Estado, Pluralismo Pluralismo Jurídico e Recursos Naturais
Carlos Manuel dos Santos Serra Maputo, Março de 2010
Relatório apresentado no âmbito do seminário de Pluralismo Jurídico ministrado no 2.º ano do 1º Programa de Doutoramento conjunto do Instituto Superior de Ciências e Tecnologia de Moçambique e da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade Nova de Lisboa
1
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INDÍCE Introdução I. Contextualização II. A problemática III. Objectivos IV. Metodologia V. Estrutura Capítulo I O O encontro colonial 1.1. O Estado colonial 1.2. Pluralismo jurídico na era colonial 1.3. A rede das chefias locais 1.4. O estatuto jurídico das populações locais 1.5. O trabalho forçado 1.6. Codificação dos direitos costumeiros 1.7. Terra e recursos naturais ao serviço do Estado colonial Capítulo II Estadualismo no período pós Independência 2.1. A Lei como fonte exclusiva de Direito Direi to 2.2. A desconstrução do Estado colonial e respectivas estruturas de apoio 2.3. O advento da justiça popular 2.4. Sociedade nova, leis novas e um ideal nunca materializado 2.5. A vivência de um pluralismo p luralismo não reconhecido Capítulo III O reconhecimento e a abertura para o papel do Direito Costumeiro no domínio dos recursos naturais 3.1. O retorno ao tradicional 3.2. Dos tribunais populares de localidade aos tribunais comunitários - um erro histórico 3.3. A aprovação da nova Lei de Terras 3.3.1. A nova lei de Terras e a construção do conceito de comunidade local 3.3.2. O reconhecimento das formas costumeiras de aquisição do direito de uso e aproveitamento apr oveitamento da terra 3.3.3. A consulta pública como ferramenta fundamental 3.3.4. O papel dos direi tos costumeiros costumeiros na resolução de conflitos no domínio dos recursos naturais
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florestas e fauna bravia 3.4.2.1. Exploração de recursos florestais florestais e fauna 3.4.2.2. A conservação segundo normas costumeiras 3.4.3. Reconhecimento e valorização das tradições e do saber das comunidades locais na legislação do ambiente 3.5. A captura jurídica das autoridades tradicionais 3.6. O marco constitucional da consagração do pluralismo jurídico 3.7. Constrangimentos e êxitos no processo de implementação do novo quadro jurídico-legal - o caso paradigmático das consultas comunitárias Conclusões Bibliografia Lista de legislação consultada
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Estado, pluralismo pluralismo jurídico e recursos naturais INTRODUÇÃO I. Contextualização O Legislador Fundamental moçambicano consagrou, no artigo 4 da Constituição de 2004, uma norma importante e que constitui, sem margem para dúvidas, um importante marco na história do Direito nacional: o Estado reconhece os vários sistemas normativos e de resolução de conflitos que coexistem na sociedade moçambicana, na medida em que não contrariem os valores e os princípios fundamentais da Constituição. Tratou-se, efectivamente, de um reconhecimento expresso e meritório do papel que as instâncias e os direitos costumeiros desempenham na prevenção e resolução da litigiosidade ao longo do país, contribuindo sobremaneira para a estabilidade e paz social, depois de um longo processo histórico repleto de tentativas de manipulação ou exclusão. Simultaneamente, a Constituição de 2004 veio reforçar substancialmente o regime jurídico de protecção do ambiente e dos demais recursos naturais, quer em termos subjectivos, atribuindo ao cidadão um papel crucial, traduzido na definição de um leque de direitos e deveres, quer objectivos, estabelecendo obrigações e responsabilidades a cargo do Estado. Nesse sentido, o legislador ordinário tem vindo a aprovar um acervo significativo de instrumentos legislativos no domínio do ambiente e recursos naturais, e que configuram, em nosso entender, um notável esforço no reconhecimento do papel do Direito Costumeiro na administração da justiça em Moçambique. A Lei de Terras (Lei n.º 19/97, de 1 de Outubro) é talvez a maior referência legislativa no que diz respeito à relação dialéctica que se tem vindo a estabelecer entre o Direito Costumeiro e o Direito
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positivos, antes pelo contrário, conhece conhece imensos problemas e dificuldades na sua implementação, caracterizados pela própria denegação por parte das entidades públicas competentes, em inúmeros exemplos extraídos da realidade, das normas costumeiras que tratam dos recursos naturais, e, portanto, dos direitos que estas consubstanciam, gerando situações de real e eminente conflito. II. Objectivos Com o presente Trabalho pretende-se realizar um breve levantamento e análise crítica do papel do legislador estadual na definição do lugar que o Direito costumeiro possui na administração da justiça em Moçambique, particularmente no domínio da legislação dos recursos naturais, do início do período da formação do Estado moderno, que coincide com a instauração da administração colonial efectiva, a seguir à realização da Conferência de Berlim (1884 - 1885), passando pelo Estado pós Independência, e culminando na actualidade, procurando, de seguida, levantar algumas ilações fundamentais sobre as mais recentes opções do poder legislativo em relação ao reconhecimento constitucional do princípio do pluralismo jurídico e sua aplicação prática. Adicionalmente, procurar-se-á perceber até que ponto o processo de construção, desenvolvimento e consolidação do Estado moderno contribuiu para influenciar os princípios, modelos, padrões, mecanismos, normas e regras de acesso ao ambiente, à terra e demais recursos naturais, ao longo dos diversos períodos históricos. Para o efeito, e de modo a alcançar tais finalidades, constituem objectivos específicos do presente Trabalho: i.
Tratar o período do chamado Encontro Colonial, especialmente a partir do início da ocupação colonial efectiva, procurando aludir à forma como a
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políticas promovidas pelo Estado colonial interferiram nos processos de acesso, uso e aproveitamento aproveitamento da terra e recursos naturais; ii.
Estudar o Estadualismo instaurado no período pós Independência, caracterizado pelo monopólio do Estado na elaboração do Direito e na total indiferença em relação às instituições e direitos costumeiros, por um lado, bem como no desenho de soluções assentes no primado da justiça popular;
iii.
Analisar o reconhecimento e a abertura para o papel do Direito Costumeiro no domínio dos recursos naturais, cuja Constituição de 1990 constituiu o ponto de partida, tendo como ponto mais alto a consagração do princípio do pluralismo jurídico através do artigo 4 da Constituição de 2004;
iv.
