ABSTRACT
The purpose of this project to design a system that controls the intensity of of an LED light source by using a microcontroller which controls the light intensity and ON/OFF based on the ambient light present in the surrounding. The motiation for this project is the rampant waste of of energy in today!s world on account of lighting" be it indoor or outdoor in spite of the fact that we are causing a lot of pollution and also depleting the natural non#renewable energy sources to get that power. Our goal is to design a system that at first utilises the least of electrical energy among the light emitting sources and then to gie a feedbac$ control to the light so that it will turn ON only when re%uired automatically. This will reduce human effort as well as eliminate use of manpower to manually turn ON & OFF the lights in large light installations li$e streetlights thereby reducing the cost of operation of the lights as well. 'ost of the outdoor/indoor lights in (ndia are )(D *)igh (ntensity Discharge+ Lamps used for outdoor lighting li$e streetlights" floodlights etc. and ,FL *,ompact Fluorescent Lamp+ used for domestic lightings which gie out appro-imately lumens/watt and 0 lumens/watt respectiely. (n our project we are using ery efficient 1'D LEDs which gie out appro-imately 2 lumens/watt" thereby giing an increased energy efficiency of 34. The LEDs hae a self#life of more than 3" hours hours in rated condition which is almost fie times the self#life of most of other sources of lights currently used thus giing an economic edge oer than the other conentional sources of light. (n addition to that" a microcontroller is also used that ta$es reading from a LD5*Light Dependent 5esister+ sensor which senses the ambient lighting of the surrounding and accordingly controls both the ON/OFF function as well as the intensity control of the LED light attached to it. The microcontroller also does the wor$ of dimming the Light automatically at a predefined time thereby giing an energy conseration of around 634 # 734 depending upon the amount of time the light remains in the dimmed condition and the alue of dimming as specified by the user.
ABBREVIATIONS :
Abbreviations
Full Form
)(D LED ,FL LD5 1'D 'O1 1'81 Op9mp 'O1FET 5T, 9T 8 (5 (5 :, :8 (6, ;1< 9D, D9, 8='
)igh (ntensity Discharge Light Emitting Diode ,ompact Fluorescent Light Light Dependent 5esistor 1urface 'ounted Deice 'osfet 1witch 'ode 8ower 1upply Operational 9mplifier 'etal OO-ide 1e 1emiconductor Field Effect Transistor 5eal Time ,loc$ 9tmel 8assie (nfra#5ed (nfra#5ed 'icro ,ontroller 'icro 8rocessor 1erial 8ort ;niersal 1erial
LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE
Pae
2.2. 2.2. E#wast E#wastee generat generation ion and 5ecycling 5ecycling 6#6 6#626. 26.... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ........ ....... ...
0
2.6. Total Total ,ost ,ost of Light Light oer 2 years....... years............ .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........... ............... ...........
3
2.7. ,O 6 emissio emissions ns for differ different ent light sources sources... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ........ ....
3
ABBREVIATIONS :
Abbreviations
Full Form
)(D LED ,FL LD5 1'D 'O1 1'81 Op9mp 'O1FET 5T, 9T 8 (5 (5 :, :8 (6, ;1< 9D, D9, 8='
)igh (ntensity Discharge Light Emitting Diode ,ompact Fluorescent Light Light Dependent 5esistor 1urface 'ounted Deice 'osfet 1witch 'ode 8ower 1upply Operational 9mplifier 'etal OO-ide 1e 1emiconductor Field Effect Transistor 5eal Time ,loc$ 9tmel 8assie (nfra#5ed (nfra#5ed 'icro ,ontroller 'icro 8rocessor 1erial 8ort ;niersal 1erial
LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE
Pae
2.2. 2.2. E#wast E#wastee generat generation ion and 5ecycling 5ecycling 6#6 6#626. 26.... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ........ ....... ...
0
2.6. Total Total ,ost ,ost of Light Light oer 2 years....... years............ .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........... ............... ...........
3
2.7. ,O 6 emissio emissions ns for differ different ent light sources sources... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ........ ....
3
6.2. bloc$ diagram... diagram........ .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ............. ............... .......
>
6.6. LD5.................................... LD5........................................................... .............................................. ...................................................... ...............................
22
6.7. 1ymbol of LD5...... LD5........... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ............... ................... .........
22
6.0. 8ractical 8ractical LD5....... LD5............ .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .............. ............ ...
22
6.3. 26? Dc adapter.... adapter......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... ............ ........
27
6.. (, @A3 oltage oltage regulator... regulator........ .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ............ .......
27
6.@. 5esistor.... 5esistor......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .............. ...........
20
6.A. 1ymbol 1ymbol of resistor........ resistor............. .......... ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ............ ................. .................... ............ ..
20
6.>. Electrolytic Electrolytic ,apacitor... ,apacitor....... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... ........... .......... ...
23
6.2. ,eramic ,apacitor.. ,apacitor....... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ............ ............ .....
23
6.22. 6.22. D(ODE..... D(ODE.......... .......... .......... .......... ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........... ........ ..
2
6.26. LED with symbol........ symbol............. .......... ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .............. ................... .............. ....
2@
6.27. 1ingle 1ingle female pin header....... header............ .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .............. ................. ........
2A
6.20. Double Double male pin header..... header.......... .......... .......... .......... ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........... ........
2A
6.23. 9T'EB97 9T'EB976A 6A 'icrocontrol 'icrocontroller... ler........ .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........... ................ ............
2A
6.2. 8in 8in diagram of 9T 9T'EB976A 'EB976A microcontro microcontroller... ller........ ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... ........... .............. ........
6
7.2. ,ircuit ,ircuit diagram diagram of automatic automatic light system... system........ .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ............. ................. ............. ....
62
7.6. ,ircuit ,ircuit diagram diagram of power power input...... input........... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ............... ................... ...........
66
7.7. Operation Operation in LD5...... LD5........... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ............ ............ .....
67
7.0. 34 duty cycle.......... cycle............... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... .............. ................. .......
60
7.3. Duty cycle...... cycle........... .......... .......... .......... ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........... ................ .................... ................. .......
63
7.. 8=' 5esolution. 5esolution...... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ............. .................. ..........
