METHANE GAS AS FUEL FROM COMPOST PILE: AN ALTERNATIVE SOURCE OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
BAGASALA, MARIA TISHA JACOB, DANNA ELAINE PAJARILLAGA, PATRICK
Dasmariñas National Hig S!ool SSC I"# Galil$o S% &'()#&'(*
METHANE GAS AS FUEL FROM COMPOST PILE: AN ALTERNATIVE SOURCE OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
A Hig S!ool T$sis Pro+osal Pr$s$nt$ to t$ S!i$n!$ an T$!nolog- D$+artm$nt In +artial ./l.illm$nt o. t$ r$0/ir$m$nts in t$ s/12$!t R$s$ar! II
B-3 Bagasala, Maria Tisa Ja!o1, Danna Elain$ Pa2arillaga, Patri!4
SSC I"# Galil$o S% &'()#&'(* Mar!, &'(*
CERTIFICATION OF APPROVAL
T$ st/- $ntitl$, 5HEAT ENERG% 6ROM A COMPOST PILE AS AN ALTERNATI"E SO7RCE O6 ELECTRICAL ENERG%8 !on/!t$ 1- Maria Tisa C9 Bagasala, Danna Elain$ A9 Ja!o1 an Patri!4 "9 Pa2arillaga is $r$1- +r$s$nt$ .or a++ro:al3 Mar!, &'(* MELCHOR M9 RAC;7ION SSTII, MAPEH D$+artm$nt T$sis A:is$r EDEN R9 DA%A7ON DEM SSHTIII, R$s$ar! Pan$list Committ$$ Cairman
ARNEL R LEGASPI MAE SSTI, Mat$mati!s D$+artm$nt
RE= REIGNER P9 SE>A SSTII, S!i$n!$ an T$!nolog- D$+artm$nt
M$m1$r R76INA M9 CR7TO MTII, TLE#Bo-s D$+artm$nt M$m1$r L7<"IMINDA M9 BAGO MTI, S!i$n!$ an T$!nolog- D$+artm$nt R$s$ar! T$a!$r
MARIO M9 ABEJ7ELA SSHTIII, S!i$n!$ an T$!nologD$+artm$nt
ANTONIO A9 PETILOS SSHTII, S!i$n!$ an T$!nologD$+artm$nt
DA"ID E9 ATAS, E9D9
Prin!i+al I" ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Tis s$!tion !ontains t$ gratit/$ .or t$ +$o+l$ ?o $l+$ an g/i$ t$ r$s$ar!$rs in t$sis $ntitl$, 5HEAT ENERG% 6ROM A COMPOST PILE AS AN ALTERNATI"E SO7RCE O6 ELECTRICAL ENERG%83 T$ r$s$ar!$rs o?$ t$ir $$+$st gratit/$ to t$ Lor Go Almigt- .or g/iing, gi:ing t$m str$ngt an 4no?l$g$, +ro:iing .ait an lo:$ tat l$a t$m to s/!!$ss./ll- .inis t$ir t$sis@ T$ r$s$ar!$rs ?o/l li4$ to tan4 t$ir R$s$ar! II a:is$r, Mrs9 L/:imina Bago, Mr9 M$l!or Ra!0/ion, t$ t$sis a:is$r, an t$ r$st o. r$s$ar! !ommitt$$, Mrs9 Da-a/on, Mr9 S$ña, an Mr9 L$gas+i .or +ro:iing an t$a!ing t$m t$ +ro!$ss o. !om+l$ting tis t$sis@ Tis t$sis ?o/l not a:$ 1$$n +ossi1l$ ?ito/t t$ $l+ o. t$ r$s$ar!$rs +ar$nts, Engr9 Pa2arillaga .or +ro:iing som$ st$+s in ma4ing t$ t$sis +ro/!t an t$ $l+ o. ass$m1ling t$ +ro/!t9 Mrs9 Ja!o1 an Mr9 Bagasala, .or +ro:iing t$ .inan!ial !a+ital .or t$ t$sis@ T$ r$s$ar!$rs ar$ also in$1t$ to t$ir !oll$ag/$s ?o s/++ort$ t$m in !om+l$ting t$ir t$sis9
#R$s$ar!$rs
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE A!4no?l$g$m$nt
i:
Ta1l$ o. Cont$nts
:#:i
A1stra!t
:ii
Ca+t$r I3 Pro1l$m an its Ba!4gro/n A9 Intro/!tion
(#&
B9 Stat$m$nt o. t$ Pro1l$m
&
C9 H-+ot$s$s
