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parte, que esa cristalización sólo dura un momento; cuando mucho, una "jornada". Para decirlo de otro modo: la bonhomía popular triunfa siempre sobre la violencia, y aun sobre la vigilancia. Siguiendo a Le Bon, P. de Felice describe en el estado de multitud "el esfuerzo de lo instintivo por dominar a lo racional". Los fenómenos de "atracción gregaria", de los cuales la etnología y la sociología de las religiones proporcionan innumerables ejemplos, son los síntomas de la enfermedades del orden social. Todo el simbolismo de las revoluciones populares lleva el sello de "un empirismo instin instinti tivo vo análogo análogo al que todav todavía ía orient orientaa a los salvaje salvajes". s". Así, Así, por ejemplo ejemplo,, los procedi procedimie mient ntos os "destinados a atraer las miradas y a fascinarlas. Los estandartes y las banderas representan aquí un papel de primer plano. Están casi cas i siempre uniformemente teñidos de rojo, pues no por nada este color se ha convertido en el signo distintivo de todos los movimientos revolucionarios. Se conoce la influencia irritante que ejerce sobre ciertos animales. Los seres humanos no escapan a ella". ¿Pero quién "ve rojo" ante la bandera del mismo color, si no el propio contrarrevolucionario? Ese es un buen ejemplo, según parece, de esos giros semánticos que acostumbra a emplear la psicología social burguesa (en el sentido sociológico de ese calificativo). Fracasar en lo referente a hacer hablar al pueblo, a explicar el lenguaje de éste; ofrecer en cambio un habla empobrecida y vana: tal es el primer nivel de la impostura. Implica una impostura más grosera aun, pero que sigue la lógica de la precedente: la que califica y otorga su jerarquía "científica" al habla recontruida por el teórico (a partir de la única palabra revolucionaria disponible: la del administrador) y ofrecida por él como lenguaje del pueblo. pueblo. 4 Individualizada en segundo grado -por el administrador y por el intérprete-, el habla revolucionar revolucionaria ia espanta. Por lo general se recubre recubre con vestimentas vestimentas y colores colores adecuados adecuados para atraer la atención inquieta del sociólogo. La bandera roja no puede ser otra cosa que ese "guiñapo color sangre" sobre el cual Francisque Sarcey ironizará con odio en 1871. En efecto, pone una bruma sangrante ante los ojos del comentarista, radicalmente incapaz de percibirla como el tipo mismo de símbolo impuesto a la revolución popular por su memoria colectiva. A la vez recuerdo y signo, la bandera roja expresa la inmanencia de la revolución popular que habita en una sociedad como, por ejemplo, la francesa, e impone el ritmo a los progresos de su historia. Flota sobre Burdeos en 1635, durante la Fronda. La Revolución oficial de 1789 (decreto del 21 de octubre) hace de ella el signo de proclamación de la ley marcial. El 10 de agosto de 1792 las secciones de descamisados retomarán su posesión de ella, inscribiendo en la tela: "Ley marcial del pueblo soberano contra la rebelión del poder ejecutivo". La revolución popular no la abandonará ya, en Lyon en 1834, en París en febrero y junio de 1848, en 1871, en 1936. Lamartine, a quien las historias clásicas de la Revolución de 1848 describen de buena gana como ahogado por el amor y el entusiasmo populares, será abucheado por el pueblo cuando trate de disuadirlo de hacer su emblema de un "signo de terror y de sufrimiento", bueno sólo para "la masa flotante e indecisa de esos hombres pobres e ignorantes recogidos en los arrabales". Tendrá que retirarse ante una muchedumbre muy decidida a 4 Se retorna aquí la distinción fundamental de Saussure: la lengua es "el vínculo social", que "abarca la suma de las imágenes verbales depositadas en todos los individuos", y más allá, la suma de las imágenes y de los símbolos sociales. La lengua "no es completa en individuo alguno, sólo existe perfecta en la masa". El habla es el modo de existencia individual individual de la lengua. El habla es aceptable, pero no la lengua, cuya posición en una semiología general será la única susceptible de delimitar su campo, ya que no de precisar su naturaleza (Curso
de lingüística general). 120
A. DECOUFLÉ / SOCIOLOGÍA DE LAS REVOLUCIONES
