& o, (no*ledge and apparat.ses o, sec.rity as its essential technical ele&ent AFo.ca.lt 200" 10#! In the coloniesD as pop.lation &oe&ent *ithin the state 9eca&e the &a:or pro9le& o, colonial r.le A'egg 2011D the sec.rity apparat.s *ent ,ro& 9eing a technical ele&ent to the ery *ay the colonial goern&ent de4ned the pop.lation and its relationship to the state! There,oreD practices o, sec.rity and s.reillance *ere no longer separate ,ro& the political econo&y and 9.rea.cratic ad&inistration ! Ptate o, &ergencyO in the colonies *as .sed as an elastic categoryD stretching oer riots and ins.rgenciesD as *ell as to allo* ,or colonial capitalis&! ent.ally Le&ergencyL *as .sed in sit.ation o, danger that can neer 9e [email protected]ely anticipated or codi4ed in adance A8.ssain 200- 1! 'egal e&ergency *as instit.tionalized and 9eca&e the practical ,o.ndation o, colonial goern&ent! &ergency la*s in the colonies gae po*ers to ocers to .se e@tre&e &eas.resD 9.t neer speci4ed against *hich pop.lations these tools co.ld 9e .sed! In order to t.rn the e&ergency la*s into ad&inistratie practiceD pop.lation had to 9e categorized on t*o a@es de&ographic traits



space to &anaging &onitoring pop.lation changes later *ith processes o, decolonization and gro*ing econo&ic ine>.alities AJopp(e 1# Gilroy 2005! %ecolonization and s.9se>.ent i&&igrations ,ro& less a^.ent to &ore a^.ent parts o, the glo9e created a E&o9ility regi&e o, s.spicion that conQates cri&eD i&&igration and terroris& thro.gh 9iosocial pro4ling Aha&ir 2005 in *hich .reillance is standardized and no longer resered ,or s.spicio.s persons! hen Fo.ca.lt 4nally ac(no*ledged the role o, the colonies in the shi,t o, ,oc.s ,ro& sec.ring territory to control o, pop.lationD he called it a E9oo&erang e=ect colonial models were brought bac) to the

west so it “could practice something resembling coloni#ation+ or internal colonialism...on itself AFo.ca.lt 200-D 10-! In the a,ter&ath o, $1D emergency laws have institutionali#ed and standardi#ed the surveillance o, citizen

pop.lations and proided it *ith de&ocratic legiti&acy! The paradig&atic shi,t ,ro& sec.ring territory to controlling pop.lation that 9egan *ith decolonization has crystallized into ,or&al organizations and sec.rity is no longer the [email protected]e 9.siness o, &inistries o, de,ense! In 200-D the depart&ent o, 8o&eland ec.rity co&9ined i&&igration serices AFernandez 2005 *ith sec.rityD intelligenceD police and 9order &anage&ent! In 200"D The UKOs &inistry o, interior esta9lished the ;ce o, sec.rity and co.nter
and s.reillance o=ers .s a gate*ay to .nderstand i&pacts o, colonialis& and &odernity on the conte&porary e@perience o, the stateD *here sec.rity threats are no longer created 9y *arD 9.t 9y pop.lation &oe&ent in daily li,e!

The concept of citi#enship has an intricate historical connection to whiteness and masculinity. Fn its development its primary purpose became to delineate between those included excluded society. Colonialism used driven this implicitly exclusivevs attribute to in develop a docile population by the pursuit of citi#enship Dlenn L( Aelyn GlennD a +ro,essor o, Gender \ o&enLs t.dies and o, thnic t.dies at the Uniersity o, Cali,orniaD Ber(eleyD The Changing Terrain o, 6ace and thnicityD 200/ In this chapterD I e@a&ine citizenship as one o, the principal instit.tions thro.gh *hich .ne>.al race and gender relations hae 9een constit.ted and also contested in the United tates! Citizenship has 9een (ey to ine>.ality 9eca.se it has 9een .sed to

dra* 9o.ndaries 9et*een those incl.ded as &e&9erso, the co&&.nity and entitled to respectD protectionD and rights and those *ho are [email protected] and th.s denied recognition and rights! FirstD I e@a&ine the ideological and &aterial roots o, [email protected] in estern concepts o, citizenship! I then e@plore shi,ting 9o.ndaries o, [email protected] sho*ing that there has not 9een a linear process o, increasing incl.sienessD 9.t rather a &.ch &ore .neen and contested process! ThirdD I e@a&ine ario.s approaches to .nderstanding and e@plaining race and gender [email protected] in 7&erican citizenship despite its ,ra&ing in the rhetoric o, .niersal rights! I arg.e ,or an approach that ie*s ascriptie

[email protected] and strati4cation as central toD rather than a deiation ,ro&D 7&erican conceptions o, citizenship! FinallyD I deelop a concept o, citizenship that considers not only the de4nitions inscri9ed in the U!! Constit.tionD la*sD and co.rt decisionsD and other ,or&al doc.&ents 9.t also localized practices in *hich local ocials as *ell as &e&9ers o, the p.9lic en,orce and challenge the 9o.ndaries o, citizenship and the rights associated *ith



it!6;;T ;F _C'UI;N IN%+N%NC<%+N%NC 7N% +UB'IC<+6I7T%II% ince

the earliest days o, the nationD the idea o, *hiteness has 9een closely tied to the notions o, independence and sel,.est and seiz.re o, territory ,ro& indigeno.s peoples! Its econo&y *as deeloped to proide ra* &aterials ,or the .ropean &ar(et and relied on ario.s ,or&s o, coercie la9orD incl.ding chattel slaery! I&agining non< .ropean Eothers as dependent and lac(ing the capacity ,or sel,
*hiteness 9.t &asc.line *hiteness that *as 9eing constr.cted in the disco.rse on citizenship! IndeedD the association o, rep.9lican citizenship *ith &asc.linity had een &ore ancient roots than race! 7s the 7&erican colonists str.ggled to artic.late their ca.se in the str.ggle ,or independence ,ro& nglandD they har(ed 9ac( to classical conceptions that associated patriotis& and p.9lic irt.e *ith &asc.linity! 7s 6ogers &ith A1#D 2// arg.esD

E7&erican rep.9licans identi4ed citizenship *ith &aterial sel,.ation o, &asc.linity *ith actiity in the p.9lic do&ain o, the econo&yD politicsD and the &ilitary *as dra*n in e@plicit contrast the e>.ation o, ,e&ininity *ith the actiities o, daily &aintenance carried o.t in the priate do&estic sphere! Those i&&.red in the do&estic sphereR*o&enD childrenD serantsD and other dependentsR*ere not considered ,.ll &e&9ers o, the political co&&.nity

Citi#enship is a way of ethnically cleansing the nation state. Torney ') John Torpey is an 7ssistant +ro,essor o, ociology and Chair o, the International t.dies Fac.lty Board at the Uniersity o, Cali,orniaD IrineD The Invention of the Passport! IG This 9oo( e@a&ines so&e o, the 9ac(gro.nd to s.ch e=orts to identi,y and trac( the &oe&ents o, ,oreigners! The st.dy concentrates on the historical deelop&ent o, passport controls as a *ay o,

ill.&inating the instit.tionalization o, the idea o, the $nation7state$ as a prospectively homogeneous ethnocultural unit D a pro:ect that necessarily entailed e=orts to reg.late peopleLs &oe&ents! et 9eca.se nation


re,.sal o, entry into speci4c territories! I arg.e thatD in the co.rse o, the past ,e* cent.riesD states hae s.ccess,.lly .s.rped ,ro& rial clai&ants s.ch as ch.rches and priate enterprises the &onopoly o, the legiti&ate &eans o, &oe&ent < that 2 T8 INNTI;N ;F T8 +7+;6T isD their deelop&ent as states

has depended on e=ectiely disting.ishing 9et*een citizens$s.9:ects and possi9le interlopersD and reg.lating the &oe&ents o, each! This process o, &onopolization is associated *ith the ,act that states must develop the capacity to $embrace$ their own citi#ens in order to extract from them the resources they need to reproduce themselves over time. tatesL a9ility to

e&9race their o*n s.9:ects and to &a(e distinctions 9et*een nationals and non< nationalsD and to trac( the &oe&ents o, persons in order to s.stain the 9o.ndary 9et*een these t*o gro.ps A*hether at the 9order or notD has depended to a considera9le e@tent on the creation o, doc.&ents that &a(e the releant di=erences andaltho.gh th.s en,orcea9le! +assportsD as identi4cation cards o, ario.s (indsD hae 9een central to these(no*a9le processesD doc.&entary controlsason*ell &oe&ent and identi4cation hae 9een &ore or less stringently deeloped and en,orced in di=erent co.ntries at ario.s ti&es!



Citi#enship 3iopower Fnternal Jin) Sovereignty /%,7 Citi#enship is rooted in biopolitical power that reduces alterity to bare life. Oembyas 1( AMichalinos Ze&9yas !D The ;pen Uniersity o, Cypr.s!D E7ga&9enOs

Theory o, Biopo*er and I&&igrants$6e,.gees$7syl.& ee(ers %isco.rses o, Citizenship and the I&plications For C.rric.l.& Theorizing!D+ages )<#KM 7ga&9enOs analysis o, 9iopo*er o=ers a al.a9le 9asis ,or deeloping an alternatie re< sponse to the li9eral$h.&anitarian disco.rses o, citizenshipD 9eca.se 7ga&9en traces and speci< 4es e@plicitly the pro9le&atic in the priority gien to national sec.rity and citizenship oer &oral o9ligation to the ;ther A+apastergiadisD 200)! 'i9eral and h.&anitarian disco.rses gro.nded in h.&an rights or principles o, :.stice re&ain 9lind to the 9iopolitical aspects analyzed in 7ga&< 9enOs *or( A(D 200)! The pro9le& *ith li9eral$h.&anitarian arg.&ents is that they appropriate the 4g.re o, the ;ther in *ays that Eelide the s.9stantie di=erences 9et*een *ays o, 9eing displaced ,ro& Pho&e A7h&edD 2000D p! 5! %i=erences are concealed 9y .niersalizing the condition o, displace&ent and 9y placing all i&&igrants$ re,.gees$asyl.& see(ers into a sing.lar categoryD as i, they all e@perience the sa&e thing! 7ga&9enOs pointR*hich ta(es hi& 9eyond a ,a&iliar criti>.e

o, re:ecting sing.laritiesRis to >.estion the ery notions o, h.&anityD citizen< ship and the r.le o, la* *ithin the &odern nation state *hich &a(e possi9le the generalization o, the logic o, the ca&p ! In this part o, the articleD I *ant to consider ho* 7ga&9enOs ie*s can Ptro.9leO c.rrent .nderstandings o, citizenship ed.cation A6ichardson \ BladesD 200) and e@pand the set o, &eanings aro.nd citizenship!X In their reie* o, conte&porary disco.rses o, citizenshipD Knight 79o*itz

and 8arnish A200) .rge ed.cators and c.rric.l.& theorists to 9.ild on the strong array o, dierse critical disco.rses o, citizenship Ae!g!D critical citizenshipsD transnationalis& 9eca.se these disco.rses challenge traditional de4nitions o, 9o.nded &e&9ership and p.sh Eagainst traditional 9o.nda< ries o, agencyD identityD and &e&9ership Ap! )#0! Cos&opolitan AN.ss9a.&D 1"D transna< tional ABa.9`c(D 1/ and post< national AoysalD 1/

ie*s hae challenged nor&atie7ltho.gh &eanings &e&9ershipD citizenship practiceD and ed.cation! criticalo, andidentityD transnational perspecties are certainly incl.ded in scholarly de9atesD point o.t Knight 79o*itz and 8arnish A200)D Ethe c.rrent ,or&alD ta.ght c.rric.l.& o, citizenship prod.ces a relatiely narro* scope and set o, &eanings ,or *hat citizenship is and can 9e Ap! )5"! The >.estion is 8o* can 7ga&9enOs ideas enrich the c.rrent ta.ght c.rric.l.& o, citizenship[X For 7ga&9enD to t.rn only to li9eral$h.&anitarian Ae!g!D h.&an rights disco.rses in ad< dressing the sit.ation o, others Ai!e!D i&&igrants$re,.gees$asyl.& see(ersD *itho.t also atte&pt< ing to thin( 9eyond s.ch disco.rsesD is to ,ail to recognize that Ethe ,ates o, h.&an rights and the nation
that it is ery i&portant to .nder< stand the deastating conse>.ences o, 9o.nded &e&9ership critical citizenships can certainly align ,orces *ith 7ga&9enOs ie*s on interrogating 9o.nded &e&9ership!X Faced *ith increased &igration a,ter the econd orld arD .rope and the United tates in partic.larD hae grad.ally created an increasingly co&ple@ syste& o, ciic strati4cations and i&&igration proced.res that is dependent on 9o.nded &e&9ership

and the i&&i< grant$re,.gee$asyl.& see(er as a ,earso&e 4g.re *ho threatens Po.rO 9o.nded &e&9ership ATylerD 200)! The res.lts are &illions o, stateless people inside the territorial states and inh.< &ane citizenship and &igration policies and practices A(D 200)! 7s it has already 9een notedD 7ga&9enOs analysis reeals all the shortco&ings o, the intersection 9et*een ,earis& and li9eral$ h.&anitarian disco.rses o, citizenship that are still ,o.nded in territorial &ythsR&yths that ignore the 9iopolitical &atri@ AMincaD 200)!X 7ga&9en essentially as(s .s to see the



c.rrent :.ridico
o, 9elonging to the nation E9eco&es the stateOs g.iding political preocc.pa< tion! V!!!W It is *ithin this [email protected]e incl.sion!!!that the ery principle o, citizenship and the ideaAl o, 9elonging are 9orn Ap! ##! hen the nation3state 9egins to syste&atically isolate a 9are li,eRendo*ed *ith citizenship PrightsO or notRthen citizenship 9eco&es de4na9le only in ter&s o, the ca&pD as 7ga&9en asserts!X Critical and transnational disco.rses on citizenship can .se 7ga&9enOs ie*s to raise >.es< tions a9o.t identityD &e&9ership and citizenshipR>.estions that are iss.es o, p.9lic de9ateD yet in c.rric.lar te@ts s.ch >.estions are &arginalized AKnight 79o*itz \ 8arnishD 200)! For e@a&pleD i&&igrants$re,.gees$asyl.& see(ers can 9e considered as Pli&it conceptsO Ae!g!D see 7ga&9enD 1/ to radically call into >.estion the ,.nda&ental categories o, the

nation3stateD incl.ding rights and citizenship! I&&igrants$re,.gees$asyl.& see(ers are po*er,.l 4g.res that inite ed.catorsD c.rric.l.& theoristsD st.dentsD and the *hole co&&.nity to con,ront the politics o, *hat 7ga&9en has descri9ed as Pincl.sie [email protected]!O This incl.sie [email protected] 9rings to &ind KristeaOs A1#2 ie* o, the a9:ect!X The a9:ect ,or Kristea is an o9:ect *hich is [email protected] 9.t *hich still challenges Eits &aster A1#2D p! 2! 7ltho.gh it is [email protected] it is si&.ltaneo.sly incl.ded in that it contin.es to dist.r9 9orders A9et*een P.sO and Pthe&O and nor&s! Th.s the a9:ect Edoes not stand opposed to the s.9:ectD at a distanceD de4na9le! The a9:ect is other than the s.9:ect 9.t is only :.st the other side o, the 9order Ao.ngD 10D p! 1//! hat is o, interest here is an .nderstanding o, a9:ection as that *hich dist.r9s 9orders and nor&s s.ch as rights and citizenships!



*referential Treatment Jin) -nited States and allied citi#ens are given preferential treatment when it comes to surveillance7 this practice is unsustainable and replicates violence Chesterman 11 Vi&on Chester&anD [<[<2011D E;ne Nation Under .reillance 3 7 Ne* ocial Contract to %e,end Freedo& itho.t acri4cing 'i9erty! D %reier T A2011! E;ne Nation Under .reillance 3 7 Ne* ocial Contract to %e,end Freedo& itho.t acri4cing 'i9erty! :ipitecD ol! 2! A.rnn9nde000<2<-0))W<%% EThis instance o, the &ore general rel.ctance to share intelligence *ithin an international organization s.ch as the United Nations s.ggests that a &ore prod.ctie &eans o, challenging speci4c listings &ay dra* .pon the 9ilateral intelligence relationships descri9ed in Chapter one! 7s the United tates

Fro& the adoption o, ,or&al de
favours the citi#ens and residents of allies of the -nited States+ is unsustainable. IndeedD there are already indications that in co.ntries not in a position li(e BritainD Ger&anyD CanadaD *edenD or *itzerland to lo99y the United tatesD sanctions are already 9eing i&ple&ented selectiely! It no* see&s pro9a9le that the greatest pro9le& ,or the e=ectieness o, the regi&e *ill not 9e challenges ,ro& co.rts 9.t the rel.ctance o, states to addV to the list! This *as 4rst identi4ed as a pro9le& in late 2002D *ith so&e states citing practical and legal constraints preenting the& ,ro& s.9&itting the na&es o, indiid.als and entities .nder ongoing

7dancing this de9ate *o.ld pro4t ,ro& closer e@a&ination o, the history o, intelligence sharing *ith international organizationsD especially in the conte@t o, i&ple&enting regi&es s.ch as *eapons inspections in Ira>! =ectie .se o, intelligence 9y s.ch organizations depends on 9oth a de&onstrated a9ility to receie con4dential in,or&ation appropriately and a capacity to assess its acc.racyD releanceD and i&plications!112 In the repertoire o, the UN ec.rity Co.ncil there isD in ,actD so&e e@perience in dra*ing .pon sensitie in,or&ation to inestigationD or e@pressing  Econcerns a9o.t the legality o, listing indiid.als prior to a :.dicial 4nding o, c.lpa9ility!111

i&ple&ent Co.ncil decisions in the practice o, the ad hoc international cri&inal tri9.nalsD *hich hae had to 9alance the need to protect so.rces and ðodsD the rights o, an acc.sedD and the integrity o, the tri9.nal itsel,!



Security Jin) ?our scenarios only fuel securiti#ation+ which is the root cause of racist mass surveillance. 2undnani and 2umarD 7r.n K.ndnaniD pro,essor at NUD and a.thor on do&estic s.reillance %eepa K.&ar is a pro,essor o, Middle ast t.dies at 6.tgers UniersityD '(15A7r.n K.ndnani and %eepa K.&arD pring 2015D E6aceD s.reillanceD and e&pireD http$$isreie*!org$iss.e$)$race.alities *ere &eant to hae 9e a thing o, the past! 7,rican 7&ericans and M.sli& 7&ericans placed their hopes in ;9a&aD oting ,or hi& in large n.&9ers! B.t in the so
.ndoc.&ented i&&igrants has 9een achieed thro.gh the 9.ilding o, a &ilitarized *all 9et*een Me@ico and the United tatesD h.gely e@panding the U 9order patrolD and progra&s s.ch as ec.re Co&&.nitiesD *hich ena9les local police depart&ents to access i&&igration data9ases! ec.re Co&&.nities *as introd.ced in 200# and stepped .p .nder ;9a&a! It has res.lted in &igrants 9eing increasingly li(ely to 9e pro4ledD arrestedD and i&prisoned 9y local police ocers D 9e,ore 9eing passed to the ,ederal a.thorities ,or deportation! Undoc.&ented &igrants can no longer hae any contact *ith police ocers *itho.t ris(ing s.ch o.tco&es! There is an irony in the *ay that ,ears o, Eillegal i&&igration threatening :o9s collapse and the p.9lic haecontract 9ecoðe stand.o 9y enco.raging a precario.s la9or &ar(et! CapitalD a,ter allD does not *ant to end i&&igration 9.t to pro4t ,ro& Ea ast e@ploita9le la9or pool that e@ists .nder precario.s conditionsD that does not en:oy the ciilD political and la9or rights o, citizens and that is hat brings together these di>erent systems of racial oppression@mass incarceration+ mass surveillance+ and mass deportation@is a security logic that holds the i&perial state as necessary to disposa9le thro.gh deportation!))

(eeping E7&erican ,a&ilies Acoded *hite sa,e ,ro& threats a9road and at ho&e ! The ideological *or( o, the last ,e* decades has c.ltiated not only racial sec.rity ,ears 9.t also an ass.&ption that the sec.rity state is necessary to (eep E.s sa,e ! In this senseD sec.rity has 9eco&e the ne* psychological *age to aid the reallocation o, the *el,are stateOs social *age to*ard ho&eland sec.rity and to *in s.pport ,or e&pire in the age o, neoli9eralis&! Thro.gh the notion o, sec.rityD social and econo&ic an@ieties generated 9y the .nraeling o, the Keynesian social co&pact hae 9een channeled to*ard the Blac( or Bro*n street cri&inalD *el,are recipientD or terrorist! In additionD as .san Fal.di has arg.edD since $11D this

homeland in need of security has been symboli#ed+ above all+ by the white domestic hearth of the prefeminist =fties+ once again threatened by mythical frontier enemies+ hidden subversives+ and racial aggressors.! That this idea o, the ho&eland coincides c.lt.rally *ith Ethe denigration o, capa9le *o&enD the &agni4cation o, &anly



&enD the heightened call ,or do&esticityD the search ,or and sancti4cation o, helpless girls points to the *ays it is gendered as *ell as racialized!)"


