STUDENTS’ WORK EXPERIENCE PROGRAM (SWEP) BY CHIJIOKE CHIOMA MIRIAM 14/ENG02/034 UNDERTAKEN AT J.UDEAGBALA HOLDINGS NIGERIA LTD, ABA. A REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AFE BABALOLA UNIVERSITY, ADO-EKITI, NIGERIA IN PARTIAL FUFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG) DEGREE IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING JULY - SEPTEMBER 2016.
CERTIFICATION This is to certify that this report was prepared and presented by Chijioke Chioma Miriam with student matriculation number 14/ENG02/034 in the Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria during the 2015/2016 academic session under my supervision.
___________________ Date
___________________ College Supervisor
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DEDICATION This work is dedicated to God Almighty.
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ACKNOWLEGEMENT I appreciate God for his Grace and strength to complete this work. To my family for their unending care, love and support I say thank you. I also want to thank my industrial supervisors Engr. Boniface Okeke and Mr. Chris Akpa for their unwavering support and for believing in me. I must also thank my College Supervisor Engr. Anthony Mmonyi who had to travel all the way to Aba to see my industrial supervisors. I am continually cognizant of the fact that we are all the sum total of what we have learned, as well as the products of the contributions made by so many other people to our lives, as we journey to our ultimate destiny and on that note I must appreciate everyone at J. Udeagbala Holdings Nigeria Ltd. I say thank you for teaching me all that I know on soap making. My special thanks go to the Chemical/ Petroleum Engineering Department of ABUAD for giving me the opportunity to take part in this beautiful exercise. For giving me the opportunity to relate what I have learnt in the classroom to the industry, I am grateful.
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ABSTRACT SWEP (Students’ work experience program) is a skill training program that is to form a part of the academic standards in various degree programs. During this period, students are given the opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge in real work situation, gain enough experience, and are also given adequate preparation of the future of the world work. This report centers on the experience I gained during my SWEP at J. Udeagbala Holdings Nig Ltd. In a brief volume I will fully explain the manufacture of soap in such language that it might be understood by all those interested in this industry. The thesis outlined therefore, are authentic. Soaps are the sodium salts of stearic acids or any other fatty acids. They are prepared by the saponification process, which is, reacting oil which contains triglycerides with caustic soda. In taking up the industry for survey it has been thought desirable to first to outline the processes of manufacture including the digestion of magnesium silicate, dissolution of caustic soda, bleaching of various kinds of oil and boiling of soap. It is also imperative to discuss the various experiments undertaken at the quality control lab. It is not my intention to outline to any great extent the theoretical side of the subject, but rather to make the work as brief as possible, keeping the practical side of the subject before me and not going into concise descriptions of machinery as is very usual in works on this subject. Illustrations are merely added to show typical kinds of machinery used. The style used to write this report is the Times New Roman font style and a font size of 12. The materials used in this report are sourced from my gained experience at the factory, engineering room, SWEP guide, the internet and related textbooks.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………….iv CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF HISTORY OF THE COMPANY……………………1-2 1.2 HISTORY OF SWEP……………………………..………………………………………..3 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF SWEP…………….…………………………………………….......3 - 4 1.4 DURATION OF SWEP……………………………………………………………………4 1.5 SAFETY EQUIPMENTS AND PRECAUTIONS…………………………………….4 - 6 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 WHAT IS SOAP…..............................................................................................................7 2.2 TYPES OF SOAP……………………………………………………………………...7 – 8 2.3 METHODS OF SOAP MAKING……………………………………………………8 – 12 2.4 MIXING OF PERFUME AND DYE…………………………………………………....12 2.5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOAP MAKING OILS……………………………….…13 - 14 CHAPTER THREE: ACTUAL WORK DONE 3.1 DIGESTION/BATCH PROCESSING OF MAGNESIUM SILICATE…………...15 -17 3.2 DISSOLUTION OF CAUSTIC SODA………………………………………….…17 - 18 3.3 BLEACHING OF OIL/ TALLOW……………………………………...……….…18 - 23 3.4 OPERATING THE DOC BOILER…………………………..………………….…24 - 25 3.5 BOILING OF SOAP..........................................................................................…....25 - 27 3.6 WORKING ON THE DRYING PLANT/ PRODUCTION FLOOR……..…….….27- 31 3.7 CONDUCTING EXPERIMENTS…………………………………………….……31 - 36 CHAPTER FOUR: EXPERIENCE GAINED AND CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED 4.1 EXPERIENCE GAINED………………………………………………………..….37 - 38 4.2 CHALLENGES…………………………………………………………………..…38 - 39 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………39 5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS..........................................................................................…...39 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………...40 APPENDIX…………………………………………………………………………………41
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CHAPTER ONE 1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF HISTORY OF THE COMPANY J. Udeagbala Holdings Nigeria Limited is one of the oldest established import and manufacturing businesses in the South Eastern part of Nigeria. It was incorporated in the year 1992 and is run by an organized Board of Directors. The Board has the responsibility of drawing up policies for and supervising its Management team. Presently, J. Udeagbala Holdings Nigeria Limited has staff strength of over 300. The Corporate Business Policy of J. Udeagbala Holdings Nig. Limited revolves around its objectives. OBJECTIVES OF THE COMPANY
To showcase and promote home made goods/products.
To promote employment opportunities for young school leavers.
To give industrial training to undergraduates in related fields of study.
To promote the exportation of Nigerian made goods/ products.
BRIEF HISTORY OF THE COMPANY On 22nd June 1982, the trading business, J. Udeagbala and Sons was incorporated as J. Udeagbala & Sons Nigeria Limited. On 23rd June 1992, Ide J.C.U Udeagbala with great foresight changed the name of the company to J. Udeagbala Holdings Nigeria Limited with the view of expanding the business further. On 28th May 1993, the first subsidiary of the firm, Beauty Base Limited was incorporated in order to meet the growing need of quality personal care products in Nigeria previously dominated by multi-national companies. On 29th March 1996, Kitchen Vegetable Oil Limited was incorporated and commenced the manufacturing of top quality vegetable oils. On 2nd April 1996 the company diversified into pipe manufacturing and Quality Pipe Limited was incorporated. On 9th November 2001, the company further diversified into agro-products and agro-chemical by setting up Dynamic Farms Limited. During the course of my industrial attachment I worked exclusively at the Beauty Base Limited.
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BEAUTY BASE LIMITED (BBL) Beauty Base Limited is one of the largest soap manufacturers in Nigeria, with an established foothold in the country's personal care sector. The company was incorporated in 1993 and has had over 20 year's operational experience in soap manufacturing and distribution. It is one of the biggest FMCG companies in Nigeria and has a significant share of the Nigerian soap market. The company produces and markets an extensive range of products from personal and family care to laundry and multi-purpose soaps. The company's leading brands include Black Pride, Hammer, and Kitchen Star which are well known in the market for their superior quality and affordability. Its brands are sold through the extensive marketing and distribution network of regional sales depots and stock holding points located strategically throughout Nigeria. The company’s primary objective is to ensure that the highest manufacturing standards are maintained at all times. It houses a dedicated QC laboratory where rigorous quality control checks are carried out on products. It recognizes the importance of skilled manpower in the manufacturing set-up. The company places strong emphasis on ensuring their operators continuously upgrade their skills. Beauty Base Limited has received external accreditation for their manufacturing excellence. The company has obtained certifications from the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) and the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC). They are also working towards becoming an ISO 9001:2008 certified company.
