B00105047 SCOTT BRAZIL BECOMING POSTHUMAN ANDY MIAH / TINA DOBRODT
“In this essay I will compare, contrast and critically analyse the social, ethical and philosophical ramifications of Posthumanism, with relation to one of the course themes, in particular Art. In doing so I will relate to key theorists while theorising, to a certain extent, my own thoughts and opinions.” “I certify that all material in this essay/assignment which is not my own is duly acknowledged. I have read and understand the section in the programme handbook dealing with plagiarism. “
At some point in life, most of us have had the dream to look perfect, run as fast as possible, be gifted eternal life or have a body and mind that transcends human limitations. These dreams have always been fantasy because of these human limitations. However with emerging technologies come questions about the appropriateness of actually pursuing and employing them to greatly extend or perhaps experience physical immortality and re-engineer the human body to go beyond functional capacity. In this essay, the term Posthuman will be further theorised, while also considering the term Transhuman. The essay will aim to compare, contrast and critically analyse Posthumanism with relation to Posthuman art. In doing so the essay will also aim to highlight the philosophical, political and social implications of Posthuman art while referring to key theorists throughout. The essay will also examine methods of performing art using the human body, and the works of Posthuman artists Stelarc and ORLAN will be analysed. I shall also strive to include my own thoughts and opinions on the subject. In a follow up to the work of both Stelarc and ORLAN there will be a brief study into Cosmetic surgery and how this is a method of technology being used to further develop the body into a Posthuman state. Transhumanism and Posthumanism Posthumanism are philosophies that are strongly in i n favor of using such technologies where human’s become biologically and technologically superior beings. The term Posthumanism has been described as “an attitude on how to deal with the limitations of the human form. It is a vision of how to move beyond those limits by the radical use of technology and other means” (Ust, 2001). Bostrom also provides an explanation of Posthumanism as an individual “whose basic capacities so radically exceed those of present humans as to be no longer unambiguously human by our current standards” (Bostrom, 2003). If I were to generalise the term Posthuman, it could be said that Posthumanism is the advancement of the human body using means such as technology. By changing or individualising the body it enables humans to make use of their bodies in innovative ways, whether it be for sport, art or just to be different. Becoming Posthuman is theorised by Max More who defines posthumanism as; "The transition of human to posthuman can be defined physically or memetically. Physically, we will have become posthuman only when we have made such fundamental and sweeping modifications to our inherited genetics, physiology, neurophysiology and neurochemistry, neurochemistry, that we can no longer be usefully classified as Homo Sapiens. Sapiens. Memetically, we might expect posthumans to have a different motivational structure from humans, or at least the ability to ability to make modifications if they choose. For example: transforming or controlling sexual orientation, intensity, and ti ming, or complete control over emotional responses through manipulation of neurochemistry.” (More, 1994) A Posthuman would no longer be a human being, having been so significantly altered as to no longer represent the human species. Underlying this worldview is a core belief that the human species in its current form does not
represent the end of our development, but rather it’s beginning (Bostrom, 2003). Transhumanist’s on the other hand are individuals who have not yet entered the Posthuman state yet, but strive to. An individual’s position is dependant on their view on current technological and biological advancements in relation to those yet to transpire. Transhumanism has been defined as “a way of thinking about the future that is based on the premise that the human species in its current form does not represent the end of our development but rather a comparatively early phase” (Bostrom, 2003).
