A Handbook of
Gisela Richter A sui've>' of Uie
visiicil
Arts of Ancient Qieece
handbook of Greek art N5630 .R49 1969B..
A
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Augusta Richter, Gisela Marie CALIFORNIA (SF) OF COLLEGE NEW
N 5630 .R49 1969b, Richter,. Gisela Marie Augusta, 1882-1972. A handbook of Greek art .
#13406 XT 22'^
ROOM
BORROWER'S NAME
DATE DUE
NUMBER
M'^&MfmM 7
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//13A06
5630 R49 1969b
i?ichterT Gisela Mafie Augustav
1882-
1972.
A handbook o* Greek art / Gisela W» km Richter. 6th el. redesiffned London
;
Phaldon, 1969. 431 p. : ill.f naps ; 26 cm. Bibllographv: P» 399-410. Includes index. . #13406 Peclass $ . ISBN 0-7148-1351-6 ( pbk. )
New York
1. Arty
:
Greek*
Title
r 07 JUN 93
60532
NEWCxc
68-1 891 2r87
LIBI>ARY
^EW COLLEGE OF CALIFONiM^ ^77 VALENCIA
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|AN FRANCISCO. CA Mllf ms, >..,.»
A HANDBOOK OF GREEK ART
THE UBRARY NBW COUJEOE or CAUrOWWIA 90 FELL STRCCT SAN FHANCfSCO. CAUFOHNIA 94102
A HANDBOOK OF
Phaidon
Gisela
M. A. Richter
GREEK ART
London & New York Ubranraf
New
College of California
0^
n
©
19S9 Phaidon Press Ltd., First Published 1959
5 Cromwell
Place,
London
SW7
Sixth Edition 1969 redesigned and with renumbered Illustrations
Phaidon Publishers,
Inc.,
New
York
Distributors in the United States: Praeger Publishers, Inc.
Ill Fourth Avenue,
New
York,
N. Y. 10003
Library of Congress Catalog Card
^^A^ 7148 1360 5
^ SEN 7148 "^ Printed
in
1351 6
Number
:
68-18912
C P
Austria bj Briider Rosenbaum, Vienna
TO THE MEMORY OF MY SISTER
CONTENTS PREFACE
11
1
THE FORERUNNERS
15
2
ARCHITECTURE
19
Building materials and methods
20
Temples
21
Archaic period, about 630-480 B.C.
Early
classical period,
about
480^50
27 B.C.
The second half of the fifth century B.C.
33
Fourth century B.C.
38
Hellenistic period
39
Altars, Treasuries, Tholoi, Propylaia
40
Theatres, Stadia, Odeia
42
Assembly
places:
Stoai,
Leschai, Bouleuteria,
Prytaneia, Fountain houses
Gymnasia and
Monuments
47
Lighthouses
49
Private houses. Hotels, Fortifications, City plans
49
LARGER WORKS OF SCULPTURE
53
Sources of information
53
Uses, subjects, materials, techniques
53
The
56
sculptures
Early archaic period, about 660-580 B.C.
56
Middle archaic period, about 580-535 B.C.
63
Late archaic period, about 540-A80 B.C.
75
Early
classical period,
about
480^50
B.C.
96
The second half of the fifth century B.C.
112
Fourth century B.C.
138
Hellenistic period, about
4
45
47
Palaestras
Sepulchral and Votive
3
32
STATUETTES AND SMALL RELIEFS
166
(Exclusive of Terra Cottas)
Geometric period, ninth Seventh century B.C.
330-100 B.C.
to eis^hth century
B.C.
185
186 186
A
Sixth century B.C.
191
First half of the fifth century B.C.
1 97
About 450-330
200
B.C.
Hellenistic period, about
300-100 B.C.
202 206
First century B.C. and later
5
DECORATIVE METALWORK
209
Eighth and seventh
6
212
Fifth and fourth centuries B.C.
217
Hellenistic period and later
"22.^
TERRACOTTA STATUETTES AND SMALL
RELIEFS
B.C.
229
About 550^75
B.C.
234
About 475-400
B.C.
236
240
later
ENGRAVED GEMS
244 Geometric period., tenth
to eighth century
B.C.
245
Fifth and fourth centuries B.C.
248
Graeco-Persian gems
249
300-100 B.C.
COINS
254 Archaic period, about Classical period, about
650^80
B.C.
480-330 B.C.
JEWELLERY
257
262
About 900-600
Classical
263
B.C.
Archaic period, about
PAINTINGS
255
260
Hellenistic period
10
251
253
First century B.C.
9
245
Seventh and sixth centuries B.C.
Hellenistic period, about
8
229
About 900-550
Fourth century B.C. and
7
210
centuries B.C.
Sixth century B.C.
600^75
B.C.
and Hellenistic periods, about 475-100 B.C.
AND MOSAICS Paintings
264 267
273 273
Seventh and sixth centuries B.C.
21
Fifth century B.C. and later
276
Mosaics
289
11
POTTERY AND VASE-PAINTING
292
293
Various fabrics
293
Geometric period, about 1000-700 B.C. Orientali:(ing
and archaic periods, about 720-550 B.C. and later
297
Mainland Greece
East Greece and
310
the Islands
Athenian Vases, about 550-300
315
B.C.
Techniques
316
Shapes
320
Decoration
323
Inscriptions
325
The Artists of Attic black-figure and
red-figure
Various Athenian fabrics prevalent during the fourth century B.C.
Boeotian Vases,
South
fifth
and fourth centuries
Italian Vases, fifth
by A. D.
12
297
TRENDALL
355 357
B.C.
and fourth centuries
326
B.C.
358
Vases of the Hellenistic period
364
Lamps
369
FURNITURE
370 Chairs and Stools
371
Footstools
374
Couches
374
Tables
376
Chests
377
Cupboards, Wardrobes, Shelves
379
13
TEXTILES
380
14
GLASS AND GLAZE
384
15
ORNAMENT
386
16
EPIGRAPHY
388
Maps
390
Notes
394
Bibliography
399
Tentative Chronology of Sculptural
Works
411
Glossary
421
Sources of Photographs
423
List of Places
425
Index of
Names
429
Ti ouv eOTiv, 6 Kivei rcti; 6\|/ei(; robv Oeaip-evoov Kai eiriorpe^ei Kttl eXkei Ktti eucppaiveoGai Tf| Oect :rroiei; .
Aeyerai
.
Jipoc^
auro
.
ou|iiieTpia rd~v jiepdiv jrpog Tqg euxpoicc"^ jrpoGTeGev to Jtpoq Tr]v 6"v|nv KocXXog jroiei Kai ecttiv auTOig Kal oXcoq Tolg dXXoic jrdcJi to KaXoIc elvai TO aujiiieTOic Kal }iepLFTpri]ievoic lurdpxEiv. jiev
&Xkr\ka Kal
6f] :rrapa :rrc'cvTcov, cog etirrelv, obg
jrp6(^
to
oXov to T8
Plotinos, Enneads,
What
is it
everyone declares that the the whole, with, besides, eye,
6,
1
(ed.
Henry and Schwyzer,
1951).
that attracts the eyes of those ivho behold a beautiful object, and calls
them, lures them towards
by the
I,
it,
and fills them with joy at
the sight'?
.
.
.
Almost
symmetry of parts towards one another and towards
a certain charm of colour,
constitutes the beauty recognit^ed
that in visible things, as indeed in all
else, universally,
the beautiful
thing is essentially symmetrical, patterned.
Translation by
10
S.
MacKenna, with
slight changes.
PREFACE may be
study of Greek art
The
have begun in the
to
said
Renaissance, the time of the revival of interest in Greek and
Roman
culture.
It
unearthed on Italian
soil.
chiefly based
was then, however,
monuments
aesthetic appreciation of the single
to be
gradually, as the material grew, were
Only
monuments viewed Greek art, therefore, as we know
as parts of a larger whole.
these
on the
happened
that
today,
it
is
The
work of
the
history of
from
scholars
the early eighteenth century onwards. Winckelmann (1717-68) and
E. Q. Visconti (1751-1818) are
among
Pompeii, then Africa,
all
over
Italy,
who
the earliest
order into a heterogeneous study. Excavations,
first at
tried to
put
Herculaneum and
Greece, Asia Minor, South Russia, North
and Spain, brought to
more and more
light
material of every
museums were formed not only
kind. Private collections and
in the
countries in which the objects were found, but throughout the civilized
world.
modern
From
common
enrichment of our
this
science of archaeology, that
is,
patrimony grew the
the logos of archaia, the study
of things ancient. Inscriptions and the statements of ancient writers Pausanias,
(especially
Pliny,
Quintilian,
Philostratos,
and
Lucian,
Vitruvius) have helped to clarify our studies, and the use of photography has lent them accuracy. This intensive research, in which scholars of nations have participated, has resulted in the reconstruction of a
all
consecutive history of Greek
art.
We
can
now view
development from primitive beginnings through each unfolding a
new
some of
the styles of
continues
discoveries
and
that
of styles to historical events. every
either
decade,
establish
It is
the aim of this it
may
book
to
every
or
reasonably reliable structure has by
so that
Greek
year
Though
almost,
work new
the
brings
intricate story in succinct form,
serve as a general introduction for both the serious
greatly facilitated
when
and more and more people take an
travel has interest in
been
Greek
an informative account that supplies a background against
monuments can be viewed should be useful; and, since Greeks have produced many works of genius, contact with them
which the
and we can
built.
student and the intelligent amateur. Nowadays,
civilization,
art;
differentiate
modify former conclusions, a
now been
tell this
unparalleled
manifold stages,
Greek genius; we can
the chief personalities in
relate the succession still
aspect of the
its
its
single
will be stimulating.
//
Preface
Though Greek
art, like all art, is a unity, it
In writing a history of
had many manifestations.
one can either present
it
whole, continually interrelating
its
as a consecutive
it
various branches, or one can divide
book
the subject into separate sections. In this
the latter
method has
been adopted, as was done, for instance, in the Handbook of Greek J. R. Wheeler (1919), which has
Archaeology by H. N. Fowler and
me one
always seemed to
To
of the clearest presentations.
modern
subjects generally included in
added short accounts of Furniture,
histories of
Textiles,
the familiar
Greek
art, I
have
Ornament, and
Glass,
Epigraphy, for they too are part and parcel of the larger whole. In each chapter
examples.
To
I
have
describe
development
tried to trace the
all
in a
few
salient
important objects of each period would of
course have been impossible in the limited space of a handbook, and
would,
I
think, have obscured rather than clarified the story.
convenience of the student, however,
I
For the
have added further material in
a chronological table, with references to publications, as well as short
bibliographies at the end of the book. object I
is
Moreover
in
my
when an
text,
not illustrated and not included in the chronological table,
have added a reference to a picture elsewhere. Technical terms are
explained in a glossary. Architectural terms
Greek form, the others
in the
names I
I
known
in
Greek
are given
Greek
in the Latin. In transliterating
have retained the Greek forms, with some obvious exceptions.
have many colleagues to thank for assistance. Mr. Bernard Ashmole
and the (in a
late
Arthur D.
somewhat
Nock had
early stage)
the kindness to read the entire text
and have made many valuable suggestions.
Mr. William B. Dinsmoor has looked over in the writing of
which
I
my
chapter on architecture,
have also constantly used
his invaluable
book
The Architecture of Ancient Greece. Mr. A. D. Trendall has supplied
me
with the account of South Italian vases (pp. 358-364), embodying his latest researches. My chapter on Forerunners has been read by Mr. Carl
W.
Blegen,
and
I
have discussed various aspects of
continually changing story with the late Mr. Alan Levi, and Mr. N. Platon. Mr.
p. 426.
some of Lastly
want
12
number of
chapter
mistakes.
particularly to thank Miss A. Frantz, Miss Institute in
Athens for
Lucy
on
their timely help in
Talcott,
procuring
these photographs. I am much beholden to me as well as supplied
—
discussions and descriptions
1959
a
likewise
sources of the photographs for the illustrations are given I
and the German
allowed
this
Wace, Mr. Doro
W. Schwabacher went over my
on coins and has saved me from
The
B.
|.
the Phaidon Press
— many
who
illustrations,
would mean
have generously
without which
my
little.
G. M. A. R.
Preface
Preface to the sixth Edition
A
further
new
number of
edition, as in the previous ones.
book
is
For
especially
to appear also in a paperback edition
more people
—
illustrations
up to
and
corrections and additions have been
I
illustrations,
have keenly
I
felt
date. Besides
now
—and
made
in this
that this hand-
so will reach
many
the responsibility of keeping text and
some changes and additions
have added several new notes, and
new
in the text titles in
the
bibliography. Moreover, since the format, typography and style have
been changed
in this
new
edition, the
well as of the notes have been
made
numbers of the
illustrations as
consecutive, eliminating a and b
numbers.
1969
G. M. A. R.
13
:
CHAPTER
1
THE FORERUNNERS before the coming of the Greeks into Greece other peoples
Long had dominated of high historic'
age
is
the
standing.
Aegean world and had produced
Through
gradually unfolding
have been found in various places or Late Stone
Age have come from the
the Islands, dating
not yet of the
itself.
Traces of palaeolithic habitation
and abundant remains of the neolithic
;i
to light
on the Greek mainland and on
sixth (?) to the fourth millenium B.C. It
is
known from where these Neolithic people came. The beginning Bronze Age when implements were no longer made of stone
—
and not
yet of iron, but
been placed around 3000
terranean had
its rise,
were B.C. It
first
of copper and then of bronze
civilization of the Eastern
culmination, and
:
Crete was at
first
the leader
Medi-
fall.
may be summarized
present knowledge regarding this civilization
as follows
— has
was during the subsequent two thousand
Bronze Age
years that the brilliant
Our
a civilization
archaeological research this 'pre-
and
centre,
and
in
it
a continuous
evolution can be traced from neolithic times to the Late Bronze Age.
This whole Bronze after the
Age
civilization has, therefore,
Cretan king Minos.
The term
been called Minoan,
Helladic, however,
is
now generally
used to designate the related culture of the mainland, and the term Cycladic
applied to the marble statuettes and pottery of the third
is
millennium
no
relation
civilization
to
(c.
(c.
the Minoan-Helladic culture
1500-1100
three epochs.
B.C.),
As
little is
as yet
civilization has
2500-1900
islands,
on the mainland; but these Cycladic objects bear
about which
The Bronze Age Early
have been found in various Cycladic
that
B.C.
as well as occasionally
B.C.),
Middle
and must belong to a
known.
been divided into three periods: (c.
1900-1500
B.C.),
and
Late
each of which has been further subdivided into
a result of recent discoveries
now
it is
thought that
the Early Bronze Age,
which antedates the first Palace of Knossos, was of much shorter duration than was previously thought; and, accordingly,
some
authorities
now
divide the Bronze
Age
in Crete into
the pre-Palace period, the First Palace period, and the Second Palace period. 'Similar theories have been
propounded
for the Early
Bronze
Age of the mainland, but have not been established'. (Blegen.) The most important remains of the Early Minoan period have come to light in the eastern part of Crete Vasiliki, Palaikastro,
and
—in
the small
in the adjoining islands
towns of Gournia,
of Pseira and Mochlos. /5
The Forerunners
Already then conditions were by no means primitive. Some of the people
were prosperous and lived objects,
in comfortable houses,
surrounded by
Minoan
In the Middle the Middle
which
period,
Kingdom of Egypt,
about contemporary with
is
Cretan civilization reached
climax. Palaces were built at Knossos, Phaistos, Mallia and
there
was
This
is
active intercourse with foreign lands,
when King Minos presumably
Greek legends.
word
artistic
and there was apparently communication with the outside world.
(It
for king.)
is,
and the
first
Kato Zakro,
arts flourished.
whose fame survived
lived,
however, possible that 'Minos' was
in
a general
During the Late Minoan period, which runs
with the early part of the
its
parallel
Empire of Egypt, came the second climax of
Cretan civilization.
At
its
height
Minoan
this
splendour and wealth, at
civilization
least for the
is
upper
characterized
classes.
by great
Large palaces with
spacious courtyards, grandiose stairways, and a labyrinth of living-
rooms, storerooms, and bathrooms with an advanced system of sanitation,
have come to
light.
The
customs of the people. the
gaily coloured paintings that decorated the
have supplied information regarding the appearance and the
walls
many
and tombs
And
this
knowledge has been supplemented by
precious and ordinary objects found in the palaces, houses,
— delicately wrought gold,
and small stone and terra cotta,
and bronze,
people of buoyant
silver,
and bronze containers, large
terra-cotta vases, small sculptures in ivory, faience,
sealstones,
spirit,
and
rings.
They show
us a prosperous
fond of the chase and of sport, ruled over,
would seem, by a king, and worshipping, it is now thought, various deities, among which goddesses appear to have predominated. There
it
was
the culture evolved that
with the East, especially with Egypt and Syria, but
fruitful contact
characterizes
was independent. The
much
of the
art
Egyptian,
had not the monumentality but
spontaneity and elan. Instead of depicting the their kings, the Cretan artists
plants
found
a
refreshing
homage of
subjects to
it
has
their inspiration chiefly in nature
—in
and animals and in the decorative forms which could be derived
from them. Naturally this civilization spread to the neighbouring islands and presently to the mainland of Greece. civilization
is
The
history of this mainland
gradually coming to light. In the Early Bronze Age,
thought, there came an invasion by a people Cretans and islanders, that
is,
who were
it is
akin to the
they were of non-European stock, and
possibly came from South-western Asia Minor. Then, in the Middle
Bronze Age, that
is,
soon
after
2000
B.C., there
apparently was a second
invasion of the Greek mainland, presumably from the North, by a
people of Indo-European race,
now
regarded as the
first
Greeks.
They
subdued and later amalgamated with their predecessors, the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age peoples. In the course of time these 16
early
Greeks
The Forerunners
became the masters of the Aegean, established themselves
at
Knossos,
and spread over the Islands, the coast of Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. They even went westward, to the Lipari Islands, to
and to Southern
Ischia,
and thus anticipated the Greek colonization of
Italy,
the eighth and seventh centuries B.C.
came under
Inevitably these mainland peoples
the influence of the
mature Minoan culture of Crete. They adopted much of it, but gradually evolved an
art
of their
own
—intimately connected with the Cretan but
some essential ways different. Instead of the open, labyrinthine Minoan palaces they built citadels on a compact, orderly plan, fortified by strong walls. The palace of Mycenae with its famous Lion Gate, that of Tiryns with its stupendous galleries, and that of Goulas on
in
Lake Copais
are great engineering feats,
of which the 'Treasury of Atreus'
The
other
arts,
and so are the beehive tombs,
Mycenae
at
is
most
the
intricate.
however, the wall paintings, small sculptures, metalware,
and particularly the pottery, show intimate contact with Crete. This Mycenean civilization
concurrent with the Egyptian Empire
is
XX dynasty (from soon after 1600 to about 1100 B.C.).
of the XVIII to the
may be assigned the heroic when Mycenae under king Agamemnon was the dominant power, and when the Trojan expedition took place, of which Homer
To
its
phase (about 1400-1100 B.C.)
last
age of Greece,
sang centuries
At
later.
Age
the end of the Bronze
This destruction
may have been
Dorian invasion,
that
North. The
later
Greeks
disturbed
among
due, at least in part, to the so-called
refer to
a princely family descended
fresh
as the
it
Greek
is
Isles
were
comment of Egyptian
the
from the
tribes
Return of the Herakleidai,
from Herakles. 'The
themselves'
in their turn
were burned and destroyed.
sites
coming of
to the
is,
Mycenaeans were
the
overthrown. Mycenae and many other
restless,
chroniclers.
This historical picture has been obtained by excavations and from the occasional statements
of later writers.
The
invasions of the Greek
mainland have been deduced from divisions in
stratifications,
differences in architectural remains, for instance in the
tombs referred
to,
and from the
styles
sudden
house plans and
of the pottery. Particularly
important have been the inscribed tablets found in Crete, and in recent years also
on
the mainland of Greece. Several different scripts could be
recognized. First, in Crete, pictographs, consisting of primitive renderings
of
human
beings, animals, objects,
and ornaments, dating from the
Early Bronze Age; then, also in Crete, hieroglyphs, in use during the
Middle Bronze Age, of which a few Egyptian hieroglyphs; scripts
known
lastly,
as Linear
A
in
— but
the Late
— resemble
Bronze Age, two
and Linear B. Whereas Linear
general use throughout Crete, Linear in
only a few
B
A
the
syllabic
was
in
has so far been found only
Knossos and on the Greek mainland. Hundreds of
clay tablets in
17
The Forerunners
B
Linear
script
have been found
at
Pylos and some at Mycenae; and
vases with this script have been discovered elsewhere
Thebes, Eleusis, Tiryns, and Mycenae
—showing
—
at
Orchomenos,
the widespread use
of this form of writing throughout the Greek mainland during the
Mycenaean supremacy. The Linear B script is gradually being deciphered and it is thought to be an early form of Greek. This important discovery Greek and
gives support to the theory that the Mycenaeans were
A
they dominated Knossos in the Late Bronze Age.
new
that
chapter of
Greek history has been opened. Mycenaeans were indeed Greeks
If the
it
might be thought
that
account of Greek art should begin with the Mycenaean Age. If in
book
an
this
the story nevertheless starts after the downfall of that civilization,
the reason
though Mycenaeans and Greeks were
that,
is
were fundamentally
their arts
seen, largely derived
On
in content. art slowly
Mycenaean
different.
from the Cretan, both
in
art
racially akin,
was, as
we have
form and almost
entirely
when the Mycenaean age ended, a new new forms and new subjects. In other words,
the other hand,
emerged, with
though there was not the
definite cultural
break once envisaged by
archaeologists, but rather a slow transformation, the unsettled conditions
caused by the invasions produced at
first
a set-back in artistic production,
and then the slow emergence of a new
art.
Instead of the curvilinear
designs and the naturalistic representations of plant and marine
life
had been popular with Minoans and Mycenaeans, a 'geometric*
that
was evolved and when
scheme with
linear patterns
and human
beings were again represented they assumed schematized
;
after a
while animals
forms. Furthermore, the use of iron for implements instead of bronze created
many
changes. Hence the period from the eleventh to the
eighth century B.C.
is
known
as the
Geometric or Early Iron Age.
has seemed best, therefore, to restrict this account to the consecutive
It
story of Hellenic art during the last millennium
period
—throughout
Islands Italy
to
—a
Greek
lands, ranging
homogeneous
civilization
was evolved.
to developed, but basically
it
art,
During
that
from Asia Minor and the
Mainland Greece and westward to
various epochs with changing styles in
B.C.
Sicily It
and Southern
passed through
from primitive, to
archaic,
remained the same throughout. Though
borrowed here and there from other arts, chiefly from the old, mature cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia, and occasionally from the
it
Mycenaean
And the from it we in
creations.
for
(cf. p.
Greeks
are,
22),
it
transformed
its
borrowings into independent
was evolved is related to our own, borrowed and adapted. Culturally these turn have therefore, our forerunners, and it is the art of these Greek civilization that
people in the period of about 1100 to 100 B.C. that here concerns us.
18
CHAPTER 2
ARCHITECTURE seems proper to begin an account of Greek
It
was
for in ancient times sculpture
art
with architecture,
largely architectural, paintings
decorated the walls of public and private buildings, and the 'minor' arts,
such as pottery and furniture, served their chief functions in private
A
houses,
study of Greek buildings
is,
therefore,
proper understanding of other branches of Greek architecture one
of this art
and the
— the
becomes
at
essential
for the
Moreover,
art.
in
once acquainted with the intrinsic qualities
sober yet delicate forms, the interrelated proportions,
feeling for the typical
and the permanent rather than the have given to Greek
accidental, the qualities in short that
art its
high
place also in our civilization.
In spite of the devastations caused by earthquakes and wars throughout the centuries, enough Greek buildings have survived in sufficiently good preservation to show their general character and development.
Chief
among
were the temples
the public buildings
which were sometimes
set in
not only several temples with their respective (thesauroi),
porticoes
{stoai),
{naoi) for
worship,
spacious sacred areas (temene), containing
votive
but treasuries
altars {bomoi),
monuments
(anathemata),
and elaborate
gateways {propylaia). For athletic training and recreation there were
gymnasiums, stadiums,
and concert
theatres,
halls
{pdeid);
sometimes formed part of the temenos, for religion, times, pervaded practically every phase of
Greek
they too
at least in early
The everyday
life.
of the people centred not only in the private house, but,
activities
even more
so, in the
market place
{agora),
with
its
colonnades,
halls,
and fountain houses. Votive and commemorative monuments played an important part, and so did funerary monuments, public and private cemeteries. Finally, each in itself
and often
at
war with
its
Greek
set
city,
up
in
both
being a unit
neighbours, had to be protected by
fortifications.
Remains of these various structures have come
to light
Greek world. Wherever the Greeks went they erected
all
over the
their temples,
They were
their theatres,
gymnasiums, and market
of Greek
In addition there were special buildings characteristic of
certain
life.
localities;
for
instance,
the
places.
choregic
monuments
a basic part
at
Athens,
erected to celebrate the victory of a chorus in a theatrical performance; the tholos, a small
round building, of which examples have survived /P
Architecture
at
Epidauros, Delphi, and Athens; halls for the celebration of Mysteries,
such as the
and magnificent
Telesterion at Eleusis;
Pergamon. In a few
and Delphi, remains have been found of hotels visitors could
house
at
Epidauros
A
be housed.
which
{katagogid) in
famous Hellenistic structure was the
light-
Alexandria.
Methods
Building Materials and The
like that at
altars,
places, for instance in the sanctuaries of
materials used by the Greeks for their buildings were sun-dried
brick,
wood,
terra cotta,
and
were mostly employed. This
stone.
At
first
sun-dried brick and
wood
indicated by a few statements of ancient
is
writers and by certain elements in the Greek temple which seem to be
derived from
wood
=
construction (for instance, triglyphs
=
cross-beams; metopes
the ends of
the spaces between the beams; guttae
pegs used for fastening). Later, stone became the chief material
The
limestone, conglomerate, and marble.
two were
first
=
the
—hard
generally
coated with stucco to obtain a smooth surface. Marble was used from the sixth century B.C. in those regions less so in places
in marble,
where
it
was
not.
where
it
was
easily accessible,
The Eastern Mediterranean
is
rich
and the quarries of Asia Minor, of Mainland Greece, including
Athens, and particularly of the Islands (Naxos, Paros, and Thasos) were
worked throughout antiquity. The cornice and roof tiles were regularly of
Our information only from
in early buildings
terra cotta, later often of marble.
regarding building methods in stone
actual remains of buildings
derived not
is
and from old cuttings
in quarries,
but from a number of building inscriptions (about thirty of them have survived). These inscriptions are either records ot expenses incurred
during the erection of a building, or contracts and specifications. Another valuable source of information Vitruvius, writings,
who, though he
now
lost, to
is
the
Architecture written
by
had Greek
draw from.
The blocks were roughly worked
down
book on
lived in the time of Augustus,
the slope of a mountain
on
lowered
in the quarries, if necessary
a chute,
and transported
in
waggons.
Cuttings on the stones indicate the methods employed for hoisting.
There are three principal types and grooves cut (fig. 1).
either at the
for the tongs
Methods of hoisting
blocks:
tongs, a ropes passed
lifting
and through cuttings. lewis,
20
lifting
chiefly
for the
A
softer
surfaces, or
on
derrick with a complicated system of pulleys
represented on a relief of the second century A.D.,
now
in the Lateran
Collection. Since pulleys are mentioned in the fourth century
derrick
stones.
tongs and the lewis. The holes
were placed on the lower or the upper
the sides near the top. 1.
a loop cut in the middle of the stone,
end of the stone or around the stone
Such cuttings were employed
Marbles permitted the use of
is
:
must have been known
also to the Greeks.
B.C.,
the
Building Materials and Methods
To
on
the stones in position
shift
with shallow pry holes and deep
a building, a crow-bar
shift holes
worked
was employed; and to
the stones together iron and bronze dowels and cramps were
bond
used, the former for fastening the stones vertically, the latter horizontally;
they were
molten
set in
lead,
sometimes poured through a channel. The
shapes of the dowels and cramps varied at different periods
(cf. fig,
2);
those with ends bent at right angles were in use in the sixth and the
T
the double
early fifth century B.C.;
or
H
type with welded ends
is
characteristic of Periklean buildings; the hook cramp was employed
from the
periodically
used
sixth century on;
and the swallow-tail cramp was
The
extensive use of these fastenings
of
for soft stones
all
periods.
throughout antiquity was probably occasioned by the frequent earthquakes.
The
tools
mallet,
were the standard ones
and the pointed, toothed and
still
in use today: axe,
flat chisels,
were tested with the straight-edge and square. in
Greek
No
and great care was taken to obtain
times,
hammer,
in various sizes. Planes
mortar was used
tight-fitting contacts
alone the surfaces of the stones— along the whole of the horizontal ones, and generally along the edges only of the vertical ones, in
was sunk and
cases the central portion called anathyrosis).
and
The
final
left
rough. (The process
is
polishing was done with smooth stones
joints
centring.
A
hole, about 4 to 6 inches square,
was cut
fastening
in the centre of
exact centre of this a circular hole
was bored, and into
it
was inserted
pin connecting the two adjoining drums. Bosses were
sides of the
was employed were the
for
with a wooden plug; in the
filled
on the
Cramps
of the column drums received special treatment for accurate
each drum, top and bottom, and
wooden
2.
stones together.
a lubricant.
The
a
which
drums
for convenient manipulation;
and anathyrosis
So perfect
to confine the contact surface along the edges.
joints obtained in the best
work
that they
left
were
invisible at
a short distance.
Stones were worked on the ground except for the
The
flutes
at the
the
last
finishing.
for the columns, for instance, were started on the ground
top and bottom only and those in between were worked
columns were
in place.
To
set
each block in
its
when
right position a
system of lettering was sometimes employed.
Temples In the temple the Greek feeling for expression; and to
Akropolis
hill
still
many people today serves as the finest
fitting, therefore, briefly to
in its
many
artistic
form found
the Parthenon
characteristic
crowning the
symbol of Greek genius.
It
is
study the development of the Greek temple
forms, from century to century. 21
Architecture
-STYLOBATE( Level on which COLUMNS
stand
ANTA
COLONNADE
r m COLUMNS in
ANTIS
ANTA SIDE PASSAGE
PTEROMA
or
•••••
FLANK COLUMNS
• •_ M iSUBSTRUCTURE
or
PTERON
Ground
3.
STEREOBATE;
or
Plan of a
Greek Temple.
In primitive times an altar placed in an open space sufficed for
when
worship; but
in time
image of the god inside
was thought appropriate
it
a building,
house an
to
an adequate dwelling for the deity
was required. It
may be asked what was
and borrowed from
Greek temple?
the origin of the
apparent that here, as in other forms of Greek
The ground
their predecessors.
It is
the Greeks learned
art,
plan was evidently
derived from the megaron of the Mycenaean house, a rectangular hall
with a frontal porch supported by columns. In Egypt the Greeks could see magnificent temples in which columns played a great part. Fluted columns occur there as early as the Middle Kingdom. Prototypes for the capitals,
and Assyria,
both Doric and Ionic, were furnished by the East well as Crete and Mycenae.
as
ornaments used by the Greeks
and
rosette
— were
— the
The
— Egypt
chief architectural
lotus, guilloche, palmette, spiral,
taken from the East; as were some of the
also
architectural mouldings.
From
these
borrowings
characteristically his
the
own. After
scheme was developed
(cf. fig. 3)
Greek
a period of experimentation a definite
which remained more or
except for endless variations in detail and proportions. icellci)
was provided with
{pronaos)
and often
also
a
columned porch,
at
the
terminated the side walls of the in front, at the back, {peristjlion);
something
evolved
architect
and sometimes
Rows all
A
central hall
practically always in front
back {ppisthodomos); cella.
less constant,
pilasters
(antae)
of columns were placed
around to form a colonnade
occasionally columns were added also in the interior to
support the roof.
The decorations were confined
to
certain
ornamented surfaces alternating according to a substructure,
fluted
columns, decorated
a decorated frieze, plain walls antefixes, waterspouts,
no 22
and
—and
plain
fixed design
capitals,
a
plain
—a
and plain
architrave,
a roof enriched with pediments,
akroteria.
sculptural or painted decoration
portions,
—
The
shafts
of the columns had
as so often in
Egypt
—for
they
Temples
were supporting members and had to appear cf.
as
such (for an exception,
the columns of the temple at Ephesos, where, however, the decoration
was confined to the bottom drum). were always
plain
left
on
Similarly, the walls of the cella
ornamented with
the outside, not
reliefs as
in Egypt; only on the interior were paintings sometimes added.
Refinements were introduced to give optical (cf.
They
illusions.
are
and to correct
to the design
life
observable
especially
pp. 33 f.). Curves take the place of straight lines.
and architrave curve upward. The walls of the
columns lean inward. The abacuses and the
cella
Parthenon
the
in
The
stylobate
and the outside
faces of the cornice lean
outward. The shafts of the columns taper upward and have a slight
convex curve
{entasis); their flutings are
not as deep
top as at
at the
the bottom.
Furthermore, the various parts of the building were obviously interrelated to
What
one another and to the whole in height, width, and depth.
was has given
the principle of this interrelation
Some
discussion.
rise
much
to
authorities favour an arithmetical, others a geometric
proportion. Both have been claimed to
exist.
Thus, the lengths and
widths of certain temples have been computed to be multiples of the different kinds of
Greek
and Samian). The areas
feet ('Doric', Tonic',
of certain temples have been found to correspond to the geometric ratios ('the
used also in Athenian pottery and
and height, which can be computed can best be analysed by geometry a
later
during the Renaissance
golden section', for instance). Since a building has length, breadth, arithmetically,
by
(i.e.
twofold standard would not seem surprising. At
Greeks in geometry
interest of the
love of interrelations
make
(cf.
which
all
events, the
known
Plotinos, 1, 6, 1, and Vitruvius VII, Preface 14)
of proportion in the extant buildings bears as
areas,
as well as in arithmetic, and their
the use of a definite system probable. i
The temple
and
the 'measurement of land'),
such was
known
to
foundations of temples datable in the
Homer late
And
the resulting beauty
this out. (cf. e.g. Iliad,
1, 39),
and
geometric period have come
to light in various places (e.g. in Samos, Eleusis, Sparta, Perachora).
Furthermore, fragmentary terra-cotta models of 'shrines' of geometric date,
found
at the
Argive Heraion and
of the superstructure.
temple are
still
Though many
at
Perachora,^ give
some
features of the developed
idea
Greek
missing, there was already present a cella with a front
porch supported by columns. The ground plan in the models is rectangular at
one end, apsidal
at least at
By
at the other; in the
one end, perhaps
temple
at Eleusis it
was apsidal
at both.
the latter part of the seventh century the canonical
Greek temple
had been evolved. Enough examples of that period have been found to
show
its
salient features.
On
a stone foundation {stereohates) either
of irregular or roughly squared blocks, was
first
placed a levelling
25
Jirchitecture
course
and then a stepped platform
ieuthynterid)
were three orders of columns
{krepidomd).
column had no base but was placed immediately on is,
There
—Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Doric
the top step of the krepidoma
(cf. fig. 5). It
had
the stvlobate, that
a fluted shaft, tapering
towards the top, and a capital which consisted of a curved member
surmounted by a square block
{echinus)
shaft
and the
The upper end of
{abacus).
were cut in one block. At
capital
first
a concave
the
moulding
member; later this was replaced by three or bands. The shaft was generally composed of several
served as the connecting four projecting
drums.
Upon
the capital rested the entablature, comprising the architrave
{epistylion),
the frieze, and the cornice {geison).
which reached from column
to column,
were
The
architrave blocks,
left plain,
except for a
small moulding at the top {taenia), decorated at regular intervals with
from which
a panel {regula),
The Doric
six little
knobs
{guttae) projected
of triglyphs
consisted
frieze
{triglyphoi)
downward.
with vertical
groovings, alternating with metopes {metopai), which could be plain or painted or sculptured. There was generally a triglyph over each
column and over
the middle of each intercolumnation, and one
was
placed at the corners, an arrangement that necessitated various expedients,
Above the frieze downward to protect the
such as changing the widths of the intercolumnations.
was the projecting face
cornice, inclined slightly
of the building from rain water.
surmounted by
a plain
triglyph and metope,
of drops
member
was placed
consisted of a moulding,
It
along
{corona);
its
soffit,
over each
a slab or mutule {mutulus) with
rows
{guttae).
The roof was
generally not
Minoan
as in
flat,
Crete, but double
pitched (saddle), with a ridge pole, and beams going lengthwise and rafters placed at right angles at
above them
each end, called pediment
On its
of sculptures, fastened with dowels.
both plain and cover, generally of
Each row of cover
tiles
either
The
was closed by
{aetos),
and protected by a raking cornice.
(fig. 4).
floor
Above at
a wall {tjmpanon)
were often placed groups
the rafters were the
tiles,
sometimes of marble.
terra cotta,
ended
triangular space
the sides in an antefix or
terminated against the back of the gutter {simd). Waterspouts, generally in the
form of
lions' heads,
provided openings to
let
out the rain water.
Akroteria decorated the three angles of the pediment, in the form of either disks or sculptures.
The
cella
was completely walled
in
and was
built as far as possible
of uniform horizontal blocks, often resting on a kind of dado of vertical blocks (see
{orthostates).
Normally
it
had both a front and a
rear
porch
above), with free-standing columns along the front and sides,
and antae
at the side walls.
The
entrance to the cella was through a large
door, generally on the East; and in most cases this was the only source
24
Temples
4.
Roof of a Greek Temple.
C
DORIC ORDER
5.
The Doric Column.
6.
ORDER
The Ionic Column.
25
Jirchitecture
of daylight in the interior.
was generally placed
the
cella
and
was wide,
If the cella
(peristyle).
exceptional.
The
porches was
its
colonnade
the
middle, or in two rows creating a central nave and two
by
The
stairs.
ceiling
in
two
tiers,
the
The
aisles.
sometimes with a gallery approached
was of wood, except
was often of marble with ornamented
The
were
interior supports of the roof
row of columns, lengthwise along
necessary, either in a single
columns were then often
cult statue
the Western end of the cella, opposite the
at
Encircling
entrance.
Windows were
which
that of the colonnade,
coffers.
Ionic and Corinthian orders differ from the Doric chiefly in the
forms of their columns. The shaft of the Ionic column, instead of
from the
rising directly
generally an ornamented necking
is
(fig. 6).
of the shaft do not as in the Doric column meet
at a
from one another by
band.
are separated
a
narrow
flat
The
flutings
sharp angle, but
The
antae have
on the
special capitals consisting of carved mouldings, often repeated
base and carried along the wall. Furthermore, the architrave plain, as in the
Doric order, but
(usually three).
And
stituted a
row of
of the whole
its
of an echinus, has a pair of volutes front and back,
capital, instead
beneath which
and
stylobate, has a base in several tiers,
for the
is
not
subdivided into projecting bands
Doric triglyphs and metopes were sub-
dentils or a continuous sculptured frieze.
is less
is
The
effect
massive than in the Doric and more graceful.
The Corinthian column is allied to the Ionic in that it has a base and volutes on its capital, but the latter is further enriched with a single or double row of leafy generally akanthos scrolls, from which the
—
—
volutes rise as
The
if
in organic growth.
so-called Aeolic
(fig. 7),
is
column, with a spreading, double-spiralled capital
by many considered an
early
Proto-Ionic. Typical examples have
form of the Ionic and
come from Neandria
from Larisa near Smyrna, and from Lesbos than the this
first
form
The
is
employed
in
The
'Aeolic' Capital.
apparently not earlier
A
late
development of
Greek temples were the
cyma
its
astragal
(of double curvature) the
(convex but larger than the astragal),
multiple curvature). Each had 7.
all
called
Troad,
seen in a capital used at Pergamon.
chief mouldings
(convex), the cavetto (concave), the torus
—
quarter of the sixth century B.C.
in the
and the hawksbeak (of
particular painted
ornament
—bead-
and-reel, egg-and-tongue, leaf-and-dart, lotus-and-palmette, guilloche,
and so on.
To
judge by the somewhat scanty remains of colour, only certain
Greek temple were regularly painted. Such were the backgrounds of the sculptured metopes, frieze, and pediments, which were red or blue, unless, as in most metopes, they were left white. The
parts of the
sculptures themselves were painted in varying shades
mutules, triglyphs, and regulae were blue.
26
By way of
(cf.
p. 54).
The
contrast the soffit
Temples
of the cornice, the top border of the metopes, and the taenia top of the architrave were generally
red.
The
and of course the exterior of the walls of the
most cases were apparently the
so in
shafts of the
cella
capitals,
were
left
at the
columns
white, and
when covered
except
with stucco. Painted ornaments were introduced on the sima, on the
of the ceiling, and on the mouldings. Thus colour was used
coffers
portions of the temple.
like sculpture to accent various
must have
It
greatly enhanced the harmony and effectiveness of the whole.
The tendency shafts
with
and heavy
of the types was from massiveness
in the evolution
The early columns were
towards slenderness.
capitals,
lighter capitals.
whereas the
The
with thick
ones were higher and thinner,
of the echinus in the Doric capital
profile
changed from a bulbous to an
later
relatively short
elastic
and then to a
curve.
fiat
The
widths of the intercolumnations tended to increase as time progressed. entablature was gradually reduced in height.