6
7.@. Flow chart...... chart........... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ............. ........
6@
0.2. 8ropose 8roposed d 'odel 'odel of automatic automatic light system...... system........... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ............... ................. .......
7
LIST OF TABLES TABLES TABLE 2. 895T1 95T1 L(1T..... L(1T.......... .......... .......... ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ............ .........
Pae 70
6. ,ost of componen components... ts........ .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ............. .............. ......
73
CONTENTS C!a"ter # $ Intro%u&tion 2.2
(ntroductio (ntroduction... n........ .......... .......... ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... ......... ............. .......... ..
2.6
'otiation. 'otiation...... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ............. ........
2.7
Literature Literature 1urey..... 1urey.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .............. ................... ................... .........
2.0
Technica Technicall Objectie.. Objectie....... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... ............ .................. ................... .............. .....
2.3
2.
2.@
(mpact of 8roject wor$ 2.3.2
Blobal ,onte-t.........................................................................................
2.3.6
Economic ,onte-t....................................................................................
2.3.7
Enironmental ,onte-t............................................................................
2.3.0
1ocial ,onte-t..........................................................................................
,ontemporary (ssues in modern global ,onte-t 2..2
Description...............................................................................................
2..6
Distinction................................................................................................
2..7
Ealuation................................................................................................
OrganiCation of the Thesis..................................................................................
C!a"ter ' ( S)stem *esin 6.2
Embedded 1ystem................................................................................................
6.6
8roject bloc$ diagram..........................................................................................
6.7
Description of ,omponents................................................................................
6.0
LD5................................................................................................................... 6.0.2
5ecoery 5ate........................................................................................
6.3
8ower 1upply....................................................................................................
6.
?oltage 5egulator..............................................................................................
6.@
5esistor.............................................................................................................
6.A
,apacitor...........................................................................................................
6.>
Diode.................................................................................................................
6.2
LED...................................................................................................................
6.22
,onnector.......................................................................................................... 6.22.2
6.26
8in )eader ,onnector..........................................................................
9T'EB976A.................................................................................................... 6.26.2
8in ,onfiguration.................................................................................
6.26.6
8in Description.....................................................................................
C!a"ter ' + S)stem ,o%ellin
7.2
,ircuit Diagram.................................................................................................
7.6
8art 2 *8ower input circuit+................................................................................
7.7
8art 6 *Operation in LD5 & 'icrocontroller+...................................................
7.0
8art 7 *,ontrolling LED intensity with 8='+..................................................
7.0.2
(ntroduction..........................................................................................
7.0.6
Duty ,ycle...........................................................................................
7.0.7
8=' 5esolution..................................................................................
7.3
Flow ,hart.........................................................................................................
7.
9uto Tune Feature..............................................................................................
C!a"ter ' Anal)sis . Evaluation 0.2
9dantages.........................................................................................................
0.6
8recautions.........................................................................................................
0.7
9rea of 9pplication............................................................................................
0.0
1ummary............................................................................................................
0.3
5esults 9nd Discussions....................................................................................
C!a"ter ' / Con&lusion . Future 0or1 3.2
,onclusion.........................................................................................................
3.6
Future =or$.......................................................................................................
C!a"ter ' 2 5eference...........................................................................................................
C!a"ter ' 3 @.2
8arts List............................................................................................................
@.6
,ost of ,omponents...........................................................................................
A""en%i&es
Appendix A ..............................................................................Data 1heet of 26mm LD5 Appendix B..........Data 1heet of 1ingle#8hase Blass 8assiated 1ilicon
1
C!a"ter #$
INTRO*UCTION
$4$
Intro%u&tion
'ost of the natural energy resources that we depend upon today li$e coal" natural gas" petroleum etc. are predicted to be depleted completely by 6@3. )ence there is an alarming situation ahead of us and a daunting tas$ to consere these natural resources as much as possible. This can be done in two ways" either by finding alternatie sources to supply the power or by reducing energy consumption of present sources. This project hereby supports the second statement. 9utomatic Light ,ontrol 1ystem is a simple and powerful concept" which uses transistor as a switch to switch ON and OFF the street light automatically.
2
street light gets OFF. The e-tent of dar$ness at which the street light to be switched on can also be tailored using the potentiometer proided in the circuit.
$4(
,otivation The motiation of this project came from the obseration of the rampant energy wastage
due to gross negligence of human. The lights comprise a major portion of energy re%uirements in today!s domestic and corporate enironment including the public amenities li$e streetlights etc. =hile some most of these lighting systems are controlled manually" some hae started using timers" especially streetlights to control the ON and OFF of the lights" but still lies a big problem in subtropical region li$e (ndia where there is a large difference in sunrise and sunset time from winter to summer" therefore using only a timer in such conditions is useless. Therefore we thought of using a Light 1ensor and a :, to do it all for us automatically.
$4+
Literature Surve) The design for a smart traffic control system is one the most recent trend nowadays.
?arious systems hae been proposed in the literature. 'any techni%ues li$e 1,9D9 & 8L," 5F(D" (5 sensor & microcontroller" smart phones *
. This system proides %uality of serice to Emergency ehicles and improes the accuracy of 9utomatic Traffic Light ?iolation Detection system as well as helps to trace out the stolen ehicles using 5F(D. (5 sensors and microcontroller has been used to design (ntelligent Traffic Light and Density ,ontrol in 2. This system somehow reduces the possibility of traffic jams caused by traffic lights. 1mart phones hae been used to design an Efficient 5eal#Time Traffic 1ign 5ecognition 1ystem for (ntelligent ?ehicles 22.