As a philosophy, Art can be controversial to define. Is it a commodity which is present in the art market? (Pepperell, 1997:103) or is it “t he construction of a true historical narrative according to which the artifact was created by an artist in an artistic context” (Carroll, 2000:6). Whether or not art can be defined, the sheer variety of proposed definitions should give us pause. When relating to the Posthuman state in an artistic ar tistic context Robert Pepperell suggests that the humanists cite art; “as the expressions, thoughts and things, which distinguish us (humans) from machines. So the Posthuman state cannot fully begin until we have met this challenge from the humanists.” (Pepperell, 1997:105) Bostrom states that posthuman art, appears to be “…art that is concerned with the human aspiration to overcome current limits” (Bostrom, 2003). 2003). These limits that have delayed eternal life have also delayed the perfect body. But with these emerging technologies, such as cosmetic surgery, has the body or the individual begun to overcome these limits? By altering the body for arts sake whether it be through piercing or tattooing, i t could be said that as individuals we are overcoming the limits li mits of humanity. Tattooing and piercing can be seen as a statement of individualism which could relate to a chosen culture, however these modifications are mainly for aesthetic differentiation, many works of Posthuman Art can be regarded as more extreme in the pursuit of Posthumanity. One artist whose work could be regarded as Posthuman is the work of ORLAN. ORLAN is a performance artist who uses her own body and the procedures of plastic surgery to make "Carnal Art". She has transformed her face, but her aim is not to attain a commonly held standard of beauty. ORLAN is the only artist working so radically with her own body, asking questions about the status of the body in society (Cook 2003). ORLAN uses plastic surgery and the operating environment as her studio where a performance is created. Her reasoning behind the surgery does not conform to the commonly held stereotypes of plastic surgery as methods of beautification and selfindulgence. ORLAN practices what she defines as “Carnal “ Carnal Art”: “ Carnal Carnal Art is not against cosmetic surgery but, rather against the conventions carried by it and their subsequent inscription, within female flesh in particular, but also male. Carnal Art is feministic, that is necessary. It is interested not only in cosmetic surgery, but also advanced techniques in medicine and biology that question the status of the body and the ethical questions posed by them” (Cook, 2003).
“I try to use surgery not to better myself or become a younger version of myself, I try to work on the concept of image and surgery the other way around and I was the first artist to do this.” (Orlan 2009) The ‘performances’ are procedures where designers provide costumes for the surgeons, poetry is read by ORLAN and music is played. Throughout the whole procedure ORLAN is under anesthetic and is aware of what is going on around her. “This changes the artistic norm of the surgeon being the sole artist during a cosmetic procedure” (Cook, 2003; Nayar, 2004). To further understand ORLAN’s work and assess the social, ethical and philosophical ramifications of her work, it is key to investigate further the role of cosmetic surgery as method of becoming Posthuman. One could say ORLAN is no different from any other cosmetic surgery patient, although her overarching aim isn’t beautification; she is a consumer using this technology for individualism. In Kathy Davies’ study, she states that: “cosmetic surgery introduces a new way of conceptualising our bodies and our identities and that this new concept is based in a consumer medicine/culture” (Davis, 1995:17). If we consider this consumer culture further and relate it to the female form and fashion, Tom Ford, the man behind the reincarnation of the Gucci brand, mentions that as a result of cosmetic surgery culture we are: “becoming Posthuman, as we are beginning to manipulate our bodies, because we can, into a shape, we are becoming our own art, but what happens for me is that it de-sexualises everything, you’re beautiful, your shiny but your not human” (Ford, 2010). He also makes reference to female breasts from a fashion perspective and how they differ from what is seen in modern culture and the 1950s. “In the 1950s breasts were pointed and sharp, whereas nowadays they have no resemblance of what normal breasts should look like, and young girls think oh I need to get my breasts done” (Ford 2010). I believe that what Davis and Ford are suggesting here is that Posthumanism, in the context of cosmetic surgery, is inevitably a consumer choice to conform with a particular culture or differentiate themselves from the norm. It is almost suggesting that the body, in terms of a consumer culture, is becoming a commodity. It is clear that Ford believes people engaging in cosmetic surgery for beutification are striving to fulfil societal norms and expectations, that have become so common within modern society. Soren Askegaard’s study of cosmetic surgery looks at cosmetic surgery in terms of consumer culture. He states that “the individual is increasingly seen as responsible, not just for behaviour, but also for the appearance and workings of his or her body” (Askegaard, 2002:798). Through a study which was conducted by Askegaard, he discovered that “cosmetic surgery is understood to be part of the individuals reflective construction of self-identity, and leads to a focus on issues such as selfdetermination, self-esteem, and the relationship between body and identity”
(Askegaard, 2002: 800). Another interesting element of Askegaard’s study is that a number of respondents stated their reasons for having surgery was entirely for them. An element of Askegaard’s study that relates to Tom Ford comments regarding the overuse of cosmetic surgery, which in turn “desexualises” the individual, is in the acknowledgment of the fact that there is a; “fine line between aesthetically ‘correcting’ and grotesques over-use of surgeries” (Askegaard, 2002:803).