Realizar um balanço sumário em torno dos constrangimentos e êxitos do processo de implementação do novo quadro jurídico-legal que reconheceu um importante espaço aos direitos costumeiros, enfocando a figura da consulta comunitária.
Note-se que estamos perfeitamente conscientes de que foi uma certa ousadia da nossa parte em tratar tema tão vasto e digno de um merecido e adequado tratamento científico, podendo incorrer numa certa tendência de simplificar, reduzir ou absolutizar aspectos, que por si, podem ser complexos, vastos ou relativos. No entanto, julgamos importante iniciar o debate em torno da relação entre o Direito estadual e os direitos costumeiros em Moçambique no que diz respeito ao acesso, uso e aproveitamento dos recursos naturais. Procuraremos, ainda, verificar até que ponto o processo de criação do Estado moçambicano, nas suas sucessivas etapas, contribuiu para construir, refazer ou moldar as formas de acesso, uso e aproveitamento dos recursos naturais por parte das comunidades
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III. Metodologia Para a realização do Trabalho será utilizada diversa metodologia, nomeadamente: i.
Revisão bibliográfica sobre assuntos com relevância para o desenvolvimento do tema, ao nível nacional e internacional. Note-se que, no que diz respeito aos trabalhos sobre as experiências coloniais, não estaremos tão preocupados com as diferenças que caracterizaram cada sistema colonial, mas sim com os pontos comuns ou transversais;
ii.
Levantamento e análise do quadro jurídico-legal revogado e em vigor no País, da Constituição, nas suas sucessivas versões, à legislação ordinária, bem como das principais experiências no tocante à codificação dos direitos costumeiros;
iii.
Confrontação sumária do disposto no quadro jurídico-legal com os dados levantados no terreno alusivos às respectivas dificuldades de implementação.
IV. Estrutura O presente Trabalho será estruturado em três capítulos, sendo que no primeiro trataremos sumariamente o chamado Encontro Colonial, especialmente no período de ocupação colonial efectiva (1874/75 - 1974); no segundo capítulo, trataremos o
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implementação do novo quadro jurídico-legal jurídico-legal que reconheceu um importante espaço aos direitos costumeiros.
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Capítulo I O O encontro colonial 1.1.
O Estado colonial No período de implantação colonial efectiva no território de Moçambique, cujo
impulso histórico pode ser definido a partir da histórica Conferência de Berlim (que teve lugar entre os dias 19 de Novembro de 1884 e 26 de Fevereiro de 1885), em que uma das principais decisões assentou na premissa de dominar e administrar os territórios efectivamente 1 , assistiu-se ao fenómeno que, recorrendo às palavras de Cristina Nogueira da Silva, se apelida de encontro colonial entre o estado colonizador com os colonos e com os povos nativos e destes entre si, e que produziu, na sua origem, sistemas jurídicos híbridos, cujas fronteiras não foram fixadas de forma linear e cujas hierarquias se mantiveram, por muito tempo, em aberto2 O colonialismo constituiu num processo legal transnacional e que teve a suposta missão de expandir a civilização superior europeia para as populações colonizadas, consideradas primitivas, selvagens ou atrasadas, mas que encobria, de facto, objectivos associados à obtenção de matéria-prima e mão-de-obra para as plantações, minas e fábricas ao serviço das potenciais colonizadoras 3. Por seu turno, o colonialismo quase sempre envolveu a transferência de códigos e instituições de uma sociedade para outra, bem como para elaborar e fazer aprovar legislação dirigida a distinguir e descriminar racialmente as populações4.
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se compreendam, exercendo também também a influência moral que lhe é adstrita pelo Padroado do Oriente . Adelino Torres diz-nos que o conceito de civilização encontra-se, assim, fortemente associado à ideia de que as colónias e respectivas populações nativas se beneficiaram ampla e profundamente do encontro colonial, o qual contribuiu para mudar o rumo da sua história 5. A civilização foi, portanto, perspectivada como uma benesse ou mais-valia para povos que se encontravam em estádios culturalmente atrasados em relação às nações europeias. Em Moçambique, a montagem do sistema colonial tem um importante marco histórico a a aprovação da Carta Orgânica da Província de Moçambique, através de um Decreto de 23 de Maio de 1907, do então Ministro da Marinha e do Ultramar, Aires de Ornelas, poucos anos antes da queda da Monarquia 6 . Este instrumento legal trouxe vincada a diferenciação do tratamento jurídico dos europeus e dos indígenas. Aliás, decorre do mesmo a criação do Secretaria de Negócios Indígenas (SNE), entidade à qual competia administrar a organização da justiça indígena, regulamentar os deveres dos régulos e outras actividades gentílicas, providenciar a codificação dos usos e costumes cafreais, determinar e fixar terrenos que deveriam ficar exclusivamente reservados para os indígenas, organizar o fornecimento de trabalhadores indígenas para os serviços públicos e particulares, entre outros7. Há seis importantes características que gostaríamos de destacar em relação à política colonial portuguesa, especialmente em relação a Moçambique, no que diz
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As seis características a seguir analisadas contribuíram sobremaneira na questão do acesso à terra e aos recursos naturais, naturais, norteando significativamente os padrões e normas de uso e aproveitamento das riquezas naturais existentes no então Estado colonial de Moçambique, lançando, inclusivamente, algumas das bases e linhas que caracterizaram as etapas seguintes na evolução histórica, designadamente a seguir à Independência. 1.2.