3
The traffic sign recognition system is one $ind of driing assistance system *D91+ which is used to automatically inform the drier the traffic sign information by a head up display *);D+" monitor" or spea$er deice. 1mart ,ameras hae been used to design ?ehicles trac$ing and classification using traffic Cones in a hybrid scheme for intersection traffic management in 26. Data ac%uisitions stations & inductie coils" 1ingposting systems" weather stations" Tele#?igilance system has been gien in =ireless 1ensor Networ$#based system for measuring and monitoring road traffic 27. Data ac%uisitions stations hae been used to get the data from stations and inductie coils has been used to detect the presence of ehicles on the roads. 1ingposting systems hae been designed to gie all information about what is happening along the road. They are made of digital panels and are connected to the central control with the help of optical fibre cables. =eather stations hae been designed to preent ris$y situations. (n this system sensors are e%uipped with barometers" hygrometers and thermometers. Tele ?igilance system has been used to monitor the roads with the help of cameras deployed along the road and the emergency serices are actiated in a few minutes. 1mart 1ignal has been used to design 1ystematic monitoring of 9rterial road traffic signals in 20. This system has been used to collect and archie eent#based traffic signal data simultaneously at multiple intersections. ;sing the eent#based traffic data" 1'95T#1(BN9L can generate time#dependent performance measures for both indiidual intersections and arterials including intersection %ueue length and arterial trael time.
$4-
Te&!ni&al Ob5e&tive
To reduce the energy consumption of the luminaries by using LED instead of other
conentional sources. To further minimise the energy consumption by ma$ing an automatic control system
that controls the ON and OFF and Dimming of the light. To eliminate power loss due to human error. To reduce human effort.
The main consideration in the present field technologies are 9utomation" 8ower consumption and cost effectieness. 9utomation is intended to reduce man power with the help of intelligent systems. 8ower saing is the main consideration foreer as the source of the power*Thermal" )ydro etc."+are getting diminished due to arious reasons.
4
The main aim of the project is 9utomatic street power saing system with LD5G this is to sae the power. =e want to sae power automatically instead of doing manual. 1o it!s easy to ma$e cost effectieness. This saed power can be used in some other cases. 1o in illages" towns etc we can design intelligent systems for the usage of street lights.
$4/
I,PACT OF PRO6ECT 7OR8
$4/4$ Global Conte9t ;sing LED lights instead of )(D" incandescent and ,FL lamps" the energy consumption for the same amount of light is almost reduced by 73#034. Therefore it reduces a great pressure on the already unstable natural energy sources such as ,oal" Natural gas etc. The LED lights coupled with the smart control system reduce the energy consumption further by 634#734. =hich saes a lot of natural and economic resources which can be used for more useful wor$ rather than being wasted. The LEDs can be recycled and they hae no harmful chemicals li$e 9rgon gas or heay metals such as Lead" 'ercury etc. which are ery harmful for human health. Thus by using LEDs we are reducing the E#=aste by a great e-tent.
Figure $4$ H E#waste generation and 5ecycling 6#626
$4/4( E&onomi& Conte9t
5
The world we are liing in today relies a great deal on the natural resources to fulfil its energy re%uirements. The e-traction of these natural resources from both renewable as well as non#renewable sources ta$es a lot of capital. Thus as the cost of energy is growing day by day" it is now of paramount re%uirement to sae the e-penditure on the energy by saing it as much and whereer possible. ;sing LEDs gies two adantages oer other conentional light sources I 2. (t gies more lumens per watt than other light sources" so fewer watts are consumed to gain the re%uired illumination" eentually saing money. 6. (t has a much longer self#life so the capital spent on LED luminaries will not re%uire further inestment.
Figure $4( H Total ,ost of Light oer 2 years
$4/4+ Environmental Conte9t The use of smart LED technology reduces the energy consumption by 3#4 than the conentional lights and thus reduces the ,O 6 production due to burning of natural gas/coal. (t eliminates the use of heay metals such as 'ercury" Lead etc. which are harmful to the enironment.
Figure $4+ H ,O6 emissions for different light sources.
$4/4- So&ietal Conte9t
6
The use of smart LEDs will consere enough power per year in a country li$e (ndia that would be sufficient to light all the houses in (ndia those who do not hae a light at their home. This type of systems are specially needed to run on off grid energy supplies li$e solar power and hydel power from flowing canals or riers as these type of light installations consume ery less energy and therefore are sustainable by the energy supplied by the renewable sources. This system will on a whole reduce the burden on the goernment to spend more on energy which will consere more of the ta-payer!s money which can be further utilised for the betterment of the society.
$42
Contem"orar) Issues in ,o%ern Global Conte9t
$424$ *es&ri"tion 1treet lights are the major re%uirement in today!s life of transportation for safety purposes and aoiding accidents during night. Despite that in today!s busy life no one bothers to switch it off/on when not re%uired. The project introduced here gies solution to this by eliminating manpower and reducing power consumption. This re%uires three basic components i.e. LD5" 1ensors and microcontroller. During daytime there is no re%uirement of street lights so the LD5 $eeps the street light off until the light leel is low or the fre%uency of light is low" the resistance of the LD5 is high. Thus the street lights do not glow. 9s soon as the light leel goes high or if light falling on the deice is of high enough fre%uency" photons absorbed by the semiconductor gie bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron *and its hole partner+ conduct electricity" thereby lowering resistance. Now the circuitry goes in on condition and starts wor$ing.
$424( *istin&tion This system demonstrates the usage of the LEDs *light emitting diodes+ as the light source and its ariable intensity control" according to the re%uirement. LEDs consume less power and its life time is ery high" as compared to the conentional )(D lamps. 'ost important and interesting feature is that LED intensity can be controlled according to the re%uirement during non#pea$ hours which is not feasible in )(D lamps. 'oreoer" a
7
light sensing deice LD5 *Light Dependent 5esistance+ is used to sense the light" whose resistance reduces drastically in the day light to disable the control power to the LEDs. 9 cluster of LEDs are used to form a street light. The 9rduino contains programmable instructions which controls the intensity of lights based on the 8=' *8ulse width modulation+ signals generated.
$424+ Evaluation Needs no manual operation for switching ON and OFF. =hen there is a need of light it automatically switches ON. =hen dar$ness rises to a certain leel then sensor circuit gets actiated and switches ON and when there is other source of light i.e. daytime" the street light gets OFF. The sensitieness of the street light is also adjusted.
