Unit 1: Plant Cellular Activities Chloroplast and Photosynthesis Photosynthesis pigments -Photosynthesis- set of chemical reactions that turn carbon dioxide and water into molecules that plants cells use as food - organisms capture solar energy and store it as chemical energy in carbohydrate molecules (glucose) - transfer from glucose to ATP for energy - Light is type of Electromagnetic Electromagnetic (EM) radiation - EM occurs in forms of individuals called Photons - Photons are pacets of light - short wavelengths have high energy! "ice-versa for long waves - Photosynthesis #$%& ' #&% ' EE*+, #%& ' $#&%# - Cellular respiration #%& ' $#&%# #&%'#$%&'EE*+, - .ight from sun is mixture of Photons of di/erent energy - when passed through a transparent prism called spectroscope0 Photons separate according to their energy - The visible part of the spectrum to humans0 ranging from 123nm (violet) to 453nm (red) - Chloroplasts 6 membrane bound organelle in plant and algae cells that carry out photosynthesis - Chlorophyll 6 contained in plants within the photosynthetic photosynthetic membranes of discrete organelles called chloroplasts -Chloroplasts 6 & limiting membranes0 outer and inner membrane - membranes enclose an interior space 7lled with a protein rich called 8troma - Stroma 6 contains a system of Thylaoid stac to form +rana - Thylakoid 6 system of interconnected interconnected membrane sacs - Grana 6 stacs of Thylaoid0 about 13-53 Thylaoids - Lamellae 6 unstaced Thylaoids between +rana - Thylakoid membrane 6photosynthesis occurs within the 8troma and Thylaoid Thylaoid - encloses li9uid called Thylaoid .umen - Thylakoid Lumen 6 :uid that increases the e;ciency of photosynthesis $hlorophyll begins photosynthesis0 shaded plants have more choroplast
Reactions of Photosynthesis Photosynthesis - Electron Transport Chain (ETC) 6 series of progressively stronger electron acceptors - energy is released when electrons is transferred $hlorophyll captures light energy that energi
- ' builds up and follows electrons - the build-up in .umen maes ATP Photosystem % - lights hits ' again that was separated from Photosystem - A=P' is made - ase means en
+lucose - Cal&in cycle 6 cyclic set of reactions that 7xes the carbon of carbon dioxide into carbohydrate molecules through through a series of en
-itochondria - singular mitochondrian - carries molecules within living cell - double membrane organelle organelle - smooth outer layer - highly folded inner - associated with cellular respiration respiration - Matrix 6 protein-rich protein-rich :uid that 7lls the mitochondria - ?ntermembrane space 6 :uid-7lled space . stages - Pyru&ate o#idation (transition cycle) - /rebs cycle ETC 0 Chemiosmosis
Step % 1 Glycolysis - produces &ATP0 &A=0 &Pyruvate ($1) - pyruvates are transported through the & mitochondrial membranes Matrix Step $ 1 Pyru&ate 2#idation 0 transition cycle - before rebs cycle begins - pyruvate must be converted to acetyl $oA ($& acetyl attached to coen
/rebs cycle !- acetyl group ($&) carried by $oA combines with oxaloacetate ($C) forming ($#) &!- $oA is released 1!- during complete cycle ( acetyl group) - 1 A= and BA= are reduced to form 1 A= and BA= - A=P and Pi ATP - & $%& produced - cycle occur & times for each glucose molecule C!- citrate goes around the cycle changing to $50 then to $C - each acetyl group is oxidi
Cellular respiration +lycolysis (cytoplasm) Pyruvate oxidation (cytoplasm) rebs cycle ( matrix) ET$ and $hemiosmosis
3et gains &ATP & A= & A= $oA added # A= per $oA & BA= per $& & ATP per $& et total 6 1#
-olecular changes +lucose to two $1 $1 to $1 $oA added rebs cycle
'nput 1 -& -# -& -&
2utput - $%& - # A= - & BA=& - & ATP
$oA A=' BA= A=P'Pi
!naerobic respiration 0 fermentation - allows organisms to recycle A= without oxygen -electrons from A= are passed to the organic molecules - Eukaryote have & methods %4 alcohol fermentation (plant and animal) $4 Lactic acid fermentation (animal) %4 !lcohol fermentation - occurs in cytoplasm of plant cells $ stages %4Glycolysis $4!lcohol formation %4Glycolysis - same steps as aerobic respiration resulting in production ofD & net ATP & pyruvate & A= !- each pyruvate loses a molecule of carbon dioxide by the en
Regulation of En5yme !cti&ity - metabolic path8ays are orderly se9uences of chemical reactions0 en
9itamins and -inerals - help in chemical reactions - found in complex chemicals 3ucleic !cids - genetic material that directs all activity - composed of sugar0 phosphate0 and nitrogen base 3utrients - provides raw materials for cell metabolism and growth . groups %4carbohydrate $4 proteins .4 fats0lipids %4Carbohydrates - molecule composed of sugar subunits that have carbon0 hydrogen0 and oxygen! D&D - energy nutrient - largest component in most diet - include potatoes0 bread0 and fruit - eaten in excess0 carbohydrates are stored as fat - enter singleGpolymer sugar units of many units - most sugar contain 105 or # chains - the more the 5 carbons0 ring form - identi7ed by 6ose su;x - monosaccharides 6 single sugar unit 0 glucose0 isomers - disacharides 6 & mono oining0 - sucrose 6 glucose and fructose - maltose 6 & sucrose - lactose 6 glucose and galactose - all formed by dehydration synthesis0 water is formed by & - polysaccharides 6 many sugars $4 Proteins - can provide energy but is not main function - forms structural parts of cells - made when cells are damaged - component of blocs of amino acids - & group (amino group) - $%% group (carboxyl group) - the * di/ers one amino acid from another - cytoplasmic organelles (mitochondrian ribosomes) composed of protein - protein is a predominate part of muscles0 sin0 nerves0 and hair - !ntibodies are speciali