Pluralismo jurídico na era colonial Uma questão que se levanta naturalmente no domínio do presente tema é a de
saber até que ponto o sistema colonial conviveu com a enormidade e diversidade de instâncias e direitos costumeiros das populações locais de Moçambique? A resposta a esta pergunta conduz-nos à percepção do pluralismo que se desenhou ao longo do período de ocupação colonial efectiva. Nesse aspecto, segundo Cristina Nogueira da Silva, o pluralismo jurídico no período colonial constitui um projecto no qual o estado colonial se assumiu como pólo ordenador da diversidade, com a correspondente "missão" de fixar não apenas as regras reguladoras do funcionamento dos sistemas jurídicos plurais, como também os estatutos jurídicos das populações populaçõe s neles envolvidas, face à ordem jurídica hegemónica he gemónica8. As populações locais, note-se, foram, em termos jurídicos, consideradas, até à fase última do colonialismo, como nativas ou indígenas , como que se pessoas de nível inferior se tratassem, conforme veremos de seguida. O colonialismo assentou em um
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império colonial português. O exemplo exemplo mais paradigmático foi efectivamente a aprovação aprovação do Código Civil Português Português (Código de Seabra), aprovado por Carta de Lei em 1 de Julho de 1887, que foi tornado extensivo ao espaço colonial, incluindo Moçambique, em 1869, através de Decreto de 18 de Novembro de 1869, ressalvando-se os usos e costumes das populações indígenas que não se opusessem à moral e à ordem pública. O preâmbulo do Decreto n.º 12 533, de 27 de Novembro de 1926, que promulgou o Estatuto Político, Civil e Criminal dos Indígenas de Angola e Moçambique, disse o seguinte: Não se atribuem aos indígenas, por falta de significado prático, os direitos relacionados com as nossas instituições constitucionais. Não submetemos a sua vida individual, doméstica e pública se assim é permitido dizer, às nossas leis políticas, aos nossos códigos administrativos, civis, comerciais e penais, à nossa Organização Judiciária. Mantemos para eles uma ordem jurídica própria do estatuto das suas faculdades, da sua mentalidade de primitivos, dos seus sentimentos, da sua vida, sem prescindirmos de os ir chamando por todas as formas convenientes à elevação cada vez
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regia os cidadãos europeus, o seguinte: seguinte: era impossível conservar este absurdo, pois a cada estado de civilização dum povo povo corresponde o conjunto de leis por que se deve reger e não há pior ilusão do que supor que pela simples aplicação de leis e regulamentos inadequados se passa do estado de selvajaria para o de civilização completa10. Aliás, nos termos do n.º 2 da Base 18 da Lei n.º 277, de 15 de Agosto de 1914 (Lei Orgânica da Administração Civil das Províncias Ultramarinas), as alterações dos usos e costumes privativos que regem as relações civis dos povos indígenas, com o propósito de os melhorar, só serão introduzidas gradualmente, e de forma a serem cabalmente compreendidas e assimiladas. Nesse sentido, Silva Cunha propugnava que o reconhecimento dos direitos costumeiros dos povos indígenas é meramente transitório, visto que
constitui
objectivo de toda a política colonial portuguesa obter o
desaparecimento e tal ordem jurídica, através da integração total dos indígenas no agregado nacional 11. Cristina Nogueira da Silva sublinha que o pluralismo jurídico vigente na administração colonial, traduzido na situação criada através do Decreto de 18 de
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qualquer veleidade de reconhecimento reconhecimento de direitos a um negro. O que subsistiu das culturas tradicionais ficou a dever-se não dever-se não a qualquer consideração da administração por elas, mas à sua incapacidade incapaci dade para as destruir de todo13. No entanto, conforme nos revela José Negrão,
contrariamente
ao que era
esperado pelos legisladores portugueses, o desprezo das leis consuetudinárias pelo Governo teve, por consequência, o seu reforço e a sua consolidação enquanto instituições locais flexíveis e adaptáveis à mudança 14 . Isto é, o tradicional resistiu a quaisquer iniciativas de aniquilamento e/ou manipulação, não somente no período da Administração colonial, mas também a seguir à instauração da Independência nacional, projectando-se em termos fortalecidos. 1.3.
A rede de chefias locais As diversas experiências de colonização revelaram um importante aspecto em
comum: o uso dos chefes locais ou tradicionais para garantir uma administração colonial
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Focando o caso moçambicano, moçambicano, uma característica importante no sistema de administração colonial português foi foi o estabelecimento de uma rede de chefias locais, cruciais ao cumprimento dos desígnios de controlo efectivo de um território ultramarino em dimensão descomunalmente superior ao do estado colonizador, e em que, na quase totalidade dos casos, os funcionários coloniais tiverem que se confrontar com enormes constrangimentos de ordem financeira, visto que os cofres metropolitanos se mostraram reticentes em disponibilizarem os montantes necessários ao controlo efectivo da colónia de Moçambique. Este processo iniciou quando, em 1895, o então Comissário Régio de Moçambique, António Enes, criou a circunscrição indígena, unidade administrativa adequada às zonas rurais, na qual o administrador, no lugar das até então chefias tradicionais, exercia, em termos cumulativos, as funções de juiz e administrador. Por seu turno, as circunscrições foram divididas em regedorias 16 . Esta divisão administrativa sobreviveu às reformas sucessivamente realizadas com o decurso do tempo, mesmo em período republicano, no qual foi aprovada a Constituição Política de 1911, que trouxe o
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da administração , através da Portaria Port aria Provincial n.º 5639, de 29 de Julho de 1944 18. Constituíram, efectivamente, uma espécie espécie de presença indirecta do poder colonial junto das populações locais, bem como da respectiva ordem jurídica, isto é, constituiu uma das características do chamado modelo da indirect-rule, que vigorou em praticamente todos os países colonizados, de acordo com as mais diversas especificidades, e que ganhou contornos mais significativos no sistema de administração colonial britânico. Naturalmente que a Administração colonial exercia, sempre que necessário, uma interferência nas regras sucessórias para designar uma autoridade considerada subserviente ou afastar outra que fosse considerada insubordinada ou, de certo modo, contrária aos objectivos coloniais 19 . A nova organização administrativa implementada pelas autoridades coloniais pressupôs, igualmente, um processo de redimensionamento ou redefinição das fronteiras dos territórios pertencentes aos anteriores Estados précoloniais, sempre para menor, dentro do espírito da política de dividir para melhor reinar20, introduzindo modificações nas estruturas e relações societárias e de poder, à luz dos desígnios da potência ocupante, com implicações que persistiram à evolução dos
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possui a capacidade de estabelecer por por simbologia a ligação entre os vivos e dos mortos. O Régulo podia possuir tal capacidade capacidade quando fosse ao mesmo tempo Chefe Tradicional, de contrário não. Isto porque o Chefe Tradicional é o provável portador da legitimidade que lhe vem dos seus ancestrais linhageiros através dos vivos. O Régulo quando detinha a legitimidade, era de forma condicional, pois o caso surgiu da necessidade do regime colonial de encontrar um parceiro local, que servisse de interlocutor entre as comunidades e a Administração 22. Eduardo Mondlane aludiu ao facto de o poder do chefe já não derivar de um conceito de legitimidade dentro da sociedade tradicional, mas estar antes baseado no controverso conceito da legalidade
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1.4.