The metopes, which
in the earlier buildings often varied in size, later
became square. And
The
so on.
These changes serve
as
evidence for a relative chronology,
supplementing the few historical dates that supply an absolute chronology.
The
earliest
Doric temple of which a considerable part of the super-
structure survives It
has
the
that of
Hera
normal features
opisthodomos, the cella
is
(fig. 9).
of Pausanias,
Olympia
of the
long compared to
It is
wood and were in
wooden column
the second
—
in the
a great variety of styles.
century B.C. to
Roman
of drums, number of
sides.
{c.
600
Greek temple
peristyle, and, in addition,
on the ends and sixteen on the originally of
at
—
ARCHAIC PERIOD, ABOUT 630-480 B.C.
pronaos,
cella,
two rows of columns inside its width, with six columns
The columns,
thought, were
it is
gradually replaced in stone.
century
or earlier).
B.C.
A.D.,
there
At the time
remained one
still
•
•
#
#
•
•
•
•
opisthodomos. These replacements resulted in
The times,
flutes,
extant columns date from the early sixth
and
are
all
methods of
different in diameter,
number
fastening, forms of echinus,
and the kind of limestone used. The architrave was apparently of
wood, cella
as suggested
by the wide intercolumnations, and the walls of the
were of sun-dried brick on
a stone foundation.
Roof
8.
tiles
and
The Temple of
Artemis kyra,
c.
at Kor600 B.C.
Reconstruction.
9.
The Temple of
Hera at Olympia, c. 600 B.C. or earlier.
ISM.
• • • •
10. The Temple of Apollo at Corinth, c. 540 B.C.
Temple 'C
11.
soon
Selinus,
at
after
550 B.C.
The Temple of
12.
Hera
the
at
Sele,
near Paestum,
520-500
c.
revetment were ot terra
was found
cotta. Inside the cella
base, probably for the cult statues of
Hera and Zeus,
B.C.
a large limestone
for at the beginning
the temple was dedicated to both these deities. Perhaps the colossal
limestone head found near the temple belonged to the statue of Hera (see fig. 59).
No
other sculptures of the temple were found, but a
fragment of a disk akroterion in
was crowned with
Early Doric temples datable in the
600
B.C.
have
shows
terra cotta
that the
pediment
this feature.
also
late
seventh century and around
been discovered at Thermon, Korkyra (Corfu),
Delphi, and Cyrene; but only foundations and a few architectural
members remain, from which In the case of Korkyra
the
(cf.
pp. 62 f).
the second quarter of the sixth century
may be
Doric temple of Hera near the mouth of the river Paestum. Only
its
been deduced.
at least has
however, parts of the pedimental
and they are among the most important
sculptures have been found early archaic examples extant
To
ground plan
(fig. 8),
foundations remain, which
with four columns, but no opisthodomos or of the sandstone decoration was re-used in
show
assigned the small (Sele),
Silaris
that
near
had a pronaos
it
peristyle. Fortunately later buildings
much
and so has
survived. In addition to the triglyphs and metopes (carved together in
one piece) which completely surrounded the building
there
came
to light Doric capitals
(cf.
pp. 74 f.),
with a hollow throat moulding and
widely spreading echinus, and two anta capitals of the early 'Egyptianizing', cavetto type that
appears also in Attic gravestones of the second
quarter of the sixth century
(cf. fig.
75).
The impressive temple of Apollo at Corinth provides of about 540 B.C. The material was limestone, stuccoed. and an opisthodomos, as well as
28
six
columns
two rows of columns
at the
ends and
inside the cella
a
Doric example
It
had a pronaos
fifteen
on the
(fig. 10).
Now
sides,
only
seven columns remain (monolithic and each with twenty
unusual feature was
parts. In the hall adjoining the
opisthodomos
flutes).
An
two unequal base was found, which
a cross-wall in the cella dividing a
it
into
perhaps served for a cult statue.
To
this
period can also be assigned the rebuilding of the ancient
temple of Athena by Peisistratos and
Another Doric temple sixth century
is
temples found there six
columns
that
may be
(figs. 11,
but
at the ends,
it
with seventeen columns on the
his sons (cf. p. 88).
placed soon after the middle of the
C at
the so-called temple
Selinus,
among the oldest of the
Like the temple
13).
was longer sides.
at
Corinth
in proportion to
its
it
There were two rows of columns
The opisthodomos was not open to the peristyle back chamber of the cella. The entablature was very high,
the cornice consisting of
two courses of stone, crowned with
u^.:
had ^
width,
in front of the pronaos.
but formed a
M
a terra-cotta
|
P»'^
^' ^'
13.
1
linus,
The
gutter.
was decorated with
latter
guilloche, lotus,
and palmette
ornaments, and provided with piercings to allow the escape of rain water. Pieces of this magnificent, colourful sima have survived as well as three metopes
now
at
The temple of Zeus at the ends,
Palermo at
(cf.
pp. 74f.).
Cyrene, built of limestone, with eight columns
seventeen on the sides,
is
also datable
around 540
B.C.
In the East the grandiose conceptions of Egypt and Mesopotamia are
—
reflected in three archaic temples of the Ionic order
and Didyma. The temple
on the
sides in a
(cf. fig.
14).
The
the terra-cotta
sculptured
at
Ephesos had
double colonnade material
tiles.
(cf. p.
as
many
like the later
as
—a
Ephesos, Samos,
twenty-one columns
temple built on top of it
was marble, except for the wooden roof and
The bottom drums of some of
74)
at
feature evidently inspired
the columns were
by Egyptian and
Mesopotamian prototypes. The temple was begun about 550
B.C.,
and
an inscription records that Croesus of Lydia gave some of the columns; but like
14. at
many of
these undertakings
The Temple of Artemis Ephesos, begun c. 550
B.C.,
rebuilt in
century B.C.
the fourth
it
took a long time to build.
cmplc 'C soon after 550
he
J
at Se-
B.C.
• •
• «
*
1
1
1
1
•
i
• •
1
*
^"^
•
•
•
1
•
• • • • »
• :3
c*j
•
l:
=.1
!• • •! • •
>
• •
•
• 25M.
15-17.
The Temples of Hera,
of Athena, Hera, c. 460 B.C.,
B.C.,
The dores.
Samos was
great dipteral temple at
was burnt about 530
It
was erected on
its site,
for several centuries,
carried
still
all
larger,
temple
on with interruptions
and never completed. The plan
approached by steps
stylobate,
and another,
B.C.,
at
c. 530 510 B.C., and of Paestum.
by Rhoikos and Theo-
built
begun by Polykrates,
c.
called for a
high
round, a double colonnade of Ionic
columns, and probably two rows of columns in the
interior.
Of the early temple at Didyma, near Miletos, little remains. It was burnt by the Persians. To a later structure built on the same site may belong three large anta capitals,
A
few
carved with egg-and-dart
architectural fragments
found on the
site
and
statuettes
(cf.
and
is
have been
p. 197)
of the early temple of Apollo at Naukratis
superstructure nothing
palmettes.
;
but of the
preserved, and even the plan cannot be traced
with accuracy. In Paestum survive three of the best preserved Doric temples 16, 17).
One
of these, formerly called the
have been dedicated to Hera,
show
'Basilica',
frieze
now
datable around 530 B.C.
Ionic influence in the necking below the echinus.
resemble those of the Heraion
The
is
at the
mouth of the
(figs. 15,
thought to
The
The
capitals
anta capitals
river Silaris
(cf. p. 31).
probably had triglyphs and metopes, but none have come to
light.
About twenty or built
as
thirty years later a considerably smaller
not far from the
'Basilica',
temple was
and dedicated to Athena (not to Demeter
was once thought^). As in the
'Basilica', the capitals rise
from orna-
mented neckings. The cornice was elaborately decorated. The pronaos had Ionic columns, of which some
survive."*
No
sculptural
members
have been preserved.
The It
30
third Paestan temple
is still later,
datable around 460 B.C.
used to be called the temple of Poseidon, but
it
has
(fig. 18).
now been identified
•-|
1 "flr
1
m 'W^W
]1 ''
m
m^'^ ,.*
r^
n
It
«fl
u
m
which part of the second 18. The Temple of Hera the only Greek temple Paestum, f. 460 B.C. ,,..,, .^1 r tier of columns mside the cella still stands. There are remains ot a stairway
as a Heraion. It
is
.
at the eastern
end of the
to the east of the temple
About
five
much
A large altar
away from Paestum, at the mouth of the river another temple of Hera has come to light (fig. 12). It
larger than the earlier temple
seventeen columns at the
The
sides.
on
this site (cf. p. 28),
had
cella
19.
The Temple of Apollo
decorated with sculptured, sandstone metopes
having
N m~w
deep pronaos, a chamber
a
back instead of an opisthodomos, and a
at the
attic.
partly preserved.
is still
miles
Silaris (Sele), yet is
probably for reachine an
cella,
at
•
•
,
,
peristyle.
92).
(cf. p.
It,
The
too,
date
was
must
be about 520-500 B.C.
To
the latter part of the sixth century belongs the Doric temple of
Apollo
at
Delphi, which was built
earlier edifice
—
after a great fire
had destroyed an
—with the aid of subscriptions from the whole Greek world.
According to Herodotos (v,
Alkmaionidai, a noble Athenian
62), the
family exiled by Peisistratos, undertook to build the temple and, though
they had contracted to erect
it all
in limestone (poros), they
used Parian
marble for the front. Several pedimental sculptures of limestone from the
Western and of marble from the Eastern facade have survived
(cf. p. 88).
•
r
—
I
I
This temple was the scene of Euripides' Ion, the sculptures of which I
were admired by Creusa's handmaids this
time by an earthquake.
by another temple, which enclosed priestess
room behind
It is
oracles
The importance of Aegina by the temple of Aphaia
that
Eastern part of the island
184
was replaced the one
the cella
pronounced the
(11.
is
ff.).
It,
too,
was destroyed,
in the fourth century B.C.
now
standing on the
An
thought to have been where the
(cf. fig. 19).
in the early fifth century B.C. still
site.
stands today
(fig. 20).
The
on
a
material
is
indicated
promontory is
local
in the
limestone,
• • • 20M 31
20.
The Temple of Aphaia Aegina, early
at
cen-
fifth
tury B.C.
21.
The Temple of Zeus
Akragas, begun 22.
c.
at
500 B.C.
The Temple of Zeus
Olympia,
c.
470-460
• •
at
B.C.
row of
Stuccoed, except for the simas, the lowest
and the pedimental sculptures, which were of marble
akroteria,
In addition to the usual features,
two
built in
Early Classical
One
the roof
of the
The
storeys.
(cf.
had two rows of columns
it
was entered by
east facade
most imposing Doric temples
pp. 92f.)
ramp.
that of
is
the
in the cella,
a sloping
extant
still
tiles,
Zeus
Period, Olympios at Akragas (Agrigentum). It was unusual in plan (fig. 21). ABOUT 480 — 450 B.C. There were two rows of piers in the interior, no pronaos, only a narrow opisthodomos. The columns of the peristyle are engaged, continuous wall. In addition, a
series
set
along a
of colossal figures of giants were
used for support, each probably placed between the exterior columns.
The temple was
the largest in Sicily, the stylobate measuring about 53
by 110 metres, and
took a long time in building. Though
it
been begun about 500
B.C.,
it
may have
the extant sculptures can hardly be earlier
than about 470.
To
the second quarter of the fifth century belongs also the famous
temple of Zeus
Olympia.
at
It
had a pronaos, an opisthodomos, a
and two rows of columns in the
peristyle,
temple of Aphaia
gallery, and, as in the
ramp on
at
cella (fig. 22). Stairs led to a
Aegina, the level of the temple
The
floor
was reached by
shell
conglomerate, covered with stucco but the
a
the East side. ;
decoration were of marble. includes
A
material
tiles
was the
large part of the latter has survived. It
most of the pedimental
figures
and the metopes from the
porches; also some of the waterspouts in the form of lions' heads
of the original ones and a number of the later substitutions). The date
(cf.
pp. 97, 108
f.)
cost of the building
of Pisa
be
{c.
470
B.C.).
32
was defrayed by the booty obtained
The
at
(a
few
stylistic
conforms with the statement by Pausanias that the
cult statue
in the conquest
of Zeus by Pheidias, however, must
later (cf. pp. 116,118).
For the Heraion
local
and the sculptural
Paestum, dated
c.
460
B.C., cf.
pp. 30
f.
23.
The Temple of Hephaistos
Athens,
449-444
c.
in
B.C.
• • • # • •
• •
^
1
• • • • 24.
The Temple of Hephaistos
Athens,
The temple of Hephaistos 'The Theseum's in Athens, overlooking the ancient
Greek temple externally
The
is
material
except for the sculptures which are of Parian marble.
with
six
columns
thodomos, and an been
epistyle (fig. 24).
tentatively identified in figures
frieze
above the porches
in situ,
Pentelic marble,
The plan
at the ends, thirteen at the sides, a
<
B.C.
the best preserved is
<
in
(about AA^~A\\ B.C.)
market place,
fig. 23).
(cf.
449-444
c.
<
is
THE SECOND HALF OF THE FIFTH CENTURY B.C.
normal,
pronaos, an opis-
Some of the pedimental statues have in the Agora. 6 The continuous
found
—an unusual feature in a Doric temple —
still
is
as are some of the metopes placed over the East end and the
adjoining parts of the sides (by Alkamenes,
De
Cicero,
cf.
added before 421-415
(cf. p.
B.C. (cf.
134).
The
natura deor.,
I,
cult statues of
Hephaistos
30) and Athena were not
I.G\, 370 371).
The Parthenon at Athens marks the climax of the Doric style. The harmony of its proportions, the refinements in its structure, and the fact that (fig.
it
comparatively well preserved have established
Moreover,
28).
metopes,
is
waterspouts,
frieze,
survived and rank
The
building
is
among was
around 488
B.C.
unfinished
decorations
— —have
akroteria
antefixes,
its
pedimental
the finest examples of their time
partly
also
(cf.
fame
figures,
pp. 113
of Pentelic marble, except the foundation which
local limestone. It
started
sculptural
its
drums of
built
over an
earlier temple,
ff.).
is
of
which was perhaps
and ravaged by the Persians. Some of the charred,
this earlier building
fication wall
on the North
were re-used
in the
new
may be
seen built in the forti-
side of the Akropolis.
building. Others again
lie
Other early blocks
scattered
on the
site.
According to the building inscription, work on the Periklean Parthenon
was begun
in
447-446
which took another
B.C.
and finished
six years to
complete.
and Kallikrates and they designed largest
in 438, except for the sculptures
it
on
The
architects
were Iktinos
a magnificent scale. It
Doric temple on the Greek mainland. In plan
it
was
was the different
33
• # • • • • • •
The Parthenon
25.
447-438
Athens,
in
• •
B.C.
The Temple of Poseidon
26.
Sounion,
c.
440
at
V
B.C.
• • • • Epikourios at after 430 B.C.
from the older Parthenon projecting
cella
sides
soon
Bassae,
lOM
which may
(the substructure of
on the East and South
columns on the
• • • •
The Temple of Apollo
27.
and eight
The
sides).
at the
ends
peristyle
still
be seen
had seventeen
In addition to the
(fig. 25).
and the two porches, there was a back chamber, which was entered
The
only from the opisthodomos and was perhaps used as a treasury. cella
had
columns
interior
colonnade
could
that
in
be
two
on
storeys
by
used
the sides and rear, forming a
chryselephantine Athena from
all
foundation of the statue can
be seen on the
temple
Doric,
is
it
still
(cf.
pp.
116
flF.).
cella floor.
The poros Though the
has several Ionic features, such as a continuous frieze
inside the colonnade, a Lesbian
on
sides
viewing Pheidias'
for
visitors
kymation above
it,
carved decorations
the anta capitals, and an astragal over the metopes.
The building
when it was partly destroyed
survived in a fairly complete state until 1687,
by an explosion during the Turko- Venetian war. Fortunately drawings of the sculptures, supposedly made by preserved
(cf. fig.
Carrey in 1674, have been
J.
138).
Roughly contemporary with the Parthenon is the temple of Poseidon
at
Sounion, built on a promontory overlooking the sea and visible by the ships that passed beneath.
preceded thirteen
without
it.
The
on the entasis.
later
An
temple
sides, built
The
frieze,
earlier is
temple dating from about 500 B.C.
Doric, with six columns at the ends,
of local marble
which
(fig. 26).
The columns
are
ran across the pronaos and inside
the front part of the peristyle, perhaps represented the combat of Centaurs
and Lapiths (fragments have survived).
vicinity
may have belonged
A seated figure found in the
to the pedimental sculptures.
Here too belong the small Doric temples of Nemesis
at
Rhamnous,
of Ares in the Athenian Agora, and of 'Concord' at Akragas. The
owes
34
its
good preservation to the
fact that
it
was
latter
converted into a church.
\
The Parthenon
28.
Athens, 447-438 B.C.
in
The temple of Apollo Epikourios on
a lonely
sanias,
the
it
rocky
hill
was erected
amid the'mountains of Arcadia. According to Pau-
as a
famous one of 430
at Bassae, near Phigaleia, is situated
thank offering for
B.C.),
relief from a
and the architect was
plague (probably
Iktinos. It
was
local limestone, except for the sima, the capitals of the interior
built of
columns,
and the sculptures, which were of marble. There are several unusual tures: a continuous frieze ran along the inside
of the
fea-
cella (cf. p. 134); a
door led from the
the cella itself were
peristyle into a chamber behind the cella; and in two rows of tall columns, three Corinthian, the other
Ionic, attached
but one) to the
side
(all
cella wall
by short spur walls
(fig. 27).
The frieze has survived in fair condition and is now in the British Museum. From its many dowel holes and the fact that a few of the slabs overlap, it
has been possible to reconstruct almost the whole animated composi-
tion.
A
few fragments of the akroteria and metopes also remain. They
too are mainly in the British
Museum. 35
A.rchttecture
The temple
(Greek Egesta), in North-western
Sicily, is
one
of the best preserved Greek temples, but was never finished
(fig. 29).
The
at Segesta
columns were not
conglomerate was not stuccoed, the
iiuted, the shell
bosses for lifting were never removed, and the joints were never dressed.
That the building was planned with great refinements can
Thus
be seen.
still
the stylobate and steps curve and the abaci are slightly
tilted.
the sculptural decoration only a palmette from the soffit survives. It
and somewhat
graceful design,
later
than those from the Parthenon.
is
Of of
The
reason for the unfinished state of the temple was apparently the Carthaginian invasion of 409-405 B.C.
Two
famous Ionic temples in Athens, both of Pentelic marble, belong
to the late fifth century B.C. B.C.), built
on the bastion
—the
at the
little
temple of Athena Nike (427-424
South-west corner of the Akropolis, and
the Erechtheion (421-406 B.C.), built opposite the Parthenon,
North of the Akropolis fringed
on
its
hill.
territory, in
on the
In each, the nearness of other buildings in-
one case the Propylaia and the sanctuary of
Artemis Brauronia, in the other the Old Temple of Athena and the shrine 20M. 29.
The Temple
late fifth
of Athena and Erechtheus.
The temple of Athena Nike
(fig.
30)
was
built
on the
of an earlier
site
at Segesta,
century B.C.
temple. Diminutive in size,
it
had pedimental
yet
figures (traces of the
fastenings remain) and golden akroteria, as well as a frieze. partly preserved (cf. p.
134).
three sides
was
built
on
sculptured parapet surrounding the bastion on
towards the end of the century
the Erechtheion
three chambers
latter is
and includes scenes of Greeks battling with Persians
The famous
The plan of
The
on separate
the East side, a large
six karyatids instead
is
quite irregular
levels,
(cf. p.
with a portico of
doorway on the North
of columns on the South
137).
(fig. 31). It
side,
consists of
six Ionic
and
(figs.
a
columns
porch with
32, 33).
For the
Western fagade the lower level necessitated the unusual treatment of partly engaged columns mounted on
a
high wall. The Eastern chamber
30. The Temple of Athena thought to have been the cella of Athena PoHas. Nike in Athens, 427-424 B.C.
The
central
is
chamber
*<•;•';
-
-
I
A
l-a
1}
!-
w>9i
T
S^'
{ h'
t^.-*
jr.
31-33. The Erechtheion in Athens, 421-406 B.C. Left: plan; above: the karyatid porch; right: reconstruction of the East Facade (Restored
by Stevens).
Architecture
was subdivided longitudinally into two rooms. Certain
traces
have been
interpreted to designate the cistern with the salt sea of Poseidon, and the
marks produced by Poseidon's led
mentioned by Pausanias. Doors
trident
from the North and karyatid porches and from the Western anteroom
into the central sanctuary,
The
sculptured frieze which ran along the outside of the building con-
sisted of (cf. p.
and there were windows East and West.
marble figures attached to slabs of black Eleusinian limestone
137).
The
architectural decorations are exceptionally elaborate
were executed with great
North portico anthemion on
and
delicacy. Especially remarkable are those of the
—the guilloche patterns on the bases of the columns, the the necking
doorway. Gilding,
gilt
below the
and the ornaments on the
capitals,
bronze, and glass beads in four colours were
The work on the temple was interrupted by the Peloponnesian war. The building inscription of the second period of work (after 409) has been preserved. It gives the names of about 130 workmen further enrichments.
(slaves, foreign residents,
and
full citizens), all,
wage of one drachma. The temple of Asklepios at Epidauros may
including the architect,
receiving a daily
Fourth Century B.C.
Doric temple of the early fourth century ends, and eleven at the sides, and
it
serve as an example of a
B.C. It
had
six
columns on the
had a pronaos, but no opisthodomos
(fig. 34). A ramp led up to the temple on the East end. The cult statue was chryselephantine, by Thrasymedes. Some of the sculptured decora-
tions have survived
expense account.^
(cf.
From
pp. 138 it
we
f.),
as well as the inscription giving the
learn the
name of the
Another famous fourth-century temple was Tegea, which Pausanias regarded
as 'the
Theodotos.
architect,
that of
Athena Alea
most beautiful and
at
largest of all
those in the Peloponnese', and in which the Doric, Ionic, and Corianthian orders were combined.
The
architect
is
said to
have been Skopas, and
some of the battered pedimental figures that have been preserved may be by him (cf. p. 149). The fourth-century temple of Apollo at Delphi, erected over earlier buildings, has already been mentioned
(cf. p.
31).
Asia Minor has supplied several grandiose examples of Ionic temples of the second half of the fourth century B.C. at
Ephesos, the temple of Athena Polias
and dedicated by Alexander the Great at
Didyma, of about 330 B.C.-A.D. 41
took the place of the archaic temple 356
B.C.,
and
it
at
The temple
Priene (begun about 340 B.C.
in 334),
and the temple of Apollo
(fig. 35). (cf. p.
duplicated the plan of
sculptured drums.
—the great temple of Artemis
its
at Priene also
The temple
29),
at
Ephesos
which was burned
in
predecessor, even in the
had unusual
features,
such
as square plinths for the columns.
The temple of Artemis Ephesian, which its
38
it
at Sardis is
closely resembles
probably contemporary with the
One of the capitals of Museum of New York.
(cf. fig. 36).
pronaos was acquired by the Metropolitan
1 I The Temple of Askle-
34.
at Epidauros, fourth century B.C.
pios
35. at
early
The Temple of Apollo Didyma, c. 330 B.C.-
A.D. 40.
36. lOM
t
The Temple of Artemis
at Sardis,
Examples of Hellenistic architecture are Minor; for Greece proper,
to be
found
c.
350-300
B.C.
chiefly in Asia
of independence, had no longer
after her loss
when
the resources to erect great buildings, except
Hellenistic
Period
these were supplied
by foreign potentates.
The temple of Artemis Leukophryene in the second century B.C. It follows
pseudo-dipteral with only one
row of
at
exterior columns, but this
two intercolumnations from the wall of the buildings,
it
was
raised
on
Magnesia was reconstructed
old traditions, except that
cella.
Like
many
it is
is
set
and Amazons, in a rather coarse
Istanbul and in the
Louvre
(cf. p.
style, are
now
in
at
n
181).
Lagina has also yielded extensive sculptural •1
remains
(cf.
was short
p. 181). It
eight columns
in proportion to
on the ends and only eleven
its
at the sides. It
width, having
too was pseudo-
dipteral.
The famous temple of mies,
Sarapis in Alexandria, erected under the Ptole-
combined Oriental and Greek
features. It stood
on
a lofty terrace,
which was entered through a domed gateway leading into a courtyard with a basin of water. Connected with the temple was a library, and beneath the terrace were vaulted
rooms
in
which the sacred ceremonies were
performed.
The temple of Zeus Olympios clude this short survey
(fig. 37).
at
Athens (174B.C.-A.D. 131) may con-
The order
is
Corinthian.
The
stylobate
measures about 41 by 188 metres. There was a double colonnade, with
twenty columns on the sides and three rows of eight columns
The
present temple stands
ture of the sixth century Pentelic marble,
164
B.C.)
on
the
bottom
which was never
at the ends.
steps of an earlier, Doric strucfinished.
The new
building, of
was begun by Antiochos IV Epiphanes of Syria (175-
from designs of the
Roman architect
Cossutius,
on a
in
Athens, 174
WW WW WW •]
The temple of Hekate
The Temple of Zeus
Olympios
Hellenistic B.C.-A.D. 131.
a high platform. Parts of its frieze, representing
contests of Greeks
37.
lavish scale,
s m E m m 9\
i m m m m m H i 1
m m m m m m II m m m m 11 11 m m ^^ 11 m n m m m 11 m @ s m m ss @@ 11 m e s I m m m II m ss mm 11 m s 11 s m * * 11 m m m 11
. .
11
m
1 1 1 1
1
II
m m m II II m m m m II •UiL m m m m JUJi II
30M
3P
Architecture
but not completed until Hadrian's time. The
fifteen
columns that are
still
standing are a conspicuous feature of modern Athens. Their slender shafts
and elaborate
change in
capitals indicate the
had taken place
taste that
since the time of the Parthenon.
Altars, Treasuries, Tholoi, Propylaia
The
altar in
(cf. p.
22),
an open precinct preceded the temple as a place of worship
and
later
placed either inside
was
remained an
it,
essential adjunct
more commonly
or
a simple
oblong or
of the temple, being
outside, facing the entrance.
circular structure, occasionally of
Generally
it
great size,
and sometimes decorated with friezes of triglyphs and metopes
and other elements.
Sumptuous instance in
altars
of the archaic period have
Samos (120
feet square),
and
come
to light in Ionia, for
at Miletos, the latter
with large
volutes and palmettes rising like akroteria at the four corners.
The most famous at
Pergamon,
Eumenes
II
built
altar
(fig.
B.C.). It
38), the
is
that of
Zeus and Athena
by two
terraces of the citadel, probably
on one of the
(197-159
projecting sides
of Hellenistic times
consisted of an Ionic portico with
whole
set
on
a high
podium which was deco(cf. p. 175). The
rated in high relief with the battle of gods and giants
inner side of the back wall of the portico had a smaller frieze representing the story of Telephos and the foundation of Pergamon. Inside this threesided structure stood the altar
The
largest
known
altar
the third century B.C. It divided, as
was
itself.
was found
was over 650
customary, into
two
at Syracuse, built
feet
long and 74
parts,
one for the
by Hieron
feet wide,
and
II in
it
was
sacrificial slaughter,
the other for the actual burning of certain portions of the animals.
38. first
The Altar of Zeus and Athena half of second century B.C.
at
Pergamon,
The Treasury of
39.
Athenians
at
Delphi,
c.
the
500
B.C.
Remains of
house public
treasuries {thesauroi), used to
certain cases private offerings,
Each community erected
its
as well as in
have been found in a number of sanctuaries.
own
treasury, consisting generally of a
smallish chamber, about 16 to 20 feet square, with a portico in front.
number of them have been discovered
at
A
Delphi and Olympia, some
being Doric, others Ionic, and dating from the sixth century onwards.
Like the temples, they were decorated with sculptures. The treasury of the Athenians at Delphi (about 500 B.C.) has been reconstructed and
forms a conspicuous feature in the sanctuary
(fig.
The
39).
metopes and akroteria of this treasury, and the pedimental tids,
and continuous
friezes
of the Siphnian Treasury (about 530-525 B.C.)
among the finest examples of their respective periods The treasury of Gela at Olympia (perhaps around 550 are
tionally large
sculptured
figures, karya-
and had an elaborately decorated
(cf.
pp. 82, 88
B.C.)
f.).
was excep-
terra-cotta sheathing of 40.
its
stone cornice which has survived in part.
The Tholos
dauros,
Related to the temples are the circular buildings
known
as tholoi,
consist of chambers with concentric rings of columns, sometimes
c.
350
at
Epi-
B.C.
which
com-
bining the different orders. Examples of such structures have been found in the sanctuaries of Delphi, as
one
in the
(cf. p. 46).
market place
What
at
Olympia, and Epidauros Athens, where
the function
it
was elsewhere
is
Delphi was built by Polykleitos the Younger, theatre at Epidauros
preserved.
339
B.C.
The
(cf. p.
43). Its delicately
so-called Philippeion at
and completed by Alexander.
(cf. fig.
40), as well
served as a council chamber uncertain.
who
The
tholos at
also designed the
carved metopes are partly
Olympia was begun by Philip
in
60M
41
;
A
rchitecture
The gateway of a sanctuary was sometimes
doorway
{propy-
other times an elaborate structure with several doorways {propy-
lon), at
The
laid).
a simple
best
known
after the destruction
437-432
is
at the
of an
earlier building,
B.C. It still stands,
to the temples within.
West and East by chambers
entrance of the Athenian Akropolis built,
by the
partly reconstructed
The
architect Mnesikles in
—an impressive approach
central wall, with five doorways,
was flanked
Doric portico and projected northward to form two
a
— one being the picture gallery mentioned by Pausanias.
The
corresponding area on the southern side was not available, being occupied by or reserved for other buildings. In the East and West porticoes
Doric columns were used for the interior, to
exterior,
and
taller
Ionic ones for the
allow for the rising ground. Throughout, Pentelic marble was
employed, with additions here and there of black Eleusinian stone. The ceiling
of
its
was famous
marble
for
its
beauty even in the time of Pausanias, and some
coffers (originally decorated
with golden
ground) have been preserved. The approach was by
a
stars
on
a blue
winding path and
ramp, providing convenient access for processions and the
sacrificial
animals that passed through the wide central intercolumnations and gate.
The building was never finished, evidently owing to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war in 431 B.C. There is evidence of an additional large which was intended to flank the Eastern portico on its North hall
— —in a
side
made for the insertion of roof beams and rafters was projected on the South, but likewise was never carried
series
a similar hall
of holes
out. In the time of the
Antonines the building served
as a
model
for the
grandiose propylaia at Eleusis; and similar hallways with temple-like facades have been found in the precincts of Priene and Samothrace.
Theatres, Stadia, Odeia Next
to the
imagination.
Greek temple, the Greek Its
form owes much
to
its
theatre has captured the popular
origin
—namely the choral dances
associated with the worship of Dionysos. In 534 B.C. Thespis
is
said to
have introduced an actor to these performances, Aischylos in 472 added a second actor, Sophokles in 458 a third (and each actor took more than
one
part)
;
but the chorus always remained an essential feature. The Greek
theatre, therefore, regularly consisted of a large circular orchestra (danc-
ing place) with an altar in
its
centre and with a curved, generally semi-
circular auditorium {theatron or
slope of a
hill.
their entrances
The and
actors,
exits
viewing
place), situated generally
however, needed some structure to
and their changes of costume.
therefore added, separated from the auditorium
passages {parodoi), giving access to the orchestra
on
on the
facilitate
A stage {skene) was either side
from the
outside.
by two
At
first
the stage seems to have been level with the orchestra, but gradually
it
was raised and was provided with a colonnade and in time stone struc;
42
wooden ones. The to much discussion.
various phases of
that of Dionysos
on the South slope
tures took the place of the earher ,
,
.
this
,
.
,
.
development have given
The
earliest extant
Greek
,.
,
rise
theatre
is
of the Athenian Akropolis, which dates from the this site the plays
41.
The Theatre
dauros,
.
fifth
century B.C.
c.
at
Epi-
350 B.C.
On
of Aischylos, Sophokles, Euripides, and Aristophanes
were performed; but the actual remains date from various periods, principally
from rebuildings in the time of Lykourgos (338-326 B.C.) and during
Roman Empire. One of the best preserved
the
Polykleitos the theatre
theatres
that at Epidauros, erected
is
Younger about 350 B.C. (cf. p. a monumental form. The
had assumed
feet in diameter,
with an
rypnrU^--
altar to
Dionysos
"
tU ,
Ramp-i;
1
Proskenion-
Q
a
o
Lsker e
41),
by
by which time the
orchestra
is
circular,
80
in the centre (figs. 41, 42).
1-4
^
42. ros,
The Theatre c.
350
at
Epidau-
B.C.
43
Architecture
Behind
it
rose the auditorium, in shape a
more than a semicircle. It two storeys and by radiating
little
was divided by an ambulatory {dia^oma) into
stairways into wedge-shaped sectors {kerkides), twelve in the lower storey,
and about twice
that
number in the upper.
theatres, are decorated
with
reliefs);
The
All the seats were of stone.
of honour {proedria) had backs and arm
seats
rails
(some, from other
the others were backless, with hol-
lowed-out front surfaces, so that their occupants could draw back their feet
when people
The width of each
passed in front of them.
seat
was
2 feet 5 % inches the heights varied from 13 inches in the lower storey to ;
17 inches in the upper.
The back
parts of the actual seats
were somewhat
depressed. Thus everything was carefully calculated to accommodate as
many
spectators as possible in comparative comfort.
Of the
Polykleitan
stage nothing remains except foundations.
Theatres of this general form have been found
Most of them belong preserved
all
to the Hellenistic period.
— or have been
over the Greek world.
Some
sufficiently reconstructed
are well
enough
—to allow Greek and
Latin plays to be performed in them to this day. In listening to a play by
may
Aischylos or Euripides, in the theatre of Syracuse for instance, one
imagine that the same play was once seen by Plato on the same spot and ;
one can
realize
how practical
the plan was, the semicircular seating allow-
ing several thousand people to
sit
within easy visual and vocal range of
the performers.
The Greek slope of
race-courses (stadia) were, like the theatres, placed
a hill or in a valley, to allow the natural inclines
the seats of the spectators.
The shape was
or squared. Occasionally the starting
and
on the
being used for
elongated, with ends rounded finishing lines are preserved,
giving the exact length of the course, which varied from 600 to 700
The
oldest stadium in Greece
been found beneath the B.C. It
division
that at
of the
fifth
and fourth centuries
Greek feet long, and was therefore embankments only on three sides, and between stadium and precinct, which explains the many
was exactly
called stadion.
no
is
later structures
feet.
Olympia, remains of which have
At
a stade, or 600
first
there were
Not West embankment
archaic offerings found during the recent excavations in that area. until the
middle of the fourth century
B.C.
was
a
constructed to separate the stadium from the altar and temple of Zeus.
The stadium
in
Athens was constructed of limestone by Lykourgos in
the fourth century B.C., reconstructed in marble by Herodes Atticus
A.D. 140, and rebuilt, again in marble, for the It
can accommodate
70,000 spectators.
first
Other
Olympic games
stadia of
which
c.
in 1896.
substantial
remains survive are at Delphi, Epidauros, Miletos, and Priene.
For chariot and horse hippodromes few
races a longer course
was needed; but of these
traces remain.
An imposing odeion (concert
hall)
was
built in Athens,
under the super-
vision of Perikles, near the theatre of Dionysos for the musical contests
44
43.
The
Athens c.
Stoa of Attalos in as reconstructed,
150 B.C.
that
were introduced
in
446
and perhaps
B.C.,
also for theatrical rehearsals.
was a square structure with a roof supported by
It
several
rows of
columns, and with porches East and West and perhaps also on the South.
The remains now klean
odeion
is
extant date
from
The
of the Peri-
best preserved
Greek
on the South slope of the Athenian Akropolis, erected by
Herodes Atticus about A.D. 161. It
after Sulla's destruction
but follow the original design.
hall,
Its
form
is
like that
of a small theatre.
has recently been reconstructed, and performances are given in
it.
Assembly Places: Houses
Stoai, Leschai, Bouleuteria, Prytaneia, Fountain
The colonnade sun,
(s^oa),
where people could
find protection
from
rain or
was naturally needed wherever people assembled, and was accord-
ingly built both in sanctuaries and market places. archaic examples have
from the
fifth
come
and fourth
to light in
centuries.
Remains of splendid
Samos, and several have survived
That of Zeus
(or
Royal Stoa ?), men-
tioned by Pausanias as being in the Athenian agora, has been identified
by the American excavators. The Stoa Poikile ('painted
was famous
for
its
painted decorations
(cf. p.
277).
nians at Delphi, set beneath the temple of Apollo limestone, has several columns
still
standing.
A
The
on
Stoa') in
Athens
stoa of the Athe-
three steps of black
stoa in the sanctuary of
Epidauros and one on the Southern slope of the Athenian Akropolis served for the housing of patients
who hoped
of Asklepios. The large South stoa for
commercial purposes besides
at
to be healed in the shrines
Corinth facing the agora was used
shelter, as is
shown by
its
row of shops
and storerooms. In the Hellenistic period porticoes were exceedingly popular, especially for the
adornment of market
places.
That
built
by Attalos
II
of Pergamon
4S
Architecture
(159-138 the It
B.C.) for the
Athenian Agora has
American School of Classical Studies
now
been reconstructed by
to serve as a
Museum
(fig, 43).
had two storeys with Doric, Ionic, and 'Pergamene' columns, a row
of shops at the back, and storerooms below.
The
reconstruction, in
Pentelic marble, enables one to realize the impressive, harmonious, and practical plan of these buildings.
The
were the Greek equivalents of the modern clubs,
so-called Leschai
and served
as informal
meeting places. The best
known
is
the Lesche of
the Knidians at Delphi, an almost square chamber, divided into three aisles 44.
The
sis,
after
Telesterion at Eleu-
by two rows of columns. Polygnotos decorated
scenes of the Trojan
445 B.C.
As assembly places houses
{bouleuteria),
war
(cf. p.
its
walls with
277).
for specific purposes
may be mentioned the council
of which the most famous was that
at
Olympia where
the contesting athletes are said to have sworn to obey the regulations of the games
;
the prjtaneia, or meeting places of the Senate committee, such
as the
round structure or tholos unearthed in the Athenian agora
p. 41);
and the Pnyx, a kind of semicircular terrace cut on the slope of a
hill
North of the AkropoUs
The
to
Telesterion at Eleusis,
accommodate the
citizen
(cf.
body of Athens.
the Hall of Initiation of the Eleusinian
Mysteries, consisted of a large enclosed hall, resembling an Egyptian
hypostyle (fig. 44).
The
hall,
A
with
six
rows of
interior
columns to support the roof
similar assembly hall in Megalopolis
of the women, as the stoai were of the men. The
them on
Attic vases, with
women
at
larger.
many
representations of
going to and fro with their water
give a vivid picture of this aspect of Greek Hfe earliest
was even
fountain houses with their porticoes were the daily meeting places
(cf. fig. 45).
One
jars,
of the
and most imposing of these fountain houses was that of Peirene
Corinth, consisting of four vaulted reservoirs, supplied by long
galleries, into
which the water
the Athenian fountains
filtered
from above. The most famous of
was the Enneakrounos (nine-mouthed), with
nine lion's heads through which the water spouted.
An
attractive little
Fountain House. Detail from an Attic hydria of about 510 B.C. 45.
London,
British
Museum.
Fountain Houses
model of an found
at
with a
early fountain house, tripartite,
Lemnos and
now
is
flat
roof, has
been
in Athens.
In the Hellenistic period fountain houses became
more
elaborate, as
exemplified by the expanded fountain of Peirene, at Corinth,
Gymnasia and Palaestras Another important feature of Greek
life
and young men exercised and were
trained.
was the gymnasium, where boys
A
particularly fine example,
dating from the fourth century B.C., has been discovered at Delphi.
was
built
on the slope of the
hill
below the sanctuary on an upper ;
It
^
terrace
was a Doric portico with two racecourses, one covered, the other being open.
On the lower
was a smaller
terrace
structure, with baths, including
a circular basin 33 feet in diameter.
In Hellenistic times the gymnasium regularly included an open athletic
ground
for such
outdoor exercises
as
running, jumping and throwing,
whereas wrestling and boxing, which required in a partly enclosed structure called
Olympia consisted of
at
with rooms on
all
a large
four sides
lectures, etc. Similar or
stoai, a library,
open court with
a
were practised
Hellenistic palaestra
Doric peristyle and
J^^,^^^ Hellenistic period,
even more elaborate structures have been found
The famous 'Museum' a development of the
The
— for indoor exercises, dressing rooms, baths,
Delos, Priene, Epidauros
at
less space,
th.& palaistra.
(cf. fig.
built
46)
and Pergamon.
by the Ptolemies
gymnasium;
it
at
Alexandria was really
included large gardens, fountains,
and a restaurant. Unfortunately
destruction was such
its
that practically nothing remains.
