Applied Mechatronic

APPLIED MECHATRONICS

A. SMAILI Mechanical Engineering and Meehatronics Department Hariri Canadian University—Meshref

F.MRAD Electrical and Computer Engineering Department American University of Beirut—Beirut, Lebanon

ULB Darmstadt

IIIIIIIIIIIII 16929590

New York Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2008

Contents

Preface xx Acknowledgments

1.

xxi

Meehatronics: An Introduction 1 Objectives 1 1.1 What is Mechatronics? 1 1.2 Essential Skills for Mechatronics 2 1.3 Why is Mechatronics Important? 2 1.4 Components of a Mechatronic System 1.5 Brain for Mechatronics 4 Related Reading 5 Questions 5 Problems 5 Project 6

2.

2

Elements and Analysis of Electric Circuits

7

Objectives 7 2.1 Introduction 7 *2.2 Electric Field (EE and ME Basic) 7 *2.3 Current and Voltage (EE and ME Basic) 8 *2.4 Elements of an Electric Circuit (EE and ME Basic) 10 2.4.7 Circuit Conditions 10 2.4.2 Electric Circuit Sources 10 2.4.3 Circuit Load 11 2.4.4 Circuit Ground 11 2.5 Circuit Analysis (EE and ME Basic) 12 2.5.1 Circuit Elements in Series and in Parallel 12

Sections summarizing information from courses prerequisite to Mechatronics are marked in the Table of Contents. Readers should focus more on the sections that are new to them. * = EE and ME Basic: from general engineering sciences t = EE Basic: mechanical engineers should spend more time studying these sections t = ME Basic: electrical engineers should spend more time with these sections

vi

Contents 2.5.2 Kirchhoff's Laws 13 2.5.3 Equivalent Circuit Representation 14 *2.6 Resistor (EE and ME Basic) 15 2.6.7 Voltage Divider 76 2.6.2 Bridge Circuit 18 2.6.3 Small-Signal Resistance 19 2.6.4 Resistance-Based Sensors 79 2.6.5 Measuring Electrical Resistance 79 *2.7 Capacitor (EE and ME Basic) 20 2.Z7 Capacitor Applications 25 *2.8 Inductor (EE and ME Basic) 25 2.8.7 Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current 25 2.8.2 Electromagnetic Force 28 2.8.3 Self-Inductance 28 2.8.4 Inductor-Based Devices 29 *2.9 Alternating Current (EE and ME Basic) 33 2.9.7 Steady-State and Frequency Response 34 2.9.2 Complex Number Representation of Voltage and Current 34 *2.10 Impedance (EE and ME Basic) 35 2.70.7 Generalized Voltage Divider 36 2.10.2 Circuit Loading 37 2.10.3 Impedance Matching 38 + 2.11 Power (EE Basic) 39 2.77.7 Average Power 40 2.11.2 Reactive Power 42 2.11.3 Power Factor 42 + 2.12 Signals and Signal Sources (EE Basic) 42 2.72.7 Signal Sources 43 + 2.13 Time Domain Analysis (EE Basic) 44 2.73.7 Differentiators 46 2.13.2 Integrators 47 2.14 Passive Filters 47 2.74.7 Low-Pass Filters (LPFs) 49 2.14.2 High-Pass Filters (HPFs) 51 2.14.3 Band-Pass and Band-Reject Filters 53 2.14.4 Notch and Trap Filters 55 2.15 Noise and Interference in Circuits 55 2.75.7 Guarding Against Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) 55 2.15.2 Bypass Capacitors 56 2.16 Grounding 56 2.76.7 Ground Loops 56

Contents 2.76.2 Grounding Techniques 57 2.16.3 Galvanic Isolation 58 2.17 Summary 59 Related Reading 59 Questions 6 0 Problems 6 0 Laboratory Projects 6 3 3.