Estatuto jurídico das populações populações locais Para o sistema colonial, as populações locais foram tratadas, tal como nas demais
experiências colonizadores levadas a cabo pelos povos europeus, como bárbaras, indígenas, primitivas, atrasadas ou aborígenes. Os povos colonizados eram, em todos os aspectos (económicos, sociais, culturais, religiosos, políticos) considerados inferiores em relação aos europeus, e, portanto, desprovidos das mais elementares bases civilizacionais, regidos por usos e costumes considerados rudimentares, tornando-se necessário, para o efeito, um aturado e profundo processo de elevação gradual da sua condição através de
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Fraternidade, em nada se alteraram os direitos políticos dos indígenas das colónias, para os quais, aliás, apenas estavam previstos previstos deveres, nomeadamente de trabalhar, ainda que nas mais ultrajantes condições humanas 28. Em 1914, foi aprovada a Lei Orgânica da Administração Civil das Províncias Ultramarinas, Lei n.º 277, de 15 de Agosto de 1914, proposta pelo então Ministro das Colónias, Almeida Ribeiro29, e que consagrou o princípio segundo o qual aos indígenas das colónias portuguesas não seriam atribuídos direitos políticos relativos a instituições de carácter civilizado 30 . Esta lei, bem como as que a sucederam, não chegou a ser cabalmente implementada tendo presente o período de instabilidade política que se
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instauração de um sistema baseado baseado na agregação da população em três categorias ou castas distintas: os assimilados, os civilizados e os indígenas 34 . Segundo este autores, a assimilação teve dois objectivos fundamentais: primeiro, mudar a estrutura sócio-cultural da sociedade africana e do indivíduo transformando-a numa sociedade de classes segundo; a criação de uma casta de africanos integrados no sistema, com um número muito limitado de privilégios que são negados aos outros, e funcionando como auxiliares deste sistema35. Os indivíduos assimilados passavam, assim, a beneficiar-se das instituições estaduais existentes na administração colonial e a reger-se pelas normas do ordenamento
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superioridade de cultura e de prestígio prestígio que sempre cerca os pertencentes ao grupo colonizador, comeram contra eles abusos abusos e espoliações37. Este autor escreve ainda que os meios de actuação sobre os indígenas para conseguir a sua assimilação seriam principalmente a difusão da língua portuguesa, a educação e o ensino, a cristianização 38 . Pelos menos em termos formais, dá-se um regresso à tendência liberal da assimilação defendida pelos liberais que fizeram a Revolução de 1820, mas já não em moldes uniformizadores. O exemplo da política discriminatória baseada na raça prosseguida pelo Estado colonial, foi legitimada de uma forma paradigmática num discurso de António Salazar,
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política 41 . Na realidade, o Estado Colonial não era muito favorável à elevação da condição jurídica das populações consideradas consideradas nativas, a quem interessava manter numa espécie de estado inferior, de ignorância plena, para, naturalmente, melhor garantir a
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cidadãos, bem como de cartões de identidade de identidade para os ex. indígenas43. Novos tempos se vislumbravam
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português, num contexto de grande grande pressão da concorrência representada pelos proprietários das minas e plantações sul-africanas. plantações sul-africanas. Sobre o trabalho forçado, Rodrigues Júnior escreveu o seguinte: Não há trabalho
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que se deparavam os diversos projectos projectos públicos e privados nas colónias portuguesas47, bem como de aumentar a produtividade produtividade das colónias portuguesas em África, fortalecendo a respectiva posição em relação às economias dos países vizinhos48.
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obrigação moral e legal de por meio do trabalho proverem ao seu sustento. Este Regulamento foi revogado pelo Decreto Decreto n.º 16 199, de 1928, no qual se procurou realizar uma aproximação em relação ao disposto na Convenção n.º 129 da Organização
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instância superior às demais. Sendo assim, ao nível comunitário emergem diversas figuras com um papel chave e determinante determinante na prevenção, mediação e resolução da litigiosidade, da família à autoridade tradicional, dos demais líderes comunitários aos comités de gestão, de cariz associativo, e às quais cabe receber e canalizar para a comunidade os benefícios decorrentes da percentagem de 20% aplicável às taxas de licenciamento da exploração florestal e faunística, nos termos do artigo 102 do Regulamento da Lei de Florestas e Fauna Bravia, aprovado pelo Decreto n.º 12/2002, de 6 de Junho, e do Diploma Ministerial n.º 93/2005, de 4 de Maio, emitido em conjunto pelos Ministérios da Agricultura, do Turismo e das Finanças. Veja-se que, segundo o artigo 133 do Regulamento da Lei dos Órgãos Locais do Estado, aprovado pelo Decreto n.º 11/2005, de 10 de Junho, os comités comunitários (que é o mesmo que os comités de gestão à luz do Diploma Ministerial n.º 93/2005), são
formas de organização das populações para permitir que as comunidades se
mobilizem na identificação e procura de soluções dos seus problemas, podendo encaminhar outras preocupações às estruturas pertinentes do sector público e poderão ser constituídos para, entre outras actividades, realizar a gestão da terra e outros recursos naturais, das escolas, dos postos de saúde e outras instituições de natureza não lucrativa de âmbito local . A Política de Conservação e a Estratégia para a sua Implementação, aprovada através da Resolução n.º 64/2009, de 2 de Novembro, previu que às comunidades locais é reconhecido um papel importante na resolução de conflitos sobre uso e acesso a recursos naturais. Os conflitos poderão seguir a via extrajudicial e a via judicial. Pela via extrajudicial, o diálogo e acordos com as comunidades locais é o primeiro passo que deve ser incentivado, sempre que haja conflitos em que estas estejam envolvidas. O plano de compensação e de reassentamento deveria incluir a previsão para a criação de uma estrutura para a canalização de reclamações e para facilitar a sua resolução. Esta poderá incluir influentes locais, autoridades comunitárias, autoridades locais e/ou estatais
