h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 13 by by John Macionis
Social Group Two or more people who identify and interact with one another.
• Not every collection of individuals forms a group. • Many people with a status status in common – women, homeowners, ho meowners, soldiers, soldiers, millionaires, college graduates, graduates, and Roman Catholics – are are not groups, groups, but categories. h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 13 by by John Macionis
Not Quite a Social Group
• Crowd – Temporary cluster of people – A group can have temporal status
• A crowd can become a group, then a crowd again. – A large gathering of people at a football game – A crowd that begins to riot might be considered a group.
h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Primary Groups Small social groups whose members share personal, lasting relationships.
• Traits – Small – Personal orientation – Enduring
• Primary relationships – First group experienced in life – Irreplaceable
• Assistance of all kinds – Emotional to financial h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Secondary Groups A large, impersonal social group whose members pursue a specific goal or activity.
• Traits – Large membership – Goal or activity orientation – Formal and polite
• Secondary relationships – Weak emotional ties – Short term
• Examples – Co-workers and political organizations h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Summing Up Primary Groups and Secondary Groups h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Group Leadership • Two roles – Instrumental: Task-oriented – Expressive: People-oriented
• Three leadership styles – Authoritarian: Leader makes decisions; Compliance from members – Democratic: Member involvement – Laissez-faire: Mainly let group function on its own
h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Group Conformity Studies • Asch’s research – Willingness to compromise our own judgments – Line experiment
• Milgram’s research – Role authority plays – Following orders
• Janis’s research – Negative side of groupthink
h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Figure 7.1 Cards Used in Asch’s Experiment in Group Conformity In Asch’s experiment, subjects were asked to match the line on Card 1 to one of the lines on Card 2. Many subjects agreed with the wrong answers given by others in their group. Source: Asch (1952). h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Reference Group A social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions
• Stouffer’s research – We compare ourselves in relation to specific reference groups.
• In-groups and out-groups – Loyalty to in-group – Opposition to out-groups
h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Group Size • The dyad – A two-member group – Very intimate, but unstable given its size
• The triad – A three-member group – More stable than a dyad and more types of interaction are possible
h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Figure 7.2 Group Size and Relationships As the number of people in a group increases, the number of relationships that link them increases much faster. By the time six or seven people share a conversation, the group usually divides into two. Why are relationships in smaller groups typically m ore intense? Source: Created by the author.
h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Social Diversity: Race, Class, and Gender • Large groups turn inward. – Members have relationships between themselves. • Heterogeneous groups turn outward. – Diverse membership promotes interaction with outsiders. • Physical boundaries create social boundaries. – If segregation of groups takes place, the chances for contact are limited. • Networks – Web of weak social ties, people we know of or who know of us Socio logy, 13 E d i t i o n by John Macionis h
Global Map 7.1
h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Formal Organizations Large secondary groups organized to achieve goals efficiently; date back thousands of years.
• Utilitarian – Material rewards for members
• Normative – Voluntary organizations – Ties to personal morality
• Coercive – Punishment or treatment – Total institutions
h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Summing Up Small Groups and Formal Organizations h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Bureaucracy An organizational model rationally designed to perform tasks efficiently
• Max Weber’s six elements to promote organizational efficiency: – Specialization of duties – Hierarchy of offices – Rules and regulations – Technical competence – Impersonality – Formal, written communications h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Organizational Environment • Factors outside an organization that affect its operation: – Economic and political trends – Current events – Populations patterns – Other organizations
• Informal side of bureaucracy – In part, informality comes from the personalities of organizational leaders.
h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Problems of Bureaucracies • Bureaucratic alienation – Potential to dehumanize individuals
• Bureaucratic inefficiency and ritualism – Preoccupation with rules, interferes with meeting goals
• Bureaucratic inertia – Perpetuation of the organization
Oligarchy: The rule of the many by the few • Helps distance officials from the public. • Michels: Concentrates power and threatens democracy h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
The Evolution of Formal Organizations
Scientific Management Application of scientific principles to the operation of a business or large organization 1. Identify tasks and time needed for tasks 2. Analyze to perform tasks more efficiently 3. Provide incentives for worker efficiency
h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
New Challenges to Formal Organizations • Race and gender – Pattern of exclusion – “Female advantage”
• Japanese organizations – Value cooperation – Organizational loyalty
• Changing nature of work – Information-based organizations – Creative autonomy, competitive work teams, flatter organization, and greater flexibility h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Figure 7.3 U.S. Managers in Private Industry by Race, Sex, and Ethnicity, 2005
h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
Figure 7.4 Two Organizational Models The conventional model of bureaucratic organizations has a pyramid shape, with a clear chain of command. Orders flow from the top down, and reports of performance flow from the bottom up. Such organizations have extensive rules and regulations, and their workers have highly specialized jobs. More open and flexible organizations have a flatter shape, more like a football. With fewer levels in the hierarchy, responsibility f or generating ideas and making decisions is shared throughout the organization. Many workers do their jobs in teams and have a broad knowledge of the entire or ganization’s operation. Source: Created by the author. h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
McDonaldization of Society • Efficiency: Do it quickly • Predictability: Use set formulas • Uniformity: Leave nothing to chance • Control: Humans are most unreliable factor Each principle limits human creativity, choice, and freedom. Weber: Rational systems are efficient but dehumanizing. Socio logy, 13 E d i t i o n by John Macionis h
Future of Organizations: Opposing Trends • Movement toward more creative freedom for highly skilled information workers • Movement toward increased supervision and discipline for less skilled service workers
h E d i t i o n Socio logy, 13 by John Macionis
