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BİZİMKİLER Anadolu Merkezli Dünya Tarihi 28. KİTAP 1865 - 1880
Milliyetçilik
3
Yazarlar
Evin Esmen Kısakürek Arda Kısakürek Bizimkiler adlı kitapların tümü aşağıdaki si telerde mevcuttur:
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................................................................. ............................................ ............................................ ...................................... ................ 2 BİZİMKİLER ........................................... .................................................................. ............................................ ............................................. .......................................... ................... 2 28. KİTAP ............................................ ................................................................... ............................................ ............................................. ....................... 5 Girit’te İsyan, 1866 ............................................. ...................................................................... ............................................ ........................ 7 Mısır Valisi Hıdiv oluyor, 1866 ................................................ .................................................................. ......................................... ................... 8 Prusya Alman Birliğine Doğru, 1866 ............................................ ............................................................... ............................................ ......................... ... 10 Meksika’da Fransa Mağlup, 1866 ......................................... ................................................................... ............................................ ............................................ ......................... ... 11 1866’da Osmanlı ............................................. ............................................................... ............................................. ........................................ ................. 12 1866’nın Diğer Olayları ......................................... .................................................................. ............................................ ......................... ... 13 Çin’de Yakup Bey İsyanı, 1866 ............................................ Riemann ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................. ........................................ ................. 14 ................................................................. ........................................... ..................... 15 Abdülaziz’in Avrupa Gezisi, 1867 ........................................... ..................................................... ...... 17 Osmanlıda Çalkantılar, Düzenlemeler, Sürgünler, 1867 . ............................................... Kapital, 1867 ............................................ .................................................................. ............................................ ............................................ ................................ .......... 20 ................................................................... ............................ ..... 21 Alman Toplumunda Yeni Gelişmeler, 1867 ............................................ Kanada ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................ ........................................... ..................... 22 ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................ ................................ .......... 23 İspanya, 1868 ........................................... .................................................................... ............................................. ....................................... ................. 24 1868’in diğer olayları ............................................. Baudelaire............................................. ................................................................... ............................................ ............................................ .................................... .............. 25 Faraday ............................................. ................................................................... ............................................ ............................................. ........................................ ................. 26 ................................................................ ............................................ ......................... ... 30 Osmanlıda Modern Eğitim, 1868 .......................................... 1868 Osmanlıda Diğer Bazı gelişmeler ........................................... .................................................................. .................................... ............. 32 ................................................................ ............................................ .................................... .............. 33 1868’in Diğer Gelişmeleri .......................................... Amerika Transkontinantal Demiryolu, 1869.................................... 1869.......................................................... .................................... .............. 34 ............................................................ ................. 36 Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Milliyetçilikle Dertli, 1869 ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ......................... ... 39 Süveş Kanalının Açılması, 1869 ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ .................................... .............. 40 1869’un Bazı Gelişmeleri ........................................... Hector Berlioz ............................................. .................................................................... ............................................. ............................................ ............................ ...... 41 Lamartine ............................................. ................................................................... ............................................ ............................................ .................................... .............. 42 Osmanlı Devlet yapılanmasında yenileşme, 1870 .......................................... ............................................................... ..................... 43 ......................................................... .......... 46 ABD’de Demiryolları Göçü Hareketlendiriyor, 1870 . ............................................... Fransa-Prusya Savaşı, 1870 ............................................ .................................................................. ............................................ ................................ .......... 48 ................................................................ ............................................ .................................... .............. 50 1870’de Diğer Gelişmeler .......................................... Dickens ............................................. ................................................................... ............................................ ............................................. ........................................ ................. 52 Alexandre Dumas (baba) ............................. ................................................... ............................................. .............................................. ............................ ..... 53 ............................................................... .................................... .............. 55 Osmanlı Aydınları reform peşinde, 1871 ......................................... .................................................................. ............................................ .................................... .............. 58 Osmanlı’da Yazı Sorunu ............................................ .................................................................. ............................................ ................................ .......... 59 Alman Ulusal Birliği, 1871 ............................................ ............................................................... .................................... .............. 60 Savaşlar Kapitalistlerin işine yarar, 1871 ......................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................. ......................... .. 61 Londra Anlaşması ........................................... ................................................................... ............................................ ........................................... ..................... 62 1871 Paris Komünü ............................................. ............................................................... .................................... .............. 64 Osmanlı Yakup Beye Yardıma Çalışıyor ......................................... ................................................................ ............................................ ......................... ... 65 Osmanlı Eğitimi Gelişiyor, 1871 .......................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ........................................... ..................... 67 Osmanlı Dış Ticareti ........................................... .................................................................. ............................................. ....................................... ................. 68 Yeni Osmanlı Hareketi ........................................... ............................................................... .................................... .............. 69 Osmanlı Dış Siyasetinde Si yasetinde Değişme, 1871 ......................................... .................................................................. ............................................ ......................... ... 70 1871’in Diğer Bazı Gelişmeleri ............................................
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Kovboy, 1873 ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................ ................................ .......... 76 Kriz, 1873.................................................... .......................................................................... ............................................. ............................................. ............................ ...... 78 ................................................................... ............................................. ....................................... ................. 79 1873’ün Bazı Olayları ............................................ ................................................................... ............................................ ............................................ .................................... .............. 80 Su Yolları ............................................. .................................................................... ............................................. ............................................ ............................ ...... 82 Mısır Hıdivliği ............................................. Adam Sedgwick .......................................... ................................................................. ............................................. ............................................ ............................ ...... 83 ................................... 84 Avrupalılar Tropik ve Subtropik Bitkileri Dünya’ya yayıyor, 1874 .................................... ............................................................... ............................................. ........................................ ................. 86 1874’de Bazı gelişmeler ......................................... ................................................................... ............................................ ............................................ .................................... .............. 88 İflas, 1875 ............................................. ................................................................... ............................................. ....................................... ................. 89 1875 Bazı Gelişmeleri ............................................ .................................................................. ............................................ .................................... .............. 91 Avrupa’da Genel Durum ............................................ .................................................................. ............................................ ................................ .......... 94 Avrupa’da Politik Rejimler ............................................ ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................. ......................... .. 97 Avrupa’da Üretim ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................. ......................... .. 99 Avrupa’da Ticaret ........................................... ................................................................... ............................................ ......................................... ................... 101 Altın Gümüş Savaşı ............................................. .................................................................. ....................... 102 Japonya’da Samuray Geleneğinin Bitişi, 1876 ........................................... Bulgar ............................................................... ............................................. ...................................... ............... 104 İsyanı, 1876 ......................................... ............................. 105 Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Sultan Abdülaziz Tahtan İndiriliyor, 1876 ............................. ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................ .................................. ............ 107 Mithat Paşa ........................................... ................................................................... ............................................ ............................................ .............................. ........ 108 Yerli Kıyımı ............................................. .................................................................. ............................................. ..................................... ............... 109 1876’nın Bazı Olayları ........................................... Medeni Kanunlar .................................................... ........................................................................... ............................................. ..................................... ............... 111 1877, Osm anlı Rus Savaşı (93 Harbi) ........................................... ................................................................. ..................................... ............... 113 .................................................................. ............................................ .............................. ........ 115 1877’nin Diğer Gelişmeleri ............................................ Mecelle ............................................. ................................................................... ............................................ ............................................. ...................................... ............... 116 ................................................................... ............................................ ......................................... ................... 118 Ahmet Cevdet Paşa ............................................. ................................................................. ............................................. ..................................... ............... 121 Ayastefanos Anlaşması .......................................... ............................................................... .................................. ............ 123 Girit, Osmanlının Kanayan Yarası, 1878 ......................................... .................................................................. ............................................ .................................. ............ 125 Batıda ilerlemeye devam ............................................ ................................................................... ............................................ ............................................ ........................ 127 Mekaniğin Zaferi ............................................. ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................ .............................. ........ 129 1879 Osmanlı ........................................... ................................................................ ............................................ ............................................ .................................. ............ 130 Aydınlanma .......................................... Henry George ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................ .............................. ........ 131 Bilim ve Din ............................. .................................................... ............................................. ............................................ ............................................ ........................ 133 1880 ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................ ............................................. ....................... 134 ............................................................... ............................................. ...................................... ............... 135 Yeni Amerikalılar, 1880 ......................................... .................................................................... ............................................. ............................................ .......................... .... 136 Doğaya Saldırı ............................................. ................................................................ ............................................ .............................. ........ 138 Batı Kentleri Hızla Büyüyor .......................................... .................................................................. ............................................ .................................. ............ 140 Kimyanın Hükümdarlığı ............................................