This then suggests that by manipulating the body for whatever means valued by the consumer, the body has become a method of constructing an identity unique to them. It is their piece of art, which they believe enables them to control their own evolution or development through procedures like plastic surgery. There may be many reasons behind these modifications, but from an artistic standpoint must there always be a functional reason? "The function of Art is to disturb. Science reassures.” (Braque 1999: 147) From a consumer choice perspective one could say the act of cosmetic surgery could be for beatification, beatifi cation, however being artistic through cosmetic surgery could seen to be creating art for arts sake. Although Ford and Askegaard suggest that the over indulging in cosmetic surgery as aesthetically strange, this viewpoint may not be shared by all as ORLAN may find her image beautiful, and as Francis Bacon suggests; “There is no excellent beauty that hath not some strangeness about its proportion.” (Bacon, 1561 – 1626)
Another Posthuman artist worth considering within the limits of this essay is Stelios Arcadiou. Stelarc is a performance artist who has visually probed and acoustically amplified his body for the sake of art. Between 1976 and 1988 he completed various performances including 25 body suspension performances with hooks into the skin. Some technologies he has used are medical instruments, prosthetics, robotics, Virtual Reality systems, the Internet and biotechnology to explore involuntary interfaces with the body. His third hand project involved a transparent attachment to his right arm which contained mechanics to operate the hand and the hand itself, which has Grasp/Pinch, Wrist Rotation, Release and Tactile Feedback functions. It replaces neither arm but serves as a bridge between the human and the cybernetic (Clark 2010). More recently Stelarc has had a third ear surgically constructed on his arm that will be Internet enabled, making it publicly accessible to people in other places. According to Nayar Stelarc’s work “seeks to redefine the physical limits of the human form. Combining prosthetics, computer technology and electronics” (Nayar, 2004:215) Stelarc’s work could be seen to share both the views of Disembodiment and Embodiment. While considering the body as an object (Disembodiment) it is hard to ignore the Cartesian philosophy which confers to the mind, a subjectivity that forms the essence of Man (Hawthorn, 2006). However Stelarc disagrees to a certain extent with this, Stelarc is not at all interested in the subjectivity. On the matter
of subjectivity, Stelarc states: “It is no longer meaningful to see the body as a site for the psyche or the social, but rather as a structure to be monitored and modified - the body not as a subject but as an object – not an object of desire but as an object for designing” (Stelarc 2001: 568). So at first Stelarc’s work may well seem to use the body as an object, but when looking at most of his work his body is generally at the centre of everything he does. His ping body piece captures both the body as a subject and as an object. The ping body project consisted of a series of muscle stimulating electrodes placed on various parts of his body that responded to remote users logging on to the his website and stimulating various body parts on the graphic representation of his body. body. Ping values were gathered from the users' collective activity and caused areas of Stelarc’s body to be stimulated. Users also watched the resulting effects upon Stelarc over a live webcast. Video and sound also played in the background behind Stelarc (Nankivell, 1996). So this piece of work consisted of body movement triggered by external sources over an Internet connection, so as a subject the body has now become a facility for collective interaction and expression. Comparing both Stelarc and ORLAN’s work, it is clear that both artists share the aim of using their art to challenge the limitations of man and highlights how technology can “improve” and “Individualise” the body. Ingi Helgason from Edinburgh Napier Napier University suggests, suggests, “Stelarc’s work aims to connect people through technology and shows the impact that it can have on our lives. His work seems frivolous but is i s does raise some serious issues surrounding the body and technology” (Helgason, 2009) Cook suggests that ORLAN’s work aims too raise the questions about the status of the body in society, through Plastic