me to Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning . Start with the Explanation section to gain a good understanding of the CONCEPT of constructivism. Then go on to Demonstration, where we move from CONCEPT TO CLASSROOM!
What is constructivism? How does this theory differ from traditional ideas about teaching and learning? What does constructivism have to do with my classroom? Expert interview What is the history of constructivism, and how has it changed over time? What are some critical perspectives? What are the benefits of constructivism?
What is constructivis constructivism? m? Constructivism is basically a theory -- based on observation and scientific study -- about how people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. To do this, we must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know. In the classroom, the constructivist view of l earning can point towards a number of different teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to reflect on and t alk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure she understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then build on them.
Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally become "expert learners." This gives t hem everbroadening tools to keep learning. With a well -planned classroom environment, the students learn HOW TO LEARN. You might look at it as a spiral. When they continuously reflect on their experiences, students find their ideas gaining in complexity and power, and they develop increasingly strong abilities to integrate new information. One of the teacher's main roles becomes to encourage this learning and reflection process. For example: Groups of students in a science class are discussing a problem in physics. Though the teacher knows the "answer" to the problem, she focuses on helping students restate their questions in useful ways. She prompts each student to reflect on and examine his or her current knowledge. When one of the students comes up with the relevant concept, the teacher seizes upon it, and indicates to the group that this might be a fruitful avenue for them to explore. They design and perform relevant experiments. Afterward, Afterward, the students and
teacher talk about what they have learned, and how their observations and experiments helped (or did not help) them to better understand the concept. Contrary to criticisms by some (conservative/traditional) (conservative/traditional) educators, constructivism does not dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value of expert knowledge. Constructivism modifies that role, so that teachers help students to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts. The constructivist teacher provides tools such as problemsolving and inquiry-based learning activities with which students formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and pool and convey their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment. Constructivism transforms the student from a passive recipient of information to an a ctive participant in the learning process. Always guided by the teacher, students construct their knowledge actively rather than just mechanically ingesting knowledge from the teacher or the textbook. Constructivism is also often misconstrued as a learning theory that compels students to "reinvent the wheel." In fact, constructivism taps into and triggers the student's innate curiosity about the world and how things work. Students do not reinvent the wheel but, rather, attempt to understand how it turns, how it functions. They become engaged by applying their existing knowledge and real-world experience, learning to hypothesize, testing their theories, and ultimately drawing conclusions from their fi ndings. The best way for you to really understand what constructivism is and what it means in your classroom is by seeing examples of it at work, speaking with others about it, and trying it yourself. As you progress through each segment of thi s workshop, keep in mind questions or ideas to share with your colle agues.
Workshop: Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning Explanation | Explanation | Demonstration | Exploration | Implementation | Get Credit Concept to Classroom | About the Series | Resources | Sitemap | Credits Thirteen | Thirteen Ed Online | thirteencelebration.org © 2004 Educational Broadcasting Corporation. All rights reserved.
ow does this theory differ from traditional ideas about teaching and learning? As with many of t he methods addressed in this series of workshops, in the constructivist classroom, the focus tends to shift from the teacher to the students. The classroom is no longer a place where the teacher ("expert") pours knowledge into passive students, who wait like empty vessels to be filled . In the constructivist model, the students are urged to be actively involved in their own process of learning. The teacher functions more as a facilitator who coaches, mediates, prompts, and helps students develop and assess their understanding, and thereby their learning. One of the teacher's biggest jobs becomes ASKING GOOD QUESTIONS. And, in the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think of knowledge not as inert factoids to be memorized, but as a dynamic, ever-changing view of the world we live in and the ability to successfully stretch and explore that view.
The chart below compares the traditional classroom to the constructivist one. You can see significant differences in basic assumptions about knowledge, students, and learning. (It's important, however, to bear in mind that constructivists acknowledge that students are constructing knowledge in traditional classrooms, too. It's really a matter of the emphasis being on the student, not on the instructor.)
Curriculum begins with the parts of t he whole. Emphasizes basic skills.
Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning with the whole and expanding to include the parts.
Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly valued.
Pursuit of student questions and interests is valued.
Materials are primarily textbooks and workbooks.
Materials include primary sources of material and manipulative materials.
Learning is based on repetition.
Learning is interactive, building on what the student already knows.
Teachers disseminate information to students; students are recipients of knowledge.
Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping students construct their own knowledge.
Teacher's role is directive, rooted in authority.
Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in negotiation.
Assessment is through testing, correct answers.
Assessment includes student works, observations, and points of view, as well as tests. Process is as important as product.
Knowledge is seen as inert.
Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with our experiences.
Students work primarily alone.
Students work primarily in groups.
What does constructivism have to do with my classroom? As is the case with many of the current/popular paradigms, you're probably already using the constructivist approach to some degree. Constructivist teachers pose questions and problems, then
guide students to help them find their own answers. They use many techniques in the teaching process. For example, they may:
prompt students to formulate their own questions (inquiry) allow multiple interpretations and expressions of learning (multiple intelligences) encourage group work and the use of peers as resources (collaborative learning)
More information on the above processes is covered in other workshops in this series. For now, i t's important to realize that the constructivist approach borrows from many other practices in t he pursuit of its primary goal: helping students learn HOW TO LEARN.
In a constructivist classroom, learning is . . .
Students are not blank slates upon which knowledge is etched. They come to learning situations with already formulated knowledge, ideas, and understandings. This previous knowledge is the raw material for the new knowledge they will create. Example: An elementary school teacher presents a class problem to measure the length of the "Mayflower." Rather than starting the problem by introducing the ruler, the t eacher allows students to reflect and to construct their own methods of measurement. One student offers the knowledge that a doctor said he is four feet tall. Another says she knows horses are measured in "hands." The students discuss these and other methods they have heard about, and decide on one to apply to the problem.