THE ORGANOGRAM OF BBL 2
1.2 HISTORY OF SWEP SWEP is the short word for Students’ Work Exchange Program and it was established by ITF in 1994. It is a cooperating industrial internship program between industry and on the job practical experience for students undergoing courses demanding exposure for much needed industrial skills. The Scheme exposes students to industry based skills necessary for a smooth transition from the classroom to the world of work. It affords students of tertiary institutions the opportunity of being familiarized and exposed to the needed experience in handling machinery and equipment which are usually not available in the educational institutions. According to the National Universities Commission (NUC), SWEP is the accepted skills training program, which forms part of the approved minimum academic standards in the various programs for all Nigerian Universities. During the formative years of Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in 1973/74, a study carried out by ITF revealed the disparity between theory and practice of Engineering, Technology, Agriculture and related disciplines in the country. In attempting to bridge the gap, the ITF established in the country the SWEP program. 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF SWEP. The general objectives and specific objectives of SWEP are to:
Provide students with an opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge in real work situations.
Provide a venue for students in the Nigerian Universities to acquire industrial skills and experience in their course of study.
Expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and machinery that may not be available in the university.
Prepare students for the work situation they are likely to meet after graduation
To broaden the students horizon on the usefulness and value of their course of study. 3
To provide students with ample opportunities to apply the theoretical knowledge in real work situation.
To provide an opportunity for students in Nigeria Universities to get acquainted with Industrial Skills and experience in their course of study.
To make the transition from the university to the labour market easier and as well enhance students contacts for later job.
1.4 DURATION OF THE SWEP PROGRAM The SWEP program is expected to last for 3 months for 200 and 300 level students of engineering. The students are expected to undergo this training during their long vacation breaks ranging between July and September. 1.5 SAFETY EQUIPMENTS AND PRECAUTIONS Manufacturing facilities are riddled with risks, both hidden and out in the open. If you don't know where to begin looking, such hazards can result in serious injury or death. Below are a few of the biggest safety concerns in any manufacturing setting.
Poor maintenance
Machinery and equipment that isn't properly maintained can be very dangerous. Even equipments with fail-safes can malfunction if you do not perform regular maintenance checks. To minimize the risk, have your equipments inspected on a regular basis by a professional, whether in-house or contracted. And don't rely solely on those spaced out inspections; make sure that your employees know how to perform a quick inspection before and after using each piece of machinery. The people who come in regular contact with your equipment should know what a machine looks like, how it smells and how it sounds when operating properly. They should know how to spot warning signs immediately, such as exposed wires, burning or electrical smells, abnormal wobbles, grinding or scraping noises, or any other irregular sounds. If a machine is deemed potentially unsafe, it should be shut down immediately for repairs. Onsite workers should not attempt to repair malfunctioning equipment on their own without first alerting a supervisor. 4
Permanent hazards
Proper maintenance will only get you so far. Many machines in manufacturing are dangerous regardless of whether they are working exactly as they are intended to. Take chemicals, for example, you can't simply remove the risk of a dangerous chemical by doing a quick check, but you can make sure all chemicals are properly labeled and that employees are equipped to handle them properly. Many machines heat up quickly and pose a fire hazard, even when operating correctly. It's your responsibility to know the limits of your equipment and communicate them to all workers. Confined spaces are another permanent hazard that can be difficult to address. As confined spaces exist in most manufacturing settings, it is important for your employees to understand the risks of becoming entrapped or finding themselves in an oxygen-depleted area. Address that risk with training, exhaust blowers and confined space rescue equipment, and always make sure employees in such conditions work in pairs. Proper training is your best defense against these types of hazards, which brings up the next danger.
Undertrained employees
Your facility is only as safe as the people working in it. Your employees should undergo regular training on all equipment they might come in contact with. It should include proper operations as well as how to check that everything is working as it should. As machines are upgraded and replaced, training should be repeated. Workers should be exposed to periodic safety training, as well, so that they know the most current best practices for keeping themselves and their coworkers safe. This should include emergency response for burns or other injuries, how to recognize symptoms of gas or chemical exposure, and who to contact during an emergency. And all employees should know how and when to evacuate a facility.
Insufficient first aid
In the event of an emergency, easy access to medical equipment is crucial. Your facility should be stocked with an assortment of first aid equipment, including both general first aid response items, as well as, some tailored to your specific work environment, and they should be well identified. All employees should have at least minimal training for using the first aid equipment. In many cases, it is necessary to have staff members who are specially trained in first aid, CPR or confined-space rescue.
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Carelessness
An employee who grows complacent about safety can be a huge liability for you. Most workplace accidents can be prevented simply by being alert. Heavy machinery, vehicles and forklifts can be especially dangerous. It is important for you to require workers to be constantly vigilant. Strictly enforce safety codes, and give your employees a safe way to report questionable activity. In some cases, you can provide extra equipment to help workers prevent careless mistakes. For example, safety mirrors can be very useful for machine operators who must constantly look over their shoulders for other employees. Be sure to give your workers breaks throughout the day so that they don't become fatigued on the job.
Unrestricted access
Work sites should only be open to the people trained and paid to be there. Friends, family members and employees from other departments should not be granted access to areas where work is being done. Identify restricted areas with signs and tape. In many cases, it is necessary to limit access with locked gates and doors. Let your workers know to report any unauthorized people in your facility. At J. Udeagbala Holdings Nig Ltd, safety is more than a slogan. Workers are provided with various safety materials which include gears, chemical splash goggles, face shields, chemical suits, rubber gloves and rubber boots depending on their work section to protect them from hazards. Our safety staffs consistently monitor safety issues, inspect worksites, design safety trainings for our staff and create awareness campaigns to ensure our workforce is educated on the leading best practices in safety.
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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 WHAT IS SOAP? Soap is a salt of a compound, known as a fatty acid. A soap molecule has a long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxylic acid group on one end, which has ionic bond with metal ion, usually sodium or potassium. The hydrocarbon end is non polar which is highly soluble in non polar substances and the ionic end is soluble in water. The structure of the soap molecule is represented below: O
II CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2 -CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-C-O- - Na+ Non- polar hydrocarbon chain (Soluble in non polar substances)
ionic end (Soluble in water)
The cleaning action of soaps is because of their ability to emulsify or disperseII water-insoluble materials and hold them in the suspension of water. This ability is seen from the molecular structure of soaps. When soap is added to water that contains oil or other water-insoluble materials, the soap or detergent molecules surround the oil droplets. The oil is, dissolved in the alkyl groups of the soap molecules while the ionic end allows it to be dissolved in water. As a result, the oil droplets are to be dispersed throughout the water and can be washed away. A number of things affect the soap-making process and the quality of this soap produced. The characteristics of this soap depend on the quality of oil, and the amounts of the caustic soda and water used to make it. The speed of the reaction between the oil and the caustic soda is influenced by free fatty acid content of the oil, the heat of the components before mixing, and how vigorously the mixing is to be done. Free fatty acid contents, vigorous mixing, and heat speed up the given soap-making process. 2.2 TYPES OF SOAP Castile soap: A mild soap originally made in Spain with pure olive oil. Today many “castile” soaps are made with other vegetable oils. Castile is a good cleanser, producing rich lather. Cream soaps: Soaps containing cold cream materials, and moisturizers. Cream soaps are good for dry and delicate skin.