- the shapeGstructure of a protein determines its function - 7 le&elsD primary 6 uni9ue se9uence secondary 6 folds and coils by forming ' bonds tertiary 6 maes folding between * groups :uaternary 6 large globular proteins formed - ;enaturation - protein exposure to excess heat or p change will alter shape - denaturation is when physicalGchemical factors disrupt bond0 changing protein con7guration - protein may uncoil or resume a new shape - result of denaturation changes the biological activities of proteins - once factors are removed0 proteins may assume their original shape - Coagulation - permanent change in protein shape (boiled egg)
.4 Lipids - lipids are nonpolar - composed of & structural unitesD glycerol and sugar - store energy - glycogen supply - excess carbohydrates convert to fat - important components in cell membranes - cushion organs - carriers for vitamins A0 =0 E and - raw materials for synthesis of hormones - insulates against cold - Triglycerides 6 lipid composed of glycerol and 1 fatty acids - ,ats 6 glycerol and fatty acids that is solid at room temperature - mostly saturated - only single bonds exist between carbon atoms of fatty acids in animals - single bonds are stable0 maing fats harder to breadown - 2ils 6 triglycerides that are li9uids in room temperature - fatty acid that is a component of most plants - have double bonds between carbon atoms - unsaturated double bonds are reactive0 meaning they are easily broen down (fats are solid at room temp!0 single bonds0 and saturated) (oils are li9uid at room temp!0 double bonds0 and unsaturated) - Phospholipids - phosphate group bond to glycerol bacbone of molecules - -ve charged phosphate replaces one of the fatty acids - component of cell membranes -
Unit 3: Human Systems ;igesti&e System - eterotrophs must consume organic compounds to survive - utrients areD !- =igested &!- Absorbed 1!- Transported (circulatory system) to all of body - @reas down large complex organic material - 8mall components are used by tissues %4 Components of ;igestion 'ngestion 6 taing in nutrients ;igestion 6 breadown !bsorption 6 transport of digested nutrient to body cells Egestion 6 removal of wastes 'ngestion mouth - food chewed0 called bolus - breas food into smaller pieces and increases the surface area for chemical digestion - saliva - produced by salivary glands - contains amylase which brea down complex carbohydrates simpler carbohydrates - lubricates food so it can be swallowed - Esophagus - once swallowed0 food travels from mouth stomach - bolus of food will then stretch the walls of the esophagus pesistalsis - rhythmic0 wave-lie contractions of smooth muscles move food - food move during swallowing and egestion - food storage and protein digestion - movement of food toGfrom stomach -sphincters is constriction of muscles that regulate the opening and closure of the tube-lie structures - contraction of Lo8er Esophagus Sphincter (LES) 0 closes the opening to stomach and relaxation allows food to enter - .E8 prevents food and acid from long regurgitation - Pyloric sphincter control movement of food and stomach acid into the small intestine
Stomach - 1-shaped with numerous ridges0 allowing expansion - cells from interior of stomach secrete gastric :uids that are in digestion - mucus - $l - Pepsinogens - contractions of stomach mix food with gastric uice - involved in both physical and chemical digestion - 6Cl ills harmful substances that are digested with food - 6Cl converts pepsinogen pepsin - proton-digesting en
Peptic =lcers - caused when lining of stomach is broen down and exposed to $l and pepsin - when created0 lesions appear on organ surface
- tissue burned by acid - lined to bacterium H. pylori - laser can be used to remove damaged parts - Endoscopes are used to view stomach ulcers
;igestion> small intestine - maority of digestion in 7rst &5-13cm called dysolenum - secretes digestive en Pancreas - when acids enter small intestinesH prosecretin secretin - hormone released from duodenum that stimulates pancreatic and bile secretion - secretin is absorbed in bloodstream and carried to the pancreas - signals release of bicarbonate ($%1-) ions - ($%1-) ions are carried to small intestine0 changing acids from p &!5 to
I!3 - basic p inactivates pepsin - contain en
Li&er and Gallbladder - liver continually produces a :uid called bile - when fats are pressed into the small intestine0 the hormone cholecystoinin ($) is released - carried in blood gall bladder0 releasing bile salts - in small intestine0 bile salts emulsify fats - prepares fats for chemical digestion0 increases surface area - bile contains pigments - hemoglobin from red blood cells are stored in gallbladder for removal - "itamins A0 @&0 and = are stored in liver - liver is capable of detoxifying substances in body (eliminated by urine) - cholesterol (insoluble component of bile) acts as a binding agent for salt crystals found in bile - crystals produced precipitate and mae gallstones - blocs bile duct0 impairs fat digestion - build-up of bile pigments lead to aundice - Cirrhosis is chronic in:ammation of liver tissue
!bsorption - stomach absorbs water0 vitamins0 and nutrients - most absorption in small intestine - 9illi is 7nger-lie proectiles that extend to small intestine and increases surface area