The student is the person who creates new understanding for him/herself. The teacher coaches, moderates, suggests, but allows the students room to experiment, ask questions, try things t hat don't work. Learning activities require the students' full participation (like hands-on experiments). An important part of the learning process is that students reflect on, and tal k about, their activities. Students also help set their own goals and means of assessment. Examples: A middle-school language arts teacher sets aside time each week for a writing lab. The emphasis is on content and getting ideas down rather than memorizing grammatical rules, though one of the teacher's concerns is the ability of his students to express themselves well through written language. The teacher provides opportunities for students to examine the finished and earlier drafts of various authors. He allows students to select and create projects within the general requirement of building a portfolio 1. Students serve as peer editors who value originality and uniqueness rather t han the best way to fulfill an assignment. 1.
In a history class, asking s tudents to read and think about different versions of and perspectives on "history" can lead to interesting discussions. Is history as taught in textbooks accurate? Are there different versions of the same history? Whose version of history is most accurate? How do we know? From there, students can make their own judgments.
Students control their own learning process, and they lead the way by reflecting on their experiences. This process makes them experts of their own learning. The teacher helps create situations where the students feel safe questioning and reflecting on their own processes, either privately or in group discussions. The teacher should also create activities that lead the student to reflect on his or her prior knowledge and experiences. Talking about what was learned and how it was learned is really important. Example: Students keep journals in a writing class where they record how they felt about t he class projects, the visual and verbal reactions of others to the project, and how they felt their own writing had changed. Periodically the teacher reads these journals and holds a conference with the student where the two assess (1) what new knowledge the student has created, (2) how the student learns best, and (3) the learning environment and the teacher's role in it.
The constructivist classroom relies heavily on collaboration among students. There are many reasons why collaboration contributes to learning. The main reason it is used so much in constructivism is that students learn about learning not only from themselves, but also from their peers. When students review and reflect on their learning processes together, they can pick up strategies and methods from one another.
Example: In the course of studying ancient civilizations, students undertake an archaeological dig. This may be something constructed in a large sandbox, or, as in the Dalton School's "Archaeotype" software simulation, on a computer. As the students find different objects, the teacher introduces classifying techniques. The students are encouraged to (1) set up a group museum by developing criteria and choosing which objects should belong, and (2) collaborate with other students who worked in different quadrants of the dig. Each group is then a sked to develop theories about the civilizations that inhabited the area.
The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. Students use inquiry methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find solutions and answers. As students explore the topic, they draw conclusions, and, as exploration continues, they revisit those conclusions. Exploration of questions leads to more questions. (See t he CONCEPT TO CLASSROOM workshop Inquiry-based Learning) Example: Sixth graders figuring out how to purify water i nvestigate solutions ranging from coffee-filter paper, to a stove-top distillation apparatus, to piles of charcoal, to an abstract mathematical solution based on the size of a water molecule. Depending upon students' responses, the teacher encourages abstract as well as concrete, poetic as well as practical, creations of new knowledge.
Students have ideas that they may l ater see were invalid, incorrect, or insufficient to explain new experiences. These ideas are temporary steps in the integration of knowledge. For instance, a child may believe that all trees lose their leaves in the fall, until she visits an e vergreen forest. Constructivist teaching takes into account students' current conceptions and builds from there. What happens when a student gets a new piece of information? The constructivist model says that the student compares the information to the knowledge and understanding he/she already has, a nd one of three things can occur:
The new information matches up with his previous knowledge pretty well (it's consonant with the previous knowledge), so the student adds it to his understanding. It may take some work, but it's just a matter of finding the right fit, as with a puzzle piece. The information doesn't match previous knowledge (it's dissonant). The student has to change her previous understanding to find a fit for the information. This can be harder work. The information doesn't match previous knowledge, and it is ignored. Rejected bits of information may just not be absorbed by the student. Or they may float around, waiting for the day when the student's understanding has developed and permits a fit.
Example: An elementary teacher believes her students are ready to study gravity. She creates an environment of discovery with objects of varying kinds. Students explore the differences in weight among similarly sized blocks of Styrofoam, wood, and lead. Some students hold the notion t hat heavier objects fall faster than li ght ones. The teacher provides materials (stories, posters, and videos) about Galileo, Newton, etc. She leads a discussion on theories about falling. The students then replicate Galileo's experiment by dropping objects of different weights and measuring how fast they fall. They see that objects of different weights actually usually fall at the same speed, although surface area and aerodynamic properties can affect the rate of fall.
Expert interview Interview with Jacqueline Grennon Brooks In the following video clips, Jacqueline Grennon Brooks, an educational theorist, constructivism advocate, and this workshop's content expert, answers questions about constructivism.
.Concept to Classroom: You have said
Concept to Classroom: What do you
that constructivism is a "life view." Would you explain that?
mean by "construct understandings"?
. Concept to Classroom: So, where and how can a teacher begin?
. Concept to Classroom: People often have difficulty grasping the concept of constructivism. Why is that? Is it because it is so abstract? Is it because it has been misrepresented? Can you give us a simple explanation?
.Concept to Classroom: Do you think the interest in constructivism is primarily American-based?
. Concept to Classroom: How does constructivist teaching differ from the traditional approach?
. Concept to Classroom: Have you . Concept to Classroom: What other found the recent information and computer things ought to happen to bring the explosion and the mandate to connect promise of technology to constructivism? each classroom to the Internet promising for constructivist learning situations?
.Concept to Classroom: What are the implications of constructivism for the school administrator?
.Concept to Classroom: What are the implications of constructivism for the child's parents, guardians, and community?
.Concept to Classroom: Test scores .Concept to Classroom: Would you are often the basis by which community like to add anything? members judge schools and schools receive state funding. What do you t hink of test scores as a way to evaluate performance?
What is the history of constructivism, and how has it changed over time?
The concept of constructivism has roots in classical antiquity, going back to Socrates's dialogues with his followers, in which he asked directed questions that led his students to realize for themselves the weaknesses in their thinking. The Socratic dialogue is sti ll an important tool i n the way constructivist educators assess their students' learning and plan new learning experiences. In this century, Jean Piaget 1 and John Dewey 2 developed theories of childhood development and education, what we now call Progressive Education, that led to the evolution of constructivism.