Sepulchral and Votive
Monuments
Greek sepulchral monuments passed through several stages of development and differed somewhat in various localities. The large terra-cotta vases of the geometric period and of the early seventh century B.C.
pp. 291
by
ff.)
stelai
finials;
were superseded
in the later seventh
and in the
(cf.
sixth century
or shafts, generally decorated with reliefs and surmounted by
and they remained the normal gravestones for several centuries. that have survived in large numbers form in fact a major
The examples
part of the original
Greek sculptures now
extant.
Some have been
left
standing in the ancient cemetery of Athens.
A
form of
early archaic
tomb, apparently peculiar to Attica, was a
quadrangular structure of sun-dried brick decorated with painted cotta plaques^.
The
seventh century to about 530 B.C.
Actual structures of
Athens, and
terra-
extant examples range from the last third of the
this
(cf. p.
233).
The
subjects are funerary.
type have been found in the Kerameikos of
may perhaps be
represented on
two kyathoi
in the Cabinet
47
Architecture
des Medailles. In addition, sepulchral statues were occasionally erected
throughout archaic and
classical times.
The sarcophagus was also used in Greek lands for inhumation burials, as it was later in Rome. Plain ones, corresponding to our coffins, were buried, decorated ones, in stone or terra cotta, were displayed in cemeteries
and tomb chambers
those from Klazomenai, Eretria, and
(cf. e.g.
Tarentum). Elaborate examples with sculptures in
what must have been
came
relief
a royal necropolis at Sidon, in Syria,
to light in
and are
now
They date from various periods, the so-called Satrap sarcophagus^ from c. 430 B.C., the so-called Lycian from c. 400, the one with the mourning women from c. 350, and the famous 'Alexander Sarcoin Istanbul.
phagus' from the end of the fourth century B.C. traces of colour remain, especially
Other
(cf.
pp. 131, 154). Extensive
on the Alexander sarcophagus. have been found in Asia Minor. Early
fine sepulchral structures
examples are the so-called Lion and Harpy Tombs from Lycia, of about
600 and 500 B.C. respectively, which consisted of a high, quadrangular pillar,
surmounted by a tomb chamber in the form of a
mented on
From
its
sides
with
reliefs (cf
the late fifth century date
at Gjolbaschi in the
137),
two grandiose buildings
Troad, which was
really a
and the Nereid Monument
an Ionic peripteral temple, except that figures
and orna-
pp. 62, 88).
at
it
reliefs in several tiers
Xanthos. The
was
—the Hereon
cemetery containing several
tombs, and was surrounded by a wall, carved with (cf. p.
chest,
set
on
latter
resembled
a high base,
and had
of Nereids between the columns and sculptured friezes and
statues in other parts
(cf. p.
The most sumptuous of
137).
these
monuments, however, was the Mauso-
leum of Halikarnassos, begun by king Maussollos, continued by his wife Artemisia after his death in 353 B.C., and completed by Idrieus and Ada, their brother
and
sister. It
stood on a square podium, was surrounded
and surmounted by a pyramid with a quadriga on top. Famous sculptors were employed in its decoration (cf. pp. 149 f.), and it ranked in antiquity as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Its design by
a peristyle,
was used
as a
model
for
many
Hellenistic
and
Roman monuments.
Votive monuments in general resemble the sepulchral they consist either of a slab decorated with dedication, or of a statue
mounted on
a base.
reliefs
stelai,
is,
and inscribed with a
When
they
commemorated
important events they sometimes assumed grandiose forms, stance, Pheidias' statue of Athena
that
as,
for in-
Promachos, wliich was erected on the
Akropolis after the battle of Marathon, and of which the large moulded base
still
remains or the Ionic column surmounted by a sphinx, which ;
erected by
the Naxians at Delphi and
(cf. p. 62).
The
by a
which had
decisive victory at Plataiai (479 B.C.)
stupendous monument
was commemorated
consisting of a gold tripod supported by
three intertwined bronze serpents. Parts of the latter survive
4S
vs'as
a total height of 47 feet
and are in
Sepulchral and Votive
Istanbul '0.
An
Delphi,
in the
is
example of the early fourth century, found
attractive
at
form of a column decorated with acanthus leaves and
karyatids; the occasion of
its
dedication
is
not known. Another type had
which was placed
the form of a semicircular or rectangular pedestal,
and supported several
a niche
Monuments
statues of
famous personages
in
the
(e.g.
monuments of Daochos of Thessaly and of the Argive kings and queens, both at Delphi). The monument set up by Lysikrates in 335-334 B.C. to support the tripod that he original site in Athens. It base,
won
is
in a choral contest
standing on
is still
a circular structure, placed
on
its
a high, square
and surmounted by a roof on which the tripod was placed.
Lighthouses
A
monumental lighthouse
{pharos) built at Alexandria
Knidos for Ptolemy II (285-246 of the World.
It
members
cessive
B.C.)
by Sostratos of
ranked as one of the Seven Wonders
rose to a height of 440 feet, and consisted of three suc-
—a square base with tapering
sides, then,
stepped back,
an octagonal section, and on top a circular structure containing the
Though
beacon.
only the lower part
now
remains
(in the fort
of Kait-
whole has been deducted from representations of engraved gems, and a glass vase from Begrami^, as well as
Bey), the plan of the it
on
coins,
from ancient and Arabic
inscriptions.
The
v/ords pharos 2.nd faro are
still
the terms used for lighthouse in Greece and Italy today, and the plan served,
has been thought, as the prototype of the Christian campanile
it
and the
Mohammedan
minaret.
Private Houses, Hotels, Fortifications, City Plans Greek private houses were
at first relatively simple.
Sun-dried brick and
wood seem to have been the materials regularly used for the walls. Little is in fact known of private dwellings of the early period; but that, by the late fifth
century B.C., some houses had a certain elegance
instance,
by the inscription
house
(cf.
is
shown, for
relating to the furnishings of Alkibiades'
also Plutarch, Alkibiades, 16, 4).
The excavations
at
Olynthos have
laid bare the
than a hundred houses dating from the late fourth century B.C.
They
fifth
foundations of more
and the
first
half of the
are usually almost square in plan, one-storeyed,
with an entrance leading into a court, sometimes with a peristyle, one or
more
porticoes,
and several living rooms, so arranged
sunshine in winter (figs, 47-48).
houses found
at Priene,
as to
provide
A similar plan was adopted for the Hellenistic
Delos, Pella and Morgantina, but often in a more
luxurious form. Tlie basic features, however, remained: the court with
connecting rooms, and the peristyle, serving as a kind of garden.
windows, generally placed high, and a door faced the narrow
A
few
streets.
49
Living
rooms
oo
Bath
Kitchen
Anteroom
47, 48.
Private
Houses
at
Olynthos, late fifth or early fourth century B.C.
Courtyard door
As a specially luxurious example of a Hellenistic house may be cited the summer palace near Palatitza in Macedonia, with a spacious entrance instead of the usual
narrow corridor, large
number of rooms.
siderable
It
was
halls, porticoes,
and a con-
in fact the palace of a king
and not the
dwelling of a private citizen in a democracy. 12
In a few places, for instance in the sanctuaries of Epidauros and Delphi,
remains of hotels {katagogid) have been found. There visitors could be housed, and, in the case of Epidauros, patients received awaiting to be cured.
The building
in
peristyle courts, each
dred and
sixty.
The
Epidauros
49) had
(fig.
two
so-called Leonidaion, built
Olympia, was intended
A
but the form
is
known from
explains
representations
why
so
at
and was cor-
it.
Roman
age.
Greek houses. The
said about the doors of
wood, which
of one hun-
by one Leonidas
several storeys belong to the
word may perhaps be
material was generally
total
chiefly for distinguished visitors
respondingly luxurious, with a colonnade surrounding
Apartment houses of
and four
storeys,
surrounded by rooms, making a
little is left
on vases
(cf. fig.
two-winged, with transverse boards, studded with metal
of them;
50). It
nails
was
and ap-
locks.
A handsome
example in white marble, 3.12 metres high, was found in
a sepulchral
pliques, including large rings serving as handles,
chamber
at
Langaza, near Saloniki, and
is
and
now in the Museum of Istanbul
49. Hotel at Epidauros, fourth century B.C.
50
50.
Drawing
Door.
the
after
Frangois Vase. c. 570 B.C. Florence, Museo Archeologico.
Marble Door from Langaza. Fourth century B.C. 51.
Istanbul, Archaeological
(fig.
51);
Museum.
and another of bronze belonged to the same chamber. Both can
be dated in the
late
fourth century B.C.
The one
in bronze
had a beautiful
handle with elaborate palmettes on the attachments. Similar doors have
come from
other Macedonian
Pydna and
Palatitza,
false
now
tomb chambers,
in the
Louvre
for instance those
(nos. 706, 707), i3
doors are represented on slabs in the Greek cemetery
from
and painted
at
Hadra near
Alexandria,!''
To guard had
against a neighbouring or distant
a city wall,
enemy every Greek
akropolis which could serve as a last refuge. In addition, the passes led
from one
fortifications
city
with gates and projecting towers, and in most cases an
city to
another were protected by
forts.
which
A number of these
have survived in good enough condition to show the
original plan. In
Athens the Dipylon
(i.e.
double) Gate consisted of an
outer and an inner structure, connected to form a court and flanked by
towers
;
thus, if the
continued.
The
enemy forced
fortifications at
the outer gate, the defence could be
Messene of the
first
century B.C. are exceptionally well preserved, and so
half of the fourth is
fort
Euryelos
at
Syracuse which was built by the tyrant Dionysios (406-367 B.C.) against the Carthaginians.
The
latter consists
of a large court with five towers,
deep moats, and subterranean passages. Impressive remains of fourthcentury fortifications have recently been found at Gela.
51
Architecture
The Greeks apparently became interested in city planning at an early date. The impetus came from Ionia, where the founding of new colonies and the necessity to rebuild opportunities.
The basic plan was
according to Aristotle Miletos,
who
middle of the
The
cities
cities that
{Politics,
planned the fifth
city
had been destroyed afforded ample
the chequerboard or gridiron, invented,
H,
5,
XVI,
2, 9),
by Hippodamos of
of Piraeus for the Athenians around the
century B.C.
of Miletos, Priene, Pergamon, and Ephesos show plans in
which
several buildings play their part in an ordered whole.
streets
were introduced and have ever since been an
Colonnaded
attractive feature of
Mediterranean towns. Great harbour works were added to the the
Aegean
Roman
52
coast.
city plans.
And
cities
of
this Hellenistic architecture directly iniiuenced
CHAPTER 3
LARGER WORKS OF SCULPTURE seems best to begin an account of Greek sculpture with the larger
Ithgures and groups, even though some Greek statuettes and small bronze and
in
terra cotta are earlier
for in the larger sculptures
other
medium
the
by several centuries
one can trace in greater
development of Greek
plastic art
detail
reliefs
186);
(cf. p.
than in any
through
its
various
phases.
Sources of Information Naturally, after
more than two thousand
years, a large part of
sculpture has disappeared; but enough remains to reconstruct
along broad
lines.
Moreover,
in the
Roman
period,
Greek
its
Greek history
originals
were
extensively copied and adapted, and famous Greek sculptures survive in such Roman reproductions. Much additional information is derived from
ancient writers
who
in his
on Greek
art, especially
from the Elder Pliny (A.D. 23-79),
Natural History included accounts of Greek sculptors and
painters (mostly taken from earlier writers), and from Pausanias,
who
wrote a Description of Greece in the second century A.D. Furthermore, inscriptions have supplemented our knowledge. They consist mostly of temple inventories, of dedications, and of signatures on bases of statues
and
reliefs.
Uses, Subjects, Materials, Techniques Greek sculptures mostly served periods.
They were used
groups,
friezes, akroteria
for the votive
a religious purpose, at least in the earlier
for the decoration of temples
— for pedimental
— for the cult statues placed inside the
monuments
erected in the sanctuaries.
A
cella,
and
large proportion
of the surviving original Greek sculptures are architectural.
Commemorative sculptures also played an important part. A significant victory would be celebrated by the erection of a statue or group, a triumph in an athletic contest with the statue of the young victor, a treaty made between two cities with the erection of a stele. In addition, there was a large private demand for grave monuments. They consisted of stelai or slabs ornamented with reliefs or paintings and crowned with
finials,
of statues worked in the round, and of large
53
— iMrger Works of Sculpture
They stood or sometimes combined in public
stone vases decorated with burial plots,
reliefs.
in the open, in family
cemeteries (e.g. in the
Kerameikos of Athens).
The
subjects chosen in
of Greek
art,
sculpture, as well as in the other branches
gods and goddesses and the valiant deeds of
depict the daily
women
They
divided into two chief categories.
either
manifold myths of the Greeks, the picturesque stories of
illustrate the
their
may be
Greek
life
of the time
their heroes
with their children and maids, and mourners
torical scenes
and
battles,
Assyrian, and later in
;
or they
—athletes contesting, warriors fighting,
which played so
Roman,
art
were
tombs. His-
at the
rarely directly represented in
Greece; more commonly they were suggested by mythical contests
gods and
giants, or
and
large a part in Egyptian
—of
Greeks and Amazons, or Lapiths and Centaurs.
erection of portraits of prominent individuals, either by their
The
relatives or the state, apparently
began in the
fifth
century B.C. Such
statues were set up in public places rather than in private houses, at least until Hellenistic times.
The
chief materials used
by the Greeks for
their larger sculptures
were
stone (limestone and marble), bronze, terra cotta, wood, a combination
of gold and ivory, and occasionally iron
Only stone examples have survived of Greece,
wood
in
(cf.
XXXIV, 141). In the damp cKmate
e.g. Pliny,
any quantity.
has mostly disintegrated; gold and ivory were too pre-
cious to survive; bronze was melted
down
in times of
emergency; and
iron has corroded.
Though
stylistically the sculptures in these
same evolution, In ing.
show
the
their techniques naturally differed.
the earlier periods stone sculptures
Not
various materials
until the
Roman
were produced by
direct carv-
age was the so-called pointing process intro-
duced, by which a model could be copied mechanically from a cast many times (cf. p. 183). The standard tools used by the Greeks were the punch or point, the all
drill,
and the various
in the fifth century B.C.,
—claw, drove,
The running
manipiilated with the mallet.
duced
chisels
drill
flat,
and gouge
was apparently
intro-
whereas the saw was known from early
times.
Transportation of heavy blocks of stone naturally presented a problem.
Large statues were, therefore, cut to quarries. Several that for
seen
their
approximate shape in the
some reason were never
on Mount Pentelikon and
in
finished can
still
be
Naxos. There was no objection to
Heads and outstretched arms were often made separately and attached with metal dowels and stone tenons, generally set in molten
piecing.
lead. Smaller pieces
could be fastened with cement.
All stone sculpture,
Though much of the original colour has now disapenough traces remain to make its general use certain, as indeed
wholly or in peared,
54
whether of limestone or marble, was painted, either
part.
Materials
it
had been
in
brilliant light
Egypt (even
for coloured stone)
and
as
was
desirable in the
of Greece. Another general Greek practice was the addition
of accessories in different materials. Eyes were sometimes inlaid in col-
oured stone, glass or ivory; metal
curls,
diadems and wreaths were added,
and even earrings and necklaces; likewise metal and
reins
Only the holes
bridles.
and the
spears, swords,
now
for attachment
generally remain.
Bronze was throughout Greek history a favourite material for
statues.
The earliest bronze sculptures were plated, that is, they were made of hammered sheets of bronze, riveted together over a wooden core. Later, was introduced. Solid
casting
(cf p. 186),
is
casting,
though appropriate for ;
had been practised in Egypt from early times seventh century
the sixth century.
The
was surrounded by and the
spaces,
common
in
lost-wax {cire-perdu) and sand-mould processes
a mantle
wax melted away, whereupon empty
—which
—was introduced during the
examples show, and became
B.C., as actual
were both employed. In the former, a wax model a core)
statuettes
not suitable for large statues and so hollow casting
core,
(solid or
modelled over
of clay and sand, heated
until the
was poured into the
the molten metal
which had been kept
in place
by
bars,
was
removed. In the sand-mould process the figure was generally made in sections cess,
;
but the principle of casting was the same as in the lost
wax
pro-
except that the model was of wood instead of wax, and was inserted
into a
box
with moist sand, producing a mould for the molten metal.
filled
Greek bronzes were patinas with
left in their natural,
which they
are
now generally
golden yellow colour; the
covered are due to the action
of time. Terra-cotta statues and large reliefs have been found in considerable
numbers
in Cyprus, Etruria, Sicily,
and Southern
But also in Asia Minor and Greece
scarce.
available
—
terra cotta
Italy,
—where
where marble was marble was
easily
was sometimes used for the decoration of temples
and occasionally for votive and
cult figures.
In the earlier periods terra-cotta statues were built up in coils and wads
of
clay,
with thick walls.
during the
To
firing, the clay
fired clay). In Hellenistic
prevent distortion and diminish shrinkage
was mixed with sand and grog
and
Roman
(particles
of
times moulding instead of building
was often used. Recently light has been thrown on the technique of the famous chryselephantine (gold and ivory) statues of Greece.
found
in
1955-56
been identified statue of
Zeus
in
Olympia
as Pheidias'
(cf.
pp.
11
7
f.)
in a
fill
The
the
Sacred
with inlay of
Way
at
moulds,
site that
had
workshop, show that the gold drapery of the had been hammered into piece moulds of terra
cotta (the larger ones reinforced with iron bars) diversified
terra-cotta
adjoining the very
glass. i
The
life-size
and
that the gold
was
heads of ivory found under
Delphi presumably came from chryselephantine
statues.2
55
Larger Works of Sculpture
The Sculptures Early Archaic PerioD,
ABOUT
According to the evidence ture, that
660—580 B.C. produced
and
statues
is,
in
at present available, substantive stone sculp-
reliefs
approximately
life-size
Greece before about the middle of the seventh century
more or
Before that time even cult images were apparently size
and mostly of wood.
tiated the
and over, were not
making of
It
less
B.C.
small in
evidently was contact with the East that ini-
large stone sculptures in Greece.
Egypt had con-
quered Assyria in 672 B.C. and from then on the East was opened to Greek
Herodotos
trade. {c.
660-609
(II,
I,
and that they were
either side of the Nile' settle in
or
less
Egypt'.
54) states that the Egyptian king
gave the lonians and Carians
B.C.)
As
this
men
'the first
this period,
it
seems
safe to take
c.
tally
exists for the
650, or a
on
of alien speech to
and other statements of ancient writers
with the scanty archaeological evidence that
logy of
Psammetichos
'places to dwell in ...
more
chrono-
little earlier,
as the
upper limit for Greek substantive sculpture.
The
earliest
known
large statues of Greece testify to the inspiration she
received from the East.
They
are not,
true, in the hard,
it is
coloured
stones used by the Egyptians, for the Greeks had at hand abundant stores
of white marble, which they quickly learned to
utilize;
but in the stances
and general appearance the borrowings from Egypt and Mesopotamia are evident. A few types were adopted and repeated again and again. Chief
among them was left
foot a
the standing youth {kouros) in a strictly frontal pose, the
advanced, the arms generally held close to the
little
sides,
occasionally bent at the elbows, the hands either clenched (with the super52. Head of a Kouros from fluous stone left inside them) or laid flat against the body. The scheme is theDipylon,f. 615-590 B.C. i-tii ii Athens, National Museum, the same as that used in Egypt, and the general shape, with broad shoul,
-uijui
,
ders,
narrow
and small
waist,
ence, however,
is
flanks, is also similar.
An important
differ-
that whereas the Egyptian stone statues generally have a
supporting pillar behind them and mostly wear at least a loin cloth, the Greek
kouros
is
represented without any support and
For exceptions
cf.
is
usually entirely nude.
p. 63.
The female standing type {kore) in this period is, on the other hand, regularly shown covered with drapery, which is foldless and adheres closely to the body.
Another popular archaic Greek type
is
the seated figure, male
female. It too bears a striking resemblance to is,
it
was
ward, one sometimes clenched. is
Egyptian prototype, that
represented sitting in a stiff frontal attitude,
close together, both forearms laid
which
its
practically foldless,
on the
It
lap,
and
with
feet
placed
hands generally held down-
was regularly enveloped
in drapery,
with an arched lower edge above the
feet,
as in Assyrian sculpture.
The sented
56
striding figure also
much
had antecedents in Egyptian
like the standing type,
with the
left
art. It
was repre-
foot advanced, but the
Early Archaic Period
legs
were placed wider apart and the upper part of the body was made to
lean forward. It
utilized chiefly in friezes representing battles, as
was
had been in Egyptian
To
it
reliefs.
represent a figure in rapid
motion— flying
or running
—the Greeks
developed a conventional rendering of a half-kneeling stance, with one
knee placed on or near the ground, the other slightly bent, and with arms stretched upward, downward, and sideways. In these figures, as well as in the half-reclining ones, the
spectator, whereas the legs
upper part of the torso was turned to the
were shown sideways, entailing a strong torsion
at the waist.
To
the Oriental
scheme of showing the upper part of the body in
body the Greek
represent this turn of the
artist
adopted front
full
view, the legs in profile, and of generally covering the waist with drapery.
But though the Greeks owed much to freely
their Oriental predecessors
and
adopted what appealed to them, they soon showed a fundamentally
different approach. Instead of endlessly repeating the
they evolved something entirely art ever since.
new
They were not content
that has
same conventions,
changed the conception of
human being
to represent a
accord-
ing to a formalized scheme, but with their inquisitive minds they dis-
covered, step by step, the true nature of appearance. Within a century or
two the formalized shapes which had held good
in the Orient for several
thousands of years were changed into figures that were true to nature
and functioned anatomically. For the
first
time in history a sculptured
human shape was made to reproduce the complex mechanism of the human body. This was achieved in a gradual evolution by working within
framework of a few accepted types;
the
for just as
Greek poets
'avoided the appearance of originality' and 'treated a traditional theme in a conventional style
and formV so Greek
artists
No
types for the expression of their thought.
used certain accepted
sculptor,
however, merely
reproduced the work of another; each renovated the familiar theme, continually advancing
Let us watch
this
on the path of naturalism.
evolution in a
number of
specific sculptures repre-
senting various types.
Many examples found
of the standing type, both male and female, have been
in Attica, the Peloponnese, Boeotia,
earliest,
unfortunately in a mutilated
and the
Islands.
Two
of the
have come from Delos; Attica
state,
has yielded an impressive series which has been provisionally assigned to the
end of the seventh century.
the sanctuary of Poseidon at
It
consists of parts of four figures
Sounion
(fig.
53); a head
and
a
from
hand from
Dipylon (cf. fig. 52) some fragments found in the old Athenian market place ; a hand in a private collection in Athens; and
the cemetery of the
;
an almost complete statue in the Metropolitan (fig. 54).
In Delphi
may be
(cf, figs.
55, 56); in
Thasos the
Museum,
New
^'ork
seen the famous twins, Kleobis and Biton tall,
slim Ram-bearer; in Delos the great
Colossus, which had fallen to the ground,
it
would seem, already
in the
57
53.
Koutos from Sounion, time of Plutarch {Nikias, 3) ^"^'
National
Museum
^
colossal kouroi.
Dermys and 54 Kouros c 615-590 Bc York, Metropolitan
New
in
Thera and Samos fragments of other
Boeotia has come a group of two figures inscribed
Kittylos.
Here, then,
we have examples
of the
earliest large sculptures
by the Greeks in sparkling white marble. In
all
a similar
wrought
scheme is adopted,
in
which the derivation from the quadrangular block is evident. The head
is
cubic, with the features
and
58
From
;
stylized.
The body
is
—
eyes, ears,
four-sided.
and mouth
The
—carved in
vertebral
column
is
flat
planes
practically
and 600-590
55, 56. Kleobis
Biton,
c.
Delphi,
B.C.
Mu-
seum.
The greatest protrusion of the back is higher than that of the chest. The forearm is turned forward, while the clenched hand is twisted towards the body. Anatomical details are indicated on the surface of the Straight.
block by grooves, ridges, and knobs. In the abdominal muscle three or
more
transverse divisions are
marked above the
navel, instead of only
The protrusion at the flanks is not indicated. The knees reproduce the more or less symmetrical arrangement current in Egypt. The shins are vertical, the malleoli level. The feet stand squarely the
two
visible in nature.
59
'.*>
4
^&'
57. Statue from Delos, dedicated by Nikandre, c.
660-650 tional
B.C.
Athens, Na-
Museum.
on the ground, With long
toes, the
ends ot which recede along one con-
^i tmuous curve and otten turn downwards. Ihe human shape, in other words, was conceived as a compact, solid structure, in which essentials .
^
r
•
^
i
were emphasized and generalized into expressive quality not unlike that of Egyptian sculpture
The same conception
i
i
patterns.
i
A monumental
was thereby achieved.
observable in the other sculptures that can be
is
assigned to this early period for instance, in the female statues standing ;
in a
stiff,
frontal attitude
and enveloped in
practically foldless drapery,
such as the marble statue dedicated by Nikandre (fig. 57),
60
and a figure once
at
Auxerre
now
at
in the
Delos,
now in Athens
Louvre
(fig. 58). It is
58. Female Statue, formerly Louvre.
59.
Head of Hera
(?),
c.
at
Auxerre.
600
B.C.
c.
630-600
Olympia,
B.C. Paris,
Museum.
61
Larger Work of Sculpture
60. Seated Statue from Didyma, British Museum.
600-580
c.
B.C.
London, 61.
Sphinx from a sepulchral Stele, York, Metropolitan Museum.
c.
600 B.C.
New
62. Gorgon from the pediment of the Artemis Temple at Korkyra, c. 600-580 B.C.
evident in the earliest seated statues that lined the sacred the temple at
Didyma
(cf. fig.
60)
;
in the seated statues
way
from
Gortyna; and in the colossal limestone head from Olympia
leading to
Prinias (fig.
and
59, cf.
p. 28), almost cubic in shape, which perhaps once belonged to the cult
statue of Hera.
And
it
characterizes the seated lions
found on the terrace
near the sacred lake at Delos, as well as the sphinxes that crowned the sepulchral stelai of the time
and the
reliefs
of the imposing
Tomb from Xanthos, now in London (cf. p. 88). In all, the composi-
Lion tion
(cf. fig. 61),
is
simple and compact, with anatomical forms translated into deco-
rative patterns.
The style.
architectural sculptures
from the
Foremost among them are the
early temples are in the
lioness
downing
a bull,
from
same
a pedi-
mental group on the Athenian Akropolis, and the sculptures from the temple of Artemis
Corfu, the ancient Korkyra
problem of
pediment
is
it
62
at
latter the
solved by placing a majestic
with two large
(fig.
62,
cf. p.
fitting the figures into the triangular
lions,
Gorgon
28). In the
space of the
in the centre, flanking
symmetrically composed, and putting smaller
^
Early Archaic Period
figures at the angles.
the
simplified
There
no concerted action or co-ordination, but
is
forms of the figures impart grandeur to the overall
design.
As examples of the next serve,
first
of
all,
stage in the evolution of
Greek sculpture may
four standing youths (kouroi) found in different locali-
ties—Thera, Tenea, Volomandra, Melos, and Rhodes these statues,
dent, the corporeal quality of the figure
More
details are seen in the
feeling for design
is still
is
more strongly
round and indicated
as
interrelated shapes
effective
its
;
so
felt
is still
PERIOD,
ABOUT
580-535 B.C.
evi-
than before.
modelled shapes. The
strong, but, instead of linear patterns,
are co-ordinated. Shoulders, pectorals, flanks, thighs,
head, with
63-65). In
(cf. figs.
though the derivation from the four-sided block
MIDDLE ARCHAIC
do the muscles of the arms and
volumes
and arms form legs
;
while the
undulating mass of hair and decorative features, forms an
crowning member. In
this general
period appear also a few draped
male figures, evidently intended to represent not athletes but important personages.
They have come
marked Ionic
to light in
Samos and elsewhere and show
influence.
63
^li^-
Kouros from Tenea, 575-550 B.C. Munich, Antikensammlung. 63.
The
well-preserved standing Maiden of Berlin
(fig.
66), said to
be
c.
from
Attica,
is
the female counterpart of these kouroi. Here too,
though
the figure retains the compactness of the early kouroi, the modelling 64.
Kouros
is
from Volo575-550 B.C.
mandra, c. Athens, National
more rounded. Features and drapery are still rendered in a schematic Museum. manner, but they have more depth. In other words, a new conception has been injected into the early monumental structure; a step forward has
Kouros from Melos, c. 555-540 B.C.Athens, Natio- been taken in the direction of naturalistic representation.
65.
nal
Museum.
A headless
female statue from Samos,
scribed with a dedication to
now
Hera by Cheramyes,
gracious counterpart of the Berlin kore. She
64
in the
is
Louvre is
shown
(fig. 67), in-
an Eastern, more standing, as rigid
66.
Maiden
c. Attica, U.C. Berlin,
from 580-570
Museum.
6S
Larger Works of Sculpture
Statue from Samos, dedicated by Cheramyes, c.
67.
575-550
B.C. Paris,
Louvre.
68. Statue of Philippe, from Samos, c. 560 B.C. Vathy
Museum, Samos.
as a tree, but the fluid contours
ing drapery give her a
and subtle
lifelike quality.
also with a dedicatory inscription
differentiations in the envelop-
Another headless
by Cheramyes,
is
statue
now
from Samos,
in Berlin.
part of a similar figure, with head preserved, has been found
on
And the
Athenian Akropolis (no. 677).
A
group of draped
general period. is
66
They
statues, also
from Samos, belongs to the same
are represented seated, reclining, or standing.
inscribed 'Philippe'
(fig.
68); another 'Ornithe';
still
One
another 'Phileia'
:
Middle Archaic Period
69. c.
Statue from
560-550
British
B.C.
Didyma, London,
Museum.
and 'Geneleos made 'I
am
.
.
.
oche
who
us'
;
has dedicated
the earliest non-architectural figures stood
tion
was
all
in a
name of the Hera.' The group
a fourth has part of the it
also to
Greek ensemble
Didyma
perhaps
The
row, without any concerted action. The only varia-
in the attitudes
at
is
that has survived.
and
in the rendering of the draperies.
Several of the statues which lined the Sacred
Apollo
dedicator
(cf. fig.
69) resemble
Way
to the temple of
Geneleos' Phileia.
Here too the
drapery begins to be broken up by a tentative indication of folds.
67
Larger Works of Sculpture
70.
The
Calf-Bearer, f.575-
550
B.C.
Athens, Akropolis
Museum.
One is
of the statues
inscribed
'I
am
is
signed by the sculptor 'Eudemos :
made me' another
Chares, son of Kleisis, ruler of Teichioussa'. Chares was
evidently a local potentate during the reign of Croesus. is
;
regularly used in these early inscriptions, for the statue
The
first
person
was conceived
as
speaking to the spectator.
The famous
Calf-Bearer from the Akropolis at Athens
close relative of the Berlin Kore. It
(fig.
70)
is
a
shows the same powerful compactness,
stocky proportions, and separate accentuation of volumes. According to the inscription,
it
was dedicated by one (Rh)ombos.
Another remarkable dedicatory group from the Athenian Akropolis of this period
68
is
Rampin Horseman (fig. 71), the head of Monsieur Rampin and is now in the Louvre, while
the so-called
which once belonged
to
what remains of the
figure
is
in Athens. Originally there
were perhaps
Middle Archaic Period
Horseman, c. 575-550 B.C. Paris, Louvre (head) and Athens, Akropolis Museum (body). 71.
72.
Nike from Delos,
550 B.C. Athens, National
c.
Museum.
two
riders,
forming a symmetrical group, and representing the Dios-
kouroi, to judge from
The
some additional fragments which may have belonged.
half-kneeling stance adopted in the preceding period for the
Though the upper part of the body remained rigid, the forward movement was suggested by a more animated action of the limbs. The Nike from Delos in Athens (fig. 72) shows this new buoyancy both in expression and representation of rapid motion was retained also in this epoch.
pose. If an inscribed base found near the statue belonged to
it, it
was the
work of Mikkiades and of his son Archermos of Chios. The Attic grave monuments of the middle archaic period reflect the opulence of the wealthy class during Peisistratos' rule. The general composition
on
is
the
same
a rectangular base
as in the preceding
and crowned by
epoch
—a
a cavetto capital,
tall shaft,
which
placed
in turn
is
69
;
from a
73. Stele (the sphinx
74.
Lower
part of a Stele,
cast),
c.
c.
540-530 B.C.
540-530
B.C.
surmounted by a sphinx; but there
New
is
New York, Metropolitan Museum. York, Metropolitan Museum.
now greater
animation
(cf. fig. 75).
The sphinx is shown crouching instead of seated the cavetto capital is at first made higher than before and then is changed into one of double;
volute form; and the sculptured (or painted) decoration on the shaft
shows more freedom.
The most complete example design
is
in
New
supporting base
York^ it
76)
;
With
A
now
shaft,
and
monument
is
in Boston
and the lower part of another (or the same ?), with a
'predella'
New York
(fig. 74).
Several kouroi of this period
are
crowning sphinx,
sphinx from a similar
representing a chariot scene, in incuse
likewise
its
stands over 13 feet high, an eloquent witness to
imaginative enterprise. (fig.
that has survived of this stupendous
(fig, 73).
some
relief, is in
may have
served as sepulchral statues
figures of lions, for instance three
in the
from Perachora which
Museums of Boston and Copenhagen.
A
lion as the
guardian of a tomb was a characteristic Greek conception.
The many i.^*,.----
70
^n,
.51
it.-.
architectural sculptures that can be attributed to the second
quarter and the middle of the sixth century testify to ambitious building
—
75. Early Attic
grave
stelai.
Sphinx, from a grave stele, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts. 76.
Operations
all
540-530 B.C.
c.
over the Greek world
Akropolis come
at that time.
From
several pedimental groups, including
composition which included a three-headed 'Typhon' Herakles struggling with the Triton,
even two lions attacking a
bull.
copious traces of the original the features, bodies
figs 78, 79),
The
and
figures are carved in limestone,
polychromy remain. In the rendering of
and draperies, the same stage
sense for rounded shapes.
(cf.
and— according to some authorities
in naturalism has
reached as in the free-standing sculptures of that time.
new
the Athenian
an impressive
And
staccato effect has been obtained,
in the compositional
though there
is
been
Here too there is a scheme a
not as yet
less
any unity
of action.
The metopes from
the so-called Sikyonian Treasury at Delphi (cf p. 41)
with their four-sided forms, rigid stances, and almost foldless draperies,
may be
assigned to the second quarter of the sixth century.
The
subjects
include the Dioskouroi and the sons of Aphareus (Idas and Lynkeus)
driving oxen ship
home from
a raid; the
hunt of the Kalydonian boar; the
Argo; Phrixos and the ram; and Europa and the
bull.
71
78-79. Thrcc-hcaded 'Typhon,' from a pediment, c. 560-550 B.C. Athens, Akropolis Museum.
<
Europa and the Bull, .Metope from Temple Y Palermo, Museo Civico.
11.
c.
at
560
and the Kcrkopcs, Metope from Temple C at
80. Herakles c.
540
B.C.
B.C.
Sclinus.
Sclinus. Palermo,
Museo
Civico.
81. c.
Herakles and Apollo, 575-550 B.C. Metope
from the Temple of Hera at Foce del Sele. Paestum,
Museum.
82. Head of a Kouros 540-515 Attica, c.
Copenhagen,
Ny
from B.C.
Carlsberg
Glyptotek.
83. c.
Head of Aristodikos, 510-500 B.C. Athens,
National
Museum.
Related to these in style are several metopes from temple
Y at
Selinus,
with similar angular compositions, representing Apollo, Leto, and Artemis; a sphinx; Herakles and the Cretan Bull; and Europa on the bull
(fig. 77).
Another later
{c.
series
540
B.C.).
of metopes, from temple
They
C
head of Medusa, and Herakles carrying the Kerkopes in a rather farouche but
powerful
Splendid metopes have
of the river
influence.
themes
as the labours
as well as less
a sanctuary of
There are in
stone, in an extraordinarily vivid,
show
subjects
(cf.
fig.
80),
style.
come from
Silaris (cf. p. 28).
The
somewhat
at Selinus, are
represent a chariot scene, Perseus cutting off the
all
Hera
at the
mouth
about forty carved in sand-
rounded
style
bespeaking Ionian
great variety and include such familar
of Herakles
(cf. fig.
well-known myths.
81)
Some
and
feats
of the Trojan war,
catastrophe must have over-
taken the sanctuary while the metopes were
still
being carved, for
several are unfinished.
Important architectural sculptures of the middle archaic period have
been found in Asia Minor, especially Larisa.
They show
at
Ephesos, Assos, Kyzikos, and
the soft, rounded modelling characteristic of the
Eastern Mediterranean.
of Artemis at Ephesos
The decorated column drums from
(cf. p.
29) include part of a dedication
the temple
by Croesus;
but the figures that have survived range in date through the second half of the sixth century.
74
Greek
artists to attain naturalistic
less rigid
and the anatomy
The combination of
LATE ARCHAIC become PERIOD,
half of the sixth century the persistent struggle of
During the second
form bore
human
of the
fruit.
figure
The
is
the old decorative sense with the
gives to the products of this
new
ABOUT
540 — 480 B.C.
naturalism
epoch a suavity and grace that make them
perhaps the most appealing of
all
Greek
sculptures. Fortunately
examples have been preserved, especially from
broken
many
Attica, for, after the
of the Athenian Akropolis by the Persians in 479 their return buried the old
stances
better understood.
B.C.,
sack
the Athenians
on
statues in trenches, to be rediscovered
by modern excavators. Several statues of kouroi from various parts of Greece illustrate successive stages in this are
epoch-making evolution. The best preserved
—in chronological order—a statue from Attica, now in Munich
statues
from Anavysos
the Aristodikos
(fig. 85),
(fig. 83), all
Keos, the Piraeus
in Athens,
don. Eastern versions have
(fig. 88),
(fig. 84),
Boeotia
and the 'Strangford Apollo'
(fig. 86),
in
Lon-
come from Asia Minor, Rhodes, and Samos.
Several have been found in South Italy and Sicily, including an excellent
example from Agrigentum and a bronze statue found in the sea
Piombino and now head
(fig. 82), is
in the Louvre^.
said to
A
off
superb head, the so-called Rayet
have come from Attica and
is
in
Copenhagen.
Compared with the earlier kouroi, several significant changes are apparent. The plank-like shape has been definitely overcome by imparting more volume to the thorax and by making the greatest protrusion of the 75
1
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^^^r
in
J 86.
Kouros from Mount Ptoon, Bocotia,
Athens, National 87.
'Kritios'
c.
515-500
li.C.
Museum.
Boy,
c.
490-480
B.C.
Athens,
Akropolis
Museum.
<
84.
<
85.
Kouros from sammlung.
Kouros
National
Attica,
from
Museum.
c.
540-515
Anavysos,
c.
B.C.
Munich, Antiken-
540-515
B.C.
Athens,
88. Apollo, found at the Piraeus, 530-520 B.C.
Athens, National Museum. 89.
The
'Peplos
Kore',
540-530 B.C. Athens, Akropolis Museum. c.
back correspond to that of the front; in consequence the vertebral
The forearm is no more natural position, with the palm of the hand directed towards the body. The legs are well shaped, with the inner malleolus higher than the outer, and with the toes no longer receding along one line. The flanks are made to bulge from the waist. As time went on further important observations were made. Instead of three transverse divisions being shown above the navel in the abdominal muscle, only two were indicated, the third (top) division being column assumes
its
characteristic S-shaped curve.
longer twisted forward but
is
in a
incorporated into the semicircular arch of the thorax, as
The muscles of the neck were more were given shoulder. also
had
their S-shaped curve
The
it is
in nature.
and the
clavicles
and made to disappear beneath the
swelling of the trapezium was indicated.
assumed more natural forms, with various
details
The
features
rendered that
not been observed before, for instance the antitragus of the ear and
the inner recess of the eye.
78
correctly rendered;
90. Detail
from
89.
Finally, at the
a certain
remained
end of the period, that
movement was imparted frontal, the flanks
is
in the early fifth century B.C.,
to the figure.
Though
the shoulders
were no longer rendered symmetrically,
the flank over the advanced leg being placed forward and lower than in the receding leg,
which was now correctly shown
weight of the figure
(cf.
fig. 87).
A
slight turn
as carrying the
was given
to the head
and the upper part of the body. This marked the beginning of the dissolution of the frontality and the symmetrical construction
had characterized ancient
art for
thousands of years.
In addition to the kouroi, other sculptures from
world the
illustrate the
same evolution.
Among
all
over the Greek
the free-standing statues,
Maidens from the Athenian Akropolis occupy a prominent
The Peplos kore she
kore face,
is
(figs.
fig.
66).
Her
place.
89-90), so called from the woollen peplos that
wearing over her Ionic chiton,
(cf.
which
quiet but
is
no longer
and the subtly varied drapery give her
a
successor of the Berlin
rigid stance, the expressive
distinction.
The majority of the 79
91.
Kore probably before An-
c. 530-525 B.C. Athens, Akropolis Museum.
terior,
92. Kore, c. 510-500 B.C. Athens, Akropolis Museum
No. 674.
Other Maidens
may be
assigned to about 530-500 B.C.
They
illustrate
The
the decorative rendering of drapery in this late archaic period.
heavy folds of the mantle and the effectively contrasted,
and
of the chiton are
soft, crinkly folds
follow the action
their various directions
of the figure. The long hair descending in radiating
up behind, and the diadems,
earrings, necklaces,
the impression of dainty elegance. is
(fig.