Diode, Transistor, and Thyristor Circuits Objectives 6 4 f 3.1 Semiconductors (EE Basic) 64 +3.2 Diodes (EE Basic) 65

64

3.3 Diode Applications 67 3.3.7 Rectification 67 3.3.2 Diode Limiter, or Clipper 70 3.3.3 Diode Clamp 70 3.3.4 Inductive Load and Diode Protection 71 3.3.5 Temperature Sensor 72 3.3.6 Varactor 72 3.4 Zener Diodes 72 3.5 Light-Emitting Diode (LED) 74 3.6 Photodiode 75 + 3.7 Transistors (EE Basic) 76 + 3.8 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) (EE Basic) 76 3.8.7 Transistor Characteristics 78 3.8.2 Transistor States 79 3.8.3 DC Biasing of the BJTs 81 3.8.4 Basic BJT Circuits 83 3.9 Phototransistor 86 +3.10 Field-Effect Transistor (FET) (EE Basic) 87 3.70.7 JFETs 87 3.10.2 MOSFETs 88 3.11 Main Features of FETs and BJTs 91 3.12 Power Transistors 91 3.72.7 Packages 92 3.12.2 Power Bipolar Transistors 92 3.12.3 Darlingtons 93 3.12.4 Power MOSFETs 94 3.12.5 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) 96 3.13 Thyristors 97 3.73.7 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) 97

vii

viii

Contents 3.73.2 Gate Turn-Off (GTO) 100 3.13.3 TRIAC 100 3.14 Optocouplers 101 3.15 Summary 102 Related Reading 102 Questions 103 Problems 103 Laboratory Projects 105

4.

Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) Circuits

106

Objectives 106 4.1 Introduction 106 *4.2 Op-Amp Basic Symbol (EE and ME Basic) 108 *4.3 Circuit Model (EE and ME Basic) 108 4.4 Ideal Op-Amp Behavior 110 4.5 Common Op-Amp ICs 110 4.6 Basic Op-Amp Circuits 112 4.6.7 Inverting Amplifier 112 4.6.2 Noninverting Amplifier 113 4.6.3 Follower 114 4.6.4 Differential Amplifier 114 4.6.5 Instrumentation Amplifier 116 4.7 Linear Circuit Applications 118 4.7.1 Summing Amplifier (Adders) 118 4.7.2 Integrators 119 4.7.3 Differentiators 120 4.8 Nonlinear Op-Amp Circuits 121 4.8.7 Comparators 121 4.8.2 Schmitt Triggers 122 4.8.3 Rectifiers 123 4.8.4 Limiters 124 4.9 Nonideal Op-Amp Behavior 125 4.9.7 Feedback with Finite-Gain Amplifiers 125 4.9.2 Offset Voltage and Bias Currents 126 4.10 Active Filters 128 4.70.7 Filter Circuits and Frequency Characteristics 4.10.2 Filter Types 130 4.11 Power Op-Amps 133 4.12 Summary 133 Related Reading 133 Questions 134 Problems 134 Laboratory Projects 137

130

Contents

5.

Digital Logic and Logic Families

138

Objectives 138 5.1 Digital Signals (EE Basic) 138 f 5.2 Combinational and Sequential Logic Circuits (EE Basic) 5.3 Clock Signals 140 f 5.4 Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates (EE Basic) 141 5.4.7 Basic Functions and Gates 141 5.4.2 Boolean Laws and Theorems 143 5.4.3 Karnaugh Maps 146 5.4.4 Design of Combinational Logic Circuits 147 5.5 Integrated Circuits and Logic Families 148 5.5.7 Logic Levels 149 5.5.2 Noise Immunity 149 5.5.3 Fan-Out 149 5.5.4 Power Dissipation 150 5.5.5 Propagation Delay 150 5.6 TTL Logic Family 151 5.6.7 TTL Designations 151 5.6.2 TTL Versions 151 5.6.3 Output Configurations 151 5.6.4 TTL Characteristics 154 5.7 The CMOS Family 155 5.8 Interfacing CMOS and TTL 156 5.8.7 Interfacing TTL to CMOS 157 5.8.2 Interfacing CMOS to TTL 158 5.9 Flip-Flops 158 5.9.7 Set-Reset (SR) Flip-Flop 158 5.9.2 Trigger (or J) Flip-Flop 159 5.9.3 Clocked D Flip-Flop 160 5.9.4 J-K Flip-Flop 161 5.10 Buffers and Drivers 162 5.70.7 Bus Drive and Termination 163 5.11 Counters and Registers 164 5.12 Decoders and Encoders 165 5.13 Multiplexers and Demultiplexers 166 5.14 The 555 Timer 167 5.74.7 Operating Modes 168 5.15 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) 170 5.16 Glossary of Logic Terms 171 5.17 Summary 173 +

139

ix

x

Contents

Related Reading 173 Questions 174 Problems 174 Laboratory Projects 175 6.