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Girit’te İsyan, 1866
Girit isyanı
Çar III. Aleksander 'ın yeğeni Grand Düşes Olga ile Yunan Kralı Georgios evleniyordu. Bu düğün için “ Ruslar çeyiz olarak Girit'i Yunanlılara verecek “ diye bir dedikodu çıktı. Dedikoduya o kadar inanıldı ki, Girit'in Giri t'in dağlıları Sfakyalılar, Mihail Korakas önderliğinde isyan ettiler. Vergi ve adalet konusunda istekler vardı. Bu sırada Girit’in nüfusu 240 bin kadardı. İsyancıların başında Hacı Mihail, fiili olarak ise Yunan Albayı Koroneos vardı. İsyancılar, 16 Ağustos 1866da Selino kazasındaki Müslümanları kadın çocuk demeden öldürdüler (Girit isyanı)). Osmanlı genel bir ayaklanma korkusu ile ve özellikle Müslümanları korumak için isyanı adaya asker yolladı. Ada ufak güvenlik bölgelerine bölgelerine ayrıldı. Ama bu gelişme olayları daha da da ateşledi. Yunanistan’dan binlerce gönüllü Girit adasına geldiler. Adada silahlı çeteler oluştu. Osmanlı ordusu çetecilerin peşine düştü. Osmanlılar adaya 40 bin asker yollamışlardı. Ancak çeteciler sıkışınca köylere kaçıp, köylü kılığına giriyorlardı. Asker çekilince tekrar dağlara çıkıyorlardı. Osmanlılar adayı ezmek istemiyorlardı. İşin sühunetle halli tercih edilecek yoldu. Adaya uzun
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Sphakia halk meclisi 23 Eylül’de Girit’in Yunanistan’a olan bağlılığını ila n etti. Adaya tekrar Osmanlı ve Mısır askerleri geldi. Yeni Girit valisi Ömer Paşaydı ve ayaklanmayı ayaklanmayı sert bir şekilde bastırmaya başladı. Adadaki isyancılar ve Yunanistan, daha önce Balkanlarda olanlara bakıp, Avrupa büyük devletlerinin müdahale edeceğini bekliyorlardı. Herkes kendi derdine düştüğünden ve öncelikleri arklı olduğundan Yunanlıların beklediği müdahale gelmedi. Ayaklanmayı sadece III. Napolyon açıkça destekledi. İsyancılar için yapacak bir şey kalmamıştı. İsyan sönüp, bitti. Tam bu sırada, tam isyan bastırılmışken devreye devreye İngiltere ve Fransa Fransa girdi. Bu büyük ayaklanma bir başlangıç değildi. Bir sondu. Girit zaten 1821’den beri kaynıyordu. Mısır yönetiminde bir 10 yıl sakin kalmışsa da ondan sonra son 20 yıldır, sürekli hareket halindeydi. İsyana teşebbüsler ve cezalandırmalar peş peşe sürüp gidiyordu. Tabii Yunan ana karasından da Girit’e sürekli silah, adam ve isyan teşviği yağıyordu. İngiliz ve Fransızlar Osmanlılardan Girit Açılımı yapmasını istediler. Askeri harekat hemen duracaktı. Silah bırakacak isyancılar için genel af çıkarılacaktı. Girit yoksuldu, ada halkı iki yıl vergiden muaf olacaktı. İdari reformlar yapılacaktı. Padişahın atayacağı valinin biri Türk, diğeri Rum iki yardımcısı olacaktı. Ayrıca resmi yazışmalarda Türkçe zorunluluğu kaldırılıyordu. Osmanlı bu açılımı kabul etti. Türkler rahatladı; köy ve mezralarına döndüler.
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Mısır Valisi Hıdiv oluyor, 1866
Hıdiv İsmail Paşa
Mısır valisi İsmail Paşa İstanbul ile çok iyi geçiniyordu. geçiniyordu. Padişaha ve Babıali bürokratlarına kıymetli hediyeler yolluyordu. Hicaz ve Girit isyanları sırasında Osmanlı ordusuna asker vermişti. Mısır valiliğinin veraset yolu bir fermanla değiştirili. Valilik hanedanın en büyüğü yerine babadan oğla oğla geçmeye başladı. başladı. 1866’dan sonra sonra Mısır valilerine Hıdiv (saltanat (saltanat naibi) denmeye başlandı. Protokolde yerleri sadrazam ve şeyhülislamdan hemen sonra geliyordu. İlk Hıdiv İsmail Paşaydı. İsmail Paşanın torunu Kral Faruk olacaktır. Faruk olacaktır. Ayrıca Mısır ordusunun 18 bin yerine 30 bine çıkması kabul edildi. Buna karşı Mısır vergi olarak yılda ödediği 80 bin kese altını 150 bin keseye (750.000 altın lira) çıkarıyordu. İsmail Paşa Girit valiliğini de istemişti. Ama bunu İngiliz ve
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Prusya Alman Birliğine Doğru, 1866
Avusturya-prusya Savaşı
Mavi = Prusya ve müttefikleri, Kırmızı = Avusturya ve müttefikleri, Yeşil = Tarafsızlar
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Savaş esnasında Prusya orduları Avusturya ordularını ezmiş olmasına rağmen Avusturya'yı kaybetmemek adına Otto von Bismark 'ın emriyle Viyana'ya girmemiştir. Otto von Bismark için ilk ciddi tecrübe olan bu savaş aslında Bismark'ın zekasının bir örneğidir. Prusya kendi topraklarını ikiye bölmekte ikiye bölmekte olan Alman Alman devletlerini ilhak etmişti. etmişti. Güneydeki dört devlet hariç bütün Alman devletleri Kuzey Almanya Konfederasyonuna Konfederasyonuna girmeye zorladı. Savaşın ardından yapılan antlaşmayla Avusturya, Prusya'nın önderlik ettiği Kuzey Alman Konfederasyonu'ndan Konfederasyonu'ndan çıkarılmıştı. çıkarılmıştı . Prusya kralı başkan unvanı ile savaş, dış ilişkiler, i lişkiler, ticaret ve gümrük işlerini kendi üzerine almıştı. Viyana’da imzalanan anlaşma ile İtalya İtal ya Avusturya’dan Veneto’yu aldı.
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Meksika’da Fransa Mağlup, 1866
Fransa’nın Meksika’yı işgali sırasında görevde bulunan ABD Başkanı Abraham Lincoln, Juárez önderliğindeki cumhuriyetçileri desteklese de Amerikan İç Savaşı yüzünden savaşa doğrudan müdahil olamamıştı. İç savaşın sonuçlanmasından sonuçlanmasından ardından ABD Başkanı Andrew Johnson, Philip Sheridan ve Ulysses S. Grant komutasında 50 bin kişilik bir orduyu ABD Meksika sınırına göndererek, Fransız birliklerine gözdağı verdi. Ayrıca cumhuriyetçilere silah desteği yapıldı. ABD Kongresi daha 1864 yılında Meksika’da monarşinin kurulmasına karşı çıkan bir karar almıştı. Ayrıca Şubat 1866’da Fransız birliklerinin Meksika’da koşulsuz olarak geri çekilmesi talep edildi. Fransız donanmasının donanmasının karaya asker çıkartmasına çıkartmasına engellemek için Meksika Meksika sahillerini ABD donanması abluka altına aldı.
