1
What is Animation
2
Techniques
3
5
6
Puppet animation Puppetoon Clay animation Cutout animation Silhouette animation Model animation Go motion Object animation Graphic animation Pixilation
Computer animation
2D animation 3D animation
12 basic principles of animation List of animated feature-length films
Pixar Studios
7
Traditional animation Full animation Limited animation Rotoscoping Live-action/animation
Stop motion
4
History Introduction of animation in INDIA INDIAN touch to animation Scope of animation in India Need for animators in INDIA
History Traditions Sequels and prequels
Pixar: 25 Years of Animation
INTRODUCTION WHAT IS ANIMATION??? Animation is the rapid display of a sequence of images of 2-D or 3-D artwork or model positions in order to create an illusion of movement. The effect is an optical illusion of motion due to the phenomenon of persistence of vision, and can be created and demonstrated in several ways. The most common method of presenting animation is as a motion picture or video program, although there are other methods.
Etymology From Latin animātiō, "the act of bringing to life"; from animō ("to animate" or "give life to") + -ātiō ("the act of"). A simulation of movement created by displaying a series of pictures, or frames. Cartoons on television are one example of animation. Animation on computers is one of the chief ingredients of multimedia presentations. There are many software applications that enable you to create animations that you can display on a computer monitor.
Note the difference between animation and video. Whereas video takes continuous motion and breaks it up into discrete frames, animation starts with independent pictures and puts them together to form the illusion of continuous motion.
HISTORY OF ANIMATION Early examples of attempts to capture the phenomenon of motion drawing can be found in Paleolithic cave paintings, where animals are depicted with multiple legs in superimposed positions, clearly attempting to convey the perception of motion.
A 5,000 year old earthen bowl found in Iran in Shahr-i Sokhta has five images of a goat painted along the sides. This has been claimed to be an example of early animation. However, since no equipment existed to show the images in motion, such a series of images cannot be called animation in a true sense of the word.
A Chinese zoetrope-type device had been invented in 180 AD. The phenakistoscope, praxinoscope, and the common flip book were early popular animation devices invented during the 19th century.
These devices produced the appearance of movement from sequential drawings using technological means, but animation did not really develop much further until the advent of cinematography.
There is no single person who can be considered the "creator" of film animation, as there were several people working on projects which could be considered animation at about the same time.
Georges Méliès was a creator of special-effect films; he was generally one of the first people to use animation with his technique. He discovered a technique by accident which was to stop the camera rolling to change something in the scene, and then continue rolling the film. This idea was later known as stop-motion animation. Méliès discovered this technique accidentally when his camera broke down while shooting a bus driving by. When he had fixed the camera, a hearse happened to be passing by just as Méliès restarted rolling the film, his end result was that he had managed to make a bus transform into a hearse. This was just one of the great contributors to animation in the early years.
The earliest surviving stop-motion advertising film was an English short by Arthur Melbourne-Cooper called Matches: An Appeal (1899). Developed for the Bryant and May Matchsticks company, it involved stop-motion animation of wiredtogether matches writing a patriotic call to action on a blackboard. J. Stuart Blackton was possibly the first American film-maker to use the techniques of stop-motion and hand-drawn animation. Introduced to film-making by Edison, he pioneered these concepts at the turn of the 20th century, with his first copyrighted work dated 1900. Several of his films, among them The Enchanted Drawing (1900) and Humorous Phases of Funny Faces (1906) were film versions of Blackton's "lightning artist" routine, and utilized modified versions of Méliès' early stop-motion techniques to make a series of blackboard drawings appear to move and reshape themselves. 'Humorous Phases of Funny Faces' is regularly cited as the first true animated film, and Blackton is considered the first true animator. Another French artist, Émile Cohl, began drawing cartoon strips and created a film in 1908 called Fantasmagorie. The film largely consisted of a stick figure moving about and encountering all manner of morphing objects, such as a wine bottle that
transforms into a flower. There were also sections of live action where the animator‘s hands would enter the scene. The film was created by drawing each frame on paper and then shooting each frame onto negative film, which gave the picture a blackboard look. This makes Fantasmagorie the first animated film created using what came to be known as traditional (hand-drawn) animation.
Following the successes of Blackton and Cohl, many other artists began experimenting with animation. One such artist was Winsor McCay, a successful newspaper cartoonist, who created detailed animations that required a team of artists and painstaking attention for detail. Each frame was drawn on paper; which invariably required backgrounds and characters to be redrawn and animated. Among McCay's most noted films are little Nemo (1911), Gertie the Dinosaur (1914) and The Sinking of the Lusitania (1918).
The production of animated short films, typically referred to as "cartoons", became an industry of its own during the 1910s, and cartoon shorts were produced to be shown in movie theaters. The most successful early animation producer was John Randolph Bray, who, along with animator Earl Hurd, patented the cell animation process which dominated the animation industry for the rest of the decade.
INTRODUCTION OF ANIMATION IN INDIA Overview U.S. companies are doing wonders with 3D Computer Generated Imagery (3D CGI), India still clings to 2D techniques. Musical instruments are modeled using commercial 3D animation software and then animated via proprietary algorithmic animation software in the U.S., while Indian animation companies are still struggling with existing 2D software. Arduously, 2D software takes the frames drawn by an artist and scans them, and for each character, the animator creates a model. But what is attracting Indian animation firms is the estimated $50-billion market. Top Indian companies like Pentamedia Graphics Ltd, UTV Toons, Crest Communications, Unilazer, Toonz Animation India Ltd, Tata Elxsi and Digital Canvas are busy clinching deals with companies in the U.S. These companies nurse smaller animation companies by sub-contracting a part of their international projects, including those from Disney and Warner Brothers (WB). Indian animation has interesting history. In 1912, Dadasaheb Phalke produced the first Indian animation movie, which was followed by a hiatus that lasted over 40 years. In 1956, the Films Division set up a cartoon film unit, where Clair Weeks, the veteran Disney animator, was invited to train students. And one of his first students, Ram Mohan, went on to found UTV Toons. In 1997, Mohan, who had already spent two decades at the Films Division, teamed with United Studios, a division of the UTV group, to spin off an animation company. The venture, initially called RM-USL Animation, was rechristened UTV Toons in 2000. Today, it is one of the largest 2D animation companies in India, and Mohan is considered the ―father of Indian animation.‖
Cost Factor It costs a prohibitive $400,000 to 500,000 to produce one hour of animation footage in the U.S. Perhaps that explains why studios there are looking to outsource. Take the case of Chennai-based Pentamedia Graphics Ltd. The parent company, Pentafour Software and Exports Ltd, started with selling CD titles and corporate presentations. A joint project with Griboullie, France, for Excalibur was a breakthrough for the company. The company went on to bag other international projects like The King and I from WB in 1999.
V. Chandrasekaran of Pentamedia says, ―Initially it was difficult to pitch for the foreign animation projects since India figured nowhere compared to the international levels of sophistication.‖ The Warner project served as a springboard and it soon bagged Sinbad: Beyond the Veil of Mists from Improvision Corp.
Today, the company‘s turnover for the third quarter stands at $2,123 million. ―The joint venture with 3dMaxMedia Inc, U.S., to create high-end digital entertainment content using cutting-edge tools for Internet, cinema and TV media was really a fillip,‖ says Chandrasekaran. Last year, major Hollywood and European studios outsourced services worth $300 million to India because of the obvious cost advantage. ―While a 20-minute special effects animation sequence costs about $75,000 in India, studios in the US charge $150,000,‖ says K. Chandra Shekar, head, (Animation Business), Tata Elxsi (P) Ltd.
Overseas studios, including American and Canadian ones, which normally outsource their back-end animation work from Australia, Philippines, Taiwan and Korea, are now increasingly veering toward India.