surgery (Cook, 2003). But what both artists have in common is that by using technology and media, they are highlighting through works such as the reincarnation of saint ORLAN and the third hand by Stelarc, how technology can be used to create Posthuman art. Ethically it has been more difficult for art to be ground breaking than it has been for it to put forward new innovative aesthetics. But the work of Stelarc of Stelarc and ORLAN show that it is not necessarily impossible as both their work is unique in this regard. Not only do they put forward different, but related ethical positions towards the individual, society, and the body, but they also are directly involved in actually defining new ethical arrangements around cyborgisation in general. As Stelarc says, "As a body, one no longer looks at art, does not perform as art, but contains art." (Stelarc (Stelarc,, 1997b: 250) These ethics however are dependent on several key political issues which relate directly toward cyborgisation: whose body is it? i t? Who do the cyborgologists work for? What is the relationship between the human and the post-human? According to Jane Goodall’s article "Whose Body? Ethics and Experiment in Performance Art." ORLAN’S work are both; "aesthetic experiments" and experiments in ethics as well. (Goodall, ( Goodall, 2000) Both these artists use their own bodies for artistic experimentation, but interestingly Stelarc refers to "the" body, not "his" body, in his work. His
choice of words is to demonstrate his commitment is to the art, not the individual's body, so he proclaims "Evolution by the Individual, for the Individual" (Stelarc (Stelarc 1997b: 242). He sees the body as limited, not necessarily obsolete, so for him to become who he wants to be requires transcending, his body. On the other hand it could be said that for ORLAN to become who she wants to be, she claims her right to her body through altering her body for herself. Both these positions are essentially political standpoints. The body can be political and in art it is definitely the case. In the masculinist western traditions dominated by Platonism in various forms, the body was only political as a metaphor but not in and of itself. But today the illusion that the human body is not fundamental has been dispelled, by feminism politically and analytically, and by cyborgism practically. From a philosophical standpoint Stelarc’s work makes us aware and dares us to think about Posthumanity in a technological way. His third hand project in particular would suggest that visually the artifact he has created conforms more to Cyborg culture than an extension of being. However one could argue that that his work proves that technology makes individuals more physically capable , and that technology and prosthesis could be a method of evolving the human body in such a way that was never thought possible. In relation to ORLAN’s work, she uses cosmetic surgery in such ways that she is almost challenging the meaning of beauty. She is using her body as a canvas and visual representation of what she believes is perfect, and as a result differentiates and individualises herself. Socially, both artists seek to challenge societies’ views of prosthetics, plastic surgery, the cyborg and the norms of feminine beauty. These artists attempt to show the possibilities of a body without any limitations and how the human body can be advanced through technological and surgical methods. ORLAN and Stelarc both critique the body for being limited, however they unquestionably defend their right to their own body. It is their own, and they can and will modify it for whatever means they desire. Jane Goodall asks in her article "Do we have unlimited rights over our own bodies?" and answers with the medical and scientific standpoint that our bodies are "socialised" and therefore "are subject to regimes of care and discipline."(Godall 2000) In conclusion ORLAN’s work is unique as medically there is no benefit, although the point of her work is not necessarily for medical means. She is challenging regular conventions for experimentation, which in turn has great benefits both artistically and socially. Modern cyborgian experimentation and innovation is more often than not associated with the military and new technologies, so the fact that Stelarc and ORLAN are pushing the boundaries within the cyborgian context purely for artistic purposes, only adds to the growing possibilities. Both ORLAN and Stelarc are challenging human limitations and medical technology, and they have demonstrated clearly and visually, that we can choose to modify our bodies for our own means, not just for science. Whether it be through Carnal art, performance art, posthuman art, or what I would define as cyborg art, both these artists are pushing the boundaries and limitations set by external sources outwith their control. Will posthuman art benefit the individual and science, enabling us to choose our