$43
Oranisation o T!esis ,hapter#2 H ,ontains introduction" motiation" technical objectie and impact o the project wor$ in Blobal ,onte-t" Economic ,onte-t" Enironmental ,onte-t" and
1ocietal ,onte-t. ,hapter#6 H 1ystem Design # contain the theory related to the project ,hapter#7 H 1ystem 'odelling # 8resents main circuit/ system as an integration of few
sections/ subsystems. ,hapter#0 H 9nalysis & Ealuation # This chapter contains result of each
section/subsystem and the total system. ,hapter#3 H ,onclusion and future wor$. 5eferences
C!a"ter # (
8
S)stem *esin
(4$
E,BE**E* S;STE, Embedded systems are designed to do some specific tas$" rather than be a general#
purpose computer for multiple tas$s. 1ome also hae real time performance constraints that must be met" for reason such as safety and usabilityG others may hae low or no performance re%uirements" allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs. 9n embedded system is not always a separate bloc$ # ery often it is physically built#in to the deice it is controlling. The software written for embedded systems is often called firmware" and is stored in read#only memory or flash conector chips rather than a dis$ drie. (t often runs with limited computer hardware resourcesH small or no $eyboard" screen" and little memory. =ireless communication has become an important feature for commercial products and a popular research topic within the last ten years. There are now more mobile phone subscriptions than wired#line subscriptions. Lately" one area of commercial interest has been low#cost" low#power" and short#distance wireless communication used for Jpersonal wireless networ$s.K Technology adancements are proiding smaller and more cost effectie deices for integrating computational processing" wireless communication" and a host of other functionalities. These embedded communications deices will be integrated into applications ranging from homeland security to industry automation and monitoring. They will also enable custom tailored engineering solutions" creating a reolutionary way of disseminating and processing information. =ith new technologies and deices co me new business actiities" and the need for employees in these technological areas. Engineers who hae $nowledge of embedded systems and wireless communications will be in high demand. ;nfortunately" there are few adorable enironments aailable for deelopment and classroom use" so students often do not learn about these technologies during hands#on lab e-ercises. The communication mediums were twisted pair" optical fibre" infrared" and generally wireless radio.
9 combination of hardware and software which together form a component of a larger machine is $nown as embedded system.
9
9n e-ample of an embedded system is a microprocessor that controls an
automobile engine. 9n embedded system is designed to run on its own without human interention" and may be re%uired to respond to eents in real time.
(4(
PRO6ECT BLOC8 *IAGRA,
Fig. (4$ : bloc$ diagram
(4+
*ESCRIPTION OF CO,PONENTS (n this project the list of hardware components used are gien belowH
LD5 *Light dependent resistor+
8ower supply
?oltage regulator
9Tmega76A 'icrocontroller
10
,apacitor
5esistor
Diode
LED *Light emitting diode+
'osfet
,onnector
(4-
LIG
LD5s or Light dependent resistors are ery useful especially in light/dar$ sensor circuits. Normally the resistance of an LD5 is ery high" sometimes as high as 2 ohms" but when they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically. Electronic onto sensors are the deices that alter their electrical characteristics" in the presences of isible or inisible light. The best#$nown deices of this type are the light dependent resistor *LD5+" the photo diode and the phototransistors. Light dependent resistors as the name suggests depend on light for the ariation of resistance.
•
LD5 are made by depositing a film of cadmium sulphide or cadmium selenide on a substrate of ceramic containing no or ery few free electrons when not illuminated.
•
The longer the strip the more the alue of resistance. =hen light falls on the strip" the resistance decreases. (n the absence of light the resistance can be in the order of 2 ohm to 23 ohm and is called the dar$ resistance.
Depending on the e-posure of light the resistance can fall down to alue of 3 ohms. The power ratings are usually smaller and are in the range 3m= to .3=. Though ery sensitie to light" the switching time is ery high and hence cannot be used for high fre%uency applications. They are used in chopper amplifiers. Light dependent resistors are aailable as disc .3cm to 6.3cm. The resistance rises to seeral 'ega ohms under dar$ conditions.
11
The below figure shows that when the torch is turned on" the resistance of the LD5 falls" allowing current to pass through it is shown in figure.
Fig. (4( H LD5.
Fig. (4+ H 1ymbol of LD5.
The basic construction and symbol for LD5 are shown in aboe figures respectiely. The deice consists of a pair of metal film contacts separated by a sna$eli$e trac$ of cadmium sulphide film" designed to proide the ma-imum possible contact area with the two metal films. The structure is housed in a clear plastic or resin case" to proide free access to e-ternal light. 8ractical LD5s are aailable in ariety of siCes and pac$ages styles" the most popular siCe haing a face diameter of roughly 2mm. practical LD5 is shown in below figure.
Fig. (4- H 8ractical LD5
(4-4$ RECOVER; RATE
12
=hen an LD5 is brought from a certain illuminating leel into total dar$ness" the resistance does not increase immediately to the dar$ alue. The recoery rate is specified does not increase immediately to the dar$ alue. The recoery rate is specified in $ ohm/second and for current LD5 types it is more than 6 ohm/second. The recoery rate is much greater in the reerse direction" e.g. going from dar$ness illumination leel of 7 lu-" it ta$es less than 2ms to reach a resistance which corresponds with a light leel of 0 lu-. 9 LD5 may be connected either way round and no special precautions are re%uired when soldering.
Dar$nessH 'a-imum resistance" about 2 'ohm.
?ery bright lightH 'inimum resistance" about 2 ohm.
The LD5 is a ariable resistor whose resistance decreases with the increase in light intensity. Two cadmium sulphide *cds+ photoconductie cells with spectral response similar to that of the human eye. The cell resistance falls with increasing light intensity. 1ome of its featuresH • • • •
(4/
)igh reliability. Light weight. =ide spectral response. =ide ambient temperature range.
PO7ER SUPPL; The 26? adapter is connected to the power jac$ to gie the power supply to the relay.
9nother 66? power supply connected to the load. To ma$e a 3? Dc regulated power supply we connected a oltage regulator which gie the power supply to the 9TmegaA microcontroller and peripheral items. (n the 9TmegaA microcontroller the ?,, pin is @th and BND pin is Ath. Two led is also interface to show the status of the power. The 26? adapter image shown in below figure.
13
Fig. (4/ H 26? Dc adapter.