Maturity Although yet to mature, animation companies are throwing their rings on the ―classic outsourcing model,‖ to which goes the credit of building the ―Indian software industry,‖ until of course, the slowdown happened. ―If a company can keep the quality of its output at a desirable level with low costs, it can expect to produce movies for Hollywood,‖ says Chandrasekaran. While most companies were reeling under the slowdown of last year, it turned out to be one of the best for the Indian animation industry. Compudyne, Winfosystems, Maya Entertainment, UTV Toons, Toonz Animation, Western Outdoor and Color Chips India all bagged lucrative foreign contracts.
Roadblocks One major weakness for all Indian animation houses has been the lack of trained animators—animation is not even offered at Indian art schools. ―Many companies try to master only the technology in animation, but pay scant attention to aesthetics like timing and movements. This is the reason why many projects get rejected,‖ says Tata Elxsi‘s Shekar.
Nasscom estimates that India could use 300,000 professionals in content development and animation by 2008, though at the end of 2001 it pegged at 27,000. ―Animators must have creative and artistic abilities. A good sense of humor and an observant eye to detect the incongruous are the assets. Along with these qualities, a qualification in fine art and visual communication design is a must,‖ says Sudhish, managing director of Hyderabad-based ColorChips Ltd.
Acquiring to expand Companies like Pentamedia Graphics and Crest Communication are now chanting the M&A mantra. Pentamedia, touted in the early part of 2001 as the No. 1 animation company in India, acquired Improvision, a U.S.-based film production and distribution company, for $19.5 million, and a Singapore-based 2D animation company, Animasia International, for SG $0.5 million. ―The acquisition has helped the company implement offshore development work, but ideally it could be used to tap the potential in the commercial animation market,‖ says Chandrasekaran. Crest Communication acquired Rich Animation, a U.S.-based animation production studio for $5 million. Its objective was to use Rich‘s pre- and post-production skills. Even companies like Sriveni Multi-Tech and Compudyne Winfosystems have acquired U.S.-based Station X Studios Entertainment and VisionArt Studio for $1 million and $4 million respectively.
Beyond Quality When it comes to animation, quality has not been easy to achieve. An entrylevel professional would take 10 hours for a single second of animation. In fact, even for an experienced animator, it would mean half-a-day‘s job. Arena, an Aptech subsidary, churns out thousands of students skilled in animation, Maya, USAnimation, Animo, audio-video editing and special effects. But only a few get to work in the studios. While computer 3D animation is gaining popularity, UTV Toons‘ Nandini points out that for traditional 2D animators, drawing skills are still very critical. ―What works is a happy marriage of 2D and 3D, such as in the Lion King, where the characters were 2D, but the background 3D.‖ While 2D animation requires painstaking sketching of characters and movements, 3D animations are often created from wireframes of sketches or models and then manipulated.
INDIAN TOUCH TO ANIMATION
India's animation sector is witnessing a major boom. Overseas entertainment giants like Walt Disney,Imax and Sony are increasingly outsourcing cartoon characters and special effects to India . Other companies are outsourcing animation from India for commercials and computer games. So what makes India a hub for animation? Why is the sector experiencing exponential growth? In this special series, we take a look at what makes India shine in the world of animation. A full-fledged feature film called Tommy and Oscar is in the final stages of production at the Toonz Animation Studio, Techno park, Kerala . A team of artists and technicians is working frenetically to complete the film for the Italian producer Rainbow Productions. Applied Gravity, a New Zealand-based company, has outsourced nearly 90 per cent of it animation work to Nipuna Services, the business process outsourcing subsidiary of Satyam Computer Services. An animatronics dog for Animal Planet (Discovery channel) for a popular episode called K9 to11 and animatronics models for New Zealand theme parks were some of the best-known creations of Applied Gravity in India.
The Walt Disney Company has outsourced some of its major animation projects to various studios across India. Cartoon Network is buying animation films made in India. MTV has added India to its outsourcing hub along with the Philippines and South Korea.
A new outsourcing fever has gripped India. Global entertainment majors like Walt Disney, IMAX, Warner Brothers and Sony are signing up huge contracts with Indian animation companies. And cities in India like Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Trivandrum have emerged as the country's major animation hubs. A slew of companies across these cities have dedicated themselves to the outsourced world of animation and special effects. These include Toonz Animation, Crest Communications, Maya Entertainment, Silvertoon Studio, UTV Toons, Zee Institute of Creative Arts, 2NZ Studios, Pentamedia Graphics, Prasad Studios, Acropetal, JadooWorks, Color Chips and Heart Animation. These animation firms have set up large production studios that are equipped with state-of -the-art equipment and hardware and software like SGI, 3DMax and Softimage, SFX and processing motion capture facilities. "Work is pouring in from places like the United States, Europe and Asia in the form of outsourced projects and co-production deals," points out P Jayakumar, Chief Executive Officer of Toonz Animation, arguably India's biggest animation player. Toonz Animation is a complete state-of-the-art facility, staffed with internationally trained creative professionals from around the world. Its primary studio, Studio A, is located at Techno park in Trivandrum where over 400 artists and technicians create animated 2D and 3D films.
Jayakumar says Toonz formats include episodic television animation, ad films, direct-to-video and feature length. Animation veterans like Jayakumar says that India has become an outsourcing hub for animation films because: India has a vast base of English speaking workforce: Animation, which requires familiarity with the English language, benefits when the work is outsourced to India. A number of animation companies in the country are also creating skilled manpower for the animation market through various training programs. Presence of good studios: India has the second largest entertainment industry in the world, after Hollywood. Animation studios in the country provide a large supply of low-cost, high-quality software engineers. A number of Indian animation companies have set up hi-tech studios (equipped with state-of-the-art hardware and software) to execute overseas projects. Low cost of animation services: The main reason why foreign entertainment firms are flocking to India is the cost advantage the country offers. For instance, in the US, animators can cost about $125 an hour; in India, they cost $25 an hour. Toonz Animation offers animation at 25 per cent to 40 per cent lower rates than other Asian studios and much lower than those of American studios.
The total cost for making a full-length animated film in America is estimated to be $100 million to $175 million. In India, it can be made for $15 million to $25 million.
C K Prahlad, an animation consultant based in Bangalore, says the biggest advantage is the cost factor. "Indian animation companies are charging extremely low rates compared to other countries. That is attracting the Hollywood companies to outsource their animation film series to the country," he said.
Major US animation studios and producers are realizing this huge cost advantage that India offers.
"Due to changing viewing habits, channels or networks are being forced to bring down license fees. As a result, the volume of work has been dropping.
In this situation, India's advantage of low production costs could be a boon to the domestic animation industry," said Margaret Dean, Sony Pictures' head of family entertainment group and a consultant to various animation studios in the US, during a recent India visit.
According to the National Association of Software and Services Companies (Nasscom), the total revenues of the animation production services sector in India were estimated by between $200 million and $300 million in 2004.
Nasscom estimates the animation sector grew at a rate of over 20 per cent last year. "Demand for animation production services from India is growing with the emergence of an organized animation production sector, with state-of -the-art of work required for international TV program production, at substantially lower costs," a Nasscom report said.
SOCPE OF ANIMATION IN INDIA Animated cell phone displays, commercials, cartoons and movies are a big part of life in today's modern world, but India so far has played a very small part in the global animation industry. There are about 10 animation studios across the country, and only around 3000 animators work for them. "The industry is bottlenecked when it comes to procuring skilled professionals for jobs. There are many people who are familiar with the software, but they are not qualified animators," says Binu Raj, marketing head, Toonz Animation.