for absorption - -icro&illi line the cell membranes and increases surface areas each "illis has a capillary networ that intervenes the lymph vessels called Lacteals - transport products - some nutrients are absorbed by di/usion and some are transported from digestion tract - monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed into capillary networs - fast are absorbed in lacteals
Large 'ntestine - Colon is where water is re-absorbed - inorganic sales0 minerals0 and vitamins are absorbed also - the bacteria (E. Coli) is housed here where needed! ?t then uses wastes to synthesi
6ormone and 3er&es control digestion +astrin 6 secreted by stomach to secrete gastric uices0 stomach then stretches Prosecretin secretin 6 secreted by small intestine to activate pancreas to release bicarbonate ions and en
$$ 6 secreted from small intestine which activates liver and gallbladder to release bile salts
?nsulin 6 secreted by pancreas - lowers blood sugar by moving sugars into cells0 increasing membrane permeability Entertogastone 6 secreted by small intestineH slows peristalsis and gastric secretion Protein digestion Pepsinogen >>>>>> $l >>>
pepsin (secreted by stomach)
Trypsinogen >>>>>> enteroinase >>
trypsin
Erepsin 6 secreted from pancreas and small intestine - breas down proteins into amino acids
,at digestion - liver produces bile from damaged red blood cells that combines with salts of gallbladder - release of bile salts emulsi7es fat0 physical separation of molecules
Phospholipase
.ipase
breadown lipids into glycerol and fatty acids
Carbohydrate digestion $ontainsD salivary amylase0 pancreatic amylase0 and dissacharides - breas carbohydrates into mosaccharides
Entrance to E#it Mouth D 8aliva 6 Amylase > breas down starches0 complex sugar units Esophagus D Peristalsis > apply contractions that pushes food down esophagus 8phincter D > opens to let food from esophagus enter stomach0 closes to eep stomach acids in stomach 8tomach D secretes gastrin > hormone that releases $l $l breas pepsinogen pepsin > breas proteins into amino acids
8mall intestine and PancreasD contains three partsD duodenum0 eunum0 and ileum 8teps from stomach small intestineD !- when acid food enters duodenum0 pancreas releases prosecretin secretin > signals pancreas to release bicarbonate ions0 neutrali breas protein into amino acids 1!- pancreas releases erepsins > brea small chains of proteins into individual amino acids for absorption C!- pancreas releases amylase > breas polysaccharides disaccharides 5!- pancreas releases dissacharidases > breas dissacharides monosaccharides #!- pancreas releases lipases > breas fats
.iver and +allbladderD produces bile > breas big fats into small fats0 no digestion - stored in gallbladders when there are no digestion - released by trigger of $$ when fats are present in duodenum D stored glycogen and "itamins A0 @&0 and = D detoxi7es harmful chemicals .arge intestine D > re-absorbs water0 vitamins0 and minerals D contains E. Coli that breas and maes "itamins
-otor Systems - animals may have exoseletons composed of chitin (invertebrates) or endoseletons made up of cartilage0 bones0 muscles - the body is composed of over 153 as a newborn and &3# bones as an adult! Most of the bones are in your hands and feet to allow for more types of motions between bones and muscles - ?one marro8 1 tissue located in the central cavity of the long bones that produces cells and stores fat Compact bone 1 dense bone Spongy bone 1porous bone Periosteum 1 this tissue that covers the bone !#ial skeleton 1 central part of the seleton containing the sull0 vertebral0 column0 ribs0 and sternum !ppendicular skeleton 1 bones of the upper and lower limbs and their supporting structures 2steocyte 6 bone cell directly below periosteum surrounded by minerals and a hard dense mixture of collagen - Collagen 6 connective protein 7bres found in the bone matrix where %steocytes are set - Cartilage 6 semisolid0 :exible connective made up of collagen and polysaccharides - Chondrocyte 6 cartilage cell - 2ssi"cation 6 process in which a bone is created from chondrocytes to osteocytes from the help of osteoblasts - 2steoblasts 6 bone forming cells - as calcium and potassium salts from cartilage deposits die and canals remain and eventually form and grow together to mae bone marrow - 6a&ersian canals 6 small canals located in the bone tissues occupied by blood vessels and nerves - Epiphyseal plates 6 areas of cartilage near the ends of long bones0 Gro8th plates - once epiphyseal cartilage plates are replaced with bone0 growth is complete - 2seoclasts 6 cells that dissolve bone - @oint 6 place in the seleton where & or more bones meet - can be immovable0 slightly moveable and freely moveable - -o&eable oint 6 oint that allows bones to move - Ligaments 6 bands of connective tissue that oin bones - Rheumatoid arthritis is where the synovial :uid becomes in:amed and thicens Muscles0 tendons0 ligaments0 and bones wear away - Tendons 6 bands of connective tissue that oin muscles to bone - ?ursae 6 sacs of :uids found below - Greenstick fracture 6 a fracture commonly found in children in which the bone doesnFt brea all the way through - !nthroscopic surgery 6 where 7bre optic tools can be used to perform oint surgery0 greatly decreasing recovery time
-uscles - Cardiac muscle 6 involuntary muscle of heart - Smooth muscle 6 muscle that must be contracted to bend a oint - Skeletal muscle 6 voluntary muscle that maes the bones and seleton move - !ntagonistic muscles 6 pair of seletal muscles that are arranged in pairs and that wor against each other to mae a oint move - ,le#or 6 muscle that must be contracted to bend a oint - E#tensor 6 muscle that must contract to straighten a oint - biceps and triceps operate as antagonistic muscles0 the origin is where the tendon is attached to a seleton bone0 the insertion is the tendon attached to a moving bone