conservar su bandera, y saldrá del paso con un juicio despectivo: "Ese color excita a los hombres lo mismo que a los animales". Cuando agota el vocabulario zoológico, la contrarrevolución se respalda, en efecto, en el insulto. A partir de una fórmula de alcance en apariencia general -"todo régimen es un medio que funciona sobre las plantas humanas para desarrollar entre ellas algunas especies y marchitar otras"-, Taine califica al
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hay un "jacobino". El calificativo implica por sí solo el juicio, pero al mismo tiempo postula el problema: la contrarrevolución no pone en duda ni por un instante que la revolución puede trasformar a la masa, en cada uno de sus elementos constitutivos, y constituir un pueblo entero, exceptuados los mártires antirrevolucionarios, en una colección de animales políticos movidos por una cólera de destruc destrucció ciónn y de violen violencia cia iguali igualitar taria. ia. La revolu revolució ciónn es un moment momentoo de locura locura colecti colectiva, va, la contrarrevolución una operación de vuelta a la razón y a la naturaleza de las cosas. Por consiguiente, también ella será radical, pues tiene plena conciencia de cumplir, más allá de una operación de orden, con una misión de civilización. No se puede transigir con los medios destinados a asegurar la salvag salvaguar uardia dia de valores valores tan "etern "eternos" os" como como ambigu ambiguos: os: la "civil "civilizac ización ión"" es "crist "cristian iana" a" en la contrarrevolución francesa, «occidental" en la contrarrevolución nacional-socialista, "democrática" en la que hoy actúa en el sureste de Asia y en América latina. El proyecto contrarrevolucionario no está menos cargado de equívocos y de incertidumbres que el proyecto revolucionario, pero lo ubica en categorías radicalmente opuestas. No hay historicidad de un nuevo contenido, sino la historia más tradicional, la de los 121
SOCIOLOGÍA SOCIOLOGÍA DE LA CONTRARREVOLUCIÓN CONTRARREVOLUCIÓN
poderosos.' No hay aspiración a la totalidad y la universalidad, sino una serie de acciones particulares, cuya única razón es el regreso al statu al statu quo ante. La contrarrevolución en actos parece actos parece menos injuiciable por una sociología que por un psicoanálisis; toma prestados a la revolución sus modos, y se las ingenia para constituir con ellos la figura inversa, encarnizada como es en lo referente a adoptar en todos los aspectos la posición contraria. Su consecución última y satisfecha consiste en ocupar su lugar para eliminarla de la conciencia colectiva, para liberar al hombre del dominio de d e las potencias del mal, que conducen su espíritu a concebir el proyecto revolucionario y sacrificarlo a las fuerzas del bien. Si la revolución es e s afectada a menudo, como se ha visto, por un maniqueísmo ingenuo, la contrarrevolución constituye un maniqueísmo universal y razonado como categoría fundamental de su proyecto. No parece ilegítimo interrogarlo con la ayuda de instrumentos de investigación tomados, no sin todas las precauciones necesarias °, de la problemática psicoanalítica. Tentativa Tentativa singular singular a priori priori;; en princi principio pio,, no hay un inconsc inconscien iente te con contra trarre rrevol voluci ucionar onario io.. La contrarrevolución se ofrece sin tapujos a la observación más vulgar; se entrega toda entera en una combinación de categorías muy sencillas, tales como acaban de ser indicadas con el fundamento de la distinción entre las dos "escuelas" contrarrevolucionarias. En definitiva, se postulará que cualquiera puede ser contrarrevolucionario; sólo necesita tener una revolución ante sí. La dificultad dificultad de 5 De ahí que cuando la contrarrevolución reinstala la historia en la sociedad global, cuando el proyecto revolucionario abandona el campo de las posibilidades, en el cual ya sólo aparece en la filigrama de su inmanencia, la contrarrevolución es entonces total, y resulta difícil captar su dominio en apariencia tan repentino y tan entero sobre el cuerpo social, si no se ha medido lo desmesurado de lo que ella remplaza. Parece como si la revolución hubiese refluido con el propio proyecto revolucionario, a tal punto, que resulta inútil para restablecerla en su antiguo curso. La contrarrevolución se instala, no tanto en el fatalismo como en la desilusión. 6 Cf. Roger Bastide, Sociologie et psychanalyse.