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1866’da Osmanlı
İzmir - Aydın Demiryolu İnşaatı
Osmanlı Donanması Kırım Savaşı sırasında Rus donanması karşısında çok hantal kalmıştı. Savaştan sonra donanmanın yenilenmesine özel bir önem gösterilmişti. Osmanlı donanması son model zırhlılarla donatıldı. Şimdi bu donanma tekrar dünyanın üçüncü büyük donanması olmuştu. İstanbul’da ve imparatorluğun başka büyük kentlerinde Bankalar semti oluşmaya başladı. Banka binaları ihtişamlı yapılardı. Batı Kapitalizminin zafer anıtları gibiydiler. Bankaların hemen yak ınında, ınında, iş hanları da açılmaya başladı. Bu iş hanlarında dar ve üst üste bürolarda kapitalist yaşamın işleri görülüyordu. 1866’da İstanbul’da Haliç’e bakan yerde çıkan yangından sonra da, bölge yeniden 1648 İmar Nizamnamesine uygun yapıldı. İngiliz sermayesi ile demiryolu yapımına başlanmıştı. 1866’da İzmir – Aydın – Aydın arasındaki 130 Km’lik hat açıldı. Bu İzmir limanına l imanına iç bölgelerin ürününü taşıdığı için en fazla tüccarların işine yarıyordu. 1866’da Tarikatların tek çatı altında kontrol edilebilmesi için Şeyhülislamlığa bağlı, bir meclis ihdas edildi. Meclisi Meşayih denen kuruluşta medrese uleması ve tarikat şeyhleri bulunuyordu. Amaç tekkeleri bir hiyerarşi hiyerarşi içine almak ve kontrol altında tutabilmekti. tutabilmekti. Aslında
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1866’nın Diğer Olayları
Great Eastern 1866, Su altı kablo döşeyici
Şubat 1866’da Romanya’da Aleksandr Kuza (Couza) darbe ile devrildi. Romenler yerine Hohenzollern hanedanı ndan prens Şarl Şarl’’ı başa geçirdiler. Ekim ayında Osmanlı devleti Şarl’ın
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Çin’de Yakup Bey İsyanı, 1866
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Riemann
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Abdülaziz’in Avrupa Gezisi, 1867
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ziyaret etti. Kraliçe ile beraber donanmanın manevrasını manevrasını izledi. Avam kamarasındaki kamarasındaki bir oturuma katıldı. Londra fahri hemşerilik verdi. Kraliçe bizzat dizbağı nişanını taktı. Önemli bir Osmanlı dostu olan müteveffa başbakan Palmerston’un ailesini ziyaret etti. Dönüşte Belçika üzerinden dönüp, Belçika kralı II. Leopold ile de buluştu. Ren (Rhein) üzerinden Prusya’ya giden Abdülaziz ve heyeti, Kral I. W ilhelm ve Kraliçe Kr aliçe tarafından karşılandı. Prusya kralının Berlin’den 460 Km uzaktaki Koblenz’e gelerek Abdülaziz ile görüşmesi, bu zamanki Osmanlı prestijini göstermesi açısından önemlidir. Abdülaziz ve heyeti, 28 Temmuz’da Viyana’ya vardı. Viyana’da Avusturya imparat oru Franz-Joseph ile görüştükten sonra Tuna üzerinden Budapeşte’ye vardı. Her yerde olduğu gibi burada da halkın büyük tezahüratına tezahüratına mazhar mazhar oldu. Sultan Abdülaziz 3 Ağustos’ta Padişah Osmanlı sınırından girdi. Padişahı Tuna valisi Mithat Paşa sınırda karşıladı. Rusçuk’ta Abdülaziz’i yeni Romanya kralı Karol gelerek, ziyaret etti.
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Osmanlıda Çalkantılar, Düzenlemeler, Düzenlemeler, Sürgünler, 1867
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Namın Kemal Erzurum’a, Erzurum’a, Ziya Paşa Kıbrıs’a atandı. Ali Suavi Suavi Kastamonu’ya Kastamonu’ya sürüldü. Bu sırada Mustafa Fazıl Paşa Paris’teydi. Bu üç sürgün, Fransız elçisinin yardımı ile onun yanına Paris’e kaçtılar (Mayıs 1 867). İttifakı Hamiyet örgütünün sürülmeyen üyeleri, bir darbe planladılar. Abdülaziz Babıali’yi ziyaret ederken harekete geçeceklerdi. Sadrazam Ali Paşa öldürülecekti. Darbecilerin içinden Ayetullah darbeyi ele verdi. Darbeciler tutuklandılar. İçlerinden Mehmet, Nuri ve Reşat kaçabildi (Haziran 1867). Ağustos ayında Paris’te, Ziya, Namık Kemal, Ali Suavi, Mehmet, Rıfat ve Agah efendiler “ Yeni Osmanlı “ örgütünü kurdular. Mustafa Fazıl Paşanın mali desteği ile Paris’te “ Muhbir “ yayınlanmaya başlandı. Osmanlı imparatorluğunda yabancı yabancı şirketler birbiri ardına kuruluyordu. Bu meyanda İzmir Rıhtım Şirketi kuruldu ve bir dizi liman inşası başladı. Avrupalı kapitalistler tabii ki para peşindeydiler. Kendilerini iyi para kazanacağı işlere giriyorlardı. Osmanlı devletinin menfaati ve ihtiyacı ihti yacı onların umurunda değildi. Osmanlı imparatorluğu dev bir sömürge pastasıydı. Çok büyüktü, hiçbir devlet onu tek t ek başına yiyip,
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Müslüman dininin tutucu kesimleri her yerde ama özellikle Anadolu kasabalarında birbirini buluyor, örgütleniyorlardı. örgütleniyorlardı. Anadolu kırsalında kırsalında Aleviler hala çoğunluktaydılar. çoğunluktaydılar. Gerici Gerici yapı oralara sızamıyordu. Anadolu kasabalarında kasabalarında ise Hıristiyanlar Hıristi yanlar ve Sünniler birlikte yaşıyorlardı. Buralarda Sünni örgütlenmeleri kasabaların kozmopolit yapısı sayesinde sa yesinde kompanze ediliyordu.
Anadolu sakindi, sanki kendi içine kapanmıştı. Her kompartıman kendi hayatını yaşıyordu. yaşıyordu. Sadece Sünni yapılanma, çeşitli tarikatlar aracılığı ile çevresine tahakküm tahakküm etmenin yollarını arıyordu. Gericilik, hem merkezileşmeye merkezileşmeye ve hem de yenileşmeye karşıydı. Teknolojiyi istemiyor, ondan korkuyordu. Onun durağan ve biteviye b iteviye dünyasında harekete ve gelişmeye yer yoktu.
1867 yılında Amasra kasabasında ayan ve eşraf telgrafa karşı çıkarak, direkleri sökmüşlerdi. Yol yapımını engellemeye çalışıyorlardı.