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Piaget believed that humans learn through the construction of one logical structure after another. He also concluded that the logic of children and their modes of thinking are initially entirely different from those of adults. The implications of this theory and how he applied them have shaped the foundation for constructivist education. Dewey called for education to be grounded in real experience. He wrote, "If you have doubts about how learning happens, engage in sustained inquiry: study, ponder, consider alternative possibilities and arrive at your belief grounded in evidence." Inquiry is a key part of constructivist learning. Among the educators, philosophers, psychologists, and sociologists who have a dded new perspectives to constructivist learning theory and practice are Lev Vygotsky 3, Jerome Bruner 4, and David Ausubel 5. 3.
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Vygotsky introduced the social aspect of learning into constructivism. He defined the "zone of proximal learning," according to which students solve problems beyond their actual developmental level (but within their level of potential development) under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. Bruner initiated curriculum change based on the notion that learning is an active, social process in which students construct new ideas or concepts based on their current knowledge. Seymour Papert's 6 groundbreaking work in using computers to teach children has led t o the widespread use of computer and i nformation technology in constructivist environments. Modern educators who have studied, written about, and practiced constructivist approaches to
education include John D. Bransford 7, Ernst von Glasersfeld 8, Eleanor Duckworth 9, George Forman 10, Roger Schank 11, Jacqueline Grennon Brooks 12, and Martin G. Brooks 13.
6. 10.
7. 11.
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What are some critical perspectives? Constructivism has been criticized on various grounds. Some of the charges that critics level against it are: . It's elitist. Critics say that constructivism and other "progressive" educational theories have been most successful with children from privileged backgrounds who are fortunate in having outstanding teachers, committed parents, and rich home environments. They argue that disadvantaged children, lacking such resources, benefit more from more explicit instruction.
. Social constructivism leads to "group think." Critics say the collaborative aspects of constructivist classrooms tend to produce a "tyranny of the majority," in which a few students' voices or interpretations dominate the group's conclusions, and dissenting students are forced to conform to the emerging consensus. . There is litt le hard evidence that constructivist methods work. Critics say that constructivists, by rejecting evaluation through testing and other external criteria, have made themselves unaccountable for their students' progress. Critics also say that studies of various kinds of instruction -- in particular Project Follow Through 1, a long-term government initiative -- have found that students in constructivist classrooms lag behind those in more traditional clas srooms in basic skills.
1. Constructivists counter that in studies where children were compared on higher-order thinking skills, constructivist students seemed to outperform their peers.
What are the benefits of constructivism?
. Benefit Children learn more, and enjoy learning more when they are actively involved, rather than passive listeners. . Benefit Education works best when it concentrates on thinking and understanding, rather than on rote memorization. Constructivism concentrates on learning how to think and understand. . Benefit Constructivist learning is transferable. In constructivist classrooms, students create organizing principles that they can take with them to other learning settings. . Benefit Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn, since learning is b ased on students' questions and explorations, and often the students have a hand in designing the assessments as well. Constructivist assessment engages the students' initiatives and personal investments in their journals, research reports, physical models, and artistic representations. Engaging the creative instincts develops students' abilities to express knowledge through a variety of ways. The students are also more li kely to retain and transfer the ne w knowledge to real life. . Benefit By grounding learning activities in an authentic, real-world context, constructivism stimulates and engages students. Students in constructivist classrooms learn to question things and to apply their natural curiousity to the world. . Benefit Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a classroom environment that emphasizes collaboration and exchange of ideas. Students must learn how to a rticulate their ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks effectively by sharing in group projects. Students must therefore exchange ideas and so must learn to "negotiate" with others and to evaluate their contributions in a socially acceptable manner. This is essential to success in the real world, since they will always be exposed to a variety of experiences in which they will have t o cooperate and navigate among the ideas of others.
Constructivism (philosophy of education) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Jean Piaget, founder of constructivism
Constructivism is a philosophical viewpoint about the nature of knowledge. Specifically, it represents an epistemological stance.[1] There are many "flavors" of constructivism, but one prominent theorist known for his constructivist views is Jean Piaget, who focused on how humans make meaning in relation to the interaction between their experiences and their ideas. He considered himself to be a genetic epistemologist, which means he was interested in the genesis of knowledge. His views tended to focus on human development in relation to what is occurring with an individual as opposed to development that is influenced by other humans [clarification needed ]. Views more focused on human development in the context of the social world include the sociocultural or socio-historical perspective of Lev Vygotskyand the situated cognition perspectives of Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger ;[2] Brown, Collins and Duguid;[3] Newman, Griffin and Cole,[4] and Barbara Rogoff .[5] The concept of constructivism has influenced a number of disciplines, including psychology, sociology, education and the history of science.[6] During its infancy, constructivism examined the interaction between human experiences and their reflexes or behavior-patterns. Jean Piaget called these systems of knowledge schemes. Schemes are not to be confused with "schema," a term that comes from schema theory, which is from information-processing perspectives on human cognition. Whereas Piaget's schemes are content-free, schemata (the plural of schema) are concepts; for example, most humans have a schema for "grandmother" or "egg" or "magnet." Constructivism does not refer to a specific pedagogy, although it is often confused with constructionism, an educational theory developed by Seymour Papert, inspired by constructivist and experiential learning ideas of Piaget. Piaget's theory of constructivist learning has had wide-ranging impact on learning theories and teaching methods in education, and is an underlying theme of many education reformmovements.[citation needed ] Research support for constructivist teaching techniques has been mixed, with some research supporting these techniques and other research contradicting those results.[citation needed ]