93),
shows the combination of
stylization
We
(no. 686)
may be
hill,
93.
no. 674
and naturalism
placed a
little
must imagine these Maidens perched on high
on the Akropolis
Shortly afterwards
The famous kore
series.
Boudeuse
(fig. 91).
one of the best preserved and most
engaging examples of the
so-called
or looped
the base of one of the statues
the signature of the sculptor Antenor
comes the kore no. 675
80
On
tresses,
and bracelets add to
(fig.
at its best.
92)
The
before 480 B.C. pedestals, standing
radiant in their rich polychromy, of which extensive Kore,
c.
530-515
B.C.
Athens, Akropolis
Museum No.
675.
94. Karyatid
of the
from the Treasury
Siphnians
Delphi,
Kore from Klazomenai,
95.
540-525 B.C.
Paris,
Louvre.
have been found elsewhere
relief,
Asia Minor
(cf.
p. 41) are of the
literary
Delphi, Delos,
same
II,
2),
we have
Cyrene, and
fig.
(cf.
serving
94)
in the Treasury of the Siphnians at
Delphi
type. Since this Treasury can be dated
evidence to shortly before 525 B.C.
Pausanias, X,
of the
—in
and the two karyatids
fig. 95),
columns of the pronaos
(cf.
and in
Similar standing Maidens, both in the round
traces remain.
as
at
530-525 B.C.
c.
(cf.
Herodotos,
III,
by
57-58;
here welcome support for the chronology
series.
As examples of century
may be
(fig. 97),
the seated type during the second half of the sixth
cited a statue of Athena
found on the Athenian Akropolis
perhaps the very one seen by Pausanias
by him to be by the sculptor Endoios; and a
statue
(I,
and
26, 4)
from Samos
(fig.
said 96),
which, according to an inscription, was dedicated by Aiakes, perhaps a
relative
(cf. fig. 69),
82
Compared with marked advance in
of Polykrates. they
show
a
the earlier naturalism.
seated
The
statues
figure has
now assumed
a separate entity
and the folds are
less
from
a finely
(fig.
101), datable
composed phase. a
new
hair,
And
there
still
is
B.C.
She
is
shown
seated
96.
500
on
from
Statue b.c.
Samos,
Samos, '
a
at
schematized folds show archaic art in
new grandeur
in
Tigani
J^'^seum. 97.
Athena,
perhaps
her back, her feet resting on a high, ^"he^rir'A'kropolif dignified pose, delicately carved features, finely um.
The
and
it sits,
comes the goddess from Tarentum
around 480
carved throne, a cushion
voluted footstool.
on which
massive and reveal the forms of the body.
Finally, as a climax to the series, in Berlin
that of the chair
by
Must
its final
the composition heralding
era.
In a relief of a helmeted runner in Athens
century the motion
is
still
(fig.
98) of the late sixth
indicated by the old convention of a half-
kneeling posture, with frontal shoulders and profile legs. innovation, however,
is
an attempt
at
An
important
foreshortening by placing the
abdominal muscle obliquely. The turn of the body is thereby suggested and more swing is imparted to the composition. A few decades later,
83
98.
Helmeted Runner,
National
99.
c.
510-500
Running Maiden from
Eleusis,
Athens,
B.C.
Museum. Eleusis,
c.
480
B.C.
Museum.
100. Nike,
soon
after
490 B.C. Athens, Akropolis
Museum.
101. Seated Goddess Berlin, Museum.
from Tarentum,
c.
480
B.C.
I
102.
Stele
of Aris-
by Aristokles, 510-500 B.C.
tion, c.
Athens,
National
Museum. 103. Stele from Orchomenos, by Alxenor, c. 500-490 B.C.
Athens,
Museum.
86
National
f(^
104 Attic Grave
Stelai, after
105. Inciseu Stele:
530 B.c.-c. 450 B.C.
Youth holding
a flower,
c.
520 B.C.
Paris,
Louvre.
in the
Nike from the Akropolis
battle
of Marathon, and in the Running Maiden from Eleusis
—perhaps
a fleeing
abandoned and
100), perhaps dedicated after the
companion of Persephone
more
a
(fig.
natural posture
kneeling stance
is
obtained, with both legs only
is
and the trunk no longer perpendicular.
slightly flexed
Around 530
B.C. there
came
a
change from the elaborate type of
gravestone of the middle archaic period It
— the
99)
(fig.
consisted of a relatively
of a palmette, at
first
low
shaft,
(cf. fig.
75) to a simpler form.
surmounted by a
finial
form
in the
with a double volute (similar in design to that
used on capitals of the preceding period), later with a single one (cf. fig.
104).
Outstanding examples are a
stele in the
Louvre
(fig.
105)
with a youth holding a flower (incised and painted) and the well-known stele
of Aristion in Athens by Aristokles, decorated with the relief of
They are among come down to us.
a warrior (fig. 102).
stones that have
the last archaic Athenian grave-
Several stelai of the early fifth century have been found in the Islands and Northern Greece. Like the Athenian examples of the same epoch,
they consist of a high, narrow, sculptured shaft, with a palmette
An
especially
interesting
example
from
Orchomenos
bearded man, clothed in a mantle, playing with his dog
(fig.
finial.
shows 103);
it
a is
signed by the Naxian sculptor Alxenor.
87
106. Apollo and Herakles, from the pediment of the
Siphnian Treasury at Delphi, c. 530-525 B.C.
From Xanthos monuments 62),
it is
has
come one of
most
the
form of
on
(cf.
The
subjects consist of male
and heroized ancestors,
and of Harpies or Sirens carrying away the
'souls of the dead'.
number of
exact date
development
architectural sculptures exemplify the
composition during the
late archaic
period and the variety of stances
Apollo
The pedimental sculptures of somewhat later. From Athenian Akropolis come splendid, over-life-size figures
and Herakles for the tripod
(fig.
the temple of Apollo at Delphi
106).
(cf.
p. 31) are
a temple
on the
of Zeus
and
Athena
B.C.;
and from the Megarian Treasury
525-520
in
The Treasury of the Siphnians at Delphi, of which the can, as we saw, be placed shortly before 525 B.C., has supplied
a well preserved pedimental group, representing the contest of
a small limestone
A
The
modelling and gracious attitudes bespeak an East Greek origin.
attempted.
c.
pp. 48,
four sides,
its
deities
pillar.
and female figures bringing offerings to
A
Tomb
a chest, decorated with reliefs
and was once mounted on a high
soft
Lion
that have survived. Like the earlier
in the
sepulchral
interesting
number of
battling
with
giants
pediment with the same
reliefs illustrate
fig.
(cf.
at
datable
107),
Olympia
{c.
510
B.C.)
subject.
the successive stages in the rendering
of foreshortening. In the friezes from the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi representing battles of gods and giants
and an assembly of
deities, the three-quarter
placing a frontal trunk on profile legs. for instance in (cf.
p. 41)
(cf.
Some
fig.
108), chariot scenes,
view
is
still
decades
rendered by
later,
some of the metopes of the Athenian Treasury
however, at
Delphi
with exploits of Herakles and Theseus, and in the statue
bases from Athens with reliefs of a cat-and-dog fight and a ball
game
fe^
107.
Athena and Giant, from
a
Temple of
the Athenian Akropolis,
c.
525-520
B.C.
Athens, Akropolis
Museum.
89
^ttttHlflt^kklJ^^l^m
Kr^im" r^^^^^^feT
-tf^
108. Battle of Gods and Giants. Slab from the frieze of the Treasury of the Siphnians, c. 530-525 B.C.
j^^^^^Hji^^^
^"^^^^^^^^^^^^k'^^^^^H B^k. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^L
.^^^^'
°
^^^^^^^^^^^^^1
Sn
'^^^^^B ^^1
J^-"~
^^Ip^'^^^^^^^^^^^^^^hL-
''
.^^^^^^^^^^^^H^'
game. Statue Base, 510-500 B.C. Athens,
109. Ball
.'IflB
c.
National
Museum.
^
Running NereMetopes from the Temple of Hera at Foce del Scie, c. 510-500 B.C. Pacstum Museum. 110,
ids
111.
(?)
a
Head of Athena,
112.
from the pediment of the Temple of Aphaia 500c. Munich, Antikensammlung. Aegina,
at
480
(cf.
fig.
B.C.
109), attempts at foreshortening are apparent in the placing
of the abdominal muscle obliquely; in the running maidens on the
metopes of the Heraion a single breast
is
shown
both breasts are
still
at
Foce del Sele
(cf. p. 31),
in
some
figures
slightly foreshortened (fig. 110), while in others
viewed
frontally
(cf.
111).
fig.
Though
these
attempts are not yet wholly successful, they testify to the realization
of the problem involved.
From
the temple
F
at Selinus
{c.
500
B.C.)
have come the lower parts of two metopes, one with a dying giant remarkably
realistic
Finally in the
first
two decades of
the pediments of the temple of
of the fragmentary
state
Aphaia
the fifth century in
Aegina
of some of the figures,
reconstruct the whole of both compositions. related schemes. In the centre of each
92
—
rendering for this period.
(cf.
it
may be
placed
pp. 31 f ). In spite
has been possible to
They show
pediment stood a
subtly inter-
stately
Athena
113. Herakles, from the East pediment of the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina, c. 500-480 B.C. Munich, Antiken-
sammlung.
(cf.
fig.
112),
and on
fighting Trojans, in
either side
which the
were symmetrical groups of Greeks
active poses of the fighters
with the reclining and falling ones of the wounded. preserved and finest of the figures the corner of the East pediment, off
is
the Herakles
shown crouching,
were contrasted
One
(fig.
of the best
113) from near
in the act of shooting
an arrow, the whole forming an effective and harmonious design.
The
statues
from
this
Eastern pediment are somewhat later in style
than those of the Western, perhaps due to
its
having been substituted
for a
pediment injured during the Persian wars, of which several figures
seem
to
From
have survived. the
first
half of the fifth century are also preserved a
number
of terra-cotta sculptures, found in Olympia, Corinth, Thebes, and else-
where. They evidently served as ornaments of small buildings and as votive offerings. Foremost
among them
are a standing warrior, a
group
93
from the Athenian Agora. 460 B.C. Athens, Agora Museum.
115. Terra-cotta head c.
Zeus and Ganymede, terra-cotta group, 475-470 B.C. Olympia, Museum.
114. c.
of Zeus carrying away young
Ganymede
an Athena combined with warriors, helmeted head of
Athenian Agora
c.
460
B.C.
all
was found
and fragments of
from Olympia.
and from
Sicily
work
115);
114),
A
terra-cotta
in over sixty fragments in the
absence of marble favoured sculptural
(fig.
(fig.
and South in clay,
Italy,
where the
have come a number
of comparable examples.
The is
close connection
between Greece and
suggested by Pliny's statement
Italy in this
(XXXV, 151-52)
that
branch of
art
Boutades of
Sikyon was the inventor of terra-cotta sculpture and that Damaratos of Corinth,
when he
by the modellers 94
left his
(fictores)
native city for Etruria,
was accompanied
Diopos, Eugrammos, and Eucheiros,
who
iif
/ 1
1
i
.
116. Charioteer, bronze, c.
475-470
B.C.
Delphi.
i
jt
117. Apollo, frorii the West pediment of the Temple of Zeus at
Olympia, 465-457 B.C.
introduced the craft into
The marked Greek
Italy.
influence of the
Etruscan terra-cotta sculptures of this period bears out the literary evidence.
EARLY Classical Period,
ABOUT
The second
quarter of the
fifth
century marks the beginning of the
more than
so-called classical style. After a sustained effort of
480 — 450 B.C. the Greek sculptor had attained structure of the
ordinated whole.
full
human figure and was able The next step was to use
various directions
—in
a century
knowledge of the complicated to represent this
it
as a co-
new knowledge
in
the representation of action and feeling, in the
rendering of drapery, and in composition.
Though
in
all
these directions
the artists gradually achieved naturalistic forms, they imparted to their figures a certain quality
from
might
call it serenity
—that
removed
it
realism.
Let us watch examples,
We
— one
saw
first
this interesting
development in a number of
in the various stances of the
that at the
human
specific
figure.
end of the archaic period there were attempts to
distribute the weight unequally, but that the shoulders remained frontal.
%
m
f
4 I
al
Apollo', c. 460copy. Athens, Nation-
The 'Omphalos
118.
450
B.C.
Roman
Museum.
Soon
afterwards, however, the unequal distribution of weight
to affect the
whole
figure.
A
was made
turn was given to the upper part of the
body, often in an opposite direction from that of the pelvis, whereby
movement and
a sense of
new knowledge could be
easy balance was imparted. Moreover, this
applied to other stances.
forms was thus opened to the Greek
Examples of the standing male by Greek {c.
475
originals,
Zeus in
at
(fig.
118).
epoch are furnished both
copies
B.C.,
— for
Delphi
cf.
p. 32),
and by
figures preserved
instance the Apollo from Cherchel, the
Mantua, and the so-called Omphalos Apollo
The
at
erected as a votive offering after a race, and
Olympia (465-457 in
figure in this
117) and Zeus from the pediment of the temple of
(fig.
good Roman
Apollo
new world of
such as the famous bronze charioteer
B.C., cf. fig. 116),
the Apollo
A
artist.
last,
datable near the middle of the
fifth
in
Athens
century, illustrates
the final stage in this progression. Perfect balance has been obtained.
The weight of
the figure
is
now
boldly poised on one leg, and the
97
119. Aristogeiton, from the group by Kritios and Nesiotes, 477-476 B.C. Cast of a
reconstructed Roman copy. Naples, National Museum.
resulting ,
asymmetry is ably shown. Both the median ,
,
.
,
column have
i
horizontal, but incline
i
i
The head too
is
line 11
•
slightly turned
and the vertebral 1
and knees are no longer
upward and downward
in a strictly horizontal line; naturalistic
i
a sideward turn; shoulders, hips,
in alternating
and the eyes and mouth are no longer
moreover each
feature
is
modelled in a
manner. Nevertheless the early monumental quality
entirely lost.
The
derivation from the geometric scheme
a subtle play of proportions,
and
a quiet
is
of Harmodios and Aristogeiton tyrant Hipparchos,
and
for
(cf. fig.
whom
119), the heroes
commemorative
is
not
apparent in
grandeur pervades the
Outstanding examples of the striding type are preserved
98
rhythm.
figure.
in the statues
who
statues
slew the
were
set
up
I i
M
I in the
Athenian marketplace. The originals have disappeared, but a
ro u or Roman number
J reproductions survive •
•
where. They are apparently
all
XT —in Naples, •
1
in
477-476
head
— the
trunk
is
Greek
art.
Some Greek
Athens, National
Museum.
group,
B.C. after the first
by Antenor, had been carried away by the Persians
his
1
else-
copies of the second group, by Kritios
and Nesiotes, which was erected properly reconstructed
r» J Rome, and
120. Poseidon (or Zeus?), b-^o"^^' ' 470-450 B.C.
in 480-479.
When
— with the right arm of Harmodios brought over
composition shows great vigour. The modelling of the
convincingly rendered in violent action for the
first
time in
decades later comes the striding Poseidon, one of the finest
original statues in bronze that have survived (figs. 120, 121).
99
121. Detail
He
is
represented in the traditional pose, witli his right
to hurl the trident, but
majesty.
The
now
with
was found
statue
all
parts co-ordinated
in the sea, off
from
arm
120.
raised
and with a new
Cape Artemision, and must
once have formed part of a shipload of sculptures bound elsewhere. Furthermore, several crouching, striding, seated, and reclining figures (cf.
fig.
123),
composed
ably
in
the
new manner, come from the at Olympia, The former
pedimental sculptures of the temple of Zeus stiffness
At
has been transformed into easy balance.
this
time there
may
also
be observed a
new
interest in depicting
emotion, not only in the attitudes of the figures, as mostly heretofore,
but also in the features. Thus pain, surprise, fear and exaltation are occasionally
shown
and vase-painting
in
(cf.
100
(fig.
in sculpture
realistic
pp. 343
natural, therefore, that in this
f.).
It is
epoch individualized portraiture began. Themistokles
way both
an astonishingly
122) found at Ostia
A is
remarkably vivid head of
evidently a
Roman copy
of
122. Head of Themistokles, c. 470-450 B.C. Roman copy. Ostia,
Museum.
123. Kladeos, from the West pediment of the Temple of Zeus at
Olympia, 465-457
B.C.
124.
The
Rome
Birth of
Terme
Aphro- a
Museum.
Front of a three-sided
known
relief
The Greek prototype must have been a whole Greek portraits in the earlier periods invariably show the
work of
this period.
Statue, for
whole
not merely the head or bust.
figure,
as 'Ludovisi
Throne'.
An important development took place during this epoch in the rendering of drapery.
more
The
folds, instead
of being schematically arranged, assume
natural shapes. Instead of the thin chiton and short Ionic himation
with their multitudinous
folds, the heavier peplos
favoured. Particularly
is
pleasing are the quietly standing female figures.
Roman
and
126),
in
Greek
125),
but there
the
Museum
British is
from the
the same in
all,
constant variation of detail, so that no two figures are
is
And
in
and from Thrace. The general scheme
both in
and Aspasia
originals, for instance, the statues
Olympia pediments, from Xanthos, now
alike.
exist
copies, such as the so-called Hestia Giustiniani
(cf. fig.
(cf. fig.
They
all
have a statuesque quality reminiscent of
their antecedents.
The rendering of hair likewise underwent a change. In the male it is now shown either short, with spiral curls framing forehead
figures
and temple, or long but rolled or looped up behind.
Two
three-sided reliefs,
examples of
purpose
is
one in Rome, the other in Boston, are
relief sculpture in the style
not known;
In the central portion of the relief in
from the
sea (indicated
figures (Horai?)
one
is
nude and
incense.
The
470
B.C.
Their original
Rome a woman
altar.
appears to be rising
124, 127).
playing the
flute,
On
either side
the other
is
is
a seated
draped and
is
woman;
sprinkling
subjects have been interpreted as the Birth of Aphrodite
and her attendants. 102
c.
by a pebbly beach), supported by two female
(cf. figs. is
of
perhaps they served as screens on a large
125. Korc from Xanthos, Lycia, don, British Museum.
126. 'Aspasia',
c.
470-450
B.C.
c.
470-450
Roman
B.C.
Lon
copy. Baiae.
103
'^'^^ f'l
127. Detail
from
124.
I
128.
Head of
a
Mourning Woman.
Detail
from
a
three-sided
relief.
Boston,
Museum
of Fine Arts.
129.
450
c. 470Akropolis
'Mourning Athena', B.C.
Athens,
Museum. In the Boston relief the central part shows a young boy (Eros or
Thanatos?)
Memnon, on the
weighing two
in
less
Roman
figures,
presumably Achilles and
in the presence of their mothers, Thetis
sides are a
youth playing the
are signs of reworking
render
small
on the
lyre
sides of
and Eos
(cf. fig.
128);
and an old woman. There
both
reliefs,
perhaps made to
conspicuous certain injuries suffered during the transport times from the original location, perhaps from South Italy
Rome. (On the authenticity or later date of the Boston reliefs cf. references on p. 394, note 7). These sculptures show a great advance in the rendering of foreshortening over the preceding epoch. The figures are shown in gradually retreating depth, so that the arms of the three to
women 106
in the scene with the birth of Aphrodite appear convincingly
«
130.
Grave
Stele:
Woman
holding a Bird, c. 470 B.C. Rome, Conservatori Museum. 131. Grave Stele: Athlete with Slave Boy, c. 460 B.C. Vatican Museum.
one behind another. The rhythmical design of the the sorrowing
Eos and
in the
of the figures give these
An
outstanding votive
Mourning Athena from small,
it
two Horai, and
reliefs
relief
folds, especially in
the undulating contours
great attraction.
of
this
period
{c.
460
the Athenian Akropolis
has the quiet majesty of the
Olympia
B.C.) (fig.
Thessaly, Nisyros,
Delphi, and elsewhere.
holding a bird was found on the Esquiline athlete with his slave
In the latter there stelai,
like
is
the
129).
famous
Though
sculptures.
Several sculptured gravestones of this time have Italy,
is
(fig.
come
One
to light in
of a
woman
130), another of an
boy was unearthed near the Vatican a skilful foreshortening of the body.
(fig.
131).
These two
other Greek sculptures found in central Italy, must have
107
;
m
%'
Nff 132. Reconstruction of the
West pediment Temple of Zeus pia.
of at
been taken by the Romans
after their
conquest of Southern Italy and
the
Olym- Greece.
The pediments and metopes from the temple of Zeus at Olympia p. 32) are among the most important examples of architectural sculptures that have survived. They furnish not only a number of single (cf.
statues in various stances
to
show
(cf.
p. 97),
but are well enough preserved
the compositional schemes. In the East pediment are represented
the preparations for the race of Pelops. In the centre stands Zeus,
flanked
on
either side
by male and female standing
chariots with attendants;
and
lastly
figures; then
come
seated and reclining spectators.
In the West pediment the central figure of Apollo dominates the scene right at
and
left are
three groups of fighting Centaurs
each corner are two reclining
interrelated design
(fig.
In the metopes there scenes, of majestic calm
and Lapiths, and
women. The whole forms
a subtly
132). is
a similar juxtaposition of quiet
and
stately tumult.
The
and animated
subjects are the exploits
and Atlas. Metope 133. Herakles from the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, 465-457
B.C.
of Herakles: Herakles with Atlas and with Athena the
Nemean
(fig.
133); fighting
the Cretan bull, and the Stymphalian birds; and
lion,
Augean stables. The metopes from the temple E
cleaning the
470
B.C. In their spacious
(fig.
134), the
new
style is evident.
sculptors of this period, according to ancient writers,
Myron has works with confidence. One is his
were Kalamis, Pythagoras, and Myron. Only it
from about
compositions, especially in that of Zeus and
Hera and of Artemis and Aktaion
The outstanding
at Selinus in Sicily date
proved possible to
attribute extant
in the case of
Diskos-thrower, which has been recognized in several copies from a
by Lucian {Philopseud.^ 18). The most complete is Terme Museum in Rome, formerly in the Lancelotti Collection (fig. 135). A youth is shown in the act of throwing a diskos, turning head and body in a twisted yet harmonious pose. Another work, likewise detailed description that in the
preserved in
Roman
starting back
(fig.
134. Artemis
copies,
136).
and Aktaion.
Metope from Temple E 470-460
Selinus,
c.
Palermo,
Museo
at
B.C.
Civico.
The
is
a Marsyas, represented in the act
original
formed
a
group with Athena
of
(also
M
135.
Diskobolos by Myron,
From
by Myron,
136. Marsyas
Rome, Latcran preserved in
460-450
c.
now
Collection,
Roman
460-450
c.
(l,
B.C.
in the
copies),
seen there by Pausanias
B.C.
Roman
copy.
Rome, Terme Museum.
a reconstructed cast.
24,
Roman
Vatican
copy.
Museum.
which stood on the Akropolis and was 1).
Representations of it appear on coins of
Athens, on a red-figured oinochoe in Berlin, and on a marble base in Athens. Recently in the Heraion of Samos has been found what
may
have been the base of Myron's colossal group of Zeus, Athena, and Herakles mentioned by Strabo (XIV,
1,
A
14)^
Herakles
preserved
in a small marble statue in Boston'omay recall the Herakles of this group.
In the Diskobolos and Marsyas,
which was
stances,
figures in
Myron shows
a characteristic of
what may be
called arrested
his interest in
the time; at least a
motion
novel
number of
about to run,
(falling,
drawing a bow) are known.
Many writers
other sculptors active in this period are mentioned by ancient
—Kanachos and Aristokles
and Onatas of Aegina
;
of Sikyon, for instance, and Kallon
and other names are preserved
artists
hazardous.
It
this
is
equally
difficult
to
sculptors travelled widely, as their signatures writers testify. sculptures, stylistic
on
period —as number of prominent sculptors of — known to us only by name makes attributions to individual
bases. In fact, the large
well as later
in signatures
One
distinguish
schools;
for
and the statement of ancient
has to be content in most cases with nameless
from which, however, can be obtained
a clear picture
of the
development of the time. ///
Larger Works of Sculpture 137. 'Theseus'. From the East pediment of the Parthenon, c. 438-431 B.C.
London,
British
Museum.
The Second Half
After Greece had recovered from the havoc of the Persian invasion
OF THE Fifth and from
Century
the effort
demanded by her defence and
B.C. time of prosperity and elation.
victories,
followed a
As head of the Delian League, Athens had
large resources at her disposal.
During the administration of
(449-429 B.C.) an extensive building plan was
initiated.
New temples and
porticoes arose to take the place of those destroyed in the war.
The West pediment of the Parthenon in Athens, Facsimile in London, British Museum. 138.
c.
438-431
B.C.
Perikles
Drawing perhaps by
J.
To
Carrey,
this
1674.
'
The Second Half of
period belong the Parthenon {AAl-A}}! B.C.) and the Propylaia (437.--
432
.
1
B.C.)
A,
I-
on the Akropohs
r /11X (cf. p. 33), ,
TT
1
•
1
Arr^
/
•
the hiephaisteion
{c.
\
A A r^
450-440
B.C.)
the Fifth
Century
'Three Fates'. 139. The FroiTi the East pediment of the Parthenon,
^•^- London, and the Hall of Mysteries (cf. p. 33), overlooking / J ^ the ancient market-place 1 I \ seum. at Eleusis (cf. p. 46). This activity naturally acted as a stimulus to artists,
c.
438-431
British Alu-
^
and fortunately great men arose
The Athenian overseer of
to
meet the occasion.
sculptor Pheidias was appointed by Perikles chief
all artistic
undertakings. Plutarch {Perikles, XIII, 41) gives a
graphic description of the
work on
the Akropolis: 'As the buildings
rose stately in size and unsurpassed in form and grace, the
workmen
work might be enhanced Most wonderful of all was the rapidity of construction. Each one of them, men thought, would require many successive generations to complete it, but all of them were fully completed in the
vied with one another that the quality of their
by
its artistic
beauty.
heyday of a single administration.
—
a
The sculptures which decorated the Parthenon two pedimental groups, long continuous frieze, and metopes on the four sides, as well as
antefixes, akroteria,
in
and waterspouts— have survived
London, Athens,
Paris,
and Rome.
On
the
in part,
and are
now
Western pediment was
represented the contest of Athena and Poseidon for the domination of
Though
Athens; on the Eastern pediment the Birth of Athena. portions were destroyed by a
war, drawings original figures
made
bomb
large
in 1687 during the Turkish- Venetian
shortly before this catastrophe give an idea of the
compositions
(cf.
fig.
138).
formed rhythmical designs
The
(cf.
standing,
figs.
137,
pediment a bold, new device was introduced for the
seated,
139).
filling
reclining
In the East
of the corners.
Instead of reclining figures as heretofore, there appears at one end Helios,
113
140.
Horse of Selene. From the East pediment of the c. 438-431 B.C. London, British Museum.
Parthenon,
141.
non,
Head of a Centaur. From c.
AAl-AA?) B.C.
London,
a
metope of the Parthe-
British
Museum.
the Sun, with his horses, rising
from the
sea, at the
other Selene, the
Moon, descending with her horses (cf. fig. 140)." The quadrangular spaces of the metopes were occupied mostly by single
combats
overcoming little it
— Lapiths
giants,
struggling with Centaurs
Greeks fighting Amazons.
remains, depicted the Fall of Troy.
The
A
(cf.
some of
the Centaurs
interest in the representation
The
frieze, like the
rhcnaia, the great
fig.
gods
scenes perhaps symbolized,
The
realistic ex-
141) exemplify the vivid
of emotion.
metopes, ran along the four sides of the building,
but inside the colonnade.
The
Athenian
presented correspond
(cf.
142),
^°"' ^"^'^^ Museum,
fourth series, of which
has been thought, the recent victory over Persia.
pressions in
fig.
Lapith and Centaur. Metope from the Parthenon, c. 447-443 b.c. Lon142.
subject
was the procession of the Pana-
festival; at least the various incidents re-
more or
less
with what
is
known
of that cere115
Larger Works of Sculpture
143.
Horsemen. From the monial.
of the Parthenon, 442-438 B.C. London
frieze c,
British
Museum.
^
.
'^
The
was shown
Start
.,
.
at the
South-west corner with the mount-
ioi-i
i-kti
,
,
i-i
i^g o^ the riders; then, along the North and South sides, came nvely cavalcades of horsemen
(cf. fig.
and leading animals to
sacrifice;
men
143) and charioteers,
and on the East
procession of maidens, received by magistrates
side
(cf.
bearing trays
was the solemn
fig.
144),
and
as a
climax of the ceremony the handing over of the peplos for the cult statue
of Athena in the presence of an assembly of deities
composition of advancing figures there
and quiet poses being Foreshortening was figures are contracted
though
a
relief
long
never any monotony, lively
is
effectively intermingled.
now perfectly
and carved
uniform front plane
depth of the
145). In this
(fig.
is
where the
understood the further parts of the ;
in gradually receding planes.
Moreover,
everywhere observed, variation in the
different shapes cut across
one another
conveys the impression of figures standing or moving alongside one another. Thus, in the cavalcades a
shown advancing
in a row.
number of horsemen
The
are convincingly
old two-dimensional conception has
given place to a three-dimensional one with the illusion of depth successfully
conveyed.
Though Pheidias could not have and there
is
all
all
perished,
them were
by which
which ancient writers praised
and survive only in Roman
to judge his style;
in the highest terms,
copies.
the colossal bronze statue of Athena erected
Foremost among
on
the Akropolis,
Athena
between the Propylaia and the Erechtheion
(cf.
gold and ivory which stood inside the
of the Parthenon; and the
colossal statue of Zeus, likewise in gold
116
these sculptures himself,
many sculptors were at work, he, as work and perhaps sketched the designs.
events, they supply the best material
for his single statues,
have
all
indeed evidence that
overseer, doubtless directed the
At
executed
cella
p. 48); the
in
and ivory, made for the temple
The Second Half of
144. Maidens.
145. Deities.
From
From
the frieze of the Parthenon,
the frieze of the Parthenon,
c.
c.
442-438
442-438
B.C. Paris,
B.C.
the Fifth
Century
Louvre.
Athens, Akropolis Museum.
« 2^^^—^^
117
146. Fight between Greek of Zeus at Olvmpia. Ot the bronze Athena only perhaps minute represenand Amazon. Roman marble copy from the shield tations on Roman coms and part ot the base survive. Or the Athena
-^-iai
"
.
? by
'•i^f
.
J.
^"^
Pheidias
B.C.). Piraeus
^^/!-?^^?«
(c. 447-439 xMuseum.
.
Parthenos several marble copies in various sizes are preserved (cf. figs. ^ 7 152, 153,), as well as diminutive representations on gems and coins (figs.
on the
148-9), and large marble reliefs reproducing the figures
shield
(cf.
fig.
146).
Of
the Zeus only the copies on
engraved gems remained terra-cotta
moulds used
(cf.
figs.
to Pheidias
Lemnia tying a
(fig. fillet
From
on more or
less
round
Roman
reliable
154), for instance, an
coins and
150, 151) until the discovery of the
for the gold drapery
Several other statues that exist in
Roman
(cf. p. 55).
copies have been attributed
evidence
Amazon
—the
so-called
(cf p. 126),
and
Athena a
youth
his head.
these sculptures
Pheidias' works, one
and from the descriptions by ancient writers of
may
gain some idea of his
style.
Quiet attitudes,
serene expressions, and a certain majesty of conception were the chief characteristics;
De
E/oc///.,
and to these were added, we are told (by Demetrius,
14),
precision in workmanship. According to Quintilian
(Inst. orat. XII, 10, 9),
to
the beauty of the
Olympian Zeus 'could be
said
have added something to traditional religion, so adequate to the
divine nature was the majesty of his work'. Evidently Pheidias was the chief exponent of the idealizing, classical style that quality of
m
Greek sculpture during
his lifetime
and
became the dominant
later.
147-151. 'Athena Promachos', after the colossal bronze statue {c. 460-450 B.C.) by Phcidias
on
Athenian Akropolis, 148. coin. Athena Parthenos, after the gold and ivory statue by Pheidias in the Parthenon {c. 447-439 B.C.), the
Roman
Carnelian ringstone. 149-51. Zeus, after the colossal gold and ivory statue by Phcidias at Olympia {c. 435 B.C.), Carnelian ringstone and two Roman coins.
152-3. Athena Parthenos, Rocopies after the gold and ivory statue by Pheidias in the Parthenon
man marble
{c.
447-439
National
B.C.).
Museum.
Athens,
;
Larger Works of Sculpture In the sculptures of the Parthenon, which took about fifteen years to
may observe
complete, one
development.
a certain
particularly
It is
apparent in the renderings of the drapery in the metopes the frieze
B.C.),
The
442-438), and the pedimental statues
{c.
{c. {c.
447-443
438-432).
become more variegated and transparent, depth. The same trend is evident in other sculptures
folds gradually multiply,
and above
all
gain in
of the time, until in the
quarter of the century the chiton
is
often
made
so transparent as to completely reveal the forms of the
body
(cf. p.
137).
last
Another prominent sculptor of
Though he too made Hera
epoch was Polykleitos of Argos.
this
statues of deities, including a chryselephantine
for her temple at Argos, he
was above
all
Pliny (xxxiv, 55) describes one of his works as
bearing a lance, called the Canon by
ments of
works his
in
from
art as
(cf.
From
a code'.
number of Roman
survived in a
A
155).
fig.
weight on one
broad-shouldered youth
a lance,
a poise
original
and relaxation
sculpture. It
is
took the figure
in the attitude,
as their
round
his
the so-called
is
head
(fig.
is
represented resting
is
lowered.
Even
in the
harmony of design, never before attained in Greek
artists
There
is
a
of the succeeding generations
model.
Another work of Polykleitos reproductions
the rudi-
age, the beauty of proportion for
evident.
is
not surprising that
is
it
placed sideways and backwards
whereas the other
was famous
boy of manly form
this description a figure that has
somewhat hard versions of the Roman which the
'a
who drew from
copies could be identified as one of his
while the other
leg,
one hand he grasps
artists,
a sculptor of athletes.
156).
that has
been identified in
Diadoumenos,
youth binding a
a
The pose of the body,
Roman fillet
the clear demarcation of
the various planes and the square build are the same as in the Doryphoros.
But the
raising of the
arms and a
slight inclination of the
head to one
side give greater animation to the composition.
These two figures of Polykleitos form the climax of the long struggles
by the Greek
artists to attain naturalistic
form.
Not only are the individual
shapes rendered according to nature, but a balanced, harmonious whole has been achieved.
A
subtle play of proportion has taken the place of the
interrelated patterns of the early age. Polykleitos
is
known
book on proportion, entitled the Canon. Had should know more about the principles that governed
written a
it
to have
survived
we
the rhythmical
design of his figures.
Of Hera
Polykleitos' for the
— chryselephantine statue of — only representations on Roman coins
most important work
Heraion near Argos
and the detailed description by Pausanias Pheidias and Polykleitos had followers. Chief
many
among them were:
his
(ll,17, 4)
can convey some idea.
distinguished contemporaries and
Kresilas,
among whose works Pliny Roman copy in the
mentions a wounded Amazon, perhaps preserved in a 120
\
rr i^'^
154.
Head of
the
Athena Lemnia by Pheidias,
c.
440
B.C.
Roman
yi>
*
copy. Bologna,
t
Museo
Civico.
Capitoline lis
Museum
(cf. p.
127),
and
a portrait of Perikles
—possibly preser^-ed in several copies
name
miay be seen
and Ephesos, and to Itys
whom
British reliefs
Museum
Pergamon
at
Kallimachos,
representing ecstatic
draperies
(fig.
whose
(fig.
158)
has been attributed a group of Prokne and
Rhamnous, of which ;
Akropo-
the
157); Alkamenes,
from the Akropolis'^; Agorakritos, who carved
for a temple at
Maenads
160); Paionios,
a statue of
a fragment of the head
who probably made
Nemesis is
in the
the prototypes of the
m rhythmical poses and diaphanous
whose
flying Victory,
triangular pedestal, has been found at
122
(cf. fig.
on two Roman herms found
on
Olympia
(fig.
perched on a high, 159); Strongylion,
M
The Doryphoros by Polyklcitos, 450-440 B.C. Roman copy. Naples,
155. c.
Museo
A
156.
Nazionale.
Diadoumenos by
The
kleitos,
c.
440-430
B.C.
Roman
Polycopy.
Athens, National Museum.
157. Portrait silas
Vatican,
158.
430
c.
(?)
of Perikles by Kre440 B.C. Roman copy.
Museum.
Hermes by Alkamenes, B.C.
Museum.
Roman
copy.
c.
450-
Istanbul,
Nike by Paionios, 420-410 B.C. Olympia,
159. f.
Museum.
124
160.
Maenad,
limachos 410 B.C.
New
after Kalc.
420-
Roman
copy.
(?),
York, Metro-
politan
Museum.
125
161-163. Amazons. 161. Probably by c. 440-430 B.C. Roman copy. Hadrian's Villa, near Tivoli; 162. Perhaps by Polykleitos, c. 440430 B.C. Roman copy. New York, Metropolitan Museum; 163. Perhaps Pheidias,
by Kresilas, (r.
440-430
c.
Rome,
copy.
arm
164. 'Venus Genetrix',
The
for his representations of animals,
Wooden Horse
c.
430-400
B.C.
copy. Paris, Louvre.
'Idolino',
copy. Florence,
renowned
Roman Museum
restored).
Roman 165.
B.C.
Capitoline
c.
420
B.C.
Roman
Museo Archeologico.
and whose statue of the
of Troy stood on the Athenian Akropolis, where part of
the base remains
;
and Naukydes, the brother of Polykleitos, to
whom
a
standing diskobolos has been attributed.
According to Pliny (XXXIV,
and two others named Kydon
Kresilas,
making
The
a statue of an
Amazon
and
this
to his own',
in
for the temple of Artemis at Ephesos.
sculptors themselves were to decide
prize,
—Pheidias, Polykleitos, and Phradmon — competed
53), several artists
which work should win the
proved to be the one 'which each
namely that of Polykleitos. The
As
three distinct types occur in
many
placed second
statue of Pheidias
second, that of Kresilas third, that of Kydon fourth, fifth.
artist
was
and that of Phradmon
replicas,
and two others
exist each in one copy and so were evidently less popular, and since stylistically these statues
belong to the same period, some credence may
be given to the story.
There has been much discussion
as
to
which one of the
reproductions should be assigned to which
artist.
The
existing
attribution to
Pheidias of the 'Mattel' type, best represented in an almost complete statue
found in Hadrian's Villa
(fig.
correspondence to the figure on a 126
161), '^
is
rendered likely by
gem showing
an
Amazon
its
close
grasping
a lance with both hands, the right
testimony {Eikones, 4)
:
one high above her head, and Lucian's
'Which of the works of Pheidias do you praise
most highly? The Amazon who
is
on her
leaning
preserved in the statues in Berlin, Copenhagen, and
may reproduce
the Polykleitan
the four, and Polykleitos, as creations.
Hadrian
Moreover, the
we
for
it is
fact that a statue
it
The (fig.
for his
162)
harmonious
of this type was used by
would have been
would seem
characteristic of
to
Hadrian
have selected works of the two most famous Greek sculptors. The
Capitoline type
(fig.
163)
would then reproduce
Kresilas'
Amazon, which
Pliny specifically calls volneratam, and where indeed the
dominant note. Rphesos and
And
since
wound
in the Villa
Doria Pamfili) might be those by
no clinching evidence has come
to light.
still
the
Many
Kydon and
only surmises,
authorities indeed
attribute the Capitoline type not to Kresilas but to Polykleitos, its
is
the fourth and fifth types (reproduced in statues at
by Phradmon.'s However, these attributions are
to
type
the most rhythmical of
known
pendant to the Pheidian statue
in his villa as a
reinforce the attribution, for to
Amazon,
have seen, was
spear.'
New York
squarish form, which
There are also many
is
fine
owing
thought to resemble that of the Doryphoros.
works
that have survived in
Roman
copies,
but which cannot be attributed to specific sculptors; for instance the
127
166. Anakreon, c. 450-430 B.C. Roman copy. Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek.
128
so-called
Venus Genetrix
(hg. 164),
which must have been very popular
•
in Italy, tor
many
,
,
T
,
,•
•
copies survive, and the Idolino in
.^rx (hg. lob), /r
r^,
Morence
a softened version of Polykleitos' figures.
the
most
168.
Stele
of
a
Youth,
Grottaferrata,
of
Hegeso,
fifth
_
Rome, 'Anakreon lyrikos', and in a full-size statue in Copenhagen The latter is an excellent example of how the Greek portraitist
interesting
inscribed (fig.
Roman
Stele
420 B.C. Abbey.
century have ^-400 B.C. Athens, National Museum, copies. Besides the Perikles mentioned above,
to the second half of the assignable Several portraits ° ^
been preserved in
167. ^-
166).
is
the Anakreon,
conveyed character not only
which survives
herm
in a
in
in the face but in the attitude of the figure.
There are references by ancient writers to a sculptor, Demetrios of Alopeke, and to
his extraordinarily realistic portraits.
of his works has proved possible, 'verism';
it
was presumably only
During the second
we cannot
As no
less
Athens again became a
crowding.