(42
VOLTAGE REGULATOR ;sually" we start with an unregulated power supply ranging from >olt to 26olt D,. To
ma$e a 3olt power supply" (, @A3 oltage regulator as shown in figure has been used.
Fig. (42 H (, @A3 oltage regulator.
The (,@A3 is simple to use. 1imply connect the positie lead form unregulated D, power supply *anything from >?D, to 26?D,+ to the input pin" connect the negatie lead to the common pin and then turn on the power" a 3 olt supply from the output pin will be gotten.
(43
RESISTOR 9 resistor is a passie two#terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. 5esistors act to reduce current flow" and" at the same time" act
14
to lower oltage leels within circuits. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the oltage across the resistorMs terminals. This relationship is represented by OhmMs lawH
( ?/5
where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes" V is the potential
difference measured across the conductor in units of olts" and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms *symbolH +.
Fig. (43 H 5esistor.
Fig. (4= H 1ymbol of resistor.
The ratio of the oltage applied across a resistorMs terminals to the intensity of current in the circuit is called its resistance" and this can be assumed to be a constant *independent of the oltage+ for ordinary resistors wor$ing within their ratings. 5esistors are common elements of electrical networ$s and electronic circuits and are ubi%uitous in electronic e%uipment. 8ractical resistors can be composed of arious compounds and films" as well as resistance wires *wire made of a high#resistiity alloy" such as nic$el#chrome+. 5esistors are also implemented within integrated circuits" particularly analog deices" and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistanceH common commercial resistors are manufactured oer a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. =hen specifying that resistance in an electronic design" the re%uired precision of the resistance may re%uire attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor" according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. 8ractical resistors are also specified as haing a ma-imum power rating which must e-ceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor
15
in a particular circuitH this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. 5esistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may re%uire heat sin$s. (n a high#oltage circuit" attention must sometimes be paid to the rated ma-imum wor$ing oltage of the resistor. =hile there is no minimum wor$ing oltage for a gien resistor" failure to account for a resistorMs ma-imum rating may cause the resistor to incinerate when current is run through it.
(4=
CAPACITOR 9 capacitor *originally $nown as a condenser+ is a passie two#terminal electrical
component used to store energy electrically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors ary widely" but all contain at least two electrical conductors *plates+ separated by a dielectric *i.e." insulator+. The conductors can be thin films of metal" aluminum foil or dis$s" etc. The Mnon#conductingM dielectric acts to increase the capacitorMs charge capacity. 9 dielectric can be glass" ceramic" plastic film" air" paper" mica" etc. ,apacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical deices. ;nli$e a resistor" a capacitor does not dissipate energy. (nstead" a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.
Fig. (4> H Electrolytic ,apacitor
Fig. (4$? H ,eramic ,apacitor
=hen there is a potential difference across the conductors *e.g." when a capacitor is attached across a battery+" an electric field deelops across the dielectric" causing positie charge *PQ+ to collect on one plate and negatie charge *#Q+ to collect on the other plate. (f a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time" no current can flow through the capacitor. )oweer" if an accelerating or alternating oltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor" a displacement current can flow. 9n ideal capacitor is characteriCed by a single constant alue for its capacitance.
,apacitance is e-pressed as the ratio of the electric charge *Q+ on each conductor to the
16
potential difference *?+ between them. The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower separation between conductors and when the conductors hae a larger surface area. (n practice" the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of lea$age current and also has an electric field strength limit" $nown as the brea$down oltage. The conductors and leads introduce an under sired inductance and resistance. ,apacitors which hae a alue of one Farad or more tend to hae a solid dielectric and as ROne FaradS is such a large unit to use" prefi-es are used instead in electronic formulas with capacitor alues gien in micro#Farads *F+" nano#Farads *nF+ and the pico#Farads *pF+.
(4>
*IO*E 9 %io%e is a simple electrical deice that allows the flow of current only in one direction.
1o it can be said to act somewhat li$e a switch. 9 specific arrangement of %io%es can conert 9, to pulsating D," hence it is sometimes also called as a rectifier. (t is deried from Kdi#ode K which means a deice haing two electrodes. The symbol of a p#n junction diode is shown below" the arrowhead points in the direction of conentional current flow. The p#n junction is a basic building bloc$ in any semiconductor deice. (t is formed by joining a p type *intrinsic semiconductor doped with a trialent impurity+ and n type semiconductor *intrinsic semiconductor doped with a pentaalent impurity+ together with a special fabrication techni%ue such that a p#n junction is formed. )ence it is a deice with two elements" the p# type forms anode and the n#type forms the cathode. These terminals are brought out to ma$e the e-ternal connections.
Fig. (4$$ H D(ODE
The n side will hae large number of electrons and ery few holes *due to thermal e-citation+ whereas the p side will hae high concentration of holes and ery few electrons. Due to this a process called diffusion ta$es place. (n this process free electrons from the n side will diffuse *spread+ into the p side and combine with holes present there" leaing a
17
positie immobile *not moeable+ ion in the n side. )ence few atoms on the p side are conerted into negatie ions. 1imilarly few atoms on the n#side will get conerted to positie ions. Due to this large number of positie ions and negatie ions will accumulate on the n# side and p#side respectiely. This region so formed is called as depletion region. Due to the presence of these positie and negatie ions a static electric field called as Kbarrier potentialK is created across the p#n junction of the diode. (t is called as Kbarrier potentialK because it acts as a barrier and opposes the flow of positie and negatie ions across the junction.
(4$? LIG
Fig. (4$( H LED with symbol.
(4$$ CONNECTOR ,onnectors are used to join subsections of circuits together. ;sually" a connector is used where it may be desirable to disconnect the subsections at some future timeH power inputs" peripheral connections" or boards which may need to be replaced. There are different types of connectors" in this project we used few of them.
(4$$4$ Pin
8in header connectors comprise seeral different means of connection. Benerally" one side is a series of pins which are soldered to a 8,<" and they can either be at a right#angle to the 8,< surface *usually called RstraightS+ or parallel to the board!s surface *confusingly
18
referred to as Rright#angleS pins+. 1uch connectors come in a ariety of pitches" and may hae any number of indiidual rows of pins.