D9 Signi.i!an!$ o. t$ St/-
E9 S!o+$ an Limitation
)
69 D$.inition o. T$rms G9 Con!$+t/al 6ram$?or4 Ca+t$r II3 R$:i$? o. R$lat$ Lit$rat/r$ an R$lat$ St/i$s
)#* * #
Ca+t$r III3 M$toologA9 M$to o. R$s$ar! 7s$
F
B9 Mat$rials an E0/i+m$nt
F
B9(9 Mat$rials
F
B9&9 E0/i+m$nt
F
C9 G$n$ral Pro!$/r$
D9 R$s$ar! D$sign E9 Gantt Cart
F#
('#(&
69 E:al/ation Pro!$ss
(&
G9 Statisti!s to 1$ /s$
(&
ABSTRACT
T$ st/- $ntitl$ 5HEAT ENERG% 6ROM A COMPOST PILE AS AN ALTERNATI"E SO7RCE O6 ELECTRICAL ENERG%8 !on/!t$ 1- Bagasala, Maria Tisa, Ja!o1, Danna Elain$, Pa2arillaga, Patri!4, aim$ to +ro/!$ a om$ma$ so/r!$ o. m$tan$ as an alt$rnati:$ so/r!$ o. $n$rg-9 T$sting ?$t$r t$r$s a signi.i!ant i..$r$n!$ in t$rms o. $n$rg- an tim$, t$n t$ ?atts +ro/!$ an /ration o. $l$!tri!it?ill :ar- signi.i!antl- in ot$r alt$rnati:$ so/r!$ o. $n$rg-9 6or t$ +ro/!t, t$ mat$rials an $0/i+m$nts ?$r$ gat$r$ +rimaril-9 6irst, t$ in.$rior ?as ass$m1l$ .or t$ storag$ o. ?ast$s an m$tan$9 N$t ?as t$ miing o. soli ?ast$s an !om+ost +il$ as t$ +rimar- so/r!$ o. m$tan$9 T$n, t$ g$n$rator ?as ass$m1l$ .or t$ !on:$rsion o. m$tan$ to $l$!tri!it-9 Lastl-, t$ !ir!/it !onn$!tion to t$ t$st$ a++lian!$s ?as ass$m1l$9 T$ .inal +ro/!t ?as t$st$ 1-
Chapter I Pro!e" a#$ %t& Ba'()ro*#$ A+ I#tro$*'t%o#
In t$ Pili++in$s, t$r$ ar$ ' million +$o+l$ g$n$rating an a:$rag$ o. '9 to '9 4ilograms o. gar1ag$ ail- an tis amo/nt is $+$!t$ to in!r$as$ 1- )' at t$ $n o. t$ $!a$ 9T$ So/t$rn Tagalog R$gion ?$r$ t$ m/ni!i+alit- o. Dasmariñas, Ca:it$
1$longs !ontri1/t$s to on$ o. t$ ig$st 1/l4s o. t$ !o/ntr-s soli ?ast$ g$n$rat$ o. ( +$r!$nt Cal$ron, &''9 Com+osting is t$ nat/ral 1r$a4o?n o. organi! mat$rial, s/! as 1anana +$$ls an l$a:$s, into a ar4, loos$ an soil#li4$ s/1stan!$9 Tis s/1stan!$ is !all$ compost, an is +ri$ 1- all gar$n$rs9 Com+ost tat is a$ to soil im+ro:$s its str/!t/r$, t$t/r$, a$ration, an n/tri$nt !ont$nt9 Com+ost also $l+s maintain t$ soils +H an im+ro:$s soil .$rtilit-9 Lan.illing organi! ?ast$s is in$..i!i$nt 1$!a/s$ t$ la!4 o. o-g$n insi$ t$ lan.ill !a/s$s $!om+osition to o!!/r slo?l-9 Tis +ro/!$s m$tan$ gas an a!ii! l$a!at$9 M$tan$ is a !olorl$ss, oorl$ss gas tat !an !a/s$ as+-iation an $+losions i. not +ro+$rl- manag$9 A!i l$a!at$ .rom t$ lan.ill !an !ontaminat$ gro/n?at$r, ?i! is t$ so/r!$ .or s+rings, ?$lls, an rin4ing ?at$r9 NS, 6$1r/ar- &'() T$ rat$ at ?i! !om+osting o!!/rs $+$ns on s$:$ral .a!tors9 T$s$ .a!tors in!l/$3 t$m+$rat/r$ o. t$ !om+ost s-st$m, t$ mat$rials tat ar$ +la!$ in t$ !om+ost, t$ +arti!l$ si$ o. t$ mat$rials, an t$ si$ an sa+$ o. t$ !om+ost s-st$m9 H$at is a 1-#+ro/!t o. !om+osting9 It is +ro/!