On
The
high than before, which made
represent a seated figure or
this
relative.
half of the fifth century
centre for the production of sculptured gravestones.
became wider and
identification
judge the degree of
more than one
it
figure without
shaft
any
effect
account of the greater width of the shaft, the
instead of being in the shape of a single palmette,
now
possible to
of
finial,
was often given the 129
169.
Horseman and enemy,
170. 'Lycian' Sarcophagus,
c.
c.
Rome,
430-420
B.C.
420—400
B.C. Istanbul,
Villa Albani.
Museum.
form of sides.
a
The
ferrata
pediment with palmettes of Hegeso in Athens
stelai
(fig.
as akroteria ^ n
may
167)
(fig.
168)
and with antae
at the
^ and of a youth at Grotta1
r
1
serve as examples of the harmonious designs
171. f.
Stele of B.C.
400
a
Woman,
New
York,
Metropolitan Museum. 172.
Stele
of
Krito
(fig. 169), now in T?"^^"^'^^'/- 440-420 of a horseman downing .-NO ^ an enemy Rhodes, Museum. the Villa Albani, was perhaps also a grandiose sepulchral monument.
achieved.
To
A
relief
the very end of the fifth century, or the beginning of the fourth,
may be
assigned several large slabs with figures carved in such high relief
The
that they are practically in the round.
stele
of Phainerete and that
of Phrasikleia in Athens, and one from Lowther Castle (fig.
come
to
light
other Greek lands
in
instance in Northern Greece, Boeotia, and the Islands. that of Krito
420
now in New York
171) are imposing examples of this type.
Similar gravestones have
is
and b.c.
B.C.
and Timariste from Rhodes
Also to
phagus, found
at
this
period
may
(fig.
172), dating
from about
be assigned the so-called Satrap sarco-
Sidon, with scenes from the
and the 'Lycian' sarcophagus, of about 400 scenes like those on silver phialai and
life
of a Persian satrap,
B.C. (fig. 170),
on Syracusan coins
In addition to gravestones, votive
became common
— for
Chief among them
in the fifth century.
reliefs
The
(cf.
with chariot pp. 219, 259).
dedicated in sanctuaries
relief
with a representation of
Echelos and Basile, and that from Eleusis with figures of Demeter, 131
\m [|ii
:'W
^O^l ^MH' ^bI
|i
I'^l Ifl]
1
1
1
1^
i
i
'1
ym
w
1-
i-
mn
,
'\ ;1' 1
^^B^
'"*'* ^^JLg^^?^
^ S?^*-:
— 4
173. Demetcr, Triptolemos and Persephone. Votive relief from Eleusis, c. 440 B.C. Athens,
National
Museum.
174. Hermes, Orpheus and Eurydike, c. 425420 B.C. Roman coup.
Rome,
Villa Albani.
Persephone, and Triptolemos latter is
(fig.
173), are outstanding examples.
one of the few extant Greek sculptures of which a
also exists, enabling
The
Roman copy
one to compare the two renderings. Here,
as in the
case of the karyatids of the Erechtheion (see below), the greater delicacy
—with —contrasts
of execution in the originals
and from fold to fold
soft transitions
from muscle to muscle,
with the harder, more mechanical
carving in the copy.
may have been votive or architectural have number of Roman copies. The subjects are mythological
Several large reliefs which
survived in a
and, on each, three figures are represented in harmonious compositions
Hermes, Orpheus, and Eurydike Peirithous;
Hesperides.
(fig.
174); Herakles, Theseus,
and
Medea and two daughters of Pelias; Herakles and two The style is that of the last quarter of the fifth century,
perhaps around 420 B.C.
Over twenty
fifth-century reliefs
inscriptions recording treaties
have survived,
and other
at least in part,
historical happenings.
with
They 133
supply valuable chronological data.
Athena and Erechtheus Furthermore, preserved
many
in the
One of
the finest
is
Louvre, dated 410-409
architectural statues
and
reliefs
the relief of
B.C.
of
(fig.
this
175).
period are
—in addition to those of the Parthenon. A progressive develop-
ment can be observed. In Athens the pedimental figures, metopes, and frieze of the Hephaisteion (cf. pp. 33 f.) must date from about 445 B.C.; likewise the splendid pedimental figures of Niobids found in
now
in
Rome
(fig.
176) and Copenhagen. The
of Athena Nike on the Akropolis figures
The
and animated
frieze
(cf. p.
35),
battle scenes,
(cf. p. 36),
may
frieze
with
of the
its
Rome and
little
temple
quietly standing
be assigned to about 425 B.C.
and metopes of the temple of Apollo
at Phigeleia in
with representations of Greeks and Amazons
(fig.
Arcadia
177),
and of
Lapiths and Centaurs in boldly designed groups and with flying draperies creating deep shadows, are outstanding
The karyatids of theErechtheion (cf. fig.
Roman 134
works of about 425-420
B.C.
178), of which practically complete
copies have recently been found in Hadrian's Villa
(cf. fig.
179),
A
175. Record relief of Athena and Ercchtheus, dated 410-409 B.C. Paris, Louvre.
176. Niobid,
from
a
pediment,
c.
440
D.e;.
Rome, Terme Museum. 177. Greeks and Amazons, from the Temple of Apollo at Phigalcia, c. 425-420 B.C.
London,
British
Museum.
#;•
178. Karyatid 179. Karyatid
136
f
from the Erechtheion
in
from the Erechtheion
Athens, c. 420-413 B.C. London, British in
Athens,
c.
420-413
B.C.
Roman
Museum.
copy. Hadrian's Villa, near Tivoli.
180.
the
Nereid from Nereid monu-
ment
Xanthos
at
Lycia,
400
c.
London,
in
B.C.
British
Museum. 181. Nike from the parapet of the Temple of Athena Nike, c.
410-407 B.C. Akropoiis
Athens,
Museum.
may be dated
shortly afterwards (420-413). Finally, the scanty remains of
the frieze of the Erechtheion (409-406)
and the
from the parapet of the Nike temple
410
style
of the end of the century,
transparent that they
{c.
when
delicately carved Nikai
B.C.) (fig. 181) illustrate the
the draperies have
no longer hide but
become so
rather accentuate the forms
of the body.
The
sculptures of the Gjolbaschi and Nereid
both from Asia Minor
(cf. p.
48),
may
monuments
also be assigned to the
the fifth century. Here, too, transparent draperies are
formations of soldiers in
Greek
art a sense
tion, a feeling that
In the battle scenes, (cf. fig.
182), there
is
180),
end of
combined with
deeply carved, agitated folds. In the Gjolbaschi frieze one
important innovation.
(cf. fig.
may note an
which include massed
conveyed for the
first
time
of something extending beyond the actual representa-
what
is
represented
is
merely part of a larger whole.
Heretofore the Greek sculptor had confined himself to showing a limited
number of
figures in his reliefs.
Even
in the Parthenon frieze
number of The knowledge of perspective now opened up new possibili-
the various groups are complete in themselves, with a definite participants. ties.
Not
until later times,
consistently utilized
(cf.
however, was
pp. 278
Mention must be made of the fifth century B.C.
this
knowledge
a peculiar style that
and which
effectively
and
f.).
is
began some time in
called archaizing, being a
mannered
imitation of the archaic, in strong contrast with the prevailing developed style. '^
In time this harking back to early conceptions became more
and more common, and was
especially popular in the
Roman
period.
137
,'v,;.
m *•/;
,/,y^V
1. -ft,;"
',
.w'..?
'
'ifV
m '•«:Mi
ri'^
182. Battle. Relief
Heroon Trysa,
at c.
from the
420-410
One _
GiolbaschiB.C.
^""^*^^®*°^^^'^'^^^
iu^r"fjU Museum.
,
.
,
.
,
called archaistic). Archaizing as the
Pan Painter
(cf.
_,
,
r
.
fifth
century B.C.
especially the
is
the
rows of
reliefs
The of the
representing art
i
them
copies of n
/
(generally
in vase-paintings as early
in sculpture of this archaizing style
Hermes by Alkamenes
ringlets
sixth-century renderings.
showing schematized
mannerisms occur
ot
p. 347).
A well-known instance
Fourth Century b.c.
Roman
must, therefore, distinguish between straight ,
Greek archaizing sculptures and Roman adaptations
(cf.
fig.
from the
158),
where
above the forehead are reminiscent of
Attractive examples of the fourth century
folds in imitation of the archaic are the votive
Hermes and
the
nymphs
of the early fourth century B.C.
later fifth. Similar
(cf. is
conceptions prevailed.
fig.
219).
a continuation of that
The
faces
have the same
serene expressions, the stances have the same easy balance, and the
drapery has transparency often combined with heavier, agitated folds.
So similar in
fact are the renderings that the creations
of the two epochs
are sometimes difficult to distinguish.
Among
first
two decades of
the
fourth century were Hektoridas, Timotheos, and Thrasymedes,
who
worked on the temple of Asklepios
The
pedimental figs.
138
the prominent sculptors of the
statues,
akroteria,
and
at
Epidauros
reliefs
from
(cf.
that
p. 38).
building
(cf.
183-185), representing Amazons, Nereids, and the seated Asklepios,
183. Asklcpios. Relief
from the Temple
of Asklcpios at Epidauros, c. 400-380 B.C. Athens, National Museum.
184-5. Statues from the Temple of Asklepios at Epidauros, c. 400-380 B.C. Athens, National Museum.
186.
Eirene and
Ploutos, by Kephisodotos, c. 375-370 B.C. Roman copy.
Munich, Antikensammlung.
140
Fourth Century
have been preserved in
on
and
To some
fig.
180).
and they show the same delicacy of execution
part,
as the reliefs
the parapet of the temple of
Athena Nike
p.
36
of these figures newly identified fragments have
recently been joined, greatly adding to their general
of Leda of similar
(cf.
which survives
style,
in several
A
effect.^''
Roman
statue
copies, can be
associated with these sculptures.
The
Gradually, however, there came a change.
War
the Peloponnesian
(431-404
B.C.)
sufferings caused
by
and the teachings of poets and
philosophers like Euripides, Sokrates, and the Sophists were transforming the outlook of the people.
A greater interest in the individual was
the place of the former impersonal ideal. In art this
may
human characteristic. The
be called a more
the chief
quality.
A
reflected
is
soft graciousness
expressions of the faces
taking
by what
now becomes
show a dreamy become more manner without
often with an emotional note; the poses
gentleness,
sinuous; the drapery
is
rendered in a more naturalistic
exaggerated transparency or violent contrasts.
According to Pausanias
(IX, 16,
l),
Kephisodotos made a statue of
Eirene ('Peace') bearing the child Wealth in her arms.
Roman
copies
work have been recognized in several extant statues, the most complete of which is in Munich (fig. 186). Though there is a superficial of
this
likeness to fifth-century creations, the intimate relation
and
child, the tender expression
drapery herald a
soon
new
style.
The
original statue
with the infant Dionysos, which
A
statue of
Hermes
mentioned by Pliny (XXXIV, 87) work of Kephisodotos, has been persuasively identified in Roman
as a
copies
187). Its
(cf. fig.
Hermes K
was probably erected
Athens' victory over Sparta in 375 B.C.
after
woman
between
of Eirene, and the massive folds of the
c
composition
(cf p. 144). •
-K
is
a direct precursor of Praxiteles'
--I
r
•
\
is
Atter this period ot transition there arose three great sculptors,
dominated the
who
of the fourth century as Pheidias and Polvkleitos had ^
art
-'
that of the fifth.
They
are Praxiteles of Athens,
Hermes with the infant Dionysos, by Kcphisodo'^°^' .^^J^-STO b.c. Engraving altera Roman copy, 187.
Skopas of Paros, and
Lysippos of Sikyon.
The most famous work of Praxiteles was made for Knidos and which has survived (ct.
fig.
hand
She
188).
in front
is
many Roman
copies
of her, with the other holding her drapery. Pliny (XXXVI,
the finest statue 'not only by Praxiteles but in the
it
world'.
was placed
It
in
which he
represented nude, standing in a graceful pose, one
20) called
sides,
the Aphrodite
and from
all
in
an open shrine and was visible from
four sides, Pliny says,
it
whole
all
four
was equally admired. Lucian
{Eikones, 6) speaks of 'the smile playing gently over her parted lips'
and
ot
'the
melting gaze of the eyes with their bright and joyous
expression'.
Other sculptures
that can be attributed to Praxiteles
convincing evidence and of which
Roman
on more or
reproductions are
less
known 141
The Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles, 350-330 B.C. Roman copy. Vatican
188. c.
Museum.
142
191. The Aphrodite attributed to Praxiteles,
Roman
from Aries, 350-330 B.C.
c.
copy. Paris, Louvre.
143
Three Muses, from a Statue probably by Praxiteles, 350-330 B.C. Athens, National
192.
base c.
Museum.
193.
Hermes with the infant Diony-
by Praxiteles, c. 350-330 Olympia, Museum.
B.C.
SOS,
are the so-called Apollo Sauroktonos or Lizard-Slayer
Aphrodite of Aries
191), the
(fig.
(fig.
the
189),
Eros of Thespiai, the Eros of Parion,
the Apollo Lykeios, the Artemis of Gabii
190),
(fig.
and various
satyrs.
In addition, there are two works which are accepted by most authorities as original
works by
Praxiteles himself.
One
three slabs have been found at Mantineia,
Marsyas, and the Muses the very base seen
192),
(fig.
by Pausanias
a statue base, of
is
which
decorated with Apollo,
and which has been thought to be Pausanias
at Mantineia.
(VIII, 9,
1)
does not specifically say that the base 'on which were represented the
Muses and Marsyas playing the that the statues of Leto, Apollo,
by him. But
it
and Artemis which
seems probable that Praxiteles
Though
compositions.
was the work of
flute'
the
execution
of the
perfunctory, the dainty charm of the figures
we know
of Praxiteles'
Whether the
Hermes with
reliefs
in
designed the
somewhat
is
keeping with what
in the
Heraion
the infant Dionysos at
Olympia
(cf, p.
(figs.
193,
27) in 1877,
an original work by the great Praxiteles, or by a second-century
sculptor of that name, or a
The evidence
Roman copy
for the attribution to the
appears eminently sound. There (
supported were
it
at least
style.
statue of
which was found
194), is
is
Praxiteles, only
is
first
V,17, 3): 'In later times other offerings
has been
much
discussed.
famous fourth-century the statement
were dedicated
^^
artist
by Pausanias
in the Heraion.
Amongst these was a Hermes of marble bearing the infant Dionysos, the work of Praxiteles.' Added to this testimony, there is the composition of the statue, which (cf. p.
141),
and which
Aphrodite of
which
The
is
is
Praxiteles.
much
a direct descendant of Kephisodotos'
Above
all,
there
superior to that of the
— to
group
intimately related to the design of the Knidian
delicacy of the modelling with
gaze of the eyes'
144
is
its
is
many
the quality of execution existing
soft transitions,
use Lucian's expression
— can
Roman
copies.
and the 'melting in fact supply a
ufm
;
V
^•^i
146
<
Head of Her-
194.
mes.
Detail
from
193.
195. 'Rubouleus'
from Eleusis, c. 350330 B.C. Roman copy? Athens, National
Museum.
Standard by which to judge copies of the
Roman
age.
To
accurately transmitted in the copies one can
add
the sensitive finish imparted to the Hermes.
With regard
possibility
— that
famous one, but in that case
the Praxiteles
this
on the question, according to stylistically to
The
in
generations. the
to the other
important
name fact,
—would
not Pausanias
and perhaps speculated
wont ? Nor does
the statue correspond
second-century creations.
influence of Praxiteles
reflected
his
the forms
imagination
mentioned by Pausanias was not the
a later sculptor of that
have mentioned
in one's
many The
a
on the
art
of
his
time was profound.
major and minor work of
Leconfield Aphrodite,
Aberdeen Herakles, the bronze
the
statue of a
his
It is
and subsequent
'Eubouleus''^
(fig.
youth found
in the
195),
Bay 147
196.
Bronze statue
of a boy, from the Bay of Marathon, c.
340-300
B.C.
Athens, National
Museum.
148
197.
Head of
a girl,
from Chios, c. 320280 B.C. Boston,
Museum
of
Fine
Arts.
of Marathon
(fig.
many works of the
196), the
head from Chios in Boston
so-called Alexandrian style
derived from Praxiteles' creations.
embodied
in
And
his
the Knidian statue, inspired
(cf. p.
(fig.
167) are
197),
all
and
directly
conception of Aphrodite,
many
a later
work. The
Aphrodite of Capua, the Townley, the Ostia, the Capitoline, the Medici,
and even the Anadyomene, are
all
variations of the peerless Knidian.
According to the statements of ancient writers, Skopas worked on three important
century B.C. at
:
monuments of
the temple of
the
first
Athena Alea
half at
and middle of the fourth
Tegea, the temple of Artemis
Ephesos, and the Mausoleum of Halikarnassos
Sculptural remains of
all
(cf.
three buildings have survived
pp. 38,
48).
and some have
been tentatively associated with Skopas. Especially important are several 149
Larger Works of Sculpture
A^^^*^ -^^^% V f J^EnA^Bt
mJ9-^^
'
"^
C'-4 ^ if
/-
-3
198-9. Heads from the battered heads trom the pediments ot the temple at Tegea (cf. fi^s. 198, pediment of the Temple of _ _. , ^ Athena Alea at Tegea, l"^), which in their square torms, deep-set eyes, and furrowed brows
,.,.,.
.
,
,
^^^ work of a prominent artist. But that they are by Skopas So^b'c ^Athenr National ^^gS^^^ Museum. we have unfortunately no certain evidence; for Pausanias only says that
Skopas was the architect of the temple and that the two statues of Asklepios and Hygieia inside the 47,
were by him
(VIII, 45, 5; VIII,
!).-«
(XX XVI, 30), Mausoleum of Halikarnassos
According of the
to Pliny
Skopas; but there
is
and the same applies
the sculptures (cf.
diversity of opinion
which of the extant
to
cella
reliefs
fig.
on the East
among modern
should be attributed to him
scholars as (cf. p.
to the scanty remains of the decorated
from Ephesos, one of which
is
said
side
200) were executed by
154);
columns
by Pliny (XXXIV, 95) to have been
carved by Skopas.
Among
the non-architectural sculptures attributed to Skopas that
have been preserved in the a
youth standing with crossed
a
goose
It is
copies, perhaps the (cf.
Pausanias
legs, leaning
on
I,
most
attractive
is
43, 6), a figure of
a pillar or a thyrsos,
The upward inclination of the head, the the marked curve of the body place it in the fourth and the many Roman copies testify to its popularity.
at his feet (fig. 201).
melting gaze, century
B.C.,
noteworthy that the
of the Tesea heads. 150
Roman
so-called Pothos, 'Longing'
style
of
this figure
is
not very close to that
mmmmmmtiiifm.
light between Greeks and Amazons, from the Mausoleum of Halikar200.
nassos, attributed to
Skopas, B.C.
c.
355-330
London,
British
Museum.
^
m ^l Wm 3
^^^^R
201.
I'othos,
B.c:.
Roman
c.
350
cojiy.
Rome, Conservatori Museum. 202.
i
The Apoxyo-
menos, by l.ysippos, c. 325-300 B.C. Ro-
man copy. Museum.
x^'^'
wmm IW i^^^^^H
f#
Vatican
.^^^^^^^^^^^1
m,\''^ *
'^^^^B lit
204. c.
Herakles
325-300
B.C.
Epitrapezios, copy.
Roman
by Lysippos, London, British
Museum.
203. Agias, after Lysippos
Delphi,
Museum.
(?),
c.
325-300
B.C.
Fourth Century
Among
show Skopasian
the other statues thought to
most important
the
the
are
Meleager,
many Roman
preserved in
Lansdowne Herakles which
reproductions, and the
characteristics
now
is
at
Malibu,
California.
An 370
inscription
found
at
Delphi
cites
Lysippos as active soon
made
and, according to another inscription, he
B.C.,
king Seleukos (who assumed the royal
title
after
a portrait of
in 312 B.C.). Lysippos,
had a long career, and he is indeed referred to as 'an old man' Anthology (Agathias, A. 22). Several statues preserved in Roman
therefore, in the
copies
may be
attributed to him.
Among them
is
the so-called
menos, the youth scraping himself, in the Vatican
(fig.
Apoxyo-
202). It bears
out Pliny's statement (XXXIV, 65) that he introduced a
new system
of proportion, in which, in contrast to earlier sculptors and especially to Polykleitos, he drier'
made
the head smaller and 'the
body slenderer and
(corpora graciliora siccioraque), thus imparting to his figures
an appearance of greater height. In addition, there
movement. Trunk, head, and limbs
all
a
is
new
face in different
sense of
directions,
may be changed at any moment. Other attributions to Lysippos, based on various evidence, are the
suggesting that the action
Herakles Farnese, signed by the copyist Glykon, in Naples, of which
an apparendy more faithful version (cf.
preserved in a statue in the Uffizi
also the large bronze statuette in Paris,
found
at
Pergamon, Arch. An^. 1966,
Epitrapezios (cf.
is
(fig.
p. 441,
fig.
284, and one recendy
figs.
22a, 22b) the Herakles ;
204), thought to have served as a table decoration
Mardal, IX, 44) but of which a colossal replica has
which may have been
The
a straight
now
been found,
copy of the originaF^; and the Agias
which formed part of the monument erected at Delphi by the Thessalian Daochos to his forefathers, has been thought to be a contemporary copy of a lost bronze original made by Lysippos (fig.
203).
last,
for Thessaly; for the inscripdons
on the bases of the two
statues are
the same, except that in the case of the Thessalian inscripdon the signature
of Lysippos
is added. It must be admitted, however, that the Agias does not bear out Pliny's description of Lysippos' style, as does the
Apoxyomenos, and not yet current.
It
that in the fourth century B.C. faithful copies
seems more
likely, therefore, that the
was a new creadon, though perhaps
were
Delphian Agias
related in general type to Lysippos'
Thessalian statue.
At Olympia was found statue of the athlete If
part of a pedestal
which once supported
Poulydamas by Lysippos
(cf.
Lysippos was responsible also for the base, the
represent athletic feats,
would be
original
Pausanias VI, reliefs
works by the
on
ardst.
it,
a
5, l).
which
Unfortu-
nately they are considerably battered.
Lysippos was also a successful
portraitist.
He
is
known
to have
made
not only the portrait of king Seleukos above mentioned, but several of 153
:^^^':
/
m^ And
Alexander the Great. his colossal statues,
Though few of even from the His
artist.
scale
and
of animals.
works have been
his
little
he was Famous for his large compositions,
his figures
reliably identified,
that has survived, that
new system
Lysippos was a highly original
mark on
left their
To mention
Alexander Sarcophagus
evident,
is
of proportions, his realism, and the grandiose
of his compositions
succeeding centuries.
it
(cf.
fig.
the art of his time
and the
only one instance, in the famous
205) the
new
sense of
movement
in a
many-figured composition seems to be inspired directly by Lysippos' creations.
In addition to Praxiteles, Skopas, and Lysippos, there were naturally
many
Among
other prominent sculptors active in the fourth century.
them were two sons of Praxiteles, named Kephisodotos and Timarchos,
who decorated an altar at Kos, fragments of which have who made a seated statue of Menander for the theatre which the inscribed base has been found. Probably the which more than
forty
moreover resembles
Roman copies
a
are
known
survived, and
of Athens, of
sensitive
206)
(cf. fig.
head inscribed Menandros on a
—and which
relief
Marbury Hall and one on a late Roman mosaic from Mytilene
head of
once
in
— reproduces
this portrait.
According to Pliny (XXXVI, as well as the great
Skopas
30), Bryaxis, Leochares,
(cf. p.
150),
and Timotheos,
were engaged
in the decoration
many
slabs ot the trieze
of the Mausoleum of Halikarnassos; but though
and other sculptures of the building have survived, some condition, artists
it
has proved difficult to apportion the various pieces to the
named,
for
we know
too
little
of their individual
have, for instance, by which to judge Bryaxis'
which bears
in excellent
his
name
(fig.
work
207), but this signature
is
styles. All
we
a sculptured base
may have
referred
only to the statue which surmounted the base, and which no longer exists.
Of
his
famous colossal Hades-Sarapis only some reduced copies
and adaptations survive. And of
his
other works no trace remains,
except possibly the representations on coins of the Apollo he
Daphne, near Antioch. 1S4
made
tor
A
205. Alcxaiulcr the (jrtat fighting the Persians. Relief on the 'Alexander Sarco-
phagus' from Sidon, f.325-300
Museum.
B.C. Istanbul,
206. iMenandcr (?), c. 300 B.c;. Roman copy. BostcMi, Museum of Fine Arts.
To
Leochares has been attributed the prototype of a group Vatican representing Zeus' eagle carrying the boy Ganymede in
its
(fig.
208).
But here too the evidence
is
not conclusive.
It
in the
claws
only consists
of Pliny's mention that he made such a group, said to use
its
talons gently,
'in which the eagle is though the boy's garment protects him'
(X XXIV, 79), and that the style of the Vadcan statue seems to time (though some have thought
Timotheos
is
known
Epidauros, for he
is
to have
it
fit
Leochares'
Hellenistic).
worked on
the temple of Asklepios at ^^^-
cited in a building inscription recording the various
^^^'-"
^'^''
-'
^^^^"'^
^V
AXens';N^ui,Ht°ii?Lum:
LMrger Works of Sculpture
The
208.
eagle and
by Leochares, copy. Vatican,
contracts.
c.
Ganymede, perhaps
350-320
B.C.
Roman
Museum.
As most of the extant sculptures from that
building
(cf. p.
138),
particularly the akroteria, are carved in a delicate style with transparent draperies,
natural to think that
it is
But none of the Mausoleum and
sculptures,
Euphranor
Timotheos worked
slabs are
delicate carving
was
manner.
markedly similar to the Epidauros
a general characteristic of the period.
mentioned by ancient writers
is
in that
as
one of the most pro-
minent sculptors of the fourth century. According to Vitruvius praef.,
he wrote on the theory of
14),
stately statue
Ill,
(cf. fig.
from
his
temple
(l,
3, 3),
(cf. fig.
210),
sculptures can with certainty be attributed to him.
made
Silanion Laert.
far
(VII,
Except for the headless,
of his Apollo Patroos mentioned by Pausanias
and found on the Athenian Agora not
no extant
art.
25)
209).
a portrait of Plato, dedicated
and
He
too
by Mithradates (Diog.
may have survived in several Roman copies known to have written on art and specifically on
this is
proportion. Lysistratos, the brother of Lysippos,
to have taken plaster casts of statues
which
later
said to
other fourth-century
either in signatures or
have been the
PUny XXXV,
had important consequences (cf
Of the many
156
(cf.
is
artists
153),
first
an invention
p. 183).
whose names
are preserved,
through the mention of ancient writers, nothing
209. c.
Portrait
355-330
B.C.
of Plato, perhaps by Silanion, Roman copy. Athens, National
Museum.
210. Apollo Patroos, by Euphranor, B.C.
c.
350-330
Athens, Agora Museum.
^57
* ••
-
'
is
known by which
other hand, a
their style
•?k--A- •k-''
,;V,:-;.r ,-7
can be even tentatively visualized.
number of fine Greek
.>*^
\^-'t\
-;
On
originals have been preserved,
the
which
enable us to judge the style of the period; for instance the Demeter of
Knidos,
sitting serenely
the lovely head
on her crushioned, high-backed
chair
(fig.
213);
from the South slope of the Akropolis; the impressive
Asklepios from Melos; and the radiant bronze youth from Antikythera (fig.
211). In addition, there are
good Roman
copies of what must have
been tamous works of the time, among them the Apollo of Belvedere (fig.
212),
the
Capitoline Aphrodite
(fig.
214),
and the Artemis of
Versailles.
Portraiture, that
is
the
making of
certain individual, had begun, as (ct. p.
100).
this art, as
158
a
more or
we
less realistic likeness
saw, in
the
fifth
century B.C.
During the fourth century there was an increased
shown
in the
many examples
of a
interest in
that are attributable to this
•^
211. Bronze statue of a
youth
('Paris'),
found
the sea off Antikythera, c. 350-330 B.C. in
Athens, National
Museum.
<
212.
The
Apollo of 350-320
Belvedere,
c.
B.C.
Roman
can,
Museum.
213. The Kiiidos,
London,
copy. Vati-
Dcmeter c.
350
'I U.(
.
British
Museum.
159
The
214.
'Capitoline
Aphrodite', B.C.
c.
320-280
Roman
copy. Capitoline
Rome, Museum.
period.
A
few are Greek
originals, for instance, the statue of
from the Mausoleum of Halikarnassos are
Roman
copies in the
(cf.
Maussollos
most of them
pp. 48, 154),
form of busts and herms, or of whole
statues
reproducing the original compositions. It is
recorded that statues of Aischylos, Sophokles, and Euripides
were dedicated
The standing
in the theatre of
Athens by Lykourgos
figure of Sophokles in the Lateran
(fig.
{c.
The
in
An
Naples gives us the distinguished features of Euripides
inscribed (fig.
216).
seated Sokrates, perhaps by Lysippos, and the Plato, perhaps by
Silanion
160
B.C.).
215) has been
peruasively identified as reproducing one of these statues.
herm
340
(cf. p.
156),
have been tentatively reconstructed. All are expres-
216. Portrait of Euripides,
c.
340-330
B.C.
Roman
copy. National
Museum, Naples.
215. Portrait of Sophoklcs,
c.
340-330
Roman copy. Rome, Latcran Collection, now in the Vatican Museum. B.C.
sive of the individuals portrayed,
manner. The great age of
though
realistic
still
in a
somewhat generalized
Greek portraiture was not
to
come
until later (cf. p. 177).
The B.C.
majority of extant Greek gravestones belong to the fourth century
There seems indeed to have been a mass production in Athens
that time.
The
late-fifth-century
form of a decorated
by a pediment and flanked by antae
(cf. p.
131)
slab
now became
at
surmounted standardized.
Occasionally a simulated tiled roof with antefixes was substituted for the
pediment. Other
common
forms were
a
tall,
narrow
slab
crowned by an
—a lekythos or a loutrophoros. The name —and occasionally of members of family—were regularly
akroterion, and a marble vase
of the deceased
his
161
217.
of
Stele
Dexileos,
394 B.C. Athens, Kerameikos Museum. c.
218. Stele of a father and son, c. 350-330 B.C. Athens,
^-^osm^aitL^tj^sA.r.
National
round were
inscribed. Statues in the as they
had been
Many
of the
(cf.
engaged
Pliny,
also used for sepulchral
on these tombstones
reliefs
XXXVI,
it is
known
are but cursorily
vases.
The
stele
life,
but, so to speak, heroized.
women
of the young horseman Dexileos
around 394
in the Corinthian war. It
horseman
an inscription
compare
instructive to
fifth-century force
Several of the later a
is
B.C., for
in a similar composition, of a
Something of the
number of
one of
20). Favourite subjects are figures in quiet poses,
in the ordinary activities of
definitely dated
worked,
that Praxiteles executed
Other representations include horsemen, combats,
and
monuments,
earlier.
others are outstanding, and
them
Museum.
monuments
figures in high relief.
and
it
in childbirth,
(fig.
217) can be
states that
he
fell
with that of another
few decades
earlier (fig. 169).
stateliness has already vanished.
are in the
Among
form of deep the finest
representing a father mourning the death of his son
is
(fig.
niches, with
one in Athens
218)
—a masterly
rendering of restrained emotion. These large gravestones mark the increase of luxury in this
form of
art that
was presently curbed by an
anti-luxury decree forbidding the erection of sculptured gravestones in Attica (enacted by Demetrios of Phaleron between 317 and 307 B.C.).
By
this arbitrary action
one of the most pleasing
stopped in Athens for a considerable time. 162
artistic creations
was
Hn
#/^
'Ji
t.1
Si,
219.
Hermes and Nymphs.
Votive B.C.
amm
politan *
relief,
New
c.
York,
320-300 Metro-
Museum.
^^/^s^rmw'^'imi^^mt^^mmms^^
220. Votive relief dedicated to Asklepios, c. 380-350 B.C. Athens, National
Museum.
i^^hMMii^AHUid 221. Votive relief dedicated to Herakles, c. 400-380 B.C.
Boston,
Museum
of Fine
Arts.
222. Relief commemoratinL' the treaty between Athens
and Korkyra, 375-374 Ba
.
Athens, National Museum.
LMrger Works of Sculpture Besides Attica, Tarentum was an important centre for the production
of sepulchral
reliefs
Another class of
and
reliefs
statues not in
fourth century have been preserved
was made approached by
smaller, as
becomes
their
original
local limestone.
Greek examples of the Like their
the votive.
is
show
century predecessors, they generally cation
marble but in
many
of which
whom
the deity to
fifth-
the dedi-
votaries, the latter often considerably
humbler
status.
Sometimes a heroized youth
is
shown on horseback, singly or with attendants, or a man is seen reclining on a couch, with his wife and perhaps a servant in the offing. Inscriptions give the name of the dedicator and of the hero or deity. A favourite offering, especially in grottoes,
219). Generally
(fig.
which
tunics,
Hermes
is
was
to
shown
Pan and Hermes and escorting three
some
presumably dedicated by grateful patients to Asklepios
shows
(cf.
f.).
which were
cure, (fig.
pp. 137
in
220). Fig. 221
a relief in Boston, dedicated to Herakles Alexikakos, 'Averter of
of early fourth-century
Evil',
Nymphs
nymphs clothed
are often rendered in an archaizing style
Especially interesting are the reliefs representing
the
the lion's skin; to his
left is
style
;
with
in the centre stands Herakles
another figure, by some interpreted as Hermes,
but perhaps simply the youth
who brought
the offering.
Important also are a number of so-called record
erected to
reliefs,
commemorate specific events, and therefore precisely dated (cf. p. 133). Over fifty belonging to the fourth century are known, some with well preserved
Among
reliefs.
commemorating
Copenhagen, erected
in
the finest are those in Athens
in
Wom -n
from Sidon
may
in Istanbul.
On
its
ABOUT
and
in 329-8.
sides are eighteen figures,
The conquests of Philip and Alexander of Macedon and ties
222),
be dated the Sarcophagus of Mourn-
placed be: ween columns, each in an attitude of grief and
Hellenistic Period,
(fig.
in 375-4,
honour of Euphyes and Dexios
In the middle of the century ing
Korkyra
the treaty between Athens and
all different.
the principali-
created by their successors vastly extended the boundaries of the
330—100 B.C. Greek world and spread Hellenic civilization throughout an Eastern, Hellenistic empire. It was inevitable that this enlargement should bring with as
fundamental changes also in
it
we
art.
Many
of these changes had,
saw, been initiated by Lysippos, but they were further developed
during the two succeeding centuries. All were in the direction of increased realism
— realism
in modelling, in
scope of the subjects treated.
To
movement
in
human body,
its
movement,
and
in expression,
in the
represent the variety of planes in the different
contrasting directions,
the
texture and multiple folds of drapery, human character and emotion, and to reproduce these in a naturalistic artists.
This deepened interest in realism showed
selected. racial
Old
itself also in
the subjects
age, childhood, deformity, anger, despair, drunkenness,
differences,
periods, were
166
manner became the great ambition of
now
though occasionally represented studied with
new
insight.
in
the
preceding
Hellenistic Period
This development was not confined to a few the
whole Hellenistic world.
One
is
A
number of
localities. It
styles
spread over
can be distinguished.
the so-called sfumato style, with delicate modelling, soft transitions
from plane to plane, and serene expressions.
It
has been associated with
good many examples of this type have been found. Another, more vigorous, style shows marked contrasts in the various Alexandria, where a
planes, closely knit groups, lively action with frequent contortions,
emotional expressions.
It
has been called Pergamene, for
by the sculptural dedications of the kings of Pergamon.
Greek mainland, where the firmly rooted,
and the old is
A
exemplified
third, the so-
been thought to be characteristic of the
called traditional style, has
retained. Frequently there
it is
and
traditions subjects,
a trend
of the past were supposedly
stances
and compositions often
toward the picturesque, manifested,
for instance, in the introduction of landscape.
Such
local designations are
quently recurring types but ;
it
convenient as describing familiar,
must be remembered
that these styles
fre-
were
by no means confined to Alexandria, Pergamon, and mainland Greece.
They
are observable
the Islands, Greece, as before,
all
over the Greek Hellenistic world
Northern Africa, and Southern
travelled extensively.
took them, that
is, all
They went where
—Asia Minor,
Italy. Artists then,
their
commissions
over the far-flung Hellenistic empire, and
when one
Tychc of Antioch, Eutychidcs, after 300 H.c. Roman copy. Vatican Museum. (Right forearm
223. The
by
restored, head alien.)
Themis, by Chaire300-250 B.C. c. Athens, National Museum. 224.
stratos,
167
;
Larger Works of Sculpture
undertaking was
jfiinished
they went to the next. This circumstance,
by ancient writers and inscriptional evidence, explains the
certified
similarity of styles in sculptures
therefore, not, as
found in
was once thought,
different localities.
There were,
specific schools located in particular
but rather various tendencies that characterize Hellenistic
regions,
sculpture in general.
This
is
tures that
one of the reasons why, in have survived,
it is
spite
of the
difficult to trace in
many
Hellenistic sculp-
them
a detailed, conse-
cutive development. In general terms, however, one might say that in the late
fourth and the
half of the third century B.C. the classical traditions
first
of the preceding periods were of the third and the realism in the
first
still
strong, whereas in the second half
half of the second century B.C. a vigorous
was evolved. Then, from the middle of the second century on,
wake of the Roman conquests,
originality
waned, and
artists
there
was a diminution of strength
began to feed more and more on the
achievements of their great past. Niobid. c. 300 B.C. copy. Rome, Con-
225.
Roman
servator!
Museum.
226. Aphrodite, by Doidalsas,
c.
copy.
seum.
Roman Rome, Terme Mu-
250-240
B.C.
A
few examples, in
tentative chronological sequence,
may
serve to
bring out the chief characteristics of Hellenistic art in contrast to those
of the preceding periods.
A
figure of
Tyche or
'Personification' of the city of
sculptor Eutychides (mentioned by Pausanias, VI, 2, 6)
Antioch by the is
preserved in
Roman
.. Antioch
copies
was
(cf. fig.
223) and must date after 300 B.C., the time
riii^irounded. She
is
on the shoulder of
resting
who
her and
1
1
1
when r
Ariadne, Reconstructed
227.
represented seated on a rock, one toot Museo
240
B.C.
Rome,
dei Gessi.
shown swimming beneath Orontes. The contrasting directions
a youth,
personifies the river
who
c.
cast.
is
of the folds, head, trunk, and limbs in the Tyche give animation to a
seemingly quiet pose.
Also in the
first
quarter of the third century B.C. must belong the
Themis from Rhamnous directly derived
(fig 224),
signed by Chairestratos, which
from fourth-century
The group of Niobids
creations.
in Florence
evidently copied from an original of
Lysippos
is still
strong. It
is
and elsewhere c.
300
(cf.
fig.
225) was
B.C., for the influence
must have been composed
of
for hilly ground,
with the figures designed in a variety of postures, in which the frontal
view of the torso predominated.
The
statue
mentioned by Pliny
work by Doidalsas of Bithynia, and preserved in many (cf. fig. 226), may be assigned middle of the third century. The lower part of the body and the
(XXXV,
Roman to the
of 'Aphrodite washing herself,
35) as a
copies as a Crouching Aphrodite
legs face in
one direction, there
is
a twist to the body,
and the head
is
turned sharply to her right.
The Sleeping Ariadne figure of
c.
240
B.C.,
in the Vatican
(fig.
227). supplies a reclining
and the Nike of Samothrace
{c.
200
B.C.),
standing
169
228.
Aphrodite from c. 200 B.C. or Paris, Louvre.
Melos, later.
Poseidon from Melos, c. 200 B.C. Athens, National
229.
Museum.
230. The Nike of Samothrace, c. 200 B.C. Paris,
Louvre.
on is
the
the
prow of
a ship, with her drapery
embodiment of triumph
With the Athens,
we
swept backward by the wind,
in victory (fig. 230).
statue of Poseidon,
found
reach late Hellenistic art
in the island of (fig.
229).
The
Melos and
now
in
different directions
given to the various parts of the body and the strong contrasts in the folds of the drapery impart a restless impression to
what
at first sight
appears a stationary stance. Likewise the famous Aphrodite of Melos in the
Louvre
feeling of
(cf.
fig.
and the variegated If
228), in spite of her statuesque pose, conveys a
movement through
we compare
folds of the drapery.
these statues with those in the
earlier periods, the different
evident.
An
the different directions of torso and limbs
same stances
conception of the Hellenistic
animated, sometimes almost
artist
theatrical, quality has
in the
becomes taken the
The contrast is even more marked in the larger compositions, especially when stress of combat or suffering are represented. Foremost among these are the Pergamene sculptures. They consist of: (1) the over-life-size statues of a Dying Gaul in the Capitoline place of the former serenity.
170
.*^V«*'
v?^ >>v>
in
s^«
^:.
231.
Gaul
killing
himself and his wife, c.
240-200
B.C.
Ro-
Rome, Terme Museum.
man
172
copy.
^^'W
232.
Dying Gaul,
233. Gaul,
c.
200
c.
240-200
B.C.
Roman
B.C.
Roman
copy.
copy. Naples,
Rome,
Capitoline
Museum.
Museo Nazionale.