Fig. (4$+ H 1ingle female pin header.
Fig. (4$- H Double male pin header.
The most commonly seen pin headers are .2K single or double row connectors. These come in male and female ersions" and are the connectors used to connect 8,< boards and shields together.
(4$( AT,EGA+(= ,ICROCONTROLLER 9 microcontroller *also microcomputer" ',; or ,+ is a small computer on a single integrated circuit consisting internally of a relatiely simple ,8;" cloc$" timers" (/O ports" and memory. 'icrocontrollers are designed for small or dedicated applications. 'icrocontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and deices" such as automobile engine control systems" remote controls" office machines" appliances" power tools" and toys.
Fig. (4$/ H 9T'EB976A 'icrocontroller.
The 9tmel A#bit 9?5 5(1,#based microcontroller combines 76 < (18 flash memory with read#while#write capabilities" 2 < EE85O'" 6 < 159'" 67 general purpose (/O lines" 76 general purpose wor$ing registers" three fle-ible timer/counters with compare modes" internal and e-ternal interrupts" serial programmable ;195T" a byte#oriented 6#wire serial interface" 18( serial port" #channel 2#bit 9/D conerter *A I channels in TQF8 and QFN/'LF pac$ages+" programmable watchdog timer with internal oscillator " and fie
19
software selectable power saing modes. The deice operates between 2.A#3.3 olts. The deice achiees throughputs approaching 2 '(81 per ')C.
)igh#performance" Low#power 9?5U A#bit 'icrocontroller 9danced 5(1, 9rchitecture • I 272 8owerful (nstructions I 'ost 1ingle#cloc$ ,ycle E-ecution I 76 - A Beneral 8urpose =or$ing 5egisters I Fully 1tatic Operation I ;p to 2 '(81 Throughput at 2 ')C I On#chip 6#cycle 'ultiplier Nonolatile 8rogram and Data 'emories • I 76
8rogramming Loc$ for 1oftware 1ecurity
8eripheral Features I Two A#bit Timer/,ounters with 1eparate 8rescalers and ,ompare I
'odes One 2#bit Timer/,ounter with 1eparate 8rescaler" ,ompare 'ode"and
I I
,apture 'ode 5eal Time ,ounter with 1eparate Oscillator Four 8=' ,hannels
I
A#channel" 2#bit 9D,
O"eratin Voltaes : 0.3 # 3.3? for 9Tmega76A
Today the 9Tmega76A is commonly used in many projects and autonomous systems where a simple" low#powered" low#cost micro#controller is needed. 8erhaps the most common implementation of this chip is on the popular 9rduino deelopment platform" namely the 9rduino ;no and 9rduino Nano models.
(4$(4$ Pin &oniuration o AT,EGA+(= mi&ro&ontroller
20
Fig. (4$2 H 8in diagram of 9T'EB976A microcontroller.
2.12.2
Pin Descriptions
VCC : Digital supply oltage. GN* : Bround. Port A @PA344PA? : 8ort 9 seres as the analog inputs to the 9/D ,onerter. Port B @PB344PB? : 8ort < is an A#bit bi#directional (/O port with internal pull#up resistors. Port C @PC344PC? : 8ort , is an A#bit bi#directional (/O port with internal pull#up resistors. Port * @P*344P*? : 8ort D is an A#bit bi#directional (/O port with internal pull#up resistors. RESET : 5eset (nput. TAL$ : (nput to the inerting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal cloc$ operating
circuit. TAL( : Output from the inerting Oscillator amplifier. AVCC : 9?,, is the supply oltage pin for 8ort 9 and the 9/D ,onerter. AREF : 95EF is the analog reference pin for the 9/D ,onerter.
C!a"ter ' +
21
S;STE, ,O*ELLING
+4$
Automati& Li!t Control Cir&uit *esin The circuit diagram of this project is gien below
Fig. +4$ H ,ircuit diagram of automatic light system.
This is the total circuit diagram s$etching. =e will define/ discuss this in three partsH
8art 2H 8ower input circuit.
8art 6H Operation in LD5 and 'icrocontroller. 8art 7H ,ontrolling LED intensity with 'osfet and 8='.
(n this section we came to $now that how the parts connected and how they wor$. The three most important sections will describe through this process. (n this circuit diagram we used different electronics parts. They are followingH 5esistors" Transistor" ,apacitors" oltage regulator" LD5" LED" power supply" microcontroller and 'osfet.
+4(
Part#$ @ Po0er in"ut &ir&uit
22
(n the beginning of ma$ing this project we collect our entire component as we ma$e a list. (n this power supply section 66 9, passes through a step down transformer to get 60 9,. 9 bridge rectifier with four 2N0@ diodes is responsible for getting 60 D, from 60 9,. ,apacitor ,2*66:F+ is connected with the input terminal of (, L'@A26 and ,6*.2:F+ is connected with input of (, L'@A3. ,7*2:F+ is connected parallel to ,2 and ,6. 52 resistor 2 connected in series with a LED which indicate the power supply.
Fig. +4( H ,ircuit diagram of power input.
The 60 D, is conerted to 26 D, by regulator L'@A26 and gien to 'osfet. 9gain 26 D, is conerted into 3 D, by regulator L'@A3 and gien to microcontroller. ,apacitor ,0 is used for short circuit protection to microcontroller. The regulated 3? D, supply connected with LD5 and 9TmegaA microcontroller.
+4+
Part#( @ O"eration in L*R an% ,i&ro&ontroller (n this part we connected a LD5 in series with 52 *66+. =hen light falls on LD5 then
its resistiity decrease" and when dar$ness around the LD5 resistiity increases. LD5 is connected to 3 pin and other end is connected to 9 pin which is an analog to digital conerter.
23
Fig. +4+H Operation in LD5.
=hen light falls on LD5 its resistance decreases. Thus the oltage across pin 9 increases. 1o the analog signal from LD5 is conerted to digital e%uialent of the order #633 for oltage #3 and gien to microcontroller. (t is then compared with the lower and higher limit specified in the program of microcontroller. 9ccording to the e%uialent signal the microcontroller generates 8=' signals at pin D@ which is gien to the gate of 'osfet. That is for alue less than lower limit it generates a 8=' signal with modulation inde- 24 and for alue more than upper limit it generates a modulation inde- of 4.