own future? or could it strip humanity of its uniqueness ? These questions could be considered in future study of the subject area, but one thing that is clear, is that both ORLAN and Stelarc believe in a future of individual choices. "Remember the Future." (ORLAN 2000, p. 6) These artists believe that we will be what we want, no matter what the limitations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Askegaard, Soren, (2002), The Body Consumed: Reflectivity and Cosmetic Surgery, Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 19, Wiley Periodical, Copenhagen Business School. Bacon, Francis, (1561 – 1626) Of Beauty, English author, courtier, & philosopher Bell, David, (2001), An Introduction to Cybercultures, London, Routledge Bostrom, Nick, (2003), 1.2 What is a Posthuman?, 1.1 What is a Transhuman? [Online] Accessed: 7th April 2010 Available: http://www.transhumanism.org/resources/faq.html#whatistranshumanism Braque, George (1999) Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, Quotations, Oxford, London Carroll, Noel, (2000), (ed.) Theories of Art Today , Madison, University of Wisconsin Press Clark, J , 2010, “An awkward toy? Stelarc’s third hand” [Online] hand” [Online] Accessed 29th April 2010 Available at; http://juliejoyclarke.blogspot.com/2010/01/awkwardtoy-stelarcs-third-hand.html Cook, Elizabeth (2003) Who is Orlan? [Online] Accessed 20th April 2010 Available: http://www.english.ucsb.edu/faculty/ecook/courses/eng114em/whoisorlan.htm
Cook, Elizabeth (2003) The performance Surgeries [Online] Accessed 20 th April 2010 Available: http://www.english.ucsb.edu/faculty/ecook/courses/eng114em/surgeries.htm
Davis, Kathy, (1995), Reshaping the Female Body – The Dilemma of Cosmetic Surgery, London, Routledge
Ford, Tom, (2010), were becoming POSTHUMAN [Online] Accessed: 29th April 2010 Available: http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=vUEMUOyTHO4&feature=player_embedded
Gray Hables Chris (2001), Cyborg citizen: politics in the posthuman age, Routledge, London
Goodall, Jane (2000) "Whose Body? Ethics and Experiment in Performance Art" [Online] Art" [Online] Accessed 8th May 2010 Available at; http://www.cofa.unsw.edu.au/research/stanford/artmed/papers/goodall.html Hawthorne, J (2006) Cartesian Dualism [Online] Accessed 3rd May 2010 Available at; http://www.philosophy.ox.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/1156/Cartesian.p df Helgason, I (2009) Performance artist with ear growing on arm heads for Scotland [Online] Accessed 8th May 2010 Available at; http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/2009/04/14/performanceartist-with-ear-growing-on-arm-set-for-scotland-86908-21277288/
More, Max (1994) On Becoming Posthuman [Online] Accessed 28th April 2010 Available at; http://www.maxmore.com/becoming.htm Nankivell, A (1996) Ping Body[ Online] Online] Accessed 4th May 2010 Available at; http://stage.itp.nyu.edu/history/timeline/pingbody.html Nayar, Pramond K., (2004), Virtual Worlds – Culture and Politics in the Age of Cybertechnology, London, Sage Publications Ltd
ORLAN (2009) Orlan's art of sex and surgery [Online] Accessed 8th May 2010 Available at; http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2009/jul/01/orlanperformance-artist-carnal-art Orlan (2000) (2000) "I do not want to look like...' Orlan on becoming-Orlan" , trans. by Heidi Reitmeier, [Online] Accessed 8th May 2010 Available at; http://www.cicv.fr/creation_artistique/online/orlan/women/women.html Pepperell, R.C (1997), The Post-Human Condition, Intellect Books, Exeter. Stelarc (2001) ‘From psycho-body to cyber-systems: Images as post-human entities’, in: Bell, D. and Kennedy, B. M. (2001) The Cybercultures Reader , reprint from 2000, London and New York: Routledge Stelarc (1997a) "Hollow Body/Host Space/Stomach Sculpture" Cultural Sculpture" Cultural