173
between
234-235.
Fight
gods and
giants.
frieze
of the
and Athena c. 180-150
From
altar at
the
of Zeus
Pergamon,
B.C.
Berlin,
Museum.
236. Laokoon, by Hagesandros, Polydoros and
Athanodoros, B.C. Vatican
Museum Museum
(fig. (fig.
175-150
c.
Museum.
232) and of a Gaul killing himself and his wife in the 231),
which have been
groups dedicated by Attalos
I
identified as copies of the
of Pergamon (241-197
B.C.)
Terme bronze
after his
victories over the Gauls; (2) the marble statues, two-thirds life-size, in
various
Museums, of Gauls
which reproduce
(cf. fig.
233),
in all probability the
Amazons,
Persians,
bronze figures
set
Attalos on the Akropolis of Athens in 200 B.C.; and, above
174
and
giants,
up by the same all,
(3) the
^
I
*
;
•
-i'
V-
<
v<
'^'v
stupendous
frieze
of gods fighting giants
Altar of Zeus and Athena at
Eumenes
II
(197-159
representations
—
B.C.).
in modelling,
Closely allied to these great
from other
Pergamon They form
localities
— the
complete abandonment of
(cf.
(cf.
figs.
234, 235)
p. 40), built
the climax of
from the
probably by
Greek
realistic
composition, and expression of emotion.
Pergamene creations are powerful
half-reclining Satyr in sleep, the
Laokoon
statues
Munich, shown
in the
in the Vatican"^ (fig. 236),
17S
237.
The 'Belvedere Torso', by Apollonios,
c.
150 B.C.
Roman
copy. Vatican
Museum.
Hellenistic Period
writhing in an agony of pain, the comparable statues from Sperlonga (cf.
Torso
239), the Belvedere
fig.
Centaurs in the Capitoline
Museum
in the Vatican (cf.
fig.
240),
have the swelling muscles and
in the Louvre. All
(fig.
237), the
two
and the 'Gladiator'
restless
poses favoured
in late Hellenistic art.
The
variety of subjects attempted in this period
Dancing Erotes
satyrs, old fishermen, old
almost endless.
market women, sleeping children and
hanging Marsyas, a jockey on
238), a
(cf. fig.
is
his horse (fig. 241),
wrestlers, all appear in life-size statues, as well as in statuettes
and
in
relief (cf. p. 203). It is
natural that this age of heightened individualism
also for
its
(305-284
portraits.
preserved on Hellenistic coins
B.C.),
was distinguished
Outstanding early examples are those of Ptolemy (cf. p.
260) and in
I
Roman
marble heads; the statue of Demosthenes, shown standing with clasped
hands
(cf. fig.
243), of
which the Greek prototype may be attributed to
Polyeuktos of Athens and dated about 280 B.C.; and a seated Epikouros (about 270 (cf.
fig.
B.C.),
which can be reconstructed from the surviving heads
244) and
in the Louvre,
238. Eros,
c.
torsos.
cf.
240-200
A
seated figure of Chrysippos (reconstructed
fig.
242),
which evidently reproduces the
B.C.
Greek
original
(?).
New
statue
by
York, Metropolitan Museum.
178
<
239. Head from Sperlonga, longa. Museum.
4
240. Centaur, c. 150 B.C. Capitoline Museum.
<
241.
Jockey,
c.
240-200
c.
175-150
Roman
B.C.
B.C. Sper-
copy.
Rome,
Athens, National
Museum.
243.
Portrait
Polyeuktos,
c.
of Demosthenes, attributed to 280 B.C. Roman copy. Copenhagen.
Portrait of Chrysippos, by Euboulides (?), 200 B.C. Reconstructed Roman copy. Paris, Louvre.
242. c.
179
244. Portrait of Epikouros,
Barracco 245.
c.
270
B.C.
Roman copy. Rome,
Museum.
Homer,
c.
150 B.C.
Roman
copy. Boston,
Museum
of Fine Arts.
246. Anytos, by Damophon, from the soura, c. 180-140 B.C. Athens, National
Temple
at
Museum.
Lyko-
Hellenistic Period
206
B.C.
Pliny xxxiv, 88), illustrates the heightened reansm of that time.
The
Euboulides erected shortly
after the philosopher's death
in .
(cf.
final stage
was reached
in the blind
Homer
(fig.
245), stylistically connect-
ed with the Pergamene Altar, in a head identified as Euthydemos Bactria
from
its
which survives
similarity to the coin types,
in
many Roman copies. monuments datable
Several important
and
in the
(cf.
fig.
made
the
in the first half of the
for the sanctuary of
same Damophon
who
Delphi
(fig.
247),
Pydna (167 B.C.) Macedonians in a at
Lagina
in
Despoina
6).
Another
which Aemilius Paulus erected
for a statue spirited style.
of himself;
The
friezes
art.
second
One is
at
Lykosoura by
it
is
a sculptured base
after his victory at
shows Romans fighting
from the temple of Hekate
Asia Minor, and of the temple of Artemis Leukophryene at
Magnesia also belong to the second century (cf. p. 39) are utilized in
Museum,
of
repaired the ivory plaques of the
Pheidian Zeus at Olympia (Paus. IV, 31, at
at
group of Demeter, Despoina, Artemis, and the giant Anytos
246),
Damophon,
of Aemilius Paulus Delphi, c. 167 B.C.
a statue
pseudo-Seneca
century B.C. further enlarge our knowledge of late Hellenistic the colossal
I
247. Fight between Romans and Macedonians. Base of
new, somewhat
stilted
compositions.
representing the Apotheosis of
by Archelaos of Priene,
is
now
dated
c.
Homer
220-170
;
in both, earlier motifs
A relief in (fig.
the British
248) and signed
B.C.
181
Larger Works of Sculpture
248.
The Apotheosis of Homer, by Archelaos of
Priene, third to second century B.C.
London,
British
Museum.
Hellenistic Period
from the
Meleager,
249.
Hcroon
Kalydon, c. 150Athens, National
at
100 B.C.
Museum. 250. Athena, attributed to
Euboulides, c. 150-100 B.C. Athens, National Museum.
In the second century B.C. began the copying of former masterpieces.
Outstanding examples are the Athena Parthenos found the medallions
at
Pergamon and
from the Heroon of Kalydon, which include busts of the
well-known types of the fourth-century Meleager
A head of Athena
Heraklea Farnese.
(fig.
249) and of the
(fig.
250), attributed to the sculptor
Euboulides, harks back to the Athena Velletri of the fourth century B.C.
The
torso of a portrait statue from Delos, representing the
magistrate Gaios Ophellios
Timarchides of Athens, artists,
a
recalls the
Hermes of 7), made
according to Pausanias (x, 34,
Pheidias'
Athena Parthenos for
group of Muses,
on
a
Praxiteles.
a
Elateia. Philiskos
later exhibited in
signature survives
Roman
251) and signed by Dionysios and
(fig.
Rome
(Pliny,
These same
copy of the shield of of Rhodes,
who made
XXXV,
and whose
34),
base from Thasos,^^ also evidently utilized
former creations. All these sculptures, however, are free copies which only approximate their prototypes. It
beginning of the
Roman demand
was not
first
for
until the very
century B.C. that, stimulated by the widespread
famous Greek sculptures, mechanical copying by the
pointing process was introduced ot a
Greek
end of the second or the
statue or relief
(a
process
many marble
still
in use today).
copies could be
From
a cast
made with
considerable accuracy by transferring points from cast to marble block, (ircck artists, in the service of
numbers
for the
possible
that
Pliny
Rome, produced such
Pasiteles
It is
and Arkesilaos, two sculptors mentioned by
(XXXIII, 130, 156,
etc.) as
prominent
invented or at least popularized this process. art
copies in vast
adornment of public places and private houses.
in the first century B.C.,
A new
era in sculptural
was thereby introduced. 183
Larger Works of Sculpture
Portrait of Gaios Ophellios, by Dionysios and Timarchides, c. 100 B.C. Delos, Museum.
251.
Even more
accurate than such marble reproductions were those in
bronze, for they could be cast directly from moulds taken from the
and
original statues,
of the originals.
their
forms were, therefore, identical with those
No final 'modelling' of the surface by the master sculptor
was needed, only the chasing of locks and other statues in
bronze of the
from Greek In cases or
details.
That
why
is
difficult to distinguish
originals.
when no
relief, in
sculpture
Roman Age are sometimes
cast or
mould could be taken of
the original statue
chryselephantine statues for instance, or
was
inaccessible (as in the
Nike
when
a piece of
parapet), the copying
had to be
made freehand. It then became a mere adaptation. The same applies to the many reproductions of Greek sculptures, sometimes in reduced scale, that became parts of new compositions on marble vases, funerary altars, candelabra, and sarcophagi.
Whatever one may think of these reproductions quality, finish
some being mediocre, others
imparted by the sculptor
for these copies
—
it is
excellent,
well to
—and they vary in
depending on the
remember
that,
were
final
it
not
and adaptations, our knowledge of Greek sculpture
would be meagre indeed;
for the majority of
Greek
originals, be they of
marble or bronze, have disappeared in the lime kiln and melting pot.
U4
CHAPTER 4
STATUETTES AND SMALL RELIEFS (Exclusive of Terra Cottas)
Greek of
statuettes
and small
the large sculptures
branch of Greek
art.
reliefs
on
do not merely repeat the story
They form
a smaller scale.
a separate
Their uses were different from those of the
were often parts of complex ensembles and were
larger works, for they
designed with these ends in view. Moreover, their small dimensions,
which enable one to hold and turn them round intimate relationship.
of Greek
As
Hence they
are
among
in one's hands,
the
make
for
most popular products
art.
in substantive sculpture, so in these statuettes
and small
reliefs,
the
Greeks used a variety of materials. In addition to stone (marble, lime-
and
stone,
alabaster)
and metal (gold,
silver,
bronze, lead, and iron), they
employed ivory, bone, amber, wax, wood, and (The
On
chapter.)
especially terra cotta.
being so numerous, will be discussed in a separate
terra cottas,
account of the perishable or precious nature of some of
Only bronze
these materials, relatively few specimens have survived.
have been preserved in any quantity. Their small dimensions
statuettes
and the
fact that
many were
buried in antiquity saved them from being
melted down, as were the bronze statues. Lead was used for cheap dedications,
especially
in
early
times
—to
judge by the
stamped figures found in the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia their unattractive surface
many
small,
at Sparta;
but
and the softness of the metal prevented any
widespread use. This account, therefore, will deal chiefly with bronzes; but small sculptural
works
in
other materials will occasionally be mentioned to
prevent giving a one-sided picture of the original output.
Many
of the bronze statuettes extant today once served as decorative
on
features
and other
tripods,
and
utensils.
as handles, feet,
Some were
and ornaments on vases, mirrors,
dedicated in sanctuaries, and these
name of the deity to whom the The bases were either cast in one
occasionally have inscriptions giving the offering
was made and of the dedicator.
piece with the statuettes, or the feet of the figure
were provided with
tangs and inserted into a separate base.
The earliest
ot
consistency of the metal varies from almost pure copper in the
periods to a mixture of copper and
some
impurities.
A
few of the
earlier
tin,
generally with the addition
examples were hammered in 185
— Statuettes
and Small
Reliefs
separate
and fastened together on a wooden
sheets
The
core.
large
majority, however, were cast solid, not hollow, for the material saved
by
was not
that process
compensate for the additional
sufficient to
labour entailed.
Bronze
of every period have survived in considerable
statuettes
quantity and so present a continuous picture of the evolution of sculptural art. In the following account only a
show
Period,
Ninth to Eighth Century B.C.
the high quality of
Many
few outstanding examples,
sequence, can be mentioned, enough, however, to
in chronological
Geometric
Greek
some of the output.
bronze statuettes and small
of the geometric period
reliefs
antedate the extant statues by a century or two, and so illustrate Greek
work in its earliest phase. They are chiefly of the human and animal figures horses, sculptural
—
that once decorated the rims, handles, legs,
Some have
and
and consist
cast solid
oxen, deer, birds,
feet
etc.
of tripods and vases.
designs under their bases, and were evidently used as seals i;
others have holes or loops for suspension and must have been dedicatory
end of the
offerings in sanctuaries. Occasionally, especially towards the
eighth century, a figure in action or a group was attempted. Attacking
warriors and charioteers have
Olympia (fig.
his
(cf.
bow is
In
all
man with
and so on.
in Wiirzburg;
as a
appreciated, these
tomb
in
figures,
and
depended on
when
attention
little
a flowing
is
contour
simplified forms are again
ornaments have a special appeal. light remains of several ivory
with pottery datable,
They represent nude female
The
effect
Athens there came to
against the thighs.
bronze
The
whole. Today,
little
statuettes, together
Seventh Century B.C.
New York; a man stretching
these figures the forms are generalized
and the design
of a helmetmaker
statuettes
a centaur are in
paid to anatomical structure.
In a
the Akropolis of Athens, from
and elsewhere;
253),
fig.
252) and of a
come from
figures in
The forms
are
and presage the
it is
stiff,
thought, 750 B.C. or
later.
erect poses, with hands held
more rounded than
in the
contemporary
Orientalizing sculptures.
later.
generalized statuettes of the geometric age were followed during
more formalized renderings
the seventh century by in anatomical structure
is
evident.
An
in
which an
example of about 700
B.C.,
interest
now
in
Boston, represents a standing youth in the attitude of the early kouros (fig.
254);
it
bears the inscription 'Mantiklos dedicated
Darter of the silver bow, as part of
his tithe,
him gracious recompense'. The various the thighs bulge
expanded.
To
from the
A
but the forms are large statuette
shows
U6
to the Far-
do thou, Phoebos, grant
parts of the figure are accentuated,
waist, the shoulders protrude, the thorax has
may be assigned several statuettes from Olympia. The stance is still
the early seventh century
of warriors in an attitude of attack, rigid,
me
a slightly
less
angular.
from Dreros, Crete
more advanced
(fig.
255), of about
650 B.C.
stage with even an attempt to render
252. Hclmctmakcr. Bronze statuB.C. New ette, eighth century
York, Metropolitan Museum. 253. Charioteer. Bronze statuette
from Olympia, eighth century Athens, National
B.C.
Museum.
kjk
Bronze statuette of a youth, 700-680 B.C. Boston, Museum of
254. c.
Fine Arts.
Youth carrying a ram. Bronze
Kouros. Bronze statuette fromDreros, f. 650B.C. Heraklion,
256.
Museum.
B.C. Berlin,
255.
statuette
from
Crete,
Museum.
c.
640-610
Bronze
257.
650
c.
statuette of a girl, B.C. Baltimore, Walters Art
Gallery.
muscles and bones. Berlin later
(fig.
A
youth carrying a ram, found in Crete and
256), illustrates the stage
seventh century B.C.
statuettes the action
As female
(cf.
of the arms
figs.
in
53-56), except that in the bronze
is freer.
counterparts of these male figures
two female
may be
(fig.
257), the
youth,
255,
and the marble karyatids supporting
statuettes
cited a statuette in
found with the Dreros
Baltimore fig.
now
reached in the stone kouroi of the
vessels
(cf. fig.
258)
discovered at Olympia, Isthmia and elsewhere. They are reduced versions
of the statues shown in century, should
come
figs.
57 and 58.
A
little later,
the earliest of the statuettes found in a deposit
beneath the floor of Croesus' temple
(fig.
259).
These
statuettes are all cast solid, except those
from Dreros, which
worked
in the so-called sphyrelaton technique, in
which hammered
seventh century
(cf.
are
plates
it is
now known from
hollow casting was introduced
fairly early in the
of bronze are nailed to a actual examples that
fig.
wooden
core.
Though
296), solid casting
statuettes, as shown, for instance, by a bird
Perachora, and a horse from Olympia (the
188
early in the sixth
was continued for large (fig.
260) and lion from
last cast in several pieces).
m
Marble karyatid from Olympia, c. 640-620 B.C. Olympia, Museum.
258.
259. Bronze statuette of a
girl,
from Ephesos,
B.C.
Istanbul,
c.
600-580
Museum.
260. Bronze figure of a bird from Perachora, c. 620-600 B.C.
Athens, National
Museum.
Statuettes
and Small
Reliefs
261. Warship. Ivory relief late
from
Sparta,
seventh century B.C. Athens, National
Museum.
The Judgment of
262.
from
Paris.
comb
Ivory
Sparta, late seventh century B.C.
Athens, National Museum.
In addition to ttiese bronze examples, figures in other materials have
been discovered.
Many
ivory statuettes and
eighth and the seventh century B.C. have
reliefs
come
dating from the late
to light in the sanctuary
of Artemis Orthia in Sparta. Especially noteworthy are two vivacious reliefs,
a
one depicting a warship about to depart
comb, the Judgment of Paris
An
(fig.
262)
(late
ivory plaque with two female figures in
(fig.
261), the other,
relief,
now
in
once perhaps decorated a chest,2 for there are two holes for style points to the third quarter
A
remarkable group in
been found
in
Samos
wood
(fig.
tunately the
wood
190
York,
rivets.
The
of perhaps around 625 to 600 B.C. has
shows Zeus and Hera with arms
Dermys and
Kittylos (cf p. 58). Unfor-
has disintegrated, so only illustrations
There remains, however,
New
of the seventh century.
263). It
intertwined in the manner of
on
seventh century).
a small
now
exist.
head of a kouros, of the end of the
^
Wooden group from
263. Zeus and Hera.
Samos,
625-600
c.
B.C.
seventh century from the same find, the
body (now missing) by
figures
have come to
light in
a
now
tong.
Athens;
in
Recently
it
other
was joined early
to
wooden
Samos, among them an imposing Hera
wearing a high polos. All these figures in various materials and
from
different
localities
indicate widespread sculptural activity throughout the seventh century.
From
the sixth century there has survived a splendid series of bronze statues of that time.
They
have been found throughout Greece, Asia Minor, and Southern
Italy,
statuettes
which can be correlated with the
SIXTH
CENTURY
B.C.
and they show the same variety of stances and the same steady evolution towards, naturalistic form.
As an
may be
early
example of the standing youth
a statuette
from Samos
cited (fig. 264), and, as a late archaic one, a fine statuette
the Akropolis
(fig.
265).
The
first is
from
related to the stone kouroi of the
191
-
first
half of the sixth century, the second to those belonging to the end
of that century figure of
(cf.
Hermes wearing
masterpiece of late archaic 267. Runner. Bronze statuette from Samos, c. 520
500
B.C.
Vathy, Museum.
To
fig. 85).
about the same time also belongs a
a short tunic, hat, and shoes
(fig.
266), a
art.
The evolution of the female standing type can be realized by comparing from Samos (fig. 268), of the second quarter of the sixth
a bronze figure
century, with a bronze figure in Berlin of about 540 B.C. in
which the drapery shows the
stylized folds of the later
(fig.
269),
Akropolis
maidens. Several fine statuettes are in the posture of attack, popular also in
We may illustrate here now in New York (fig. 270),
the larger sculptures. in Arcadia
and
and a Herakles brandishing Athens
The
(fig.
his club,
of about 530 to 520 at
Perachora and
B.C.,
now
in
271).
half-kneeling stance was used to indicate flying or running in
statuettes as in the larger sculptures.
figures are in
Good
examples of such flying
Athens and Berlin, and a particularly vivacious one, of
the late archaic period,
192
found
a sturdy Herakles, found
was found
at
Samos
(fig.
267).
264. Kouros. Bronze statuette from Samos, early sixth century B.C. Vathy,
Museum. 265. Kouros. Bronze statuette from the Akropolis, late sixth
century B.C. Athens, National Museum. 266. Hermes. Bronze statuette,
late
sixth
century B.C. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts.
268. Bronze statuette of a girl, from Sa-
mos, c. 575-550 B.C. Vathy, Museum. 269. Bronze statuette
of
a girl,
Berlin,
c.
540 B.C.
Museum. 193
'%;':
Efi.
4
270. Hcrakles. Bronze statuette
from Arcadia, c. 530New York, Metro-
520 B.C. politan
M
Museum.
271. Herakles. Bronze statuette
500
from Perachora,
B.C.
c.
Athens, National
Museum.
/
^
Bronze from Dodona (?), 530 B.C. London, British
272.
Banqueter.
statuette c.
Museum.
Lady holding ewer and basin. Ivory statuette from Ephesos, before 550 273.
B.C. Istanbul,
274.
Wooden
Museum. statuette
from
Klazomenai, c. 600-550 Munich, Antiquarium.
B.C.
AwV
(,
mssxkimii-.ttX.^::'-
The
statuette of a banqueter (fig. 272), a recent acquisition of the
Museum, shows
British
reclining stylized is
—legs
a figure in the conventional attitude of half
outstretched,
and yet singularly alive.
in the National
There
2 'e
a
head
erect,
turned
—beautifully
A similar example, less carefully executed,
Museum, Athens
(no. 16353).
few exceedingly instructive instances of archaic wooden
statuettes of this period.
At Palma
were found three female of the seventh century the sixth.
trunk
They stand
di
Montechiaro
in Sicily, for instance,
one perhaps
statuettes in that material, p. 190), the
(cf.
two
erect, in stiff attitudes,
others of the
first
still
half of
each wearing a long tunic
and a headdress. The missing forearms were extended and doubtless held offerings; they were
made
tenons. Traces of paint remain. Another this
time has been found
vivors
(cf.
sculpture
—
p. 54)
at
and attached with
in separate pieces
Klazomenai
wooden
(fig.
274).
statuette of
about
These wooden sur-
bring to mind the extensive use of this material for
in antiquity as
nowadays.
Ivory statuettes were found in a deposit beneath the floor of Croesus' temple a
at
Ephesos
ewer and
Another
A
relief
(cf. p.
188).
The most
a basin, full of Eastern grace
attractive
is
and suavity
interesting series of ivory figures
a
little
(fig.
lady holding
273).
have come from Samos.
of the early sixth century shows Perseus cutting off the head
of Medusa
(fig.
275).
The Medusa
recalls the
Gorgon of
the pediment
of Korkyra, and the Perseus the Chrysaorofthe same pediment 196
(cf. fig. 62).
M
and Medusa. Ivory relief from Samos, early sixth century U.C.
275. Perseus
Athens, National
<
Museum. from
276. Runner. Bronze statuette Olympia, early fifth century
B.C.
Olympia, Museum.
277. Discus-thrower. Bronze statuette, York, early fifth century B.C.
New
Metropolitan 278.
Museum.
Bronze statuette, Washington, Dumbarton
'Hephaistos'.
460 Oaks.
B.C.
c.
The discovery of
a treasure trove at
dainty ivory figures.
Many were
Delphi has supplied a mass of
evidently used as inlays, perhaps
wooden
thrones. Others were
suggests
Greek workmanship around the middle of the
parts of statues
A number of limestone and alabaster statuettes B.C.
have come to light on the
Rhodes, Knidos,
etc.
They
sites
(cf.
The
p. 54).
on
style
sixth century.
assignable to
of early sanctuaries
at
c.
600-540
Naukratis,
represent male and female figures, standing
and seated, some holding offerings. Their purpose was evidently votive. Small amber statuettes and groups have been found in Etruria.
Greek —a woman carrying a child, and Aphrodite —are in New York.-* Many others are in the Museo Preistorico
in late archaic
with Adonis in
Two,
style
Rome. Several
specially fine examples,
from Sala Casalina, are
in
the Petit Palais in Paris.
The
art
of the early
fifth
century
is
well illustrated in a bronze statuette
of a striding Herakles in the Benaki in
Olympia
(fig.
276), inscribed:
Museums and
T belong
to Zeus'.
in a dainty
As
runner
in the approxi-
FIRST HALF OF THE FIFTH
CENTURY
B.C.
mately contemporary pedimental sculptures from Aegina, the forward
motion
is
no longer suggested by a half-kneeling
in a naturalistic
athlete,
in
manner.
New York
To (fig.
preparatory for the throw. his right
may be
hand
to his lips, in
stance, but
is
expressed
about the same epoch belongs the splendid 277),
raising
The bronze
his
discus above his head,
statuette of a
youth holding
an attitude of prayer,^ also in
assigned to about 470 B.C. In
its
quiet dignity
it
New
York,
heralds the
197
?^«
279. Bronze statuette of a
vouth,
York,
450 B.C. Metropolitan c.
New Mu-
The Hephaistos
classical Style. .
IS
,
A
^^"'^"
,
•
,
a splendid
•
statuette in ^
,-
r
a striding figure or
Dumbarton Oaks
this
Olympia.
statuette
period
A
of a
little
once formed
it
;
later,
apparently
youth,
finishing
momentary pose recalls the works of Myron and of goats in the British the
first
Museum
half of the fifth century
(cf. fig.
a
278)
B.C.
(cf. fig.
part of a chariot
perhaps around 450
(fig.
..r.
^
around 460
large statuette of a horse, about 8| in. high
product of at
^
,
example of
B.C.,
jump
280,
also a
is
group dedicated should come a (fig.
his circle.
279).
The
Two statuettes
281) are likewise products of
—a period famed for
its
animal sculpture
in ancient times.
A
series
of draped female figures standing in quiet poses belong to
the second quarter of the fifth century.
woollen peplos, arranged reality infinitely varied.
198
in a
Many
few
They
folds, all
are clothed in the heavy
seemingly
alike,
but in
acted as supports of standing mirrors
280. Bronze statuette of
from Olympia, 470-460 B.C. Olympia,
a horse c.
Museum.
281. Bronze statuette of a goat, c. 500-450 u.C. London, British Mu-
seum.
Statuettes
and Small Reliefs
p. 221),
(cf.
utensils;
or of incense burners
(fig.
283),
as in the attitude of
made
About 450— 330
B.C.
and the 'spinning'
from the temple of Zeus
is,
of the second half of the
in
interpreted
were apparently
approximates that of the pedimental
Olympia
at
(now
sacrificing)"?
108).
(cf. p.
Comparatively few Greek bronze statuettes of the that
formed parts of
282), or
girl in Berlin
an adorans in the act of
as single statuettes. Their style
figures
fig.
Athena of the Elgin Collection
others, for instance the
New York
(cf.
fifth
classical period,
and of the fourth century
B.C.,
have been preserved. As conspicuous examples may be cited two youths, in the
Louvre
(fig.
shown standing in the weight resting on the right
285) and in Athens,
favoured by Polykleitos, with the the
left
flexed. Polykleitan influence
is
attitude
leg
and
seen also in the precise demarcation
of the various planes and in the interrelation of the parts to the whole.
A large statuette of Herakles, also in the Louvre (fig. of the Lysippian Herakles a century or so
something of the
200
later.
(cf. p.
153), illustrates the
Stance and
earlier
grandeur
284), a reproduction
change in conception
modelling are closer to nature, but is lost.
The Classical Period
^
282. Bronze incense burner
Delphi, c. 475-450 Delphi Museum.
from B.C.
^
Bronze
283.
Athena,
c.
of
statuette
475-450
New
York, Aluscum.
B.C.
Metropolitan
284. Bronze statuette of Herakles, c. 325 B.C. Roman
copy. Paris, Louvre. 285.
Bronze statuette of a c. 450-440 B.C.
youth, Paris,
A in
Louvre.
large statuette of a
Munich, has
century.
On
nude
girl,
relatively severe
from Beroea
forms and must
in
Macedonia and now
still
date from the
the other hand, the so-called Pourtales Aphrodite in
and the Haviland Aphrodite former owners)
(fig.
286) in
New York
(named
fifth
London^
after their
development.
illustrate the Praxitelean style in its full
Here too the change from fifth-century monumentality to fourth-century grace
is
The
clearly
shown.
statuette of a
cow
in Parish
sculpture belonging to this time. ancient writers
on the cow
is
an outstanding example of animal
It
that stood
recalls
the praises bestowed by
on the Akropolis
in
Athens and
which, according to Pausanias, 'appeared to have breath inside her and
seemed about to bellow'. But a
monumental
The same
quality.
the Louvre, standing as
Lastly
— though
not
in addition to naturalism the figure has
applies to the deer
from Sybaris
strictly
a
sculptural
work
— may
be
cited
superb engraving on ivory of a charioteer, found in South Russia.'' late-fitth-century style,
in
if listening. 'o
It is
a
of
comparable to the metal engravings of that time. 201
Bronze statuette of Aphrodite, fourth century
286. B.C.
New
politan
York,
Metro-
Museum.
287. Bronze statuette of a
negro, perhaps c. 200 B.C. Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale.
Hellenistic Period,
ABOUT
In contrast to the classical age, the Hellenistic
bronze
330—100 B.C. of
statuettes.
They show
is
well represented in
the naturalistic modelling and the variety
subjects that appear also in the larger sculptures.
The
realistic
portrayal of
human
and lowly, became of absorbing
beings in a variety of aspects, lofty
interest to the artist,
and
his
deepened
understanding is shown in many remarkable examples. Among them may be mentioned in particular: a young negro musician (fig. 287) with a lithe body and sad, sensitive face (Paris); a hunchback (New York);i2 an emaciated man (Dumbarton Oaks, fig. 290); a dancer enveloped in drapery (Walter Baker Collection, old peasant
202
woman
fig.
291); a beggar (Berlin)
(Vienna) ;i4 and an archer (London). 's
The
;'•'
an
indivi-
duality ot each Statuette o\ a
is
philosopher in
shows the realism
A
conveyed both in expression and attitude. ably ^
New York
that portraiture
^
nr.
(fig.
288), preserved almost entire,
had attained
in the Hellenistic
288. Bronze statuette of a
philosopher,
•
Age.
New
York, ^luseum.
280 B.C. c. Metropolitan
so popular in former days were naturally 289. Satyr with wineskin. Bronze statuette, second ,. however, trom the earlier representations in a century b.c. Naples, Museo
The mythological themes '
,„,
Ihcy
continued.
new
feeling for
,.^ differ,
,-
,
movement. The
.
.
,
lively Satyr
from Pergamon defending
Nazionale.
himself from an assailant, "> and the group from Aphrodisias of Theseus struggling with the Minotaur''? are typical examples. ing a wineskin and leaning far back under is
an attractive example of
achieved
in
masterly
late
fashion.
its
the
Satyr shoulder-
weight, in Naples
Hellenistic art;
Finally,
The
(fig.
289),
the difficult pose
striding
Poseidon
in
is
the
203
Bronze statuette of an emaciated youth, from Soissons, third to second century B.C. Roman copy. Washington, Dumbarton Oaks. 290.
Louvre statue
293) forms an eloquent contrast with the fifth-century
(fig.
from Cape Artemision
many words
(figs.
120, 121)
and sums up better than
the difference of conception in the
two epochs.
A few statuettes in other materials besides bronze have been preserved also of this period. A figure of a three-sided Hekate,i« now in New York, is
a precious specimen in
wood. The goddess
is
represented in three,
almost identical, contiguous figures, each wearing a baldric and a quiver.
A
coating of gesso, painted and gilded, once covered the surface.
provenance
is
said to be Alexandria. In a general
reproduces the
A
triple
statuette in gilt
him standing
204
the
group probably
Hekate by the fifth-century sculptor Alkamenes.
wood
of Alexander the Great, in the Louvre, shows
in a characteristic,
turned to one side
way
The
(fig.
292).
somewhat
restless
pose, with head
291. Bronze statuette of a dancer, perhaps c. 200 B.C. New York, Walter Baker Collection.
205
292.
Alexander the Great. Statuette
gilt
wood,
third
century
B.C.
in
Paris,
Louvre.
293. Bronze statuette of Poseidon, per-
haps second century
That beeswax was once Plato and later writers, as
to
parallel
a
common
who mention
the koroplasts
Paris,
B.c:.
material for sculpture
is
Louvre.
noted by
the keroplasts (modellers in wax)
(makers of terra-cotta
statuettes).
The
products of the wax makers consisted chiefly of statuettes for votive
and household fruits,
human
use, children's toys, counters for table
games, decorative
and so
forth. In spite of
figures for use in
magic
spells,
the perishable nature of the material, a few specimens survive.
York,!''
was once perhaps part of
a largish statuette of
Hellenistic date. Traces of dark paint are
First
Century b.c. AND LATER
The copying of former Greek
Roman
still
A
now
head, 4| inches high, said to be from Alexandria and
Aphrodite ot
masterpieces that became current in
was of course not confined to large
sculptures.
To
(ct.
statue,
206
now
lost
this
or
was
known
a fortunate circumstance.
only in a fragmentary
p. 183)
possess a famous
Greek work, albeit in reduced form, became a desideratum of For us
New
visible.
times from the later second century B.C. onwards
collectors.
female
in
Many
state, is
Roman
a celebrated
preserved in
complete form
in a
bronze or stone statuette of
Roman
date.
Thus
Lysippos' famous statue of Herakles resting on his club exists entire in the bronze statuette in the
Hermes with
Louvre mentioned above
the child Dionysos
in a statuette in the
by Kephisodotos
(cf. p.
Louvre of which only part of the
The Knidian Aphrodite of Aphrodite by Doidalsas
Praxiteles
(cf. p.
(cf.
p.
(cf.
141)
right
p. 201). is
arm
The
preserved is
missing.
141) and the Crouching
169) survive in small, practically complete
bronze and marble statuettes which convey the harmony of the composition better than
Eros
do the fragmentary or badly restored
in a relaxed
statues.
A
sleeping
pose reproduces an evidently famous composition
preserved also in marble and bronze statues
(cf. fig.
238).
Furthermore, famous Greek works, such as the Zeus by Pheidias
and the Hermes by Polykleitos, appear with the
Roman
a seated
least,
208
Jupiter Capitolinus or as Mercurius, the
Athena served
a Victoria,
slight modifications
and
as the personification
a standing
as
god of commerce,
of Roma, a flying Nike as
Ares as a Mars. Thereby the composition,
of several famous Greek sculptures has been perpetuated.
at
CHAPTER 5
DECORATIVE METALWORK
The
term 'decorative metalwork' covers a large
used in ancient times for
many purposes
for
field.
Metal was
which nowadays
other materials are preferred; and these metal objects, most of
which served some statuettes,
reliefs,
practical
purpose, were often ornamented with
and incised designs, and so became works of
(When such ornaments have been found
singly they are
art.
mentioned
in
the preceding chapter.)
The
chief metals used by the
bronze
Greeks for
(in different alloys), silver,
back works of
art
from Greek
and gold.
work were Romans brought
their decorative
When
the
embossed metalwork formed an
lands,
important part of the loot. Pliny (XXXIII, 148) says that Scipio, after
over Antiochos
his victory
III,
carried off to
Rome
chased silver and
gold vases weighing thousands of pounds. Livy (27, 16, 7) and Cicero {Verr. Or.,
II,
50-52) speak of the enormous plunder of silver and of
Corinthian bronzes taken from Tarentum and
of the
Sicily.
Famous
silversmiths
century B.C. and later are listed by Pliny (XXXVII, 154).
fifth
Pheidias and Polykleitos are said to have been proficient in this
Mentor was an outstanding and bronze
silver
silversmith. In the
art.
Greek temple inventories
utensils are constantly listed (cf. I.G.^, 1394).
Naturally such precious materials as gold and silver and even bronze,
which could be conveniently melted down
in times of stress,
had
little
chance to survive to our time. Nevertheless, enough examples remain to give an idea of the variety
They
consist mostly of
parts of harness, tripods,
and household
utensils, chests, furniture).
in the round.
object
itself
and excellence of
armour (helmets,
this
branch of Greek
shields, cuirasses,
articles (vases, mirrors,
The decorations
art.
and greaves), kitchen
are in relief, or incised, or
Often only the decorated parts have been preserved, the having disappeared. This
for instance the case
is
with
bronze vases, which were mostly hammered in thin sheets, whereas the applied handles
and
feet
were
cast
and more durable.
Several different techniques can be distinguished repousse, :
over a mould, stamping with a
die,
and
hammering
casting. In repousse, a sheet
of metal was placed on a pitch foundation and worked into shape, alternately
sheet
from the front and the back. In hammered work, the metal
was beaten into
a
In stamping, the design casting of metal reliefs
mould on which on the
was
die
the design
was
was impressed on the
in reverse.
metal.
similar to that of casting metal statues
The and
209
Decorative Metalwork
no mould seems
statuettes (cf. p. 55). In the early periods
Not
taken of the original model for multiple production.
to
have been
until Hellenistic
times are exact replicas found even in the several handles of a vase.
In
of
all
these techniques the graving tool
details.
were made with variously shaped
incisions
Inlay
flats.
was often used
Moreover, some decorations were
was
tools
stones, glass, bone, ivory, copper, niello, gold,
and
many
and
and
made
in the in
and
silver.
The primary
different sites
—in Greece
and South Russia, in Southern
in Bulgaria, Jugoslavia,
Sicily,
copies
pearls,
effect.
Greek metalware has been found on many Italy
— runners,
The
also practised, the chief materials used being coloured
purpose was to impart a rich polychrome
and the East,
for the chasing
entirely engraved.
North. In addition to original Greek works,
Roman
times have been found, for instance at
Boscoreale and Pompeii, Hildesheim (Germany), Bernay (France), and
Denmark. by
their
A
few
A
number have come from
specific
examples of
Eighth Centuries
i.e.
this ancient decorative
wide range and the identity of
AND Seventh
'treasures',
ensembles buried
owners when some danger threatened.
The geometric
tripods
already been mentioned
style
work
and vases decorated with
(cf. p.
will
show
its
with the other products of the time.
186).
Geometric
fibulae,
statuettes
have
found mostly
in
Attica and Boeotia, often have engraved designs, in the angular style
then current. They depict
sometimes
human and animal
figures, singly or in groups,
in recognizable mythological scenes.
Several shields found in the Idaean cave in Crete are conspicuous
examples of early Orientalizing
art
{c.
700
B.C. ?)
;
they are decorated
2
Eighth and Seventh Centuries
in
embossed
relief
with monsters and animals in so marked an Eastern
many
they are thought by
style that
some with scenes of Egyptianizing
Many
to be importations;
and the same
embossed and incised bowls from Cyprus and
applies to the
Italy,
type.i
specimens of early metalware have come to light in the various
Some formed part of armour dedicated to a deity The back of a breastplate, found in the river Alpheios
sanctuaries of Greece. after a victory. at
Olympia and now
in a private collection,
and monsters and with greeting Apollo
group perhaps
a
is
engraved with animals
Zeus
to be interpreted as
295). It may be assigned to the mid-seventh century hammered and cast griffin heads (figs. 296, 297), which
(fig.
B.C. Magnificent
once projected from the rims of the early bronze cauldrons (called
Argive by Herodotos IV, 152), have been discovered elsewhere.
They convey
seventh-century products.
the
fierce
The same
at
Olympia and
Oriental spirit inherent in
some
designs are continued during the
succeeding century, but the griffins gradually become gentler and
monumental. Bronze helmets likewise offered cheek-pieces, frontals, and neck-pieces.
their
fields for
A
fine
decoration
less
— on
seventh-century
example in the Louvre has an engraved sphinx of Proto-Corinthian type.
A hammered and
now
gold bowl
in Boston,
is
bowl) from Herakleia'.
(fig.
294), said to have been
found
at
Olympia
inscribed 'The sons of Kypselos dedicated (this It
was, therefore, a thanks-offering by the sons
of the Corinthian tyrant after a successful expedition some time in the
second half of the seventh century.
<
294.
Hammered gold bowl, c. 620 Museum of Fine Arts.
B.C.
Boston,
295. Back of a breastplate, found at Olympia, c. 650 B.C. Private Collection.
— Decorative Metalrvork
from Olympia. Cast bronze, century mid-seventh B.C. Olympia, Museum. 296. Griffin head
Sixth
Century
B.C.
Much
A
beautiful metalware has survived
from the
sixth century B.C.
number of embossed shield bands have come to light in recent and previously elsewhere at Olympia (cf. fig. 298) ranging in date from about 610 to 460 B.C. The scenes represent incidents from the Trojan and Theban cycles, the labours of Herakles, the stories large
—
excavations
of Theseus and Perseus, and various monsters; only occasionally are they taken from daily
life.
on the metopes found (cf. p.
74),
which show
Many
at the
are about
mouth of
contemporary with the
the river Silaris, near Paestum
a similar variety of themes. In the shield
many repeats, for they were hammered same mould was used a number of times.
there are
2U
reliefs
into moulds,
bands
and the
^
Sixth Century
297. Griffin head
bronze, century
from
Hammered
Olympia.
I
mid-seventh Olympia,
B.C.
Museum.
A and
pair of
now
armour.
bronze greaves
Museum,
in the British
On
each
is
299), said to have
(cf. fig.
come from Ruvo
are splendid examples of decorated
represented a flying Gorgon, in repousse relief and
chased; protruding tongue and teeth are in ivory; the eyes once sparkled
with inlaid stones. The date must be around 540 B.C. Sixth-century helmets are sometimes beautifully decorated.
A
fine array,
some with
dedicatory inscriptions, have been found at Olympia.
A
goodly number of archaic bronze vases have survived
hydriai, jugs,
amphorae,
as well as cups, plates,
and expertly executed specimens of the
from South
Italy
— from
Randazzo,
late sixth
Sicily
— kraters,
and bowls. Well preserved
(now
century have
in Berlin),''
come
from Sala 213
298.
Embossed
pia, sixth
shield
band from Olym-
century B.C. Olympia,
299. Bronze greave, British Museum.
c.
Museum.
540 B.C. London,
'#
pi
^- v:^ 300. Bronze hydria late sixth
from
Sala Consilina,
century B.C. Paris, Petit Palais.