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Deodorant soaps are soaps to which antibacterial agents have been added to reduce odor-causing bacteria. Floating soaps: Soaps which have air bubbles incorporated have low density. This causes the bar to float. Hypo-allergenic soaps: Mild formula soaps, low in potent irritants. They generally produce a poor lather. Milled soaps: these are the most commonly used, mass produced soaps. Milling is referred to the mixing of colour and soap flakes. Oatmeal soap: A rough textured soap to which oatmeal has been added as a mild abrasive and lather. Good for and normal skin. A good soap is biodegradable when it does not contain chemicals that cannot be made to their natural elements. Neither does it contain chemicals that can be harmful to the environment or cause undue destruction to the environment.
A good soap gets dissolved easily and removes stains from the clothes, human skin or any material being cleaned. It gets dissolved in water and produces enough suds.
It gives a clear and sparkling kind of cleanliness.
It gives a pleasant smell.
A good soap does not leave sticky traces on the clothes or on the skin.
It has a good color that is even and does not streak.
It disinfects and kills germs.
It does not damage the fibers or textiles.
Various attempts have been made to produce soap by first decomposing the fat or oil into fatty acids and glycerin, and then converting the acids into the soap by treatment with sodium or potassium carbonate. 2.3 METHODS OF SOAP MAKING Three conventional methods of soap making are generally used:
Semi boiling
Full boiling
Cold processed 8
SEMI BOILING The soft and hard oils or their blends are very suitable for this process in which the fat is first of all melted, followed by treatment with a weak 9-10% caustic soda solution followed by boiling of the mixture. The quantity of caustic soda required for the saponification of the oil is 14-15% of the weight of the oil. This weight of caustic soda is dissolved in ten times its weight of water to obtain a 9% solution. When the caustic solution is added into oil, then saponification starts when an emulsion is formed as the soap is stirred. More caustic solution is then added in to prevent the thickening of mass. After sufficient solution is added bit by bit to complete the saponification and the boiling of the mass continues until the soap was clear. During the boiling process moderate heat is maintained and each addition of caustic soda solution must be allowed to react with the oil before the next addition is made. A hurried addition in the initial stages of the process may retard the saponification, or at the final stages of the saponification may result in the drying of the soap, while judicious addition will keep the mass in a form of smooth homogeneous emulsion. If the soap shows any signs of separation and graining, further water is added to bring the mass to a homogeneous state. The ribbon test involves taking a small sample of the soap from the pan and cooling it. When a little quantity of this cooled soap is pressed in between the thumb and forefinger, the soap does not come out in the form of firm shiny ribbons with slight opaque ends and be clear when held against the light. If this cooled sample draws out in threads, there is excess water present in the soap, and more boiling is required to evaporate more water. If opaque ends appear and vanish, the soap is oilier and requires more caustic, while if the soap is graining, or turbid and white, it indicates a high level of presence of un-reacted caustic, and requires more oil. A physical test - the taste test – is also done to determine the level of alkali. This test involves cooling a small quantity of the soap, and tasting it with the tip of the tongue. A sharp bite indicates too much caustic in the soap, while small bite indicates a high level of unsaponified fat or oil. A good soap gives a faint bite on the tongue. After the completion of the boiling process, the fire is taken off, and the soap is allowed to cool with little stirring. At this point, perfume and colour can be added into the soap. This process is not suitable for the production of toilet soap, can be used to produce laundry and all other types of soft and liquid soaps. The process does not permit the removal of waste alkali which contains the glycerine produced in the soap making process, and hence the glycerine, which tends to decrease the hardening property of the soap and improves the cosmetic property, is retained in the finished 9
soap. This method has some advantage over the other two since large quantities of good soap can be produced within a short time. The use of this method also allows a high percentage of fillers to be added in soaps, thus it increases the soap bulk. FULL BOILING The process consists of 4 stages:
Saponification of the oil with alkali.
Graining out of the soap.
Boiling on strength.
Filling
Saponification of the oil with alkali: The process is started by putting the melted oil into the boiling tank and running a weak caustic soda solution into the oil. The mixture is then slowly boiled to start the saponification. The beginning of is denoted by the formation of emulsion. When saponification has started caustic soda of higher strength was frequently added in small quantities with continued boiling. Rapid addition of caustic alkali in the initial stages can also entirely delay saponification and in this case water should be added and the boiling continued till the excess alkali is taken up for the saponification to proceed. The end of saponification is determined by the „ribbon‟ and „taste‟ tests. When saponification is completed, the soap becomes very firm and dry with a permanent faint caustic like flavour on the tongue when cooled. The soap, which now consists of this imperfect soap together with water in which is dissolved glycerine and any slight excess of caustic soda, is then ready for graining out. Graining out of the soap: The objective of this is to separate the waste lye which is a mixture of glycerine produced during the soap boiling process and excess caustic soda solution from the soap. This is brought about by small use of common salt in dry form or as brine. The term graining is used here because after the introduction of the salt, the homogeneous soap gives the appearance of grains. The graining is complete when the soap is practically free from foam and floats as clean soap on the lye. At this stage, this sample of soap taken from the tank consists of distinct grains of soap and a liquid portion which is easily separated.