- Sarcolemma 6 delicate shealth that surrounds muscle 7bres - -yo"lament 6 threads of contractile proteins - in a sarcolemma actions0 7laments (thin) slide over myosin 7la (thic) to contract! ATP helps contration - Creati&e phosphate 6 compound found in muscle cells that release phosphate to A=P to mae ATP - muscle cells use ATP 9uicly that the cells produce! $!P! helps maintain ade9uate level but as energy demand exceeds ATP supply0 lactic acid builds - if another stimulus is produced before complete relaxation0 summation occurs - Summation 6 increased muscle contraction produced by the combination of stimuli - Tetanus 6 state of constant muscle contraction caused by sustained nerve - Bast twitch (anaerobic respiration) and slow twitch (aerobic) muscles help in varying physical activity - 8ports inuries can result from cold0 improper stretching and shocwaves from exercise! ?nuries can a/ect young athletes that push their limits to extreme
Respiratory system - ?reathing 6 air exchange between the lungs and the environment0 including inspiration and expiration - Respiratory membrane 6 membrane where the di/usion of oxygen and other gases occurs between living cells of the body and environment - Respiration 6 all processes involved in the exchange of % and $%& between cells and the environment0 including breathing0 gas exchange0 and cellular respiration - air enters through our nose or mouth and is 7ltered from impurities by nasal hairs and mucous layers! The air travels to the pharyn# at the bac of the mouth to one of the two openingsD trachea and esophagus - air is 7ltered by mucous and cilia to prevent impurities from reaching lungs! The epiglottis protects the opening of the trachea from food or water
Trachea 6 windpipe Cilia 6 tiny hair structures found on cells that 7lter environment Epiglottis 6 structure that covers glottis (opening of trachea) Laryn# 6 voice box where this elastic ligaments vibrate to produce sound - air then branches in the bronchi to the lungs moving to smaller bronchiole airways with the lac of cartilage bands0 air then goes to !l&eoli - in !l&eoli0 it is surrounded by capillaries which allow gases to di/use (from high concentration to low) -
- ?ronchi 6 passages from trachea to left and right lungs - ?ronchiole 6 smallest passageway of respiration tract - !l&eoli 6 sacs of the lung in which gas exchange occurs - Pleural membrane 6 a thin membrane that surrounds the outer surface of the lungs and lines the inner wall of the chest cavity - diaphragm helps to regulate the pressure of gases move in - has relationship between volume of chest and gas pressure - ;iaphragm 6 sheet of muscle that operates to organs of thoracic cavity - 'ntercostal muscle 6 muscle that lowers and raises rib cage
Gas e#change - dissolved gases create partial pressure according to =altonFs +as .aw! This phenomenon aid in gas exchange as increases partial pressure allow more absorption of gases from the air to blood - oxygen is not very soluble in blood0 so 6emoglobin helps by creating intermolecular branches with oxygen to allow more oxygen uptae which aids in the bodyFs demand for high concentration of oxygen needed - partial pressure helps increase the a;nity between hemoglobin and oxygen which allows the oxygenated blood to travel all the way to the cells - $o& is much more soluble in blood and the intermolecular bonds between $%& and hemoglobin from carboaminohemoglobin ! The remaining J of $%& combines with water to form carbonic acid - carbonic anhydrase helps convert the & reactants to carbonic acid ($%& ' &% &$%1)! This eeps a low partial pressure of $%& helping the increase of absorption of more $%&! - &$%1 build-up is then bu/ered so that the p is not too high and the dissociation of the ions ' helps dislodge %& to move into the cell and hemoglobin act as bu/er! - mechanisms can help maintain normal levels of gases by causing increase of breathing during moments of high physical activty
?reathing -o&ements - Chemoreceptors 6 speciali
?ody and 6eart ?ody - artery 6 blood vessel that carries blood away from heart - made of layers of muscle 7bres0 elastic connective tissues - pulse 6 change in diameter of arteries following heart contractions - capillaries 6 single layers of cells where :uid and gas exchange - &eins 6 blood vessel that carry blood towards heart 6eart - heart is surrounded by a :uid membrane (pericardium) to prevent friction as the & heart pumps are divided by septum and operates - septum 6 wall of muscle that operates the right and left sides of heart - pulmonary 6 circuit from lungs to heart