Microcontrollers and Programming

177

Objectives 177 6.1 Computers and Computer Programs (EE Basic) 177 6.7.7 Microprocessor or Microcontroller 178 6.2 Overview of the 9S12C MCUs 180 6.2.7 Central Processing Unit (CPU12) 182 6.2.2 System Bus 183 6.2.3 System Clocks 185 6.2.4 Operating Modes 185 6.2.5 Memory Map 187 6.2.6 Programming Basics 188 6.2.7 CPU12 Programming Registers 192 6.2.8 Instruction Queue 197 6.3 Addressing Modes 198 6.3.7 Inherent (INH) Mode 799 6.3.2 Immediate (IMM) Mode 199 6.3.3 Extended (EXT) Mode 200 6.3.4 Direct (DIR) Mode 200 6.3.5 Relative (RED Mode 200 6.3.6 Indexed Mode 201 6.4 Instruction Set of the CPU12 207 6.4.7 Data-Handling Instructions 207 6.4.2 Arithmetic Instructions 213 6.4.3 Special Math Instructions 218 6.4.4 Logic Instructions 220 6.4.5 Data-Compare and -Testing Instructions 220 6.4.6 Condition Code Register Instructions 221 6.4.7 Program-Control Instructions 222 6.4.8 Miscellaneous Instructions 230 6.5 Assembler Directives 230 6.5.7 Section Definition Directives 231 6.5.2 Constant Definition Directives 231 6.5.3 Data Allocation Directives 232 6.5.4 Assembly Control Directives 232 6.5.5 Listing File Control 232 6.5.6 Conditional Assembly 233 6.5.7 Macro Control 233

+

Contents 6.6 Development of an Assembly Language Program 6.6.7 Program Strategies 234

233

6.6.2 Source Code Structure 235 6.6.3 Conversion from Assembly Code to Machine Code 236 6.6.4 Debugging Tools 237 6.7 High-Level Language 237 6.Z7 C-Programming for the 9S12C MCUs 238 6.8 Development Tools for the MC9S12C 242 6.8.7 Background Debug Mode (BDM) 243 6.9 16-Kbyte Flash Module 244 6.9.7 Security 244 6.9.2 Flash Protection 245 6.9.3 Flask Clock 246 6.9.4 Flash Configuration (FCNFG) 246 6.9.5 Flash Operations 246 6.10 Microchip PIC Microcontrollers 6.70.7 Architectural 6.10.2 Instruction

248

Overview of the Microchip PIC 18F452 MCU Set

6.10.3 Pipelining

249

250

6.10.4 Clocking Scheme

250

6.10.5 Memory Organization 6.10.6 Addressing Modes 6.10.7 I/O Ports 6.10.8 Timers

250 250

250 251

6.10.9 Compare/Capture/PWM 6.10.10 Analog-to-Digital 6.10.11 Interrupt

(CCP) Module

Conversion (ADC) Module

Structure

251

6.10.12 PIC Development Suite 6.11 Summary

252

252

Related Reading 2 5 2 Questions 2 5 3 Problems 2 5 3 Laboratory Projects 2 5 5

7.