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COLD PROCESS This process involves the treatment of fat or oil with a definite amount of alkali and no separation of waste lye. Although it is possible with lot care to produce neutral soap by this process the soap is very liable to contain both free alkali and unsaponified fat. The process is usually based on the fact that the glycerols of certain low fatty acids oils (nut oils like coconut and palm kernel oils) readily combines with strong caustic soda solutions at low temperatures, and generate little heat to complete the saponification reaction. In this process, it is absolutely necessary to use high grade raw materials. Oils and fats should be freed from excess acidity because caustic soda rapidly neutralizes the free fatty acids forming granules of soap which grain out in the presence of strong caustic solution, and since the grainy soap is very difficult to remove without heat increase, the soap tends to become thick and gritty and sometimes discolors. The caustic soda being used should also be pure, it must contain as little carbonate as possible, and the water must be soft and all other materials carefully freed from all particles of dirt. The process involves stirring into the milled fat in a tank, half of its weight of caustic soda solution of at the temperature of 24°C for coconut and 38°C to 49°C for the blend. The pushing of the caustic solution into the oil must be done not only slowly and continuously. When the solution is being run into the oil, the mixture must be stirred in only one direction. When all the caustic soda solution had been run into the oil and the mixture stirred for 30 to 45 minutes, chemical reaction takes place with lot of generation of heat, finally resulting in the saponification of the oil. The content of the tank looks thin, but after some few hours it becomes a solid mass. The edges of the soap becomes more transparent as the process advances further, and when the transparency has extended to the full mass, the soap is ready, after perfuming to be poured into moulding boxes for hardening, cutting and stamping. A little caustic potash solution is used to blend the caustic soda solution which greatly improves the appearance of the given soap, making it smoother and milder. Toilet soaps can be classified according to the method of manufacture into the following classes: a) Cold processed soap b) Milled c) Remelted The process consists of melting the fat in a pan and sieving out all impurities in it, after settling. The oil is then run into the pan and cooled to 35°C. The right quantities of dye and perfume are 11
then stirred into the oil. Dyestuff was dissolved in a small quantity of water and filtered to avoid specks of color in the soap. For carbolic varieties, the cresylic acid is not added till after the saponification of the given oil. After adding the dye and the perfume to oil, the required quantity and strength of caustic soda solution is to be run into it in a thin stream with the constant stirring until the oil is completely saponified and the mass begins to become thick. Finally the thickened mass is drained out into soap moulding boxes and then allowed to harden slowly. Different Types of Soaps: Milled Toilet Soap making Almost all the high class soaps used in the market pass through the milling process which generally consists briefly of the given operations: drying of soap, mixing of perfume, milling, compressing, cutting and stamping. After the solidifying in soap frames, this soap contains 28-30% of water, and this quantity is reduced by half before any satisfactory milling is done. Drying is best done by chipping the given soap into smaller sizes and exposing the chips in trays to a current of hot air at 35-40°C. There are several forms of drying chambers in which the chips in the trays are placed upon a series of racks, one above the other and warm air circulated through. It is very important that the correct amount of moisture should be left in the soap, not too much or little - the exact point can be determined only by judgment and experience, and depends on the nature of the soap to be made and the quantity of perfume to be added. A range of ll-14% moisture is preferred. Below this range, the soap will crumble during the milling process and the finished soap will have the tendency to crack, while above the range, the soap will stick to the rollers of the milling machine, and mill only with difficulty. 2.4 MIXING OF PERFUME AND DYE When the soap chips have already been dried to attain the required water content, they are put into the amalgamator which is the mixing machine, and the required amount of preferred perfume and dye are added to mix thoroughly at room temperature. The quantity of the perfume to be added varies considerably with the perfume type used. For cheap grade soaps are used, while for costly soaps is sometimes used.
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Milling From the amalgamator, the soap is put into the milling machine for the chips have to be milled into homogeneous thin soap ribbons. Milling does not improve the quality of the soap but only gives a semi-transparent appearance to it. 2.5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOAP MAKING OILS Fats and oils are esters of different fatty acids and glycerol. Fats and oils are divided into three classes, fixed oils, mineral oils and essential oils. Fixed oils form the main raw materials for soap making as they decompose into fatty acids and glycerol when strongly heated, and can be easily saponified by alkali. Fixed oils, which include both animal and vegetable fats and oils, are further classified according to its physical properties as follows: a) Nut oils: These oils are characterized to be having large proportion of fatty acids with low molecular weight, especially lauric and stearic acid. Examples of these oils are coconut oil. These oils, when used in toilet soaps are the chief foam-producing ingredients. They usually saponify easily with strong alkali solution. Once these oils have begun to saponify, the process proceeds rapidly with the evolution of heat. They require very large quantities of strong brine (1648”Be) to grain their soaps, and the grained soaps tend to carry more salt than other soaps. These oils are more suitable for the making of cold process soaps. b) Hard Fats: The hard fats contain appreciable quantities of palmatic and stearic acids. Examples of these oils are palm oil, animal tallow and hydrogenated fats. These oils produce slow-lathering soaps but the lather produced is more resistant over long periods of time than the nut oils. In soap making, they are first saponified with weak alkali, and in the final stages with stronger alkali solutions. c) Soft Oils: These oils have substantial amounts of unsaturated acids, namely oleic, linoleic and linoleneic acids. The soap making properties of these oils vary with their fatty acid composition, and their physical and chemical properties of the acids. Examples of these kind oils are groundnut, cotton seed, fish oil and olive oil. These oils cannot produce a very hard soap when used alone for soap making. They are generally blended with nut oils. Their soaps lather freely and have very good detergent properties. Soap making involves a definite chemical decomposition of fats and oils into their constituent parts, like fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acids combine with little caustic soda, potash or other base forming soap, and glycerol remains free. All fats and oils used in soap making consist of a mixture of compounds of glycerol with 13
fatty acid which occur in nature in the form of triglycerides. The most important of these acids from the soap maker‟s point of view are stearin, palmitin, olein and laurin. The presence of stearin and palmitin, which are generally solids at room temperature, gives firmness. The greater the percentage present the harder the oil, and the higher its melting point. Where olein is liquid at ordinary temperature, is the chief constituent, the oil is soft. The soap making properties of fats and oils can be determined by the molecular weights of their fatty acids. With increasing the molecular weight in the case of naturally occurring saturated fatty acids in fat or oil, the following properties are found: The properties of their corresponding sodium soaps vary as follows with increasing molecular weight:
The solubility increases
The lathering properties improve up to lauric acid and deteriorate from lauric acid upwards
The stability of the lather increases
The detergent action decreases
The soaps have milder skin action as the series progresses
The property of holding filling solutions such as sodium silicate decreases.
This explains the reason why nut oil (such as coconut oil) soaps lather readily and profusely but not stably. They also have a firm texture and are hard but dissolve more readily in water than do soaps from the hard oils. They can also retain a good amount of water, and take up large quantities of fillers like sodium carbonate.
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CHAPTER THREE ACTUAL WORK DONE 3.1 DIGESTION/BATCH PROCESSING OF MAGNESIUM SILICATE Equipment: Silicate Digester, Storage Tank, Socket Spanner, Flat Spanner, Ring Spanner, Ring and Flat Spanner, Chain Block {Pulley System}, Hammer, Centrifugal Pump.
Figure 1 showing a chain block.
Figure 4 showing a hammer
Figure 2 showing storage tank Figure 3 showing a centrifugal pump
Figure 5 showing a silicate digester
Raw materials: Silicate, Water, Steam.