Values, vol. 1, no. 2, London, Routledge Stelarc (1997b) "From Psycho to Cyber Strategies: Prosthetics, Robotics and Remote Existence" Cultural Existence" Cultural Values, October, vol. 1, no. 2, London, Routledge Ust, Daniel, (2001), What What is Posthumanism?[Online] Posthumanism?[Online] Accessed: 10th April 2010 Available: http://uweb.superlink.net/~neptune http://uweb.superlink.net/~neptune/Posthuman.html /Posthuman.html Walton, Kendall, (2007), “ Aesthetics—What?, Aesthetics—What?, Why?, and Wherefore?” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baillie Harold, Casey Timothy (2005) Is human nature obsolete?: genetics, bioengineering, and the future of the human condition, condition, MIT Press, Cambridge What Baillie and Casey are questioning in this book is are genetics and bioengineering leading us into a posthuman future ? They are more focused on the ontological importance rather than specific medical and scientific practices. This text provides a humanistic insight into a subject which is often considered in a technological and scientific context. Balkema Annette W, Slager Henk, (2001) Exploding aesthetics, aesthetics, N.W.O, Amsterdam In this book a number of paradigmatic aesthetic areas as part of transformed philosophy and visual culture. Examples from various theorists, artists and curators are used throughout the text and their work is used to divulge the dynamic approaches to the image and an aesthetisized world. Cooney, Brian (2004) Posthumanity: thinking philosophically about the future, Rowan and Littlefield, Maryland Cooney examines in this book the era which is upon us, which is that of how new technological advancements will inevitably produce a new type of reality. He believes that this new technology will alter the human being to such an extent that the next era could be a posthuman one. Halberstam Judith , Livingston Livingston Ira (1995) Posthuman Posthuman bodies, Indiana University Press, Indiana Posthuman bodies gives a fascinating insight into emerging technologies that are leading the body and society into the posthuman state. In doing so the text investigates both the role of the body and technoscience and how they are altering both our bodies and others.
Haney William (2005) Cyberculture, cyborgs and science fiction: consciousness and the posthuman, Rodopi, Amsterdam
In this text Haney explores and considers the role of posthuman biotechnology and how it is threatening the first-person experience. Haney believes that the posthuman condition undermines human nature and this book gives strong direction that the human race is becoming a prisoner of biotechnological power. He believes that the decision to persue a posthuman lifestyle is ultimately down to what the individual believes in.
Hayles, Katherine, (1999) How we became posthuman, posthuman, The University of Chicago Press, London What Hayles investigates is the fate of embodiement in the modern information age. Her three main points raised throughout her book is; how information has lost it’s body, the construction of the cyborg and the role of liberal humanistic subject in cybernetic culture. The book is an account of how we have arrived in this modern virtual age and what the future has to hold. Turner, Leigh, (2004), Biotechnology, Bioethics and Anti-ageing Interactions, Trends in Biotechnology, Vol 22, No5, May 2004 What appears to be Turner’s main point is the ethics in biotechnology, bioethics and anti-ageing interactions. Although Turner does not state that these developments that may help anti-ageing are impossible, Turner states that developments within these fields are unpredictable, and therefore could occur at any time. Turner argues for a more temperate commentary of antiageing processes, a commentary that shows consideration for the benefits and problems of such practices.
Toffoletti Kim, (2007) Cyborgs and Barbie dolls: feminism, popular culture and the … J.B Taurus and Co, London Toffoletti explores through various images and examples the idea of posthuman in the context of popular culture. The book provides an accessible insight into a very complex subject whilst drawing on various theorists and thinkers.
Wick, Georg, (2002), “Anti-ageing” Medicine: Does It Exist? – A Critical Discussion of ‘Anti-Ageing Health Products, Experimental Gerontology, 37 (2002), Pages 1137-1140 Wick indicates that the life expectancy in 1990 was 80 years – a jump from 1900s 47 years old. Furthermore, the longest an individual has lived to is Mme Jeanne Calmet, who reached 122 years. Wick’s study is a brief look into the anti-ageing medicines available. Throughout his study, Wick shows these medicines to be unethical as they are bracketed under such an illusive term.