Entertainment, though, is not the be-all and end-all of the industry. It has applications in various fields. Defence personnel use animation to design armaments, forensic scientists use it to recreate crime sequences and it is also used in the fields of space research and medicine Animation is a fast-emerging high-paying career option. To become an animator, you need intensive training in 2D or 3D animation. Professional diploma programs in animation and multimedia are available for higher study. You can specialize in creating animation characters, creating twoand/or three-dimensional shapes, special visual effects, video game programming, game art and so on. The basic requirement is that you must have excellent creative and artistic abilities such as flair for drawing, sketching or caricaturing In the present scenario animation has a huge demand in national as well as in international market. This career is booming in the present market and in future the scope is much better. There are several career institutes offering Animation and Cartoon Courses in India. These career courses entail intensive career training for the job requirements in the field of animation and cartoon. Depending on one's aspiration and confidence, from diploma to degree there are various options for a candidate to choose. As art is at the core of the animation sector, one can also pursue Bachelor of Fine Arts or Master of Fine Arts
courses to have an edge in animation education. Moreover students may also do some specializations in both 2D and 3D pre-production, sound engineering, editing, modeling, performance animation, technical animation and other branches of animation. The National Institute of Design, JJ School of Arts, Industrial Design Center, IIT Mumbai are some of the best institutes in India that offer courses in the animation sector. As the demand of animation industries is increasing at a faster rate and the per capita growth has also helped in the economic growth of India. This has change the entire face of animation industries. India has become a favored destination for various pre production works of the animation industry during the last decade mainly due to the availability of talented animation artists at relatively low costs. Apart from outsourcing, the expansion of the domestic market has also opened up opportunities for the animation artists.
NEED FOR ANIMATORS IN INDIA Explained by a INDIAN animation expert Ram Mohan
I have a feeling that some people are looking at animation only as a career as a job. They want the monthly income just like a telephone operator. For those we should have like Polytechnics where they are taught inbetweening, clean-ups and basics of animation. For them animation is not an art form, it is a dhanda as they call it a business. It‘s their livelihood. And those people are really needed without them classical animation cannot be done. So there should be two types of Institutes: Polytechnics which teach these basics of classical animation production at an affordable fees and short term courses for them. And they are in demand; at least they were in demand. Initially there was a tremendous demand because they didn‘t need designers or storyboard artist or character designers because all that was coming from abroad. What they want were people who could take those storyboards and design and animate them. Now I know we don't have enough people and I know how much we had to do when We were in UTV Toons to train these people. To train these people in the beginning and then take them on to productions where they would continue to learn further when they were on jobs.
And then there is the other kind of school where animation is taught along with film making. It‘s not just animation but animation as just film making medium. So they should also know about music and sound and I also feel it is very important for animation students to have a knowledge of World classics literature, in dance, in performance in choreography, in lighting etc with all this then he becomes a complete film-maker with a very broad view in all arts. In fact animation is one art in which so many other arts flow in. So it has to be that kind of education for animators, sorry not animators but animation film maker. There should be a 5 year program, at least 4 years minimum education program in animation with 2 years graduation and 2 years post graduation i.e. specialization. Even in art schools animation should be taught. Like the other specialization subjects like Topography and Photography, even Animation should be introduced soon after students enter that is after foundation level. So that students can have the choice to take animation as a primary subject so that by the end of 5 years you learn the skills of animation and when you enter into the post-graduate school like IDC or NID one can hone his skills further as film makers. I wish if the government would subsidize training in animation. Unfortunately they don‘t realize that there are very special skills that are required for animation. Computer literacy is comparatively higher but not everyone knows to do good graphic. One might know the software but the creative aspect of it requires special training in Institutes. Sadly even Art schools do not impart any training in animation. We have been trying to persuade J.J. School of Arts but there are no funds. Nor even in the Films - FTI Pune. So we are neither here nor there. Not in the Art schools nor even in the Film schools. The only Institute that has done some work for training in animation is NID. And now IDC is doing better, I am sure after that Shilpa has joined they are exploring much more whereas before they were doing animation only with simple devices. New avenues have to be opened for 2D and 3D animation. In fact Animation should be looked upon as an ‗Art-Form‘ which has a fourth dimension in Time. It is a very
beautiful concept- ―Art that is moving‘. So it has to be encouraged and practiced because the talent is there in India and I am happy that people are looking towards it. There is no animation culture in India like the countries in the West. Institutes like NID, J.J. School of Arts, IDC, FTI Pune, Films Division and TASI should come together and form this. TASI is doing it but on a very small level. There is a lot of potential for the growth of animation in India. Basically there should be awareness and people should think differently. The ‗Cartoon‘ image of animation from their minds should be taken out. As the countries in the west, animation is done at different levels- for children and for adults. Likewise it should be in India. There is lot of potential for original content but unfortunately the infrastructure is missing. Whereas countries like China, Korea, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam and Indonesia have taken over India in this field. For content development, ‗Amar Chitra kathaein‘ did some work but still that is not enough. They could have explored much more. Moreover children in the west read lots of comic books which is not so much practiced in India, that has to be encouraged. Thus this Animation Culture has to be practiced and developed in India. ―One reason why animation is useful in India is that when you have animated characters they become sort of Generalized. Otherwise you take a live character he belongs to a particular region. He is either a Keralite or a Bengali or a Punjabi so they become associated with one particular region in lifestyle. In Animation the character becomes sort of generalized. Therefore he becomes an Indian farmer or an Indian fisherman so animation can cover the entire country.‖
TECHNIQUES TRADITIONAL ANIMATION Traditional animation (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) was the process used for most animated films of the 20th century. The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, which are first drawn on paper. To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called cells, which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings. The completed character cells‘ are photographed one-by-one onto motion picture film against a painted background by a rostrum camera.
The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century. Today, animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into
or drawn directly into a computer system. Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects. The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media, including traditional 35 mm film and newer media such as digital video. The "look" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the character animators' work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years. Some animation producers have used the term "tradigital" to describe cel animation which makes extensive use of computer technology. Examples of traditionally animated feature films include Pinocchio (United States, 1940), Animal Farm (United Kingdom, 1954), and Akira (Japan, 1988). Traditional animated films which were produced with the aid of computer technology include The Lion King (US, 1994) Sen to Chihiro no Kamikakushi (Spirited Away) (Japan, 2001), and Les Triplettes de Belleville (France, 2003).
Full animation refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films, which regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement. Fully animated films can be done in a variety of styles, from more
realistically animated works such as those produced by the Walt Disney studio (Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin, Lion King) to the more 'cartoony' styles of those produced by the Warner Bros. animation studio. Many of the Disney animated
features are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works such as The Secret of NIMH (US, 1982), The Iron Giant (US, 1999), and Nocturna (Spain, 2007).
Limited animation Limited animation is a process of making animated cartoons that does not redraw entire frames but variably reuses common parts between frames. One of its major trademarks is the stylized design in all forms and shapes, which in the early days was referred to as modern design. The shortsubject cartoons and feature-length cartoons of Walt Disney from the 1930s and 1940s are widely acclaimed for depicting animated simulations of reality, with exquisite detail in every frame. This style of animation is time-consuming and expensive. "Limited" animation creates an image with abstract art, symbolism, and fewer drawings to create the same effect, at a much lower cost. This style of animation depends upon animators' skill in emulating change without additional drawings; improper use of limited animation is easily recognized as unnatural. It also encourages the animators to indulge in artistic styles that are not bound to real world limits. The result is an artistic style that could not have developed if animation was solely devoted to producing simulations of reality. Without limited animation, such ground-breaking films as Yellow Submarine, Chuck Jones' The Dot and the Line, and many others could never have been produced. The process of limited animation aims at reducing the overall number of drawings. Film is projected at 24 frames per second. For movements in normal speed, most animation in general is done "on twos," meaning 12 drawings per second are recorded meaning that each drawing uses two frames of film. Faster movements may demand animation "on ones," while characters that do not move may be done with a single drawing (a "hold") for a certain amount of time. It is said that the Disney average was about 18 drawings per second, pretending that all characters of a scene share the same sheet of paper. Limited animation mainly reduces the number of in-betweens, the drawings between the key frames which define a movement, and can cause stuttering if in-betweens are poorly
setup.
Overall, the use of limited animation does not necessarily imply lower quality as it allows the use of many timesaving techniques that can improve the quality and flow of the key frames and overall presentation of an animation.
Rotoscoping Rotoscoping is an animation technique in which animators trace over live-action film movement, frame by frame, for use in animated films.[1] Originally, recorded live-action film images were projected onto a frosted glass panel and re-drawn by an animator. This projection equipment is called a rotoscope, although this device has been replaced by computers in recent years. In the visual effects industry, the term Rotoscoping refers to the technique of manually creating a matte for an element on a liveaction plate so it may be composited over another background.