History [edit] Earlier educational philosophies did not place much value on what would become constructivist ideas; children's play and exploration was seen as aimless and of little importance. [citation needed ]Jean Piaget did not agree with these traditional views; he saw play as an important and necessary part of the student's cognitive development and provided scientific evidence for his views. Today, constructivist theories are influential throughout the formal and informal learning sectors. In museum education, constructivist theories inform exhibit design. One good example of constructivist learning in a non-formal setting is the Investigate Centre at The Natural History Museum, London.[citation needed ] Here visitors are encouraged to explore a collection of real natural history specimens, to practice some scientific skills and make discoveries for themselves. Writers who influenced constructivism include:
John Dewey (1859 –1952) Maria Montessori (1870 –1952) Władysław Strzemiński (1893 –1952) Jean Piaget (1896 –1980) Lev Vygotsky (1896 –1934) Heinz von Foerster (1911 –2002) George Kelly (1905 –1967) Jerome Bruner (1915 –2016) Herbert Simon (1916 –2001) Paul Watzlawick (1921 –2007) Ernst von Glasersfeld (1917 –2010) Edgar Morin (1921 –) Humberto Maturana (1928 –)
Individual[edit] The formalization of constructivism from a within-the-human perspective is generally attributed to Jean Piaget, who articulated mechanisms by which information from the environment and ideas from the individual interact and result in internalized structures developed by learners. He identified processes of assimilation and accommodation that are key in this interaction as individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences. When individuals assimilate new information, they incorporate it into an already existing framework without changing that framework. This may occur when individuals' experiences are aligned with their internal representations of the world, but may also occur as a failure to change a faulty understanding; for example, they may not notice events, may misunderstand input from others, or may decide that an event is a fluke and is therefore unimportant as information about the world. In contrast, when individuals' experiences contradict their internal representations, they may change their perceptions of the experiences to fit their internal representations. According to the theory, accommodation is the process of reframing one's mental representation of the external world to fit new experiences. Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by which failure leads to learning: when we act on the expectation that the world operates in one way and it violates our expectations, we often fail, but by accommodating this new experience and reframing our model of the way the world works, we learn from the experience of failure, or others' failure. It is important to note that constructivism is not a particular pedagogy. In fact, constructivism is a theory describing how learning happens, regardless of whether learners are using their experiences
to understand a lecture or following the instructions for building a model airplane. In both cases, the theory of constructivism suggests that learners construct knowledge out of their experiences. However, constructivism is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote active learning, or learning by doing. There are many critics of "learning by doing" (a.k.a. "discovery learning") as an instructional strategy (e.g. see the criticisms below).[7][8] While there is much enthusiasm for constructivism as a design strategy, according to Tobias and Duffy "... to us it would appear that constructivism remains more of a philosophical framework than a theory that either allows us to precisely describe instruction or prescribe design strategies.(p.4)".[7]
Constructivist learning intervention [edit] ] The nature of the learner [ edit Social constructivism not only acknowledges the uniqueness and complexity of the learner, but actually encourages, utilizes and rewards it as an integral part of the learning process (Wertsch 1997). The importance of the background and culture of the learner [edit] Social constructivisms or socioculturalism encourage the learner or learners to arrive at his or her version of the truth, influenced by his or her background, culture or embedded worldview. Historical developments and symbol systems, such as language, logic, and mathematical systems, are inherited by the learner as a member of a particular culture and these are learned throughout the learner's life. This also stresses the importance of the nature of the learner's social interaction with knowledgeable members of the society. Without the social interaction with other more knowledgeable people, it is impossible to acquire social meaning of important symbol systems and learn how to utilize them. Young children develop their thinking abilities by interacting with other children, adults and the physical world. From the social constructivist viewpoint, it is thus important to take into account the background and culture of the learner throughout the learning process, as this background also helps to shape the knowledge and truth that the learner creates, discovers and attains in the learning process (Wertsch 1997). Responsibility for learning[edit] Furthermore, it is argued that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the learner (Glasersfeld, 1989). Social constructivism thus emphasizes the importance of the learner being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played a passive, receptive role. Von Glasersfeld (1989) emphasized that learners construct their own understanding and that they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information. The Harkness discussion method [edit] It is called the "Harkness" discussion method because it was developed at Phillips Exeter Academy with funds donated in the 1930s by Edward Harkness. This is also named after the Harkness table and involves students seated in a circle, motivating and controlling their own discussion. The teacher acts as little as possible. Perhaps the teacher's only function is to observe, although he/she might begin or shift or even direct a discussion. The students get it rolling, direct it, and focus it. They act as a team, cooperatively, to make it work. They all participate, but not in a competitive way. Rather, they all share in the responsibility and the goals, much as any members share in any team sport. Although the goals of any discussion will change depending upon what's under discussion, some goals will always be the same: to illuminate the subject, to unravel its mysteries, to interpret and share and learn from other points of view, to piece together the puzzle using everyone's contribution. Discussion skills are important. Everyone must be aware of how to get this discussion rolling and keep it rolling and interesting. Just as in any sport, a number of skills are
necessary to work on and use at appropriate times. Everyone is expected to contribute by using these skills. The motivation for learning [edit] Another crucial assumption regarding the nature of the learner concerns the level and source of motivation for learning. According to Von Glasersfeld (1989) sustaining motivation to learn is strongly dependent on the learner's confidence in his or her potential for learning. These feelings of competence and belief in potential to solve new problems, are derived from first-hand experience of mastery of problems in the past and are much more powerful than any external acknowledgment and motivation (Prawat and Floden 1994). This links up with Vygotsky's "zone of proximal development" (Vygotsky 1978) where learners are challenged within close proximity to, yet slightly above, their current level of development. By experiencing the successful completion of challenging tasks, learners gain confidence and motivation to embark on more complex challenges.