Figure 6 showing silicate
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Description of Silicate Digester The silicate digester is a cylindrical vessel made of aluminum sheets. It has a capacity of 8 metric tons and is mounted on four rigid iron poles fixed to the ground. From the top view there are two pressure relief valves, a steam flow meter and a manhole. It also has two non-return valves and a ball valve {non-return} located underneath the silicate digester. The silicate digester has two manholes, the top and side manhole. The top manhole is held in place with the aid of 18 bolts and nuts. PROCESS 80 bags of solid silicate each weighing 50kg were cut open with a knife and arranged in rows of eight against ten columns. Hard masses of congealed silicate were disintegrated using hammer. The manhole of the silicate digester was then opened with the aid of a socket spanner, a flat spanner, a ring spanner and a ring and flat spanner. Thereafter, a chain block was used to lift the manhole of the silicate digester. The gauge water valve was then opened. The water was allowed to fill the silicate digester from its bottom to about a third of its side manhole. The bags of silicate were then lifted up the stairway and thrown into the silicate digester and then the manhole was shut. Afterwards, the steam trap was opened. The steam line was also opened so that residual water could be flushed out. After three minutes they were both shut and the two steam valves were opened. The steam line was opened again and steam was introduced into the silicate digester from the boiler house. The steam pressure gauge along the steam line was allowed to build to 3 bars; the steam line was then shut. After about 45 minutes, the steam valves were shut. During that, the entire environment was heated up. After about 5hrs the steam flow meter located beside the top manhole gave a pressure reading of 5.2 bars. At that point, the pressure relief valves released pressure into the atmosphere. The entire process lasted for about 6 hrs. A sample of the digested silicate was then sent to the quality control lab for approval. The lab reports were thus: Specific Gravity at 25oC
1.63%
% Concentration
36.8%
This sample of silicate was approved by the lab as suitable for the production of soap, detergents, and also fertilizers. Note: The aim of this process was to dissolve the silicate. 16
TRANSFER During the transfer process, the ball valve which is located at the bottom of the silicate digester known as the discharging valve was opened. The transfer line was opened and the aqueous silicate was transferred to the storage tank pending its need at the pan room. RECYCLE To ensure that the silicate solution is relative i.e. silicate sludge are reconverted to aqueous silicate, recycling must be done. During the recycling process, the valve attached to the storage tank and the steam lines were opened. The centrifugal pump was switched on and the recycle lines were opened. During this process the silicate moved through the lines in and out of the tank continually. This process lasted for about 2 hrs. After recycling, the aqueous silicate was transferred to a tanker by closing off the recycle lines and opening the transfer lines. Using the centrifugal pump and an external pipe the silicate was pumped into the tanker. DISSOLUTION OF CAUSTIC SODA Equipment: Caustic Dissolution Tank, Storage Tank {895cm in height with 6 divisions}, Sampling Cup, Transfer Pump, Blower.
Figure 7 showing a storage tank
Figure 10 showing a transfer pump
Figure 8 showing a caustic dissolution tank
Figure 9 showing a sampling cup
Figure 11 showing an air blower
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Raw materials: Caustic Soda Pearls, Water, Steam.
Figure 12 showing caustic soda pearls
Description of Caustic Dissolution Tank This is tank made of steel and is not covered with any external lid. The tank is calibrated inside using metallic protrusions. Inside the steel tank, there is a perforated coil. The air from the blower passes through these coils to dissolve the caustic soda. Outside the steel dissolution tank, there is a discharging valve. PROCESS 80 bags of caustic soda each weighing 25kg were split open. The steel dissolution tank was filled with water to a certain level preferably a small quantity of water to avoid splashing. The small air blower was then switched on. Completely clothed with the chemical suit, nose masks, splash goggles, rubber gloves and boots the operator lifted the bags of caustic soda and poured its contents inside the dissolution tank. Afterwards, the water pump was opened so that the water would cover the caustic soda pearls completely. The air produced by the blower passed through a coil into the tank. This air helped in dissolving the caustic soda while forming ripples and foams Next the operator left the environment as the process expels gases which are injurious to the body into the atmosphere. Also heat was expelled during the process because the reaction is exothermic. The frequency at which bubbling occurs depends on the freedom of the blower line. If the blower line is filled with caustic sludge, the bubbling frequency will be low. This problem can be solved by flushing the lines with steam for about 30 minutes. After 5 hrs, a sample of the aqueous solution was sent to the quality control lab for analysis by dipping the sampling cup inside the dissolution tank. The sample concentration was given as 47% by the lab and was approved for the production of soap. Thereafter, caustic soda solution was transferred into the storage tank by opening up the discharge valves and switching on the transfer pump.
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RECYCLE To ensure that the caustic soda solution is relative i.e. caustic soda sludge are reconverted to aqueous caustic soda, recycling must be done. During this process the transfer pump was switched on, and the recycle line was opened. The caustic soda moved through the lines in and out of the tank continually. This process lasted for about 2 hrs. 3.3 BLEACHING OF OIL/ TALLOW There are two types of vessel used for bleaching the air bleacher and the vacuum bleacher. The vacuum bleacher extracts odour and water from fats and oil. Inside the vacuum bleacher there is a stirrer inside, which stirs oil and a circular perforated coil from which steam enters into the vacuum bleacher.
Figure 13 showing a vacuum bleacher
Figure 15 showing a vacuum pump
Figure 14 an air bleacher
Figure 16 showing the oil tank farm
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Figure 17 showing a filter bed
Types of oil that can be bleached include
Crude palm kernel oil CPKO
Tallow { high grade, clear bleach, low grade }
The company uses already bleached PFAD. Stearin cannot be bleached. HOW TO PUT OIL INSIDE THE VACUUM BLEACHER 1. Transfer lines were flushed to determine leakages/blockages. 2. The transfer pump was switched on. 3. The valves at the oil-tank farm section were opened. 4. The vacuum bleacher valve was opened; the steam valves at the oil tank farm were opened. The oil then started coming into the vacuum bleacher. 5. The manhole of the vacuum bleacher was also opened so that steam could escape from it. The escape of steam indicated that the transfer lines were not blocked. VACCUM BLEACHING OF TALLOW 1. Tallow {high grade, low grade or clear bleach} was introduced from the oil tank farm. 2. The vacuum pump was switched on. 3. The manhole was closed so that vacuum will not escape. 4. The stirrer was put on. 5. The steam valve was opened when the vacuum reading got to 60 cm Hg. When the oil heat up, the vacuum gauge fell in a clockwise direction. This is because vacuum was extracting the moisture in oil hence, pressure will be reducing. 20
6. When the vacuum gauge gave a reading of 0 cm Hg, the steam valve was closed i.e. the introduction of heat into the vessel was stopped. Note there is a temperature sensor which indicates temperature, it is assumed that oil is bleached at 100oC. 7. The oil had not been bleached when vacuum was at 0 cm Hg therefore, the steam valve was shut and vacuum was allowed to build again. 8. When vacuum built up to 60 cm Hg, heat was added i.e. the steam valve was opened. This process continued until temperature got to 100oC. Whenever the temperature gets to 100oC, there is no more moisture in the oil. The vacuum will no longer fall rather, it will start rising continuously. 9. Once the temperature reached 100oC the heat was shut down. 10. The bleaching material was added to a vessel. This vessel has a pipe connected to the vacuum bleacher. Vacuum was allowed to build again so that it can suck the bleaching material into the vessel through the tonsil line. When vacuum got up to 60 cm Hg, bleaching earth {tonsil} was added. Note the amount of bleaching material is 3% of oil i.e. if 5 tons of oil was added, Quantity of bleaching material added 3 × 5000 = 150 100 Each bag weighs 25kg Hence number of bags to be added =
150 25
= 6 𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑠
11. Afterwards, the steam valve was opened to heat up the vessel. The vessel was heat up to 110oC then the steam was shut off. 12. The oil was allowed to cool for about 30 minutes then a sample of the oil was sent to the lab for analysis. Standard redness = 0.9 – 1.5. Ideally, tallow could be said to be yellow but scientifically it is termed red. 13. Afterwards the oil was discharged into the filter box for filtration. Inside the filter box there are leafs which separate oil from the earth and removes impurities. The leaf has an opening through which oil passes. There are 11 leaves in the filter box. Impurities hang on the surface of the leaf. The filtration process is of a recycling nature. It continually 21
goes in and out of the filter box to the vacuum bleacher. There is a show glass located at the lower level of the filter. When the oil is clean, the glass will be very clean. 14. After filtration the stirrer was switched off. The oil was then recycled by sending it to the bleaching vessel. The manhole underneath the filter box was opened. Another valve located on the filter box was also opened. This induced agitation in the box which made the bleaching earth used for the process fall off. 15. After this, the discharge valve was opened and the oil was sent to the storage tank. AIR/CHEMICAL BLEACHING This process occurs inside the air bleacher. The chemicals used for the process include hydrogen peroxide and sulfuric acid. Note sulfuric acid is more powerful than hydrogen peroxide. They both appear in liquid form each weighing 65kg and 30kg per barrel respectively. The quantity used is 3% i.e. 2% of sulfuric acid can be added alongside 1% hydrogen peroxide. Air bleaching unlike vacuum bleaching does not use heat. Chemical bleaching can be carried out both in the vacuum and air bleacher. PROCESS 1. The oil was loaded into the air bleacher. 2. The blower was switched on. 3. 1% hydrogen peroxide was added directly through the manhole. 4. After 10 minutes, sulfuric acid was added directly through the manhole and allowed to sit for about 45 minutes. 5. The blower was switched off, and the oil was allowed to settle for 1 hr. 6. The less dense material {oil} settled on top while the more dense material {water} settled underneath. Hence, the discharge valve was opened so as to drain the water from the tank. 7. The bleached oil was then transferred to the oil tank farm section for storage. This process lasted for about 3 hrs in total. The disadvantage of chemical bleaching is that it corrodes pipes but it is more economical in the sense that it saves both time and energy.