Critical Geography K -0

*ostcolonialism%&ulticulturalism Jin) *ostcolonilism%multiculturalism serves as an alibi for colonial practices that have become more intense than ever. &iyoshiD pro,essor o, Japanese literat.re and c.lt.re at Uniersity o, Cali,orniaD 1!!4 AMasao MiyoshiD .&&er 1- EIn the Jo.rnal Critical In>.iry 7 Borderless orld[ Fro& Colonialis& to Transnationalis& and the %ecline o, the Nation tate pp "2"<"-0 CHF The circ.&stances s.rro.nding this process o, li9eration and independenceD ho*eerD hae no *idely accepted narratie as yet! %oes colonialis& only s.rie today in a ,e* places s.ch as IsraelD o.th 7,ricaD MacaoD IrelandD and 8ong Kong[ %oes the rest o, the *orld en:oy the ,reedo& o, postcolonialis&[

The pro9le& *e ,ace no* is ho* to .nderstand todayLs glo9al con4g.ration o, po*er and c.lt.re that is 9oth si&ilar and di=erent is
preoccupation with $postcoloniality$ and multiculturalism loo)s suspiciously li)e another alibi to conceal the actuality of global politics. This paper arg.es that colonialism is even m ore active now in the ,or& o, transnational

corporatis&! e &ight 9egin *ith the 9eginning o, the decolonization process!" The end o, the cold *ar in 1# has ena9led .s to loo( 9ac( at the history o, the past hal,
does see& .ndenia9leD ho*eerD that *hile oppression and s.=ering contin.e .na9atedD the ad&inistratie andersion occ.pational &ode o, colonialis& is irreersi9ly 9eing replaced 9y an econo&ic especially a,ter the end o, the cold *ar! To co&plicate the sit.ation ,.rtherD the stat.s o, the a9srcines in settle&ent societies s.ch as 7.straliaD Tai*anD the United tatesD CanadaD and the +aci4c islandsD to ta(e rando& e@a&plesD is ,ar ,ro& clari4ed! erio.s legal disp.tes are distinct possi9ilities in the near ,.t.re in so&e o, these areasD ,or e@a&pleD in 8a*aii and 7.stralia! There are si@ interrelated deelop&ents in post<orld ar II historyD none o, *hich sho.ld or co.ld 9e considered in isolation! It is indeed possi9le to arg.e that any one o, these deelop&ents needs to 9e st.died in close con:.nction *ith eery other! They are A1 the cold *ar Aand its end A2 decolonization A- transnational corporatis& A/ hightech reol.tion A5 ,e&inis& A) the eniron&ental crisis! There are ad:acent c.lt.ral coordinates s.ch as post&odernis&D pop.larization o, c.lt.reD c.lt.ral st.diesD de.ires ,.rther e@a&ination in a di=erent conte@t! decolonization thro.gh a ne* *orld order Adie ne.e ;rdn.ng and se(ai shin chits.:o in 7@is slogans<*as a total sha& the colonized o, the

*orld that had sided *ith their &aster states in orld ar II seized the day and *o.ld not settle ,or less than independence and a.tono&y! 'i9eration *as de&anded and allo*ed to ta(e place oer seeral s.9se>.ent decadesD al9eit .nder arying circ.&stances! 7,ter orld ar IID independence appeared to hae ended the h.&iliating and e@ploitie colonial do&ination that had lasted any*here ,ro& decades to cent.ries in co.ntries coering at least #5 percent o, the earthLs land s.r,ace! 7nd yet ,reedo& and sel,


neither e>ected emancipation and e
at the hands o, di=erent agencies! ;ld co&pradors too( oerD and it *as ,ar ,ro& rare that they *ent on to protect their old &astersL interest in e@change ,or co&pensation! Th.s the *el,are o, the general pop.lation sa* little i&proe&ent in ,actD in recent years it has *orsened in &any old colonies *ith the possi9le e@ceptions o, the ast 7sian Ne*ly Ind.strialized cono&ies ANIs and the 7ssociation o, o.theast 7sian Nations A77N!# The postcolonial deterioration that Basil %aidson recently called the 9lac( &anLs 9.rden *as a res.lt o, do.9le processes o, colonization and decolonization D *hich *ere ine@trica9ly inter&eshed! e are all ,a&iliar *ith the earlier stage .

,s the coloni#ers drew

borders at will+ Those inscribing a map+ tribes were Ioined or fragmented. whotheir wereappropriation encircled by aon more or less arbitrary cartographic form were inducted into servitude on behalf of the distant and unseen metropolis. estern culture was to be the normative civili#ation+ and the indigenous cultures were banished as premodern and marginal! 7nd altho.gh s.9altern resistance proed ,ar &ore resilient than anticipatedD and colonial

progra&s *ere neer really ,.l4lled any*hereD the ictorLs presence *as po*er,.l eno.gh in &ost places to &aintain a se&9lance o, control and order despite .nceasing resistance and opposition! ith the re&oal o, ,or&al colonialis& a,ter orld ar IID the cartographic .nit that constit.ted a colony *as no* perceied 9oth 9y the #! In &any regions o, the *orldD there *ere so&e i&proe&ents in general *el,are! 7s to starationD ,or instanceD the ratio o, the chronically .nderno.rished to the total pop.lation in the Middle astD o.th 7&ericaD and 7sia has 9een red.ced to nearly one
a.tono&o.s territoryD that isc.lt.reD to sayD national a &odern nation
disr.pted site that had in the precolonial days operated on a logic and history altogether di=erent! The li9erated citizens o, a colony no* had to renegotiate the conditions o, a nation.alities and contradictions a&ong ario.s religionsD tri9esD regionsD classesD gendersD and ethnicities that had 9een thro*n together in any gien colonial territory! 7nd prod.ction and distri9.tion *ere o,ten horrendo.sly inecient! The golden age o, a nation< stateLs &e&ory proed to 9e neither p.re nor:.stD nor een aaila9leD 9.t a .topian drea& o,ten t.rned into a 9loody night&are! The hatred o, the oppressors *as eno.gh to &o9ilize to*ard li9eration 9.t *as inade>.ate ,or the &anage&ent o, an independent state! 7s Fanon had predicted early in the ga&eD atte&pts at natiis& indeed ended in disastro.s corr.ption and sel,



Critical Geography K --

3orders Surveillance Jin) ?our a> is Iust the last stage in the -S process of moving its most egregious surveillance of immigrants outside of its boarders Torney ') John Torpey is an 7ssistant +ro,essor o, ociology and Chair o, the International t.dies Fac.lty Board at the Uniersity o, Cali,orniaD IrineD The Invention of the Passport! IG %.ring the sa&e period *hen the la* had co&e

to i&pose strict doc.&entary surveillance on the Chinese in response to the *ishes o, political interests in the estern states o, the co.ntryD the reg.lation o, i&&igration *as 9eco&ing &ore and &ore clearly .nderstood as a &andate o, the ,ederal goern&ent in the United tates! 8earings 9y :oint congressional co&&ittees to deter&ine the goals o, U i&&igration policy had led to reco&&endations ai&ing not to restrict i&&igrationD 9.t to si,t itD to separate the desira9le ,ro& the .ndesira9le i&&igrantsD and to per&it only those to land on o.r shores *ho hae certain physical and &oral >.alities! 2) In p.rs.it o, this o9:ectieD i&&igration reg.lation ca&e to ,oc.s on those *ho &ight 9e a 9.rden on the p.9lic p.rse and those regarded as .nassi&ila9le or other*ise .n*orthy o, incl.sion in the 7&erican ciic 9ody! 7gainst this 9ac(gro.ndD Congress adopted the I&&igration 7ct o, 1#1D *hich placed the reg.lation o, i&&igration .nder the a.thority o, the ecretary o, the Treas.ryD created a ne* .perintendent o, I&&igration *ithin the Treas.ry %epart&entD strengthened the en,orce&ent proisions o, earlier la*sD and installed t*enty<,o.r 9order inspection stations ! 7ll

o, these &eas.res contri9.ted to the 9.rea.cratic instit.tionalization o, i&&igration controlD *hich ,or the 4rst ti&e had 9eco&e national in character as a conse>.ence o, this legislation! et ,or the ti&e 9eingD Chinese i&&igration contin.ed to 9e reg.lated 9y the @cl.sion 7ctsD *hereas that ,ro& .rope *as goerned 9y the .perintendent o, I&&igration < a ,act thatD ironicallyD allo*ed the Chinese &ore lee*ay to challenge their o, treat&ent the co.rts! 2" In (eeping *ith the reco&&endations o, the congressional in>.iries into the ai&s 7&ericanini&&igration policyD the ad&inistratie str.ct.res called ,orth 9y the 1#1 la* *ere designed to ena9le the goern&ent to disting.ish 9et*een those *ho *ere tho.ght to 9e good 101 25 T8 INNTI;N ;F T8 +7+;6T candidates ,or 7&erican citizenshipD and those *ho *ere not! These priorities pro&oted a process *here9y all i&&igration *o.ld 9e ad&inistered 9y the sa&e 9.rea.cracy Aeen i, di=erent gro.ps o, potential i&&igrants *ere s.9:ected to di=erent policies! ith the

increasing prealence o, eugenics and other race7conscious approaches to population managementD the ran(s o, those held to 9e .n*orthy o, ad&ission into or citizenship in the United tates e@panded 9eyond the Chinese to incl.de a ariety o, gro.ps regarded as i&p.reD .ncleanD idioticD non*hiteD or incapa9le o, .nderstanding the principles o, rep.9licanis&! The proli,eration o, the categories o, [email protected] p.shed in the direction o, a &ore .ni,or& ad&inistration o, i&&igration controlD and in the early 100s the separate ad&inistration o, 7sian and .ropean i&&igrant strea&s disappeared as the dri,t to*ard the nationalization o, i&&igration reg.lation 9eca&e consolidated instit.tionally! In 10-D the *or( o, the Co&&issioner General o, I&&igration in the Treas.ry %epart&ent *as trans,erred to a ,.ll.isition o, the islands ,ro& pain! 7s U nationals < persons o*ing allegianceD *hether citizens or notD to the United tates < they co.ld not 9e s.9:ected to restrictie i&&igration la*s! IronicallyD ho*eerD the ac>.isition o, oerseas possessions s.ch as the +hilippines ,orced the U goern&ent to e@pand access to passports to a ariety o, non

Critical Geography K -/

7long *ith the gro*ing *orries a9o.t the racially in,eriorD concerns also spread that ario.s categories o, persons *o.ld render the 7&erican stoc( less *holeso&e in politicalD &oralD or &edical ter&s! The latter ,ear soon helped gie [email protected]ely to citizens! 2#

9irth to the +.9lic 8ealth erice and to legislation [email protected] those *ith contagio.s illnesses! U restrictions on the ad&ission o, the &edically d.9io.s sti&.lated the deelop&ent oerseas o, 9oth goern&ental and stea&ship co&pany e=orts to ins.re that *o.ld<9e e&igrants *o.ld pass &.ster *hen they arried in 7&erican ports! 2 Dradually+ many of the activities associated with -S 102 T;76% T8 C6UT7C7N T+ ;F N7TI;Nimmigrant inspection would be transferred abroad+ as control

of immigration moved from the territorial borders of the -nited States to the emigrant7sending countries themselves 7 a development that would dramatically enhance the capacity of states to restrict the in:ux of outsiders.

/omestic welfare drives the desire for boarder control Torney ') John Torpey is an 7ssistant +ro,essor o, ociology and Chair o, the International t.dies Fac.lty Board at the Uniersity o, Cali,orniaD IrineD The Invention of the Passport! IG The process thro.gh *hich states &onopolized the legiti&ate &eans o, &oe&ent th.s too( h.ndreds o, years to co&e to ,r.ition! It ,ollo*ed the shi,t o, orientations ,ro& the local to the national leel

that acco&panied the deelop&ent o, national states o.t o, the panoply o, e&pires and s&aller city
t.rnD helped to e@pand o.t*ard to the national 9orders the areas in *hich persons co.ld e@pect to &oe ,reely and *itho.t a.thorization! ent.allyD the principal 9o.ndaries that co.nted *ere those not o, &.nicipalitiesD 9.t o, nation< states! The process too( place .neenly in di=erent placesD ,ollo*ing the line *here &odern states replaced non.al position relatie to the stateD state controls on &oe&ent a&ong local spaces

*ithin their do&ains s.9sided and *ere replaced 9y restrictions that concerned the o.ter national 9o.ndaries o, states! Ulti&atelyD the a.thority to reg.late &oe&ent ca&e to 9e pri&arily a property o, the international syste& as a *hole < that isD o, nation
operate *ithin a state todayD especially *hen these are to the detri&ent o, partic.lar negatiely priileged stat.s gro.psD *e can relia9ly e@pect to 4nd an a.thoritarian state Aor *orse! The cases o, the oiet UnionD Nazi Ger&anyD apartheid< era o.th 7,ricaD and Co&&.nist ChinaAat least 9e,ore the 1#0s 9ear *itness to this generalization! The creation o, the &odern passport syste& and the .se o, si&ilar syste&s in the interior o, a ariety o, co.ntries < the prod.ct o, cent.ries
The point here is o9io.sly not that there is no .na.thorized Ainternational



&igrationD 9.t rather that s.ch &oe&ent is speci4cally illegal that isD *e spea( o, illegal Ao,tenD indeedD o, .ndoc.&ented &igration as a res.lt o, statesL &onopolization o, the legiti&ate &eans o, &oe&ent ! hat *e no* thin( o, as internal &oe&ent < a &eaningless and anachronistic notion 9e,ore the deelop&ent o, &odern states and the state syste& < has co&e to &ean &oe&ent *ithin national or nation

Critical Geography K -)

elfare Jin) /ecreased welfare surveillance will only ma)e boarder surveillance a more pressing state imperative. Torney ') John Torpey is an 7ssistant +ro,essor o, ociology and Chair o, the International t.dies Fac.lty Board at the Uniersity o, Cali,orniaD IrineD The Invention of the Passport! IG It is tr.e that the ne*ly per&anent passport controls that persisted a,ter the First orld ar generally applied not :.st to ,oreignersD 9.t to 9oth citizens and aliens! This *as a necessary o.tco&e o, desire to control 9orders against .n*anted entrantsD ho*eerD and aliens hadthe increasingly co&e to 9e seen as lac(ing any pri&a ,acie clai& to access to the territory o, a state other than their o*n! In the a9sence o, telltale &ar(ers s.ch as lang.age or s(in color < *hich are the&seles inconcl.sie as indicators o, oneLs national identityD o, co.rseD 9.t *hich nonetheless ,re>.ently 120 2 T;76% T8 C6UT7C7N T+ ;F N7TI;N hae 9een ta(en as s.ch < a personLs nationality si&ply cannot 9e deter&ined *itho.t reco.rse to doc.&ents! 7s an ascri9ed stat.sD it cannot 9e read o= a personLs appearance! The Are i&position o, passport controls 9y n.&ero.s est.ropean co.ntries and the United tates d.ring the First orld ar andtheir persistence a,ter the *ar *as an essential aspect o, that

reol.tion identi< ,tcatoire / that astly enhanced the a9ility o, goern&ents to identi,y their citizensD to disting.ish the& ,ro& non
historical forces such as the development of welfare states and the rise of labor movements see)ing to control access to Iobs and social bene=ts certainly played their part in promoting immigration controls and the sharpening of statesL capacities to distinguish between $them$ and $us. " et there *ere speci4cally political ,actors inoled as *ellD partic.larly the adance o, processes o, de&ocratization that increasingly 9ro.ght the indiid.al &e&9ers o, national states into closer relationship *ith states across the North 7tlantic *orld! The tighter connection 9et*een citizens and states as

a res.lt o, de&ocratization led to an intensi4ed preocc.pation *ith deter< &ining *ho is in and *ho is o.t *hen it ca&e to en:oying the 9ene4ts < 9oth political and econo&ic < o, &e&9ership in those states! This is one o, the *ays that de&ocratization pro&oted 9.rea.cratizationD a dyna&ic that e9er noted long ago! In the processD passports 9eca&e essential to the 9.rea.cratic ad&inistration o, &odern &ass &igrationD :.st as identity cards hae 9eco&e soðing li(e the c.rrency o, do&estic ad&inistrationD &ar(ing o.t eligi9les ,ro& ineligi9les in the areas o, otingD social sericesD and &.ch &ore 9esides!


Critical Geography K -"

Fnternet Breedom Jin) The free internet is Iust a space for corporate control of information. Cohen 1(! Alliot %! CohenD +h!%! Bro*n UniersityD ,o.nder and editor o, International Jo.rnal o, 7pplied +hilosophy and International Jo.rnal o, +hilosophical +ractice ethics editor o, Free In>.iry Magazine co<,o.nder and @ec.tie %irector o, the National +hilosophical Co.nseling 7ssociation AN+C7 and +resident o, the Instit.te o, Critical Thin(ing National Center ,or 'ogic
B.t it is not :.st the aerage 7&erican *ho is s.9:ect to 9eing &anip.lated the &ainstrea& &edia isD and has 9een so s.9:ect! Giant &edia corporations hae co&e largely .nder goern&ent inQ.ence or control! To a considera9le e@tentD this is d.e to consolidation! 7

relatiely ,e* n.&9er o, co&panies no* control all o, ca9le and net*or( T ANe*s CorpD General lectricD iaco&D %isneyD and Ti&e arner 9eing the pro&inent conglo&erates! These co&panies also hae :oint ent.res *ith the teleco& co&panies s.ch as 7T\T and Co&cast! 7ll o, these co&panies are 9eholden to the goern&ent ,or &edia o*nership capsD &ergersD ta@ 9rea(sD &ilitary contractsD and other &eans o, e@panding their 9otto& lines! They also hae lo99ies in Congress and the Federal Co&&.nications Co&&ission AFCC and areD there,oreD disinclined to report ne*s that strains their relationship *ith the goern&ent! 7 classic e@a&ple o, this is the lead<.p to the Ira> *ar! en the Ne* or( Ti&es *as relegated to >.oting goern&ent

spo(espersons in &a(ing the case ,or the B.sh ad&inistration to go to *ar in Ira>! 7n instr.ctie e@a&ple o, *hat can happen to a co&pany that re,.ses to cooperate *ith goern&ent is that o, H*est Co&&.nicationsD *hich re,.sed to assist the B.sh ad&inistration in its *arrantless s.reillance progra&!# 7ccording to the ,or&er C; o, H*estD Joseph +! NacchioD the B.sh ad&inistration had *ithdra*n l.cratie goern&ent contracts d.e to H*estOs re,.sal to co&ply *ith the directie to cooperate in its progra&! H*est had entered into t*o classi4ed goern&ent contracts and in 2000 and 2001D Nacchio participated in disc.ssions *ith high
*e cannot a=ord to place o.r 9lind tr.st in any goern&ent ad&inistration! B.t this &eans that *e need a igilant &edia to (eep .s in,or&ed ! Un,ort.natelyD the &ainstrea& corporate &edia has 9een asleep at the *heel and gien its insatia9le drie ,or pro4t &a@i&izationD and its reliance on the goern&ent to ,eed this appetiteD there is presently no good reason to we might conclude that the free and open architecture of the Fnternet provides the answer to our need to be )ept informed. Un,ort.natelyD as *ill 9e disc.ssed in Chapter "D the Fnternet is also in clear and present danger of becoming another branch of the corporate+ mainstream media. C.rrentlyD there are po*er,.l teleco&&.nication co&panies s.ch thin( that it *ill per,or& 9etter in the ,.t.re! o

as Co&cast see(ing to t.rn the ,ree and open architect.re o, the net into a Epay ,or play syste& according to *hich only co&panies that hae deep poc(ets *o.ld 9e a9le to a=ord an Internet presence! Conse>.entlyD these companiesD *hich incl.de the &a:or ca9le and 9roadcast &edia corporationsD would have the ability to control+ censor+ and otherwise manipulate the :ow of information thro.gh the Internet pipes! This *o.ld &ean the end o, net ne.trality and a 9rae ne* *orld o, Internet control!