- circulatory systems 6 bring deoxygenated to lungs and oxygenated blood to heart - systemic circulatory system 6 carry oxygenated blood to the tissues and deoxygenated to heart - atria 6 thin-walled chambers of heart that receive blood from veins - &entricles 6 thic-walled chambers of heart that deliver blood to arteries and tissues - !9 &al&es 6 prevent bac:ow of blood from ventricles into atria - semilunar &al&es 6 valves that prevent bac:ow of blood from arteries to ventricles - aorta 6 largest artery in body0 carry oxygenated blood to tissues - coronary arteries 6 arteries that supply the cardiac muscle with oxygen and nutrients - there are & nodes that set the rhythm of heart where myogenic muscles cells contract to push the blood throughout the body - myogenic muscle 6 muscle that contracts without external nerve stimulation - S! node 6 small mass of tissue in the right atrium that originates the impulses stimulating heartbeats - !9 node 6 small mass of tissue in the right A" region through which impulses from the 8A node are passed throughout ventricles - PurkinAe "bres 6 nerve 7bres that branch and carry electrical impulses throughout ventricles - Sympathetic ner&ous system 6 division of autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stress0 causing increasing heartrates to increase blood :ow - Parasympathetic ner&ous system 6 division of autonomic system that returns the body to normal resting levels following adustments to stress - atria that has relaxed and 7lled with blood is forced through the A" valves to the ventricles! The closing valves maes a Llubb sound! Khen the ventricle blood is forced through the semilunar valves0 the Ldubb sound in heard! - diastole 6 relaxation (dialation)of the heart during which the cavities of the heart 7ll with blood - systole 6 contraction of heart during which blood is pushed out of heart
6omeostasis and ?lood Bo8 - cardiac output 6 the amount of blood pumped from the heart each minute - stoke &olume- 9uantity of blood pumped with each beat of heart! - sphygmomanometer 6 device used to measure blood pressure - systolic over diasytolic is the blood pressure measurement! ormal blood pressure is &3-23 mmg - igh blood pressure weaens blood vessels that may rupture! This results fromD - ?ncreased cardiac output - Arteriolar resistance0 restriction of arteries reduces blood :ow thus more blood remains in arteries! - carbon dioxide and lactic acid production causes arterioles to dilate and increase blood :ow - receptors that are sensitive to the increase in blood pressure trigger the increase of parasympathetic nerve impulses0 the sympathetic response increases blood :ow and both help to maintain homeostasis! - during exercise0 adrenal glands secrete epinephrine and the sympathetic response increases blood :ow due to greater cell demand for processes! Epinephrine causes dilation of arterioles in heart0 brain0 and muscles focusing on cells that would initiate a 7ght or :ight response! - thermoregulation 6 maintenance of body temperature within a range that enable cells to function e;ciently
- temperature rise in the body signals the hypothalamus to stimulate sweat glands! @lood is the sent to the sin and cools thus helping body temperature - hypothalamus 6 region of mid brain
Capillary ,luid E#change - capillaries turn oxygen0 glucose0 amino acids0 and remove wastes from extracellular :uid! 8maller molecules di/use0 while others are brought into the cell by endocytesG exocytes! - e#tracellular Buid (EC,) 6 :uid that occupies the spaces between cells and tissuesH includes plasma and interstitial :uid - :uid pressure moves higher to lower pressure into cells from capillaries! The concentration of proteins and dissolved minerals in blood helps osmotic pressure to cause :uids to return to blood - hemorrhage - causes low :uid pressure0 normal osmotic pressure - star&ation - causes normal :uid pressure0 low osmotic pressure - inBammation 6 causes normal :uid pressure0 low osmotic pressure - "tration 6 selective movement of materials through capillary walls by a pressure gradient - any proteins that lea into the E$B must by removed if the osmotic gradient is to remain intact! thus proteins are drained by the lymphatic system - lymph 6 :uid found in lymph vessels that contains some proteins that leaed through capillary walls - lymph nodes 6 masses of tissues that store lymphocytes and remove bacteria and forcing particles from the lymph! These can swell during immune responses to pathogens! - lymphocytes 6 white blood cells that produce antibodies - *@$Fs are made by red bone marrow which use stem cells and di/erentiate into the needed blood cell! There is more red bone marrow in children then in adults! - spleen 6 lymphoid organ that acts as a reservoir for blood and a 7ltering site for lymph - thymus gland 6 lymphoid organ in which the T lymphocytes mature 'mmunology
,irst Line of ;efense - non-speci7c immune response - largely physical - sin and muscle defend against viral and bacterial invaders - p of 1 to 50 inhibits microbe growth - lyso5yme 6 destroys cell walls of bacteria - invading microbes and foreign debris in respiratory tract become trapped in cilia - corrosive acids in stomach and protein-digesting en
- chemota#is 6 process when neutrophils s9uee
Second Line of ;efense (locali5ed inAury) - tissue damage due to physical inury also initiates a locali