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CHEMICAL BLEACHING OF RED OIL USING SODIUM PERBORATE 1. The oil was loaded into the air bleacher. 2. The steam valves were opened and the vessel was heat to 70oC 3. Sodium perborate was added directly through the manhole. 4. The less dense material {oil} settled on top while the more dense material {water} settled underneath. Hence, the discharge valve was opened so as to drain the water from the tank. 5. The bleached oil was then transferred to the oil tank farm section for storage. During chemical bleaching, the filter box is not employed rather the chemicals are removed by draining them out. WASHING OF PALM ACID OIL PAO 1. 4 tons of raw PAO was pumped into the small vacuum bleacher. 2. 4 tons of water was pumped into the same bleacher. 3. 240kg of 0.2% concentration caustic solute was added to the above bleacher. 4. The vessel was heat up to 90oC. 5. The mixture was allowed to settle for 1hr 30minutes. 6. The underflow was drained out until it became inseparable with oil. RECYCLING OF SLUDGES OF PALM OIL, CLEAR BLEACH AND LOW GRADE 1. The steam valve was opened alongside the manhole in order to flush the lines. 2. After about 30 minutes, the steam valve was shut. 3. The oil was allowed to settle. 4. The water and sludge were then discharged. WASHING THE VACCUM BLEACHER 1. Large quantity of water was pumped into the vessel. 2. The steam valves and the manhole were opened. 3. The stirrer was switched on. 4. This process lasted for about 30 minutes and before the water was discharged.
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3.4 OPERATING THE DOC BOILER
Figure 18 showing a DOC Boiler
The boiler house is a place where steam is generated. Types of boiler present include the 10 metric ton boiler and the 3 metric ton boiler. The 10 metric ton boiler burns with boiler sand, palm kernel shell and charcoal while the 3 metric ton boiler burns with palm kernel shell and charcoal. The boiler transforms cold water to steam at 400-500oC and above. It is calibrated in bar. The pressure varies proportionally with temperature. The 10 metric ton DOC boiler can hold a pressure of 16.7 bars. This means that at 16.7 bars, the sensor will trip off and when it drops below 15 bars the sensor would pick up again. There are various steam lines in the factory, one to the drying section of the Beauty Base Ltd BBL, the other to the Kitchen Vegetable Oil Plant KVO and lastly to the Silicate Dissolution Plant. At 10 bars and above, steam would be released to BBL and KVO and at 3-5bars; steam will be released to the Silicate Dissolution Plant. DISSOLVENTIZE OIL CAKE {DOC} BOILER The components of this boiler include the following: ID Fan: This is the first fan that is put on while operating the DOC boiler. The induction fan transfers heat, without it the plant fire will continue. Booster Fan: This feeds material {Palm kernel shell} into the plant. The palm kernel shells are put in a chain conveyor which conveys it up into a hopper to the funnel. The booster fan serves as an airline, as the material is dropping, the booster will transport it into the furnace.
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FD Fan: The force draft is responsible for fluidization. Without it the material will not burn. The major raw material used in a DOC boiler is water. There is a pump, a water tank and a transfer pump that sucks water into the boiler. It has a control {water site glass} calibrated in numbers. The overhead tank transfers water to the storage tank by virtue of gravity. OPERATING THE 10 METRIC TON DOC BOILER 1. The transfer pump was started. When water filled the boiler, the feed pump tripped off. 2. Wet boiler sand was poured on top of the boiler bed, the ID, FD and booster fans were put on to dry the sand. 3. All the fans were then turned off. 4. Charcoal was mixed with diesel and thrown on top of the boiler sand. They were then lit by throwing in a match. 5. The ID fan was then put on. It was allowed to run for 3 minutes in order to circulate the fire. 6. The booster fan was also put on for 3 minutes. 7. The fire was constantly monitored to ensure that it did not got off. 3.5 BOILING OF SOAP The pan room consist of four pans lettered A-D in an anticlockwise fashion. Inside the pans, there are four perforated coils namely the pluming, the first coil, the second coil and the third coil.
Figure 19 showing the pan room crutcher
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BOILING OF GREEN SOAP 1. The main steam valve, the steam header, steam gauges and the pluming were opened. 2. 1 drum of water was poured into the boiling pan. 3. 20 tons of oil PFAD was added. 4. 4 tons of caustic soda was poured into the boiling pan. 5. The boiling of the soap continued. 6. Crude palm kernel oil was mixed with 35 bags of calcium carbonate and a bag of titanium oxide inside the pan room crutcher. The mixture was allowed to stir for 30 minutes before it was transferred to the boiling pan through the crutcher line. 7. 5 buckets of Olympic green colour were added to the boiling pan. 8. 12 drums of aqueous silicate {3600kg} were added to the boiling pan. 9. 2 bags of salt {50kg} were added to the boiling pan. 10. A sample of the sapon was sent to the quality control lab for analysis. 11. The sample gave its parameter thus and was approved by the lab. Free caustic alkaline – 0.120% Moisture – 32.5% 12. The sapon was bubbled by opening the steam valve underneath. Bubbling was carried out in order to make the sample relative. After that, the sapon was transferred to the feed pan. In amending the sapon, if the caustic concentration is too high water should be added but if the moisture content is too high, caustic should be added. The process period lasted for about 10 hrs. Oil for boiling green soap include red oil, PFAD, low grade, PAO and crude palm kernel oil. WHITE SOAP {HAMMER SOAP OR KITCHEN STAR} 1. The steam gauges and the pluming were opened. 2. 1 drum of water was poured into the boiling pan. 3. 20 tons of oil Stearin was added. 4. 4 tons of caustic soda was poured into the boiling pan. The boiling of the soap continued. 5. 2 buckets of Olympic white colour were added to the boiling pan. 6. 12 drums of aqueous silicate {3600kg} were added to the boiling pan. 26
7. 2 bags of salt {50kg} were added to the boiling pan. 8. A sample of the sapon was sent to the quality control lab for analysis. 9. The sample gave its parameter thus and was approved by the lab. Free caustic alkaline – 0.188% Moisture – 29.2% 10. The sapon was bubbled by opening the steam valve underneath. After bubbling, the sapon was transferred to the feed pan. Oil for boiling white soap includes stearin, white day tank and clear bleach. BROWN SOAP {KITCHEN CROWN} 1. The steam gauges and the pluming were opened. 2. 1 drum of water was poured into the boiling pan. 3. 20 tons of oil Stearin was added. 4. 4 tons of caustic soda was poured into the boiling pan. The boiling of the soap continued. 5. 2 bags of salt {50kg} were added to the boiling pan. 6. A sample of the sapon was sent to the quality control lab for analysis. 7. The sample gave its parameter thus and was approved by the lab. Free caustic alkaline – 0.188% Moisture – 29.2% 8. The sapon was bubbled by opening the steam valve underneath. After bubbling, the sapon was transferred to the feed pan. Oil for boiling brown soap includes low grade, PFAD, CPKO and PAO. 3.6 WORKING ON THE DRYING PLANT/ PRODUCTION FLOOR The equipments at this section of the company include the heat exchanger, bypass, belt conveyor, atomizer, plodder, mixer, roll mill, stamper, cutter and wrapping machine.