The role of the ins tructor [ edit ] Instructors as facilitators[edit] According to the social constructivist approach, instructors have to adapt to the role of facilitators and not teachers (Bauersfeld, 1995). Whereas a teacher gives a didactic lecture that covers the subject matter, a facilitator helps the learner to get to his or her own understanding of the content. In the former scenario the learner plays a passive role and in the latter scenario the learner plays an active role in the learning process. The emphasis thus turns away from the instructor and the content, and towards the learner (Gamoran, Secada, & Marrett, 1998). This dramatic change of role implies that a facilitator needs to display a totally different set of skills than that of a teacher (Brownstein 2001). A teacher tells, a facilitator asks; a teacher lectures from the front, a facilitator supports from the back; a teacher gives answers according to a set curriculum, a facilitator provides guidelines and creates the environment for the learner to arrive at his or her own conclusions; a teacher mostly gives a monologue, a facilitator is in continuous dialogue with the learners (Rhodes and Bellamy, 1999). A facilitator should also be able to adapt the learning experience 'in mid-air' by taking the initiative to steer the learning experience to where the learners want to create value. The learning environment should also be designed to support and challenge the learner's thinking (Di Vesta, 1987). While it is advocated to give the learner ownership of the problem and solution process, it is not the case that any activity or any solution is adequate. The critical goal is to support the learner in becoming an effective thinker. This can be achieved by assuming multiple roles, such as consultant and coach. A few strategies for cooperative learning include
Reciprocal Questioning: students work together to ask and answer questions Jigsaw Classroom: students become "experts" on one part of a group project and teach it to the others in their group Structured Controversies: Students work together to research a particular controversy (Woolfolk 2010)
Constructivism[ edit ] Learning is an active process[edit] Social constructivism, strongly influenced by Vygotsky's (1978) work, suggests that knowledge is first constructed in a social context and is then appropriated by individuals (Bruning et al., 1999; M. Cole, 1991; Eggan & Kauchak, 2004). According to social constructivists, the process of sharing individual perspectives-called collaborative elaboration (Meter & Stevens, 2000)-results in learners constructing understanding together that wouldn't be possible alone (Greeno et al., 1996) .[citation needed ]
Social constructivist scholars view learning as an active process where learners should learn to discover principles, concepts and facts for themselves, hence the importance of encouraging guesswork and intuitive thinking in learners (Brown et al.1989; Ackerman 1996). In fact, for the social constructivist, reality is not something that we can discover because it does not pre-exist prior to our social invention of it. Kukla (2000) argues that reality is constructed by our own activities and that people, together as members of a society, invent the properties of the world. Other constructivist scholars agree with this and emphasize that individuals make meanings through the interactions with each other and with the environment they live in. Knowledge is thus a product of humans and is socially and culturally constructed (Ernest 1991; Prawat and Floden 1994). McMahon (1997) agrees that learning is a social process. He further states that learning is not a process that only takes place inside our minds, nor is it a passive development of our behaviors that is shaped by external forces and that meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities. Vygotsky (1978) also highlighted the convergence of the social and practical elements in learning by saying that the most significant moment in the course of intellectual development occurs when speech and practical activity, two previously completely independent lines of development, converge. Through practical activity a child constructs meaning on an intra-personal level, while speech connects this meaning with the interpersonal world shared by the child and her/his culture. Good relationship between instructor and learner [edit] A further characteristic of the role of the facilitator in the social constructivist viewpoint, is that the instructor and the learners are equally involved in learning from each other as well (Holt and WillardHolt 2000). This means that the learning experience is both subjective and objective and requires that the instructor's culture, values and background become an essential part of the interplay between learners and tasks in the shaping of meaning. Learners compare their version of the truth with that of the instructor and fellow learners to get to a new, socially tested version of truth (Kukla 2000). The task or problem is thus the interface between the instructor and the learner (McMahon 1997). This creates a dynamic interaction between task, instructor and learner. This entails that learners and instructors should develop an awareness of each other's viewpoints and then look to their own beliefs, standards and values, thus being both subjective and objective at the same time (Savery 1994). Some studies argue for the importance of mentoring in the process of learning (Archee and Duin 1995; Brown et al. 1989). The social constructivist model thus emphasizes the importance of the relationship between the student and the instructor in the learning process. Some learning approaches that could harbour this interactive learning include reciprocal teaching, peer collaboration, cognitive apprenticeship, problem-based instruction, web quests, Anchored Instruction and other approaches that involve learning with others.
C ollaboration among learner s [ edit ] Learners with different skills and backgrounds should collaborate in tasks and discussions to arrive at a shared understanding of the truth in a specific field (Duffy and Jonassen 1992). Most social constructivist models, such as that proposed by Duffy and Jonassen (1992), also stress the need for collaboration among learners, in direct contradiction to traditional competitive approaches. One Vygotskian notion that has significant implications for peer collaboration, is that of the zone of proximal development. Defined as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers, it differs from the fixed biological nature of Piaget's stages of development. Through a process of 'scaffolding' a learner can be extended beyond the limitations of physical maturation to the extent that the development process lags behind the learning process (Vygotsky 1978).
Learning by teaching (LdL) as constructivist method[edit] Main article: Learning by teaching If students have to present and train new contents with their classmates, a non-linear process of collective knowledge-construction will be set up. The importance of context [edit] The social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs as central to the learning itself (McMahon 1997). Underlying the notion of the learner as an active processor is "the assumption that there is no one set of generalised learning laws with each law applying to all domains" (Di Vesta 1987:208). Decontextualised knowledge does not give us the skills to apply our understandings to authentic tasks because, as Duffy and Jonassen (1992) indicated, we are not working with the concept in the complex environment and experiencing the complex interrelationships in that environment that determine how and when the concept is used. One social constructivist notion is that of authentic or situated learning, where the student takes part in activities directly relevant to the application of learning and that take place within a culture similar to the applied setting (Brown et al. 1989). Cognitive apprenticeship has been proposed as an effective constructivist model of learning that attempts to "enculturate students into authentic practices through activity and social interaction in a way similar to that evident, and evidently successful, in craft apprenticeship" (Ackerman 1996:25). Holt and Willard-Holt (2000) emphasize the concept of dynamic assessment, which is a way of assessing the true potential of learners that differs significantly from conventional tests. Here the essentially interactive nature of learning is extended to the process of assessment. Rather than viewing assessment as a process carried out by one person, such as an instructor, it is seen as a two-way process involving interaction between both instructor and learner. The role of the assessor becomes one of entering into dialogue with the persons being assessed to find out their current level of performance on any task and sharing with them possible ways in which that performance might be improved on a subsequent occasion. Thus, assessment and learning are seen as inextricably linked and not separate processes (Holt and Willard-Holt 2000). According to this viewpoint instructors should see assessment as a continuous and interactive process that measures the achievement of the learner, the quality of the learning experience and courseware. The feedback created by the assessment process serves as a direct foundation for further development.