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Kapital, 1867
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Alman Toplumunda Yeni Gelişmeler, 1867
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Kanada
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İspanya, 1868
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1868’in diğer olayları
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okuyordu. Encyclopedia Britannica'nın üçüncü baskısındaki elektrik maddesinden özellikle
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ilk ilmi keşfini de gerçekleştirmiş oldu. Bir mıknatıs etrafında, tersine karşılıklı dönebilen bir
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iletken adı verilir. Yalıtkanlar ise i se parçacıklarını yerlerinden koparmak için çok yüksek
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1871 Paris Komünü
Kızıl Bayrak
Prusya ordusu Paris kapılarına dayanmıştı. Millet Meclisi’ni Bordeaux’dan Versailles’a taşıyan Adolphe Thiers hükümeti 1 Mart’ta teslim oldu. Aylardır hem aşağılanan, hem de yoksulluktan kırılan Paris emekçileri ve siyasi si yasi örgütleri Paris’in bağımsız bir Komün olmasını istemekteydi. Fransız Devrimi’nin miraslarından Ulusal Muhafızlar Merkez Komitesi , 3 Mart’ta gerici ve kraliyetçilerin krali yetçilerin çoğunlukta olduğu Versailles yönetimini tanımadığını açıkladı. Versailles, 17 Mart’ta Ulusal Muhafızların Montmartre tepesinde elinde tuttuğu 171 topu geri almak istedi. 18 Mart sabaha karşı topları almaya gelen askerlere karşı kurulan barikatların di. üstünde, Mon tmartre Nöbetçi Komitesi sözcüsü, Louise Michel adlı anarşist bir kadın lider di.
Askerler komutanlarının “Ateş!” emrine değil, Louise’nin kardeşlik ve birleşme çağrısına uydular.
Haberin hızla yayılması üzerine Paris başkaldır dı. Her yanda barikatlar kuruldu. U lusal Muhafız Merkez Komitesi tüm stratejik nokta ve binalara el koydu. Yerel komitelerin onayını alan Ulusal Muhafız Merkez Komitesi Paris’te yeni ve bağımsız bir yönetim birimi kurulduğunu bütün dünyaya ilan etti:
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Manet komündeydi. Dokuz yaşında isyana katılmaktan hapse atılan ünlü besteci Claude Debussy’nin babası bir Komün sorumlusudur. İsyanların yazarı Jules Vallès, Vallès, şair Arthur Rimbaud, ilk başta çekinen fakat sonradan yazı ve romanlarıyla sürece sahip çıkan yazar Victor Hugo Komünden yanaydılar .
Paris Kahvelerinde tartışma
“ Kanlı Hafta ” denen 21 -28 Mayıs arasında, 30 bin komüncü , Prusya desteğinde Versailles ordusu tarafından katledil di. Eugène Varlin gibi modern sendikacılığın kurucusu sayılan aydınlar da ölenler arasındaydı. Komünün Paris’e hakim olduğu 72 gün süresince , doğrudan katılım, özyönetim, örgütlenme ve ifade özgürlüğü, laiklik, herkese konut, eğitim ve sağlık gibi bugün bile dünyada yer yer hayal bile edilemeyecek birçok sosyal ve siyasi önlem ve ilke uygulandı. Katılımcı demokrasinin, toplumsal cumhuriyetin, çağından, çevresinden sorumlu, çağdaş ve evrensel “ Yurttaş ” kavramının doğduğu, denendiği yuva 1871 Paris Komünüdür . Komün Marx taraf ından, ından, “ Yeni bir toplumun görkemli öncüsü ” diye nitelenmiştir .
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Osmanlı Yakup Beye Yardıma Çalışıyor
Yakup Bey Gece görüşmesi
Çin’de Yakup Bey isyanı devam ediyordu. ediyordu. Tarım havzasının doğu doğu kısmında Turfan ve Tanrı Dağlarınnı aşarak Urumçi Dağları aşarak Urumçi''yi, peşinden Manas, Piçan ve İli İli bölgesini bölgesini işgal ederek ederek bütün Doğu Türkistan'dan Çin ordusunu sürdü. Yakup Han ülkede istikrarı sağladıktan sonra Osmanlı Devletine elçi göndererek, Sultan Abdülaziz’den yardım ve himaye talebinde bulundu. Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Yakup Han'ın bu talebini kabul etmiş ve Albay Kazım Bey komutasında 5 muvazzaf ve 3 emekli Subaydan oluşan bir asker eğitim grubunu 1200 piyade pi yade tüfeği 6 sahra topu ve cephane yapımında kullanılan barut ve malzemeleri ile Doğu Türkistan'a gönderdi. Heyet Kaşgar'da büyük coşku ve sevinç ile karşılanmış, hutbeler padişah adına okunmuş ve paralar da Sultan Abdülaziz Han adına bastırılmıştır.
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Osmanlı Eğitimi Gelişiyor, 1871
1871 yılında Osmanlı Devlet adamlarından Sadrazam Ali Paşa öldü. Ali Paşa Üniversite tasarısının en önde gelen destekleyicisiydi. Onun ölümü ile tasarı da rafa kalktı. Şimdi yüksek öğrenim yapmak isteyen isteyen gençler için tek bir yol kalmıştı. Bu da II. Mahmut devrinde açılmış olan çeşitli yüksek yüksek okullardı. 1830’lu yıllardan başlayarak ordu için mühendis, hekim, baytar, müzik çalan yetiştirmekle yükümlü yüksek okullar kurulmuştu. 1859 Mektebi Mülkiye, 1862 Darülmuallimin, 1866 Mektebi Tıbbiye, 1870 Kız öğretmen okulu vardı. Bunlar tüm Osmanlı uyruklarına açıktılar. Tıbbiye mektebinde çoğunluk Müslüman olmayanlardaydı. olmayanlardaydı. Bundan sonra Osmanlı subaylarının neden en önde gelen Osmanlı aydınları olacağını anlamak zor değildir. Türkiye için geleceğin kaderi bu okullarda şekillenecektir. Askerler Osmanlı İmparatorluğu yıkıntılarından diri bir Cumhuriyet çıkaracaklardır. Ve yenileştirmeleri daha da hızlı gerçekleştirerek “ Muasır medeniyete “ yetişmeye çalışacaklardır. çalışacaklardır. Ancak unutulmasın ki ulema devlet yönetiminde çok tecrübeli ve ustadır. Onlar ilk sarsıntıları atlatınca tekrar
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Devlet istediği kadar tüm tebaaya t ebaaya eşitlikçi yaklaşsa da buna yeterli cevabı alamayacaktı. Müslüman olmayan unsurlar kendi din adamlarının ve Avrupa’nın faaliyetleri sonucu kendi dil ve kültür miraslarına çok bağlıydılar. Buna ilave reaksiyonerdiler. reaksiyonerdiler. Türk ve İslam damgası taşıyan hiçbir şeyi özümleyemezlerdi. Ve ellerinde devlet okullarından çok daha iyi ö ğretim yapan kendi okulları vardı. 1871’de Ermeni cemaatinin İstanbul’da 48, Anadolu’da 469 okulu vardı. Helenikos Philologikos Syllogos (Yunan Edebiyat Derneği) çabaları sayesinde Greklerinde buna benzer bir eğitim ağı vardı. Sayıları Sayıları görece az olan olan Yahudilerin okul sayısı sayısı daha azdı. Ama Paris’teki Evrensel İsrail Birliği çabaları ile Yahudi okulları sayısı da hızla artacaktı. Yabancı okullardan bahsederken bahsederken misyoner faaliyetlerini faali yetlerini de unutmamak gerekir. Sadece Amerikan misyonerlerinin 1870’de 205 okulu olduğundan bahsedilir. 1863’de kurulan Robert Kolejde bunların arasındaydı. Katolik misyonerlerin mi syonerlerin de yüzlerce okuldan oluşmuş ağları vardı. Misyonerler Osmanlı İmparatorluğunu kültürel olarak sömürgeleştiriyorlardı. Osmanlı Devlet adamları olup bitenin farkındaydı. Bu okullar ayrılıkçı fikirlerin tohumlarının t ohumlarının dikildiği yerlerdi, ayrılıkçı akımlara insan yetiştiren merkezlerdi. Ancak, İmparatorluk kendine güveniyordu. Önceliği de yenileşmeye vermişti. Ayrılıkçı akımları önemsiyor ama en önceliğe koymuyordu. İleride biraz önlem alınacaktı. Bu da II. Abdülhamit döneminde olacaktı. O zamana kadar Babiali Hıristiyan misyonerleri hareketlerinde serbest bıraktı. Babaili Batılı devletlerin dostluğuna çok ihtiyaç duyuyordu. Batılılarda eğitimde azınlıklara ve misyonerlere verilen hakları Osmanlıların modernleşmedeki en belirgin işareti olarak kabul ediyorlardı. Devlet yanlış tercih kullanmış, yabancı hayranlığı ile altının oyulmasına razı olmuştu. Halbuki bilmeli idi ki her işin başı eğitimdir. Ama modern eğitimden gelmeyenler gelmeyenler bunu nasıl anlayacaklardı. anlayacaklardı.