Critical Geography K -#

*rivati#ation Shift The a> Iust leads to outsourcing of surveillance to private companies. *arton 15 A8eatherD 9egan as a co&&enter on the 9logs o, Bartcop and 7trios and la.nched her o*n 9log on Jan.ary 1D 200-D calling it 8.lla9alooD he *on the 2005 Ko.,a@ a*ard ,or 9log *riting and accepted the +a.l ellstone 7*ard on 9ehal, o, the progressie 9logosphere ,ro& the Ca&paign ,or 7&ericaLs F.t.re at their Ta(e Bac( 7&erica con,erence! %ig9y had initially (ept her identity secret and it *as *idely ass.&ed that %ig9y *as &ale .ntil she &ade an appearance at the 200" C7F con,erence to accept %ig9y since +rize *ritten at alon as 8eather %ig9y +arton! he the alsoa*ard! *on the 201/has 8ill&an ,orreg.larly ;pinion and 7nalysis Jo.rnalis&D March 1D 2015D E7 racial EBig Brother de9acle hy is the goern&ent spying on Blac( 'ies Matter protests[D Salon, http://www.salon.com/!"#/!$/"%/a&racial&'i(&'rother&de'acle&wh)&is&the&(overn ment&sp)in(&on&'lac*&lives&matter&protests/ ItOs co&,orting that *e hae the ass.rance o, eeryone ,ro& the president on do*n that the goern&ent has no interest in intr.ding on the lies o, ,ello* 7&ericans *itho.t ca.se as they did 9ac( in the 9ad old days! 7,ter allD in these days o, hyper a*areness oer the terrorist threatD it doesnOt ta(e &.ch i&agination to see ho* that sort o, thing co.ld get o.t o, handD so itOs i&portant that they ,ollo* the r.les! No* there *as a ti&e *hen the ca.se o, anti.ired that *e 9e e@tra<igilant 9eca.se the 6.ssians *ere co&ing and dissent *as closely &onitored 9y police and the FBI in order that the goern&ent (eep ta9s on all those potential co&&ie in4ltrators s.ch as Martin '.ther King and John 'ennon!b 7nd een >.ite recentlyD it *as ,o.nd that the

a.thorities had peace actiists .nder s.reillance in the *a(e o, $11! The ashington +ost reported in 200)P 7 data9ase &anaged 9y a secretie +entagon intelligence agency called Co.nterintelligence Field 7ctiityD or CIF7D *as ,o.nd last &onth to contain reports on at least ,o.r dozen anti*ar &eetings or protestsD &any o, college ca&p.ses! Ten peace actiists *ho handed o.t in pean.t 9.tter andthe& :elly on sand*iches o.tside 8alli9.rtonOs head>.arters in 8o.ston J.ne 200/ *ere reported as a national sec.rity threat! o *ere people *ho asse&9led at a H.a(er &eeting ho.se in 'a(e orthD Fla!D or protested &ilitary recr.iters at sites s.ch as Ne* or( UniersityD the tate Uniersity o, Ne* or( and ca&p.ses o, the Uniersity o, Cali,ornia at Ber(eley and at anta Cr.z!P The protesters *ere *ritten .p .nder a +entagon progra& called TalonD *hich is s.pposed to collect ra* data on threats to de,ense ,acilities in the United tates! CIF7D an agency created :.st .nder ,o.r years ago that no* incl.des nine directorates and &ore than 1D000 e&ployeesD is charged *ith *or(ing to preent terrorist attac(s!P The logic that peace actiists &.st 9e in leag.e *ith terrorists has neer 9een ade>.ately e@plainedD 9.t it ,ollo*s along the sa&e line o, tho.ght *hich leads conseraties to ass.&e that decadent le,t<*ing hippies are nat.ral allies o, M.sli& ,.nda&entalists! The great sage o, late 20th Cent.ry conseratie philosophyD 7nn Co.lterD said it 9est b e need to [email protected] people li(e John al(er V'indhW in order to physically inti&idate li9eralsD 9y &a(ing the& realize that they can 9e (illedD too! ;ther*iseD they *ill t.rn o.t to 9e o.tright traitors! b he later clari4ed that state&ent 9y sayingD Ehen I said *e sho.ld [email protected] John al(er 'indhD I &is

Critical Geography K -

do&estic s.reillance actiity sho.ld concern .s as *ell! For instanceD 'ee Fang reported this story at The Interceptb Me&9ers o, an FBI Joint Terroris& Tas( Force trac(ed the ti&e and location

o, a Blac( 'ies Matter protest last %ece&9er at the Mall o, 7&erica in Bloo&ingtonD MinnesotaD e&ail o9tained 9y The Intercept sho*s!b The e&ail ,ro& %aid ! 'ang,ello*D a t! +a.l police ocer and &e&9er o, an FBI Joint Terroris& Tas( ForceD in,or&s a ,ello* tas( ,orce &e&9er ,ro& the Bloo&ington police that EC8 :.st con4r&ed the M;7 protest I *as ta(ing to yo. a9o.t todayD ,or the

20th o, %C  1/00 ho.rs! C8 is a la* en,orce&ent acrony& ,or Econ4dential h.&an so.rce!P Je=rey anNestD an FBI special agent and Joint Terroris& Tas( Force s.perisor at the FBIOs Minneapolis oceD *as CCOd on the e&ail! The FBIOs Joint Terroris& Tas( Forces are 9ased in 10/ U!! cities and are &ade .p o, appro@i&ately /D000 ,ederalD state and local la* en,orce&ent ocials! The FBI characterizes the& as Eo.r nationOs ,ront line on terroris&!P It sho.ld 9e noted that this so.ali,y ,or that designation as *ell!b There is no eidence that anything li(e this happened in this Blac( 'ies Matter s.reillanceD 9.t those stories ill.strate :.st ho* incest.o.s all these police agencies are! ItOs not dic.lt to see ho* easy it is that

&e&9ers o, the :oint terrorist tas( ,orceD *hether local or ,ederal or 9othD &ight 9e doing *hat these agencies hae al*ays done R &onitor the peace,.l actiities o, 7&erican citizens protesting their goern&ent .nder the g.ise o, (eeping .s sa,e ,ro& ,oreign threats! hether their in,or&ation co&es ,ro& secret *iretaps or secret in,or&ants itOs *rong!b 7ll that is part o, an old story in 7&erican li,e and one *hich re>.ires that ciil li9ertarians 9e constantly igilant in (eeping an eye on the& and p.shing 9ac( *hereer possi9le! B.t Fang reports that *e hae gone to a ne* leel o, Big Brotheris& *ith the Mall o, 7&erica b 7s reported 9y the tar Tri9.neD e&ails released earlier this *ee( reeal apparent coordination 9et*een andra JohnsonD the Bloo&ington city attorneyD and Kathleen theto Mall corporate co.nsel! EItOs the prosec.tionOs :o9 to 9e the en,orcer and M;7 needs to 7llenD contin.e p.to,on7&ericaOs a positieD sa,e ,aceD Johnson *rote to 7llen t*o days a,ter the protestD enco.raging the &all co&pany to *ait ,or a cri&inal charge ,ro& the city 9e,ore p.rs.ing its o*n la*s.it! E7gree R *e *o.ld de,er any ciil action depending on ho* the cri&inal charges play o.tD 7llen *rote 9ac(!b This &eans that the city *as *or(ing hand in hand *ith a priate corporationD .sing the


Critical Geography K /0

cri&inal :.stice syste& as Ethe en,orcer to help the corporation collect &oney in a ciil action! idently they ,elt it *o.ld loo( 9etter in ciil co.rt i, the protesters *ho *ere 9eing as(ed to pay the costs o, policing the &all d.ring the protest had 9een charged! 11 o, the& *ere hit *ith &isde&eanorsD none o, the& haing to do *ith property da&age or the,t!b B.t thatOs not the &ost chilling part! In a ,ollo*<.p articleD Fang reealed soðing een &ore insidio.sb %oc.&ents o9tained 9y The Intercept indicate that sec.rity sta= at the Mall o, 7&erica in Bloo&ingtonD Minnesota .sed a ,a(e Face9oo( acco.nt to &onitor local Blac( 'ies Matter organizersD 9e,riend the&D and o9tain their personal in,or&ation and photographs *itho.t their (no*ledge! b idence o, the ,a(e Face9oo( acco.nt *as ,o.nd in a cache o, 4les proided 9y the Mall o, 7&erica to Bloo&ington ocials a,ter a large Blac( 'ies Matter eent at the &all on %ece&9er 20 protesting police 9r.tality! The 4les incl.ded 9rie,s on indiid.al organizersD *ith screenshots that s.ggest that &.ch o, the in,or&ation *as capt.red .sing a Face9oo( acco.nt ,or a person na&ed ENi((i 'arson!b Metadata ,ro& so&e o, the doc.&ents lists the so,t*are that created the& as 9elonging to Ea& 6oot at the EMall o, 7&erica! 7 Face9oo( acco.nt ,or a a& 6oot lists his pro,ession as EIntelligence 7nalyst at Mall o, 7&erica! b The Mall o, 7&erica corporation had 9een priately collecting dossiers on protesters o, &any (inds ,or &onths! In ,actD one o, the Face9oo( acco.nts .sed to stal( the& online *as created all the *ay 9ac( in 200!b The Mall is >.ite pro.d o, its Eco.nter
the national Joint Terroris& Tas( ForceD the local policeD the City 7ttorney and so&e clandestine corporate Eintelligence operation ,or the Mall o, 7&erica all inoled in the &onitoring o, the Blac( 'ies Matter ca&paign *hich is not a &atter o, terroris&D national sec.rity or cri&inal 9ehaior! The only (no*n Ethreat has to do *ith an .n(no*n con4dential in,or&ant *ho allegedly told police A*ho then in,or&ed the FBI the protesters planned to andalize the &all!P e (no* that &.ch o, o.r national sec.rity s.reillance *or( has 9een o.tso.rced to priate co&panies! B.t thatOs isenho*erOs &ilitary ind.strial co&ple@ doing *hat itOs 9een doing ,or 50 years! +erhaps the domestic police agencies have come up with a more modern “public%private partnership” where the private corporation does the dirty wor) of stal)ing peaceful protesters and then “con=dentially informs” the police agencies who+ as part of a “Goint Tas) Borce” will )eep the federal agencies in the loop ! 7,ter allD it *o.ld 9e an in,ringe&ent o, the corporationOs indiid.al ,reedo& to s.ggest they donOt hae a right to spy on anyone they chooseD especially citizens protesting the police[ TheyOre :.st trying to (eep a EpositieD sa,e ,ace on the U7Os single greatest achiee&entD the shopping &all! hat co.ld 9e &ore patriotic than that[



*rivati#ation Shift Q Fmmigration Speci=c Their policy action only pushes surveillance into the private sector which extends anti7immigrant enforcement to the local level@its normal means. Jahav (4! A%r! G7''7 '787! 7ssociate +ro,essor *ith ten.reD 2005 tate Uniersity o, Ne* or(D tony Broo(D %epart&ent o, +olitical cience! MIG67TI;N 7N% CU6IT T8 6;' ;F N;N<T7T 7CT;6 7N% CII' 'IB6TI IN 'IB67' %M;C67CI! 200-!http$$***!.n!org$en$deelop&ent$desa$pop.lation$eents$pd,$2$ITTC;;62C81)'aha!pd, ! MMG

hile national

legislation and i&&igration re,or&s represent the &ost o9io.s policy responses to i&&igrationD ad&inistratie decisions and policy i&ple&entation &ay proide &ore practical i&plications o, the character o, i&&igration control! hat

has gone .nnoticed in all*ho these policy deelop&ents has 9een the reliance on third
needs to go 9eyond the typical analysis o, tate policies in ter&s o, legislation and ,oc.s on i&ple&entation str.ct.res! In this ,ra&e*or(D *e can reconcept.alize tate and p.9lic reg.latory &odes 9y identi,ying the n.&9er o, leels aaila9le to policy<&a(ers in controlling &igration! %o&estic 'i9eral tates hae 9een a9le to e@tend their real& o, action and oerco&e certain constraints 9y shi,ting the lia9ilities to international and s.pranational actors priate actors Athro.gh priatization and local agents Athro.gh decentralization! 7s the ne@t section sho*sD these strategies are not ne* they are reinented *hen tates &igration concerns are &ost drien 9y sec.rity iss.es! C! 7C;M+767TI 7N7'I The proli,eration o,

non<tate actors in reg.lating i&&igration is eident on 9oth leels o, policyR i&&igration Ainta(e and i&&igrant policy Aintegration! Three types o, actors 3 priateD localD and international 3 hae 9een incorporated 9y li9eral tates to &onitor e@ternal and internal sitesD incl.ding >.estions o, entryD stay and e@it o, &igrants! %espite s.9stantial str.ct.ral and c.lt.ral di=erences 9et*een the U and UD *hich &ediate policy organizationD i&ple&entation and e=ectienessD a co¶tie analysis o, the 7&erican and .ropean cases reeals that policy tools are trans,era9le! It s.ggests that an international regi&e on i&&igration is possi9le ho*eerD .nli(e regi&es ,or capital and goodsD an international &igration regi&e &ay 9e &ore oriented to protectionis&D *ith so&e aderse e=ects on ciil li9erties! +riate 7ctors +riate actorsD or independent a.thorities *ho rely on &ar(et ,orces hae 9eco&e cr.cial i&&igration agents in e@tending the area o, *hat is re,erred to as Ere&ote control i&&igration policy AZol9ergD 1! These actors incl.de airlinesD shipping carriersD transport co&paniesD sec.rity serices ,or entry e&ployer gro.ps ,or *or( .niersitiesD propriety schools s.ch as lang.age or aiation ,acilitiesD hotelsD health care serices and ciic actorsD s.ch as ch.rchesD ,a&iliesD trade .nions and NG;s ,or i&&igrant stays! They also incl.de detention centersD ,or
inest&entsD priate carriers and agencies are a9le to parta(e in an enlarged &igration control as agents o, the tate! In ret.rn ,or goern&ent cooperationD they are ass.red a s&oother Qo* o, 9.sinessD tradeD la9orD and to.ris& ! 7 core actor in the enlarged control syste& at the entry leel is transport or carrier co&panies! This is not ne*! Carriers hae long 9een o9ligedD at their o*n e@penseD to transport inad&issi9le passengers 9ac( to their co.ntries o, depart.re! anctions



against ships hae 9een in ,orce in the United tatesD since the +assenger 7ct o, 102! 8o*eerD since the adoption o, g.idelines esta9lished 9y the 1// Conention on International Ciil 7iation AIC7;D transport co&panies

hae 9een increasingly ,orced to ass.&e the role o, international i&&igration ocers i&posed on the& 9y tates! The standards o, the conention esta9lished the airlineOs responsi9ility to ens.re that passengers hae the necessary trael doc.&ents! 7part ,ro& IC7; g.idelinesD &any

co.ntries hae introd.ced la*s that increase the responsi9ilities o, carriers and ley 4nes against the& ,or non
areas *hich are considered i&portantD and in need o, protection as *ell as control! ec.rity concerns hae laid the gro.nds ,or enlist&ent o, priate actors in tate reg.lationsD and hae 9een :.sti4ed to co&pro&ise certain ciil li9erties ! In the *a(e o, epte&9er 11thD the Transportation ec.rity 7d&inistration AT7 has threatened to .se its po*er to iss.e a sec.rity directie to ,orce airlines to hand oer passenger in,or&ation so that the ,ederal goern&ent co.ld screen reseration records ,or possi9le terrorists AThe ashington +ostD epte&9er 2"D 200-! These options place priate co&panies in delicate positionsD as e@e&pli4ed 9y the notorio.s JetBl.e 7ir*ays o.trageD *hich has led to a 200class action la*s.it on 9ehal, o, 5 &illion passengersD ,or giing personal in,or&ation to a %e,ense %epart&ent contractor!2 .ch episodes tap into the ideological conQict that e@ists 9et*een protecting priacy rights and sec.rity interests AEG.arding +riacy s! n,orcing CopyrightsD Ne* or( Ti&esD epte&9er 2#D 200-! F.rther&oreD in a corporate c.lt.reD trael ind.stry gro.ps hae oiced concern that ne* airport sec.rity syste&s co.ld h.rt the ind.stry ACNND ;cto9er 2D 200-! ec.rity concerns ho*eer hae preailedD and are a

po*er,.l &otie to :.sti,y the incorporation o, non<tate or priate actors *ho can help *ith &onitoring ,.nctions in *ays other*ise .naaila9le to central goern&ent ocials! 7t the internal leel o, i&&igration controlD the priate co.nterpart to ad&issions reg.lation lays in the e&ploy&ent sectorD *here i&&igration control &ay 9e e>.ally e=ectie! IncreasinglyD approaches to ste& illegal &igration at the *or( site hae 9een deeloped to e@tend and redistri9.te the lia9ilities o, &igration control o.tside o, the central tateD and &a(e e&ployer gro.ps &ore signi4cant actors! In the earl y to &id< 1"0sD &ost adanced .ropean co.ntries instit.ted si&ilar proisions adopted 9y the French as early as 12)D and hae adopted and re4ned e&ployer sanctions Asee Ta9le 2!


Critical Geography K /-

Fmpacts


Critical Geography K //

thics e have an ethical obligation to challenge static maps and identity stories. Anly by accepting an uncertainty in this space can we transform spaces of inclusion%exclusion. Shapiro !R AMichael J hapiroD ed.catorD philosopherD and *riter! 8e is a +ro,essor o, +olitical cience at the Uniersity o, 8a*aii at Mfnoa!

Violent

cartographies: mapping cultures of war, January 1997) More generallyD

shedding the str.ct.re o, pastD iolent inscriptionsD orger is 4nally a9le

to lie in presentD to achiee a presence &ind in his reaching *orldD to the 9eco&e capa9le o, penetrat< ing too, the depths o, space ando.t o, to the participating in the peace,.l 9ea.ty o, his present !5 orgerLs a9ility to 4nd peace in his present 9y 4nding a oice that str.ggled to ,ree itsel, ,ro& *hat a&.el Bec(ett has calledD in a *or( *ith the sa&e insightD their oci,erations1-5 is e@e&plary! 7ndD &ore generallyD the *riting and insights o, 9oth Ta.ssig and 8and(e are e@e&plary they reQect anethical practice that is contin.o.s *ith the approach to ethics ela9orated thro.gho.t this chapterD *hich see)s to oppose a n ethics of

*riting to a violence of representation and 9y anal< ogy a commitment to respect for alterity to the i&p.lse to*ard *ar ! There are no de4nitie ans*ers to the iss.es o, identity and space that either 9ring people together peace,.lly and respect,.lly or drie the& to*ard iolent con,rontation! 7n ethics and politics that accepts .ncer< tainty *o.ld enco.rage

enco.nter rather than concept.al &astery! It *o.ld trans,or& the spaces o, incl.sion and [email protected] that constit.te peoples and their ;thers into do&ains in *hich place and person &.st 9e endlessly negotiated! It *o.ld regard the stories that hae prod.ced ario.s consolidations o, place and peoples as practices s.9:ect to that sa&e negotiation! hen ario.s stories or ersions o, the present pro< &ote an end to ethics and politics<,or e@a&pleD those that proclai& the end o, history<
prac< ticing a *riting that is resistant to all static &aps and all 4@ed identity stories ! The ethical regard to*ard *hich 'einas and %errida hae pointedand its enact&ent in the e@e&plary *riting practices o, those *hoD li(e Ta.ssig and 8and(eD resist representational iolence can 9e approached L lo* those e@a&plesD along *ith others to *hich I hae re,erred thro.gho.t this inestigationD to &igrate into o.r ario.s practices o, space and identity ! FinallyD apart

,ro& the i&pet.s to *rite against concept.al clos.resD their in:.nctions and enact&ents a&o.nt to a call to .nread the glo9al histories and .n&ap the &oral geographies that 4@ the iolence o, representation one si&ply reprod.ces *hen one re&ains .nreQectiely *ithin the already said !



3orders 3ad Q ar 3orders are a urocentric notion that are responsible for the ethnic con:icts in the &iddle ast and ,frica ,gnew '((6 VJohnD 7gne* is c.rrently %isting.ished +ro,essor o, Geography at the Uniersity o, Cali,orniaD 'os 7ngeles AUC'7! Fro& 1"5 .ntil 15 he *as a pro,essor at yrac.se Uniersity in Ne* or(! %r! 7gne* teaches co.rses on political geographyD the history o, geographyD .ropean citiesD and the Mediterranean orld!D EBorders on the &ind re<,ra&ing 9order thin(ingD thics and Glo9al +oliticsD pg 5D http$$***!sscnet!.cla!ed.$geog$do*nloads$#5)$25#!pd,W To &any co&&entators on 9ordersD ho*eerD they are e@plicitly dee&ed as ar9itraryD X contingentD or een pererse! Most i&portantlyD international 9orders are not :.st X any old 9o.ndaries! To 9egin *ithD *orld*ideD it is hard to 4nd a single internationalX 9o.ndary that has not 9een inspired 9y the e@a&ple and practices o, an srcinally X .ropean statehood! M.ch o, X

this *as the direct res.lt o, the i&position andX s.9se>.ent 9rea(.p o, .ropean e&pires o.tside o, .rope into state
has th.s P*ritten the scriptOX ,or the gro*th and consolidation o, a glo9al nation< state syste&! The &odel o,X statehood has had as its central geographical &o&ent the i&position o, sharp 9ordersX 9et*een one state .nit Ai&agined as a nation
predo&inance that an idealized .ropean territorial X state 9eca&e the glo9al archetype! +art o, the political tragedy of the contemporaryX &iddle ast and ,frica+ for example+ lies in the attempted reconciliation of the uro,mericanX style territorial state of sharp borders with ethnic and religious identitiesX distributed geographically in ways that do not lend themselves to it.-)X '.r(ing 9ehind 9ordering eery*here is the e=ect o, that nationalis& *hich hasX co&e along *ith the territorial nation.estionD X national identity has to 9e constantly re.estionD state 9orders proide the center o, attention ,or &ore generalized eliteD and X so&eti&es pop.larD an@iety a9o.t *hat still re&ains to 9e achieed 9y the state ,or X the nation!-# The eeryday nationalis& in *hich 9orders are i&plicated as central X &o&entsD thenD is not a pro:ect that si&ply ta(es place at the 9order or si&plyX 9et*een ad:acent states!- IndeedD it is only secondarily territorial in that its srcins X o,ten lie in distant centers and in scattered %iasporas *here elites and actiists X engage in the tas( o, de4ning and de,ending *hat they .nderstand as the nationstateOs X 9ordersD the 9etter to i&agine the shape or geo<9ody o, their nation! ConsiderD X ,or e@a&pleD the histories o, Irish nationalis& and Zionis& *ith their srcins in X scattered %iasporas!


Critical Geography K /)


Critical Geography K /"

0oot Cause e control the root cause. The surveillance of the globe produces -.S. cities as targets. Shapiro !R AMichael J hapiroD ed.catorD philosopherD and *riter! 8e is a +ro,essor o, +olitical cience at the Uniersity o, 8a*aii at Mfnoa!