Another Rotoscope was invented by LeRoy Wottring for orthoptic training. See patent 2316139. The device was manufactured by the Wottring Instrument Company of Columbus, Ohio. In 1950, American Optical purchased the assets of Wottring Instruments and continued to build and market the product. Orthoptic training was used for a variety of eye conditions including amblyopia.
Live-action/animation A live-action/animated film is a motion picture that features a combination of real actors or elements: live-action and animated elements, typically interacting
. In The Three Caballeros (1945), Donald Duck cavorts with several LatinAmerican dancers, plus Aurora Miranda (sister of Carmen Miranda), who gives him a kiss.
Stop motion Stop-motion animation is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement. There are many different types of stopmotion animation, usually named after the type of media used to create the animation. Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation.
Puppet animation Typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting with each other in a constructed environment, in contrast to the real-world interaction in model animation. The puppets generally have an armature inside of them to keep them still and steady as well as constraining them to move at particular joints. Examples include The Tale of the Fox (France, 1937), The Nightmare before Christmas (US, 1993), Corpse Bride (US, 2005), Coraline (US, 2009), the films of Jiří Trnka and the TV series Robot Chicken (US, 2005–present).
Puppetoon Puppetoon animation is a type of replacement animation, which is itself a type of stop-motion animation. In traditional stop-motion, the puppets are made with movable parts which are repositioned between frames to create the illusion of motion when the frames are played in rapid sequence. In puppetoon animation the puppets are rigid and static pieces; each is typically used in a single frame and then switched with a separate, near-duplicate puppet for the next frame. Thus puppetoon animation requires many separate figures. It is thus more analogous in a certain sense to cel animation than is traditional stop-motion: the characters are created from scratch for each frame (though in cel animation the creation process is simpler since the characters are drawn and painted, not sculpted).
Clay animation Clay animation or claymation is one of many forms of stop motion animation. Each animated piece, either character or background, is "deformable"—made of a malleable substance, usually Plasticine clay.
All traditional animation is produced in a similar fashion, whether done through cel animation or stop motion. Each frame, or still picture, is recorded on film or digital media and then played back in rapid succession. When played back at a frame rate greater than 10–12 frames per second, a fairly convincing illusion of continuous motion is achieved. While the playback feature creating an illusion is true of all moving images (from zoetrope to films to videogames), the techniques involved in creating CGI are generally removed from a frame-by-frame process.
In clay animation, each object is sculpted in clay or a similarly pliable material such as Plasticine, usually around a wire skeleton called an armature. As in other forms of object animation, the object is arranged on the set (background), a film frame is exposed, and the object or character is then moved slightly by hand. Another frame is taken, and the object is moved slightly again. This cycle is repeated until the animator has achieved the desired amount of film. The human mind processes the series of slightly changing; rapidly playing images as motion, hence making it appear that the object is moving by itself. To achieve the best results, a consistent shooting environment is needed to maintain the illusion of continuity. This means paying special attention to maintaining consistent lighting and object placement and working in a calm environment.
Cutout animation Cutout animation is a technique for producing animations using flat characters, props and backgrounds cut from materials such as paper, card, stiff fabric or even photographs. The world's earliest known animated feature films were cutout animations (made in Argentina by Quirino Cristiani); as is the world's earliest surviving animated feature. Today, cutout-style animation is frequently produced using computers, with scanned images or vector graphics taking the place of physically cut materials. South Park is a notable example of this transition since its first episode was made with paper cutouts before switching to computer animation.
Other notable examples include Angela Anaconda, and - more recently Charlie and Lola. One of the most famous animators still using traditional cutout animation today is Yuriy Norshteyn
Silhouette animation Silhouette animation is animation in which the characters are only visible as black silhouettes. This is usually accomplished by backlighting articulated cardboard cut-outs, though other methods exist. It is partially inspired by, but for a number of reasons technically distinct from, shadow play. Traditional silhouette animation as invented by Reiniger is subdivision of cutout animation (itself one of the many forms of stop motion). It utilises figures cut out of paperboard, sometimes reinforced with thin metal sheets, and tied together at their joints with thread or wire (usually substituted by plastic or metal paper fasteners in contemporary productions) which are then moved frame-by-frame on an animation stand and filmed top-down with a rostrum camera – such techniques were used, albeit with stylistic changes, by such practitioners as Noburō Ōfuji in the 1940s and Bruno J. Böttge in the 1970s.Michel Ocelot's television series Ciné si (Cinema If, 1989) was a little different, combining cutouts and cells and also, more occasionally, live-action and clay animation (this series is better known as Princes et princesses, the feature film version mentioned below).This was also the first silhouette animation to successfully make characters appear to speak for themselves (traditionally, either intertitles or voice-over narration had been used) as the mixed medium made accurate lip syncing possible.[4] Traditional animation can also be used to imitate silhouette animation, as seen regularly in Be-PaPas' Shōjo Kakumei Utena (Revolutionary Girl Utena, 1997).
Most recently, several CGI silhouette films have been made, which demonstrate different approaches to the technique – Jossie Malis' use already 2D, vector animation,[5] Michel Ocelot's "Earth Intruders" (2007) and a scene in Azur et Asmar (Azur & Asmar, 2006) use 3D figures rendered as silhouettes, while Anthony Lucas' Academy Awardnominated The Mysterious Geographic Explorations of Jasper Morello (2005) mixes 2D characters and 3D backgrounds, both of which are combination of live action and CGI. Computer animation has also been used to make more explicit reference to shadow theatre – particularly of the Southeast Asian wayang kulit style – by adding visible rods to the
characters which appear to be operating them (ironically, in CGI, it is the other way round). This was used in Jan Koester's Our Man in Nirvana (2006) and the opening of the Disney feature The Jungle Book 2 (2003). Michel Ocelot's television series Bergères et dragons (Shepherdesses and Dragons), which, as of March 2008, is still in development, uses a mixture of 2D and 3D computer animation to simulate the look of his earlier, analogue silhouette animation.
Model animation Model animation is a form of stop motion animation designed to merge with live action footage to create the illusion of a real-world fantasy sequence. Model animation was pioneered by Willis O'Brien, and it was first used in The Lost World (1925). His work also includes King Kong (1933) The Son of Kong (1933) Mighty Joe Young (1949) The Black Scorpion (1957) The Giant Behemoth (1958)
Picking up the model animation baton from O'Brien, and refining the process further, introducing color and smoother animation, was his protégé, Ray Harryhausen. Assisting O'Brien in Mighty Joe Young in 1949, Harry went on to do model animation (and other special visual effects) on a series of feature length films, such as: The Beast From 20,000 Fathoms (1953) It Came from Beneath the Sea (1955) Earth vs. the Flying Saucers (1956)
The Animal World (Opening Dinosaur sequence, with O'Brien, 1956) 20 Million Miles To Earth (1957) The 7th Voyage of Sinbad (1958) The Three Worlds of Gulliver (1960) Mysterious Island (1961) Jason and the Argonauts (1963) First Men in the Moon (1964) One Million Years B.C. (1967) The Valley of Gwangi (1969) The Golden Voyage of Sinbad (1974) Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger (1977) Clash of the Titans (with Jim Danforth, 1981)
Go motion Go motion is a variation of stop motion animation, and was codeveloped by Industrial Light & Magic and Phil Tippett Stop motion animation can create a disorienting, and distinctive, staccato effect, because the animated object is perfectly sharp in every frame, since each frame of the animation was actually shot when the object was perfectly still. Real moving objects in similar scenes of the same movie will have motion blur, because they moved while the shutter of the camera was open.