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Osmanlı Dış Ticareti
Halı dokuma
Osmanlı imparatorluğunda daha önce bahsedilen ticaret anlaşmalarının peşinden dış ticaret hızla artıyordu. 1840’da Osmanlı dış satımı 4,7 milyon sterlindi. Şimdi 20 milyon sterline çıkmıştı. Dış alım da 5,2 milyondan 24 milyona yükseldi. Yani dış ticaret 5 misli artmıştı. Bu dış satım artışı tarım ve hayvancılık kökenli bir artıştı. Tütün, pamuk, buğday, buğday, arpa, kuru üzüm, incir, ipek, haşhaş, tiftik tüm satışların %60’ını oluşturuyordu. Arkadan boya çıkarılan bitkiler, zeytinyağı, zeytinyağı, yağ çıkarılan bitkiler, deri, sünger sünger vs geliyordu. geliyordu. Dış alım da ise giysi, silah, mobilya, alet, makine, saat, telgraf telleri, ilaç, şeker, baharat,
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Yeni Osmanlı Hareketi
İstanbul’a dönmüş olan Namık Kemal, Ali paşanın ölümü üzerine “ İbret “ gazetesini çıkarmaya başladı. Yeni Osmanlı hareketi bir fikir hareketiydi. Meşrutiyet, imparatorluğun kötü gidişine dur diyecek bir ilaç gibi görülüyordu. Genel kanı çok para harcayan sarayın, ülkeyi zor duruma düşürdüğü yönündeydi. yönündeydi. Keyfi harcama ve keyfi vergilere son verilmesi gerekiyordu. Ayrıca meşrutiyet halka hürriyet verecekti . Çeşitli milletler hür bir meclis çatısı altında, kendilerine uygun kanunları yaparak, yaparak, istedikleri gibi yaşayacaklardı. Böylece imparatorluktan ayrılma düşüncesi düşüncesi de sönümlenecekti. sönümlenecekti. Avrupa’nın müdahale kapısı da kapanacaktı. Yeni Osmanlılar, değişik milletlerden bir ulus çıkarmaya çalışıyorlardı. Bu anlamda Namık
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Osmanlı Dış Siyasetinde Değişme, 1871
Prusya’nın Fransa’ya karşı kazandığı zaferin Osmanlı iç ve dış siyasetinde si yasetinde de önemli etk isi görüldü. Osmanlı reformcuları şimdiye kadar hep Fransa’yı örnek almış ve onu medeniyetin temsilcisi kabul etmişlerdi. Bundan sonra reformcular Fransa’yı her şeyi ile taklit t aklit etmeyeceklerdi.
Zaten Ali Paşanın ölümü de iç i ç dengelerin değişmesine neden olmuştu. Tanzimat dönemi yöneticilerinin son temsilcisi artık yoktu. Ancak hala i yi yetişmiş devlet adamları vardı. Ali
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1871’in Diğer Bazı Gelişmeleri
Gotthard Tüneli inşaat işçileri
Demiryollarının genişlemesi Avrupa ve Amerika’da sürüyordu. Cenis tüneli bitmişti. tüneli bitmişti. Yapımı 5 yıl sürmüş, 1.300 m yüksekte 13 Km’lik tünel açılmıştı. Cenis tüneli herkese cesaret vermişti. Gothard tüneli inşaatına başlandı. Gothard tüneli 15 Km olarak 10 yılda tamamlanacaktı. tamamlanacaktı. Çalışma çok zor koşullarda yapılmıştı. Yer yer 86 derece sıcaklıkta çalışılmıştı. Bu tünel açılırken otomatik delme makineleri de kullanılmaya başlandı. 1871’den sonra önce Almanya, peşinden Fransa ve daha sonra İtalya kendilerine ham madde bölgeleri aramaya başladılar. Gözlerini Doğuya Doğuya çevirmişlerdi. Böylece himayesi olmayan bölgelerde yeni bir uluslar arası müstemlekeler mücadelesi
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Bizonların sonu, 1872
Kuzey Amerika’da avcılar Bizonları vuruyorlardı. 1872’de sadece Kansas’a 1 milyondan fazla bizon postu yollandı. Batıda her post 3 dolar demekti. Avcılar iyi i yi para kazanıyorlardı. Bizon derileri fabrikalarda tahrik kayışı olarak kullanılıyordu. Bizonun kalan parçalarından da ayakkabı üretiliyordu. Kızılderililer, beyazlara ne yaptıklarını anlamadan bakıyorlardı. Ancak hepsi, bizon katliamının hayatlarını etkileyeceğini biliyordu. Ovalardaki yerliler bizonlara muhtaçtılar. Onlar doymak için avlanır ve bir kırıntıyı bile ziyan etmezdi. Bizon besin, çatak kaşık, silah, kap-kacak, çadır, giysi yani her şey demekti. Kızılderililer ve bizonlar son buzul çağından beri hep bir aradaydılar. Kızılderililerin ataları, ortada ort ada daha at yokken, bizonları yürüyerek avlarlardı. Atlar Amerika’ya İspanyollarla gelmişler ve büyük ovalara kaçanlar, orada hızla üremişlerdi. Şimdi 1 milyon mil yon at ovalarda koşuyordu. Atların evcilleştirilmesi, Kızılderililerin hayatını
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Genç Osmanlılar Mücadeleye Devam Ediyor, 1872
Şehzade V. Murat, Fransız Büyük Doğu Büyük Doğu Locasına müracaat ederek Mason olmak istedi. Osmanlı sürgünleri, Genç Osmanlılar dışarıda 5 yıl geçirmişlerdi. Olgunlaştılar. Bulundukları
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Avrupa’da Coğrafya Yaygınlaşıyor, 1872
1870 Dünya haritası
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İtalya tüm uluslar içinde en yüksek görevi üzerine4 almalıydı. Bu entelektüel ve moral kılavuzluk göreviydi. Mazzini, İtalya ulusal uyanışının başlıca unsurlarından biri olmuştu. İngilizceye çevrilen eserleri ile etkisi Hindistan’a da yayıldı. Ölmeden az önce 1871 Paris Komününün yaptıklarına karşı çıkmıştı. Carlizm,, Burbonlardan ayrılan bir koldan olan İspanya’da Üçüncü Carlist Savaşı başladı. Savaşı başladı. Carlizm Naip Carlos’dan inenlerin İspanya tahtında hak iddia etmeleriyle oluşmuş bir politik hareketti. Bu savaş 1876 yılına kadar sürdü.
Şimdi Avrupa’da nerede ise her okulda dünyanın 5 kıtasını gösteren haritalar vardı. Atlaslar yayınlanıyor ve kullanılıyordu. Ancak topografik haritaların hazırlanabilmesi için büyük bir çaba gösteriliyordu. Jeofizik, jeoloji ve fiziksel coğrafya konularında da hızla mesafeler alınıyordu. Dünyanın kabuğu didik didik ediliyordu. Kuram üzerine kuram kuruluyordu. İklim de inceleniyor, modellemeler yapılmaya çalışılıyordu. Denizler ve okyanuslar üzerinde çalışmalar ve bilgi de ilerliyordu. ilerli yordu.