$ as a r$s/lt o. mi!ro1ial 1r$a4o?n o. t$ organi! mat$rial in t$ !om+ost +il$9 T$ $at tat is +ro/!$ $+$ns, in +art, /+on t$ !ar1on#to#nitrog$n ratio or C3N ratio9 6or t$ 1$st +$r.orman!$, t$ !om+osting mi!ro1$s r$0/ir$ t$ rigt amo/nt o. !ar1on .or $n$rg-, an nitrog$n .or +rot$in +ro/!tion99 A larg$#s!al$ !om+ost +il$ !an +ro/!$ t$m+$rat/r$s o. 'C'C9 Plan$t na t/ral,&''9 Tro/g a +ro!$ss 4no?n as t$rmioni! !on:$rsion, $at $n$rg- !an 1$ !on:$rt$ into $l$!tri!it- ?it :$r- ig $..i!i$n!-9 T$rmioni! g$n$rators /s$ t$ t$m+$rat/r$ i..$r$n!$ 1$t?$$n a ot an a !ol m$talli! +lat$ to !r$at$ $l$!tri!it-9M$ir, et.al,&'( T$ r$s$ar!$rs ?ill also /s$ t$ i$a o. t$rmo!o/+l$s tat ta4$ a:antag$ o. an
$l$!tri!al $..$!t tat o!!/rs at 2/n!tions 1$t?$$n i..$r$nt m$tals9Ho? St/.. or4s,&'')9 T$s$ .a!tors gi:$ t$ r$s$ar!$rs an i$a o. +ro/!ing a !om+ost +it tat !an g$n$rat$ $l$!tri!it-9 Tis s+$!iali$ !om+ost +it is r$lati:$l- $..i!i$nt $s+$!iall?$n $l$!tri!al lin$s ar$ o/t9 It also s$r:$s as an alt$rnati:$ so/r!$ o. $l$!tri!al $n$rg-9 T$ r$s$ar!$rs ?ill sim+l- ma$ !om+ost +il$ tat !an g$n$rat$ $at, so tat t$ r$s$ar!$rs ?ill 1$ a1l$ to ta4$ a:antag$ o. tis nat/ral so/r!$ as an alt$rnati:$ so/r!$ o. $l$!tri!al $n$rg-9 B+ State"e#t o, the Pro!e"
G$n$rall-, t$ st/- aims to +ro/!$ an alt$rnati:$ $l$!tri!al $n$rg- /sing t$ $at in t$ !om+ost +it9 S+$!i.i!all-, t$ st/- also aims to ans?$r t$ .ollo?ing 0/$stions3 (9 at is t$ $..$!t on /sing !om+ost +its $at in +ro/!ing alt$rnati:$ so/r!$ o. $l$!tri!al $n$rg- in t$rms o.3 (9( ?atts +ro/!$@ an (9& /ration o. $l$!tri!it-
C+ H-pothe&e& Ca*&e a#$ E,,e't:
I. t$r$s a signi.i!ant i..$r$n!$ in t$rms o. $n$rg- an tim$, t$n t$ ?atts +ro/!$ an /ration o. $l$!tri!it- ?ill :ar- signi.i!antl-9 D+ S%)#%,%'a#'e o, the &t*$-
T$ st/- $ntitl$ HEAT ENERG% 6ROM A COMPOST PILE AS AN ALTERNATI"E SO7RCE O6 ELECTRICAL ENERG% ?ill 1$n$.it man- +$o+l$ an !onstit/$nts9 T$- ar$ list$ an $+lain$ 1$lo?9 Ho*&e.%/e&+ It ?ill $:$nt/all- $l+ t$ o/s$?i:$s in t$ !omm/nit- 1$!a/s$ t$
.oo ?ast$s .rom t$ir 4it!$n !an +ro/!$ .r$$ so/r!$ o. alt$rnati:$ $l$!tri!al $n$rg- 1/sing tis s+$!iali$ !om+ost +it9 An-on$ o$snt a:$ to s+$n m/! mon$- on +a-ing $l$!tri!al 1ills9 Tr/ tis, it !an $l+ to sa:$ mon$- .or ./t/r$ /s$9 Co""*#%t-+ T$ /s$./l an r$l$:ant in.ormation a!0/ir$ .rom t$ st/- ?ill
$n!o/rag$ t$m to !ontin/$ /sing !om+ost +its to l$ss$n t$ ?ast$s +ro/!$ 1- t$ !omm/nit-9 An it also s$r:$s as a g/i$ to +ro/!$ alt$rnati:$ $l$!tri!al $n$rg-9 E#/%ro#"e#t+ T$ st/- ?ill $nan!$ in:ol:$m$nt in l$ss$ning t$ ?ast$s in t$