Violent

cartographies: mapping cultures of war, January 1997) The9eginning o, this di&ension o, derealizationRthe displace&ent o, direct ision 9y aerial i&aging deicesRocc.rred in orld ar ID *henD *ith the .se o, aerial photographyD a terrain *as red.ced to a set o, coded topographical ,eat.resD Lgro.ndedL 9y the digital logic o, the grid !/5 +hotography is si&ply part o, a &ore general i&plication o, technologies designed to speed .p and intensi,y the reading o, signs ,or &ilitary
These digitalized and highly sy&9olic lang.ages hae replaced the earlier condensations o, &ilitary signs D the signal QagsD &.lticolored pennantsD sche&atic e&9le&s ! ! ! that replaced ,altering oice signals!/) 7s a res.lt o, the reigning a9stractions and distancing technologiesD there has 9een a representational change ,ro& earth and 9odies to coordinates and sy&9ols arrayed 9y digital logic! 7ltho.gh this logistically drien &oe to a9stractions to speed .p reading *as srcinally deeloped d.ring speci4cally iolent historical episodesD it is no longer episodic! Beca.se the &odern notion o, national sec.rity is lin(ed *ith a &ilitarization o, the glo9eD i&aging ,ro& space satellites and highaltit.de aerial reconnaissanceD *ith at least potential hostilities in &indD is a contin.o.sD eeryday pheno&enon! Nothing testi4es to this &ore iidly than the coer ill.stration o, a pa&phlet p.9lished 9y the National %e,ense Uniersity a co&p.tergenerated i&age o, the 'os 7ngeles area! It is noted that arth data AL>.anti4ed and codi4ed in,or&ation a9o.t the earth and its s.r,ace ,eat.resL *as .sed to prod.ce the i&age and is a critical ele&ent in the .se o, &any ne* *eapons!/" This view of the earth+ which shows a digitali#ed+

contour map7oriented cityscape of Jos ,ngeles with a superimposed target7sighting symbol+ produces Jos ,ngeles as a simulated target #one . In the lang.age o, in,or&ation processingD the a.thors tell .s that digital earth data are in,or&ation a9o.t the earth needed ,or acc.rate positioningD targetingD and naigation!/# The pa&phlet is at once a

nontechnical disc.ssion o, the concepts i&plicated in the is.al s.reillance aspect o, the &ilitarization o, the glo9e and a call to ar&s Athe a.thors co&plain that at the &o&ent o, their *riting there *ere large gaps in in,or&ation proided 9y the %e,ense Mapping 7gencyD *hich is responsi9le ,or s.pplying the data needed to g.ide *eapons to their targets! 7nticipating the logistics o, the G.l, arD they

point to the speci4c need ,or adanced photographic s.reillance to proide cr.ise &issiles *ith a point positioning data 9aseD 9eca.se this *eapon operates *ith a proleptic &apD a prestored digital scene o, the target !/ 7pparently their dire *arnings *ere not heededD ,or one s.reillance e@pert ad&itted Aon a teleision reprise o, G.l, ar intelligenceD that the 'across spy satellite *as pressed into serice to ,eed the h.ngry 9rains o, the Cr.ise &issiles *ith terrain &aps :.st 9e,ore the act.al hostilities co&&enced!50


Critical Geography K /#

/iscourse /iscourse is )ey Q determines policy implementation and power relations. *red '((5 V7llanD 7llan +red is +ro,essor in the %epart&ent o, GeographyD

Uniersity o, Cali,ornia at Ber(eleyD U7! EBordering pace Chapter  cientists itho.t Borders ;r Mo&ents o, InsightD paces o, 6ecognition it.ated +racticeD cienceD and the Naigation o, Ur9an eryday 'i,eD pp 1/-<1//W Inisi9le geographiesL is not an o@y&oron.

Fnvisible geographies are associated with meanings+ discourse and )nowledge+ *ith the places in *hich they occ.rD *ith their spatial circ.lation and interconnections! For :.st as tho.ght and action are al*ays insepara9ly con:oinedD :.st as (no*ing and doing are al*ays 9eco&ing one anotherD sit.ated practices are al*ays ,.sed together *ith speci4c ,or&s o,X &eaningD disco.rse or (no*ledgeD al*ays &elted together *ith the&! For *hat people do or do not (no*D the disco.rses they hae or hae not 9een e@posed toD the conte@t<

Qe@i9le &eanings and ta(en<,or.ired or learned at speci4c sites o, acade&icD scienti4cD or other practice A'ae and engerD 11! here so&e net*or(s o, contact and e@changeD and not othersD co&e into con:.nct.re! here so&e po*er relationsD and not othersD are at *or(!X YVTWhe speci4city o, place also deries ,ro& the ,act that each place is the ,oc.s o, a distinct [email protected] o, *ider and &ore local social relationsL AMasseyD 1-D p! )#! X ;nce againD Yinisi9le geographiesL

is not an o@y&oron. Fnvisible geographies are associated with social

relations+ and most especially with power relations 7 with their on7the7 ground implementationD their in
their ,re>.ent e@ercise at a distanceD and *ith the spatially dispersed net*or(s thro.gh *hich they operate and s.9:ecti,y! 7t so&e leel irt.ally eery sit.ated practice < scienti4c and other*ise < is en&eshed *ith po*er relations! ForD regardless o, their &yriad ,or&sD po*er relations are al*ays in so&e &eas.re a9o.t act.al or potential 9ehaiorsD a9o.t the 9orders o, Ai&per&issi9le actionD a9o.t deter&ining *ho < indiid.ally or collectiely < &ay or &ay not do *hatD *henD and *hereD .nder *hat conditions o, control or s.reillance D i, any! 7nd yetD *hether ena9ling or constrainingD po*er relations the&seles do not spring ,.ll X 1// B$orderingpaceX 9lo*n o.t o, nothingness! They 9oth e&erge o.t o, and are trans,or&ed thro.ghX sit.ated practices! 2X YVTWhe &an.,act.re and &anip.lation o, la9oratory pheno&ena are part o, a net*or( o, po*er relations r.nning thro.gho.t &odern societiesL A'iingstoneD X 15D p! 2-D >.oting Joseph 6o.se!

/iscourse about otherness perpetuates violent liberal exclusions. Oembyas 1( AMichalinos Ze&9yas !D The ;pen Uniersity o, Cypr.s!D E7ga&9enOs Theory o, Biopo*er and I&&igrants$6e,.gees$7syl.& ee(ers %isco.rses o,

Citizenship and the I&plications For C.rric.l.& Theorizing!D+ages -<5KM +.9lic disco.rses and ne*s &edia against i&&igrantsD re,.gees and asyl.& see(ers


Critical Geography K /

play a cr.cial role in circ.lating the idea that these gro.ps pose a threat to the *ell3 9eing and sec.rity o, a state! ;nce the ;ther is constit.ted as a threat to Po.rO sense o, national 9elongingD then P*eO learn to desire and de&and PtheirO [email protected] ,ro& the sphere o, h.&an al.esD ciic rights and &oral o9ligations A+apastergiadisD 200) TylerD 200)! It is this process that *e need to interro< gateD as 7ga&9en .rges .s! 8e *rites EIt *o.ld 9e &ore honest andD a9oe allD &ore .se,.l to care,.lly inestigate!!!VtheW deploy&ents o, po*er 9y *hich h.&an 9eings co.ld 9e so co&< pletely depried o, their rights!!!that no act co&&itted against the& co.ld appear any longer a cri&e A1#D p! 1"1! B.t ho* do li9eral and h.&anitarian disco.rses o, citizenship ed.cation respond to s.ch o9io.s cases o, &isrecognition and iolation o, h.&an rights[ In their recent critical reie* o, conte&porary disco.rses o, citizenshipD Knight 79o*itz and 8arnish A200) concl.de that li9eral citizenship disco.rses are *ith ciic rep.9licanis& the t*o do&inant disco.rses in K312 c.rric.lar and policy te@ts! In partic.larD li9eral disco.rses priorit< ize indiid.al rights and e>.ality ,or e@ercising ,reedo&! 7s Knight 79o*itz and 8arnish e@plainD ,reedo& ,ro& the tyranny o, a.thority and

the deli9eratie al.es o, disc.ssion are ie*ed as the t*o pri&ary al.es in this disco.rse! 7 signi4cant ,oc.s o, this disco.rse is also on learning the al.es and s(ills necessary to ta(e part in a &.ltic.lt.ral society!In &.ltic.lt.ral societies in *hich i&&igrantsD re,.gees and asyl.& see(ers constit.te an i&portant co&ponent o, c.lt.rally dierse p.9lic li,eD Eschools perennially create and recreate citizens and the nation Ap! ))/! 7n additional >.estionD thenD that &ay 9e raised at this point is 8o* do li9eral dis< co.rses o, citizenship treat the representations o, i&&igrantsD re,.gees and asyl.& see(ers as ,earso&e indiid.als[ ;ne o, the central strategies e&ployed 9y li9eral

disco.rses o, citizenship to respond to ,ear< is& is to generate ,or&s o, recognition ,or i&&igrants$re,.gees$asyl.& see(ers that *or( against their identi4cation as hate 4g.res ATylerD 200)! Th.sD there is a co.pling o, h.&anitarian and li9eral al.es that isD h.&anitarian disco.rses as( the p.9lic and schools to see i&&i< grants$re,.gees$asyl.& see(ers as indiid.als *ith h.&anityD ass.ring P.sO Athe hosts that PtheyO are :.st li(e P.s!O The strategy o, re
is a perasie oneD seen especially in (ey pro,essional literat.re o, the social st.diesD conQict resol.tionD and peace ed.cation and in the literat.re o, non pro4t AZe&9ylasD 200#! In this disco.rseD nor&atie al.es relating to respectD e&pathy and tolerance as( Ph.&anitarianO s.9:ects! and h.&anitarian organizations



0acism 2 is a pre7re Q borders are the root cause of racism Natter '((5 Vol,gangD ol,gang Natter is 7ssociate +ro,essor in the %epart&ent

o, GeographyD Uniersity o, Kent.c(yD 'e@ingtonD U7! EBordering paceD Chapter II Friedrich 6atzelOs patial T.rn Identites o, %isciplinary pace and its Borders 9et*een the 7nthropo and +olitical Geography o, Ger&any and the United tatesD pp 1#- 3 1#/W erything and eeryplace is in so&e i&portant sense a potential 9order D the tendency o, *hich 6estless &oe&entD as the signat.re o, &an(indD has created a c.lt.re in *hich people o, the &ost di=erent srcins &eet and are trans,or&ed D &a(ing highly s.spect clai&s ,or any essential e>.ation 9et*een race and region! en *hen certain c.lt.res stay Yin placeL oer longer periods o, ti&eD at the 9ordersD there still occ.rs contact and &i@ing *ith other gro.ps A6atzelD 10)D p! /)5D *hether these others 9e called peoplesD or nations or races! In 6atzelLs &at.re *or(D *hen the concept o, race is addressedD it is si&.ltaneo.sly criti>.ed ,or 9eing at 9est an ine@act category! 6ace D it appears to 6atzelD cannot 9e de4nitiely anchored 9y lang.ageD 9y physical attri9.tesD 9y character dispositionD or de&onstrated eidence o, srcins ! 7t 9estD the conceptth.s registers a phase o,X 1#/ B$ordering pace X 9roader glo9al contact 9et*een c.lt.resD the &o&ent *hen the concept o, peoples Voel(erW is no longer ade>.ate to &eas.re degrees o, separation 9et*een c.lt.resD :.st as 9e,ore that the identity &ar(er peoples had s.pplanted the separation o, h.&ans into ste&s Vta&&eW! hat is tr.e o, races is e>.ally so ,or the notion o, YpeoplesL! 7s little as YraceL is .ni,or&D so too peoplesD *hich li(e*ise are p.rported to 9e co&pletely .ni,or&D Ysho* the YtearsL V6isseW o, the 9ordering o, preio.s [email protected] o, X

is to ,oster an [email protected] o, ele&entsD or in the case o, h.&an c.lt.reD hy9ridity!

h.&anity VMisch.ngs9estandteileWL A6atzelD 10)D p! /"/! Contrary to those s.ch as Go9inea. or Cha&9erlin *ho arg.ed ,or the p.rity o, a p.rported Ger&an raceD 6atzel insisted that the a9oe applied especially to the past and present inha9itants o, Ger&any! In his lect.re notesD nota9ly those deoted to the topic o, Ger&any 6atzel een &ore pointedly &a(es ,.n o, those *ho ind.lge in the procliity o, paying ho&age to pres.&ed A7ryan ancestorsD Yaltho.gh o,ten X eno.gh not a drop o, 9lood o, the pres.&ed ancestor Qo*s in his eins! In Ger&anyD *e o,ten 4nd people *hose ,aces are 9ea.ti4ed Irish or 6.ssian ,eat.resD e@clai&ing the&seles to 9e the children o, the 9lond ancient Ger&ansD or laic est +r.ssians or ilesians *ho honor the acco.nts o, Tacit.s and apply his reports a9o.t the Ger&ans to the&seles as &.ch as do the hal, or ,.lly Celtic +,aelzer or BadenserL! Nor *as this sit.ation to 9e la&ented YIt is an entirely erroneo.s opinion to 9eliee that a people is stronger in eery regardD the &ore .ni,or& it is! In ,actD e@actly in those peoples *ho hae achieed the &ostD &.ltiple races and nationalities are at *or( together in achieing political and all the &oreD econo&ic s.ccess L A6atzelD 10)!



,lternative



,lt Q 3order Thin)ing The alternative is to engage in border thin)ing+ which allows for epistemologies that could have been. scobar R A7rt.ro sco9arD Colo&9ian<7&erican anthropologist and the Kenan %isting.ished +ro,essor o, 7nthropology at the Uniersity o, North CarolinaD ;6'% 7N% KN;'%G ;T86I1 The 'atin 7&erican &odernity$ coloniality research progra&D -$1$200" 9order thin(ing as Pthin(ing ,ro& another placeD i&agining an other lang.ageD arg.ing ,ro& another logicO A p! -1-! It is a s.9altern (no*ledge conceied ,ro& the 9orders o, the colonial$&odern *orld syste& that stries to 9rea( a*ay ,ro& the do&inance o, e.rocentris&! Border thin(ing re,ers to Pthe &o&ents in *hich the i&aginary o, the *orld syste& crac(s O A2000D p! 2-D Pan episte&ology o, and ,ro& the 9orderO Ap! 52D a (ind o, Pdo.9le criti>.eO AKhati9i that is critical o, 9oth Mignolo deelops his notion o,

;ccidentalis&$e.rocentris& and o, the [email protected] traditions the&seles this a9ility ste&s ,ro& its location in the 9orderlands A7nzald.a! Border thin(ing is an ethical *ay o, thin(ing 9eca.seD in its &arginalityD it has no ethnocidal di&ension! Its ai& is not to correct lies and tell the tr.thD 9.t Pto thin( other*iseD to &oe to*ard Pan other logicO in s.& to change the ter&sD not :.st the content o, the conersationO Ap! "0! Border thin(ing ena9les a ne* ie* o, the diersity

and alterity o, the *orldD one that does not ,all into the traps o, a c.lt.ralist Aessentialist rhetoric 9.t rather highlight the irred.ci9le di=erences that cannot 9e appropriated 9y the &onotopic criti>.e o, &odernity Athe radical criti>.e o, estern logocentris& .nderstood as a .niersal categoryD and that does not conceie o, di=erence as antithesis in search o, reanchis&! Border thin(ing is co&ple&entary to deconstr.ction Aand to all critical disco.rses o, &odernity it sees decolonization as a partic.lar (ind o, deconstr.ction 9.t &oes

to*ards a ,rag&entedD pl.ral pro:ect instead o, reprod.cing the a9stract .niersals Aincl.ding de&ocracy and rights! Border thin(ingD 4nallyD is an atte&pt to &oe 9eyond o, &odernity e.rocentris& 9y reealing the coloniality o, po*er e&9edded in the geopolitics o, (no*ledge a necessary step in order to P.ndo the s.9alternization o, (no*ledge and to loo( ,or *ays o, thin(ing 9eyond the categories o, estern tho.ghtO Ap! -2)! " lse*here I hae introd.ced the notion o, alternaties to &odernity

to re,er i&agine an e@plicit c.lt.ral
&odernity no longer e@ist it is intended rather to int.it the possi9ility o, i&agining an era *here deelop&ent and &odernity cease to 9e the central organizing principles o, social li,e a &o&ent *hen social li,e is no longer so per&eated 9y the constr.cts o, econo&yD indiid.alD rationalityD orderD and so ,orth that are characteristic o, .rocentered &odernity! 7lternaties to &odernity is a reQection o, a political desireD a desire o, the critical .topian i&aginationD not a state&ent a9o.t the realD present or ,.t.re! ;perating in the crac(s o, &odernity$ colonialityD it gies content to the +orto 7legrealternatie Glo9al ocial For.& sloganD another *orld is possi9le!are 7lternatie deelop&entD &odernitiesD and alternaties to &odernity partially conQicting 9.t potentially co&ple&entary pro:ects! ;ne &ay lead to creating conditions ,or the others !





,lt Q istorical Confronation The alternative is a confrontation of the history of racial surveillance. The decontextuali#ed+ with this and retrenches the narrative that ordinary people have nothing to fear from a reformed surveillance system. 2undnani and 2umarD 7r.n K.ndnaniD pro,essor at NUD and a.thor on do&estic s.reillance %eepa K.&ar is a pro,essor o, Middle ast t.dies at 6.tgers UniersityD '(15 A7r.n K.ndnani and %eepa K.&arD pring 2015D E6aceD s.reillanceD and e&pireD http$$isreie*!org$iss.e$)$race
practices the&seles hae also o,ten 9een the target o, organized opposition! In the 120s and 1"0sD the s.reillance state *as press.red to contract in the ,ace o, p.9lic disapproal! The anti*ar actiists *ho 9ro(e into an FBI 4eld oce in MediaD +ennsylaniaD in 1"1 and stole classi4ed doc.&ents &anaged to e@pose C;INT'+6;D ,or instanceD leading to its sh.t do*n! AB.t those responsi9le ,or this FBI progra& *ere neer 9ro.ght to :.stice ,or their actiities and si&ilar techni>.es contin.ed to 9e .sed later againstD ,or e@a&ple in the 1#0sD the 7&erican Indian Moe&entD and the Co&&ittee in olidarity *ith the +eople o, l alador!)# +.9lic concern a9o.t state s.reillance in the 1"0s led to the Ch.rch co&&ittee report on goern&ent spying and the 8andsch. g.idelines that reg.lated the Ne* or( +olice

Those concerns 9egan to 9e s*ept aside in the 1#0s *ith the ar on %r.gs andD especiallyD later *ith the ar on Terror ! hile signi4cant sections o, the p.9lic &ay hae consented to the sec.rity stateD those *ho hae 9een a&ong its greatest icti&sRthe radical 'e,tD anti*ar actiistsD racial :.stice and Blac( li9eration ca&paignersD and opponents o, U ,oreign policy in 'atin 7&erica and the Middle astR.nderstand its *or(ings ! TodayD *e are once again in %epart&entOs spying on political actiities!

a period o, reelationD concernD and de9ate on national sec.rity s.reillance! ?et if real change is to be brought about+ the racial history of surveillance will need to be fully confronted@or opposition to surveillance will once again be easily defeated by racial security narratives ! The signi4cance o, the no*den lea(s is that

they hae laid o.t the depth o, the N7Os &ass s.reillance *ith the (ind o, proo, that only an insider can hae! The res.lt has 9een a generalized leel o, alar& as people hae 9eco&e a*are o, ho* intr.sie s.reillance is in o.r societyD 9.t that alar& re&ains constrained *ithin a p.9lic de9ate that is highly a9stractD legalisticD and centered on the priacy rights o, the *hite &iddle class!

An the one hand+ most civil liberties advocates are focused on the technical details of potential legal reforms and new oversight mechanisms to safeguard privacy. Such initiatives are li)ely to bring little change because they fail to confront the racist and imperialist core of the surveillance system. ;n the other handD &ost technologists 9eliee the pro9le& o, goern&ent s.reillance can 9e 4@ed si&ply 9y .sing 9etter encryption tools!hile

encryption tools are .se,.l in increasing the reso.rces that a goern&ent agency *o.ld need to &onitor an indiid.alD they do nothing to .nrael the larger s.reillance apparat.s! Mean*hileD [email protected]es o, U tech corporations e@press concerns a9o.t loss o, sales to ,oreign c.sto&ers concerned a9o.t the priacy o, data! In ashington and ilicon alleyD *hat sho.ld 9e a de9ate a9o.t 9asic political ,reedo&s is si&ply a >.estion o, corporate pro4ts!) 7nother and perhaps deeper pro9le& is the .se o, i&ages o, state s.reillance that do not ade>.ately 4t the c.rrent sit.ationRs.ch as George ;r*ellOs disc.ssion o, totalitarian s.reillance! d*ard no*den hi&sel, re&ar(ed that ;r*ell *arned .s o, the dangers o, the type o, goern&ent s.reillance *e ,ace today!"0 6e,erence to ;r*ellOs 1#/ has 9een *idespread in the c.rrent de9ate indeedD sales o, the 9oo( *ere said to hae soared ,ollo*ing no*denOs reelations!"1 The arg.&ent that digital s.reillance is a ne* ,or& o, Big Brother isD on one leelD s.pported 9y the eidence! For

those in certain targeted gro.psRM.sli&sD le,t< *ing ca&paignersD radical :o.rnalistsRstate s.reillance certainly loo(s ;r*ellian!



B.t this leel o, scr.tiny is not ,aced 9y the general p.9lic ! The pict.re o, s.reillance today is there,ore >.ite di=erent ,ro& the classic i&ages o, s.reillance that *e 4nd in ;r*ellOs 1#/D *hich ass.&es an .ndi=erentiated &ass pop.lation s.9:ect to goern&ent control! hat *e hae instead today in the United tates is total s.reillanceD not on eeryoneD 9.t on ery speci4c gro.ps o, peopleD de4ned 9y their raceD religionD or political ideology people that N7 ocials re,er to as the E9ad g.ys! In March 201/D 6ic( 'edgettD dep.ty director o, the N7D told an a.dience EContrary to so&e o, the st.= thatOs 9een printedD *e donOt sit there and grind o.t &etadata pro4les o, aerage people! I, yo.Ore not connected to one o, those alid intelligence targetsD yo. are not o, interest to .s!"2 In the national sec.rity *orldD Econnected to can 9e the 9asis ,or targeting a *hole racial or political co&&.nity soD een ass.&ing the acc.racy o, this co&&entD it

points to the *ays that national sec.rity s.reillance can dra* entire co&&.nities into its *e9D *hile reass.ring Eaerage people Acode ,or the nor&atie *hite &iddle class that they are not to 9e tro.9led!In the eyes o, the national sec.rity stateD this aerage person &.st also e@press no political ie*s critical o, the stat.s >.o! Better oersight o, the spra*ling national sec.rity apparat.s and greater .se o, encryption in digital co&&.nication sho.ld 9e *elco&ed! B.t 9y the&seles these are li(ely to do little &ore than reass.re technologistsDwhile

raciali#ed populations and political dissenters continue to experience massive surveillance. This is why the most e>ective challenges to the national security state have come not from legal reformers or technologists but from grassroots campaigning by the raciali#ed groups most a>ected! In Ne* or(D the ca&paign against the N+%Os s.reillance o,

M.sli&s has dra*n its strength ,ro& 9.ilding alliances *ith other gro.ps a=ected 9y racial pro4ling 'atinos and Blac(s *ho s.=er ,ro& h.gely disproportionate rates o, stop and ,ris(! In Cali,orniaOs Bay 7reaDa ca&paign against a %epart&ent o, 8o&eland ec.rity<,.nded %o&ain 7*areness Center *as s.ccess,.l 9eca.se ario.s constit.encies *ere a9le to .nite on the iss.eD incl.ding ho&eless peopleD the poorD M.sli&sD and Blac(s! i&ilarlyD a de&ographics .nit planned 9y the 'os 7ngeles +olice %epart&entD *hich *o.ld hae pro4led co&&.nities on the 9asis o, race and religionD *as sh.t do*n a,ter a ca&paign that .nited ario.s gro.ps de4ned 9y race and class! The lesson here is thatD *hile the national sec.rity state ai&s to create ,ear and to diide peopleDactiists can organize and 9.ild alliances across race lines to oerco&e that ,ear! To the e@tent that the national sec.rity state has targeted ;cc.pyD the anti*ar &oe&entD eniron&ental rights actiistsD radical :o.rnalists and ca&paignersD and *histle9lo*ersD these gro.ps hae graitated to*ards opposition to the national sec.rity state! B.t .nderstanding the centrality o, race and e&pire to national sec.rity s.reillance &eans 4nding a 9asis ,or .nity across di=erent gro.ps *ho e@perience si&ilar (inds o, policing M.sli&D 'atino$aD 7sianD Blac(D and *hite dissidents and radicals! It is on s.ch a

9asis that *e can see the 9eginnings o, an e=ectie &.ltiracial opposition to the s.reillance state and e&pire !