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1872’in Diğer Olayları Birinci Enternasyonal'in (Uluslararası İşçiler Birliği) Birli ği) Eylül 1872'de beşinci kongresi Lahey’de
yapıldı. Lahey Kongresinde anarşist Mikhail Bakunin ve Karl Marx arasında ciddi bir tartışma oldu. Bakunin'in Marx'ın fikirlerini otoriter olarak değerlendirmesiyle başlayan başlayan gruplar arasındaki tartışmanın sonunda anarşistler dışlandı ve kongreden ayrılırdılar. Bu anarşist ve sosyalist grupların birlikte yer aldığı son kongre oldu. Bu kongreyi anarşistler anarşistler kadük kadük ilan ettiler.
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Kovboy, 1873
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Kriz, 1873
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1873’ün Bazı Olayları 1873 yılında Amadeo İspanya tahtından indirilerek, Cumhuriyet ilan edildi. On Yıl Savaşı nda ve Üçüncü Carlist Savaşın Savaşı nda meydana gelen zorluklar, Amadeo’yu tahtından etmişti. Cumhuriyet ilan edilmişti ana monarşistler çalışmalarını sürdürüyorlardı. Monarşistlerin bir kısmı İspanya tahtına tekrar Bourbonları getirmek isti yorlardı. Bunun için Kraliçe İsabel’in oğlu Alfonso adaylarıydı. Osmanlı topraklarında demiryolu yapımına hem Avrupa sermayesi istekliydi ve hem de Babıali istekliydi. Asker sevk etmek, ürünleri değerlendirmek, ülkeyi denetlemek için demiryolu biçilmiş katandı. Bütün Osmanlı yöneticileri demiryoluna özlem duyuyorlardı. Demiryolu konuşulurken, Topkapı Sarayının Bahçesini bir bölümünün gidebileceği konu olunca, Sultan Abdülaziz: “ Tek yapılsın da isterse sırtımdan geçsin “ demişti.
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Su Yolları
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indirildi. Sanayi ve yerleşim suyollarına göre düzenleniyordu. İsviçre’nin de içinde bulunduğu çok geniş bir bölgenin kaderi Rhein’in elindeydi.
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Mısır Hıdivliği
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Adam Sedgwick
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Avrupalılar Tropik ve Subtropik Bitkileri Dünya’ya yayıyor, 1874
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istemiyorlardı. Sıcak, sulu, mümbit topraklı, iş gücünün ucuz olduğu her yerde pamuk üretimi teşvik edildi. Ganj vadisi, Nil çevresi, Adana pamuk üretimine iyice açıldı. Peşinden Çin, Brezilya, Antiler, Meksika, Nijerya, Uganda gelecekti.
XIX. yüzyılın başında dünyada kullanılan giysi içinde %12 olan bitkisel kaynaklı dokuma, XIX. yüzyılın sonunda %50’ye yükselecekti. yükselecekti. Beyazlar keyif içkilerinin üretimini de ele almışlardı. Çay, kahve kakao üretim ve t icareti karlıydı ve talep gittikçe artıyordu. Seylan’da, Güneydoğu Güneydoğu Asya’da çay bitkisi dikilip, ürün alınmaya başlayınca, bu konuda Çin’in tekeli bitmişti.
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1874’de Bazı gelişmeler
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Türkmenistan’a hakim olan Yakup Bey, 1874'de Britanya ile antlaşma imzaladı ve Britanya
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Sırbistan Osmanlılara hasım bir devlet haline gelmişti.
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Osmanlının soluğu tükenmişti. İngiltere yardımlarına karşılık Kıbrıs’ı isteyip, 4 Haziran’da sahip oldu. Avusturya Bosna- Hersek’i işgal etti.
Türk Muhacirler
13 Temmuz’da Berlin anlaşması imzalandı. Osmanlıların Ayastefanos ile uğradıkları kayıplar azalmıştı. Örneğin Anadolu’da Ruslara bırakılan toprak 39 bin kilometreden 27 bin kilometre kareye düşürüldü. Büyük Bulgaristan küçültüldü. Sırbistan, Karadağ ve Romanya bağımsız devletler haline geldiler. Yunanistan’a bir miktar toprak verildi. Osmanlı devleti Ermenilerin oturduğu bölgelerde ıslahat yapacaktı. !870’den beri devam eden bunalım, sonunda pek çok Türk’ün kanı ile ve kaybolan topraklarla sona ermiş gibi görülüyordu. Osmanlı ordusunun çekildiği yerlerden pek çok Türk ve Müslüman çekildi. Anadolu anavatanına anavatanına döndü.
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Girit, Osmanlının Kanayan Yarası, 1878
Arkadi
Osmanlı devletinin vergi gelirleri 1860’dan sonra artmaya başlamıştı. 1877 -78’e gelindiğinde öşür geliri 434 milyon kuruştan 675 milyon kuruşa, bedel geliri 60 milyondan 92 milyona, damga resmi vergi geliri 22,4 milyondan 50 milyona çıkmıştı. Dış alımda da İngiltere başı çekiyordu. Osmanlı dış alımlarının %70,45’i İngiltere, %11,8 Fransa, %11,8’i Avusturya’dan temin ediliyordu . Giysi, silah, mobilya, alet, makine, saat, telgraf telleri, ilaç, şeker, baharat, kömür başta satın alınan ürünlerdi. Eflak ve Boğdan Romanya adı altında bağımsız bir devlet oldu. Romen Ortodoks Kilisesi ener patrikhanesinden bağımsızlaştı. Patrikhane Bulgar Ortodoks Kilisesinin varlığını şiddetle reddediyordu. Bulgar Kilisesinin ulusallığı ancak İkinci Dünya Savaşından sonra ener Rum Patrikhanesince kabul edildi.
Sırbistan bağımsız bir devlet olmuştu. Osmanlının 1878de Ruslara yenilmesi Girit'te yeni bir ayaklanmaya neden oldu. Olan, köylerine dönen Türklere oldu. Evleri, tarlaları yakıldı, canlarından oldular. Osmanlı ordusu yine isyancıların peşine düştü. Ve devreye yine Avrupalılar girdi. Onların bastırmalarıyla, diğer Osmanlı vilayetlerinden farklı, Girit'e özel imtiyazlar tanındı.
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sayıca fazla olacaktı. Vilayet Meclisi ve mahkeme dili Rumca olacak; ancak resmi zabıtlar ve dilekçeler Rumca ve Türkçe olabilecekti. Asayişi sağlayan jandarma, yerli halktan seçilecekti. II. Abdülhamit 1878 yılında hukuk alanında uzman ihtiyacını karşılamak amacıyla Mekteb -i Hukuk- ı Şahane (Hukuk Fakültesi)’yi kurdu. 19. yüzyıl Osmanlı adalet teşkilatının en önemli eksiği mahkemelerde birlik olmamasıdır.(Bu mahkemeler dört kategoride incelenebilir: Nizamiye Mahkemeleri, Mahkemeleri, Konsolosluk Mahkemeleri, Mahkemeleri, Şer’i Mahkemeler Mahkemeler ve Cemaat Cemaat Mahkemeleri).
Osmanlı imparatorluğunun olağanüstü durumu ileri sürülerek, 13 Şubat 1878’de Osmanlı meclisi padişah II. Abdülhamit tarafından feshedildi.