Parallel I/O and I n t e r r u p t M e c h a n i s m Objectives

256

7.1 Introduction

256

7.2 Parallel Input/Output (I/O)

251

257

7:2.7 Common Port Features 258 7.2.2 Specific Port Features 259

256

251

249

xi

xii

Contents 7.3 Mechanical Switches 262 Z3.7 Interfacing Binary Switches 263 7.3.2 Switch Debounce 264 7.4 Interfacing Keyboards 265 Z4.7 Hardware Decoding 266 7.5 Displays 267 Z5.7 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 268 7.6 Interfacing LED Displays 271 7.6.7 Software Decoding 272 7.6.2 Multiplexed Displays 277 7.6.3 Hardware Decoding 279 7.7 LCD Displays 279 7.8 Interrupt Mechanism 280 Z8.7 Maskable and Nonmaskable Interrupts 7.8.2 Interrupt Process 281 7.8.3 Vectored Priority Interrupt 282 7.8.4 Interrupt and Reset Vectors 284 7.8.5 Stacking the Registers 284 7.9 Resets 285 Z9.7 External Pin RESET 285 7.9.2 Power-On Reset 286 7.9.3 COP Failure Reset 286 7.9.4 Clock Monitor Reset (CMR) 287 7.9.5 Reset Sequence 287 7.10 Nonmaskable Interrupt (XIRQ) 288 7.11 Maskable Interrupts 289 7.12 Summary 292 Related Reading 2 9 2 Questions 2 9 2 Problems 2 9 3 Laboratory Projects 2 9 4

8.

281

Serial Interface Facility 295 Objectives 2 9 5 8.1 Introduction 295 8.2 Serial Communication Interface (SCI) 296 8.2.7 Communications Protocol (Framing) 296 8.2.2 Data Transfer (Baud) Rate 297 8.3 SCI Registers 298 8.3.7 Data Register 298 8.3.2 SCI Control Registers 299 8.3.3 SCI Status Registers 301

Contents 8.4 SCI Operation 302 8.4.7 SCI Configuration 302 8.4.2 Transmit Operation 303 8.4.3 Receive Operation 304 8.5 Interfacing the 9S12C with the RS232 Port 306 8.6 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) 307 8.6.7 Port M Data Direction Register (DDRM) 308 8.6.2 SPI Baud Rate Register (SPIBR) 308 8.7 SPI Registers 309 8.Z7 SPI Data Register (SPIDR) 309 8.7.2 SPI Control Registers 309 8.7.3 SPI Status Register (SPISR) 311 8.8 SPI Topologies 311 8.9 SPI Operation 313 8.10 I/O Expansion of the 9S12C 315 8.70.7 Output Port Expansion 315 8.10.2 Input Port Expansion 317 8.11 Summary 319 Related Reading 319 Questions 319 Problems 320 Laboratory Projects 320 9.

Programmable Timer Facility 321 Objectives 321 9.1 Introduction 321 9.2 Timer Module in the 9S12C MCU 322 9.2.7 Free-Running Counter (TCNT) 323 9.2.2 Timer Overflow 324 9.2.3 Clearing the Timer Flag 324 9.3 Output Compare 324 9.3.7 Output Compare Registers 325 9.3.2 General Setup for the Output Compare Operation 9.3.3 Operation of the OC7 330 9.3.4 Forced Output Compare 332 9.4 Input Capture Facility 333 9.4.7 Input Capture Pins and Registers 333 9.5 Pulse Accumulator 337 9.5.7 Pulse Accumulator Count Register (PACNT) 337 9.5.2 PA Enable and Active Edge Detection 338 9.5.3 PA Operating Modes 338

326

xiii

xiv

Contents 9.6 Real-Time Clock 341 9.7 Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) 9.8 Summary 348 Related Reading 349 Questions 349 Problems 349 Laboratory Projects 350

10.

342

Analog-to-Digital (A/D) and Digital-to-Analog (D/A) Conversion Objectives 351 10.1 Introduction 351 10.2 Fundamentals of A/D Conversion 352 70.2.7 Resolution 353 10.2.2 I/O Mapping 353 10.2.3 Aliasing 356 10.2.4 Amplitude Uncertainty 357 10.2.5 Sample and Hold (S/H) 358 10.2.6 Multiple Sensor Inputs 360 10.3 A/D Conversion Techniques 360 70.3.7 Integrating ADCs 360 10.3.2 Successive-Approximation ADC 363 10.3.3 Flash ADC 364 10.4 ADC Facility of the 9S12CMCU 365 70.4.7 Voltage References 365 10.4.2 ATD Registers 366 10.4.3 ATD Setup 366 10.4.4 Conversion Time 368 10.4.5 Channel Selection 368 10.4.6 Channel Sampling and Conversion Results 369 10.4.7 Input Signal Range 373 10.5 Digital-To-Analog Conversion (DAC) 376 70.5.7 Components of a D/A Converter (DAC) 377 10.5.2 Output Voltage 377 10.5.3 Range 378 10.5.4 Resolution 379 10.5.5 Accuracy 379 10.5.6 Bipolar DACs 380 10.5.7 DAC ICs 381 10.6 Summary 382 Related Reading 3 8 2 Questions 3 8 2 Problems 3 8 3 Laboratory projects 3 8 4

351

Contents

11.