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3.4. A interacção entre e ntre a lei e os direitos direitos costumeiros no domínio dos recursos naturais Encontramos na legislação estadual a partir de 1990 um espaço importante de confluência das normas costumeiras que regem o uso e aproveitamento de recursos naturais, ainda que, na quase totalidade dos casos, confinado a situações de consumo próprio ou de pequena escala e não, note-se, uma finalidade de natureza comercial e/ou industrial. Em vez de simplesmente ignorar a realidade sociológica, o legislador optou por um modelo de concessão de espaço, ainda que porventura reduzido, para aplicação das normas costumeiras que vigoram entre os diversos povos e lugares do País. Somos levados a dizer que se tratou de um reconhecimento tácito da incapacidade do legislador estadual em regular plena e eficazmente uma realidade extraordinariamente complexa, multi-cultural, hiper-diversificada e resultante do cruzamento e interpenetração de mundos e povos. Um dos domínios onde mais se faz sentir o papel das ordens normativas locais é o dos recursos naturais, dado que, ancestralmente, cada povo procurou pautar-se por um conjunto de princípios e normas básicos de acesso, uso e aproveitamento da terra, das reservas hídricas, dos recursos pesqueiros, das florestas e da fauna bravia. 3.4.1. Os usos tradicionais na legislação de águas A Lei de Águas, Lei n.º 16/91, de 3 de Agosto, foi a primeira a tratar os usos costumeiros, fazendo-o em diversas disposições. Segundo o n.º 1 do artigo 21 desta Lei, as águas do domínio público classificam-se, quanto ao seu uso e aproveitamento, em águas de uso comum e águas de uso privativo. Os usos comuns visam, sem o emprego de meios mecanizados, a satisfação de necessidades domésticas, pessoais e familiares do utente, entre as quais o abeberamento
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Uma outra importante nota nota prende-se com a liberdade e gratuidade que está associada aos usos comuns. Nos termos termos do n.º 1 do artigo 22 da Lei de Águas, os usos comuns são livres, realizando-se sem necessidade de prévio licenciamento ou concessão, e também gratuitos. Estes usos realizam-se de acordo com o regime tradicional de aproveitamento de águas, com as limitações estabelecidas por lei que respeitam à qualidade (dirigidas à proibição de usos comuns de contaminem a água) e quantidade de água (não serão admitidos aqueles usos comuns que alterem significativamente o caudal da água). O artigo 70 consubstanciou o reconhecimento dos chamados usos tradicionais, enquanto usos comuns tradicionalmente estabelecidos e de facto existentes, bem como a sua necessidade de registo sempre que possam entrar em concorrência com usos privativos resultantes de lei, concessão ou licença e desde que se traduzam numa aplicação útil e benéfica da água. Aliás, no que diz respeito a esta última condição, o legislador, através do n.º 2 do referido artigo, estabeleceu uma barreira ao reconhecimento dos usos tradicionais sempre que estes implicarem a contaminação da própria água. Quer o reconhecimento quer o registo estão a cargo das administrações regionais de águas (ARAs). 3.4.2. Abertura ao Direito Costumeiro na legislação de florestas e fauna bravia O quadro jurídico-legal de florestas e fauna bravia é composto essencialmente pela Lei de Florestas e Fauna Bravia (Lei n.º 10/99, de 7 de Julho) e o respectivo Regulamento, aprovado pelo Decreto n.º 12/2002, de 6 de Junho. Neste quadro, importa aludir a dois aspectos fundamentais: o regime de uso e aproveitamento dos recursos florestais e faunísticos, em primeiro lugar, e a conservação segundo normas costumeiras, em segundo lugar.
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3.4.2.1. Exploração de recursos florestais florestais e faunísticos Importa verificar em que medida o legislador concebeu o papel dos direitos costumeiros alusivos ao uso de recursos florestas e faunísticos. Neste domínio, destaque para a norma constante no artigo 9 (Titular do direito de uso e aproveitamento da terra), segundo a qual O titular do direito de uso e aproveitamento da terra, quer adquirido por ocupação, quer por autorização de um pedido, carece de licença para exploração dos recursos florestais e faunísticos naturais existentes na sua respectiva área, salvo quando for para consumo próprio . Serra e Chicue, ao comentarem o referido artigo, escreveram que a atribuição de uma autorização para proceder ao uso e aproveitamento de determinado recurso natural não determina automaticamente o livre uso e aproveitamento de outros recursos naturais existentes na mesma área que não sejam para consumo próprio. Se, por exemplo, os membros de determinada comunidade local, que têm, como se sabe, um direito pré-existente e supra-constitucional de uso e aproveitamento da terra, pretenderem explorar os recursos florestais existentes nas suas áreas para posterior venda de lenha ou carvão, devem requerer previamente a necessária licença florestal, que é válida por um ano. O mesmo sucede em relação a um investidor que vê o seu pedido de aquisição do direito de uso e aproveitamento de terra ser autorizado. Para que este possa explorar os recursos florestais, deve requerer uma licença ou concessão florestal, consoante os casos e em função dos necessários requisitos legais. Exceptua-se do acima exposto o caso em que os recursos florestais e faunísticos se destinem a consumo próprio, no qual se dispensa a licença de exploração 121. Importa ter presente a noção legal de consumo próprio enquanto a exploração florestal e faunística exercida pelas comunidades locais sem fins lucrativos para a satisfação das suas necessidades de consumo e artesanato, com base nas respectivas práticas costumeiras122. Trata-se, portanto de um conceito na satisfação das necessidades
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religiosos, entre outras. Serra e Chicue Chicue evidenciaram os dois requisitos fundamentais para aferir uma situação de consumo próprio: próprio: (1) que tal consumo não tenha finalidades lucrativas, isto é, não é consumo próprio aquele que se traduz em posterior alienação com vista à aquisição de uma margem de lucro; (2) que tal consumo seja conforme às práticas costumeiras da comunidade local. Temos mais um exemplo do espaço que o legislador nacional tem vindo gradualmente a reconhecer ao direito costumeiro. O grande propósito é, por conseguinte, obstar que haja lugar a formas de pressão insustentável ou desregrada sobre os recursos naturais123. Contudo, a noção de consumo próprio terá ainda diversos outros limites estipulados por lei, designadamente no que diz respeito às necessidades de protecção e conservação, não podendo estar associada a espécies de flora e fauna protegidas, com recurso a meios e instrumentos proibidos, para além das quotas de abate, bem como praticada nas áreas protegidas, especialmente parques e reservas nacionais124. Veja-se que o artigo 15 do Regulamento da Lei de Florestas e Fauna Bravia (RLFFB) estipula, no que diz respeito ao recursos florestais, que as comunidades locais poderão, em qualquer época do ano, extrair os recursos florestais necessários ao seu consumo próprio, isentos de pagamento de taxa de exploração florestal. O RLFFB vai mais longe em termos proteccionistas em relação à Lei quanto aos recursos faunísticos, pois exige, mesmo em relação às actividades de caça para consumo próprio, sempre a obtenção de uma licença, que pode ser de modelo D, emitida pelo Governador da província, através dos Serviços Provinciais de Florestas e Fauna Bravia respectivos, a cidadãos nacionais para caçar nas florestas de utilização múltipla, ou de modelo E, passada pelos conselhos locais de gestão de recursos, aos caçadores comunitários, sendo que, em ambos os casos, somente em relação a espécies de caça miúda 125 . Naturalmente que a referida opção do legislador regulamentar assume contornos de uma autêntica ilegalidade, visto que o artigo 9 da LFFB é bastante claro ao isentar os titulares de direito de uso e aproveitamento da terra da obrigação de obterem