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Batıda ilerlemeye devam
Cleude Bernard
Termodinamiğin kurucularından biri olarak kabul edilen Alman fizikçisi Julius Robert von Mayer (1814 Mayer (1814 –1878) öldü. Mayer, Mayer, termodinamiğin birinci yasası yasası olarak bilinen enerjinin enerjinin korunumu yasası ile tanınmıştır. Enerji ne yaratılabilir, ne de yok edilebilir. Mayer 1842'de tüm canlılar için canlılar için birincil enerji kaynağı olarak hayati önem taşıyan, “ oxidation “ olarak bilinen kimyasal olayı açıkladı. Mayer ayrıca bitkilerin, ışık enerjisini kimyasal enerjiye çevirdiğini de öne sürmüştü. Mayer'in yaşamı boyunca başarılarına önem verilmedi ve ısının mekanik eşdeğerinin keşfi Joule' e verildi. konusundaki konusundaki öncelik James Joule' 1878’de Claude Bernard öldü. Öldüğünde tıpta hayvansal ve bitkisel alanların birliğini kurmuştu. Fizyolojiyi ampirizm ve metafizikten kurtarmıştı. İri, sakin ve heybetli bir kişiydi. Öldü ama yaydığı ışık bitmedi. Peşinden onun yolundan yürüyen pek çok takipçisi olmuştu.
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İlk telefon bürosu Newhaven’da açıldı. Telefon kadar hayret verici bir buluş olan ses kayıt cihazı fonograf ilkesel olarak Charles Cros tarafından bulunmuş, Edison tarafından gerçekleştirilmişti. 1878’de Berlin Kongresi toplandı.
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Mekaniğin Zaferi
Mac Cormick Balya Makinesi
Mekanik ilerlemiş ve üretim yükünü yükünü sırtlamıştı. 1776’da 10 işçi ile günde 48 bin çengelli iğne yapılırken, şimdi makine dakikada 180 çengelli iğne ( 10 işçi ile günde 2 milyon) yapıyordu. ABD pamuklu üretimi işçi başına 30 kat artmıştı. Dokumada atılan ilmik sayısı dakikada 10 işçi için 150 - 200’den dairesel tezgahta 480.000’e varmıştı. ABD’de harman makinesine at koşulmuş, biçilen alan 7 katına çıkmıştı. Dokuma tezgahları hızla gelişiyordu. Nakış makinesinden sonra dikiş ve dantel makineleri izlemişti. Dikiş makinesi, elbise dikimini iyice yaygınlaştırmış ve ünü tüm dünyayı tutmuştu. Kürkçülük de kendi makinelerini geliştiriyordu. geliştiri yordu. Tuğla, briket, boru mekanik olarak üretiliyordu.
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Demirden sapanın yerini biçerdöğer aldı. Tarım makinesinin gelişmesinde Mac Cormick ’in katkısı büyüktü. Tahılın işlenmesinde değirmen taşı silindirlerle değişti, taş ayıklayıcılar, a yıklayıcılar, elekler, un eleyiciler mekanik olarak yapıldı. Daha sonra bisküvi ve çikolata üretiminde makineleşme başlayacaktı. başlayacaktı. Artık mezbahalar da makineleşmişti. Makineler hayvanları kesiyor, yüzüyor, parçalıyordu. Yayık, kaymak makineleri çitliklerde kullanılmaya başlanmıştı. Artık makineler ABD’de makineler üretimi ele almışlardı. Onların yaptığı işler için 100 milyonlarca köle gücü yetmez olmuştu.
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1879 Osmanlı Mısır Hıdivi İsmail Paşanın kuvvetleri Habeşistan’da kesin bir zafer kazandılar. Bu sırada, İngiliz ve Fransız denetimindeki hükümet, 2500 subayı yarım aylıkla emekli etti. Ortalık karıştı. İsmail Paşa Düyunu Umumiye’ye ve Avrupalılara meydan okudu. İngiliz ve Fransızlar İstanbul’u etkileyerek Hıdiv İsmail Paşayı görevden aldırdılar. İstanbul Kavalalı ailesinin en yaşlısı olan Halim Paşayı hıdiv yapmak istiyordu. Bu hıdivliğin babadan oğla oğla geçmesi fermanına aykırıydı. İngiltere ve Fransa tayini kabul kabul etmediler. Onların 1892). dediği oldu Tevfik Paşa hıdiv yapıldı (1879 – 1892). Osmanlı imparatorluğunda 93 Harbi (1877 – 1878) – 1878) mağlubiyeti ve bunu takiben imzalanan
Berlin Anlaşması sırasındaki telkinler doğrultusunda, 1879 yılında mahkemelerde son bir düzenleme yapılmıştır. Fransız orijinli orijinli Teşkilat -ı Mehakim Kanunu kabul edilmiştir. Bununla savcılık kurumu getirilmiş, modern anlamda avukatlık ve noterlik kurulmuştur. Patrik Mıgırdıç Kırımyan yerine İstanbul Ermeni Patriği olarak Nerses Varjabedyan seçildi. (1874 – 1884) 1884). Bu patrik zamanında da özerklik isteği kuvvetlenerek devam etti. 1877 –78 Osmanlı-Rus Savaşı sırasında, Osmanlı yönetimi yeni bir mali bunalıma
sürüklenmişti. Osmanlı Bankası ile Galata Bankerleri'nden almış olduğu iç borçlarını da, dış borçlar gibi ödeyemeyeceğini ödeyemeyeceğini açıkladı. açıkladı. Hiçbir borç ödemesini yapamayan yapamayan Osmanlı İmparatorluğu, sonunda alacaklılarla anlaşma yoluna gitti. Alacaklılarla masaya oturup, 1879'da damga, alkollü içki, balık avı, tuz ve tütünden alınan vergi gelirlerini 10 yıl boyunca iç borçlar karşılığı olarak alacaklılara bıraktı. Ancak alacaklı Avrupa devletleri buna tepki gösterdiler. Tanzimat fermanı ilan edildiğinde ülkede bir Maliye bakanlığı b akanlığı yoktu. Baş Defterdar Maliye bakanı (nazırı) unvanını unvanını taşıdı. Bu kurumun kurumun imparatorluğun her yerinde toplanan vergileri, resimleri ve yapılan masrafları bilmesi geleneksel yapıda yoktu. Kurum sad ece merkezi bilirdi. Ülke çapında tüm giderleri denetleyen denetleyen bir kurum, ancak ancak 1879 tarihinde olgunlaşıp, olgunlaşıp, oturtulabilindi (Divanı Muhasebat) Muhasebat ). Divanı Muhasebat, Fransa örnek alınarak, Cour des
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Aydınlanma
1879 Edison elektrik ampulünü yapmayı başardı. Gramme dinamoyu bulmuş, Swan vakumda
akkor lambayı denemişti. Vakum pompaları gelişmişti. Akkor lambaların fil amanları ışık veriyor ama hemen yanıp kül oluyordu. Edison sürekli bir ince tel (materyal) arayışındaydı. Pamuk ipliğini, çam yongasını, insan saçı gibi binlerce deneme yapmıştı. Sonunda seçimi bir Japon Bambu ağacı üzerine yaptı.
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Henry George
ABD’li Henry George ’un (1839 – 1897) – 1897) 1870’de yazdığı “ İlerleme ve Yoksulluk “ Yoksulluk “ adlı eser, büyük ün kazandı. kazandı. Nerede ise bütün Avrupa dillerine tercüme edildi. Henry George, sanayinin ve menkul sermayenin değil sadece toprağın mülkiyetinin halk
adına devlette olmasını istiyordu. isti yordu. Bu sıralarda Batı ve orta ort a ABD’de, nüfus artışı ve ulaştırmanın kolaylaşması nedeniyle nedeniyle toprak
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George bu fikirlerinde zenginliğin aynı zaman da bir güç ve hakimiyet aracı olduğunu unutmuş görünüyordu. Zenginlik insana sadece bağımsızlık değil aynı zamanda kendi iradesini başkalarına zorla kabul ettirme gücü de veriyordu. İnsanların kendi soydaşlarını hakimiyetleri altına alma dürtüsü, sürü halinde yaşamanın bir sonucumuydu?