$n:ironm$nt9 Re&ear'her&+ R$s$ar!$rs ma- .in t$ .inings /s$./l 1$!a/s$ tis st/- ma-
!onstr/!t n$? 4no?l$g$ .or t$ r$s$ar!$rs in t$rms o. +ro/!ing alt$rnati:$ so/r!$ o. $l$!tri!al $n$rg-9
E+ S'ope a#$ L%"%tat%o#&
T$ st/- aims to +ro/!$ an alt$rnati:$ $l$!tri!al $n$rg- /sing t$ $at in t$ !om+ost +it9 T$ st/- ?ill 1$ !on/!t$ at P/$1lo!illo S/19 6CIE Dasmarinas Cit-, Ca:it$9
T$ st/- ?ill is!/ss an alt$rnati:$ so/r!$ o. $l$!tri!al $n$rg- .rom !o m+ost +its $at9 T$ st/- start$ on t$ mont J/n$ 1- !oll$!ting t$ n$$$ mat$rials .or t$ st/-9 As $stimat$, t$ +ro!$/r$s ?ill ta4$ /+ on$ to t?o monts to .inis /+ t$ +ro/!t9 T$ gat$ring o. ata ?ill ta4$ /+ on$ mont a.t$r t$ +ro/!t is .inis$9 Cons$0/$ntl-, t$ main .o!/s o. tis st/- is to +ro/!$ $l$!tri!al $n$rg- .rom t$ $at o. t$ !om+ost +it9 It o$s not s$$4 in!l/$ a++lian!$s tat !ons/m$s ig :oltag$ o. $l$!tri!it- 1$!a/s$ t$ r$s$ar!$rs ?ill onl- .o!/s to $t$rmin$ i. t$r$ is no signi.i!ant i..$r$n!$ in /sing $at .rom !om+ost +it as an alt$rnati:$ in +ro/!ing $l$!tri!it-9 F+ De,%#%t%o# o, ter"&
Tis +art +r$s$nts t$ t$rms /s$ in t$ st/- an t$ir m$anings as t$- ?ill 1$ /s$ in t$ st/-9 B!a'( pa%#t+ It ?ill a1sor1 s/nligt to a!ti:at$ t$ 1a!t$ria tat +ro/!$s m$tan$ 9 Bra&& Y 'o##e'tor+ S$r:$s as a !onn$!tor .or t$ tr$$ os$s9 Co"po&t+ Main so/r!$ o. stor$ $at to 1$ /s$9 E!o.+ Conn$!ts t$ os$ to t$ !ontain$r9 Ho&e '!a"p+ 7s$ to tigt$n t$ os$ so t$ m$tan$ ?ill not $s!a+$ .rom t$ !ontain$r9 Sh*t o,, /a!/e+ S$r:$s as t$ sto++$r an o+$n$r in t$ +at?a- .or t$ m$tan$ to
r$l$as$9 T%re+ S$r:$s as a storag$ o. m$tan$ gas9 Water 'o#ta%#er+ Contain$r o. t$ !om+ost9 G+ Co#'ept*a! Fra"e.or(
Chapter II Re/%e. o, Re!ate$ L%terat*re a#$ St*$%e&
A!!oring to NS, En:ironm$nt Q H$ritag$, 'o"po&t%#) is t$ nat/ral 1r$a4o?n o. organi! mat$rial, s/! as 1anana +$$ls an l$a:$s, into a ar4, loos$ an soil#li4$ s/1stan!$9 Tis s/1stan!$ is !all$ compost, an is +ri$ 1- all gar$n$rs9
Com+ost tat is a$ to soil im+ro:$s its str/!t/r$, t$t/r$, a$ration, an n/tri$nt !ont$nt9 Com+ost also $l+s maintain t$ soils +H an im+ro:$s soil .$rtilit-9 Lan.illing organi! ?ast$s is in$..i!i$nt 1$!a/s$ t$ la!4 o. o-g$n insi$ t$ lan.ill !a/s$s $!om+osition to o!!/r slo?l-9 Tis +ro/!$s m$tan$ gas an a!ii! !ea'hate+ M$tan$ is a !olorl$ss, oorl$ss gas tat !an !a/s$ as+-iation an $+losions i. not +ro+$rlmanag$9 A!i l$a!at$ .rom t$ lan.ill !an !ontaminat$ gro/n?at$r, ?i! is t$ so/r!$ .or s+rings, ?$lls, an rin4ing ?at$r9NS, En:ironm$nt Q H$ritag$ &'() Wastes—Resource Conservation—Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Composting.