,ssail Totali#ation e must engage in an epistemological retracing of lost narratives of the “space between” in order to assail the totali#ation of the spaces and =nd true ethical engagements. Shapiro !R AMichael J hapiroD ed.catorD philosopherD and *riter! 8e is a +ro,essor o, +olitical cience at the Uniersity o, 8a*aii at Mfnoa!

Violent

cartographies: mapping cultures of war, January 1997) In order to

thin( 9eyond the con4nes o, the state soereignty orientationD it is

there,ore necessary to t.rn to ethical that challenge the spatial predicates o, traditional &oral thin(ingorientations and there9y grant recognition o.tside o, &odernityLs do&inant political identities! This &.st necessarily also ta(e .s o.tside the pri&ary approach that conte&porary philosophy has lent to A7nglo<7&erican ethical theory! 7s applied at any leel o, h.&an interactionD the ,a&iliar neo
narratie trace that tends to 9e .ncoded in the conte&porary instit.tionalized disco.rses on space That old ca&pesino (ne* *hat &ost people in the est hae ignored since the seenteenth cent.ry that there is &ore than one ti&e in the *orldD that there is another ti&e e@isting alongsideD a9oeD .nderneath the linear ti&e calendars o, the est! This &an *ho co.ld lie in the ti&e o, Zapata or the ti&e o, anta MariaD dependingD *as a liing heir to a co&ple@ c.lt.re o, &any strata in creatie tension!1# F.entesLs reaction constit.tes an ethical &o&ent! +roo(ed 9y an ;therD he engages in an ethnographic

sel,


&ercantile classes o, .rope gae .nto the&seles the role o, .niersal protagonists o, history! 1 Face to ,ace *ith an otherness that these protagonistsD those *ho hae &anaged to per,or& the do&inant str.ct.res o, &eaningD hae s.ppressedD F.entes is a9le to recoer the historical trace o, that

otherness andD on reQectionD to recognize that the enco.nter &.st yield &ore than &ere ar&ation ,or his practices o, sel, ! Most signi4cantlyD the enco.nter prod.ces a disr.ption o, the totalizing conceptions that hae goerned conte&porary societiesR,or e@a&pleD the ill.sion that they are .npro9le&atically consolidated and that they hae >.elled recalcitrant s.9:ectiities! There,oreD in order to ela9orate the ethical possi9ilities to*ard *hich F.entesLs story pointsD *e can consider an approach that assails s.ch totalizations *ith the ai& o, proiding an ethics o, enco.nter!



,lt Deography of SubIects The alternative is a geography of subIects in which we ta )e on an action centered perspective to brea) down the bordering of spaces in everyday activities erlen '((5 VBennoD Benno erlen is +ro,essor in the Geographical Instit.teD

Friedrich<chiller Uniersity o, JenaD Ger&any! EBordering paceD Chapter - 6egions and eryday 6egionalizations Fro& a pace.ate .nderstanding o, these and other ,or&s and processes o, YregionalizationL and the constit.tion o, socio.entlyD geographers sho.ld rather 9e interested in the regionalizing

i&plications o, actiitiesD and not so &.ch in the analysis and description o, regions in the traditional sense! This shi,t o, ,oc.s i&plies there,ore a shi,t ,ro& regional analysis to *hat I call the analysis o, eeryday regionalization! ;rD &ore generally spea(ing ,ro& spatial description to s.9:ectie .nderstanding and a social e@planation o, eeryday geography<&a(ing! Fro& an action
a9olishing spatial de&arcationsD th.s the 9ordering o, spacesL in the 9road senseD sho.ld 9e seen as a &eans o, eeryday actiities D neer as their ai&! Th.sD these 9ordering processes can 9e ie*ed as the o.tco&e o, the Y*orld 9indingL o, agents!X This perspectie proides a syste&atic ðodological thatThri,t co&ple&ents the concept.alizations o, YregionL as they *ere recently proposedD ,or instanceD 9y +aasi9asis A1)D A1) and 7llenD Massey and Cochrane A1#! 8o*eerD this approach stands in strong contrastD 4rstD to all atte&pts to conceie

regions and spatial relations as entities constit.ted 9y classi4catory actiities o, a scienti4c o9sererD as the tradition o, spatial science *o.ld hae it! econdD it also e@ists in contrast to all approaches that 9egin *ith regionsD 9ordersD spatial patterns and other spatial pheno&ena and *or( to*ard an analysis o, social str.ct.resD rather than the other *ay ro.nd! X In the 4rst section o, this paper I *ill present the theoretical and ðodological i&plications o, the shi,t in perspectie ,ro& YspaceL to Yaction L ! X /# B$ordering paceX The &ain point o, the arg.&ent *ill 9e that Y spaceL is an ele&ent o, YactionL and not

YactionL an ele&ent o, YspaceLD as a &a:ority o, geographical approaches < i&plicitly or een e@plicitly < still clai&! In the second hal, o, the paper I *ill disc.ss the conse>.ences o, this shi,t in perspectie ,or the .nderstanding o, regionalization and 9ordering processesD and I *ill disc.ss the concepts o, Yeeryday regionalizationL and Ygeography<&a(ingL in a *ider conte@t!



Apen 3orders ,n Apen 3orders politics is the only way to combat the harms of borders ughes 14 VBo9D Bo9 8.ghes *as one o, the 4e co
;ne Is Illegal Mani,esto! 8e has 9een engaged in ario.s ca&paigns against detention and in s.pport o, &igrants and asyl.& see(ers ,or the past 12 yearsD and is c.rrently *riting a9o.t *hat a *orld that too( e>.ality serio.sly *o.ld 9e li(eD 7.g.st 1)D 201-D E;pen 9orders ,or a s.staina9le ,.t.reD https$$***!opende&ocracy!net$trans,or&ation$9o9
no* arrested and i&prisonedD deported and a9.sed and (illedD or si&ply le,t to die in *hateer *ay happens to 9e,all the& D :.st ,or 9eing *ho they areD not ,or anything they &ay hae done or een &ight d o!X Failing to challenge this nonsense inoles ,ailing to challenge a ,orce that *ill happily destroy society and is doing soD and *hich *e all recognise and *ere ta.ght a9o.t in school the ,orce o, ar9itraryD a.thoritarian po*er the &indset that 9eliees that r.les are &ore i&portant than liesD and that de,ers to po*er and holds the *ea( in conte&pt the Lhard.ality that ,eeds racis& !X Ff we

cannot

Critical Geography K )0

co.ntry *ithin *hose 9orders any9ody *ho co.ld get the&seles here co.ld ,eel sa,e at lastD and cared ,or a co.ntry *here the hospitals and doctors treat yo. 9eca.se yo. are illD not 9eca.se yo. are a national citizen *here the schools and .niersities ed.cate yo. 9eca.se yo. *ant to learn a co.ntry *hose representaties spea( o.t clearly and ,orthrightly against tyranny and *ar&ongering and the destr.ction o, peopleLs lielihoods *hereer they areD and *ho .se o.r collectie reso.rces to help people and 4ght in:.stice! X I, *e are concerned

a9o.t ho* &.ch s.ch an LidealisticL set.p *o.ld costD *hy not >.estion *hy so &any things that .sed to 9e aaila9le *hen needed no* hae a 4nancial cost[ 'etLs ta(e eerything that is i&portant to li,eD to peopleLs health and happinessD 9ac( o.t o, the &oney econo&y! To a s.rprisingly large e@tentD this *o.ld only &ean going 9ac( a ,e* years to the ti&e 9e,ore o.r p.9lic serices ac>.ired Linternal &ar(etsL < a ti&e *hen the British National 8ealth ericeD ,or e@a&pleD gae al&ost the 9est al.e ,or &oney in the *orld in ter&s o, health o.tco&es! hich raises the e@citing tho.ght that a society *ith ,e*er price.alityD The pirit 'eel! crapping anti
i&plicationsD co.ld lead .s to the s.staina9le ,.t.re *e all s.pposedly aspire to!X B.t s.rely I a& tal(ing a9o.t socialis&[ ;r co&&.nis& or anarchis&[ X &y

modest demand is a politics that respects people+ which will not harm people *itho.t a ery good reason! In ,actD this is

already s.pposed to 9e a 9asic principle o, la*! 7s the 6oyal College o, .rgeons says on its letterhead FirstD %o No 8ar&! ;r as the *ise prince in ha(espeareLs The Merchant o, enice p.t it AI paraphrase %o *hat the hell yo. li(eD as long as yo. do not spill one drop o, 9lood!X Is this Lpolitically realisticL[ L8ard.estions 4rstD since *hen does a gro*n.p de&ocracy cr.ci,y people L9y pop.lar de&andL[ 7nd secondD do these polls really reQect *hat people thin([ X e o,ten as( the people *e &eet in shopsD airports and else*here *hat they thin( a9o.t i&&igration controls! 7l&ost al*ays *e get ans*ers li(e L*e o.ght to 9e a9le to go *here *e li(e *eLre all h.&ansL e *ondered *hether perhaps the 9iggest political gro.ping in Britain &ight 9e the people *ho thin( theyLre the only ones in Britain *ho thin( i&&igration controls are &ad!X T*o years agoD the e@traordinarily principled co&pany '.sh Cos&etics 4nanced a o.Go pollD to test a proposition dra,ted 9y No ;ne Is Illegal +eople sho.ld 9e ,ree to lie and *or( *hereer they *ishD and en:oy all the sa&e rights as all other residents! No ;ne Is Illegal! 5/ either agreed or strongly agreed! -1 had no clear opinion! ;nly 1) either disagreed or strongly disagreed! X o.Go designed a s.9sidiary set o, >.estions to tease o.t peopleLs ,eelings a9o.t controlsD and *hether they sho.ld apply to eeryone or :.st to other people! This sho*ed so&e*hat higher s.pport ,or controlsD 9.t *ith only a slight 9ias against ,oreignersD and nothing li(e the 9lan(et opposition to i&&igration pro&oted 9y the &edia! oD at the ery leastD the p.9lic is &.ch less clear on this iss.e than the &edia and the politicians say they are! There is roo& ,or de9ate!X 7nd it s.ggests that in spite o, eerything theyLe 9een p.t thro.gh these last thirty or so yearsD British people are still nor&alD sane people not saages or ,ascists! That is consistent *ith the sense that &any people haeD that politics has le,t the people 9ehindD in a *hirl o, heaily
the start o, p.9lic re


Boreign%/omestic *FC The text of this *FC is Iust the the plan text without the word domestic. The Boreign%domestic distinction lin)s are the net bene=t ,> should use the foreign%domestic distinction good stu> to answer.



,nswers to ,nswers


Critical Geography K )-

,T *erm The *erm fails. estern cartography shuts out alternative voices. Shapiro !R AMichael J hapiroD ed.catorD philosopherD and *riter! 8e is a +ro,essor o, +olitical cience at the Uniersity o, 8a*aii at Mfnoa!

Violent

cartographies: mapping cultures of war, January 1997) To disclose the str.ct.re o, this spatial co&placency and ethical in< sensitiity! Gilles %ele.ze and Feli@ G.attari hae represented the con,rontation 9et*een the &erging state syste& and ario.s tri9al peoples *ith a geo&etric &etaphor! The coating o, the stateD they s.ggestD created a dist.r9ance in a syste& o,

Litinerant territoriality! hile the nor&atie geo&etry o, these itinerantly oriented societies ta(es the ,or& o, a set o, nonconcentric seg&entsD a heterogeneo.s set o, lineage< 9ased po*er centers integrated thro.gh str.ct.res o, co&&.nicationD the state is concentric in str.ct.reD an i&&o9ilized pattern o, relations controlled ,ro& a single center!The state< oriented geo&etry prod.ces a .niocal codeD a soereignty &odel o, the h.&an s.9:ect that oercodes all seg&ental aliations! For this reason D thoseD li(e MillD schooled in the geo&etry o, the state cannot discern a signi4cant social and political nor&atiity in seg&entally organized gro.ps! They see no collectie coherence in peoples *ith a set o, polyocal codes 9ased on lineage! In shortD haing changed the e@isting geo&etryD linear reason o, state do&inatesD priileging *hat is sedentary and disparaging and arresting *hat &oes or Qo*s across 9o.ndaries! It &a(es la9or sedentary and co.nteracts aga9ondage! and it gies the no&ad no space ,or legiti&ate e@istence Ain ario.s senses o, the *ord spaceL This lac( o, legiti&acy contin.es to 9e reQected in the inattention to spatial practices and &arginalized identities in conte&porary political and ethical disco.rses! peci4callyD a&ong *hat is silenced *ithin state< oriented societies are no&adic storiesD the narraties thro.gh *hich nonstate peoples hae &aintained their identities and spatial coherence! In the conte@t o, *hat %ele.ze and G.attari call the state geo&etryD they are not a9le to

per,or& their identitiesD to 9e pan o, &odern conersa tions! Such cartographic and+ by implication+ ethnographic violence forecloses conversation. This iolence o, state cartography is ela9orately descri9ed and po*er,.lly concept.alized in +a.l CarterLs acco.nt o, the .ropean enco.nter *ith 7.stralian 79srcinal peoples! The .ropean state syste&Ls &odel o, space inoled 9o.ndaries and ,rontiersD and its adance d.ring its colonizing period p.shed ,rontiers o.t*ard! %.ring the stating o, 7.straliaD *hen the .ropean spatial i&aginary *as i&posedD those on the other

side o, the ,rontierD the ,borigines+ were given no place in a conversation a9o.t 9o.ndaries! Carter s.ggests *hat a&o.nts to a 'einasian ethical ,ra&e ,or treating 9o.ndaries! The 9o.ndary co.ld 9e seen as a corridor o, legiti&ate co&&.nicationD a place o, dialog.eD *here di=erences co.ld 9e negotiated! lndeedD 9y regarding a 9o.ndary as the place o, co&&.niated di=erence instead o, proprietary appropriation Athe .ropean &odelD the .ropeans *o.ld hae s.&&oned a ,a&iliar practice ,ro& the 79srcines! For 79srcinesD

9o.ndaries are de9ata9le placesD *hich they regarded as zones ,or intertri9al co&&.nication 7s *e (no*D ho*eerD 7.stralia *as .lti&ately settledD and the 9o.ndaries sered not to ac(no*ledge a c.lt.ral enco.nter 9.t to esta9lish the presence o, the .ropeansD practically and sy&9olically! This iolenceD *hich s.9stit.ted ,or conersationD is already instit.tionalized in the ,or& o, *hat is represented as 7.stralia  :.st as other na&es and 9o.ndaries on the do&inant geopolitical *orld &ap are rigidi4ed and th.s re&oed D,ro& the possi9ility o, enco.nter! To the e@tent that co&&.nityD society and nation ,ail to reQect the otherness *ithinD *e hae a cartographic .nconscio.sD an ethics o, ethics that esta9lishes a set o, exclusionary practices that are represented in the seemingly innocent designations of people and place. The ario.s disco.rses springing ,ro& this .nconscio.s are legion ,or


Critical Geography K )/

e@a&pleD as I noted earlierD the ethics o, international a=airs rearms the violence+ the nonencounters and nonconversations+ that the state system perpetuates. It is ti&e to .nread the old &ap and 9egin the process o, *riting

another oneD a process *itho.t li&it !



,T Bramewor) Conventional policy7oriented analysis fails+ rather+ we should prioriti#e analyses of the individual as it relates to borders and state powers Salter (5AMar( B! +ro,essor at the chool o, +olitical t.diesD Uniersity o, ;tta*a +h!%!D +olitical cienceD Uniersity o, British Col.&9iaD anco.erD 1 M!c!D International 6elationsD 'ondon chool o, cono&icsD 'ondonD 15 B!7! A8onsD +olitics and 'i9eral t.diesD Broc( UniersityD t! CatharinesD 1/ E7t the Threshold o, ec.rity 7 Theory o, International Borders Glo9al .reillance and +olicing BordersD ec.rityD IdentityD + -)<50D 2005D lia Z.rei( and Mar( B! alterD eds!TK8 Conentional political acco.nts o, &igration ,oc.s on &asses o, &oing pop.lations 3 9road de&ographic and social trends 3 or the p.9lic policy process 9y *hich those pop.lations are constrained or ena9led ! This acco.nt t.rns traditional analysis on its head and as(s hat if we were to put the individual at the centre of our analysis[ This is not to adopt a ðod *herein the li,e
*hich is dependent on technologies o, ris( assess&ent and the application o, discretion .nder the shado* o, ,ail.re and catastrophe state capacity ,or intelligence gatheringD in,or&ation &anage&ent and ris( assess&ent state policing po*ers and 4nallyD s.reillance o, the indiid.al 9e,oreD d.ring and a,ter the 9order &o&ent ! In a typical :o.rneyD an indiid.al *ill ,ace seeral points o, decision or discretion legalD social and 4nancial a9ility to leae ho&e ApassportD agencyD tic(et 4nancial and 9.rea.cratic a9ility to trael internationally AisaD tic(et ling.istic and social a9ility to enter the target co.ntry Ae@a&inationD con,essionD discretion and 4nallyD the a9ility to leae that co.ntry again! Traditional narratieso, &igration descri9e the &acro<

process in ter&s o, Pp.shO and Pp.llO ,actors that ind.ce or deter pop.lations ,ro& &oing! cholars disc.ss econo&icD political and h.&anitarian &oties ,or international &oe&ent Ahope ,or a 9etter ,.t.reD ,ear o, har&D etc! ABrettell and 8olli4eld 2000! The abstraction of the 8push%pull9 model of migration or the policy7oriented analysis of speci=c border cases helps downplay the role of social scripts and agency in migration. 8o*eerD this &odel o, &igration do*nplays the cr.cial role that state

policies and state agents hae in ,acilitating or restricting &o9ility! Goern&ents are (ey players in this narratieD 9y esta9lishing 9arriers and ind.ce&ents to speci4c (inds o, &oe&ents 3 harsh re,.gee ad:.dication proced.resD ,ast trac(s ,or entreprene.rial inestorsD and so on! 3y

placing the individual 3 the 9ody o, the indiid.al 3 in the centre of the analysis+ we see that both macro7 and micro7politics of power structure the permeability of state borders. This analysis in no way detracts from the ability of the state to repress or to e xclude+ but puts forward the idea


Critical Geography K ))

that the state9s ability to construct and to include should play an e
prohi9it or to reg.lateD 9.t also to the po*er to create and to nor&alize! In addition to the a9ility o, the state to ad&it or [email protected] traellersD state agents 3 s.ch as isaD passport and i&&igration ocialsD not to &ention police and intelligence ocers 3 hae the capacity and responsi9ility to de4ne traellers as desira9le or .ndesira9leD sa,e or ris(yD healthy or diseasedD etc!D de4nitions *hich hae pro,o.nd e=ects on the ,reedo& o, those indiid.als! In doing thisD we must be mindful that the ability to construct and to repress are not democratic+ and involve the application of power A9oth repressie and constr.ctie which may ta)e the form of )nowledge+ material or class well as physical violence ! *or(ing Thiscontrap.ntal position dra*s on the tensionposition+ 9et*een as e&piricis& and constr.ctiis& ,ro& the &aterial

circ.&stances o, glo9al &o9ilityD 9.t ad&itting that these circ.&stances are the res.lt o, political disco.rses that are not red.ci9le to physical ,actors ! Follo*ing BigoOs criticis& o, post
&oe&ents that occ.r in 9order zones and airports! This lac( o, en>.iry is so&e*hat parado@ical gien that the control o, international &o9ilities that cross thro.gh airports and 9order zones are e=ectiely &anagedD 4ltered and screened *ithin these sitesO A200/9 1-)5! This indiid.alistic orientation is pro&pted 9y three concerns nor&atieD theoretical and e&pirical! hile

policy analysis provides an important empirical superstructure for this proIect+ we have invested in an empathetic proIect in which we )eep =rmly in our view that these restrictions and regulations aretravellers important and fundamental in structuring the possible liveson ofamillions of ! 6ather than disc.ss the lac( o, international agree&ent T6I+

isa A*hich *o.ld allo* all pro,essionals *ith partic.lar s(ills the a9ility to tra el *itho.t restrictionD this (ind o, analysis *ill inestigate the *ays in *hich the &o9ility gradient changes *ith s(ill leelD not in a 9ilateral sense 9.t *ithin a &.ch *ider a&9it! This individualist orientation refocuses our attention on the micro7politics of border control.