122 A. DECOUFLE / SOCIOLOGIA DE LAS REVOLUCIONES SOCIOLOGÍA DE LA CONTRARREVOLUCIÓN CONTRARREVOLUCIÓN
123
ser revolucionario, que se refiere a la necesidad de una aptitud muy irregularmente distribuida para la imagen y para la ascesis, no tiene correspondencia alguna en el orden contrarrevolucio rrevolucionario nario;; la antirrevo antirrevolució luciónn sólo se experimen experimenta ta como aventura en cierto cierto estado estado de inquietud y, por lo demás, menos en el terreno de su legitimidad que en el de sus empresas concretas cretas.. Jung Jung lo admite admite a su manera manera cuando cuando escribe escribe que "en nosotros nosotros mismo mismoss llevam llevamos os el revolucionario más peligroso, y es preciso que lo sepan quienes quieren trasponer sanos y salvos
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caricaturesc caricaturescaa del proyecto proyecto revolucio revolucionario nario.. Allí donde la revolución revolución armada, llevada por la espontaneidad popular, procede por adhesión y participación voluntarias de las masas, la contraguerrilla se las ingenia para destruir inclusive la apariencia de su legitimidad; establece bases "estratégi "estratégicas", cas", construy construyee aldeas aldeas fortificad fortificadas, as, constituy constituyee milicias milicias de autodefensa autodefensa,, y con ello pretende "movilizar a las masas", no sin confesar que "el primer paso en la movilización de la población debe consistir en destruir o neutralizar la organización revolucionaria y su influencia sobre el pueblo" 7, lo cual equivale a negarse ella misma. La destrucción o la "neutralización" de la revolución armada afecta en su raíz a toda empresa de "reconquista de los corazones" por la "persuasión". Muestra a la población el verdadero rostro de la contrarrevolución: el de la represión por la violencia, que, sin embargo, tratará, hasta el fin, de hacerse una buena conciencia por medio de la creciente legitimación de su propio propio objetivo respecto de ella misma. misma. El fracaso de la contrarrevolución por la persuasión implica, en 7 John Mac Cuen,
The art o f counter-revolutionary war.