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Figure 10 showing a heat exchanger
Figure 12 showing a roll mill
Figure 14 showing a simplex plodder
Figure 11 showing a mixer
Figure 13 showing an atomizer
Figure 15 showing a duplex plodder
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Figure 16 showing a flow wrapper
Figure 17 showing a conveyor
Figure 18 showing a cutter
DRYING PLANT The barometric pump calculates water from the pit to the cooling tower. It takes water from the pit to the cooling tower. It takes water from the pit to the condenser and then back to the pit. For the barometric pump, there is a recycle pump which takes water from the cooling tower back to pit and there is another pit which is connected to the recycle pit it is from there that the barometric pump takes water from the pit to the condenser and then back to the pit. This process cools the entire drying plant. The cooling tower cools the water and sends it to the condenser so as to dry water from the vacuum pump. The steam goes through the booster to the heat exchanger because of heat. There are two types of air 1. Air from the compressor {Positive air} 2. Air from the vacuum pump {Negative air} 29
For the purpose of this section, the air of interest is the negative air. The vacuum pump removes water from the sapon in the scrapper and stores it in the cyclone. It also produces air which goes to the condenser, is cooled there and then returns to the cyclone. DRYING OF SAPON The sapon drying process is thus; sapon is introduced into the feed pan from the pan room. A sample is then sent to the quality control lab for analysis. If the moisture content of the soap is higher than 30% for green soap, the heat exchanger will be switched on to dry the sapon but if the moisture content is below 30% the sapon will pass through the by-pass. The feed pump will then be switched on. From the heat exchanger/by-passs, the pump sends the sapon to the atomizer to dry it. The atomizer motor and the belt make up the atomizer. As the atomizer belt is rolling, the vacuum pump, the atomizer and the steam must be switched on. The atomizer dries the sapon to the smallest particle where it can come out of the nozzle of the plant. When this is done, with the aid of the vacuum and steam, the nozzle pushes out the soap noodle to the wall chamber. Inside the wall chamber, there is a scrapper that scraps the around the sapon. The sapon then falls on the simplex plodder which pushes it out. Inside the plodders, there is a continuous recycle line which supplies chilled water to them. If there is no chilled water supplied to the equipments on the production floor, the soap will be rough. The spray dryer consists of the simplex plodder and the drying pan, while the atomizer and the wall chamber make up the drying pan. Soap noodles then come out from the plodder through an orifice. From the sprayer dryer through the aid of a conveyor, the soap noodle enters into the duplex plodder. The duplex plodder consists of the preliminary plodder and the final plodder. From the final plodder, the soap passes through an orifice which gives it its shape and then through the stamper which places the company stamp on it to the cutter and from the cutter to a conveyor where it is picked up and packed in cartons. If the soap is not stamped, or is poorly formed, the soap is taken back to the final plodder for further processing. The perfume must be applied to the conveyor to ensure easy movement. The duplex plodder drops a perfume known as boco on the green soap. A crutcher is a boiling pan 3 metric ton. Inside the crutcher, there is a stirrer. Because of its small size, a big tank is more preferable. The big tank uses steam pressure through a perforated coil for boiling.
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For the white soap, {kitchen star, hammer soap} additives such as perfumes are added to it in the mixer. The process is thus: from the spray dryer, the soap noodle passes through the belt conveyor to the hopper. The blower serves as a conveyor for the soap noodles by blowing it up from the hopper to the silo from there to the mixer where perfumes and additives are added, then to the roll mill through a screw conveyor. At the roll mill, the additives are homogenized. From the roll mill the soap noodles pass through a conveyor to the preliminary plodder from there to the final plodder, then to the stamper, cutter and finally to the wrapping machine. Later on, the soaps are picked up and packed in cartons and there after they are conveyed to a truck using pallet truck and a fork lift. Note: The vacuum pump must be switched on during the entire drying process.
3.7 CONDUCTING EXPERIMENTS
Figure 19 showing a weighing balance
Figure 20 showing reagent bottles
Figure 21 showing a microwave
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FREE CAUSTIC ALKALINE FCA IN SOAP. 1. The beaker was washed and dried in the oven. 2. The beaker was placed on a weighing balance in order to tar off its weight. 3. 10 grams of the soap was weighed using the beaker. 4. 100ml of ethanol was measured using the measuring cylinder and then added to the beaker. 5. The solution was placed on an electric heater and left to boil for a few minutes until the soap sample completely dissolved. 6. 5ml of Barium Chloride was added to solution and then shook. 7. 3 drops of phenolphthalein was added. The solution turned pink, indicating the presence of caustic soda in the solution. 8. A solution of HCL/N10 i.e. dilute HCL was poured into the burette. The burette was then placed on a pitot stand. The initial reading of HCL/N10 was noted. 9. HCL/N10 was used to titrate the solution until the pink colour disappeared completely. 10. 3 drops of phenolphthalein was added to check if the pink colour would reappear. It did not, indicating the absence of caustic soda in the solution. 11. The final titre value was then noted. 12. Using the formula 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 × 0.04, the percentage of the free caustic alkaline in the soap was calculated. OIL CONTENT IN A SPRAYER 1. An empty Petri dish was weighed and its weight noted. 2. A small quantity of oil was poured into the Petri dish and its initial weight recorded. 3. The Petri dish containing oil sample was put in the oven and allowed to heat for 1hr within the temperature range of 100 – 120oC. 4. The final weight of the Petri dish after it was removed from the oven was recorded. 5. The initial weight of Petri dish containing oil sample was subtracted from the weight of the empty Petri dish and its result recorded. 6. The initial weight of Petri dish containing oil sample was subtracted from the final weight of Petri dish containing oil sample and its result recorded.