Sensors and Their Interface Objectives

385

385

11.1 Introduction

385

11.2 Classification of Sensors 11.3 Smart Sensors

386

387

11.4 Sensor Models and Response Characteristics 11.5 Sensor Characteristics 11.6 Signal Conditioning

392

77.6.7 Amplification

393

11.6.2 Conversion 11.6.3 Filtering

388

390

393 393

11.6.4 Impedance Buffering

394

11.6.5 Modulation/Demodulation 11.6.6 Linearization

394

394

11.6.7 Grounding and Isolation

395

11.7 Potentiometer Sensors (Pot) 11.8 Light Detectors

396

398

77.8.7 Materials for Light Detectors

400

11.8.2 Types and Modes of Operation of Light Detectors 11.8.3 Applications

of Light Detectors

11.9 Photoresistor (Photocell)

400

77.9.7 Materials for Photocells 11.9.2 Interfacing 11.10 Photodiode

400

401

a Photocell to the 9S12C

401

402

77.70.7 Photodiode

Types

11.10.2 Photodiode

Characteristics

11.10.3 Operating Modes 11.10.4 Applications 11.11 Phototransistor

402 403

403

404

405

77.77.7 Phototransistor

Characteristics

11.11.2 Applications

405

406

11.12 IR Emitter/Detector Packages 77.72.7 Optical Interrupter

407

407

11.12.2 Optical Coupler (Optical Isolator) 11.12.3 Optical Reflectors

408

11.12.4 NIR Receiver/Demodulator 11.13 Optical Encoder

410

11.14 Pyroelectric Sensor

412

77.74.7 Signal Conditioning 11.15 Thermal Detectors

414

77.75.7 Thermocouple

415

11.15.2 Thermopiles

418

408

414

Sensors

409

400

xv

xvi

Contents 77.75.3 Theremoresisitive Devices 418 11.15.4 Thermodiode 423 11.15.5 Thermotransistor 424 11.16 Heat Flux Sensor 425 11.17 Magnetic Sensors 426 77.7Z7 Magnetic Reed Switch 426 11.17.2 Hall-Effect Device 427 11.18 Strain Gauges 430 77.78.7 Bridge Circuit 431 11.18.2 Strain-Gauge Measurement 433 11.19 Acoustic Measurement 434 77.79.7 Properties of Wave Propagation 434 11.19.2 Acoustic Sensors 436 11.19.3 Types of Transducer Element 437 11.19.4 Types of Measurements 440 11.20 Piezoelectricity 443 77.20.7 Piezoelectric Effect 443 11.20.2 Piezoelectric Use in MEMS 444 11.20.3 Constitutive Relations in One Dimension 444 11.20.4 Piezoelectric Sensor 445 11.20.5 Piezoelectric Mass-Sensitive Chemical Sensor 447 11.21 Resolver 4 4 8 11.22 Tachometer 449 • 11.23 Capacitive Sensors 449 11.24 Inductive Sensors 451 77.24.7 Motion-Detection Sensor 451 11.24.2 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) 451 11.25 Four- to 20-mA Transmitters 453 77.25.7 Voltage-to-Current Converter 454 11.26 Summary 454 Related Reading 4 5 5 Questions 4 5 5 Problems 4 5 6 Laboratory Projects 4 5 9

12.