efecto, la contraarevolución por las armas, la especialización de la contraguerrilla, su estallido en categorías: contraterrórismo, contraorganización de la población, contraestrategia defensiva y, en fin de cuentas, contraofensiva general: ¿contra qué? Aquí aparecen en su plenitud lo trágico y angustioso de los métodos de contraguerrilla. En el corazón de su puesta en funcionamiento, no pueden ignorar su capacidad para proporcionar una respuesta, una alternativa alternativa válida del proyecto revolucionario. Desde ese momento, son víctimas de la ansiedad, y sólo triunfan, una que otra vez, cuando sustituyen su primer proyecto por una empresa de destrucción total. Basados en un análisis puramente morfológico de la guerrilla (a la cual ciertas referencias pintorescas -como la de "pez en el agua"- confieren un aspecto documentado y científico: la contraguerrilla moderna procede a partir de fichas mecanográficas y de máquinas electrónicas), esos métodos tienen la intención confesa de terminar con la guerrilla con procedimientos tomados (a contrapelo) de ésta. Son, al mismo tiempo, el testimonio de su impotencia para penetrarlas y asimilarlas. Cuando trata, por ejemplo, de separar al guerrillero de la masa de población, a fin de aislar a aquél, de constituirlo en combatiente "normal" para reducirlo con más facilidad, y a fin de preservar a la población del virus revolucionario, la contraguerrilla se ve obligada, desde el comienzo, a una elección arbitraria: el guerrillero puede ser, en el seno de una población dada, cualquier hombre en condiciones de llevar armas. Así, ya el general Gallifet, durante la semana sangrienta de 1871, acostumbraba a hacer fusilar, entre las columnas de guardias nacionales hechos prisioneros, a todos aquellos que, según le parecía, habrían podido utilizar armas de fuego; y a los ancianos en primer término: eran doblemente culpables, habían conocido las jornadas de junio del 48. Ya se conoce la suerte de estas prácticas: multiplican las simpatías activas hacia la revolución y la guerrilla. Semejantes contradicciones es posible encontrarlas en todas las etapas de la contraguerrilla, y explican el hecho de que, desde el momento en que han percibido sus dimensiones, dimensiones, sus jefes no vacilen en sustituirla sustituirla por 124 A. DECOUFLÉ / SOCIOLOGÍA DE LAS REVOLUCIONES
una una guer guerra ra tota total. l. La cont contra ragu guer erri rill llaa asum asumee su lógi lógica ca en el geno genoci cidi dio. o. A las las trop tropas as especializadas se agregan, para llevarlo a cabo, las armas clásicas. c lásicas. El objetivo es entonces el exterminio de la población culpable de no entregar a sus guerrilleros; singular modo de reconocimiento, por la contrarrevolución, contrarrevolución, de la totalidad del proyecto revolucionario.
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Le retour du tragique.
A1 final de este ensayo hay muchos interrogantes que continúan sin respuesta. He aquí uno, elegido por su capacidad para proporcionar por sí solo la materia de otro libro: ¿existe un personal revolucionario? Los "hombres de la revolución", r evolución", en el seno de cada sociedad histórica, ¿se reclutan en capas determinadas de la revolución, y según modos específicos? Luego de estudiar, a partir del inmenso material de los expedientes de los consejos de guerra, el personal de la revolución comunalista de 1871, J. Rougerie considera que dicho material es representativo del conjunto de la población parisiense de la época, si se tiene en cuenta la emigración, a Versalles y a provincias, de una parte de la gran burguesía, después del sitio y de los primeros días de la Comuna. Y prolonga de la siguiente manera el interrogante de Albert Soboul al final de su gran obra sobre Les Sans-Culottes parisiens en l'an II: "¿Qué parte corresponde, desde las jornadas de julio del 48 hasta la Comuna de 1871, sea al proletariado propiamente dicho, sea a las categorías populares de tipo tradicional? tradicional? Con eso se mediría la degeneración de éstas a medida que triunfa triunfa el capitalismo industrial, a la vez que se subraya una de las causas de la debilidad de las tentativas revolucionarias del siglo xix". El intelectual surrealista no es menos revolucionario que el guerrillero; sólo lo es en forma distinta. Cuando escribe que 126 A. DECOUFLÉ ./ SOCIOLOGÍA SOCIOLOGÍA DE LAS REVOLUCIONES
"es inadmisible inadmisible que un hombre hombre deje un rastro de su paso por la tierra" tierra" (Manifiesto Dadá), André Breton no es menos revolucionario que Malraux, cuando enuncia, por boca de Carin (Los conquistadores) : "Dejar una cicatriz en un mapa". Una conjunción de ese tipo afecta de una indeterminación segura a una categoría como la de los "revolucionarios profesionales", esos representantes de "un tipo de héroe en quien se unen la cultura, la lucidez y la aptitud para la acción", como escribe, una vez más, carbonari, Malraux. Sin embargo, en el sentido etimológico del término, son iniciados; por ejemplo, e jemplo, los carbonari, estacion es, tan importantes en la tradición republicana de Francia, en los blanquistas de las sociedades de estaciones, el siglo xix; los mafiosi, los lazzaretti, los fabioanos, los miembros de ciertas agrupaciones anarquistas, etc. Los grupos secretos a los cuales pertenecen los reclutan según un modo de elección riguroso y al cabo de un ritual a menudo minuciosamente reglamentado; mantienen su fe revolucionaria con la frondosidad de un simbolismo (insignias, lenguaje convencional, reuniones y ceremonias rituales, etc. ), tanto como por la atracción del mundo de gloria que nacerá del triunfo de la revolución. El mundo de gloria del revolucionario nace de la vida del mayor número de personas por fin cambiadas; "antes guerrillero que ministro", exclama el "Che" Guevara, y lo demuestra inclusive con con su muert muerte. e. En fin fin de cuen cuenta tas, s, en la revo revolu luci ción ón,, aun aun en la que que se encu encuen entr traa prov provis ista ta de "administradores" sólidamente instalados en sus puestos, hay una promesa irremplazable.