The s election, s cope, and s equencing of the subject matter [ edit ] Knowledge should be discovered as an integrated whole [edit] Knowledge should not be divided into different subjects or compartments, but should be discovered as an integrated whole (McMahon 1997; Di Vesta 1987). This also again underlines the importance of the context in which learning is presented (Brown et al. 1989). The world, in which the learner needs to operate, does not approach one in the form of different subjects, but as a complex myriad of facts, problems, dimensions, and perceptions (Ackerman 1996). Engaging and challenging the learner [edit] Learners should constantly be challenged with tasks that refer to skills and knowledge just beyond their current level of mastery. This captures their motivation and builds on previous successes to enhance learner confidence (Brownstein 2001). This is in line with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, which can be described as the distance between the actual developmental level (as
determined by independent problem-solving) and the level of potential development (as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers) (Vygotsky 1978). Vygotsky (1978) further claimed that instruction is good only when it proceeds ahead of development. Then it awakens and rouses to life an entire set of functions in the stage of maturing, which lie in the zone of proximal development. It is in this way that instruction plays an extremely important role in development. To fully engage and challenge the learner, the task and learning environment should reflect the complexity of the environment that the learner should be able to function in at the end of learning. Learners must not only have ownership of the learning or problem-solving process, but of the problem itself (Derry 1999). Where the sequencing of subject matter is concerned, it is the constructivist viewpoint that the foundations of any subject may be taught to anybody at any stage in some form (Duffy and Jonassen 1992). This means that instructors should first introduce the basic ideas that give life and form to any topic or subject area, and then revisit and build upon these repeatedly. This notion has been extensively used in curricula. It is important for instructors to realize that although a curriculum may be set down for them, it inevitably becomes shaped by them into something personal that reflects their own belief systems, their thoughts and feelings about both the content of their instruction and their learners (Rhodes and Bellamy 1999). Thus, the learning experience becomes a shared enterprise. The emotionsand life contexts of those involved in the learning process must therefore be considered as an integral part of learning. The goal of the learner is central in considering what is learned (Brown et al. 1989; Ackerman 1996). The structuredness of the learning process [edit] It is important to achieve the right balance between the degree of structure and flexibility that is built into the learning process. Savery (1994) contends that the more structured the learning environment, the harder it is for the learners to construct meaning based on their conceptual understandings. A facilitator should structure the learning experience just enough to make sure that the students get clear guidance and parameters within which to achieve the learning objectives, yet the learning experience should be open and free enough to allow for the learners to discover, enjoy, interact and arrive at their own, socially verified version of truth.
In adult learning [ edit ] Constructivist ideas have been used to inform adult education. Whereas pedagogy usually applies to the education of children, educators of adults often speak instead of andragogy. Methods must take account of differences in learning, due to the fact that adults have many more experiences and previously existing neurological structures. Approaches based on constructivism stress the importance of mechanisms for mutual planning, diagnosis of learner needs and interests, cooperative learning climate, sequential activities for achieving the objectives, formulation of learning objectives based on the diagnosed needs and interests. Personal relevance of the content, involvement of the learner in the process, and deeper understanding of underlying concepts are some of the intersections between emphases in constructivism and adult learning principles.
Pedagogies based on constructivism[edit] Main article: Constructivist teaching methods
Various approaches in pedagogy derive from constructivist theory. They usually suggest that learning is accomplished best using a hands-on approach. Learners learn by experimentation, and not by being told what will happen, and are left to make their own inferences, discoveries and conclusions.
Supportive research and evidence [edit] Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn cite several studies supporting the success of the constructivist problem-based and inquiry learning methods. For example, they describe a project called GenScope, an inquiry-based science software application. Students using the GenScope software showed significant gains over the control groups, with the largest gains shown in students from basic courses.[9] Hmelo-Silver et al. also cite a large study by Geier on the effectiveness of inquiry-based science for middle school students, as demonstrated by their performance on high-stakes standardized tests. The improvement was 14% for the first cohort of students and 13% for the second cohort. This study also found that inquiry-based teaching methods greatly reduced the achievement gap for African American students.[9] Guthrie et al. (2004) compared three instructional methods for third-grade reading: a traditional approach, a strategies instruction only approach, and an approach with strategies instruction and constructivist motivation techniques including student choices, collaboration, and hands-on activities. The constructivist approach, called CORI (Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction), resulted in better student reading comprehension, cognitive strategies, and motivation.[10] Jong Suk Kim found that using constructivist teaching methods for 6th graders resulted in better student achievement than traditional teaching methods. This study also found that students preferred constructivist methods over traditional ones. However, Kim did not find any difference in student self-concept or learning strategies between those taught by constructivist or traditional methods.[11] Doğru and Kalender compared science classrooms using traditional teacher -centered approaches to those using student-centered, constructivist methods. In their initial test of student performance immediately following the lessons, they found no significant difference between traditional and constructivist methods. However, in the follow-up assessment 15 days later, students who learned through constructivist methods showed better retention of knowledge than those who learned through traditional methods.[12]
Transcri pt of Creativity and Constructivism Creativity and Piaget Context
Piaget and Vygotsky, both of whom were entering the "field of child development psychology in the early 1920s."(Matusov, p.286), were witnesses to a time where industrialization was gaining momentum, World War I had ravaged their continent and technology was rapidly evolving. With that said, Piaget grew up in Neuchâtel, Switzerland which was relatively untouched by the war whereas Vygotsky grew up in Belarus and then moved to Russia and was part of a persecuted Jewish minority.
Words Their Way
Constructivism ...through the eyes of Piaget and Vygotsky Creativity and Constructivism Survey Summary References Eugene Matusov, Renee Hayes, New Ideas in Philosophy: Sociocultural critique of Piaget and Vygotsky, School of Education, University of Delaware, Renee Hayes, Newark DE 19716, USA, 2000. Pp. 215-239
Anne-Nelly Perret-Clermont, Revisiting young Jean Piaget in Neuchâtel among his partners in learning, Routledge, 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001, 2005. p. 70-91 Connery, C. P., John-Steiner, V., & Marjanovic-Shane, A. (2010). Vygotsky and creativity: A cultural-historical approach to play, meaning making and the arts. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc. First Steps in Literacy. (2003). Linking assessment, teaching and learning (Canadian ed.). Toronto, ON: Pearson Education Canada. Kausar, G. (2010). Educational implication of Piaget and Vygotsky language learning theories in Pakistani context: A review. The Dialogue, 5(3), 254-268. Pearson, P.D & Gallagher, M. (1983). The instruction of reading comprehension. Washington, DC. University of Illinois, National Institute of Education. Piaget, J. (1932/2004). The moral judgment of the child. [trans. M. Gabain]. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (2004). Imagination and creativity in childhood. Journal of Russian and Eastern European Psychology, 42(1), 7-97. Wardle, F. (2009) Approaches to early to childhood and elementary education. New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Creativity and Vygotsky Lev Vygotsky - Contrary to the traditional belief that creativity is to be studied independently largely due to, “predisposition, talent, apprenticeship, and recognition of prevalent trends,” Vygotsky viewed a “dialectual relationship between the individual and his or her world.”