+4-
Part #+ @ Controllin LE* intensit) 0it! ,oset an% P7,
+4-4$ Intro%u&tion To control the brightness of an LED we can ary the power which is sent to the LED" for e-ample using a potentiometer *ariable resistor+" the more power the LED receies the brighter it is" the less power it receies the dimmer it is. 'icrocontrollers are digital" meaning they only hae two Vpower! states" on and off. 9lthough it is possible to supply a arying
24
power from a microcontroller *using a Digital to 9nalogue ,onertor *D9,++ this usually re%uires an additional chip. 8=' proides the ability to Vsimulate! arying leels of power by oscillating the output from the microcontroller. (f" oer a short duration of time" we turn the LED on for 34 and off for 34" the LED will appear half as bright since the total light output oer the time duration is only half as much as 24 on. The important factor here is the Vduration!" if we turn the light on and off too slowly the iewer will see the flashing of the LED not a constant light output which appears dimmer. The pulsing width *in this case 34+ is the important factor here.
Fig. +4- H 34 duty cycle
=hen using 8=' it!s important to consider how slowly we can Vflash! the LED so that the iewer does not perceie the oscillation. The eye!s inability to see rapid oscillations of light is caused by our Vpersistence of ision! which means" in ery simple terms" we see the light as on een after it has turned off. This techni%ue is how teleisions display a seemingly moing picture which is actually made up of a number of different still frames displayed one after the other ery rapidly. The minimum speed of an LED oscillating which can be seen by
25
the human eye aries from person to person. )oweer" for the purposes of this article" we will use a minimum speed of 3)C 4
+4-4( *ut) C)&le =hen using 8=' there are certain terms which you will come across again and again. The most important term is Vduty#cycle!. The duty#cycle refers to the total amount of time a pulse is Von! oer the duration of the cycle" so at 34 brightness the duty#cycle of the LED is 34. The Vcycle! itself is measured *usually+ in )ertC which gies us the cycles#per#second. 1o at 3)C our cycle is 2 second diided by 3 cycles" which is .6 seconds. 1ince we are using such small time measurements it!s more useful to use microseconds *there are 2"" microseconds in a second+" this gies us a cycle duration of 6" microseconds which is 3 cycles per second or 3)C.
Fig. +4/ H duty cycle
+4-4+ P7, Resolution
The accuracy with which we can control the duty#cycle is $nown as the V8=' resolution!. The higher our 8=' resolution is" the more leels of Vbrightness! we can display. )oweer" since the duty#cycle is Vfi-ed! at 3)C more resolution re%uires finer timing from the microcontroller. The faster the microcontroller" the smaller durations it can time. 9nother
26
limiting factor is the code e-ecution" the microcontroller must not only time the Vinterrupt! which causes the pulse generation" but also run the code which controls the LED output" which must complete before the ne-t interrupt is called. (n addition" you probably want your microcontroller to be performing tas$s other than LED 8=' brightness control" so there has to be some spare e-ecution time between interrupts to do all of the other more general processing tas$s. =ith 8=' control of LEDs the primary adantage of higher 8=' resolutions is that it results in a smaller difference between Voff! and the lowest possible brightness from the LED. For e-ample if our duty#cycle is 6" microseconds *3)C+ and our resolution is only 2" microseconds" the difference between Voff! and the lowest possible brightness will be 34 of the total possible brightness. 9t a resolution of 6" microseconds the difference would be 24 and so on. Oerall the V8=' resolution! dictates the number of brightness Vleels! we can support between completely off *4+ and completely on *24+. 9gain" the higher the resolution" the more timing accuracy and processing oerhead is re%uired.
Fig. +42 H 8=' 5esolution
=hilst it is perfectly possible to get 8=' controls to wor$ with LEDs using pure guess wor$" calculating the desired optimum alues ma$es more efficient use of the aailable processor resources allowing you to both do more with the microcontroller and/or control
27
more LEDs simultaneously from the same chip. The same techni%ues shown here for LEDs can also be used to control motors" analogue meter displays" incandescent light bulbs" etc.
+4/
Flo0 C!art
Fig. +43 H Flow ,hart
+42
Auto Tune Feature
(n manual control" the ma-imum and minimum alue from the LD5 has to be found out manually and then fed to the program for better control of the light intensity. 'a$e Light
)oweer" this is a long drawn process and ta$es a lot of time and human effort Leel to get the re%uired alues by hit and trial method.
* off +
28
Map Sensor Read To Light Lee! Ma"e Is Light Lee! Sensor read # < 50 Map$Sensor Read%
C!a"ter ' ANAL;SIS . EVALUATION
-4$
A%vantaes :
,omplete elimination of manpower.
5educed energy costs
5educed green house gas emission
5educed maintenance cost
Fast paybac$
)igher community satisfaction
)igher security aspects
Senso
No
29
•
LD5s are sensitie" ine-pensie and readily aailable deices. They hae good power
•
and oltage handling capabilities" similar to those of a conentional resistor. They are small enough to fit into irtually any electronic deice and used all around the world as a basis component in many electrical systems.
-4(
Pre&autions : N
I
-4+
(t is sensitie to ambient light and re%uires careful shielding.
Area o A""li&ation : •
(t can be used in some cloc$s" alarms" and other electronic deices that are
•
dependent on sunlight. =e can use it outside of house" corridors or industry area" which helps to sae
• •
-4-
power. (t can be used as a street light. (n sea off#shore side we can use it as a dangerous sign .