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7. The result got in step 5 was subtracted from the result got in step 6. The answer was then multiplied by 100 to get an answer in percentage. CAUSTIC ACID CONCENTRATION 1. The weighing balance was tared. 2. I gram of caustic soda solution was measured out in a conical flask. 3. 100ml of water was added into it. 4. .3 drops of phenolphthalein was added. The solution turned pink, indicating the presence of caustic soda in the solution. 5. A solution of HCL/N10 was poured into the burette. The burette was then placed on a pitot stand. The initial reading of HCL/N10 was noted. 6. HCL/N10 was used to titrate the solution until the pink colour disappeared completely. 7. The final titre value was then noted. 8. Using the formula 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 × 4, the concentration of caustic soda was determined. MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOAP 1. The beaker was weighed using a weighing balance and its weight noted as 98.15g. 2. 5 grams of soap was added to the beaker and its weight noted as 103.15g. 3. The beaker was then place in a microwave for 2mins. 4. The beaker was then reweighed and its weight noted as 102.23g. 5. Using the formula 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 × 20, the moisture content of the soap was determined. i.e. 103.15 − 102.23𝑔 × 20 = 18.4%. HOW TO PRECIPITATE BARIUM CHLORIDE IN THE LABORATORY 1. A filter paper was put in the oven. 2. 100 grams of Barium Chloride was put in a beaker. 3. 900ml of distilled water was gently put in the beaker. 4. The mixture was stirred using a spatula until it was completely relative. 5. Using a filter paper and a funnel, the solution was filtered into a reagent bottle. FREE FATTY ACID OF REFINED VEGETABLE OIL 33
1. The weighing balance was tarred. 2. 10 grams of oil was weighed in a conical flask using a weighing balance. 3. 50ml of ethanol was added to the conical flask. The conical flask was then placed on the electric heater. 4. 3 drops of phenolphthalein were added to the solution. 5. A solution of 0.1 Normality KOH i.e. dilute KOH was poured into the burette. The burette was then placed on a pitot stand. The initial reading of 0.1 Normality KOH was noted. 6. 0.1 Normality KOH was used to titrate the solution until the solution turned light pink. 7. The final titre value was then noted. 8. Using the formula 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 × 0.2, the concentration of free fatty acid in kitchen vegetable oil was determined. FREE FATTY ACID OF TALLOW FATTY 1. The weighing balance was tarred. 2. 10 grams of oil was weighed in a conical flask using a weighing balance. 3. 50ml of ethanol was added to the conical flask. The conical flask was then placed on the electric heater. 4. 3 drops of phenolphthalein were added to the solution. 5. A solution of concentrated KOH was poured into the burette. The burette was then placed on a pitot stand. The initial reading of concentrated KOH was noted. 6. Concentrated KOH was used to titrate the solution until the solution turned light pink. 7. The final titre value was then noted. 8. Using the formula 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 × 2.56, the concentration of free fatty acid in tallow fatty was determined. MOISTURE CONTENT OF TALLOW FATTY 1. 10ml of tallow fatty was put in a test tube. 2. The test tube was then covered with cotton wool 3. A beaker containing some water was set on the electric heater and the test tube was placed inside it. 34
4. After a couple of minutes the test tube was placed in an electronic centrifuge. 5. It was then removed from the centrifuge and the reading was taken. MOISTURE CONTENT OF PFAD 1. 10ml of PFAD was put in a test tube. 2. The test tube was then covered with cotton wool 3. A beaker containing some water was set on the electric heater and the test tube was placed inside it. 4. After a couple of minutes the test tube was placed in an electronic centrifuge. 5. It was then removed from the centrifuge and the reading was taken. FOAM HEIGHT 1. I gram of soap was weighed on the weighing balance. 2. 100ml of water was measured out and poured in a measuring cylinder containing the 1 gram of soap 3. The measuring cylinder was covered with one hand. 4. It was shook 25 times consistently. 5. Afterwards the foam height was duly noted. Note the aim of this experiment is to know much lather the soap would produce.
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CHAPTER FOUR 4.1 EXPERIENCE GAINED Through the journey of SWEP, I was exposed to the real world of chemical engineering and as such, I was able to relate what I had learnt in the classroom to what is obtainable in the industry. It taught me the importance of team work, effective communication, punctuality, diligence to work and attention to detail. I saw the application of heat exchangers, cooling towers, condensers etc in the industry. It made me appreciate what I had learnt in the classroom a lot more. The knowledge I acquired during the course of my industrial training includes but is not limited to: 1. Digestion of silicate i.e. batching of silicate. 2. Dissolution of caustic soda. 3. Flushing of pipes with steam to detect leakages and blockages. 4. Vacuum bleaching of oil {high grade, clear bleach, low grade}. 5. Filtering of oil using the filter box. 6. Washing of PAO. 7. Chemical bleaching of palm oil using 3% of hydrogen peroxide and sulfuric acid. 8. Washing of the vacuum bleacher with the aid of water, steam and the stirrer located inside the vacuum bleacher. 9. Compilation of factory/company records including factory downtime. 10. Learning how to operate the DOC boiler. 11. Carrying out maintenance work on the DOC boiler. 12. Cleaning up the boiling pan. 13. Boiling green soap, white soap and brown soap. 14. Working at the drying plant/production floor proper, packing up soaps without a stamp back to the final plodder. 15. Packing of soap into cartons, binding the cartons using glue. 16. Testing for the moisture content of brown, white and green soap. 17. Testing for the free caustic alkaline of brown, white and green soap. 18. Testing for the moisture content of tallow fatty acid. 19. Testing for the free fatty acid of tallow fatty acid. 36
20. Testing for the total fatty matter of white, brown and green soaps. 21. Testing for the percentage concentration of caustic soda. 22. Testing for the PH of water from the boiler house and other discharge points. 23. Testing for the free fatty acid of Refined Vegetable Oil RVO. 24. Preparing an ethanol solution using ethanol, phenolphthalein and dil.KOH. 25. Calculating and recording the average weight of soap samples {Kitchen star, hammer, crown and green soaps}. 26. Testing for the moisture content of PFAD. Preparing a dilute solution of ethanol. 27. Testing for the moisture content of black oil. With the knowledge that I have gained, I will enter the labour market fully grounded on the prerequisites for a chemical engineer. 4.2 CHALLENGES All the challenges encountered were minimal compared to the knowledge gained during the period. Some difficulties I faced during my SWEP include the following:
Transportation from house to factory.
Inability to communicate effectively with the menial works in the factory. They had a poor command of English Language.
Some of the equipments were improvised. There was no modernized method of lifting, thus heavy lifting had to be done using human labour. In other words, men worked like machines.
Loud sounds from heavy machinery causing damaging effects on the eardrum.
Weather conditions (extreme harshness of the sun during outside work).
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CHAPTER FIVE 5.1 CONCLUSION This program was truly an exciting journey therefore, I strongly recommend that the Industrial Training be made compulsory for all engineering students in Nigeria so that they can gain knowledge and be more exposed in their various fields. This will help them to give their best to the community. It will also help in developing the educational standard and skill acquisition across the country.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Staff buses should be provided by the firm as an incentive to motivate workers.
Modernized lifting mechanisms should be adopted by the firm in order to save time and human energy.
Loud machines should be used in a controlled environment.
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REFERENCES
Afe Babalola university (2012) SIWES Guide, ABUAD Publishing
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