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existentes nas respectivas áreas, quando quando a exploração se dirigir ao consumo próprio. Temos, portanto, um Regulamento aprovado pelo Conselho de Ministros que vai contra o disposto numa Lei aprovada pela Assembleia da República, o que nos conduz, inclusivamente, a despertar a inconstitucionalidade das normas regulamentares no tocante à imposição de licença de caça, tendo presente o princípio constitucional da hierarquia das leis. 3.4.2.2. A conservação segundo normas costumeiras Em termos históricos, a conservação comunitária advém da Política e Estratégia de Desenvolvimento de Florestas e Fauna Bravia, aprovada através da Resolução n.º 8/97, de 1 de Abril, que traçou um objectivo de longo prazo:
proteger,
conservar e
desenvolver e utilizar de uma forma racional e sustentável os recursos florestais e faunísticos para o benefício económico, social e ecológico da actual e futura geração de moçambicanos 126 . Ora, para traçar o objectivo social para médio e longo prazo, assumiu-se a utilização e conservação do recurso pela comunidade, com ênfase sobre a educação comunitária, uso e aproveitamento dos recursos pelas comunidades e o reflorestamento comunitário. Assim, como objectivo social foi definido o aumento da participação da população rural e comunidades como agentes directos no maneio integrado, protecção contra as queimadas, uso e conservação dos recursos florestais e faunísticos 127 . Para a implementação desta objectivo, a Política traçou, entre várias
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passo significativo em frente em relação relação à sua antecessora. Este conceito incorpora assim não apenas o chamado domínio domínio público do Estado, segundo o entendimento constitucional consubstanciado no n.º 2 do artigo 98 da CRM, e para o qual existem os parques e reservas nacionais, mas também o domínio público comunitário, com as zonas de uso e valor histórico-cultural, por um lado, e os programas comunitários, por outro, como respectivas expressões máximas, bem com o domínio público autárquico, no qual invocamos as reservas municipais129. Para além da opção constitucional constituir sequência lógica do reconhecimento do princípio do pluralismo jurídico, resulta igualmente de um forte entendimento sobre ao modelo de conservação a prosseguir em Moçambique. Serra e Cunha escreveram a este respeito não existir exclusividade de actuação do Estado ao nível central como sujeito único e fundamental na criação, manutenção e desenvolvimento de áreas de conservação, antes pelo contrário, na sequência da emergência de outras figuras igualmente importantes, como as comunidades locais, as autarquias locais, o sector privado (caso das coutadas e das fazendas do bravio) e as organizações não governamentais (fundações e associações, internacionais ou nacionais)130. Entre o domínio público comunitário encontramos as chamadas zonas de uso e valor histórico-cultural, previstas nos artigos 10 e 13 da LFFB, uma figura inédita na história do direito da conservação em Moçambique e que assenta totalmente no direito costumeiro as chamadas zonas de uso e de valor histórico-cultural, definidas, nos termos do n.º 1 do artigo 13, como áreas destinadas à protecção de florestas de interesse
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No artigo 7 do Regulamento da Regulamento da LFFB, o legislador procurou delimitar o âmbito conceptual das zonas de uso e de valor histórico-cultural, referindo-se às florestas que estejam situadas os cemitérios rurais, locais de culto, que sejam utilizadas para a extracção de medicamentos tradicionais ou constituam habitat de espécies de fauna bravia utilizadas em cultos. Com a consagração de zonas de uso e de valor histórico-cultural, o legislador atribuiu ao costume um papel relevante na criação do Direito. Ao contrário das demais categorias de áreas de conservação, especialmente aquelas que constituem domínio público do Estado, designadamente os parques e reservas nacionais, e que são criadas por decreto do Conselho de Ministros, as zonas de uso e de valor histórico-cultural existem, assim, independentemente de criação estadual, em virtude do significado históricocultural que as mesmas representam para as comunidades locais, cabendo a estas proceder à identificação, criação, gestão e desenvolvimento de áreas territoriais merecedoras de um estatuto priviligiado de protecção. O Estado intervém tão-somente para efeitos de reconhecimento, através de despacho dos Governadores provinciais, consubstanciando a realização de uma mera formalidade, traduzida no acto da declaração de tais áreas como zonas de protecção, passando, como tal, a constituir objecto de um regime especial de tutela jurídica, no contexto da rede nacional de áreas de conservação 131. Ora, segundo o n.º 5 do artigo 7 do Regulamento da LFFB, caso tal declaração não venha a ser emitida, não haverá prejuízo para o exercício de direitos previstos na legislação que digam respeito à
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comunitário, bem como o exercício dos exercício dos direitos de uso e aproveitamento dos recursos das comunidades locais. Segundo o artigo 7 do Regulamento da LFFB, há dois possíveis caminhos para suscitar a declaração de zonas de uso e valor histórico-cultural: (1) por iniciativa do Estado, representado pelo Governador Provincial, quando tais zonas sejam notoriamente conhecidas como tais; (2) ou por iniciativa das comunidades locais, através de um pedido reduzido a escrito, contendo as assinaturas de pelo menos 10 representantes das respectivas comunidades, a fundamentação do pedido e a delimitação geográfica da área. Note-se que o reconhecimento das zonas de uso e valor histórico-cultural não significa a inexistência de limites legais que obstem ao uso e aproveitamento insustentável ou desregrado dos recursos naturais, ainda que à luz de normas e práticas costumeiras, de modo a perigar a preservação dos ecossistemas, da biodiversidade e de espécies endémicas, raras, em perigo ou ameaçadas de extinção. Assim, as normas e práticas costumeiras não possuirão carácter absoluto ou limitado, incorrendo em limites ao serviço