Electric Actuators

460

Objectives 4 6 0 12.1 Actuators 460 12.2 DC Motors 461 72.2.7 Principles of Operation of a DC Motor 461 12.2.2 Modeling of DC Motor Behavior 465 12.2.3 Heat Dissipation in DC Motors 472

Contents xvii 72.2.4 Velocity Profile Optimization 473 12.2.5 Inertia Matching 474 12.2.6 Motor Selection 476 12.2.7 Servo Amplifiers 479 12.2.8 DC Motor Servo Drive 482 12.2.9 Interfacing DC Motors to the 9S12C 485 12.2.10 DC Servos 490 12.3 Stepper Motors 491 72.3.7 Characteristics of a Stepper Motor 491 12.3.2 Classification of Stepper Motors 491 12.3.3 Principle of Operation 494 12.3.4 Step Angle 498 12.3.5 Electrical Model of an Energized Coil 499 12.3.6 Drive Methods 501 12.3.7 Stepper Motor Performance 503 12.3.8 Interfacing Stepper Motors to the 9S12C MCU 12.4 AC Induction Motors 515 72.4.7 Three-Phase Motors 516

509

12.4.2 Speed Control of the Induction Motor 519 12.5 Summary 524 Related Reading 524 Questions 524 Problems 525 Laboratory Projects 526 13.

Control Schemes

527

Objectives 527 13.1 Introduction 527 73.7.7 History of Control 527 13.1.2 Open-Loop Control 529 13.1.3 Closed-Loop Control 529 13.2 Classical Control 530 73.2.7 Mathematical Modeling 530 13.2.2 Transfer Function 532 13.2.3 Transient and Steady-State Analyses 533 13.2.4 Root Locus 537 13.2.5 Frequency Response 543 13.2.6 Lag-Lead Compensator 549 13.2.7 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controller Design 13.3 State-Space-Based Control Strategies 565

557

xviii Contents 13.4 Adaptive Control 571 73.4.7 Gain Scheduling 571 13.4.2 Model-Reference Adaptive Control (MRAC) 572 13.4.3 Self-Tuning Regulators 573 13.5 Digital Control 574 73.5.7 Discretization Techniques 574 13.5.2 Emulation 575 13.5.3 Direct Digital Control 575 13.6 Intelligent Control 576 73.6.7 Fuzzy Logic Control Design 576 13.7 Adaptive Fuzzy Logic Controllers 583 73.Z7 Introduction 583 13.7.2 Fuzzy Model-Reference Adaptive Controller 583 13.7.3 Membership-Tuning Adaptive Controller 586 13.8 Experimental Comparative Analysis 591 73.8.7 Hardware Platform 13.8.2 Digital Control Workstation 591 13.9 Conclusion 599 Related Reading 5 9 9 Questions 6 0 0 Problems 601 14.

Case Studies

603

Objectives 6 0 3 14.1 Introduction 603 14.2 Case Study 1: Autonomous Mobile Robot 604 74.2.7 Introduction 604 14.2.2 Mechanical Design Alternatives 605 14.2.3 Design Specifications 606 14.2.4 Electronic Circuits and Interfacing 612 14.2.5 Software Design 618 14.2.6 Case Outcomes 620 References 621 14.3 Case Study 2: Wireless Surveillance Balloon 621 74.3.7 Problem Definition 621 14.3.2 Design 621 14.3.3 Parts 626 14.3.4 Case Outcomes 635 References 636 14.4 Case Study 3: Firefighting Robot 636 74.4.7 Problem Statement 636 14.4.2 Design Alternatives 638

Contents 74.4.3 Implementation 639 14.4.4 Case Outcomes 647 References 649 14.5 Case Study 4: Piezo Sensors and Actuators in Cantilever Beam Vibration Control 74.5.7 Introduction 649 14.5.2 Modeling of the Cantilever Beam and PZT Actuator 650 14.5.3 Beam Experimental Setup 652 14.5.4 Instrumentation Setup 654 14.5.5 Controller and Software 658 14.5.6 Simulation and Experimental PID Results 661 14.5.7 Simulation and Experimental Fuzzy Results 665 14.5.8 Conclusions 668 14.5.9 Case Outcomes 668 ''Appendix A: DC Power Supply (EE Basic) 670 Appendix B: Pinout of Selected ICs 672 Appendix C: Instruction Set, Addressing Modes, and Execution Times for the MC9SI2C Appendix D: MC9S12C Registers and Control Bit Assignments 676 Appendix E: Using the CodeWarrior Integrated Development Environment (IDE) 678 Appendix F: ASCII Code Table 680 ''Appendix G: Number Systems (EE Basic) 681 *Appendix H: Mechanisms For Mechatronics (ME Basic) 691 Index 706

674

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