Go motion was designed to prevent this, by moving the animated model slightly during the exposure of each film frame, producing a realistic
motion blur. The main difference is that while the frames in stop motion are made up by images of stills taken between the small movements of the object, the frames in go motion are images of the object taken while it is moving. This frame-by-frame, split-second motion is almost always created with the help of a computer, often through rods connected to a puppet or model which the computer manipulates to reproduce movements programmed in by puppeteers. Go motion was originally planned to be used extensively for the dinosaurs in Jurassic Park, until Steven Spielberg decided to try out the swiftly developing techniques of computer-generated imagery instead.
Today, the mechanical method of achieving motion blur using go motion is rarely used, as it is more complicated, slow, and labor intensive than computer generated effects. However, the motion blurring technique still has potential in real stop motion movies where the puppet's motions are supposed to be somewhat realistic. Motion blurring can now be digitally done as a post production process using special effects software such as After Effects, Boris FX, Combustion, and other similar special effects commercial software.
Object animation Object animation is a form of stop motion animation that involves the animated movements of any non-drawn objects such as toys, blocks, dolls, etc. which are not fully malleable, such as clay or wax, and not designed to look like a recognizable human or animal character. Object animation is considered a different form of animation distinct from model animation and puppet animation, as these two forms of stopmotion animation usually use recognizable characters as their subjects, rather than just objects like static toy soldiers, or construction toys such as Tinker Toys, LEGO brand bricks (Brickfilm), Lincoln Logs, Erector Sets, Playmobil, etc. Object animation is often combined with other forms of animation, usually for a more realistic effect (e.g., Model Animation or Puppet
Animation to add more complex movement or depth to the characters). For example; a toy car can be animated, but is more often animated with a character easily seen driving the car. The use of animated objects in film has been present since the early days of cinema. An example of modern object animation can be seen on Robot Chicken, part of the regular Adult Swim block on Cartoon Network, which combines object animation with a variation of puppet animation, in this case the puppets are made to resemble plastic action figures from various TV shows, movies, and pop culture.
Graphic animation Graphic animation is a variation of stop motion (and possibly more conceptually associated with traditional flat cel animation and paper drawing animation, but still technically qualifying as stop motion) consisting of the animation of photographs (in whole or in parts) and other non-drawn flat visual graphic material, such as newspaper and magazine clippings. In its simplest form, Graphic "animation" can take the form of the animation camera merely panning up and down and/or across individual photographs, one at a time, (filmed frame-by-frame, and hence, "animated") without changing the photographs from frame to frame, as on Ken Burns various historical documentary films for PBS. But once the photos (or "graphics") are also moved from frame to frame, more exciting montages of movement can be produced, such as on Los Angeles animator Mike Jittlov's 1977 short film, Animato, also seen his feature film, The Wizard of Speed and Time, released to theaters in 1987 and to video in 1989. Graphic animation can be (and often is) combined with other forms of animation including direct manipulation animation and traditional cel animation. Examples are Frank Mouris' 1973 Oscar-winning short film Frank Film, and Charles Braverman's Condensed Cream of the Beatles (1973),
originally produced for Geraldo Rivera's late night TV show of the time, Goodbye America. Graphic animation was also used as a History of Playboy Magazine piece used on Saturday Night Live when the magazine's founder, Hugh Hefner, appeared on that show during the late 70s or early 80s.
Pixilation Pixilation (from pixilated) is a stop motion technique where live actors are used as a frame-by-frame subject in an animated film, by repeatedly posing while one or more frame is taken and changing pose slightly before the next frame or frames. The actor becomes a kind of living stop motion puppet. This technique is often used as a way to blend live actors with animated ones in a film, such as in The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb by the Bolex Brothers, which used the technique to compelling and eerie effect. Early examples of this technique are El hotel eléctrico from 1908 and Émile Cohl's 1911 film Jobard ne peut pas voir les femmes‘ travailler (Jobard cannot see the women working). The term is widely credited to Grant Munro. He made an experimental film named "Pixillation", available in his DVD collection "Cut Up - The Films of Grant Munro".
COMPUTER ANIMATION Computer animation encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer.
2D animation 2D computer graphics is the computer-based generation of digital images—mostly from two-dimensional models (such as 2D geometric models, text, and digital images) and by techniques specific to them. The word may stand for the branch of computer science that comprises such techniques, or for the models themselves. 2D computer graphics are mainly used in applications that were originally developed upon traditional printing and drawing technologies, such as typography, cartography, technical drawing, advertising, etc. In those applications, the two-dimensional image is not just a representation of a real-world object, but an independent artifact with added semantic value; two-dimensional models are therefore preferred, because they give more direct control of the image than 3D computer graphics (whose approach is more akin to photography than to typography). In many domains, such as desktop publishing, engineering, and business, a description of a document based on 2D computer graphics techniques can be much smaller than the corresponding digital image—often by a factor of 1/1000 or more. This representation is also more flexible since it can be rendered at different resolutions to suit different output devices. For these reasons, documents and illustrations are often stored or transmitted as 2D graphic files. 2D computer graphics started in the 1950s, based on vector graphics devices. These were largely supplanted by raster-based devices in the following decades. The PostScript language and the X Window System protocol were landmark developments in the field. o 2D graphics techniques 2D graphics models may combine geometric models (also called vector graphics), digital images (also called raster graphics), text to be typeset (defined by content, font style and size, color, position,
and orientation), mathematical functions and equations, and more. These components can be modified and manipulated by twodimensional geometric transformations such as translation, rotation, scaling. In object-oriented graphics, the image is described indirectly by an object endowed with a self-rendering method—a procedure which assigns colors to the image pixels by an arbitrary algorithm. Complex models can be built by combining simpler objects, in the paradigms of object-oriented programming. o Direct painting A convenient way to create a complex image is to start with a blank "canvas" raster map (an array of pixels, also known as a bitmap) filled with some uniform background color and then "draw", "paint" or "paste" simple patches of color onto it, in an appropriate order. In particular, the canvas may be the frame buffer for a computer display.
Some programs will set the pixel colors directly, but most will rely on some 2D graphics library and/or the machine's graphics card, which usually implement the following operations:
paste a given image at a specified offset onto the canvas; write a string of characters with a specified font, at a given position and angle; paint a simple geometric shape, such as a triangle defined by three corners, or a circle with given center and radius; draw a line segment, arc, or simple curve with a virtual pen of given width
o Extended color models Text, shapes and lines are rendered with a client-specified color. Many libraries and cards provide color gradients, which are handy for the generation of smoothly-varying backgrounds, shadow effects, etc. (See
also Gouraud shading). The pixel colors can also be taken from a texture, e.g. a digital image (thus emulating rub-on screentones and the fabled "checker paint" which used to be available only in cartoons). Painting a pixel with a given color usually replaces its previous color. However, many systems support painting with transparent and translucent colors, which only modify the previous pixel values. The two colors may also be combined in fancier ways, e.g. by computing their bitwise exclusive or. This technique is known as inverting color or color inversion, and is often used in graphical user interfaces for highlighting, rubber-band drawing, and other volatile painting—since re-painting the same shapes with the same color will restore the original pixel values.
o Layers The models used in 2D computer graphics usually do not provide for three-dimensional shapes, or three-dimensional optical phenomena such as lighting, shadows, reflection, refraction, etc. However, they usually can model multiple layers (conceptually of ink, paper, or film; opaque, translucent, or transparent—stacked in a specific order. The ordering is usually defined by a single number (the layer's depth, or distance from the viewer). Layered models are sometimes called 2½-D computer graphics. They make it possible to mimic traditional drafting and printing techniques based on film and paper, such as cutting and pasting; and allow the user to edit any layer without affecting the others. For these reasons, they are used in most graphics editors. Layered models also allow better anti-aliasing of complex drawings and provide a sound model for certain techniques such as mitered joints and the even-odd rule. Layered models are also used to allow the user to suppress unwanted information when viewing or printing a document, e.g. roads and/or railways from a map, certain process layers from an integrated circuit diagram, or hand annotations from a business letter. In a layer-based model, the target image is produced by "painting" or "pasting" each layer, in order of decreasing depth, on the virtual
canvas. Conceptually, each layer is first rendered on its own, yielding a digital image with the desired resolution which is then painted over the canvas, pixel by pixel. Fully transparent parts of a layer need not be rendered, of course. The rendering and painting may be done in parallel, i.e. each layer pixel may be painted on the canvas as soon as it is produced by the rendering procedure. Layers that consist of complex geometric objects (such as text or polylines) may be broken down into simpler elements (characters or line segments, respectively), which are then painted as separate layers, in some order. However, this solution may create undesirable aliasing artifacts wherever two elements overlap the same pixel.