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BREVE BIBLIOGRAFIA
Alphandéry, Paul, y Paul, y Dupront, Alphonse, La Alphonse, La chrétienté et l'idée de croi sade, 2 vols., Albin Michel. Berque, Jacques, Dépossession Jacques, Dépossession du monde, Le Seuil. Bloch, Ernst, Thomas Münzer, teólogo de la revolución, Ciencia Nueva, Madrid. Broué, Pierre, y Témime, Emile, La revolución y la guerra de España, Fondo de Cultura Económica, México. "Che" Guevara, Ernesto, La Ernesto, La guerra de guerrillas. Coquin, François-Xavier, François-Xavier, La Révolution russe (Presses Universitaires de France, col. "Que sais-je?", N9 986). Debray, Régis, ¿Revolución en la revolución? Della Volpe, Galvano, Clave de la dialéctica histórica, Proteo, Buenos Aires. Duveau, Georges, 1848, Gallimard. Fanon, Frantz, Los Frantz, Los condenados de la tierra, Fondo de Cultura Económi ca, México. Féjto, François, Budapest François, Budapest 1956, Juilliard. Guérin, Daniel, La Daniel, La lutte des classes sous la Première République Bour geois et "bras nus", 1793-1797, Gallimard. Hobsbawn, Erie J., Les J., Les primitifs de la révolte dans l'Europe moderne, Fayard. Godechot, Jacques, La Jacques, La contre-révolution, doctrine et action (1789-1804), Presses Universitaires de France. - Les révolutions (1787_1789), Presses Universitaires de France, col. "Nou velle Clio", NQ 36. Lentin, Albert-Paul, La Albert-Paul, La lutte tricontinentale, Máspero. Lissagaray, Prosper-Olivier, Prosper-Olivier, Histoire de la Commune de 1871, 3 vols., Máspero. Melotti, Umberto, Rivoluzione Umberto, Rivoluzione e società, Milán, La Culturale. Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, Las aventuras de la dialéctica, Leviatán, Buenos Aires. Porshnev, Boris, Los Boris, Los levantamientos populares en Francia, de 1623 a 1648, SEVPEN. Sartre, Jean-Paul, Crítica de la razón dialéctica, Losada, Buenos Aires. Soboul, Albert, Précis d'histoire de la Révolution française, Ed. Sociales. - Les - Les Sans-Culottes parisiens en l'an II. Mouvement populaire et gouver nement révolutionnaire, Clavreuil. Togliatti, Palmiro; Luporini Cesare, y Della Volpe, Galvano, Gramsci y el marxismo, Proteo, Buenos Aires. Trahard, Pierre, La Pierre, La sensibilité révolutionnaire (1789-1794), Bois in. Trotski, León, Historia León, Historia de la Revolución rusa.