Third Line of ;efense - foreign organisms in body activate antimicrobial plasma proteins called complement proteins (there are &3types) - proteins are present in inactive form under normal conditions - marer proteins from microbes activate complement proteins which turn into messengers - these proteins aggregate to initiate attac on cell membranes =efense strategiesD - protein seals around invader - protein punctures and attaches to membrane of invader - protein attaches to invader and is attracted to engul7ng leuocytes0 yummyNNN - lymphocytes 6 produce antibodies - antibodies are protein molecules that protect the body from invaders - cells have marers and normally the immune system does not react to bodyFs own marers - cell membrane of bacteria and the outer coat of a virus contain antigens - antigens may even be toxins produces by mouldsGalgae There are & di/erent lymphocytesD T cell 6 produced in bone marrow - stored in thymus gland - signal attac @ cell 6 produce antibodies - displayed along cell membrane !ntigen!ntibody reactions - variations in antibodies exist on outer edge of each area - Receptor sites 6 found on di/erent cells0 explain how antibodies prevent poisons from destroying cells - once attached0 the poison is engulfed by cell - viruses also use receptor sites as entry ports - virus inects heredity material into cells0 leaving protein coat in receptor site - di/erent viruses attach to di/erent cells - outer coat of virus attaches to lungs - ?" attaches to T cell - once a virus attaches to a cell0 it is engulfed by T cells - problem for immune systems - re9uires blueprint of invader - protein coat is gone - antibodies attach to invading viruses0 preventing virus from binding to receptor sites
- mutated microbes than goes to receptor site - 'nnate 'mmunity 6 born with - External - ?nternal - mucous - phagocytes - sin (lyso
Recogni5ing 6armful !ntigen - T cells roam body searching for invaders - macrophages attac invaders by engul7ng - foreign antigen marers are not destroyed by invader but are pushed to cell membrane of macrophage - macrophage with T cell are called elper T cells
?lood Type - erthrocytes 6 red blood cell containing hemoglobin - plasma 6 :uid of blood - albumins 6 osmotic balance - globulins 6 antibodies0 immunity - "brinogens 6 blood clotting - anemia 6 reduction of blood oxygen due to low levels of hemoglobin - leukocyte 6 white blood cells - ratio of D433 - platelets (thrombocytes ) 6 initiates blood clotting - produced in bone marrow - formed from large megaaryocyte
?lood Clotting - when ruptureGdamage to sin happensD - thromboplastin activates prothrombin protein in plasma thrombin - prothrombin - thrombin 6 en
!rti"cial ?lood - arti7cial blood speci7ed in textbooD Bluosol - :uosol 6 non-toxic li9uid containing :ourine !d&antages - carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide - re9uires non blood matching and can be stored fro
- antibody 6 protein that reacts to antigen (responds to foreign marer) - same 6 accepts blood type - di/erent 6 agglutination - agglutination 6 clumping of blood when & di/erent blood types attac each other0 clogging capillaries
?lood Group % A @ A@
!ntigen %E (Oniversal =onor) A @ A A= @
!ntibody A A= @ @ A %E (Oniversal *ecipient)
Rhesus ,actor - *h- may donate blood to *h'0 but cannot receive from *h' Science 6istory Khen a *h- mother develops a *h' baby0 erthroblastosis fetalis occurs in the second pregnancy! First Baby - At the beginning0 the babyFs blood is separated by the placenta(membrane that exchanges mother-baby materials)! Khen birth taes place0 the placenta is shed and babyFs blood contacts momFs blood0 causing production of antibodies to attac foreign blood! 8ince baby has left the motherFs body0 the antibody will not be able to attac baby0 causing death! Second Baby 6 from the last birth0 an aftermath has occurred0 the placenta has weaened and antibodies from the 7rst birth remain0 therefore the motherFs blood will be able to attac baby while it is still developing! This happens when antibodies cross placenta0 causing erthroblastosis fetalis including anemia0 aundice0 and enlarged liver symptoms!
Recogni5ing 6armful !ntigens - T cells read antigensF shape and release lymphoine - lymphokine 6 protein produced by T cells acting as messengers between @ and T cells - causes @ cells to divide and clone - second message is sent from elper T cells to @ cells - /iller T cells 6 lymphocytes that carry out and destroy invaders - they puncture cell membranes - ill hiding viruses - destroys mutated cells because some are cancerous - accounts for bodyFs reection to transplants - 'mmunosuppressant drups (cyclosporin) 6 slows iller T cells
Suppressor T cells - inhibit immune system response once the invaders have been destroyed - communication between elper T cells and 8uppressor T cells ensures that the body maintains ade9uate numbers of antibodies - most @ and T cells die a few days after battle - phagocytes survey area0 cleaning up debris of dead cells - elper T cells read blueprint of invader before @ cells produce antibodies - blueprints are stored after the invaders are destroyed - immunity is based on maintaining an ade9uate number of antibodies - memory @ cells retain information about shape of antigen - identify and mobili
6elper T cells 6 identify invaders
? cells 6 produce antibodies /iller T cells 6 puncture cell membranes of infected cells (ill cells) Suppressor T cells 6 turn o/ immune system -emory ? cells 6 retain information about shape of antigen E#cretory System - lungs eliminate carbon dioxide while the liver breas down toxins and turns metabolism products into metabolites - removing wastes balance p of blood and thermoregulation -
;eamination 6 removal of amino (group) from an organic compound (live ammonia) =rea 6 waste formed from breadown of nucleic acids =ric acid 6 waste product formed from breadown of nucleic acids =reters 6 tubes that conduct urine from the idneys to bladder =rethra 6 tubes that carries urine from bladder to exterior