3D ANIMATION
Computer animation is the process used for generating animated images by using computer graphics. The more general term computer generated imagery encompasses both static scenes and dynamic images, while computer animation only refers to moving images.
Modern computer animation usually uses 3D computer graphics, although 2D computer graphics are still used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time renderings. Sometimes the target of the animation is the computer itself, but sometimes the target is another medium, such as film.
Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to the stop motion techniques used in traditional animation with 3D models and frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations. Computer generated animations are more controllable than other more physically based processes, such as constructing miniatures for effects shots or hiring extras for crowd scenes, and because it allows the creation of images
that would not be feasible using any other technology. It can also allow a single graphic artist to produce such content without the use of actors, expensive set pieces, or props.
To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer screen and repeatedly replaced by a new image that is similar to it, but advanced slightly in the time domain (usually at a rate of 24 or 30 frames/second). This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion pictures.
For 3D animations, objects (models) are built on the computer monitor (modeled) and 3D figures are rigged with a virtual skeleton. For 2D figure animations, separate objects (illustrations) and separate transparent layers are used, with or without a virtual skeleton. Then the limbs, eyes, mouth, clothes, etc. of the figure are moved by the animator on key frames. The differences in appearance between key frames are automatically calculated by the computer in a process known as tweening or morphing. Finally, the animation is rendered.
For 3D animations, all frames must be rendered after modeling is complete. For 2D vector animations, the rendering process is the key frame illustration process, while tweened frames are rendered as needed. For pre-recorded presentations, the rendered frames are transferred to a different format or medium such as film or digital video. The frames may also be rendered in real time as they are presented to the end-user audience. Low bandwidth animations transmitted via the internet (e.g. 2D Flash, X3D) often use software on the end-users computer to render in real time as an alternative to streaming or pre-loaded high bandwidth animations.
Methods of animating virtual characters In most 3D computer animation systems, an animator creates a simplified representation of a character's anatomy, analogous to a skeleton or stick figure. The position of each segment of the skeletal model is defined by animation variables, or Avars. In human and animal characters, many parts of the skeletal model correspond to actual bones, but skeletal animation is also used to animate other things, such as facial features (though other methods for facial animation exist). The character "Woody" in Toy Story, for example, uses 700 Avars, including 100 Avars in the face. The computer does not usually render the skeletal model directly (it is invisible), but uses the skeletal model to compute the exact position and orientation of the character, which is eventually rendered into an image. Thus by changing the values of Avars over time, the animator creates motion by making the character move from frame to frame. There are several methods for generating the Avar values to obtain realistic motion. Traditionally, animators manipulate the Avars directly. Rather than set Avars for every frame, they usually set Avars at strategic points (frames) in time and let the computer interpolate or 'tween' between them, a process called key framing. Key framing puts control in the hands of the animator, and has roots in hand-drawn traditional animation. In contrast, a newer method called motion capture makes use of live action. When computer animation is driven by motion capture, a real performer acts out the scene as if they were the character to be animated. His or her motion is recorded to a computer using video cameras and markers, and that performance is then applied to the animated character. Each method has its advantages, and as of 2007, games and films are using either or both of these methods in productions. Key frame animation can produce motions that would be difficult or impossible to act out, while motion capture can reproduce the subtleties of a particular actor. For example, in the 2006 film Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest, actor Bill Nighy provided the performance for the character Davy Jones. Even though Nighy himself doesn't appear in the film, the movie benefited from his performance
by recording the nuances of his body language, posture, facial expressions, etc. Thus motion capture is appropriate in situations where believable, realistic behavior and action is required, but the types of characters required exceed what can be done through conventional costuming.
Creating characters and objects on a computer 3D computer animation combines 3D models of objects and programmed or hand "key framed" movement. Models are constructed out of geometrical vertices, faces, and edges in a 3D coordinate system. Objects are sculpted much like real clay or plaster, working from general forms to specific details with various sculpting tools. A bone/joint animation system is set up to deform the CGI model (e.g., to make a humanoid model walk). In a process called rigging, the virtual marionette is given various controllers and handles for controlling movement. Animation data can be created using motion capture, or key framing by a human animator, or a combination of the two. 3D models rigged for animation may contain thousands of control points - for example, the character "Woody" in Pixar's movie Toy Story, uses 700 specialized animation controllers. Rhythm and Hues Studios labored for two years to create Aslan in the movie The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe which had about 1851 controllers, 742 in just the face alone. In the 2004 film The Day After Tomorrow, designers had to design forces of extreme weather with the help of video references and accurate meteorological facts. For the 2005 remake of King Kong, actor Andy Serkis was used to help designers pinpoint the gorilla's prime location in the shots and used his expressions to model "human" characteristics onto the creature. Serkis had earlier provided the voice and performance for Gollum in J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings trilogy.
Modeling human faces The modeling of human facial features is both one of the most challenging and sought after elements in computer-generated imagery. Computer facial animation is a highly complex field where models typically include a very large number of animation variables. Historically speaking, the first SIGGRAPH tutorials on State of the art in Facial Animation in 1989 and 1990 proved to be a turning point in the field by bringing together and consolidating multiple research elements, and sparked interest among a number of researchers. The Facial Action Coding System (with 46 action units such as "lip bite" or "squint") which had been developed in 1976 became a popular basis for many systems.[2] As early as 2001 MPEG-4 included 68 facial animation parameters for lips, jaws, etc., and the field has made significant progress since then and the use of facial micro expression has increased. In some cases, an affective space such as the PAD emotional state model can be used to assign specific emotions to the faces of avatars. In this approach the PAD model is used as a high level emotional space, and the lower level space is the MPEG-4 Facial Animation Parameters (FAP). A mid-level Partial Expression Parameters (PEP) space is then used to in a two level structure: the PAD-PEP mapping and the PEP-FAP translation model.
12 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ANIMATION Squash and stretch The most important principle is "squash and stretch‖, the purpose of which is to give a sense of weight and flexibility to drawn objects. It can be applied to simple objects, like a bouncing ball, or more complex constructions, like the musculature of a human face. Taken to an extreme point, a figure stretched or squashed to an exaggerated degree can have a comical effect. In realistic animation, however, the most important aspect of this principle is the fact that an object's volume does not change when squashed or stretched. If the length of a ball is stretched vertically, its width (in three dimensions, also its depth) needs to contract correspondingly horizontally.
Anticipation Anticipation is used to prepare the audience for an action, and to make the action appear more realistic.A dancer jumping off the floor has to bend his knees first; a golfer making a swing has to swing the club back first. The technique can also be used for less physical actions, such as a character looking off-screen to anticipate someone's arrival, or attention focusing on an object that a character is about to pick up
For special effect, anticipation can also be omitted in cases where it is expected. The resulting sense of anticlimax will produce a feeling of surprise in the viewer, and can often add comedy to a scene. This is often referred to as a 'surprise gag'.