Critical Geography K )"

,T Boreign /omestic /istinction Dood The internet has destroy any use the foreign%domestic distinction could have. Jee 12$22$14 3 Ti&othy B! 'ee Ti&othy B! 'ee coers technology policyD incl.ding copyright and patent la*D teleco& reg.lationD priacyD and ,ree speech! 8e also *rites a9o.t the econo&ics o, technology! 8e has preio.sly *ritten ,or 7rs Technica and For9es EThe N7 is trying to hae it 9oth *ays on its do&estic spying progra&s https$$goo!gl$ggC*& ;n FridayD the ;9a&a ad&inistration told a ,ederal :.dge that een a,ter the disclos.res o, d*ard no*denD a legal 9attle oer the National ec.rity 7gencyLs do&estic s.reillance progra& poses a grae threat to national sec.rity! 7 declaration 9y acting %ep.ty N7 %irector Frances Fleisch arg.es that litigating a constit.tional challenge ,ro& the lectronic Frontier Fo.ndation co.ld reeal operational details o, N7 s.reillance progra&sD tipping o= terrorists to the 9est *ays to eade detection! FleischLs arg.&ent s.ggests that the agency e@pects the 7&erican people to si&ply tr.st it to .se its ast spying po*ers responsi9ly *itho.t &eaning,.l p.9lic oersight! ThatLs not ho* do&estic s.reillance is s.pposed to *or(! TraditionallyD do&estic s.reillance po*ers *ere held 9y la* en,orce&ent agenciesD not the N7 ! 7nd the e@istence o, the spying po*ers *ere not secret! eryone (no*s that the FBI and local police depart&ents hae the po*er to co&pel teleco&&.nications co&panies to disclose their c.sto&ersL co&&.nications! B.t 4rst they &.st get a *arrantD s.pported 9y pro9a9le ca.seD ,ro& a :.dge! That oersight gies 7&ericans con4dence that do&estic s.reillance po*ers *onLt 9e a9.sed! Things are ery di=erent *hen the U!! goern&ent

spies on people oerseas! ;9io.slyD U!! intelligence agencies donLt generally hae the po*er to co&pel ,oreign teleco&&.nications co&panies to cooperate *ith s.reillance e=orts! o instead o, a ,or&al legal processD they traditionally hae .sed coert &eansR9ri9ing insidersD installing 9.gsD tapping .ndersea ca9lesD hac(ing into ,oreign net*or(sRto intercept ,oreign co&&.nications! For these ðods to *or(D the goern&ent &.st (eep secret not only

the speci4c s.reillance targetsD 9.t the ,act that the s.reillance progra& e@ists at all ! I, the progra&Ls e@istence is reealedD the ,oreign goern&ent is li(ely to sh.t it do*n! That secrecy &eant that 7&erican ,oreign intelligence
of

citizens o, FranceD Brazil and Nigeria ro.tinely .se Face9oo(D G&ailD and other 7&erican online serices to co&&.nicate! 7&ericans &a(e calls *ith (ype! 7nd &.ch Internet trac 9et*een t*o ,oreign co.ntries o,ten passes thro.gh the United tates! The N7 has reacted to this changing co&&.nications landscape 9y trying to clai& the 9est o, 9oth *orlds! The FI7 7&end&ents 7ctD passed in 200#D gae the N7 the po*er to co&pel do&estic teleco&&.nications proiders to cooperate *ith the N7Ls s.reillance progra&s! et the N7 has resisted the transparency and :.dicial oersight that has traditionally acco&panied do&estic s.reillance! TheyLe arg.ed that disclosing the e@istence o, these progra&s *o.ld co&pro&ise their e=ectieness! 7nd theyLe arg.ed that 9eca.se the targets o, s.reillance are oerseasD only li&ited :.dicial oersight 9y the secretie Foreign Intelligence .reillance Co.rtD not indiid.alized Fo.rth 7&end&ent *arrantsD *ere re>.ired! B.t the N7 progra&s reealed 9y no*denD incl.ding +6IM and the phone records progra&D loo( &ore li(e do&estic s.reillance progra&s than ,oreign ones! 'i(e conentional do&estic *iretapsD they rely on co&pelling do&estic 4r&s to cooperate *ith s.reillance! 'i(e conentional *iretapsD they s*eep .p in,or&ation a9o.t the co&&.nications o, 7&ericans on 7&erican soil! 7nd li(e do&estic *iretapsD in,or&ation collected 9y the N7 is so&eti&es shared *ith do&estic la* en,orce&ent agencies ,or prosec.tion o, 7&ericans! I, the N7 is going to r.n *hat a&o.nts to a do&estic s.reillance progra& that collects the priate in,or&ation o, 7&ericans on 7&erican soilD itLs going to ,ace press.re to s.9:ect that progra& to the sa&e (ind o, oersight as other do&estic s.reillance progra&! That &eans disclosing the general characteristics o, the progra&R9.t not the speci4c targetsRto the p.9lic! 7nd it &eans re>.iring indiid.alized *arrantsD s.pported 9y pro9a9le ca.seD 9e,ore the goern&ent can intercept the co&&.nications o, 7&ericans on 7&erican soil!


Critical Geography K )#

,T 3orders Dood%Fnevitable Collapse of borders are inevitable Q globali#ation and bac)lash against borders prove ,gnew '((6 VJohnD 7gne* is c.rrently %isting.ished +ro,essor o, Geography at the Uniersity o, Cali,orniaD 'os 7ngeles AUC'7! Fro& 1"5 .ntil 15 he *as a pro,essor at yrac.se Uniersity in Ne* or(! %r! 7gne* teaches co.rses on political geographyD the history o, geographyD .ropean citiesD and the Mediterranean orld!D EBorders on the &ind re<,ra&ing 9order thin(ingD thics and Glo9al +oliticsD pg 5D http$$***!sscnet!.cla!ed.$geog$do*nloads$#5)$25#!pd,W There isDthenD nothing at all Pnat.ralOphysically or sociallyto 9orders! TheyX are literally i&positions on the *orld ! This is not to say that 9orders are so&eho* X si&ply &etaphorical or [email protected] *itho.t &ateriality lines on a &ap rather than a set X o, o9:ects and practices in space!/- It is &ore that 9orders are neer transcendentalX o9:ects that syste&atically sec.re spaces in *hich identities and interests can goX Borders o7' the &ind re<,ra&ing 9order thin(ing X " Apage n.&9er not ,or citation p.rpose X .n>.estioned! e &ay today also 9e liing in a ti&e *hen they will begin to lose their grip because they no longer match the emerging spatial ontology of a world increasingly transnational and globali#ed.// In the 4rst placeD as i&positionsD bordersX freerence!X For e@a&pleD the U<

Me@ican 9order c.ts thro.gh historic &igration 4elds andX Qo*s o, eeryday li,eD /5 perhaps aro.nd /0 &illion people hae U
the 9order is precisely *hat gies itX s.ch sy&9olic po*er in the &indOs eye o, the nationalists *ho ,aor$challenge it!


Critical Geography K )

,T 0ealism 7 Surveillance 0ealism is not true especially in the context of surveillance@ constructivism is the only way to explain international intelligence cooperation etheredD +8% in +olitics and international st.dies at Uniersity o, ar*ic(D '(1 AMarc.sD E%oes 6ealis& Best @plain Intelligence Cooperation Bet*een tates[ #$#$201/D http$$***!e
'i9eral acco.nts *o.ld arg.e that it is instit.tions and treaties that ,or& &.ltinational intelligence cooperationD Constr.ctiists *o.ld point o.t that the .nderlying reason ,or this is 9ased on identities! The 6ealist ass.&ption o, the literat.re is that colla9oration is not an end in itsel,D Pit is .tility that dries colla9oration!OV2/W 8o*eer it seems highly unli)ely thatD ,or e@a&pleD the -S would suddenly renege on a sharing agreement with the -2 in order m a)e an enemy of them when the immediate opportunity for relative advantage becomes apparent! The same goes for most examples of states with shared identities@there is a long7term interest in trust and shared valuesD not the one< .p&anship that 6ealist predict! here practical e@a&ples o, cooperation proe to 9e 9eyond their e@planatory po*ersD 6ealists o,ten t.rn to Ga&e Theory to rationalise *hy cooperation &ay appear to 9e 9ased on &.t.al gainsD *hen it ,act this is :.st a 6ealist &otie to &a@i&ise interests!V25W Gill and alsh 9oth &a(e re,erence to intelligence cooperation 9eing a(in to the +risonerOs %ile&&a *hen they arg.e that states cooperateD rather than de,ectD *hen it s.its their sel,
sho* that intelligence cooperation is &otiated 9y &ore than &ere sel, opportunity to gain relative advantage instead+ F0 reality presents a situation in which both 8prisoners9 have played the game before and )now that they will play it again ! %ecisions to cooperate are neer a one
9eca.se states hae a history o, relationships and rialries that goern their interaction! To that e=ectD the o.tco&e is li(ely to 9e cooperationD rather than de,ectionD 9eca.se the actors hae 9.ilt .p a history o, tr.st and they (no* that i, they cooperate it *ill help the& in ,.t.re dealsD as they are li(ely to enter into the sa&e

o& dile&&a *ith each other again! Fr

this long
non<&aterial gains as it is a9o.t gaining intelligence ! M.nton ,oc.ses his article on Canadian intelligence sharing *ith the U oer C.9an actiities in the 1)0Os!


Critical Geography K "0

M.nton e@plains that *hile 6ealist theory Pproides a reasona9ly satis,ying e@planation o, *hy the United tates *o.ld see( helpD it does not e@plain as *ell *hy Canada *illingly proided assistance !OV2#W M.nton sho*s ho* Canada stood to gain nothing in 6ealist ter&s ho*eerD Constr.ctiis& can e@plain that the reason Canada shared their intelligence on C.9a *ith the U *as in order to deelop tr.st and to protect the li9eral
agencies hae 9een a (ey ,orce in recognising the e@istence o, s.ch identity str.ct.res in I6 and hae een &ade e=orts to inQ.ence the&! tonor a.ndersO 9oo(D Pho +aid The +iperOD e@plains ho* intelligence agencies hae atte&pted to inQ.ence identity str.ct.res in I6!V2W The CI7 *as .ncoered to 9e ,.nding and cooperating *ith certain people and instit.tions to help set the agenda o, *hat people *antD na&ely to &a(e .ropean pop.lations *ant to identi,y *ith li9eral< de&ocratic str.ct.res rather than oiet Co&&.nist str.ct.res! This also sho*s the .se o, non<&ilitaristic action and so,t po*er 9y intelligence agenciesD *hich transcends the e@planatory po*ers o, 6ealis&! 8enceDConstructivist

accounts explain the existence and use of structures that govern the intelligence cooperation between states. Constructivism uses the concept of agency to correct the 0ealist notion that states are the main actors in F0 and that their actions are predetermined by self7interest. 7gents are o,ten *hat set a

stateOs interest in intelligence cooperationD and o,ten an agentOs interests are constr.cted 9y their relationship *ith another agent! For e@a&pleD B.sh and Blair shared a strong ,riendship and grand ision ,or the *orldD 9eca.se o, their co&pati9le personalities and agendas in the Middle ast their co.ntries ca&e to astly increase their intelligence sharing!V-0W 7 ,.rther e@a&ple *o.ld 9e the close relationship 9et*een Thatcher and 6eaganD *hich lead to the U secretly proiding Pclandestine helpO to the UK d.ring the Fal(lands *ar!V-1W 8enceD

Constructivism explains how agency can change the interests and identities of states and conse


,T 0ealism 0ealism fails empirically and normatively Gones !! 3 6ichard yn Jones Jones is a elsh acade&ic at Cardi= Uniersity *here he is a +ro,essor o, elsh +olitics Eec.rityD trategyD and Critical Theory http$$goo!gl$9,*)H9 tatis& is a ie* o, the *orld that regards states Rconceied in .nitary and o,ten anthropo&orphized ter&sRas the only tr.ly signi4cant actors in *orld politics ! tatis& also inoles a nor&atie clai&Rand herein lies the :.sti4cation ,or re,erring to Estatis& rather than Estate3centris&R thatD in political ter&sD states sho.ld 9e accorded a highD i, not the highestD al.e in the&seles! The statis&

o, traditional sec.rity st.dies is a prod.ct o, the ,act that the *hole approach is itsel, 9ased on the ,o.ndations o, a realist .nderstanding o, *orld politics ! 7s John Garnett arg.es E+erhaps the &ost perasie ass.&ptions .nderlying conte&porary strategy are those associated *ith the theory o, political 9ehaio.r (no*n as realis& AGarnett 1#"a  see also Gray 1#2a 1##! tatis& is one o, the central tenetsRi, not the central tenetRo, all ,or&s o, realis&! It isD ho*eerD open to criticis& on 9oth e&pirical and nor&atie gro.nds! ec.rityD trategyD and Critical Theory Chapter / &piricallyD realists regard statis& as 9eing :.sti4edD indeed necessaryD 9eca.se this perspectie reQects the reality o, international relations tates are placed at the center o, the analysis o, *orld politics 9eca.se they are at the center o, the international stageD partic.larly *hen sec.rity iss.es are concerned! For realistsD international relations is de4ned in ter&s o, the interaction o, states! Th.s one arries at the ta.tological arg.&ent that states are at the center o, the st.dy o, international relations 9eca.se international relations is a9o.t the interrelationship o, states! B.t een leaing aside any >.al&s a9o.t the logical stat.s o, s.ch an arg.&entD *e are le,t *ith a ,ar &ore ,.nda&ental >.estion! 8o* realistic is the realistsO statis& [ hile ery ,e*statis&D scholarsD *hateer their theoretical perspectieD *o.ld *antthe to [email protected]e do.9t the,oc.s i&portance o, states in *orld politicsD *ith its tendency to &a(e .nitary conceied states o, analysisD see&sD e&pirically spea(ingD to 9e highly pro9le&atic ! ;ne o, the &a:or conse>.ences o, the

,etishization o, the state is the constr.ction and rei=cation of the soQcalled inside%outside dichotomy based on the concept of sovereignty. This dichotomy resonates throughout the realist view of international politics Aal(er 1-! ;ne o, the i&plications o, this 9inary opposition is a rigid di=erentiation 9et*een the s.9state and the s.prastate Eleels o, analysis! 7ltho.gh the latter is seen as the presere o, international relations specialistsD the ,or&er is considered to 9e *ithin the p.rie* o, other disciplines and largely irreleant to the concerns o, international relations! 0ealists argue that altho.gh domestic politics *ithin a state

&ay 9e interestingD one does not need to )now anything about it in order to .nderstand that stateOs international political 9ehaior! 7 state Aany state *ill 9ehae in certain stateli(e *ays no &atter *hat its internal co&position 9eca.se o, the constraining inQ.ence o, international anarchy ! Th.s Colin ! Gray can con4dently proclai& E The strategic theorist does not (no*D cannot (no*D *ho *ill 9e in oceD *ho *ill 9e aligned *ith *ho&!!!! B.t the theorist does (no* ho* states&en 9ehae and *hy they 9ehae as they do AGray 12 )2"! 7ltho.gh no one can do.9t the elegant si&plicity o, this positionD cr.cial >.estions re&ain Is the realistOs statis& analytically .se,.l[ Can the internal politics o, the state 9e ignoredD th.s allo*ing analysts to concentrate their attentions solely on the deter&ining inQ.ence o, the international Ereal& o, necessity[ The e@perience o, the end o, the Cold arD .ndo.9tedly the greatest change in the international sec.rity eniron&ent in decadesD s.ggests not! The ,ail.re o, any international relations specialist *or(ing *ithin the realist paradig& to ,oresee the end o, the Cold ar and the re&ar(a9ly peace,.l disintegration o, the oiet Union has 9een &.ch co&&ented



.pon Aa&ong the ol.&ino.s literat.reD seeD ,or e@a&pleD Gaddis 1231- ohl,orth 15 altz 15 Mearshei&er 15 also the sy&posi.& on the end o, the Cold ar and theories o, international relations in International ;rganisation ol! /#D No! 2 A1/D pp! 15532""! 7ccording to Gray The ,act that &ost realists or neorealists did not predict the ,all o, the 8o.se o, 'enin in the 1#0s *as a ,ail.re in prescienceD not o, paradig&! The ending o, the Cold ar has occ.rred ,or reasons ,.lly e@plica9le *itho.t strain 9y realist arg.&ent! AGray 12 )2 Many realist *riters hae tried to proide e@ post ,acto e@planations ,or the end

o, the Cold ar! or(ing ,ro& realist preceptsD they arg.e that the re,or&s o, Mi(hail Gor9ache *ere D in the *ords o, Kenneth altzD Ean e@ternally i&posed necessity A'e9o* 1/ 2))! B.t these arg.&ents are not pers.asie! The re,or&s instit.ted in the oiet Union a,ter 1#5 *ent ,ar 9eyond *hat *as necessary i, Gor9ache and his colleag.es *ere si&ply concerned *ith ad:.sting to relatie econo&ic decline! 7s 6ichard Ned 'e9o* trenchantly o9seres None o,!!! Vthe realistsW insisted that the oiet UnionOs relatie decline de&anded a leader *ho *o.ld introd.ce estern3 style de&ocratic re,or&sD hold relatiely ,ree electionsD ac(no*ledge the legal right o, rep.9lics to secede ,ro& the oiet UnionD enco.rage anti3co&&.nist reol.tions in astern .ropeD agree to dissole the arsa* +actD *ithdra* oiet ,orces ,ro& the territories o, its ,or&er &e&9ersD accept the re.ni4cation o, Ger&any *ithin N7T;!!!! .ch reco&&endationsD let alone a prediction that all this *o.ld soon co&e to passD *o.ld hae 9een greeted derisiely as the height o, .nrealis&! A'e9o* 1/ 2)/ The re,or&s in the oiet Union *ere literally .nthin(a9le ,or those trapped *ithin a realist &ind3set! H.ite si&plyD to .nderstand the end o, the Cold arD one cannot &erely concentrate on state$syste& interaction! 6atherD the ,oc.s &.st also e&9race an analysis o, eents *ithin the state and o, transnationalD 9.t nonstateD interaction! Cr.cial to any .nderstanding o, eents a,ter 1#5D ,or e@a&pleD are the estern .ropean peace &oe&entD the astern .ropean dissidentsD and their interaction the inQ.ence o, estern alternatie sec.rity thin(ing on the oiet leadership the rise o, nationalis& a&ong s.9serient nationalities in astern .rope the collapse o, con4dence in the shi99oleths o, Mar@is&3'eninis& and &any other ,actors not a&ena9le to interrogation *ithin the traditional realist ,ra&e*or( A6isse3Kappen 1/ see also Chapter )! 7s 'e9o* o9seresD Eoiet

,oreign policy .nder Gor9ache is o.tside the realist paradig&! To e@plain itD the analyst &.st go o.tside the paradig& and loo( at the deter&ining inQ.ence o, do&estic politicsD 9elie, syste&sD and learning A'e9o* 1/ 2)#!


Critical Geography K "-

,T 0ealism Q Fts rong 0ealisms fails because it tries to rationali#e international relations Deorge ! 3 Ji& George @pert in international relations *ho lect.res at 7.stralian National Uniersity E%isco.rses o, Glo9al +olitics 7 Critical 6eintrod.ction to International 6elationshttp$$goo!gl$z/;+ My concerns here echo those o, a dierse gro.p o, scholars ,ro& across the political spectr.& *ho hae recently highlighted the dangers and inade>.acies o, orthodo@ approaches to International 6elationsin the 10s! For e@a&pleD the Cold ar historian

John 'e*is Gaddis has recently e@pressed his dis>.iet *ith the c.rrent state o, a=airs! IndeedD Gaddis has ill.strated ho* the analytical e&peror o, International 6elations is na(ed a,ter all! More preciselyD the do&inant perspectie in International 6elationsD artic.lated latterly as neo< 6ealis&D has ill.strated that it cannot ade>.ately e@plain that *hich it ass.red a generation it .nderstoodRthe 9ehaior o, the oiet Union as po*er politics actor in the anarchical syste&! This is pri&arily 9eca.se 6ealis&D in any o, its g.isesD represents its (no*ledge o, the *orld in ter&s o, generalizedD .niersalizedD and irred.ci9le patterns o, h.&an 9ehaiorD *hich red.ces glo9al politics to the incessantD anarchical po*er str.ggle a&ong states and Erational interstate actiity to the si&ple .tilitarian p.rs.it o, sel,.ishing its po*er stat.s and syste&ic a.thority other thanD in Traditional po*er politics ter&s!- 8ence the shrill tri.&phalis& o, those ino(ing the Eictory o, the estern s.perpo*er in its po*er str.ggle *ith its &ortal Cold ar ene&y! 7nd hence the contin.ance o, the Es.ccess,.l po*er politics principles in the G.l,!

0ealism is doomed by its simple view of international relations Deorge ! 3 Ji& George @pert in international relations *ho lect.res at 7.stralian National Uniersity E%isco.rses o, Glo9al +olitics 7 Critical 6eintrod.ction to International 6elationshttp$$goo!gl$z/;+ The &a:or target o, critical social theory has 9eenan International 6elations orthodo@yR&ost inQ.entially &ani,ested in the scienti4c neo< 6ealis& o, A&ainly U!! scholarship 9.t also in its A&ainly British Traditionalist co.nterpartR that contin.es to represent as the reality o, International 6elations a narro*D sel,.estion o, reality 9e [email protected] 9y re,erence to the ,acts o, the *orld or any si&ple aggregation o, the&D 9eca.se reality isand al*ays characterized 9y a&9ig.ityD dis.nityDconse>.entlyD discrepancyD is one ! 7n ade>.ate contradictionD di=erence political realis&D that a9oe all recognizes its li&itations in this regard and ac(no*ledges its partialD pro9le&aticD and al*ays contesta9le nat.re! Inade>.acyD in this senseD is the representation o, a partialD partic.laristic i&age o, reality as Airred.ci9leD totalizedD and .ncontesta9le reality itsel,! The pro9le&D as 6! N! Ber(i


Critical Geography K "/

s.ggestsD is that it has 9een precisely this inade>.ate and Epri&itie representation o, reality that has do&inated *ithin the 7nglo<7&erican intellect.al co&&.nityD partic.larly that sector o, it concerned *ith International 6elations!2- 7s a conse>.enceD t*o rather pri&itie s.9the&es hae 9eco&e integral to the >.estion o, political reality in International 6elations! The 4rst pro:ects reality as ! e@isting Eo.t there and is artic.lated thro.gh the lang.age and logic o, i&&ediacy 6ealityD on this 9asisD is a *orld o, Etangi9leD palpa9leD percepti9le things or o9:ects! !!! It is &aterial and concrete!2/ The real *orldD conse>.entlyD is that *hich is i&&ediately thereD aro.nd .s and disclosed to .s 9y sensory in,or&ation! 6ealis& in International 6elations th.s 9eco&es the co&&onsensical acco&&odation to the tangi9leD o9sera9le realities o, this Ae@ternal *orld! 7t this point the

second pri&itie 6ealist the&e rear&s the 4rst andD 9y its o*n logic at leastD grants it greater legiti&acy! This is the necessity the&eD *hich con4r&s the need ,or acco&&odation to the ,acts o, reality 9.t accords the& greater historical and philosophical ,acticity!