1 main parts of idney - Corte# 6 outer layer of idney - -edulla 6 area inside cortex - Renal pel&is 6 hollow area where idney oins the ureter - 3ephrons 6 functional units of idneys - !erent arterioles 6 small branches that carry blood to glomerulus - Eerent arterioles 6 small branches that carry blood away from the glomerulus to the peritubular capillaries - Glomerulus 6 high-pressure capillary bed that is the side of 7ltration - Peritubular capillaries 6 networ of small blood vessel - ?o8manDs capsule 6 cup-lie structure that surround the glomerulus - Pro#imal tubule 6 section of the nephrons oining the @owmanFs capsule with .oop of enle - Loop of 6enle 6 section of tubule that carries 7ltrate from proximal to distal - ;istal tubule 6 conducts urine from .oop of enle to the collecting ducts - Collecting ducts 6 tube carrying urine from nephrons to renal pelvis
,ormation of =rine - ,iltration 6 process of which blood or :uids pass through a selectively permeable membrane - Reabsorption 6 transfer of glomerular 7ltrate from nephrons bac to the peritubular capillaries - Secretion 6 transport of materials from blood into distal tubule - high pressure capillary beds of glomerulus allows passage into @owmanFs capsule of smaller molecules lie water0 salt0 glucose0 and ' ions! .arge molecules canFt pass - active and selective transport account for selective reabsorption of ions! This allows e;cient ways to retain water and nutrients in body instead of voiding them as waste! This also explains the vast networ of peritubular capillaries around nephron to allow continue of reabsorption and secretion until waste products reach collecting ducts - sugars and proteins are actively transported from nephron to blood stream and allow water to follow these solutes accounting for high concentration of salts and minerals in wastes - wastes are secreted into nephron because of mitochondrian that line the distal tubule! Ensuring wastes reach nephron to be eliminated from the body
- Threshold le&el 6 max amount of substance that can be moved across nephron - 'nterstitual Buid 6 :uid that surround body cells
- !ldosterone 6 hormone that increase sodium absorption from distal tubule and collecting ducts - p is maintains by idney when transporting carbon dioxide from peritubular capillaries and oins with water to mae $%1 to bu/er acidity of carbonic acid
/idneys ;ysfunction - ;iabetes -ellitus 6 results in high concentrations of blood sugar from improper pancreatic islet cells that normally produce insulin! This draws water and large amounts of urine then expels sugars and water! Therefore people must replace sugar - ;iabetes 'nsipidus 6 destruction of A= production that normally regulates water absorption0 causing a huge 9uantity of urine! 8ynthetic A= can regulate water reabsorption! - 3ephritis 6 in:ammation of nephrons causes damage to glomerulus and large proteins can now pass into nephrons0 drawing water for urine output! This can cause irreversible idney damage! - /idney Stones 6 precipitate forming from minerals carried from blood! @oth alaline and acid stones cause tissue damage as they travel through excretory system! 8ome stones brea up through ultra-sound and then pass through urinary tract - ;ialysis Treatment 6 restores balance by passing blood through semi-permeable membrane under speci7c pressures! Onfortunately0 dialysis canFt mimic actual transplant - 6emodialysis 6 blood cycles from vein is passed through solute solutions where gradients of
salt and sugars di/uses waste into the clean solution! The solution is replaced and more wastes can be drawn out of blood0 using chemical gradients! ormone can also be added that the body needs - Peritoneal ;ialysis 6 &. of dialysis :uid is pumped into peritoneal cavity which selectively 7lters - idney cells from pigs can be used in dialysis that can produce hormones0 p - /idney Transplants 6 with anti-reection drugs0 it gives a patient with idney failure a much better change of survival! ?t is attached to existing blood vessels when possible and the new idney can compensate to failed idneys
?iosphere - dynamic e:uilibrium 6 describes any change that does not a/ect the entire system - biosphere 6 Earth life - biotic 6 biological or living thing - abiotic 6 non-living thing - population 6 amount of same species in an area - community 6 population of all species in an area - ecosystem 6 community and environment - habitat 6 type of environment suitable for population - biodi&ersity 6 amount of species in an ecosystem - food chain 6 chain that lins organisms that eat each other0 starting from food source - producer 6 autotroph0 organism that maes it own food - autotroph 6 organism that uses sun light to mae energy - consumer 6 heterotroph0 eats other consumersGproducers to survive - heterotroph 6 incapable of maing it food and must eat others for energy -
endangered species 6 close to extinction in all parts of the country e#tirpated species 6 no longer exists in part of country threatened species 6 most liely to become endangered special concern species 6 at ris of extinction due to low population indicator species 6 sensitive to small environmental changes
- herbi&ore 6 eats plant only - carni&ore 6 eats meat only - omni&ore 6 eats all in its path - detritus 6 waste from organisms0 including dead remains - decomposer 6 organism that eats detritus ( bugs)(roaches) - Causes of Endangerment0E#tirpation0E#tinction - loss of habitat 6 destruction of living placeGfeedingGbreeding areas - pollution 6 acid rain destroys habitat also - climate change 6 global warming and ecosystem changes - O" 6 causes sunburn and sin cancerH destroys o
- food 8eb 6 presents feeding relationships of organisms in an ecosystem (plant moose0 deer0 mouse0 el wolf - photosysnthesis 6 organism that uses solar energy - cellular respiration 6 breaing of glucose into carbon dioxide and water