Staging This principle is akin to staging as it is known in theatre and film. Its purpose is to direct the audience's attention, and make it clear what is of greatest importance in a scene; what is happening, and what is about to happen. Johnston and Thomas defined it as "the presentation of any idea so that it is completely and unmistakably clear", whether that idea is an action, a personality, an expression or a mood. This can be done by various means, such as the placement of a character in the frame, the use of light and shadow, and the angle and position of the camera. The essence of this principle is keeping focus on what is relevant, and avoiding unnecessary detail
Straight ahead action and pose to pose
These are two different approaches to the actual drawing process. "Straight ahead action" means drawing out a scene frame by frame from beginning to end, while "pose to pose" involves starting with drawing a few key frames, and then filling in the intervals later."Straight ahead action" creates a more fluid, dynamic illusion of movement, and is better for producing realistic action sequences. On the other hand, it is hard to maintain proportions, and to create exact, convincing poses along the way. "Pose to pose" works better
for dramatic or emotional scenes, where composition and relation to the surroundings are of greater importance. A combination of the two techniques is often used. Computer animation removes the problems of proportion related to "straight ahead action" drawing; however, "pose to pose" is still used for computer animation, because of the advantages it brings in composition. The use of computers facilitates this method, as computers can fill in the missing sequences in between poses automatically. It is, however, still important to oversee this process, and apply the other principles discussed.
Follow through and overlapping action
These closely related techniques help render movement more realistic, and give the impression that characters follow the laws of physics. "Follow through" means that separate parts of a body will continue moving after the character has stopped. "Overlapping action" is the tendency for parts of the body to move at different rates (an arm will move on different timing of the head and so on). A third technique is "drag", where a character starts to move and parts of him take a few frames to catch up. These parts can be inanimate objects like clothing or the antenna on a car, or parts of the body, such as arms or hair. On the human body, the torso is the core, with arms, legs, head and hair appendices that normally follow the torso's movement. Body parts with much tissue, such as large stomachs and breasts, or the loose skin on a dog, are more prone to independent movement than bonier body parts. Again, exaggerated use of the technique can produce a comical effect, while more realistic animation must time the actions exactly, to produce a convincing result. Thomas and Johnston also developed the principle of the "moving hold". A character not in movement can be rendered absolutely still; this is often done, particularly to draw attention to the main action. According to Thomas and Johnston, however, this gave a dull and lifeless result, and should be avoided. Even characters sitting still can display some sort of movement, such as the torso moving in and out with breathing.
Arcs Most natural action tends to follow an arched trajectory, and animation should adhere to this principle by following implied "arcs" for greater realism. This can apply to a limb moving by rotating a joint, or a thrown object moving along a parabolic trajectory. The exception is mechanical movement, which typically moves in straight lines. As an object's speed and momentum increases, arcs tend to flatten out in moving ahead and broaden in turns. In baseball, a fastball would tend to move in a straighter line than other pitches; while a figure skater moving at top speed would be unable to turn as sharply as a slower skater, and would need to cover more ground to complete the turn. An object in motion that moves out of its natural arc for no apparent reason will appear erratic rather than fluid. Therefore when animating (for example) a pointing finger, the animator should be certain that in all drawings in between the two extreme poses, the fingertip follows a logical arc from one extreme to the next. Traditional animators tend to draw the arc in lightly on the paper for reference, to be erased later.
Secondary action
Adding secondary actions to the main action gives a scene more life, and can help to support the main action. A person walking can simultaneously swing his arms or keep them in his pockets, he can speak or whistle or he can express emotions through facial expressions. The important thing about secondary actions is that they emphasize, rather than take attention away from the main action. If the latter is the case, those actions are better left out. In the case of facial expressions; during a dramatic movement these will often go unnoticed. In these cases it is better to include them at the beginning and the end of the movement, rather than during.
Timing Timing refers to the number of drawings or frames for a given action, which translates to the speed of the action on film. On a purely physical level, correct timing makes objects appear to abide to the laws of physics; for instance, an object's weight decides how it reacts to an impetus, like a push. Timing is critical for establishing a character's mood, emotion, and reaction. It can also be a device to communicate aspects of a character's personality.
Exaggeration Exaggeration is an effect especially useful for animation, as perfect imitation of reality can look static and dull in cartoons.The level of exaggeration depends on whether one seeks realism or a particular style, like a caricature or the style of an artist. The classical definition of exaggeration, employed by Disney, was to remain true to reality, just presenting it in a wilder, more extreme form. Other forms of exaggeration can involve the supernatural or surreal, alterations in the physical features of a character, or elements in the storyline itself. It is important to employ a certain level of restraint when using exaggeration; if a scene contains several elements, there should be a balance in how those elements are exaggerated in relation to each other, to avoid confusing or overawing the viewer.
Solid drawing The principle of solid drawing means taking into account forms in threedimensional space, giving them volume and weight. The animator needs to be a skilled draughtsman and has to understand the basics of threedimensional shapes, anatomy, weight, balance, light and shadow, etc. For the classical animator, this involved taking art classes and doing sketches from life. One thing in particular that Johnston and Thomas warned against was creating "twins": characters whose left and right sides mirrored each other, and looked lifeless. Modern-day computer animators draw less because of the facilities computers give them, yet their work benefits greatly from a basic understanding of animation principles, and their additions to basic computer animation.
Appeal Appeal in a cartoon character corresponds to what would be called charisma in an actor. A character that is appealing is not necessarily sympathetic — villains or monsters can also be appealing — the important thing is that the viewer feels the character is real and interesting. There are several tricks for making a character connect better with the audience; for likable characters a symmetrical or particularly baby-like face tends to be effective. A complicated or hard to read face will lack appeal, it may more accurately be described as 'captivation' in the composition of the pose, or the character design.
LIST OF ANIMATED MOVIE First in Techniques 1917: Cel animation, El Apóstol 1926: Silhouette animation (Stop-motion), The Adventures of Prince Achmed 1931: Synchronized sound, Peludópolis 1935: Puppet animation (Stop-motion), The New Gulliver 1937: Technicolor, hand drawn, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs 1955: Widescreen, Lady and the Tramp 1961: Xerography (replaced hand inking), One Hundred and One Dalmatians 1976: Hand-drawn animation done solely by one person, Zbojník Jurko 1981: 3-times stereophonic sound, The Fox and the Hound 1983: Computer-generated imagery, Rock and Rule 1985: Fully clay-animated, The Adventures of Mark Twain 1985: 3D, Starchaser: The Legend of Orin 1990: Produced without camera, The Rescuers Down Under 1995: Fully computer-animated film, Toy Story 2004: Cel-shaded animation, Appleseed and Steamboy. First Motion Capture animation, The Polar Express 2005: Shot with a digital still camera, Corpse Bride 2007: Computer-animated solely by one person, Flatland
2008: Designed, created and released exclusively in 3D, Fly Me to the Moon 2009: Character animated using rapid prototyping, Coraline
PIXAR STUDIOS AN OVERVIEW
CORPORATE OVEVIEW Introduction Pixar Animation Studios is an Academy Award ®-winning computer animation studio with the technical, creative and production capabilities to create a new generation of animated feature films, merchandise and other related products. Pixar's objective is to combine proprietary technology and world-class creative talent to develop computer-animated feature films with memorable characters and heartwarming stories that appeal to audiences of all ages.
Feature Films On November 22, 1995, Pixar Animation Studios forever impacted the future of filmmaking, storytelling and the medium of animation with the release of its first feature film, Disney Pixar‘s Toy Story. Released nine years after the founding of Pixar, Toy Story exhibited years of creative and technical achievements from a small group of passionate computer scientists and animators, led by present day President Ed Catmull and
Chief Creative Officer John Lasseter. The film, marking the birth of the new medium of computer animation, went on to become the highest grossing film of 1995 with $362 million in worldwide box office receipts. Lasseter, director of Toy Story, was honored with a Special Achievement Academy Award® for his "inspired leadership of the Pixar Toy Story team resulting in the first feature-length computer animated film." Since Toy Story's release in 1995, Pixar Animation Studios, in partnership with Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, has also created and produced A Bug's Life (1998), Toy Story 2 (1999), Monsters, Inc. (2001), Finding Nemo (2003), The Incredible(2004), Cars (2006), Ratatouille (2007), WALL-E (2008), Up (2009) and most recently Toy Story 3 (2010). The 11 feature films have resulted in an unprecedented streak of both critical and box office successes, and combined to gross more than $6 billion at the worldwide box office. The first 10 feature films, through Up, have garnered 35 Academy Award® nominations, nine Oscars®, six Golden Globes® and numerous other accolades. From toys, bugs, monsters, fish and superheroes to cars, rats, robots and septuagenarians, Pixary's talented creative and technical teams have given audiences of all ages some of the most beloved characters in film. Pairing these unique, relatable characters with compelling stories and immersive, believable worlds, Pixar continually delivers on its promise to truly entertain audiences all over the world.