Mor$o:$r 1as$ on SAPP Soli ast$ Manag$m$nt Asso!iation o. t$ Pili++in$s s/r:$- tat in &'', Pili++in$s g$n$rat$ &*) million tons o. gar1ag$9 T$ a:$rag$ 6ili+ino g$n$rat$s )9 +o/ns l19 o. gar1ag$ $:$r- a-9 Most o. tis gar1ag$ go$s to a lan.ill9 B/t o+$ning an maintaining lan.ills is $+$nsi:$9 In or$r to r$/!$ t$ amo/nt o. gar1ag$ tat ?$ s$n to t$ lan.ill, r$!-!l$ as m/! as +ossi1l$ an to !om+ost o/r organi! ?ast$9 In &'', o. t$ &*) million tons o. gar1ag$ 6ili+inos !r$at$, && million tons ?as !om+ost$9 SAPP,&''F According to AIP (American Institute of Physics), through a process known as thermionic conversion, heat energy can be converted into electricity with very high eciency. ecause of its promise, their researchers have been trying for more than half a century to develop a practical thermionic generator. (!. "eir, #. !tephanos, et.al($%&').New thermoelectronic generator: Heat energy efciently converted to electricity )
hermocouples take advantage of an electrical eect that occurs at *unctions between dierent metals. +or eample, take two iron wires and one copper wire. wist one end of the copper wire and one end of one of the iron wires together. -o the same with the other end of the copper wire and the other iron wire. If you heat one of the twisted *unctions (perhaps with a match) and attach the two free ends to a volt meter, you will be able to measure a voltage. !imilarly, if you hook the two iron wires to a battery, one *unction will get hot and the other will get cold. (ow !tu /orks. ($%%0). Is it possible to generate electricity directly rom heat?)
A!!oring to Cal$ron, in t$ Pili++in$s, t$r$ ar$ ' million +$o+l$ g$n$rating an a:$rag$ o. '9 to '9 4ilograms o. gar1ag$ ail- an tis amo/nt is $+$!t$ to in!r$as$ 1- )' at t$ $n o. t$ $!a$9T$ So/t$rn Tagalog R$gion ?$r$ t$ m/ni!i+alit- o. Dasmariñas, Ca:it$ 1$longs !ontri1/t$s to on$ o. t$ ig$st 1/l4s o. t$ !o/ntr-s soli ?ast$ g$n$rat$ o. ( +$r!$nt 9 T$ in$..i!i$nt ?ast$ manag$m$nt in t$ !o/ntr- r$s/lts to t$ +iling /+ o. tras an !ontri1/t$s to t$ $t$rioration o. t$ !o/ntr-s $n:ironm$nt an 1ringing a1o/t im+a!ts a..$!ting +/1li!s $alt9 Cal$ron,R9 &'' The garbage dilemma in Dasma.
Chapter III Metho$o!o)-
A+ Metho$ o, Re&ear'h U&e$
T$ st/- ?ill /s$ t$ $+$rim$ntal m$to o. r$s$ar!9 Calmorin, &''' stat$s tat $+$rim$ntal m$to in:ol:$s a singl$ tr$atm$nt ?it t?o o r mor$ l$:$ls9 In tis st/-, t$ amo/nt o. $n$rg- +ro/!$ .rom t$ singl$ !om+ost +it ?ill 1$ $t$rmin$9 B+ Mater%a!& a#$ E0*%p"e#t B+1+ Mater%a!&
T$ mat$rials /s$ ar$ ( gallon o. mi$ +igs man/r$ an l$.to:$rs, ( gallon o. ?at$r, *'' ml :/l!a s$al, an ( lit$r 1la!4 +aint9 B+2+ E0*%p"e#t
T$ $0/i+m$nt to 1$ /s$ ar$3 m$t$rs o. *mm iam$t$r os$, 1rass % !onn$!tor, * mm iam$t$r os$ !lam+s, s/t o.. :al:$, * gallons o. ?at$r !ontain$r, 1rass $l1o?, !/tt$r, +aint 1r/s an .lat s!r$? ri:$r9 C+ Ge#era! Pro'e$*re
For the experimental compost bin or inferior.