SU,,AR; Yes 2. This project 9utomatic 1treet 'anagement 1ystem is a cost effectie" practical eco# friendly and the safest way to sae energy. (t clearly tac$les the two problems that world is facing today" saing of energy and also disposal of incandescent lamps" ery efficiently. 9ccording to statistical data we can sae more that 0 4 of electrical energy that is now consumed by the highways. 6. (nitial cost and maintenance can be the draw bac$s of this project. =ith the adances in technology and good resource planning the cost of the project can be cut down and also with the use of good e%uipment the maintenance can also be reduced in terms of periodic chec$s. The LEDs hae long life" emit cool light" donor hae any to-ic material and can be used for fast switching. For these reasons our project presents far more adantages which can oer shadow the present limitations. eeping in iew the long term benefits and the initial cost would Ma"e neer be a problem as the inestment Light
Lee! # 255 return time is ery less. 7. The project has scope in arious other applications for proiding lighting in $ on li$e % industries" campuses and par$ing lots of huge shopping malls. This can also be used for sureillance in corporate campuses and industries.
START
30
-4/
Results an% *is&ussions The project aims were to reduce the side effects of the current street lighting system" and
find a solution to sae power. (n this project the first thing to do" is to prepare the inputs and STOP outputs of the system to control the lights of the street. The prototype as shown in Fig. 0.2 has been implemented and wor$s as e-pected and will proe to be ery useful and will fulfill all the present constraints if implemented on a large scale.
Fig. -4$ H 8roposed 'odel of automatic light system.
C!a"ter ' / CONCLUSION AN* FUTURE 7OR8
/4$
Con&lusion This paper elaborates the design and construction of automatic light control system
circuit. ,ircuit wor$s properly to turn lamp ON/OFF. LD5 sensor is the main c onditions in wor$ing the circuit. (f the conditions hae been satisfied the circuit will do the desired wor$ according to specific program. Each sensor controls the turning ON or OFF the lighting column. The lights hae been successfully controlled by microcontroller. =ith commands from the controller the lights will be ON in the places of the moement when itMs dar$. Finally this control circuit can be used in arious purposes.
31
/4(
Future 0or1 2. The aboe project we can deelop solar street light system with 9utomatic street light controller. The system can be powered from a battery" which can be charged during day time by haresting the solar energy through a solar cell. The solar energy harested from sunlight can be stored" inerted from D, oltages to 9, oltage using sun tie conerter. 6. The 9, oltage can be stepped down rectified and using the circuit. The aboe mentioned strategy will enable us to harest solar energy in an effectie way for the operation of the circuit and for powering the street light also. 7. 8ole damage detection with the addition of a suitable sensor. 0. =ith the added intelligence in the lamp" you can add further features to increase )(D lamp life" such as softer start#up and protection against re#igniting an already hot )(D lamp.
REFERENCE $D Wun Xheng and 9bbas Wamalipour" R(ntroduction to =ireless 1ensor Networ$sS"
=ireless 1ensor Networ$sH 9 Networ$ing 8erspectie" =iley#(EEE 8ress" 6>. (D httpsH//www.spar$fun.com/products/606 +D httpH//www.egarobo$it.com/inde-.phpYrouteproduct/product&productZid0@ -D httpH//arduino.cc/en/'ain/arduino
8rotocolS" For OE' 5F 'odule 8art NumbersH <60#...#2" <860#...#2. 2D httpH//www.nowsms.com/fa%/what#is#a#gsm#modem 3D httpH//arduino.cc/en/'ain/9rduinoEthernet1hield
32
=D 'ohit De 1riastaa" 8rerna" 1hubhendu 1achin" 1umedha 1harma" ;t$arsh Tyagi"
R1mart Traffic ,ontrol 1ystem using 8L, and 1,9D9S (nternational W ournal of (nnoatie 5esearch in 1cience" Engineering and Technology" ?ol. 2" (ssue 6" December 62 >D )arpal 1ingh" rishan umar" )arbans aur" R(ntelligent Traffic Lights
(nternational Wournal of ,omputing &
‟
$?D 's 8romila 1inhmar" R(ntelligent Traffic Light and Density ,ontrol using ( 5 1ensors
and 'icrocontrollerS" (nternational Wournal of 9danced Technology & Engineering 5esearch *(W9TE5+ (11N NOH 663#737 ?OL;'E 6" (11;E 6" '95,) 626. $$D ,hing#)ao Lai" ,hia#,hen ]u" R9n Efficient 5eal#Time Traffic 1ign 5ecognition
1ystem for (ntelligent ?ehicles with 1mart 8honesS" 62 (nternational ,onference on Technologies and 9pplications of 9rtificial (ntelligence $(D 8eyman
scheme for intersection traffic management by smart camerasS" 62 (EEE $+D (^n ,orredor" 9na#< Barc_a" Wos`#F 'art_neC 8edro LpeC" R=ireless 1ensor Networ$#
based system for measuring and monitoring road trafficS" =ireless 1ensor Networ$#based system for measuring and monitoring road traffic 6A $-D )enry . Liu" =enteng 'a" )eng )u" in$ai =u and BuiChen ]u" R1'95T#1(BN9LH
1ystematic 'onitoring of 9rterial 5oad Traffic 1ignals S" 8roceedings of the 22th (nternational (EEE ,onference on (ntelligent Transportation 1ystems
Billispie 'aCidi " 8earson Education. $2DElectronic Deices and ,ircuit Theory"
,handra $=D)andboo$ of 'odern 1ensorsH 8hysics" Designs" and 9pplications by Wacob Fraden. $>DThe A32 'icrocontroller by enneth W. 9yala" (?D)and
33
(+D5elays and (ts 9pplication 1harma" '.,. *<8<#8ublishers+
Internet sources: www.atmel.com" www.beyondlogic.org " www.wi$ipedia.org" www.howstuffwor$s.com" www.alldatasheets.com" www.wi$ipedia.com. httpH//www.electronics#tutorials.ws/io/ioZ3.html httpH//www.$anda.com/blog/microcontrollers/ar#microcontrollers/ar#microcontroller/
http&''((()*ir*+itstoda,)*o-'*ategor,'o!tage.reg+!ators
34$
PARTS LIST The name of parts used in this project are gien belowH
/M
18E,(F(,9T(ON
Q;9NT(T]
66:F .2:F 2:F 2 66 2N0@ 6A73 LED chip 26mm L'@A3 L'@A26 (5F 30 N#channel 9T'EL 9T'EB976A
2 6 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 2
M//TS Ca"a&itors
5esistors Diodes LD5 ?oltage 5egulator 'osfet 9rduino ;NO 57 Deelopment