Short Films Pixar Animation Studios has long believed in making short films. In 1986, Pixar's first-ever short, Luxo Jr., launched a new direction in animated filmmaking, using three-dimensional computer animation to tell a story. Since then, nearly every feature film that Pixar has released has included a short beforehand, bringing back a tradition that was once an expected pleasure for filmgoers.
Pixar's shorts have helped foster and develop technologies and talent at the studio, but they are mostly made for one simple reason: love of the art form. From Tin Toy's (1989) toy-tormenting baby to Partly Cloudy's (2009) adorable storks, Pixar's shorts have delighted audiences and earned critical praise, garnering nine Academy Award® nominations and three Best Animated Short Film Academy Awards®. Day & Night, the studio's most recent short, debuted in theaters with Toy Story 3.
Technology Since its incorporation, Pixar has been responsible for many important breakthroughs in the application of computer graphics (CG) for filmmaking. Consequently, the company has attracted some of the world's finest talent in this area. Pixar's technical and creative teams have collaborated since 1986 to develop a wealth of production software used in-house to create its movies and further the state of the art in CG movie making. This proprietary technology allows the production of animated images of a quality, richness and vibrancy that are unique in the industry, and above all, allows the director to precisely control the end results in a way that is exactly right for the story. Pixar continues to invest heavily in its software systems and believes that further advancements will lead to additional productivity and quality improvements in the making of its computer animated films. Pixar also has a long standing tradition of sharing its advances within the broader CG community, through technical papers, technology partnerships, and most notably through its publicly available RenderMan product for the highest-quality, photo-realistic images currently available. RenderMan remains the standard in CG film visual effects and feature animation and has been honored with an Academy Award for technical achievement. In 2001, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences' Board of Governors® honored Ed Catmull, president of Pixar and Disney Animation Studios, Loren Carpenter, senior scientist, and Rob Cook, vice president of software engineering, with an Academy Award of
Merit (Oscar®) "for significant advancements to the field of motion picture rendering as exemplified in Pixar's RenderMan." In 2002, the Producer's Guild of America honored Pixar with the Guild's inaugural Vanguard Award, which recognizes outstanding achievement in new media and technology.
Creative Team Pixar's creative department is led by Chief Creative Officer John Lasseter, an Academy Award®-winning director and animator. Under the guidance of Lasseter, Pixar has built a creative team that includes a department of highly skilled animators, a story department and an art department. This team is responsible for creating, writing and animating all of Pixar's films. Pixar strives to hire animators who have superior acting ability - those able to bring characters and inanimate objects to life, as though they have their own thought processes. In order to attract and retain quality animators, the company founded Pixar University, which conducts three-month long courses for new and existing animators. Pixar also has a complete production team that gives the company the capability to control all elements of production of its films. Pixar has successfully expanded the production team so projects may be worked on simultaneously.
Disney Relationship Since the release of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs by Disney in 1937, animated films have become one of the most universally enjoyed forms of entertainment. Disney has a long history of developing, producing, and distributing films such as Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin and The Lion King. The stories and characters of these popular animated feature films have become part of our modern mythology, enjoyed generation after generation. Traditionally, these popular animated feature films have been created using the time-consuming and laborintensive process of two-dimensional, hand-drawn cel animation. In May 1991, Pixar entered into an agreement with Walt Disney Pictures for the development and production of up to three computer animated feature films to be marketed and distributed by Disney. It was pursuant
to this agreement that Toy Story was developed, produced, and distributed. In February 1997, Pixar entered into a new Co-Production Agreement with Disney pursuant to which Pixar, on an exclusive basis, agreed to produce five original computer-animated feature-length theatrical motion pictures for distribution by Disney. The five original Pictures under the Co-Production Agreement were A Bug's Life, Monsters, Inc., Finding Nemo, The Incredible, and Cars. Toy Story 2, the theatrical sequel to Toy Story, was released in November 1999, and is also included in the Co-Production Agreement. Ratatouille was subsequently added to the terms of the Co-Production Agreement in January 2006. On January 24, 2006, Pixar entered into an agreement with The Walt Disney Company to merge the two companies. The deal was approved by shareholders of both companies and the merger became effective on May 5, 2006. Pixar is now a wholly-owned subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company.
Traditions While some of Pixar's first animators were former cel animators, including John Lasseter, they also came from stop motion animation or computer animation or were fresh college graduates.A large number of animators that make up the animation department at Pixar were hired around the time Pixar released A Bug's Life and Toy Story 2. Although Toy Story was a successful film, it was Pixar's only feature film at the time. The majority of the animation industry was, and is still located in Los Angeles, California, while Pixar is located 350 miles (560 km) north in the San Francisco Bay Area. Also, traditional 2-D animation was still the dominant medium for feature animated films. With the dearth of Los Angeles-based animators willing to move their families so far north, give up traditional animation, and try computer animation, Pixar's new-hires at this time either came directly from college, or had worked outside feature animation. For those who had traditional animation skills, the Pixar animation software (Marionette) is designed so that traditional animators would require a minimum amount of training before becoming productive. In an interview with PBS talk show host Tavis Smiley,Lasseter said that Pixar films follow the same theme of self improvement as the company itself has: with the help of friends or family, a character ventures out into the real world and learns to appreciate his friends and family. At the core, Lasseter said, "it's gotta be about the growth of the main character, and how he changes." Pixar has been criticized for its lack of female protagonists.Brave, Pixar's 13th cinema release, will be the studio's first with a female lead (voiced by Kelly Macdonald).
Sequels and prequels Toy Story 2 was commissioned by Disney as a direct-to-video, 60minute film. Feeling the material wasn't very good, John Lasseter convinced the Pixar team to start from scratch and make that their third full-length feature film. Toy Story 3 was the second big-screen sequel when it was released on June 18, 2010. Cars 2, the studio's third theatrical sequel, was released on June 24, 2011. On June 27, 2011 Tom Hanks implied that a fourth Toy Story movie was in the works, but this has not been confirmed by the studio. Pixar states that they believe that sequels should only be made if they can come up with a story as good as the original. Following the release of Toy Story 2, Pixar and Disney had a gentlemen's agreement that Disney would not make any sequels without Pixar's involvement, despite their right to do so. In 2004, after Pixar announced they were unable to agree on a new deal, Disney announced that they would go ahead with sequels to Pixar's films with or without Pixar. Toy Story 3 was put into pre-production at the new CGI division of Walt Disney Feature Animation, Circle 7 Animation. When Lasseter was placed in charge of all Disney and Pixar animation following the merger, he immediately put all sequels on hold; Disney stated that Toy Story 3 had been cancelled. However, in May 2006, it was announced that Toy Story 3 was back in pre-production, under Pixar's control when a new plot had been conceived. Lasseter further fueled speculation on future sequels when he stated, "If we have a great story, we'll do a sequel". Cars 2, Pixar's first sequel not based on Toy Story, was officially announced on April 8, 2008. Monsters University, the prequel to Monsters Inc. and Pixar's first prequel, was announced on April 22, 2010, for release on November 2, 2012.
Pixar: 25 Years of Animation
Pixar celebrated 25 years of animation in 2011 with the release of its twelfth feature film, Cars 2. Pixar had celebrated its 20th anniversary with the first Cars. The Pixar: 25 Years of Animation exhibition was held at the Oakland Museum of California from July 2010 until January 2011.The exhibition tour debuts in Hong Kong, and was held at the Hong Kong Heritage Museum in Sha Tin, between March 27 and July 11, 2011. Pixar: 25 Years of Animation includes all of the artwork from Pixar: 20 Years of Animation, plus art from Ratatouille, WALL-E, Up, and Toy Story 3.