do
interesse
público
de
protecção
e
conservação
do
ambiente,
constitucionalmente consagrado 132. Assim, vejam-se as normas gerais que estabelecem, por exemplo, a proibição de caçar um animal constante na lista de animais cuja caça é proibida (o cabrito das pedras, a chita, o dugongo, o rinoceronte ou a tartaruga marinha) ou a proibição de abater determinadas espécies vegetais. Tome-se ainda em consideração o disposto no artigo 8 do Regulamento da LFFB, que prevê a faculdade de
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Foi recentemente aprovada a Política de Conservação e a Estratégia para a sua Implementação, através da Resolução Resolução n.º 64/2009, de 2 de Novembro, apresenta uma proposta para a recategorização das áreas de conservação, na qual desaparece a categoria de zona de uso e valor histórico-cultural, para emergirem duas novas categorias comunitárias: a reserva comunitária, enquanto área do domínio privado sob gestão de uma ou mais comunidades locais para conservação e turismo , e o santuário comunitário, como
área
terrestre ou aquática de domínio público onde existem
restrições temporárias à entrada e/ou uso para permitir a recuperação das populações de certas espécies para um prazo de 3 anos renováveis. 3.4.3. Reconhecimento e valorização das tradições e do saber das comunidades locais na legislação do ambiente Uma das importantes dimensões do reconhecimento do papel do direito costumeiro no domínio dos recursos naturais decorre da consagração, no elenco de princípios ambientais fundamentais previstos no artigo 4 da Lei do Ambiente, do princípio do reconhecimento e valorização das tradições e do saber das comunidades locais que contribuem para a conservação e preservação dos recursos naturais e do ambiente. Dois anos antes, este princípio tinha sido consagrado na Política Nacional do Ambiente, aprovada através da Resolução n.º 5/95, de 3 de Agosto 133, que aludiu ao papel da comunidade na gestão ambiental, nos seguintes termos: a sustentabilidade da
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que orientem a sociedade em geral, geral, delegando-lhes competências e instrumentos que facilitem o estreitamento da cooperação cooperação com as estruturas formais e informais134. Interessante frisar que o legislador ordinário inspirou-se não somente na realidade social e cultural moçambicana, como na Declaração de Princípios que resultou da Conferência do Rio de Janeiro sobre Ambiente e Desenvolvimento, que teve lugar em 1992. Segundo esta Declaração, as populações indígenas e suas comunidades e outras comunidades locais, desempenham um papel vital na gestão e desenvolvimento do ambiente devido aos conhecimentos e práticas tradicionais. Os Estados deverão apoiar e reconhecer devidamente a sua identidade, cultura e interesses e tornar possível a sua participação efectiva na concretização de um desenvolvimento sustentável 135 . É realmente curioso frisar a ponte que o direito internacional do ambiente tem vindo a estabelecer para com os direitos costumeiros, influenciando o processo legislativo dos Estados no sentido de uma maior e melhor abertura e reconhecimento do papel das ordens normativas e instâncias de resolução de conflitos não estaduais, especialmente no que diz respeito à gestão da terra e demais recursos naturais. Trata-se de uma devolução,
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tradicionais associados, deverão ser ser efectuados de forma a salvaguardar uma partilha justa dos benefícios benefí cios derivados desde processo. desde processo. O Regulamento acima referido tem como objecto: o estabelecimento das regras para o acesso a componente dos recursos genéticos, sua protecção, bem como ao conhecimento tradicional a ele associado e relevante à conservação da diversidade biológica, a utilização sustentável, incluindo a reparação justa e equitativa dos benefícios derivados da sua utilização e exploração 136. Importa, de seguida, destacar a norma constante no artigo 15 que versa sobre direitos das comunidades locais no domínio do conhecimento tradicional associado aos recursos genéticos, entendido como a informação ou pratica individual ou colectiva de comunidade local, com valor real ou potencial, associada ao recurso genético137. À luz do n.º 1 deste artigo, o legislador prevê a abertura para a titularidade do referido conhecimento tradicional por parte da própria comunidade, mesmo que apenas um dos respectivos membros detenha tal conhecimento. Segundo o n. ° 2 do referido artigo, a titularidade de conhecimentos tradicionais associados a recursos genéticos pressupõe: (1)
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3.5. A captura jurídica das autoridades autoridades tradicionais O trabalho desenvolvido entre 1991 e 1996 pelo Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, no contexto do projecto Descentralização e Autoridade Tradicional, do Ministério da Administração Estatal, culminou na aprovação de um pacote legislativo encabeçado pelo Decreto n.º 15/2000, de 20 de Junho, que aprovou as formas de articulação dos órgãos locais do Estado com as autoridades comunitárias. Nos termos do artigo 1 do referido Decreto, constituem autoridades comunitárias os
chefes tradicionais, os secretários de bairro ou aldeia e outros líderes legitimados
como tais pelas respectivas comunidades locais. Esta definição consubstancia, em termos jurídico-legais, o reconhecimento do pluralismo jurídico existente ao nível local e decorrente da coexistência e interpenetração das autoridades tradicionais, ignoradas e combatidas no passado e renovadas no presente, das estruturas político-administrativas criadas a seguir à instauração da Independência nacional e nunca extintas, no qual se sobressaem os secretários de bairro ou aldeia, e das demais lideranças legitimadas pelas
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deveres no domínio da divulgação das leis, deliberações dos órgãos do Estado e outras informações úteis, do trabalho, do reassentamento das populações e do pagamento dos impostos, aqueles que dizem respeito, directa ou indirectamente, ao ambiente e recursos naturais:
·
Participar às autoridades administrativas a exploração, circulação ou comercialização não licenciada lice nciada de madeira, lenha, carvão, minérios e areias;
·
Participar na educação das comunidades sobre formas de uso sustentável e gestão dos recursos naturais, incluindo a prevenção de queimadas não controladas, caça, corte de madeira, lenha e carvão para fins comerciais sem autorização;
·
Mobilizar e organizar as comunidades para participarem em campanhas de saneamento do ambiente.