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Bilim ve Din
İnsanın evrimi
Doğa bilimleri ve insanlık tarihi t arihi geliştikçe, vahiy yoluyla geldiğine inanılan kutsal öğretilerin ciddiyeti gölgelenmeye başlamıştı. Bu ikilem özellikle Avrupa’da ama az da olsa ABD’de belirginleşiyordu. İki metot metot birbirine zıttı. Yavaş yavaş yavaş halk da da bu zıtlığı fark ediyordu. ediyordu. Anlaşmazlık özellikle insanın yaradılışı üzerineydi. Ancak ruhun varlığı da tartışılıyordu.
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1880 Sadece Osmanlı imparatorluğunda değil, Türk dünyasının her yerinde kadınların örtünmesi, çok eşli evlilik, kız çocuklarının okutulmaması okutulmaması eleştiriliyordu. 1880 yılında Rusya Müslümanlarından bir kadın gurubu “ Alemi Nisvan “ adlı bir kadın gazetesi çıkardılar. Bu hanımlar feminist hareketi yaygınlaştırmaya yaygınlaştırmaya çalışıyorlardı. İngilizler müthiş bir Hindistan hiyerarşisi yarattılar. Altınlar, saraylar, törenler, debdebe, sıralamalar, İngiliz idaresi ile ilişkiler, vs sanki 2.000 yıldır Hindistan böyleymiş gibi, oldu. Aslında İngiltere girdiği ülkenin 3.000 yıllık bürokrasisini alt üst etmişti. Benzerini İngilizler İskoçlar için de yapmışlardır. O İskoç kıyafetleri, renkler vesaire İngilizler tarafından icat edilmiştir. Victoria Sanskritçe dersler aldı.
Avusturya imparatoriçesi Sissi ‘de Macarca öğrendi. Kont Andrassy ile olan ilişkisi ayyuka çıkmıştı. Bu ilişkiden kızları oldu. Kont Andrassy Avusturya Macaristan ortak hariciye bakanı oldu. Avusturya ile Macaristan’ın ayrılmasının hazırlayıcılarındandır. Sonra Avusturya başbakanlığı başbakanlığı yaptı. Politikası Almanya Almanya ile itişmemektir. Almanya’ya Almanya’ya karışmayınca, karışmayınca, İtalya’da Habsburgların elinden çıktığından, Andrassy’nin dış politikası Balkanlar üzerine kurulmuştu. Tabii bu politika Osmanlı devleti aleyhine olmuştur. Osmanlılardaki hukuk lisesi fakülte seviyesine getirildi. Böylece mahkemelere üye olmak için medreselerden mezun olmak gerekmiyordu. Bu sayede Gayrimüslimler de mahkeme üy esi olabilir hale gelebiliyorlardı. Ayrıca Hakim tayinleri ta yinleri düzene bağlandı, hakimlerin teminat
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Yeni Amerikalılar, 1880
göçmenler
1880 ile 1930 arasında ABD’ne 24 milyon mil yon yeni göçmen geldi. Bunlar yeni Amerikan tarihi yazacaklardı. yazacaklardı. 1900 başlarında kentler tıka basa insan dolmuştu. Ama kalacak yer yoktu. Kentlerin yukarı büyümesinden başka çare yoktu ama bunu sağlayacak malzeme çelikti. O da çok pahalıydı.
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Doğaya Saldırı
Balina avı
Avrupa fayda ve zararlarıyla dünyaya dağılıyordu. Gittiği her yeri de kendine uygun şekillendiriyordu. Avrupa ve Avrupalı kendi hayat görüşünü yayacak, pek çok medeniyet ve kültürün de yok olmasına yol açacaktı.
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Batı Kentleri Hızla Büyüyor XIX. yüzyılda sanayinin gelişmesi ile şehirler birden dünyayı sardılar. Londra 5 milyon (4.241 milyon (1875); 6.480 milyon (1900)) , New York 3,5 milyon nüfusu ile başta gelmeye başlamışlardı. Dünyayı Dünyayı artık bu kentler yönetiyordu. yönetiyordu. Paris 2,5, Berlin Berlin 1,5 milyon, Viyana Viyana 1,3 milyondu. Bu dönemde İstanbul’un nüfusu 850 bin kadardı. İstanbul bir sanayi patlamadan dolayı büyümüş değildi. Bunun nedeni Osmanlı İmparatorluğunun İmparatorluğunun parçalanmakta olmasıydı. XIX yüzyılda kentleşme ile beraber kentlere gelen nüfus, oralarda çok kötü koşullarda yaşamaya başlamıştı. Bir odada bazen 7 – 8 kişi birden yaşıyordu. yaşıyordu. Odalara yığılan aileler, bazen bu odaların odaların bile kirasını ödeyemedikleri ödeyemedikleri için kendilerine kendilerine alt kiracılar buluyorlardı. buluyorlardı. Bunun yarattığı ahlak düşüklüklerini, sosyal çekişmeleri, insan istismarını tarif etmek mümkün değildir.
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yapıyı hazır bulmuşlardı. Yani kentlerde yaşam zaten öyleydi. Tüm Avrupa’da gece yatakta yatan kişi, yerini sabahleyin bir başkasına bırakıyordu. Yani yatak ta vardiya usulü kullanılıyordu. Bazı yerlerde durum, daha da ağır olduğundan, oralarda işçiler fabrikalardaki ranzalarda yatar kalkar olmuşlardı. Bu kadar tıkış tıkış bir yaşamda, çalışanlar odalarında oturamayınca hayatı dışarıda aradılar. Bunlardan İngiltere de “ pub “, diğer yerler de kahve (Cafee) kültürü oluştu. İnsanlar barhanelerde duman içinde, ucuz ucuz içki içerek vakitlerini vakitlerini doldururlardı. Avrupa halkı kafeler de yaşar olmuştu. Bu sefil ortamda, yapılmayan yapılmayan eğitim açığını iki parti dolduruyordu. Bir yandan kilise, diğer
yandan sosyalist partiler halkın eğitimine el atmışlardı. Böylece insanlar gittikleri eğitim kurumunun bakış açısına bağlı olarak, belli bir dünya görüşü kazanıyorlardı. XIX. Yüzyılda, az yukarda anlatılan kent felaketleri üzerinde sadece Batı Avrupa münevverleri düşünmüyorlardı. Osmanlı da bu konuyu k onuyu düşünüyordu. düşünüyordu. Osmanlı devleti dış temsilcilikleri vasıtası ile Batı Avrupa kentlerinde olup, bitenlerden haberdardı. Ve bu gidişten korkuyordu. Osmanlı sanayi de geri kalmıştı da, sanayinin getirdiği bu sefalet ne olacaktı. Eğer, Osmanlı iktisadiyatı XIX. Yüzyılda esnaf loncalarını kaldırmamak, büyük
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Kimyanın Hükümdarlığı Hükümdarlığı Kimya bitkilere araz olan hastalıklarla uğraşıyordu, yiyecekleri soğutma tekniğini bularak bozulmaktan koruyordu, koruyordu,
mayalaşmayı mayalaşmayı geliştirmiş biranın yapımına müdahil olmuştu, şarap üretiminde işe karışmıştı, imbikleme ile alkol üretimi artmış ve niteliği değişmişti. Niteliği değişen alkol ışık, boya ve cila tekniklerine uygun hale gelmişti. Sülfürik Asit elde edilmişti. Fosfatlı gübreler, sodyum, boya maddeleri, kokulandırıcılar, patlayıcılar böylece böylece elde
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Kılcal emiş bulunup, fitilli lambalar ortaya çıkınca, sıvı hidrokarbonlara da gün doğmuştu. Şimdi havagazı aydınlatması ile petrol lambaları kıyasıya yarışacaklardı. yarışacaklardı. Petrol gittikçe daha azla ilgi çekiyordu. Kimileri petrolün verdiği ısıya bakıp, ona uygun bir motor arayışına girmişlerdi.