6eality no* 9eco&es Ethe real& o, the .nchangea9leD ineita9le and in the last resort ine@ora9le occ.rrencesD a *orld o, eternityD o9:ectiityD graityD s.9stantiality and positie resistance to h.&an p.rposes!25 In this &annerD 6ealis& is i&9.ed *ith &oralD philosophicalD and een religio.s connotations in its con,rontation *ith the real *orld Eo.t there! It 9eco&es &oral in that it o9seres certain r.les o, cond.ct integral to the reality o, h.&an 9ehaior! It can ta(e on a religio.s di&ension in that reality is .nderstood as an acco&&odation to an ine@ora9le destiny e&anating ,ro& the real& o, .lti&ate Enecessity! Its philosophical stat.s is esta9lished as 6ealistsD ac(no*ledging the need ,or acco&&odationD represent their .nderstanding o, reality in the serio.sD resigned &anner o,D ,or e@a&pleD the scholar.enceD is &ar(ed 9y d.alis& and dichoto&y! 7t its &ost po*er,.l Ae!g!D d.ring the Cold arD this positiist<6ealist

identity is represented as the opposition 9et*een the ,orces o, rationalityD .nityD and progressie p.rpose and an anarchical real& o, danger and threat in per&anent need o, restraint ! 7 gen.ine Aposi tiist 6ealistD in this circ.&stanceD is the o9serer o, the *orld Eo.t there a*areD a9oe allD o, the need ,or the la* and order pro=ered 9y the soereign state in a post< 6enaissance *orld o, states! The 6ealistD accordinglyD re&ains Eheroically pessi&isticD tr.sting only in the ,orces o, Ela* and orderD and their &aintenance 9y ,orceD as a per&anent and eer precario.s holding operation V.nderstanding peaceD tran>.ilityD prosperityD ,reedo& VasW a special 9on.sD accr.ing to people as a res.lt o, liing in a *ell ordered society!2) 7s Ber(i s.ggestsD this 6ealist approach represents logical and

analytical inade>.acy in that in detaching itsel, ,ro& theory and interpretation it e=ectiely detaches itsel, ,ro& the AhistoricalD c.lt.ralD and ling.istic conte@t o, eeryday h.&an e@istenceR,ro& the social and intellect.al li,e9lood o, reality ! en in its &ost sophisticated ,or& Ae!g!D +opperian$ 'a(atosianD a positiist<6ealist approach represents an anachronistic resid.e o, the .ropean nlighten&ent andD in generalD &ainstrea& estern philosophyD *hich contin.es the ,.tile >.est ,ora grand AnonTheo< ry o, e@istence 9eyond speci4c ti&eD spaceD and political p.rpose! More i&&ediatelyD it stands

as a dangero.s so.rce o, analytic$policy paralysisD in the ,ace o, the e@traordinary eents associated *ith the end o, the Cold ar and in the ,ace o, *idespread recognition that it is see&ingly incapa9le o, &oing 9eyond its pri&itie intellect.al agenda!2" 6ealis& in International 6elationsD accordinglyD constr.cts its e@planatory agenda .pon one ariant or another o, a Espectator theory o, (no*ledgeD in *hich (no*ledge o, the real *orld is gleaned ia a real& o, e@ternal ,acts Ae!g!D o, interstate anarchy that i&pose the&seles .pon the indiid.al scholar.es o, positiis& 9.t .lti&ately no less co&&itted to its perpet.ation! 7s a conse>.enceD the >.estions as(ed andAhistoricophilosophical iss.es raised 9y International 6elations scholarship hae 9een seerely li&itedD to the e@tent that co&ple@ episte&ological$ ontological de9ates oer (no*ledgeD &eaningD lang.ageD and realityRthe iss.es o, ho*



*e thin( and act in the *orldRhae 9een largely con4ned to the pri&itie 6ealist ,ra&e*or( descri9ed earlier!


Critical Geography K ")

,t 0ealism Q Fts 3ad 0ealism leads to war and racism while mishandling disease+ ecological destruction+ security problems+ crime+ and gender oppression Deorge ! 3 Ji& George @pert in international relations *ho lect.res at 7.stralian National Uniersity E%isco.rses o, Glo9al +olitics 7 Critical 6eintrod.ction to International 6elationshttp$$goo!gl$z/;+ 8o=&annOs concernD si&ply p.tD is that

.nless *e serio.sly reappraise the *ay *e thin( and

act in theinpost
It concerns the 9roader iss.e o, analytical and policy paralysis associated *ith the post.estions presented 9y the a9sence o, the oiet e&pire!10 6atherD it is s.ggestedD the re&aining s.perpo*er contin.es to ,or&.late its i&ages o, the *orld in ter&s consistent *ith the str.ggle ,or Cold ar hege&ony! Conse>.entlyD in the 10sD *hile ac(no*ledging at one leel the dic.lties associated *ith the .pdated tas( o, *orld Epolice&anD the United tates contin.es D neerthelessD to artic.late its hege&onic a&9itions in ter&s o, it retaining Ethe pre
o, a U!! society see(ing to 9.ttress a threatened identity in the post

Critical Geography K ""

,T /emocracy Solves /emocracies “inclusion” relies on violent exclusion of others in the form of colonialism Dordon 1( ANeeD pro,essor o, +olitics and Goern&ent at Ben
has sered as a cr.cial co&ponent in the historical processes thro.gh *hich &odern de&ocracies *ere created and s.stained!- Foc.sing on the prod.ction o, Ethe peopleRna&elyD those *ho are ac(no*ledged as citizens and conse>.ently hae 9een granted the right to participate in political decisionsRI &aintain that colonialis& has 9een deployed 9y de&ocracy as a ,orce that .ni4esD li&itsD and sta9ilizes the people *ithin the &etropole 9y e&ploying iolent ,or&s o, [email protected]! 7nd yetD .nli(e other ,or&s o, [email protected] *hich hae 9een dee&ed accidents or a9errations and regarded as sy&pto&s o, de&ocracyOs eol.tionary deelop&entD/ political scientists hae o,ten ass.&ed that colonialis& is totally alien to de&ocracy and indeed antithetical to the t*o 9asic de&ocratic principles soereignty o, the people and e>.ality! ID 9y contrastD ,ollo* post
o, co.rseD other regi&es as a *ay o, achieing not only geopolitical and econo&ic goalsD 9.t also as a *ay o, acco&plishing social and political o9:ecties *ithin the &etropole!5 Colonialis&D in other *ordsD also has a strategic role at ho&e and the di=erent ,or&s o, po*er that &ani,est the&seles in the colony can 9e readily traced 9ac( to the de&ocratic &etropole! MoreoerD the series o, [email protected] that colonialis& prod.ces areD I clai&D part o, de&ocracyOs ery logic and can operate in tande& *ith de&ocracyOs 9asic principles! Inso,ar as this is the caseD the de&ocracy$colonial relationship can teach .s soðing i&portant a9o.t de&ocracy ,or it reealsD .sing Michael MannOs phraseD one o, the dar( sides o, the so.entlyD prod.ces a do.9le &oe&ent that 9oth contracts and e@tends de&ocracy! hat 9egins as a pro:ect o, s.9:.gationD &ayD at ti&esD ac>.ire an .ne@pected edge o, incl.sion!


Critical Geography K "#

,T /emocracy Solves Q -S Speci=c The -nited States9 democracy is a racist and imperialist one Stanley and eaver 1 AJason tanleyD pro,essor o, philosophy at ale UniersityD is the a.thor o, EKno*ledge and +ractical InterestsD E'ang.age in Conte@t and EKno* 8o*! 8e is *or(ing on a 9oo( on the threat propaganda poses to de&ocracyD and esla eaerD assistant pro,essor o, political science and 7,rican< 7&erican st.dies at ale UniersityD is a co.ences o, 7&ericanThe Cri&e Jan.ary 12D 201/D EIs the +ewControl!D or* Times -pinionator, United tates a P6acial %e&ocracyO[D http://opinionator.'lo(s.n)times.com/!"/!"/"/istheunitedstatesaracial democrac)/0&r1!

tarting in the 1"0sD the United tates has *itnessed a drastic increase in the rate o, 9lac( i&prison&entD 9oth a9sol.tely and relatie to *hites! J.st ,ro& 1#0 to 200)D the 9lac( rate o, incarceration A:ail and prison increased ,o.r ti&es as &.ch as the increase in the *hite rate! The increase in 9lac( prison ad&issions ,ro& 1)0 to 1" is 51" percent! In 1)#D 15 percent o, 9lac( ad.lt &ales had 9een conicted o, a ,elony and " percent had 9een to prison 9y 200/D the n.&9ers had risen to -- percent and 1" percentD respectiely! 79o.t  percent o, the *orldOs prison pop.lation is 9lac( 7&erican Aco&9ining these t*o st.dies! I, the syste& o, :.stice in the United

tates *ere ,airD and i, the -# &illion 9lac( 7&ericans *ere as prone to cri&e as the aerage ethnic gro.p in the *orld A*here an ethnic gro.p isD ,or e@a&pleD the )1 &illion ItaliansD or the /5 &illion 8ind. G.:aratiD yo. *o.ld e@pect that 9lac( 7&ericans *o.ld also 9e a9o.t  percent o, the 201- esti&ated *orld pop.lation o, "!1-5 9illion people! There *o.ld then 9e *ell oer )00 &illion 9lac( 7&ericans in the *orld! I, yo. thin(9e that 9lac( are li(e any9ody elseD 9lac( 7&erica sho.ld the third7&ericans largest nation on earthD t*ice asthen largethe as nation the o, United tates! o. can o, co.rse still thin(D in the ,ace o, these ,actsD that the United tates prison la*s are ,airly applied and color9lind! B.t i, yo. doD yo. al&ost certainly &.st accept that 9lac( 7&ericans are a&ong the &ost dangero.s gro.ps in the &.ltitho.sand year history o, h.&an ciilization! PThe 9est *ay to :.dge a c.lt.reDO John %e*ey saidD Pis to see *hat (ind o, people are in the :ails!O The Col.&9ia pro,essor 8er9ert chneider told the ,ollo*ing story a9o.t John %e*ey! ;ne dayD in an ethics co.rseD %e*ey *as trying to deelop a the&e a9o.t the criteria 9y *hich yo. sho.ld :.dge a c.lt.re! 7,ter haing so&e tro.9le saying *hat he *as trying to sayD he stoppedD loo(ed o.t the *indo*D pa.sed ,or a long ti&e and then saidD Ehat I &ean to say is that the 9est *ay to :.dge a c.lt.re is to see *hat (ind o, people are in the :ails! .ppose yo. *ere a citizen o, another co.ntryD loo(ing ,ro& the o.tside at the co&position o, the United tates prison pop.lation! o.ld yo. thin( that the ,or&erly enslaed pop.lation o, the United tates *as one o, the &ost dangero.s gro.ps in history[ ;r *o.ld yo. rather s.spect that tendrils o, past &ind
the United tates oer the past ,e* decades is a racial de&ocracy! It is *idely tho.ght that the ciil rights &oe&ent in the 1)0s at last realized the re&ar(a9le political ideals o, the United tates Constit.tion! I, political ideals hae the tendency to &as( the reality o, their iolationD it *ill 9e especially dic.lt ,or o.r ,ello* More arg.&ent re>.iredD *hich *e to 7&erican citizens are correct ! the s.pply in &a(ing the caseto ,orac(no*ledge the ,ollo*ing t*o that clai&s!*e FirstD enco.ntering police or theisco.rts ca.ses people lose their stat.s as participants in the political processD either ociallyD 9y incarceration and its conse>.encesD or .nociallyD ia the strong correlation that e@ists 9et*een s.ch enco.nters and *ithdra*al ,ro& political li,e! econdlyD 9lac(s are .n,airly and disproportionately the targets o, the police and the co.rts! e 9rieQy s.&&arize


Critical Geography K "

5!#5 &illion people cannot ote 9eca.se they are in prison or :ailD c.rrently .nder s.perision Apro9ationD ,or e@a&pleD or lie in one o, the t*o statesD irginia and Kent.c(yD *ith li,eti&e 9ans on oting ,or those *ith ,elony conictions Anoniolent 4rst ti&e dr.g o=enders are no longer disen,ranchised ,or li,e in the ,or&er! et the e=ects also e@tend to the large and gro*ing ran(s o, the nationOs citizens *ho e@perience inol.ntary contact *ith police regardless o, *hether their right to ote is ,or&ally eli&inated! 7s part o, the case ,or these clai&s here they are s.9stantiated at length else*here! In the United tatesD

one o, .s has helped doc.&ent in a ,orthco&ing 9oo(D p.nish&ent and s.reillance 9y itsel, ca.ses people to *ithdra* ,ro& political participation R acts o, engage&ent li(e oting or political actiis&! In ,actD the e=ect

on political participation o, haing 9een in :ail or prison d*ar,s other (no*n ,actors a=ecting political participationD s.ch as the i&pact o, haing a college.estioned 9y the police 9y 1) percent ,or those *ho had e@perienced arrest 9y 1# percent ,or those *ith a coniction 9y 22 percent ,or those sering ti&e in :ail or prison andD i, this prison sentence *as a year or &ore in d.rationD the pro9a9ility o, oting declined 9y an oer*hel&ing 2) percentD een a,ter acco.nting ,or raceD socioecono&ic positionD sel,
thes.reillance United tatesD are &ost 9y ,arli(ely the &ost to e@perience p.nish&ent and and9lac(s th.s are to 9eli(ely preented ,ro& realizing h.&an dignity! ;ne in  yo.ng 9lac( 7&erican &en e@perienced the historic 200# election ,ro& their prison and :ail cells 1- percent o, 9lac( ad.lt &en co.ld not cast a ote in the election 9eca.se o, a ,elony coniction! 7nd a&ong 9lac(s lac(ing a high school degreeD only one<4,th oted in that election 9eca.se o, incarceration D according to research cond.cted 9y Bec(y +ettitD a pro,essor o, sociology at the Uniersity o, ashington! e do not (no* ho* &any others did not get inoled 9eca.se they *ere trying to (eep a lo* pro4le *here &atters o, goern&ent are concerned! I, the 7&erican cri&inal :.stice syste& *ere color9lindD *e

*o.ld e@pect a tight lin( 9et*een co&&itting cri&e and enco.ntering the police! et &ost people stopped 9y police are not arrestedD and &ost o, those *ho are arrested are not ,o.nd g.ilty o, those *ho are conictedD ,elons are the s&allest gro.p and o, thoseD &any are nonserio.s o=enders! Th.s a large proportion o, those *ho inol.ntarily enco.nter cri&inal :.stice R indeedD the &a:ority o, this gro.p R hae neer 9een ,o.nd g.ilty o, a serio.s cri&e Aor any cri&e in a co.rt o, la*! 7n inol.ntary enco.nter *ith the police 9y itsel,

leads to *ithdra*al ,ro& political participation! I, one gro.p has an .n:.sti4a9ly large rate o, inol.ntary enco.ntersD that gro.p can 9e ,airly regarded as 9eing targeted ,or re&oal ,ro& the political process! idence s.ggests that &inorities e@perience contact *ith the police at rates that ,ar o.tstrip their share o, cri&e ! ;ne st.dy ,o.nd that the pro9a9ility that a 9lac( &ale 1# or 1 years o, age *ill 9e stopped 9y police in Ne* or( City at least once d.ring 200) is 2 percent! The pro9a9ility ,or a 'atino &ale o, the sa&e age gro.p is 50 percent! For a yo.ng *hite &anD it is 20 percent! In 0 percent o, the stops o, yo.ng &inorities in 2011D there *asnOt eidence o,


Critical Geography K #0

*rongdoingD and no arrest or citation occ.rred! In

oer hal, o, the stops o, &inoritiesD the reason gien ,or the stop *as that the person &ade E,.rtie &oe&ents! In )0 percent o, the stopsD an additional reason listed ,or the stop *as that the person *as in a Ehigh cri&e area! Blac(s are not necessarily haing these enco.nters at greater rates than their *hite co.nterparts 9eca.se they are &ore cri&inal! National s.reys sho* thatD *ith the e@ception o, crac( cocaineD 9lac(s consistently report .sing dr.gs at lo*er leels than *hites! o&e st.dies also s.ggest that 9lac(s are engaged in dr.g trac(ing at lo*er leels! et once *e acco.nt ,or their share o, the pop.lationD 9lac(s are 10 ti&es as li(ely to spend ti&e in prison ,or o=enses related to dr.gs! Fairness *o.ld also lead to the e@pectation that once arrestedD 9lac(s *o.ld 9e e>.ally li(ely to 9e conicted and sentenced as *hites! B.t againD the eidence sho*s thatin sentencing 9lac( incarceration is o.tre&ain o, step *ith ! Most o, the large racial di=erences ,or dr.gs and assa.lt .ne@plained 9lac( o=ending een once *e ta(e into acco.nt the 9lac( arrest rates ,or those cri&es! The ,o.nding political ideals o, o.r co.ntry areD as idealsD so&e o, the &ost ad&ira9le in history! They set a high &oral standardD one that in the past *e hae ,ailed een to appro@i&ate! e &.st not let their &a:estic glo* 9lind .s to the possi9ility that no* is not so di=erent ,ro& then! The gap 9et*een 7&erican ideals and 7&erican reality &ay re&ain :.st as caerno.s as o.r nationOs tro.9led history s.ggests!

,merican democracy was built on racism and slavery &organ R' Ad&.ndD e&inent a.thority on early 7&erican historyD *as &erit.s +ro,essor o, 8istory at ale UniersityD *here he ta.ght ,ro& 155 to 1#)! 8e specialized in 7&erican colonial historyD *ith so&e attention to nglish historyD and *as noted ,or his incisie *riting style! 8e coered &any topicsD incl.ding +.ritanis&D politicsD slaeryD historiography and ,a&ily li,eD 1"2D Elaery and Freedo& The 7&erican +arado@DThe 2ournal of American 3istor), http://www.humanities.uci.edu/histor)/ucihp/tah/4nderstandin(AmericanCiti5enship/ American6!Parado7.pdf 7&erican historians interested in tracing the rise o, li9ertyD de&ocracyD and the co&&on &an hae 9een challenged in the past t*o decades 9y other historians concerned *ith tracing the history o, oppressionD e@ploitationD and racis&! The challenge &ade .s e@a&ine &ore directly than historians hitherto hae 9een *illing to doD the role o, slaery in o.r early history! Colonial historiansD in partic.larD *hen *riting a9o.t

the srcin and deelop&ent o, 7&erican instit.tions hae ,o.nd it possi9le .ntil recently to deal *ith slaery as an e@ception to eerything they had to say! e o*e a de9t o, gratit.de to those *ho hae insisted that slaery *as soðing &ore than an e@ceptionD that one<4,th o, the 7&erican pop.lation at the ti&e o, the 6eol.tion is too &any people to 9e treated as an e@ception! e shall not hae &et the challenge si&ply 9y st.dying the history o, that one<4,thD ,r.it,.l as s.ch st.dies &ay 9eD .rgent as they &ay 9e! Nor shall *e hae &et the challenge i, *e &erely [email protected] the ,a&iliar &ane.er o, t.rning o.r old interpretations on their heads! The te&ptation is already apparent to arg.e that slaery and oppression *ere the do&inant ,eat.res o, 7&erican history and that e=orts to adance li9erty and e>.ality *ere the e@ceptionD indeed no &ore than a deice to diert the &asses *hile their chains *ere 9eing ,astened! To dis&iss the rise o, li9erty and e>.ality in 7&erican history as a &ere sha& is not only to ignore hard ,actsD it is also to eade the pro9le& presented 9y those ,acts! The rise o, li9erty and e>.ality in this co.ntry *as acco&panied

9y the rise o, slaery! That t*o s.ch contradictory deelop&ents *ere ta(ing place si&.ltaneo.sly oer a long period o, historyD ,ro& the seenteenth cent.ry to the nineteenthD is the central parado@ o, 7&erican history! The challengeD ,or a colonial historian at leastD is to e@plain ho* a people co.ld hae deeloped the dedication to h.&an li9erty and hae dignity e@hi9itedand 9y the leaders o, the 7&erican and at the sa&e ti&e deeloped &aintained a syste& o, la9or6eol.tion that denied h.&an li9erty and dignity eery ho.r o, the day ! It has 9een te&pting to dis&iss Je=erson and the *hole irginia dynasty as hypocrites! B.t to do so is to deprie the ter& hypocrisy o, .se,.l &eaning! I, hypocrisy &eansD as I thin( it doesD deli9erately to ar& a principle *itho.t 9elieing itD then hypocrisy re>.ires a rare >.ality



o, &ind co&9ined *ith an .nscr.p.lo.s intention to deceie! To attri9.te s.ch an intentionD een to attri9.te s.ch clarity o, &ind in the &atterD to Je=ersonD MadisonD or ashington is to once again eade the challenge! hat *e need to e@plain is ho* s.ch &en co.ld hae arried at 9elie,s and actions so ,.ll o, contradiction! +.t the challenge another *ay ho* did nglandD a co.ntry priding itsel, on the li9erty o, its citizensD

prod.ce colonies *here &ost o, the inha9itants en:oyed still greater li9ertyD greater opport.nitiesD greater control oer their o*n lies than &ost &en in the &other co.ntryD *hile the re&ainderD one<4,th o, the totalD *ere depried o, irt.ally all li9ertyD all opport.nitiesD all control oer their o*n lies[ e &ay ad&it that the nglish&en *ho colonized 7&erica and their reol.tionary descendants *ere racistsD that conscio.sly or .nconscio.sly they 9elieed li9erties and rights sho.ld 9e con4ned to persons o, light co&ple@ion! hen *e hae said as &.chD een *hen *e hae pro9ed the depthsino,itD racial not hae ,.lly ele&entD acco.nted ,orI the parado@! 6acis& *as certainly an essential ele&ent 9.t Ipre:.diceD sho.ld li(e*eto*ill s.ggest another that 9eliee to hae inQ.enced the deelop&ent o, 9oth slaery and ,reedo& as *e hae (no*n the& in the United tates! ! ! ! ;ne

deelop&ent *as cr.cialD and that *as the appearance in irginia o, a gro*ing n.&9er o, ,ree&en *ho had sered their ter&s 9.t *ho *ere no* .na9le to a=ord land o, their o*n e@cept on the ,rontiers! By 1)") it *as esti&ated that one<,o.rth o, irginiaLs ,ree&en *ere *itho.t land o, their o*n! The presence o, this gro*ing class o, poerty
nglish&en *ere presered 9y destroying the rights o, 7,ricans! laes co.ld 9e depried o, the opport.nity ,or association and re9ellion! They co.ld 9e (ept .nar&ed and .norganized! 7nd since color disclosed their pro9a9le stat.sD the rest o, society co.ld (eep close *atch on the&! ! ! ! VThe ,reed&anW *as no longer a &an to 9e ,eared! This ,actD together *ith the presence o, a gro*ing &ass o, alien slaesD tended to dra* the *hite settlers closer together and to red.ce the i&portance o, class di=erence 9et*een yeo&an ,ar&er and large plantation o*ner!