- chemosynthesis 6 non-photosynthetic organisms convert inorganic chemicals into organic compounds - chemoautotroph 6organism that mae organic compounds without solar energy - La8s of Thermodynamics 6 energy canFt be created or destroyed but can be transformed - nothing is 33Q e;cient - ecological pyramids 6 presents energy :ow in food chains
- biomass 6 an ecosystem
total dry mass of all living organisms in
- monoculture 6 cultivation of single species
6ydrological cycle - Kater importance - absorbs and releases thermal energy and moderates temperature - metabolic reaction medium - excellent solvent - maes over #3Q cell mass - polar molecule 6 positive and negative ends - hydrogen bond 6 type of bond between water molecules - hydrological cycle 6 movement of water through atmosphere - evaporation condensation precipitationGtranspiration river - transpiration 6 water loss through plant leaves - percolation 6 movement of li9uid through porous material - leaching 6 removal of soluble minerals through percolation - 8ater table 6 region below ground where water saturates - !cid deposition and
- Carbon cycle - carbon cycle 6 cycle of matter where carbons move from inorganic to organic form - combustion 6 chemical reaction that occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen - peat 6 slow decomposing plant produced in low-oxygen environments - 3itrogen cycle - nitrogen 6 builds protein - nitrogen "#ation 6 bacteria provides nitrogen for plants which then receive energy from it - decomposers than breadown detritus into nitrates0 ammonia
- denitri"cation 6occurs in anoxic condition where nitratesGnitrites are converted into & - ano#ic 6 ills bacterial denitri7ers nitrates nitrogen legumesD clover0 alfalfa0 peas - fertili5ers 6 provides nitrates to soil to increase crop yield - phosphorous 6 synthesis of cells0 =A0 bones - nutrients 6 vital to life and cycle at di/ering rates0 temperature0 humidity0 oxygen
-
greenhouse eect 6 gases trap the heat from the sun and warms earthFs surface global 8arming 6 carbon dioxide increase temperature albedo 6 re:ection of light stromatolite 6 limestone containing fossili
- Phosphorus cycle - cycling of phosphorus between biotic and abiotic components - 3utrient cycle - chemical essential to organisms
Unit 4: Ecology Ecosystems - ecology 6 study of interactions of organisms and environment - ecotone 6 transition area between ecosystems (pond0 land) - ecological niche 6 organisms role in ecosystem - littoral 5one 6 area where no more plants grow - limnetic 5one 6 area where photosynthesis occurs - profundal 5one 6 region below limnetic - 2ligatrophic - deep and cold - low nutrient supply - clear water - Eutrophic - shallow and warm - excellent nutrient supply - mury water - Eutrophication 6 the evolution of an oligatrophic lae into a eutrophic lae lae layersD - epilimnion 6 upper level - thermocline 6
biotic potentail 6 max number of o/spring per species with unlimited resources carrying capacity 6 max number of species that can be supported by environment la8 of minimum 6 nutrient in the least supply is the one that limits growth la8 of tolerance 6 how long an organism can survive inn a range of an abiotic factor density -independant factor 6 a/ects population regardless of population density density -dependant factors - a/ects population due to population density
- coliform bacteria 6 bacteria that is in intestines that indicate presence of fecal contamination in water - biological o#ygen demand (?2;) 6 amount of dissolved oxygen decomposers need to eat detritus
E&olution - ta#onomy 6 classi7cation according to relationships among organisms - binomial nomenclature 6 method of naming organisms by tow names0 genus and species - genus 6 includes several species - species 6 groups of organisms that loo alie and can interbreed naturally - ta#a 6 categories used to classify organisms - Protista 6 ingdom of unicellular organisms - -onera 6 5-ingdom system0 organisms that lac true nucleus - !rchaebacteria 6 #-ingdom system0 organisms that donFt have a peptidoglycan cell wall - Eubacteria 6 #-ingdom system0 organisms that have a peptidoglycan cell wall - phylogeny 6 history of evolution of species - paleontology 6 study of fossils - 8ir $harles .yell - .ord elvin - radiometric 6 techni9ue used to 7nd age of a rocGfossil - biogeography 6 study of geographic distribution of Earth life - endemic 6 species found in one location - 6omologous features 6 features with similar structures but di/erent functions - !nalogous features 6 features that are similar in appearance and function0 but donFt have same evolution origin - 9estigal features 6 rudimentary structures with no function - ;3! 6 molecules made of genes - gene 6 segment of =A - !rti"cial selection 6 humans selecting organisms with desired trait - natural selection 6 individuals with traits that are better suited to environment have a greater change of surviving and reproducing - LamarckDs theory - force and led to change to environment - spontaneous generation - Theory - observation 6 many variation inherited - observation & 6 more o/spring then before - observation 1 6 population remains stable - interference 6 constant struggle - interference & 6 more favourable variations - interference 1 6 more common o/spring - mutation 6 =A change in se9uence - neutral mutation 6 no e/ect to organism - "tness 6 organisms reproduction success - harmful mutation 6 reduces 7tness - bene"cial mutation - enhances 7tness