301. Bronze hydria from Paestum, late sixth century B.C. Paestum, Museum.
y
302. Bronze krater from Vix, c. 500 B.C. Chatillon,
Musee Archeolo-
giquc.
Consilina, Lucania recently
(now
in
from Paestum (now
the Petit Palais,
Museum
in the
cf.
fig.
there,
300), s
cf.
fig.
and more
301). 6
They
present similar features in their decoration, the favourite motifs being
recumbent lions and rams, female busts, foreparts of horses, palmettes,
and a youth bending backwards. each
is
our time
is
spectacular of
diameter, and
is
a female statuette is
ornamented with
is
krater
is
over 5
feet
(cast) figures
high and over 4
and
a hydria
recall
found
Italy or
a
elsewhere
cone
a
two
in the centre
at
found
kraters
Grachwyl
common is
feet
of warriors and chariots
carefully executed in the late archaic style
have been imported from
Southern
others.
lions, and other features at the handles;
perched on
Shape and decorations Bulgaria, 8
and
the volute krater recently found at Vix, near Chatillon-sur-
on the neck, and with Medusas, whole
from the
cast,
the bronze vases that have survived
all
Seine, in France (figs. 302, 303). ^ It in
however, are separately
a fresh creation, slightly different
But the most to
All,
centre
of the
lid.
The
of about 500 B.C. at
Trebenischte in
in Switzerland. ^ All
— whether
may
from Greece or
not known. In the same tomb as the
from Vix were found two Attic Little-Master cups and
a gold
215
—
t..MM..««.H....|.:::*.:.|,...,,™,,,„
,„„,,H,,M.n.'l..l.m..lM.l.M"tl
-1
ij
t
.11
303. Detail
'il
i 4
'il
*
'<• ^1*
'
'I
'^*
'"1
1"<
«
*''
** '"l«
,.».„„„-..„-
,
» * K«|' K i4 n
,.
from 302.
New
York, Metropolitan Museum.
304. Bronze mirror,
c.
550-525 B.C.
305. Bronze mirror,
c.
500 B.C. Athens, National Museum.
•'
/
Sixth Century
torque-like diadem, of
Greek
in
non-Greek shape but decorated with
style (cf. fig. 379).
of a prominent local family
The Vix
little
Pegasoi
to a
woman
The tomb must have belonged
who
prized Greek
art.
mind of Herodotos'
vase puts one in
tales
70;
(I,
47)
III,
of the gigantic krater that the Spartans intended to present to Croesus of Lydia but which instead went to Samos; and of the large silver
on an iron
krater
of Lydia
580
{c.
work of Glaukos of
stand, a B.C.),
and
made
Chios,
most notable of
called 'the
for Alyattes
the offerings
all
at Delphi'.
In Greece, as in Egypt, discs of polished bronze (rarely of silver)
women
served
was
on
as mirrors. In archaic times the disc
a stool or
an animal
down when
own,
for they
statuette, generally
(cf. fig.
relief, lo
with a figure in laid
form of a
either in the
304)
;
or the handle was
the marble korai of that time fig.
and decorated
not in use, like the hand mirrors of Egypt and our
do not stand up. In the
late archaic period,
however, the a stand,
and
and mantle,
like
began to be provided with
was no longer represented nude, but clothed
(cf.
flat
standing
girl
These mirrors were evidently intended to be
statuette that served as a handle
Athens
had a handle, which
of a nude
in chiton
examples are in
102). Several fine
(cf. p.
305) and London. Comparable are the archaic paterae
with handles in the form of statuettes of youths with arms raised and holding animals. 1'
Three well preserved bronze water
The
fourth century. a prize at the
handle
the bust of a
is
from the temple of Zeus is
(fig.
woman, at
New York
in
At
306).
the upper
the style of
Olympia
(cf.
also characteristic of that robust epoch.
which fig.
exemplify
fifth to
an inscription stating that
earliest has
Argive games
now
jars
and decoration from the
the progressive changes in shape
it
the
served as
end of the
FIFTH
AND FOURTH CENTURIES
B.C.
vertical
recalls the sculptures
133).
The
sturdy shape
The second hydria
has a relief
of Artemis and a stag on the lower attachment of the vertical handle (fig.
and proportions place
307). Style
about the time of the c.
410
B.C.
p. 137).
(cf.
example has on mirror
A Italy
is
Inlays
it
at the
end of the
fifth
century,
on the parapet of the Nike temple of of silver enliven the
effect.
handle attachment an Eros looking
309, 310).
(fig.
telean statues,
body,
its
reliefs
The pronounced curve of the
and the form of the
jar,
at
The
third
himself in a
figure recalls the Praxi-
with the high neck and elongated
also characteristic of that time.
bronze fifth-century footbath
and
now
in
New
(fig.
308), said to be
from South
York, consists of a low tripod base and a two-
handled, shallow bowl, beautifully proportioned. Similar examples have
been found
at
Trebenischte, and the same general form appears in foot-
washing scenes on Greek vases and terra-cotta bronze krater with volute handles ending is
now
in
London. Similar examples
in
reliefs
(cf.
p. 237).
A
swans' heads, from Locri,
are in the
Louvre and elsewhere.
217
# c. 470York, Metro-
306. Bronze hydria,
450 B.C. politan .,^_
307. fifth
seum'
New
„ Bronze century ^
,
work ,
expert
Museum. ,
•
B.C.
(cf.
,
hydria,
London and New York, show the rn t the hrth century B.C. ihat m London
Several silver libation bowls, in
fie.
•
i
i
i
r
practised at the end or
-r-i
i
•
i
311) was found at Eze, in Southern France :i2 those in
New
late
New Yorki^ "
"
.
are said to
of the bowls
is
have come from
apotheosis of Herakles.
and
is
The hero
is
shown
reliefs,
the
whole surface
representing
in a chariot, driven
the
by Nike,
accompanied by Athena, Ares, and Dionysos, also riding in chariots.
The composition century B.C. tj^es.
Italy. Practically
decorated with embossed
(cf. p.
is
similar to that
366),
The two bowls
in
on the Calene bowls of the
which evidently reproduce
New York
third
fifth-century proto-
have in addition an inner, narrower
Fifth and Fourth Centuries
309, 310. Bronze hydria, 350 B.C. New York,
\i,^6^
c.
Metropolitan Museum. .sme^%mtr%^''
310. Detail.
frieze consisting
recurs
on
identical
marks in the
of figures reclining
at a
banquet, in a composition that
The two New York bowls and must have been hammered into the same mould; a Calene
bowl
in Leningrad.
by double striking can be two bowls. The general style,
left
of Sicilian coins of the
recalls that
finely
worked bronze
the
they are different
especially of the chariot groups,
late
fifth
and of the 'Lycian' sarcophagus from Sidon
A
and
detected,
are
century B.C.
(cf.
p. 259),
in Istanbul (cf. p. 131).
bridle of a horse, decorated with scrolls
and
swans' heads, !* in open-work and in the round, further exemplifies the precision of
<
workmanship
Bronze footbath, century B.C. New York, Metropolitan
308.
fifth
Museum.
311.
bowl,
Silver libation late fifth
century
Detail. London, British Museum.
B.C.
in the classical period.
Decorative Metahvork
from Two embossed reliefs representing Greeks battling with Amazons 410-380 once decorated the shoulder-pieces of a cuirass; they were found in B.C. Leningrad, Hermitage. Electrum South Russia,
"hVl.
jar
c.
313. Embossed shoulderpiece of a bronze cuirass, 400-370 B.C. London, c. British Museum.
the river Siris in South Italy and are fig.
now
313). In the modelling of the figures
(cf.
in the rendering of the
transparent drapery they recall the pedimental statues from Epidauros
of the early fourth century B.C.
A
bronze
late-fifth-century
Berlin, has
two
(cf. p.
pail,
spirited reliefs
138).
from Southern
also
utensil,
To and
and
cast in
one piece with
found
with various scenes in contests of animals. spirited
A
gold
Greeks. lifelike
Among postures
the finest (fig.
mostly Scythian, the
312). style
its is
cases,
Among
ornamented
comprising Greeks fighting Amazons and
comb from Solokha
combat of horsemen, worked
vase from Nikopol has on
some gold
tombs of South Russia.
sword sheaths and quiver
relief
in
it.
in the Scythian
are gold plates for
now
on the body of the
reliefs are
the late fifth and the fourth century B.C. belong also
silver objects
them
Italy,
of a Nike in a chariot drawn by a lion
and a panther. is Exceptionally here the
220
Museum
in the British
and
in the
is
surmounted by
round; and a large
a
silver
body embossed
reliefs
an electrum
with Scythian warriors in
The
subjects
jar
of Persians fighting
and forms of the objects are
of the decorations
is
pure Greek. They,
like
—
314.
Bronze mirror,
450
B.C.
Athens,
c.
460-
National
Museum. Bronze mirror, c. 470450 B.C. New York, Walter Baker Collection. 315.
must have been imported, unless Greek
the krater found at Vix,
work
went to Russia to Furthermore,
a silver phiale
examples of Greek metalware have come to light
fine
mounds of Bulgaria; notably
in the sepulchral
—a
— from Baschova Mogila
with a chariot scene, and a kylix with Selene on horseback,
both exquisitely incised in late-fifth-century
Mogila
artists
for Scythian chieftains. '6
silver
style ;i7
and
— from Golemata
kantharos with incised Dionysiac scenes datable near
the middle of the fifth century B.C.'s (All are
now
in the
Museum
of
Plovdiv.) In this case shapes, subjects, and style are pure Greek, so that
one may suppose that the objects were imported by Thracian Fifth-
and fourth-century bronze mirrors are of several types. The
form prevalent during the of
late archaic
now
chieftains.
first
half of the fifth century
is
similar to that
times, except that the statuette forming the handle
is
regularly represented as wearing not the chiton and Ionic mantle,
but the peplos, arranged in simple folds, like the statues of the Olympia
pediments
(cf. fig.
London, and as well as
Paris
with the
Erotes right and
of the disc
132).
is
A
few of these mirrors
— are preserved little
left
entire,
with
—
in
New
York, Athens,
disc, handle,
and stand,
animals attached round the rim and the flying
of the female figure
(cf. figs.
314, 315i'').
regularly concave, the other convex, enlarging
One
side
and diminish221
316. fifth
Cover of a mirror, second half of century B.C. New York, Metro-
politan
Museum.
Engraved under-side of a mirrorcover: Aphrodite and Pan. Fourth century B.C. London, British Museum. 317.
^*i^
ing according to need. .
,
,
As they stood
,
.
,
.
in the
chamber of
111
,
owner, the
its
r
In the second half of the
mirror became current
—
a
fifth
century and in the fourth a
round
attached to the disc by a hinge.
disc,
new
318. Silver cup
Roman copy
^
1
and harmonious design must have added a note ot splendour.
ricn
type of
from Hoby.
fifth centuryB.c. style. Copenhagen, National Museum,
in
without handle, but with a cover
The cover was
with a repousse relief either of a female head logical scene, or a simple palmette design.
The
regularly
(cf. fig.
ornamented
316), or a
mytho-
subjects include Aphrodite
and Eros, Dionysos and Ariadne, a fight of two Pans, Marsyas and a Scythian slave, Nike, Nereids, and all
Ganymede
carried off
by the
eagle,
presumably considered appropriate decorations for women's use.
Occasionally the under-side of the mirror cover has an engraved scene.
One
of the
fifth
century in
New York
shows Atlas shouldering the
weight of the heavens and Herakles standing by.20 fourth century, in a
game
(fig.
317).
London,
The
effectively against the
A
are Aphrodite
figures
were often
On
another, of the
and Pan engaged silvered,
in playing
and so stood out
golden colour of the bronze.
third, simpler type
of mirror had a plain handle, cither cast
in
piece with the disc, or provided with a tang for insertion in a
or ivory or
wooden
handle.
The decoration was
volutes and palmettes of elegant design.
Women
one
bone
generally restricted to are often represented
holding such mirrors on fifth-and-fourth-century vases and
reliefs.
223
Decorative Metalwork
Two are
silver cups,
Roman copies
Philoktetes
(cf.
found
at
Hoby
in
Denmark and now
of Greek embossed metalwork. 21
Copenhagen, represented
on the other Achilles receiving Priam. The
318),
fig.
in
On one is
form of the cups and the inscribed signature by Cheirisophos point but the style
a late date,
Hellenistic
Period
AND Later
The metalware of
is fifth-
to fourth-century Greek.
the Hellenistic period reflects the variety of styles
and the enlarged repertoire current and many are
now
Realistic renderings
at that time.
different subjects, including Eastern scenes
and landscapes,
favoured.
Several discs, with heads of satyrs in
belong to the
style,
to
were found
at
Elis
late
relief, in a
remarkably
lifelike
They London and New York. 22 Their
fourth or the early third century B.C.
and are
now
in
purpose has been identified from a bridle found in South Russia with similar discs
still
attached.
Several bronze mirrors, with covers decorated in repousse as in the
preceding period, can be assigned to the third century B.C. One, in
New
York, shows a chubby Eros. 23 The type with tang for insertion
in a handle
now sometimes
has an
openwork plaque with
representation between disc and handle.
An
in the British
Museum.
figures variously interpreted as
Aphrodite
example, of perhaps the early third century,
On the plaque (fig. and Adonis, or
as
319) are
two
a figured
exceptionally elaborate
is
Eos and Kephalos; and on
the top of the rim are
Erotes and scrolls; silver inlay enlivens the border of the disc. 24 Like
most of the mirrors of
this type,
it
comes from South
Italy
of the others range from the fourth to the third century
A
relief
from the shoulder-blade of
violent combat. 2 6
The contortion of
;25
the dates
B.C.
a cuirass represents warriors in
the figures
and
their
realistic
r i.
,
m
''
fl
319.
Lower
bronze
part of mirror, third
century B.C. British
Museum. Gold shrine: Dionysos and satyr, perhaps 320.
250-200 B.C. Collection of Mrs. Helene Stathatos, Athens, National
Museum.
1
.&^#i*^^fe^]
321. Bronze krater found at Derveni, third or second century B.C. Saloniki,
Museum.
expressions contrast with the quieter renderings in the reliefs from the river Siris with similar subjects (cf. p. 220).
As an example of small gold shrine
(fig.
Hellenistic metalware
expertly modelled in high satyr, a favourite
of which the purpose
A as
also be
relief,
theme
is
large bronze krater
is
a figured representation,
of Dionysos, drunk, supported by a
in late
Greek
art.
It is
found
in
1962
at
Derveni near Saloniki ranks
and body are decorated with Dionysiac scenes (fig.
Many examples found
at
Handles, neck
exuberant style and
of Hellenistic silverware are included in the treasures
Boscoreale and Pompeii,
reliefs
in
art.
321). 28
Most of them
few perhaps are Hellenistic originals. repousse
a unique object
not yet known.
one of the most grandiose products of Hellenistic
expert technique
mentioned a
320) found in Thessaly and then in the collection
of Mrs. Helene Stathatos.27 Inside the shrine
little
may
Among
are
Roman
copies, a
the latter are cups with
representing storks and cranes in lifelike attitudes,
225
322. Silver cup, perhaps second century B.C. New York, Pier-
pont Morgan Library.
323. Silver patera with seated
Athena, from Hildesheim, Ro-
man
period. Berlin, Staatliche Hildes-
(formerly Museen heim, Museum).
looking for food and bringing
Among
the
which the
Roman
worms
specimens
central boss
is
is
to their fledgelings
a libation
form of
in the
(cf, fig.
322).
bowl from Boscoreale of
a bust symbolizing the city
of Alexandria. These emblemata as they are called have often been
found separately. Some, of Greek workmanship and especially
fine
come from Tarentum, which was indeed famous for metalware. One may recall Cicero's mention in his Verrine speeches
execution, have its
of the removal of such emblemata from Greek bowls to serve as the prized possessions of
The sumptuous
Roman
collectors.
silverware found at Hildesheim in
Bernay in France, consisting of
plates, platters, cups,
Germany and
at
bowls, and jugs,
can give an idea of the rich appointments of Roman households described
by Latin
writers.
A
patera has as
with helmet, shield, and aegis
with heads of Attis and Kybele.
and
its
(fig.
central
323).
Two
ornament
Two
a seated Athena,
others have medallions
cups are ornamented with masks
theatrical symbols.
Mention must
also be
made of
a remarkable gold treasure that
came
to light at Panagurishte, in Southern Bulgaria, in 1949.29 It consists of
226
Hellenistic Period
four rhyta, three jugs, an amphora, and a phiale,
all
elaborately decorated
with embossed designs representing mythological scenes
—except
the
phiale
which has negro heads arranged
Many
of the figures have their names inscribed in punctured Greek
letters,
which have by some been dated
B.C.
And
this
in
three concentric circles.
in the late fourth or third century
the date assigned to the ensemble
is
by Concev
in his
publication.
The discovery Afghanistan-^"
at
— as
Mit Rahne (Memphis) in Egypt and
well as here and there elsewhere
taken from metal reliefs throws light
on
at
— of
Begram
in
plaster casts
the ancient technique of copying
Greek metalware. Moulds were evidently taken from various objects
— vases (especially emblemata of bowls), armour, mirror covers, jewellery, and so forth — and then cast in plaster. The subjects comprise Dionysiac scenes, sacrifices, shrines, personifications (cf.
fig.
324),
Homeric heroes,
Hellenistic, the latter date.
They bear out
Roman
collectors for
etc.
The
of style
cities,
a bust of
Athena
ranges from archaic to
predominating, but the actual casts are of the references by ancient writers to the
Greek metalware, the extravagant
Roman
mania of
prices paid for
227
^1' -.
324.
Roman
plaster cast
of a metal bust of Athena, from Egypt. Berlin,
Staatliche
Mu-
seen (formerly Hildesheim, Aluseum).
such old pieces, and the copying of them by means of impressions.
These
little
plaster casts, in fact, taken directly
are precious relics of this
and
A
now
surviving in relatively few specimens.
derived from the
was
reliefs
particularly
the Hellenistic period
knowledge of Greek metalware may be
on pottery moulded from metal
common among
(cf.
p. 366).
originals.
The
the South Italian potters of
Unfortunately the black glaze that
regularly covers the surface of this ware obscures
228
originals,
Greek metalware, once so widely practised
further enlargement of our
practice
from Greek
many
a detail.
CHAPTER 6
TERRACOTTA STATUETTES AND SMALL RELIEFS
Clay was
extensively used by the Greeks for sculptural purposes,
not only for statues liefs.
They show
to archaic to naturalistic to
all
the
—as
(cf. p.
94),
but for statuettes and small
same development of style
do the
examples from whatever
appearance one must remember that
have mostly disappeared, but
To
this applies
appreciate their original
were once painted. The colours
all
when
the original gay effect, so diff'erent
and
larger sculptures;
locality.
re-
— from primitive
preserved they
make one
realize
from the drab appearance of unpainted
terra cotta.
The
chief function of these small terra cottas, especially in the earlier
periods,
was votive and so the ;
was often
deity of a specific sanctuary
represented. Particularly popular were Demeter, Persephone,
and Diony-
who could give protection in the nether world. Though similar types and techniques recur throughout
sos,
the
Medi-
terranean, different classes can occasionally be associated with specific centres.
In this short survey, therefore, attention will sometimes be
called to such specific classes
other chapters, be placed
though the chief emphasis
will, as in
the
on chronological development and outstanding
specimens. Terra-cotta statuettes were
common
in the
Mycenaean
do not seem to reappear,
at least in considerable
ninth to eighth century B.C.
From then on, however,
age, but they
numbers, there
is
until the
a continuous
many number of
output throughout the Greek world; for clay could be found in localities
and lends
itself to sculptural
such statuettes that have survived frequently buried in trenches offerings.
Excavations
Attica, Boeotia,
at the
when
is
treatment.
The
large
explained by their having been
discarded, to
make room
for fresh
Argive Heraion, Sparta, Perachora, Corinth,
Euboea, Crete, Tarsus, Rhodes, South
have yielded a host of specimens
;
and they present
Italy
and
Sicily
a wealth of different
types indicative of the fertile imagination of the artists.
The geometric and sub-geometric
terra cottas
and tombs have the same summary forms
Most of them
are modelled
riders, birds are the prevalent motifs. lids
in sanctuaries
ABOUT
900-550 B.C.
geometric products.
by hand, but occasionally they have a
moulded head, and sometimes they on the
found
as the other
are
moulded throughout. Horses,
Sometimes they served
as handles
of vases.
229
Terra-Cotta Statuettes and Small Reliefs
^^l^.iC^L4\^^l
Terra-cotta
325.
statuette
from Boeotia, eighth century B.C. Boston, of Fine Arts.
Museum
Terra-cotta
chariot
326.
from Boeotia, seventh century B.C. Athens, National
Museum.
328.
Terra-cotta horsecart
with
Euboea,
amphorae,
from
seventh century B.C. Athens, National Mu-
seum.
230
Ninth
As
may be mentioned
a specific early class of geometric terra cottas
the figures from Boeotia with bell-shaped bodies, long necks,
and stumpy legs
(cf.
fig.
the rest of the figure
birds
The bodies were thrown on
325).
flat faces,
327,
to
Sixth Centuries
Terra-cotta
plough
tury b.c. Paris, Louvre,
the wheel,
was modelled by hand. Ornaments, including
and animals, were occasionally painted on the body.
In the seventh century there was an active output of terra-cotta figures
in Boeotia,
as
remarkable examples
Athens
—as
(fig.
there
was
may be mentioned
326), containing
described in the Iliad
by two oxen, found
in
distinctive of Boeotia, statuettes, so called
in pottery
two
— and
Thebes and
though
from
their
a
(cf,
a four-horse chariot
workman with
now in the Louvre
also
^
^
^
first halt
now
in
his
plough, drawn
(fig,
327). Likewise
found elsewhere, are the bird-faced
pinched
in spite of their primitive appearance, ' ^ Ki^ ,
As two
warriors, one acting as charioteer
faces,
and the 'pappades' with
high polos-like headdresses resembling those of
than the
pp. 309 f.).
modern Greek
most of them
priests,
earlier are hardly y
ot the sixth century.
329 Funeral wagon. Terra^otta group found at Vari, f. 600 B.C. Athens, National
Museum.
i /
231
A
330.
Terra-cotta
statuette
many terra cottas of this early The majority are hand-modelled. Some have columnar bodies on the wheel, with the upper part modelled by hand. Warriors,
Excavations in Cyprus have yielded
650-630 B.C. Athens, Kera- time. meikos Museum. made
horsemen, musicians, water-carriers, and animals are favourite subjects, as well as
figures holding offerings
—a
flower, a cup, or an animal.
Linear patterns are used as decorations.
A now
cart
in
and horse laden with
Athens
(fig.
328),
six
amphorae, found in Euboea and
shows the
skilful
way
in
which elaborate
groups were modelled. One of the most remarkable groups of early period,
however, was found
at Vari, Attica (fig. 329); it consists
of a funeral wagon, on which the dead person
lies,
and surrounded by mourning women, and with and
a bird lying
The
date
is
on
this
covered with
a small
a cloth
running figure
top, evidently signifying the soul of the departed,
i
perhaps around 600 B.C.
Occasionally terra-cotta statuettes were introduced on vases, as on a Proto-Attic jug of
c.
650-630
Crete has yielded a large
B.C.
from the Kerameikos
number of
figures in relief, chiefly warriors
(cf. fig.
330).
early terra-cotta plaques with
and female
deities,
most of them crudely
worked. Standing apart from the prevalent products are the large terra-cotta
masks found 232
at Tiryns,^ interpreted
by some
as representing
Gorgons
/ 332.
The Murder of Agamemnon. Tcrra-cotta Both from Gortyna, seventh century Heraklion, Museum.
relief.
^*4'
B.C.
C
331. Terra-cotta figure.
and worn in cult dances. They have been dated around 700
B.C.
— -inr The prevalent the sides in horizontal layers — r low and hair arranged o — Crete also in terra appears in different 331), with
so-called Daedalid type of the seventh century
skull,
at
'
face,
is
J
localities
cottas. It
flat
333. Mourners at a bier. Tcrra-cotta relief from an Attic tomb, c. 630-600 b.c. ^'^';^''-
^ew
poiitan
Museum.
York,
i
letro-
(cf. fig.
Corinth, Laconia, Argos, Boeotia, Rhodes, and elsewhere, as did the similar examples
The
in
the contemporary larger sculptures
figures are either in the
are represented
round or
— standing and
in relief.
a
relief
from Gortyna depicting the
C^lytemnaestra and Aigisthos
The
(fig.
seventh century
A common
subject
is
(cf. p.
of the most remarkable
killing
of
Agamemnon by tombs of Attica
47) were often decorated with reliefs.
the prothesis,
From Lemnos have come raised arms,
fig, 58).
332).
i.e.
the lying-in-state of the dead,
surrounded by mourners tearing their hair large
(cf. fig.
statuettes
333).
with columnar bodies,
long necks, large heads, and staring expressions. They
wear tunics decorated with
spirals
Also distinctive of Lemnos are
shown
One
terra-cotta plaques that lined the quadrangular
in the later
(cf.
different subjects
seated deities, the potnia theron (goddess
of animals), and even mythological groups. is
Many
in profile
and heads
and other motifs (seventh century).
reliefs
frontal,
representing Sirens, with bodies
surmounted by
a polos (early sixth
century).-'
233
Terra-cotta
334.
525-500 B.C. tan
About
550-475 B.C.
seated
New
c.
Museum.
335. Standing
woman.
from
Sicily,
late
New
York, Metropolitan Museum.
Terra-cotta jug century B.C.
sixth
In the second half of the sixth century B.C. the types restricted
woman,
York, Metropoli-
become more
and the expressions more gracious and animated. They consist
mostly of seated and standing female figures in dignified poses and with stylized draperies (cf. fig. 334),
that period
(cf.
others a child
pp. 78 ff.).
on
comparable to the larger sculptures of
Some hold
a bird, fruit, or flower in
one hand,
the lap. Animals are also popular.
The technique of moulding now became almost universal. Many all periods from many different sites have survived. The procedure was as follows: after the making of the original model (in moulds of
clay or wax), a clay rarely of
the
it
both front and back
mould
made
mould of
was taken
—and
—generally only of the front,
fired.
in several applications and, after drying,
separation easy, the figure was removed. While
condition, the back (which was mostly a vent hole for evaporation),
were attached with
slip,
left
with a
slip
from 750
still
shrinkage
in leather-hard
smooth and provided with
and finishing touches were given with modelling
of white, peptized to
when
and the base (generally of rectangular form)
tools. Lastly, apparently before firing,^ the clay.
whole surface was covered
After firing to a temperature ranging
950 degrees Centigrade, the surface was painted with
tempera colours slip
Clay was then pressed into
in different shades
acting as a base.
Even when
of red, blue, and yellow, the white
the tempera colours have disappeared,
the white slip often remains. In contrast to the bronze statuettes, there
234
A
barber. Terra-cotta group from 336. Boeotia, late sixth century B.C. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts.
are
many
repeats in terra-cotta figures.
The same mould was
evidently
used repeatedly.
The Akropolis of Athens
of these moulded
has yielded a series
statuettes, found buried in trenches, evidently after the Persian sack of
480
B.C.;
and similar
statuettes
have come from many other
number, for instance, have been found Minor; others and
at the
children
in
in recent excavations near the temples
mouth of
on her
the river Silaris.
A
the goddess Hera. Specially fine examples of seated
serving as jugs, have
come
A
of Hera at Paestum
seated figure, with one or
was evidently
lap {kouro-trophos),
sites,
Rhodes, Cyrene, and Asia
to light in Sicily
(cf.
more
a popular offering to
and standing women, fig.
Samos. Large protomes of female goddesses, used
335),
Rhodes and
as votive offerings,
have been unearthed in Rhodes, Sardis, and elsewhere. Sphinxes, sirens, satyrs,
common. From tombs
animals and jointed dolls are also
Southern
Italy
(Capua, Ruvo) have
come
delicate
masks of a river-god and of Dionysos and
little
his circle.
in
gorgoneia and
Some have
their
colours fairly well preserved (black, white, red, blue).
A
particularly
engaging
connected with Boeotia.
men and women engaged bread,
class
It consists
The
late
archaic terra cottas
may be
of statuettes and groups representing
in every-day occupations
making music, looking
as barbers (fig. 336).
of
— cooking or kneading
after children, cutting
figures are mostly
wood, or acting
modelled by hand
in attrac-
235
7
337. Aphrodite holding a goat. Terra-cotta reUef from Gela, c. 500 B.C. Oxford, Ashmolean
Museum.
338. Bellerophon. Melian terra475-450 B.C. cotta relief, c. London, British Museum.
tively life-like poses,
in
New
York,
is
without
shown
much
detail.
Animals also appear.
A
carrying a piece of meat in his mouth.
dog,
Two
dogs, in the Louvre, together carry a ram. In addition to statuettes, small
reliefs are
not
uncommon. They too
were pressed into moulds, but of course they are not hollow, but with a smooth back. The subjects show considerable variety; on plaque from Sardis, of the early
fifth
century,
is
solid,
a small
a warrior dragging a
female captive by the hair.s Several examples from the Akropolis ot
Athens show Athena mounting a
from Gela of about 500
B.C.
is
chariot. 6
On
a fragmentary
relief
seen a regal figure of Aphrodite holding
a goat (fig. 337).
About 475 — 400
In the second quarter of the
B.C.
still
garment.
The
South
peplos, arranged in a few, simple folds
is
the favourite
Occasionally figures in action are represented, tor instance,
Europa riding on
236
century, female draped statuettes
predominate. In style they resemble the marble and bronze figures
of the period.
in
fifth
the bull.
Italy, especially in
Many
fine
heads and busts have been found
Locri and Tarentum.
To
this
epoch belong also several
high quality.
The Melian
many were found
reliefs
in the island
classes
475-450
(c.
of small B.C.),
reliefs,
some of
so called because
of Melos, must have served as decorations
(they have holes for suspension or fastening) either, as has been thought,
of
wooden
caskets, or, as has recently been persuasively suggested, of
the interior of houses. ^ All the extant examples are are several repeats.
taken from daily
Bellerophon
(fig.
moulded, and there
The subjects are mostly mythological, but some are The return of Odysseus, Phrixos on the ram,
life.
338),
Aktaion attacked by Artemis' hounds,
dancing to the music of the
flute
a
girl
with a youth watching her, are some
of the scenes represented in examples in London, Paris, Berlin, and
New
York. Traces of the original colouring remain here and there.
Another
class
of small
reliefs
has
come from
Locri.
They evidently
served as votive offerings to Persephone, in whose sanctuary practically all
were found. Most of the subjects
that goddess.
One of
the
relate to
most frequent
is
myths associated with
the rape of Persephone, in
three episodes: the actual capture, generally
by a youth; the journey
237
339. Preparation for the
wedding of Persephone (?) Detail of a terra-cotta votive relief from Locri, c. 470-450 B.C. Reggio,
Museum.
through the
air in a chariot
drawn by horses or Pegasoi;
the arrival in
the nether world where Hades presides; and finally the celebration of the marriage of
Hades and Persephone, who
sumptuous throne approach with
are
shown
seated
— either together or Persephone alone —while
gifts.
on
a
deities
would seem,
the bringing
reliefs is that the
moulds were
Fig. 339 illustrates,
it
of the wedding dress to the bride.
A
remarkable feature of these Locrian
not used entire, but in separate parts, so that constant variations occur. Differences
may be observed not only
in details such as are caused
by
retouching with modelling tools, but in the actual figures represented, as
is
The colours that covered are occasionally well preserved; some are rather crudely others are harmoniously interrelated. The workmanship is
the case in the later statuettes
the surface contrasted,
(cf. p.
241).
often of great delicacy, testifying to a high
Another South sixth
238
Italy
skill.
important centre for the production of terra-cotta reliefs in
was Tarentum. Rich deposits of
figures ranging
century to the Hellenistic period have been found
from the
there,
many
340.
a bride. Tcrra-cotta plaque from Tarcntum, century B.C. Oxford, Ashmolean jMuseum.
Eros visiting
late fifth
Hermes. Terra-cotta statuette, c. 450-400 B.C. Collection of Mrs. Hclene Stathatos, Athens, National Museum.
341.
datable in
the
century B.C.
fifth
They Male
dedicated to the heroized dead.
are
mostly votive offerings, reclining at banquets,
figures
Dionysos, and the Dioskouroi on horseback are popular subjects. Characteristic also are
moulds
for discs,
presumably votive, decorated
with various emblems, and small plaques with attractive
shows
Eros
340).
(fig.
a
Compared with
young bride the
rich
sitting
One
reliefs.
of the most
on her couch and
visited
output of the preceding and succeeding
epochs, the extant terra-cotta statuettes of the second half of the century are relatively few
workmanship. There
is
;
but they are often
fairly large
indeed a certain grandeur in these
that bespeaks the influence of the great sculptors
favourite subject
is
by
a deity in a statuesque pose.
A
fifth
and of good little
figures
of the time. The
particularly interesting
example, in Mrs. Helene Stathatos' collection in Athens, represents
Hermes are in
(fig.
341).
brownish
The
colours are
red, the
evidently reproducing a
chlamys
woven
still is
well preserved: the flesh parts
white, with flying birds in blue,
or embroidered pattern.
A similar figure. 239
^
Terra-Cotta Statuettes and Small Reliefs
less sites
well preserved,
have come a
is
in the
series
Louvre.
From
Boeotia, Lokris, and other
of protomes with handsome female busts and
half-length figures, similar to those
from Rhodes (cf
p. 235),
but
later
in style.
Fourth Century b.c. AND Later
From
the fourth century B.C.
great popularity.
Many
sites
onwards
terra-cotta statuettes enjoyed
throughout Greek lands have yielded
hundreds of specimens. The best known are those from Tanagra Boeotia, which belong mostly to the third century B.C.
That the
little
town of Tanagra became an important
centre for the manufacture of these figures
is
perhaps explained by the
Macedonian destruction of Thebes and other Boeotian 335 B.C. 342-44. Terra-cotta statuettes from Tanagra, c. 300
London, British Museum, and New York, Walter
B.C.
Baker collection.
240
tion
was
The
On
the other hand,
Attica,
and
this
it is
in
of the fourth and to the
last third
now
cities in
338 and
thought that the centre of produc-
seems historically and
artistically
probable.
figures reflect the individualized spirit of the time.
No
longer
are stately divinities or votaries represented; the people of the time
345. Eros. Tcrra-cotta figure
from
Tanagra, c. 300 I3.C. New York, Metropolitan Museum. 346. Grotesque terra-cotta figure
Myrina, perhaps second century B.C. Alexandria, Benaki
from
collection.
Most of
furnish the favourite themes.
the statuettes represent
quietly standing or sitting, wearing tunic hat,
and holding a child or a fan or a
then a youth or an old
Eros
flying
(fig.
345).
There
but the simplicity
is
subtle
a Praxitelean grace
is
and
342-344).
fruit (figs.
Now
a singular charm.
difficult to imitate.
and gentleness in
They seem
Many
simple,
forgers have
but they have caught only the outward form, not the serene
The
figures are
variety multiple
moulded,
and
appears, or a child playing ball, or a
which give them
these figurines
tried,
woman
women,
and mantle and broad-brimmed
like
spirit.
the earlier examples, but to ensure
moulds were employed;
that
is,
different heads
were
attached to the same type of body, the arms were placed in various ways,
and the attributes were changed. The method adopted in the Locrian reliefs (cf. p.
238) was continued here with equal success. Moreover, the
same type was varied by retouching or by applying There
is,
therefore, never any
monotony
different colour.
in these statuettes, for each
is
a fresh creation.
Other
sites
have yielded similar figures; especially Attica, and
possible that the large output found in the
was stimulated by immigrant Attic from Attica
(cf.
is
Boeotian town of Tanagra
little
artists,
it
or was actually imported
supra).
The question of the original purpose of these statuettes is difficult to answer. The majority have been found in tombs; but they have no obvious sepulchral meaning.
some
A
religious significance.
company of
actors
It is
also difficult to believe that they
Only occasionally
was found
in
the
meaning seems
one tomb, presumably
had
clear.
as offerings
to an actor.
The
Hellenistic
century.
terra
cottas
carry
The y\gora of Athens
on
the
tradition
of the fourth
has yielded a mass of such figures
241
{c.
350-50
fairly
mostly in a fragmentary
B.C.),
narrow
state,
but
many
datable within
and therefore valuable for absolute chronology.
limits,
Besides the traditional themes, ritual subjects, jointed dolls, caricatures,
and actors
One of
reciting occur.
the great centres for the manufacture of terra-cotta statuettes
in later Hellenistic times
was Myrina
in Asia
Minor, where French
excavators in 1880-82 found hundreds of examples.
between them and the Tanagra Lively poses are
now
and Nike, are popular reciting are
new
The
is
cottas. In
is
Grotesque figures
(cf. fig.
statuettes reflect, in fact, the
late
The
new
style
dates assigned to the
life-like
of course not the only
group of two
Myrina
242
364).
statuettes
women
From Egypt comes
gossiping.
has yielded late Greek terra
site that
Smyrna, Tarsus, Pontos, Cyrene, Greece
(cf. p.
introduced in
third century through the second into the first
;
in colour,
346) and actors
are represented, a
itself,
South Italy many examples have been found some served of vases
differences.
observable in the attitudes and in the rendering of
century B.C. Fig. 347 shows a
Myrina
comparison
popular, and deities, especially Aphrodite, Eros, subjects.
the sculpture of the time.
range from the
A
shows marked
common. Even when every-day people
restlessness
the drapery.
figures often
Sicily,
a special class, reddish
and often representing Egyptian
deities.
and
as decorations
brown
^
Two women
347.
gossiping. 'I'crra-cotta
from Myrina, perhaps second London, British Museum.
348. The the statue
and
B.C.
Diadoumenos. Tcrra-cotta copy of
century B.C.
The
group
century
by Polykleitos (cf. fig. 154), first New York, Metropolitan Museum.
types evolved in the Hellenistic age continued into in
are,
sometimes
fact,
specimens. In these after the figures
late times,
difficult
Roman
times,
distinguish from the earlier
to
however, there was rarely much retouching
were extracted from the moulds. They therefore have
a mechanical look.
To
the
century B.C. belongs a group of terra-cotta statuettes
first
which reproduce famous works of the preceding epochs. They are larger than the average terra-cotta figurines, and are not mechanically made,
but free copies. Originally they were gilded to approximate the appearance
of bronze.
A
preserved,
now
(fig.
A
number have been found in
New
at
Smyrna.
of the best
348). special use of terra cotta
must be mentioned
from decorations on metalware. Many Greek and gold of the reproductions.
of
One
York, represents the Diadoumenos of Polykleitos
late in
fifth
— that of taking moulds
reliefs in
bronze,
silver,
century and later have survived in these terra-cotta
They have been found
in different localities, especially
the Athenian Agora. Their purpose
is
not certain. Perhaps
the artist kept an impression of his work, not of course for reproduction, tor such (cf.
copying was not practised
in the classical period as
it
was
later
pp. 183, 206), but to serve as a record.
For
terra-cotta reliefs
on pottery taken from metalware
cf.
pp. 366 ff.
243
— CHAPTER 7
ENGRAVED GEMS
The
art
of engraving stones to serve as
millennium
in the fourth
and had
B.C.
and Mycenaean times. The Greeks,
from
seals
goes back to Babylonia
Minoan
a long history in
as usual, learned
and borrowed
predecessors what appealed to them, and then evolved
their
something new.
The Greek engraved
stones
— or gems
commonly miniature. The
as they are
give a comprehensive view of Greek art in styles,
from geometric
shown
are
how
is
the conception in
finished the
It is
some of
subjects also are similar
these small representations,
as seals
and
identification marks,
when many people could not
in the ancient world,
an important role; but
it
was
earlier periods are preserved; later,
few gems of the
however, especially
when engraved gems were worn not only tor ornaments and amulets, they became very common.
Sometimes Greek sealstones were in inscriptions
also
employed
occasionally almost identical with one
How
famous story
Herodotos' (d.
522
gem was
B.C.)
(ill,
on
in the
(cf.
such a use
e.g. Aristotle,
and the design on a gem
is
a coin (cf p. 248).
appreciated in Greek times 40,
Roman
sealing but also
officially;
and by ancient writers
Constitution of Athens^ 44, I; Strabo, 9, 31),
greatly a fine
and
write, sealing played
period,
mentioned
and
naturally practised chiefly by the upper
classes for safeguarding their possessions. Relatively
is
how monu-
indeed extraordinary
workmanship.
Greek gems served primarily
as
various
Hellenistic,
and painting; and the quality of the work
sometimes of the highest order.
mental
The
there in continuous succession.
to those current in sculpture is
and from developed to
to archaic
called
41).