Segundo o artigo 5 do Decreto n.º 15/2000, de 20 de Junho, as autoridades
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n.º 15/2000, de 20 de Junho, e que foi regulamentado no artigo 11 do Diploma Ministerial n.º 107 A/2000, A/2000, de 25 de Agosto, nos seguintes termos: o reconhecimento formal das autoridades comunitárias será feito pelo competente representante do Estado mediante identificação, registo e entrega de fardamento ou distintivo ao líder comunitário já legitimado138. Nos anos que se seguiram à aprovação destes diplomas legais, tornaram-se frequentes as cerimónias de reconhecimento das autoridades comunitárias legitimadas pelas comunidades, em claro exercício de controlo do poder concentrado nas mãos das autoridades comunitárias, especialmente no que diz respeito às tradicionais. Naturalmente, o legislador abriu caminho para eventuais situações em que, determinado líder comunitário, plena e devidamente legitimado pela sua comunidade, não venha a ser reconhecido pelo competente representante do Estado, quando não haja convergência de posições, como, por exemplo, de ordem política. E mais, a previsão da norma constante no artigo 13, abre igualmente uma porta para que, em caso de conflito no processo de legitimação das autoridades comunitárias, o representante do Estado, com competência legal de mediação, possa exercer a
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encontra filiado no partido Frelimo, Frelimo, a Administradora, tendo dignidade para constituir objecto de um trabalho de investigação investigação mais aprofundado. Segundo o artigo, a Administradora terá dito em conferência de imprensa que estava a encontrar diversas dificuldades no trabalho de reconhecimento dos régulos, por não estariam a colaborar e sempre a ignoram quando abordados sobre o assunto. Em resposta, um dos régulos terá afirmado o seguinte: Não sei porque é que aqui na Beira este processo foi moroso, ou mesmo nulo. Pelo menos até o presidente do Município () ter-nos tratado como verdadeiros «donos» desta urbe, sempre fomos relegados para o terceiro plano. Portanto, para nós, a tentativa de reconhecer os régulos do Chiveve (Beira) não passa de uma
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Por seu turno, através da Lei n.º 8/2003, de 19 de Maio (Lei dos Órgãos Locais do Estado LOLE), foram estabelecidos estabelecidos os princípios e normas de organização dos órgãos locais do Estado nos escalões de província, distrito, posto administrativo e de localidade. Segundo o artigo 11 desta lei, No desempenho das suas funções administrativas, os órgãos locais do Estado articulam com as autoridades comunitárias, observando estritamente a Constituição da República, as demais leis e os regulamentos sobre a matéria. O Regulamento da LOLE foi aprovado através do Decreto n.º 11/2005, de 10 de Junho. No capítulo II (Comunidades) do Título VIII (Cidadania e participação), o
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Comunitários143. Depois de os elencar, elencar, o legislador teve a preocupação de enunciar que poderão
existir outras formas de organização organização definidas pelas respectivas comunidades.
Urge mencionar que foi, entretanto, aprovado o Guião sobre a organização e funcionamento dos Conselhos Locais, através do Diploma Ministerial n.º 67/2009, de 17 de Abril. Finalmente, o legislador inseriu no artigo 118 da Constituição da República de Moçambique de 2004, uma norma exclusivamente alusiva ao papel das autoridades tradicionais. Nos termos do respectivo artigo 1, O Estado reconhece e valoriza a autoridade tradicional legitimada pelas populações e segundo o direito consuetudinário .
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3.6. O marco constitucional da consagração cons agração do pluralismo jurídico Realizando uma análise crítica da Constituição de 1990, e sem menosprezar o acima aludido artigo 6, que previa, como objectivo do Estado moçambicano, a afirmação
da personalidade moçambicana, das suas tradições e demais valores
socioculturais, Luís Mondlane refere que todavia em nenhum outro momento a Lei Fundamental (de 1990) faz reconhecimento expresso do Direito Costumeiro nem tão pouco das línguas nacionais. Torna-se, pois, necessário não só o reconhecimento do direito costumeiro como também a fixação de mecanismos conducentes a uma efectiva
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contrário do entendimento anterior, anterior, segundo o qual os investigadores debruçavam-se fundamentalmente no contexto local local para analisar uma determinada situação local, hoje, os contextos nacional e internacional tornaram-se extraordinariamente importantes no desenvolvimento de uma compreensão teórica das situações locais, na medida em que não apenas a lei estadual como o direito internacional foram penetrando e moldando as arenas sociais locais145. O colonialismo, a descolonização, a emergência de um direito internacional, a globalização e uma série de outros fenómenos contribuíram, sobremaneira, para a geração, na quase totalidade dos ordenamentos jurídicos nacionais, de um mosaico
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decorrem de um diálogo que deveria deveria ser igualitário, entre os vários ordenamentos jurídicos148. O reconhecimento real, efectivo, prático, e já não apenas legal, do princípio do
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consequentemente, de atribuição de uma de uma maior espaço para a realização de uma justiça mais plural, num factor de realização realização do princípio de pluralismo jurídico constitucionalmente consagrado. consagrado.
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incentivos por parte do operador, a falta de capacidade técnica do lado do Governo local e a falta de conhecimento/capacidade conhecimento/capacidade de negociação ao nível das comunidades locais150.
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como obstáculos ao processo de desenvolvimento, desenvolvimento, até porque, segundo estes, a terra é propriedade do Estado, não fazendo sentido fazendo sentido condicionar o capital à observância de uma formalidade de discutível necessidade. Claro que, no caso de ocorrência de uma pseudo-
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nos processos de autorização de direitos direitos de uso e aproveitamento da terra e demais recursos naturais, como condição para para as eventuais negociações consequentes e a geração de benefícios justos para todas as partes.
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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