,T orld State The world state is not inevitable. ?our securiti#ation Iust boosts the legitimacy of the existing system. ?our world state teleology marginali#es otherness. art#og 85 &ar 41+ '((5 *aul 3. art#og &asters in Dlobali#ation and nvironmental *olitics from the -niversity of -tah+ and a &asters in *olitical Theory from the -niversity of &ichigan. “*anarchy Fs hat e &a)e of Ft; hy a orld State Fs Not Fnevitable” http;%%www.academia.edu%'(!R'6%*anarchyUFsUhatUeU&a)e UofUFtUhyUaUorldUStateUFsUNotUFnevitable The tr.th e&9edded in endtOs rhetoric contradicts his o*n concl.sions! For e@a&pleD he states that Eit see&s hard to arg.e that a *orld in *hichrecognition is .ne>.alj *o.ld 9e nor&atiely s.perior to one in *hichrecognition is e>.alD AendtD 200- 52 a state&ent *hich is not only.ndenia9ly tr.eD 9.t is the ery reason state<9ased recognition is neither s.cient nor s.staina9le! 7t the ery leastD endt insists that a *orld.o co&es to 9erepresented as Egood and is hence,orth the ery &eas.re o, :.stice! 8erein lies the real danger o, the *orld state! The legiti&ation o, po*er has t*o aspects .niersality and nat.ralis&! The 4rst presents itsel, *hen a distinctly li&ited Egood is ta(en as i, it *ere a .niersal EgoodD i!e! *hen thestateOs interests are ta(en as 9eing in the interests o, eeryone! The second is reealed *hen a distinctly partic.lar *ay o, 9eing is ta(en as E&ore adancedt han other *ays o, 9eing! Th.sD 9y 9eing seen as Enat.ralD or along a deelop&ental progressionD some

ways of being are marginali#ed as e&.lationrein,orces the

nat.ralistic ,allacy! 7s 9oth o, these

hae 9een present inthe international syste&D so too *o.ld they ATaylorD1)! It is in so doing that the state proes itsel, a totality and not 9e enacted 9y a *orld state aspects an adaptie syste&!


Critical Geography K #-

,> ,nswers


Critical Geography K #/

3orders%State Fnevitable ,lt fails 7 borders are inevitable because of cultural and psychological barriers Q recent -9s integration e>orts prove Striiver '((5 V7n(eD 7n(e triier is a +h% st.dent in the %epart&ent o, 8.&an

GeographyD Uniersity o, Ni:&egenD The Netherlands! EBordering paceD Chapter 1- Bordering tories paces o, 79sence along the %.tch
*here in4nitenessD or rather Y9orderlessnessL is proposed! ;, co.rseD not a YrealL 9orderlessness < ,orD as *e all (no*D Y wherever there are people+ there are borders L! B.t yetD the .ropean Union proposes 9orderlessnessD 9y p.lling do*n the internal 9orders 9et*een its &e&9er states !X ;ne o, those internal 9orders is the one 9et*een Ger&any and the NetherlandsX a 9order that is 5-) (& long and 0 c& high! B.t ,or &ost o, the people *ho lie in the %.tch
formal removal of the -Ls internal borders+ the barriers in peopleLs minds persist to act as thresholds in peopleLs everyday practices ! These thresholds

re,er to i&aginatie 9orders that let eeryday practices o, 9orderlanders YendL at the 9order and de&arcate the Y9ordered spheresL o, peopleLs lies!



,lternative fails Q borders and the state are inevitable and are at the center of F0 *aasi '((5 V7nssiD 7nssi +aasi is +ro,essor and 8ead o, the %epart&ent o,

GeographyD Uniersity o, ;.l.D Finland! EBordering paceD Chapter 1 The Changing %isco.rses on +olitical Bo.ndaries Mapping the Bac(gro.ndsD Conte@ts and ContentsD pp 2)W 7s ,ar as the disappearance o, the state is concerned+ the continually increasing number of states and boundaries in the actual world suggests
9een a ti&e *hen so &any regions *orld*ide hae s.ch dic.lt or dangero.s places9orderland to lie inD and the c.rrent *orld still9eco&e har9o.rs so&e 50 .nresoled 9o.ndary disp.tes! This YstressL on 9orderlands &ay 9e partly 9ased on the e=ects o, glo9alization and the opening Aand closing o, 9orders *ith regard to Qo*s o, capital$4nanceD goodsD ideas and peopleD *hich hae cast do.9t on the concepts o, soereigntyD identity and goernance! It &ay also 9e 9ased on historically contingent &eanings e&erging ,ro& the political relations 9et*een neigh9o.rs! Bla(e s.ggests that a

Ystress<,reeL 9orderland re>.ires at least the ,ollo*ing 1 political good*illD 2 the settling o, territorial >.estionsD - straight,or*ard trans9o.ndary interaction *ithin the la*D / a sense o, sec.rity proided 9y the 9orderD 5 rational reso.rce e@ploitationD and ) coordination o, local ad&inistration! This si&ply &eans that a conte@t< dependent and sensitie approach to 9o.ndaries is needed instead o, cr.de generalizations! It also &eans that &any scholars d.ring the early 10s perhaps .nderesti&ated the i&portance o, 9o.ndaries *hen the idea o, [email protected]e spaces and 4@ed concepts o, identity *ere challenged 9y the collapse o, the ideological diide 9et*een ast and estD the accelerating processes o, glo9alizationD the 9elie, in the Y*orld o, Qo*sLD annihilation o, spaceD re
reQected in the a,ter&ath o, 11th epte&9erD *hen the traditional Y,rontsL 9et*een A7ndersonD 2002! It *as not long states to t.rn into asy&&etric net*or(s 9e,oreXsee&ed the stateD strategic alliances A&ilitaryD econo&ic 9et*een states and nationalistically toned ass.&ptions o, nat.ral lin(s 9et*een the stateD the nation and its territory see&ed to e&erge again at the centre o, international relations! These processes hae 9een &ost isi9le in the conQicts 9et*een +a(istan and India and 9et*een Israel and +alestineD and &ost recently in the conQict 9et*een the U and Ira>!


Critical Geography K #)

3orders Dood Q thnic ar 3orders are good Q solves ethnic civil wars /ownes (" V,lexander 3+ ,sst. *rofessor of *olitical Science at /u)e -niversity+ '((" “&ore 3orders+ Jess Con:ictW *artition as a Solution to thnic Civil ars” S,FS 0eview+ p. !75( http;%%home.gwu.edu%Xdownes%'".1downes.pdfY The conentional *isdo& regarding 9orders in political science and theX policy co&&.nity is that *e already hae plenty and do not need any X &ore! cholars and policy&a(ers ali(e tend to oppose the creation o, X

X

! They that sol.tions secessionto and partitionstatesD generateespecially &ore pro9le&s they sole leadciil to ne* conQicts! pre,erred these X Thearg.e ne* asthan a &eans toand end conQict conQicts ta(e the e@isting 9ordersX as gien and concentrate on ,ostering negotiated settle&ents that arrangeX po*er internally thro.gh s.ch &echanis&s as po*er
scholars hae 9eg.n to challenge this single
separated into ho&ogeneo.s ethnic enclaes! X hen gro.ps are inter&ingledD each side has an incentie to attac( andX cleanse the other! ;nce separation is achieedD these incenties disappear!X ith the necessary condition ,or peace in placeD political arrange&entsX 9eco&e secondary! Unless ethnic separation occ.rsD Ka.,&ann arg.esDX all other sol.tions are ,r.itless 9eca.se ethnic inter&ingling is *hat ,.elsX conQict!-X 7 second approach recognizes the i&portance o, de&ography 9.t ,oc.ses X on intentions! This ie* contends that ethnic *ars hae ,eat.res that X .nder&ine the ia9ility o, negotiated settle&ents 9ased on po*er
Fighting a ciil *ar .nder&ines eachX sideOs a9ility to tr.st that its recent ene&y no* has 9enign intentions andX that those intentions *ill not change in the ,.t.re! Ciil *ar 9elligerentsX do not hae the [email protected] o, retreating 9ehind 9orders and &aintaining theirX o*n &ilitary ,orces as states do a,ter interstate conQicts! To end a ciil *arDX co&9atants &.st disar& and co&9ine their ar&y *ith that o, their ,or&erX adersaryD ,or,eiting their a9ility to protect the&seles as *ell as their a9ility X to en,orce co&pliance 9y the other side! Fear o, 9etrayal

&a(es gro.psX loath to disar& a,ter the *arD and &istr.st hinders the ,.nctioning o,X po*er.ireX gro.ps to disar& and &a(e the&selesX .lnera9le to deastating 9etrayal! Nor doX ,or&erly *arring gro.ps hae to cooperate X and share po*er in :oint instit.tions!X


Critical Geography K #"

+artition also satis4es nationalist desires X ,or statehood and 4lls the need ,or sec.rity!X In cases o, seere ethnic conQictD *hen perceptions o, the adersaryOs X &align intentions are so entrenched as to i&pede any agree&ent 9ased onX a singleOs ,.t.re!


Critical Geography K ##

3orders Dood Q conomic .ality o, opport.nityD and gien the a9senceX o, e=ectie glo9al
important in providing a locus for political solidarity !2# InX partic.larD he *ritesD PMacroecono&ic

policy contin.es to 9e cr.cial in pro&otingX prosperityD at the international leel 9y ens.ring sta9ilityD and at the national andX regional leels 9y 9alancing co< operation and co&petition! Goern&ents are not :.stX &.nicipalities in a glo9al &ar(et< placeO!X 2


Critical Geography K #

,lt Bails 7 3orders ,lt doesn9t solve Q opening borders doesn9t solve the existing ethnic con:icts and divides NewmanD (" V%aidD %epart&ent o, +olitics and Goern&entD Ben G.rion

UniersityD Beer he9aD IsraelD EThe lines that contin.e to separate .s 9orders in o.r L9orderlessL *orldD ol! -0D no! 2D p! 1/"D http$$iner!.dea!ed.!co$gr.pos$GT$e&inarioGeogra4a+erlaZ.s&an$2< ne*&an!pd,W For political scientistsD 9orders

reQect theX nat.re o, po*er relations and the a9ility o,X one gro.p to deter&ineD s.peri&pose andX perpet.ate lines o, separation D or to re&oeX the&D contingent .pon the political eniron&entX at any gien ti&e AGanster and 'oreyDX 2005! For sociologists and anthropologistsD X 9orders are indicatie o, the 9inary distinctionsX A.s$the& here$there inside$o.tsideX 9et*een gro.ps at a ariety o, scalesD ,ro&X the national do*n to the personal spaces andX territories o, the indiid.al! For international X la*yersD 9orders reQect the changing nat.re X o, soereignty and the rights o, tates toX interene in the a=airs o, neigh9o.ringX politicoerence DX *hile in so&e cases their constr.ctionX

seres to create a ne* set o, LothersL *hichX had not preio.sly e@istedD th.s perpet.atingDX rather than re&oingD the sense o, LothernessLX Aan 8o.t.& and an NaerssenD 2002!X 7nother &a:or ,oc.s o, 9order st.diesX d.ring the past decade is the relationshipX 9et*een 9orders and identity ,or&ationX A'ei&gr.9erD 11 Falah and Ne*&anD 15 X +aasiD 15 1) 1a BerdahlD 1"X 7c(lesonD 1 ilson and %onnanD 1#X %onnan and ilsonD 1 Knippen9ergX and Mar(.s seD 1 Kle&encicD 2 0 0 0 7l9ertX et a!D 2001 Bro*nD 2001 7gne*D 2002 X Kaplan and 8a(liD 2002 Meinho,D X 2002 MigdalD 2002! The opening of bordersX does not+ automatically+ result in theX

hybridi#ation of ethnic and national identity!X eparate identities are

dependent on theX e@istence o, gro.p categorizationD 9e they X religio.sD c.lt.ralD econo&icD social or ethnic! X thnicity re&ains a (ey deter&inant o, X gro.p aliationD incl.sion and [email protected] *hile the re&oalD or openingD o,the 9orders X does not necessarily or a.to&atically trans,or& X a &e&9er o, a national tate into aX .ropeanD or glo9alD citizen! en i, *eX hae 9eco&e &ore &o9ile and 4nd it easier X to cross the 9o.ndaries that preio.slyX hindered o.r &oe&entD &ost o, .s retainX strong ethnic or national aliations andX loyaltiesD 9e they territorial<,oc.sed or gro.pX aliations Aig.rdsonD 2000! The glo9al X access to cy9erspace and the .nhinderedX spatial disse&ination o, in,or&ation and X (no*ledge hasD parado@icallyD engendered aX national identity a&ong diaspora pop.lations X *hich hae preio.sly 9een re&ote and X dislocated ,ro& their places Aor parentsL X places o, srcinD 9.t *ho are no* possessed X *ith &ore in,or&ationD and greater ease o,X accessD to the ancestral Asic ho&elandsD andX identi,y *ith the ca.ses and str.ggles o, theX ethnic or national gro.ps in ,ara*ay places! X 'ang.age re&ains the one great 9o.ndary X *hichD ,or so &any o, .sD re&ains dic.ltX %o*nloaded ,ro& phg!sagep.9!co& 9y +erla Z.s&an on 7.g.st 1"D 2011X 1/# The lines that contin.e to separate .sX to crossD in the a9sence o, a singleD glo9alD


Critical Geography K 0

State Dood The state is )ey Q refusal to participate in the state causes violent bac)lash and genocide Shaw 1 VMartinD +ro,essor o, International 6elations at .sse@ UniersityD EThe

.n4nished glo9al reol.tion intellect.als and the ne* politics o, international relationsD http$$.sers!s.sse@!ac!.($kha,a-$.n4nished!pd,W ince P*orld*ideOD PinternationalO and Pglo9alO are o,ten held to &ean the sa&e thingD let &e propose *ays o, disting.ishing the&! orld*ide relations connect people aro.nd the *orld they cross 9o.ndaries 9.t do not necessarily negate the&!1- International relations are 9et*een national .nits o, state and society! Glo9al relationsD in contrastD are 9ased on the conscio.sness o, liing in a co&&on social sphere! Their 4rst ,or& is the .nderstanding that *e share a co&&on nat.ral eniron&ent!The second is that *e lie in a highly interconnected *orld!1/The third is that *e share 9asic co&&on al.es!M.ch arg.&ent ,ails to &oe 9eyond the 4rst and especially the second o, these &eanings! 8o*eer only *ith the recognition o, all three ele&ents has glo9ality arried at its ,.llest &eaningD o, h.&an co&&onality!15 The roots o, glo9ality lieD there,oreD in increasingly co&&on *orld e@periences! Glo9ality is notD as co&&only s.ggestedD a9o.t ho* *e all cons.&e the sa&e dross o, *orld*ide co&&erceD Co(es and Big Macs! It is ,.nda&entally a9o.t ho* e@periences li(e *orld *arsD the 8oloca.st and the threat o, n.clear annihilation hae

&ade .s a*are o, the co&&on ,ragility o, h.&an e@istence! Ft is about how standards of democratic accountability and human rights are coming to be seen not as exclusive preserves of rich esterners+ but entitlements of all ! ;.t o, these concerns has co&e a &ore concrete rein,orce&ent o, the .niersalistic tendency o, &odern tho.ghtD hitherto ,.nda&entally co&pro&ised 9y the national rialries o, racially 9ased estern e&pires! The gro*ing sense o, co&&on al.es has in,or&ed glo9al conscio.sness and instit.tions eer since the last &a:or t.rning point in 1/5D 9.t it has 9een de,or&ed .p till no* 9y the rialries o, Cold ar 9locs! It too( the oerthro* o, the Cold ar orderD there,oreD to t.rn this conscio.sness ,ro& an a9stract into a &ore practical ,or&! It is in this sense that the de&ocratic reol.tion is no* 9eco&ing glo9al! here people see( de&ocratic changeD they appeal in an increasingly concrete *ay to co&&on standards and instit.tions! Many Ai, not all *ho 4ght ,or acco.nta9ility and ,reedo&s at a national leel no* locate these ends *ithin a glo9al conte@t  .niersal al.es and *orld political and legal instit.tions! Glo9ality does not &a(e the national or international red.ndant indeed the nation+ and its place in inter7 national order+ remains one of the universals to which marginali#ed groups appeal ! 8o*eer o.r .nderstandings o, the nation and international relations are 9eginning to 9e trans,or&ed 9y seeing the& in a glo9al conte@t! International lin(s and Pcos&opolitan nationsO1)can then 9e seen as 9.ilding 9loc(s o, glo9ality! o&e re:ect the idea o, co&&on glo9al al.es 9eca.se their e@pressions are &ostly estern in srcin! 8o*eerD all *orld religions contain recognitions o, h.&an co&&onality! The atte&pt to assert that there is a Pclash o, ciilizationsO1"D stronger than those things p.lling .s togetherD is not s.pported 9y *orld*ide eidence! Go to TeheranD 4rst centre o, the Isla&ic reol.tion o.r co.nterparts in .niersities there are trying to connect to glo9alD een esternD politics and c.lt.re! Go to Bei:ingD Ja(artaD K.ala '.&p.r or 6angoonD and see *hether st.dents and acade&ics *ill gie .p ideals o, de&ocracy and h.&an rights ,or the P7sian al.esO proclai&ed 9y their r.lers! ;, co.rseD people interpret co&&on al.es in the conte@ts o, nationality and religionD and they o,ten hae :.sti4ed s.spicions o, estern leaders and *orld instit.tions! B.t none o, this negates the strong drie to*ards co&&onalityD *hich &eans that *e can tal( o, the *ae o, glo9al< de&ocratic reol.tion! These points are not &erely o, a9stract

i&portance! They hae a li,e.arter o, a cent.ry o, oppressionD yo.r national aspirations and glo9al al.es are not diisi9le! The people *ho *ill tell yo. a9o.t national as opposed to estern al.es are those *ho *ill 9.rn do*n yo.r illageD (ill &e&9ers o, yo.r ,a&ilyD and disregard yo.r ote! The sa&e is tr.eD o, co.rseD ,or the Kosoo 7l9anians or the Ira>i K.rds! For the &ost oppressed peoplesD li(e the st.dent ca&paigners in the capital citiesD the de&ocratic reol.tion is ,ra&ed *ithin a glo9al co&&onality o, al.es!1# contin.ed!!! The ne* politics o, international relations re>.ire .sDthere,oreD to go 9eyond the anti

Critical Geography K 1

as *ell as o, the se&i
with the maIor centre of state power+ the increasingly internationali#ed estern conglomerate. The success of the global democratic revolutionary wave depends =rst on how well it is consolidated in each national context @but second+ on how thoroughly it is embedded in international networ)s of power+at the centre o, *hichD inescapa9lyD is the est! Fro& these political ,.nda&entalsD strategic propositions can 9e deried! FirstD de&ocratic &oe&ents cannot regard non.ire .s to adance a glo9al social< de&ocratic agendaD to address the literally catastrophic scale o, *orld social ine>.alities! This is not a separate pro9le& social and econo&ic re,or& is an essential ingredient o, alternaties to *arli(e and genocidal po*er these ,eed o= and rein,orce corr.pt and cri&inal political econo&ies! Fo.rthD i, *e need the glo9al<estern stateD i, *e *ant to de&ocratize it and &a(e its instit.tions ,riendlier to glo9al peace

and :.sticeD *e cannotinterentionsD 9e indi=erentlegal to itsinstit.tions strategic de9ates! It &atters to deelop as international political and ro9.st peace(eeping strategic alternaties to 9o&9ing o.r *ay thro.gh zones o, crisis! It &atters that international interention s.pports pl.ralist str.ct.resD rather than rati,ying Bosnia

Critical Geography Critique - UTNIF 2015.docx

Recommend Documents