“Creativity exists not only where it creates great historical works, but also everywhere human imagination combines, changes, and creates anything new.” Vygotsky saw imagination as a psychological function, located in the core of learning and development. He believed that imagination originates within social interaction and culturalhistorical moments of a child’s development. All of these are “woven together with learning, teaching, discovery, and transformational change” (Connery, John -Steiner, & MarjanovicShane, 2010).
Zone of Proximal Development Then Lev Vygotsky, “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined by problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capa ble peers” (Kausar, 2010). ZPD is a model for intellectual growth that involves a range of tasks that a child is in th e process of learning to complete. “Scaffolding is teacher -provided support for students working in what Vygotsky called the zone of pr oximal development, the area just beyond a student’s level of development.”
Pigaet's Developmental Stages Jean Piaget believed that the goal of education is knowledge constructed by the learner as they progress through developmental stages. Intellectual growth is most influenced by learners’ own personal intellectual activities. Children’s development will occur with or without instruction. Children should play, experiment and reason in order to learn. Five Kindergarten teachers, Four grade 3 teachers and four grade 5 teachers were asked four questions concerning creativity within the classroom. Here are our findings... "I was strongly struck, after the First World War…by the repercussions that the social and political instability, which dominated Europe at that time, had on the movement of ideas, and this led me naturally to doubt the objective and universal validity of philosophical declarations made in those circumstances. In my small country, so quiet and relatively
sheltered from outside events, many symptoms showed this dependence of ideas on social unrest."(Clairemont, p.72) Vygotsky and Piaget have wielded a tremendous influence on educational theory. To better understand their views, we should look at the social and historical context in which they were created. Question #1 Question #2 Question #3 Question #4 What does creativity look like in your classroom? Kindergarten: • Classroom is bright, colourful, interactive, bold and inviting. • Students invited to learn through inquiry and discovery. • Focus on learning through the 5 senses. • Kinesthetic learning with opportunities to move (dance, drama). • Students given a voice and a choice in many aspects of their learning. • Students invited to use their imagination and be creative when working in centers with blocks, art materials, play dough and pretend play (dress up, kitchen, puppets). • Creativity is displayed within the classroom and the hallway. • Creativity is reported to parents on student report card each term. • Open ended materials • Movement throughout the class (no assigned seats. • Opportunities to problem solve. Grade 3: • Students are engaged in an activity that gives them freedom in expressing what they think, feel or sense. • Posters, word walls, planners are visuals that help creativity. Grade 5: • Bustling with activity with students interacting and sharing ideas. They work cooperatively together. The noise level may be high but they are engaged and productive. • Visual, work on paper or sometimes orally expressing their ide as. • Teachers give opportunities for creativity based on students’ strengths. • Not allowing students to give up. Do students have opportunities to demonstrate creativity? Kindergarten: • Using centers to act out make-believe play.
• Through the use of puppets • Building and creating • Art activities. • Exploring outside the classroom. • Opportunities to teach each other new skills and knowledge (student teaching student, student teaching teacher). • Free time to explore centers. • During activities, students are given the opportunity to present and extend their vocabulary and this gives them a better sense of self. • Sand tables • Music • Drama • Sharing time Grade 3: • Art projects with no set patterns to follow. • Classroom discussions. • Writing (creative writing or book making) • Problem solving • Educational games • Change the environment to accommodate learning • Math centers Grade 5: • Art projects • Writing (where they find voice) • Problem solving • Field trips to the art gallery • Answering questions activate prior knowledge and allow for personalized responses. • No real opportunities to be creative because curriculum are trying to be followed and only chance students get to show creativity is when they veer away from the curriculum. What are some of the challenges to promoting creativity within the classroom? Kindergarten: • Time • Resources • Class size • Money (buses, sub days, supplies) • Internal school restraints
• Curriculum pressure • Differing philosophies • Difficult to come up with ideas and activities which are not teacher directed • Space • Fine motor skills • Noise • Hearing school bells Grade 3: • Having to follow the curriculum • Time: Many different needs within a classroom sometimes does not allow for time necessary for creative expression. • Time to prepare materials for centers • Assessment and evaluation to determine clear outcomes • Students who feel they need assurance that they are doing it correctly. Grade 5: • Time • Lack of resources • Trying to cover curricular outcomes • Students asking “is this right” What are some ways your students demonstrate their understanding? Kindergarten: • Manipulatives in math • Writer’s workshop • Art activities • Guided Reading • Things they build or put together • Hands on learning • Independence to do things themselves • Communicating about what they’ve learned • Displaying for others (show and tell) • By following direction • Responding correctly to questions • Participation • Writing activities with picture drawing Grade 3: • Children are naturally creative. They need a safe learning environment to express
themselves. • Records and checklists • Journals and informal writing • Shared readings • Presentations • Running records • Book making Grade 5: • Group work • Classroom discussions • Running records • Assessments • Projects (creation of models, puppet shows, triptychs, television commercials) • Assignment • Written work • Oral communication • Analyzing and critiquing (artwork or writing). Key Quotes from the Survey: “VISUAL ARTS” “DRAMATIC ARTS” “LITERARY ARTS” “PROBLEM SOLVING IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS” “CHOICE” “SELF-DIRECTED” “TEACHING BECOMES PERSONALIZED TO EACH STUDENTS STRENGTHS AND NEEDS” “BUILD ON STUDENTS’ STRENGTHS AND CREATIVITY” “ANSWERING QUESTIONS CAN BE CREATIVE-ACTIVATING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE”