T$ !/+ o. a * gallon ?at$r !ontain$r o. ?ill 1$ +/n!t/r$ to ma4$ a ol$ .or t$ $l1o?9 A so!4$t !onn$!tor ?ill 1$ +la!$ 1$lo? t$ $l1o?9 A *mm iam$t$r os$ ?ill 1$ ins$rt$ at t$ $l1o? an tigt$n it ?it a os$ !lam+9 Tis *mm iam$t$r os$ is m$as/r$ m$t$rs long an i:i$ into m$as/ring ( m$t$r $a!9 T$ os$ tat ?as !onn$!t$ to t$ $l1o? ?as ins$rt$ to t$ 1rass % !onn$!tor9 it t$ 1rass % !onn$!tor t$ os$ .orm$ % sa+$, t$r$.or$ t$ os$s ?as im+art$9 T$ ot$r os$ !onn$!t$ to t$ tir$ an t$ ot$r on$ ?ill 1$ !/t again into al. an a :al:$ ?ill 1$ !onn$!t$ 1$t?$$n t$s$ t?o os$s9 A.t$r ass$m1ling t$ ?at$r !ontain$r ?ill 1$ +aint$ 1la!49
For the compost,
An $0/al amo/nt o. mi$ +igs man/r$ an l$.to:$r, an ?at$r m$as/ring ( gallon $a! ?ill 1$ mi$ in a 1/!4$t9 A.t$r miing it ?ill 1$ +la!$ insi$ t$ $+$rim$ntal !om+ost 1in9 For the motor,
D+ Re&ear'h De&%)#
Dra?ing
E+ Ga#tt Chart A't%/%t%e& 3*#
3*!-
A*)
Sept
D*rat%o# O't No/
De'
3a#
Fe
Mar
(9 Planning Stag$ (9( N$? mat$rials so/l 1$ !an:ass .or 1/-ing (9& S/1mitt$ ?rit$#/+s m/st 1$ r$:is$ &9 Pr$+aring Stag$ &9( All mat$rials ar$ a!0/ir$ &9& T$ +ro/!t so/l 1$ .inis$ &9 T$ .inal ra.t o. +ro+osal m/st 1$ s/1mitt$ 9 Data Pro!$ssing Stag$ 9( Data m/st 1$ !oll$!t$ 9& Com+/tation o. r$s/lts 9 Anal-sis o. ata
9) Dra.ts o. Ca+t$rs ) an * m/st 1$ .inis$ )9 riting Stag$ )9( 6inal Ca+t$r ( T$ Pro1l$m an its Ba!4gro/n )9& Ca+t$r & R$:i$? o. R$lat$ Lit$rat/r$ )9 Ca+t$r M$toolog- )9) Ca+t$r ) R$s/lts an Dis!/ssion )9* Ca+t$r * S/mmar-, Con!l/sions an R$!omm$nations )9 Bi1liogra+an A++$ni )9 6inal !o+*9 Oral Eamination
Stag$ *9(Pr$+aration .or Oral EaminationUD$.$ns $ *9& Oral $amination an r$:ision o. t$sis
G+ E/a!*at%o# Pro'e&&
In ?atts +ro/!$, t$ ?atts ?ill 1$ m$as/r$s 1- a :oltm$t$r an t$ r$s$ar!$rs ?ill g$t t$ m$an s!or$ o. t$ ?atts an in t$ /ration o. $l$!tri!it-, t$ r$s$ar!$rs ?ill g$t t$ tim$ o. o? long ?as t$ $l$!tri!it- +ro/!$9 Also, t$- ?ill g$t t$ m$an s!or$ .or t$ /ration o. $l$!tri!it-9 H+ Stat%&t%'& to e *&e$
T$ statisti!s to 1$ /s$ is m$as/r$s o. !$ntral t$n$n!- sin!$ t$ r$s$ar!$rs ar$ !om+aring t?o or mor$ gro/+s o. :al/$s@ t$ m$as/r$s o. !$ntral t$n$n!- ar$ :al/$s tat !an r$+r$s$nt a s$t o. ata or gro/+ o. :al/$s9 H$l$n E9 Cainti! P9D9 J/anita M9 Cr/ P9D9 R$s$ar! Man/al, ++9 *