Piaget argued that there is a difference between “given knowledge” and “knowledge constructed”. He believed that true knowledge, is constructed by the learner. For Piaget, the goal of education was to promote creativity and develop creative individuals. “the goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing ne w things not simply of repeating what other generations have done, men who are creative, innovative, and discovers” (Kausar, 2010). Creativity in the Chinese Classroom Developmental Stages Now Zone of Proximal Development Now Effective teachers support students with a range of scaffolds, such as modeling, sharing, guiding and conferencing. Pearson and Gallagher’s Gradual Release of Responsibility Model (1983) details for teachers how to support students on their way to becoming self-directed learners. Problem Based Learning is an instructional strategy that allows students to self-direct their learning. Students assume the role of active learners as they construct their own knowledge, reflecting on their experiences and collaboratively solving problems. Piaget in the classroom Anchor charts Visual aids Multimedia Manipulatives “Constructivism is a new approach in education that claims humans are better able to understand the information they have constructed by themselves” This was the first line in The Fountain Magazine: Education issue 48 in 2004. ‘New approach’ is questionable... it is true, constructivism is a 21st century approach, however was introduced and built on years ago by various theorists. Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget were two constructivists that shared the idea that “classrooms must be constructivist environments, meaning students need to be able to understand and learn, by c onstructing their own learning.” Therefore, learners are central to the learning process (Ozer, 2004). “Constructivism transforms today’s classrooms into a knowledge -construction site where
information is absorbed and knowledge is built by the learner (Oz er, 2004).” PEI Schools are using Words their Way to ensure student are learning in their appropriate "spelling developmental stages". Ozer, O. (2004, December). Education: Constructivism in Piaget and Vygotsky. The Fountain Magazine, (48). Retrieved from http://www.fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/CONSTRUCTIVISMin-Piaget-and-Vygotsky. As educators, we need to constantly monitor the various influences shaping student learning. When left to their own devices, students may develop according to Piaget's developmental stages, when they are interacting with peers and educators, there is an opportunity, as Vygotsky suggests, to co-create, and to generate a better understanding. Literacy Place PEI Schools use Literacy Place resources to support the balanced approach. This approach uses scaffolding to shift learning from teacher centered to student centered. Confucius: The Confucian sense of “creativity ”be noted. In the Western philosophic tradition, informed by the Judaeo Christian notion of creatio exnihilo , creativity is often understood as the imitation of a transcendent creative act. In Confucian terms, creative actions exist ab initio within the world of natural events and are to be assessed in terms of their contributions to the order of specific social circumstances. In no sense are creative actions modeled after the meaning-closing actions of an extra-mundane creative event. Creativity in a Confucian world is more closely associated with the creation of meaning than of being. Confucianism highlights the features of dialogue-teaching, heuristic elicitation with analogical evocation, teaching in accordance with individual aptitude. Creativity Comparison Western View: Respecting the children intelligence and characteristics development. Complying with the children’s nature. Developing greatly their creativity. Chinese View: Most following the spirit of a traditional way of education: Inculcating study
Recitation learning Current situation in Chinese Creativity within the Classroom According to the resear ch on the students’ development of creativity thinking in Grade 3 -6 in China, these dimensions have an extremely remarkable effect on student grades: -the creative overall scores -fluency overall scores -flexibility of text, -flexibility overall scores -letter fluency -graphics fluency -digital fluency and flexibility -digital uniqueness -problem fluency
In such dimensions: uniqueness, graphics flexibility, and characteristics and uniqueness of problem, there is a significant main effect on grade level performance. In the dimension of flexibility and the total score of the text flexibility, fluency, and graphics fluency, there was a significant effect of gender. Age and gender has significant interaction in two dimensions between unique graphic and fluency of problem. The overall level of pupil’s creative thinking is a gradually rising trend of development during the Grade 3 and Grade 6. Our survey results indicated that many teachers believe that creativity simply belongs in the realms of the visual and performance arts. Our findings suggest that Kindergarten students, provided with play based learning opportunities, may have more opportunities to express themselves and demonstrate understanding in creative ways. Should we be concerned that as students get older, we sometimes do not provide a creative release for them to better express their understanding and develop meaning? Summary Which type of educator are you? Do you make an effort to provide your students with opportunities to be creative? Do you provide your students with an environment which fosters creativity? Do you allow your students to express themselves in creative fashions and demonstrate their understanding creatively? Is creativity left to the student's personal development or do you provide social opportunities for your students to co-construct creatively with others? Food for thought Piaget once wrote: On the other hand, Vygotsky's theories were predicated against the backdrop of Marxist doctrine and an appreciation of socialist ideologies. Having witnessed the necessities and importance of war time collaboration and cooperation and the need to stand together to overcome oppression, perhaps Lev Vygotsky's appreciation for socially constructed learning was born from a time and place where working together was a necessity for survival and growth.
Sir Ken Robinson shares his thoughts on Divergent thinking, Creativity and Collaboration. We invite you to watch the entire video at: www.youtube.com/watch?v=068Xv-J7fEw Creativity in the Chinese Classroom Continues References He, Kekang. (2000). Creative thinking theory: Construction and demonstration of DC model. Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University Press. Dong, Qi. (1993). Children's creativity developmental psychology. Z hejiang, China: Zhejiang Education Press. Yu, Guoliang. (1996). Creativity Psychology. Zhejiang, China: Zhejiang People’s Press. References He, Kekang. (2000). Creative thinking theory: Construction and demonstration of DC model. Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University Press. Dong, Qi. (1993). Children's creativity developmental psychology. Z hejiang, China: Zhejiang Education Press. Yu, Guoliang. (1996). Creativity Psychology. Zhejiang, China: Zhejiang People’s Press. Explore the Prezi further to see how these theorists have influenced education through constructivism from the mid 1900s to present day.
Creativity and Constructivism ED614 Theories of Research and Learning March 9, 2014
Jeff Willson Amy MacKinnon Vanessa Dunn Su Dan
Constructivism Approach
Full transcript