When
is
shown by
the tyrant Polykrates
was advised by Amasis, king of Egypt, to
forestall the
good fortune by casting away his most valued possession, he chose among his many treasures his signet, 'encased in gold and made of an emerald stone, the work of Theodoros, the son of Telekles, of Samos'; and after Polykrates had thrown the ring into envy of the gods
at his
the sea and returned to his house, 'he in the treasure lists
of temples of the
the Parthenon and
Hekatompedon
mentioned
the
as offerings
fifth
for his loss'. Furthermore,
and fourth centuries
for instance,
gems
B.C.,
of
are frequently
by votaries.
known whether ancient gem cutters made use of magnifying glass. The general principle of magnification by con-
It is
244
mourned
not definitely
Tenth
centrating
(XXXVI, brought
rays
was known to Aristophanes
and XXXVII, 10) mentions
67,
in contact
(Clouds,
balls
to
Sixth Centuries
766 ff.); Pliny
of glass or crystal
with the rays of the sun to generate heat; and Seneca
{Ouaestiones naturales,
I,
6, 5)
speaks of the principle applied for magnifying
some device for magnification was employed in the minute, eye-straining work of gem engraving. On the other hand, even nowadays, when strong lenses are available, gem engravers often work without them, at least in their youth; so perhaps objects. It
the
is,
therefore, possible that
Greeks did likewise.
Not only
the styles in
gem
engraving, but the materials, the forms
of the stones, and the choice of subjects, vary from period to period.
The gems of
the geometric age reflect the primitive character of that
Instead of the lively, naturalistic representations of the
civilization.
preceding Mycenaean
epoch,
linear
patterns
predominate, and the
designs are no longer carved on hard stones with the help of the wheel,
but by hand on soft
steatites.
There were no standard shapes. As
domed, angular, and rounded beads common
the conical,
GEOMETRIC PERIOD,
TENTH TO EIGHTH CENTURY B.C.
a rule
in Syria
were
adopted, as well as occasionally the cylinder. All were perforated, to be
worn suspended from
a string.
Towards
the eighth century B.C., plants, animals,
they are formalized into linear patterns.
the
end of the period, during
and human beings appear; but
Compared
to the rich output
of Mycenean times, the geometric gems are few in number. In the
late
eighth and in the seventh century B.C. the same transforma-
tion took place in engraved
gems
as in the other
products of Greek
art.
The angular designs became more rounded, and Oriental elements intruded. Moreover, the use of hard semi-precious stones worked with the wheel
was gradually reintroduced, and the gem engraver's
art
SEVENTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES
B.C.
was
The shapes of the stones still show great Eastern forms being specially common. Occasionally metal
greatly stimulated thereby. variety.
rings with engraved bezels occur.
349.
Winged
horse. Steatite, seventh
sixth century B.C.
tan
New
t
York, Metropoli
Museum.
245
Engraved Gems
An
interesting revival of
Mycenaean
traditions appears in the 'Island
gems', found chiefly at Melos and datable in the seventh and the early sixth
century B.C. They have the same lentoid and glandular shapes as the
Mycenaean stones, and like them are engraved with animals and monsters in rhythmical compositions
and goats,
and
flying birds,
349). Griffins, sphinxes,
(cf. fig.
common
fish are
winged horses
representations.
Sometimes
mythological subjects occur, for instance the suicide of Ajax on a in
New
common
York.i The most
Oriental influence
is
stone
the soft steatite.
is
observable in the so-called Graeco-Phoenician
gems2 which have been found
chiefly in the Carthaginian cemeteries of
Sardinia and in the Balearic islands.
Carthaginian supremacy, that
is,
They
date
from the period of the
from the middle of the
The shape
B.C. into the fourth century B.C.
is
deities
combinations of tations
;
Bes and
human
is
Another
The
well as monsters, animals, and fantastic
heads with animal bodies are favourite represen-
but Greek heroes, primarily Herakles, are also
ally in the later stones.
the green jasper,
and occasionally glass.
also occur,
Isis, as
sixth century
almost exclusively the
scarab (with beetle back), and the favourite material
though the coloured quartzes Egyptian
steatite
A
common,
especi-
border regularly surrounds the design.
special class of early seal engravings occur
on gold rings
with long, oval bezels, resembling the Egyptian cartouche. 3 They have
been found almost exclusively in Etruria, especially
The
at
Vulci and Caere.
bezels are engraved in intaglio, occasionally in relief, in archaic
Ionic style, resembling that on the so-called Pontic vases. Monsters and scenes with chariots form the
commonest
representations.
thought that these rings were probably made by
It
is
now
Etruscans in Italy in
the late seventh to the middle of the sixth century B.C.
The
practice of sealing
became
the course of the sixth century B.C.
fairlv ;
have survived of that epoch than of the is
general throughout Greece in
number of sealstones preceding one. The usual shape
at least a larger
the scarab. Occasionally the back, instead of being carved in the
of a beetle,
and
is
shaped
so forth. Before
back) makes
its
as a
mask, or a negro's head, or a
form
lion, a siren,
long the scaraboid (with plain, generally convex
appearance. Both scarab and scaraboid were regularly
perforated and set in metal hoops.
The
latter are
sometimes quite thick
and are provided with swivel sockets that turn on the pointed ends of the
hoop
as
on
pivots. Later, the settings
which then became correspondingly
were soldered to the hoops,
lighter. Rarely,
the old Oriental
forms of perforated cone and cylinder appear, to be worn suspended
from
a string.
The most common materials are the coloured quartzes; glass was used The human figure is the most popular representation. Warriors, horsemen, archers, athletes and hunters are shown again and occasionally.
again in varying postures; and sometimes they can be identified with
246
a
\
a
...
mythological personage. Herakles
particularly popular.
is
.
Gods and
350.
Winged figure carrying
a girl. Carnelian, early fifth
,
goddesses are comparatively rare; but satyrs, sirens and gorgons, as well century as sphinxes
human
with a T
occur often. Animals appear singly, or in combat, or associated being.
.1
The design
,
is
mostly encircled by a border. 1
r
,
1-
•
In these representations the same development trom styhzation to
naturalism can be observed as in the other branches of Greek
human
structure of the
and he
the artist
quarter views.
figure
was evidently of absorbing
tried to render
The drapery was
it
art.
The
b.c.
351. Archer. Chalcedony, Epimenes, attributed to c. 500 B.C. Both in
New
York
Metropolitan
Mu-
seum.
interest to
in varying postures, often in three-
stylized in the
manner current
at the
time.
Occasionally a genitive. It
carved
it.
may
name
is
inscribed, either in the nominative or in the
refer to the
In the
latter case
owner of
it is
the seal, or to the artist
who
generally written quite inconspicuously.
The greatest artist of the time whose name has been preserved is Epimenes,
who
signed a stone,
a horse. <
are
Onesimos,
woman As
now
Syries,
at a fountain,
and Semon.
Of
gem
their signatures
work
these only Semon's
engraved on a stone in Boston
in vase-painting, so in
youth holding
in Boston, with the figure of a
Other names of archaic gem engravers known by
—
is
outstanding.
engraving, a signature does not necessarily
signify the best
work, and masterpieces are often not signed.
the latter, are a
Hermes,
carrying a girl
(fig.
in the Berlin
350), in
—
Museum,5 and
a
Among
winged
figure
New York. An archer in three-quarter back New York (fig. 351), has been attributed
view, engraved on a stone in to
Epimenes on
in
Boston.
The Etruscan
stylistic
grounds, since
it
resembles the signed example
scarabs of the late archaic period are sometimes executed
in a style that closely
resembles the Greek. Only external characteristics,
such as the decorated vertical border, which was regularly employed in Etruria but not in Greece, furnish a clue. that these stones
were engraved by Greek
It
seems
artists for
In the course of time, however, an Etruscan flavour
likely,
therefore,
Etruscan patrons.
is
observable.
247
Engraved Gems
Fifth
AND Fourth Centuries
B.C.
Greek gems of the developed period, century seal
was
especially those of the fifth
are comparatively rare; for the possession of a personal
B.C.,
restricted to the wealthy. Aristophanes {Ekkksia^ousai, 632),
still
who wear
for instance, couples 'grandees' with people
The
scarab at
first
in the
form of
a beetle, or lion, or
retained
its
sealrings.
popularity, the back being carved either
some other
animal. Presently the
scaraboid with plain convex back became the prevalent form. Four-sided
uncommon. commonest material is
beads and cones are not
By
far the
the chalcedony
—especially
in the
Ionian stones from East Greece. Less frequent are the carnelian, agate,
rock
and
crystal, jasper, lapis lazuli,
bezels
become
increasingly
The
fourth century B.C.
The
common, and
bezel
favourite subjects are
the daily
life
of
is
are especially frequent in the
either oval, or a pointed oval, or round.
now no
women. They
Metal rings with engraved
glass.
longer mythological heroes, but
are represented
making music, playing
with their children and with animals, taking a bath, and so forth. Animals appear either singly or attacking each other. Deities are more or restricted to Aphrodite, Eros,
The
tively rare.
ing period,
fourth century
and Nike. Fantastic creatures are compara-
encircling border,
still
less
which was
in regular use in the preced-
frequently occurs in the older examples, but by the
has practically disappeared. Instead, a ground line
it
is
often added, and occasionally a decorated exergue; but in Ionian stones
both border and ground
line are regularly omitted,
lending spaciousness
to the composition.
A
close connection
time. Perhaps the definitely
known
between coins and gems may be observed
same person sometimes practised both
of Phrygillos,
who
signed an Eros on a
of Syracuse of the second half of the
fifth
century B.C.
arts.
at this
This
gem and
A
is
coins
chalcedony
scaraboid in Naples signed by Sosias^ has a female head which resembles the heads
on coins by Eumenes and
Other excellent eno-ravers of the
his
fifth
contemporaries
257).
(cf. p.
and fourth centuries known to
name are Onatas, who signed a Nike erecting a trophy, on a stone London; 7 Atheniades, who signed a man in Persian dress, on a gold
us by in
ring in Leningrad ;» and Pergamos,
who
signed the head of a youth
with a Phrygian cap, on a stone in Leningrad. ^
But the greatest
artist
of the time was Dexamenos. In his work the
gem engraving is reached. His signature is preserved representations a woman with her maid, in Cambridge (fig. 352),
high-water mark of
on four
:
probably an early work before he reached his maturity; a heron with a grasshopper, in Leningrad ;io a flying heron, also in Leningrad ;ii
the portrait
of a bearded man,
a delicacy of line that
is
In addition, there are
Hades and Persephone 248
in
in
Boston
(fig.
354).
The
last
three
and
show
beyond compare.
many unsigned masterpieces, for instance the New York {c. 460-450 B.C., fig. 353) a woman ;
Woman and maid. Chalcedony, by Dexamenos, c. 420 B.C. Cambridge,
352.
Fitzwilliam
Museum.
Hades and Persephone. c. 460.450 B.C. New York, Metropolitan 353.
Chalcedony,
Museum.
wounded
balancing a stick, in Berlin ;i2 and a (the last
two
Centaur, in Londoni^
datable in the second half of the fifth century B.C.).
of the representations of animals are likewise outstanding.
A
are rendered with extraordinary ability. a flyi5 of
unknown
Olympian Zeus, carved such
grasshopper, a bee, and a VIII,
gold rings of the a
Kassandra
in
7).
fly (cf.
Among
late fifth
special class of
Greek
(fig.
the
many
attractive
355) and a
closely resemble the
B.C.
young
compositions on
may be mentioned rider in
London, '6
horsemen on the coins of Taras.
fifth-
and fourth-century gems are the so-called
Graeco-Persian, probably engraved by Greek
They
tiny things as a
Julian Imperator, Epist., 8; Nicephor.
and the fourth century
New York
the latter comparable to the
A
insects
grasshopper in Berlin, i^ and
location remind one of the tradition that Pheidias,
in addition to his colossal
Gregor. Hist.
Even
Some
gems found
artists for
Persian clients.
in Ionia, except for the subjects
Head of a man. Jasper, by Dcxamenos, c. 420400 B.c:. Boston, Museum 354.
of
I'inc Arts.
355. Kassandra. Ciold ring,
400-380 B.c:. New York, Metropolitan Museum.
c.
GrAECO-PersIAN
GEMS
Engraved Gems
MM
0^^
356. Persian hunting.
Graeco-Per sian chalcedony, second half of fifth century B.C. New York, Metropolitan
Museum.
which
are Persian. Persian nobles in hunting scenes
combats with Greeks, single figures of Persian
(cf.
fig,
356) or in
men and women,
Eastern
animals, and occasionally monsters are executed in the broad, spirited, style characteristic
facile
of Ionia, with occasional foreshortening.
certain Oriental flavour in the representations fact that the stones
may be
A
explained by the
were made for Persians and so had to
suit the taste
of the owners.
The
chief form of these Graeco-Persian
A
aboid.
gems
is,
as in Ionia, the scar-
rectangular stone with one side faceted, and an oblong four-
sided stone also occur. Bluish chalcedony
is
These gems have been found over a large area
the favourite material.
—
in Persia, Asia
Minor,
Lydia, Anatolia, Southern Russia, Greece, and even as far East as India.
This wide distribution
is
explained by the fact that Persians travelled
extensively, taking their sealstones with them,
The
of the time.
show an
life
and
—more so than do the Persians depicted on Attic vases; and
it is
for the representations
dress
and by the active commerce
majority of the stones were doubtless executed in Persia,
known
many Greeks
that
intimate knowledge of Persian
resided in Persia during this period. Occasion-
comparisons can be made between gems and coins, and
ally helpful
they again suggest Greek workmanship.
Another is
class
of gems of the developed period related to the Greek
the Etruscan. But, although in the archaic period Etruscan scarabs
closely resembled the
century and
now,
later,
in fact,
Greek
247), in the second half of the fifth
more marked. They dependent on Greek models, but
the difference between the
form a
distinct class,
evidently executed by local
250
(cf, p.
artists.
two
is
357. Zeus
downing
giants.
Sardonyx cameo by Athenion, third to second century
B.C.
Naples,
Museo
Nazionale.
The gems of
show the variety of styles and HELLENISTIC Some display strong realism, PERIOD, still others imitate the archaic style. ABOUT 300—100
the Hellenistic period
subjects current in the sculptures of the time.
others almost exaggerated softness;
The
artists
of that
epoch had
for the resources of the East
had been made available by the conquests
The
favourite stones are the hyacinth, garnet,
of Alexander the Great.
rock
beryl, topaz, amethyst,
Chalcedony
The
still
are
occurs, but
convex
no longer common.
is
side of the
more frequent than
Among followers
and sardonyx.
crystal, carnelian, sard, agate,
Glass was popular.
stones are occasionally quite large and the design
the strongly
B.C.
a great wealth of materials at their disposal,
is
often cut on
gem. Metal rings with engraved bezels
before.
mythological subjects, Dionysos and Aphrodite and their
— Satyrs, Maenads,
most popular. Egyptian appearance.
Eros, Psyche, and Hermaphrodite
divinities, like Isis
The head of Medusa
and
Sarapis,
—are the
now make
their
another favourite. Representations
is
of vases and utensils, animals, masks, and symbols also occur. Subjects taken from daily
life
are less
except portraits, which
An
now assume
than in the preceding period,
importance.
innovation of this epoch was the cameo, in which the design was
worked
in relief instead
of in intaglio. The material generally employed
was the sardonj^, the various ability.
the
common
which were
utilized
with great
Occasionally, semi-precious stones were employed for
round
became
layers of
—
statuettes, busts,
common
The names of their signatures.
in
Roman
and vases. They,
works
in
cameos,
times.
several Hellenistic
One
as well as the
gem
of the foremost
is
known from Athenion, who engraved a
engravers are
251
358.
Medusa
Sardonyx sardonyx cameo, in Naples, with Zeus in his chariot
downing
giants
cameo,
third to century B.C. Naples,
Nazionale.
Museo
(fig.
357).
Boethos signed a stone with an emaciated Philoktetes;i7
Gelon an Aphrodite arming ;i8 Onesas an Athena, and a head of Herakles.'^
Agathopous
Among
the
a
Muse tuning
portraitists
are outstanding, the former for the head of a
gold ring in Naples.
^o
An
artist
a lyre,
Herakleidas and
Roman on
a
named Pheidias represented a youth
putting on his greave and gave him the features of Alexander the Great.21
No
stone signed by Pyrgoteles,
who
according to Pliny was the favourite
engraver of Alexander, has been preserved. Several superb cameos can be attributed to the Hellenistic period.
Two, and
in
his
Vienna and Leningrad, show
portraits perhaps of
mother Olympias.22 Another masterpiece
the so-called Tazza
is
Farnese in Naples, which has on one side a mask of Medusa
on the other Nile and other
A
large two-handled
cup
figures, the
Alexander
whole executed
(fig.
358),
in sardonyx. 23
in Paris, cut entirely in sardonyx, has reliefs
representing the paraphernalia of a banquet.24
A
special class of Hellenistic
called Italic to differentiate
gems was produced
them from the purely Greek.
can be distinguished; one carries
252
in Italy.
on the Etruscan
They
Two
are
styles
tradition, the other
Hellenistic Period
The Etruscanizing gems show their dependence on Etruscan art in both style and subjects. The archaic and developed styles of Etruria are copied in a somewhat dry manner. Among the subjects Greek the Greek.
common;
heroes are particularly
scenes and the consultation of
sacrificial
artisans.
ceremonies play an important part, especially
religious
In addition,
horsemen, and
also warriors,
The Hellenizing group resembles
the
oracles.
Greek
Hellenistic products in
style and content. Erotic and Bacchic figures are popular, as well as
scenes from daily
The execution
life.
is
generally
facile,
but rarely of
gem and
great artistic merit. In a few cases the same design occurs on a
on
a coin of the period.
Engraved gems enjoyed a great popularity
Roman
imperial periods. In fact,
And
than of any other.
Greek origin
—Greek
in the late
more gems of
this
deities, heroes,
Greek philosophers and orators
Greek
are the reproductions of
The
representations
CENTURY
B.C.
and myths,
(cf. fig.
as well as portraits of
359) — Roman gems have become
statues that
art.
Of special
interest
have survived also in marble
on the gems often have
the advantage of
figure complete instead of fragmentary, as so often in marble
showing the sculptures.
epoch have survived
FIRST
since the great majority of the designs are of
an important source for our knowledge of Greek
copies.
Republican and
For instance, the Athena Parthenos by Pheidias
148), the
(fig.
Doryphoros and Diadoumenos by Polykleitos, the Diskobolos by Myron, the Sauroktonos
by
menos by Lysippos
Praxiteles, the
are
all
Pothos by Skopas, and the Apoxyo-
shown on Roman gems
in
complete and
reliable
compositions. It is
sometimes possible to recognize famous Greek paintings or
also
reliefs in the
Roman
compositions on
dion by Diomedes and Odysseus
from Begram
p. 227),
(cf.
on
a
gems. Thus the Rape of the Palla-
— represented
Roman
on
also
plaster casts
sarcophagus, and on the
gem
signed by Felix^?
— must
embossed
by Pytheas mentioned by Pliny (XXXIII, 156), or a
relief
reproduce a Greek composition, possibly the
sculptural group. 26
Furthermore,
knowledge of
Roman gems constitute an Roman portraits. Excellent
important source for our 359 {^.^j ^f Demosthenes. examples are preserved. Amethyst ringstone. j
,
later imperial.
late
They
Republican and the Julio-Claudian epochs to the
are
sometimes signed, and the names of the
Greek
are practically always
— Agathangelos,
Euodos, Dioskourides, Hyllos, and so in
forth.
Roma
artists
Aspasios, Epitynchanos,
Some
of the portraits occur
cameos, in elaborate compositions comprising several
and the goddess in
Private (.ollcction.
_
ranging from the
figures.
Augustus
appear seated side by side on two large cameos
Vienna, 27 one in a composition with other members of the imperial
family.
Thus
the continuation of Greek art into
clear in this
branch of
Roman
times
is
made
specially
art.
253
CHAPTER 8
COINS
The
some ways her most characteristic product. The independence and at the same time interdependence coins of Greece are in
of her
and
many
city states are reflected in the variety
of the designs
in the similarity of their successive styles.
Coinage was a Greek Egypt and Mesopotamia had indeed used metal bars (ingots)
invention.
for purposes of exchange
mark guaranteeing
but to stamp a piece of metal with a specific
;
ably after 650 B.C.i
At
served the purpose; but
—
The
—
it
prob-
a simple mark, such as an incuse square,
it is
typical of artistic
Greece that these simple
emblems. Each
symbol of
at first generally the
animal, a plant, or other object itself,
the seventh century B.C.
cities in
first
were soon transformed into propriate design
weight, and value was introduced,
purity,
its
seems, by the Ionian merchant
—
pellets
chose an ap-
city
local deity
its
—an
head or figure of the deity
later the
of a favourite hero, or a mythological group. figured design appeared at
first
only on the obverse of the coin,
but before long (around 500 B.C.) both sides were so decorated. technique needed considerable
which was
a thick metal disk
the top of the anvil.
A
skill.
fitted into a
corresponding depression on
and placed over the die on the
with the other intaglio design on
hammered
in,
its
when
the disk or
came out only
the design
anvil.
A punch
lower face was adjusted on the
producing the two-faced coin. Reverse
and obverse often do not correspond with each other sometimes,
The
was carved on
intaglio design
blank disk of the correct weight was then heated
until sufficiently malleable
heated disk and
An
punch had not been properly punch with
adjusted,
wear was involved
in part. Since considerable
in this technique, especially in the
and
in direction,
the reverse,
new
dies
frequently had to be made. This circumstance has been our gain, since it
afforded an opportunity for constant variations reflecting the develop-
ment of Greek
art.
In addition to the chief emblems or 'types', accessory symbols were used, each of which had a specific meaning official, or,
when
a similar
had entered into a monetary union, a as a distinguishing
The
mark by
chief materials
natural alloy of gold are thick
254
sometimes
silver),
for
it
referred to an
several cities
characteristic
the individual
employed
and
;
emblem was adopted by
which
symbol was used
cities.
Greek coins were electrum
gold, silver, and bronze.
compared to modern ones, and too
(a
Greek coins
irregular for stacking.
Archaic Period
Difterenr cities used dirtcrent denominations. Thus, in ot"
Athens the unit
value was the drachma, divided into obols; in Corinth and other
communities
was the
it
closelv connected
stater,
divided into drachmas. Cities which were
by commerce generally used the same weight-standard.
The chief standards for the silver coinage were the Aeginetan and the I'^uboic; in addition, there
were many
local ones.
make
Inscriptions, generally in abbreviated form, often
assign coins to specific
whom
possible to
it
They give the name of the people by some cases, of the official responsible
cities.
the coins were issued, and, in
A
for the issue.
few coins can be dated by historical events, for instance, B.C., struck after the victory over
the Syracusan demareteion of 480-479
Carthage
(fig.
360),
and the decadrachms of Syracuse, struck to celebrate B.C. Occasionally, as in the gems, artists
the victory over Athens in 413
their signature, either entire or the initial letters,
added
with or without
'made it'. Kimon, Euainetos, Eumenes, Herakleidas, Eukleidas, Myr(on), Polykrates, Phrygillos, Sosion, Theodotos are some of the eminent
whose names have survived.
artists
Many thousand Greek coins have come down to our day, and one may ask why, since the metal was precious and could have been re-used. The answer
of burying
in the habit in
modern
that the ancient Greeks, not
is
their savings.
many of
times, have yielded
known
the coins
and they have furnished us with original
Some
having bank accounts, were
These hoards, brought to
to us today;
Greek designs of
all
periods.
More-
are of great beauty, skilfully adapted to the circular field.
over, they can teach a useful lesson.
Though each
its
individual
common
evolution
city
emblem, the various representations follow the
had
light
from
archaic to naturalistic; and, except for the broad divisions of
East
Greece,
sculpture
A
few
Mainland Greece, and the West
— the
style
is
in
most
cases
markedly
typical examples, in chronological
— observable
also
in
similar.2
sequence,
may
serve to
illustrate this.
The
lion's
large-eyed,
head on an electrum
city
of Asia Minors
(^.
650
open-mouthed, and with teeth and tongue showing,
the fierce seventh-century lions the statues
stater
by the Nessos Painter
from Corfu, Samos, Miletos, and Delos
which minted the design
is
not definitely known,
the case in the early archaic period,
no
(cf. p.
and of
recalls
327),
fig. 62).
(cf.
for, as is
a bull facing each other,-*
The
Lydia, with
were the
The lion has become tamer than may be compared with the lions on
first
pure
his seventh-
the Frangois
(cf.
650—480 B.C.
mostly
century precursor, and
tyrant Peisistratos
ABOUT
and
gold coins to be minted.
vase and on vases by Sophilos
ARCHAIC PERIOD,
inscription indicates the origin.
Some numismatists attribute the coin to Smyrna. The mid-sixth-century staters introduced by Croesus of foreparts of a lion
B.C.),
pp. 330 ff.).
It
was the time of the
whose encouragement of commerce
is
reflected in
255
360. Demareteion of Syracuse,
c.
479 B.C. London, British Museum.
the sudden abundance of Athenian coinage bearing the head of
and an owl
as
Athenian coinage, even somewhat in is
a tendency to archaize
commerce.
A
Athena
emblems. These two emblems remained constant on
—
as
style, for in
was natural
few landmarks, however,
in a
the later issues there
community with
a far-flung
exist, as, for instance, the
head
of Athena with a laurel wreath and palmette scroll on the helmet, issued
probably after the battle of Marathon in 490
The
silver
staters
B.C.
of Kaulonia and Poseidonia
(cf.
figs.
361, 362)
present a series of striding figures in which the evolution of the profile
and three-quarter views
in the late archaic
epoch can be paralleled to
those on the stone reliefs and vases of the time. Particularly significant is
the rendering of the abdominal muscle,
361. Silver Stater of Poseidonia, 362. Silver Stater of Kaulonia,
256
c.
c.
525.515 B.C. London, British Museum.
500 B.C. London, British Museum.
first
with three transverse
363. 'I'ctradrachm of Aetna,
divisions
c.
470 B.C. Brussels. From an electrotype
above the navel, then with two,
view, then shifted to one side
(cf. p.
at first
placed in
head of a silenos,
Olympia pedimental
decade or so
364)
— another
the
Sicilian
on one
side
it (fig.
figures.
On
{c.
one
470
side
B.C.) is
the
full
363).
Naxos struck and
Sicilian masterpiece.
with trunk in almost recalls
perched on
later,
the head of Dionysos (fig.
front
on the other the enthroned Zeus and, in front of him,
a pine tree with an eagle
A
full
the tetradrachm with
a squatting silenos
on
the other
The composition of the silenos some foreshortening,
front view, but with
audacious compositions in contemporary sculptures
pp. lllff.).
364. Tetradrachm of Naxos, Sicily,
c.
Museum.
92).
In the early classical period the tetradrachms of Aetna recall in stateliness the
in the British
460 B.C. London, British Museum.
(cf.
ClASSICALPeriOD,
ABOUT
480-330 B.C.
Coins
Tetradrachm of Syracuse by Kimon, 415-400 B.C. London, British Museum.
365. c.
366. Tetradrachm of Katane, by Heraklcidas, c.
415-400 B.C. London, British Museum.
Decadrachm of Syracuse, by Euainetos, 413-400 B.C. London, British Museum.
367. c.
258
—
5
Classical Period
The splendid ^
series
from
Sicilian
and South
Italian cities
with a head
.
on the obverse and
a chariot
1
^oA
J
on the reverse begins around 480 and
368. Tctradrachm of Alcn'^^'
b.c.
Macedonia,
London,
c.
450-425
British
Mu-
^cum. continues to the end of the century. Several of the later coins are signed
— Herakleidas,
who
his name on a tetradrachm of 369. Coin of Pantikapaion, ^\ Crimea, c. 350 B.C. London, o^^x / AAc katane with a trontal head of Apollo (hg. 366) and a quadriga [c. 41 d B.C.) British Museum.
by
their
makers -
1
1
r
1
1
A
put
/^
11
1
1
•
;
Eukleidas,
who
signed a tetradrachm of Syracuse with a quadriga and
the head of Athena in three-quarter
ing the Athena Parthenos;
view
{c.
AYl
Kimon, who made
perhaps reproduc-
B.C.),
the magnificent head of
quadriga
on
Arethusa in three-quarter view and
the
tetradrachm of Syracuse (410
365); and Euainetos, the maker
B.C.), (fig.
galloping
a
of one of the famous decadrachms of Syracuse with the head of Arethusa in profile
on one
The armour is
side,
and an advancing quadriga on the other
thought, the prizes given at
over Athens
some of the chariot the games instituted to
in the exergue of
in
413
B.C.
(fig.
367).
scenes represents,
it
celebrate the victory
Here too belong the decadrachms of Akragas
with a youth driving his chariot on the obverse, signed by Myr(on),
and the eagles and hare on the reverse, signed by Polykrates
{c.
408
B.C.).
The signatures are affixed in inconspicuous places, just as on the engraved gems (cf. p. 247). The compositions are enriched by subsidiary figures Nike crowning the
charioteer, dolphins surrounding the
an eagle flying above the chariot, a grasshopper
two
eagles.
Each has
a specific meaning,
and
head of Arethusa,
in the field
at the
with the
same time plays
its
part in the composition.
These coins mark the acme of the power of Italy before the defeats inflicted
Sicily
designs were produced in Northern and Eastern sos riding an ass
(fig.
and Greek Southern
by Carthage. Concurrently, beautiful cities,
368) on the tetradrachms of
such as the Diony-
Mende
in
Macedonia,
and the almost frontal head of Helios on tetradrachms of Rhodes. 259
Corns
370. Antiochos 371.
1
of Syria,
Antimachos of
c.
Bactria,
280-260 B.C. London, British Museum. c.
185 B.C. London, British
A
high standard of workmanship continued into the fourth century
B.C., as
coins
Museum.
exemplified by the seated Pan and the head of Zeus on the
of the Arcadian Confederacy of 370
B.C.,^
remarkable head of a satyr in three-quarter view
well as by the
as
(fig.
369) on the coins
of Pantikapaion in the Crimea, comparable to heads on vase-paintings. ^
Hellenistic
Period
In the latter part of the fourth century a
new
chapter opens. In the
East the conquests of Philip and of Alexander of
independence of many of the Greek
came un
the rule of a single
ler
Macedon ended
city states. \^ast territories
government; and though
the
now
after Alexander's
death the empire he had created was broken up into three large divisions, they too were controlled by royal houses
— the Antigonids in Macedonia,
the Seleucids in Syria, and the Ptolemies in Egypt. In
many
cases the
various states continued to use their characteristic types on the reverses
of their coins, but they are often only pale reflections of those of former days.
There
however, one development that lends special interest to
is,
Hellenistic coinage.
the rulers
—
first
On
the obverses there begin to appear portraits of
of Alexander, then of his successors.
It
was the
first
time that this had happened, except for a few heads of Persian satraps, struck in Asia
Minor toward
the
end of the
fifth
century B.C.^
It
now
Asiatic
kingdoms. The
heads on these coins present us with original Greek
portraits during
became
a
regular practice,
more than two
centuries.
dated, they shed light
especially in the
Moreover, since they can often be precisely
on the development of Greek
portraiture.
The
heads of some of these able rulers, of Philetairos of Pergamon,"' for instance, of Antiochos of Syria
and 260
especially
(fig.
370), of Perseus of Macedon
of Euthydemos and Antimachos of Bactria
(fig. (fig.
372),
371)
Hellenistic Period
and of Mithradates
III
of Pontos, represent the best that was achieved
artists in realistic portraiture. lo
by Greek
In Greece proper these regal coins were not used.
independence was
phenomenon of
retained,
and
in the
Peloponnese there
a federal currency used
by
all
A
semblance of
is
the interesting
members of the
the
Achaean League, with the head of Zeus on the obverse of the silver and the Achaean monogram on the reverse, and with the name,
coins,
or symbol of the individual city which struck the coin.
initial,
Rome on
In Italy the successive defeats inflicted by
of the South had the in the East.
The same cities
were allowed for a time to continue
Roman
empire in 30
was the custom of placing the
— which emperors
on the Zeus
is
at
Athens and
a
their coinages.
B.C.,
few other
With
— but
mark on its successor; not only head of the ruler on the obverses retained it left its
there often appear reproductions of
Some of
Olympia by
medium of Roman
the
Greek
most famous Greek
statues,
known
solely
Pheidias, are
coins and
the
however, Greek coinage
responsible for a series of excellent portraits of
reverses.
cities
were absorbed by Rome.
the independent cities
to an end. Nevertheless,
Greek
the
which the Macedonian conquests had
fate befell Greece herself in 146 B.C.
establishment of the
came
same
One by one
effect
gems
(cf. figs.
to us
Roman
sculptures
such as the
through the
149-151).
372. rcisLus of Maccdoii,
c.
178-
168 B.C. London, British Museum.
261
CHAPTER 9
JEWELLERY engraved Like of the
gems and
coins, jewellery forms, so to speak, part
sculptural arts; for here too the
decoration
Greek
effect,
is
Greek love
jewellers
This ductile material,
worked which
the gold itself
was obtained
in antiquity
the river beds of Asia Minor, Thrace, and Russia, and in
pure
its soft,
for plastic
on coloured stones for into all manner of shapes.
evident. Instead of relying
state, offered
indeed
many
chiefly
from
was often used
opportunities for artistic work.
Modelling, casting, repousse, cutting, granulation (decoration with tiny balls, set either in a pattern
or over the whole surface), filigree (decora-
tion with thin wire), plait work, inlay,
with great
learned
skill.
In
had been
jewellers
many of these
and chasing were
practised
techniques Egyptian and Mesopotamian
proficient before the Greeks,
much from
all
and the Greeks doubtless
them.
Gold was of course not the only metal used by the Greeks in their jewellery. Silver
was
also employed, but
or survives only in a corroded affected
Only
much
by dampness, and has often been preserved
the enamel that
generally missing;
md now
was
when
well preserved, as in
adds silver,
was
in Leningrad,
in coins
(cf. p.
disappeared, is
not
practically intact.
some examples from
much
it
it
now
once introduced as a discreet colour note
Electrum, a natural alloy of gold and
Crimea
as
has by
Gold, on the other hand,
state.
to the general
was popular in early
is
the
effect.
jewellery,
254). In addition, less precious materials, such
as bronze, lead, and iron, were used, especially for rings and bracelets;
and
in
tombs
gilt terra-cotta jewellery is
substitute for the genuine
Our knowledge of Greek course,
from
jewellery
is
derived
the actual pieces that have been
sanctuaries
—the
and other
objects.
and
sometimes found,
in paintings
as a
cheap
article. first
and foremost, of
found in tombs and
diadems, necklaces, earrings, bracelets, pins, buttons,
The jewellery sometimes represented on sculptures has shown how these various pieces were worn, and
has supplied evidence for dating. Occasional references to jewellery by ancient writers
have supplemented
this
knowledge. Further helpful
information has been gleaned from inscriptions, especially the inventories
of temples and the accounts of Delos, and Rhodes.
and
silver
priests, that
have been found
They mention among other precious
crowns; gold crowns of
Athens,
objects: gold
laurel, myrtle, ivy, olive, oak, vine;
finger rings of silver or gilt iron, of bronze, silver,
262
in
and gold,
either
plain or set with stones; bracelets of gold and silver; pins; buttons of 373. Gold plaques from ^ Rhodes with winged godgold, silver, bronze, and iron; earrings; diadems; necklaces with pendants dess, seventh century b.c. 1
of different forms; and so forth.
It
1
209).
(cf. p.
and
silver
offer to
London,
British
Museum.
metalwork
the people themselves were comparatively poor
and did not themselves wear the case
1
1
was evidendy customary to
the gods precious ornaments together with gold
Even when
•
1
rich jewellery
on the Greek mainland
—
as
in early times
was undoubtedly mostly
—the gods received their
due. Moreover, temples in ancient times often served as treasuries
valuable objects were placed; though
many were
later
melted
where
down
in
times of stress.
The
show
decorations on Greek jewellery
from period to period
and animal
do the other
as
figures are represented
first
the
classes
same development
of Greek
art.
Human
in generalized form, then accord-
ing to fixed conventions, and finally naturalistically. Moreover, the repertoire
gradually they times
The compositions are simple at first, become more complex, a wealth of motifs being somechanges.
also
combined
in a single,
Comparatively It
little
sumptuous design.
jewellery of the geometric period has been found.
consists chiefly of strips with
incised ornaments
embossed decorations,
on bow and quadrangular
catch, pins,
ABOUT 900—600
B.C.
fibulae with
and necklaces
with simple pendants. They have come from Attica, the Peloponnese,
and elsewhere. In the seventh century,
both
in
on the other hand, there was
a rich output,
Greece proper, and especially in the wealthy communities of
Asia Minor and the Islands. In Rhodes (and elsewhere) have been found decorated gold and silver plaques, some with loops along the top, apparently parts of necklaces and diadems. tions favourite motifs arc a a frontal position,
Centaur and
wearing a
a
Among
the
embossed decora-
winged goddess
foldlcss, belted
(fig.
373) in
garment, and with hair
arranged in 'Daedalid' fashion, like the sculptures of the period fig. 58).
She
is
the great goddess of beasts
—a
primitive Artemis
(cf.
—and 263
374. Elcctrum rosette
from
Mclos, seventh century B.C. Athens, National Museum.
375. Earrings, seventh to sixth century B.C.
New
York, seum.
Metropolitan
Mu-
SO
is
holding in both her hands lions or birds of prey. The
the bee were sacred to her and sometimes
From
accompany
the Islands of Thera, Melos, Delos, and
delicately
worked electrum and
rosettes
silver
her.
Rhodes have come
(cf.
fig.
originally parts of diadems, necklaces, or earrings, or
on garments. Each is
or
petal
is
374), perhaps
ornaments sewn
decorated with a smaller rosette, on which
perched another ornament, and in the centre still
hawk and
is
a griffin's head or bird
another rosette. Disk earrings, with long, looped pendants
terminating in griffin's heads, have been found in Melos and Rhodes; also attractive pins with decorated heads, not unlike
More
at
more number of early sites, for instance, Perachora, on the Athenian Akropolis, and
elaborate and larger pins ending in a knob, with one or
disks beneath, have at the
our modern hatpins.
come
Argive Heraion,
to light
at
on
a
Ephesos. Earrings in the form of a crescent, with a large hook and a long
pendant ending in a cage-like member
(cf.
fig.
375), are datable in the
seventh to sixth century. Examples have been found in Sardinia, as well as in Cyprus, Rhodes, and Carthage.
They
are, therefore, generally
referred to as Phoenician.
The tombs of localities
Etruria and of Cyprus, Iberia, and other non-Greek
have yielded sumptuous jewellery of
this period, testifying to
the wealth of their peoples during the seventh century B.C. Here too the Orientalizing influence apparent in the
observable.
Whether
it
came
to Etruria
Greek
art
of this time
through contact with Greece,
through commerce, or through direct relations with the East
moot
Archaic Period,
ABOUT
is
is
still
a
question.
few examples of jewellery of the archaic period of the sixth 600-475 B.C. and the early fifth century have been found in Greece, though on the sculptures and vases of that time diadems, necklaces, earrings, and Relatively
bracelets are often represented. Perhaps the looting during the Persian
wars may explain
264
this
lack to
some
extent.
The examples
that
have
k
*
fi^^o •^
'^It^H
11
^w
^
^ ^
'^
376.
Earring,
New
York,
c. 500 U.C. Metropolitan
Museum.
1
^ tl^* Gold flowers from Delphi, sixth century B.C. Delphi, Museum.
377.
Ornamented
378.
gold
bands, from Chalkidike, perhaps sixth century B.C. Collection of Mrs. Helcne Stathatos, Athens, National
Museum.
379. \ix,
(.old
tliadem
from
500 B.C. Cihatillon, Musce archeologiquc. c.
265
Jewellery
380.
266
Gold
necklaces, bracelets, and a clasp. Fourth to third century B.C.
London,
British
Museum.
:
Classical and Hellenistic Periods
survived consist chiefly of plaques with stamped ornaments, not unlike
Among
those of the seventh century, and of earrings of sturdy forms.
common
the latter a
type
is
or animal heads, or knobs, or pyramids of granules
sometimes decorated with
collars are
a ring or
As
filigree.
too thick to pass through the lobe of the
from
human 376). The
a spiral terminating at both ends in
ear,
it
(fig.
the spiral
generally
is
must have been suspended
hook. Another earring current
at this
period
is
boat- or
hook and sometimes with box-like pendants, decorated with filigree and granulation. Heavy bracelets ending in animals' heads and various fibulae have come to light on various sites. leech-shaped with a large
Delicate
gold ornaments in the form of flowers
little
part of the treasure trove found at Delphi
377) formed
(fig.
(cf. p. 55).
Several unusual pieces from outside Greece proper have also been
A number
assigned to this period.
openwork
of gold bands, ornamented with
and other motifs
spirals
filigree
now
have come from Chalkidike and are
(cf.
fig.
378), are said to
mostly in the collection of
Mrs. Stathatos in Athens. They have by some been interpreted as bracelets but
the junctures krater
(cf.
were more probably decorations (on uniforms ?).•
diadem terminating
torque-like
(fig.
fig.
the Pegasoi
The
type of diadem
and third centuries
fifth
B.C.
and Southern
tomb
at
as the large
foreign to Greece, whereas
century and especially in that of the fourth
Greek
The tombs of Northern Greece Russia,
gold,
Greek workmanship.
to be of
In the jewellery of the
is
A
and with Pegasoi
379) was found at Vix, in the same
302).
seem
in large globules
Italy
taste
shows
itself in
developed form.
(Thessaly, Macedonia, Thrace), Southern
have yielded abundant material in the form
CLASSICAL y\ND HELLENISTIC PERIODS,
ABOUT
475-100 B.C.
of crowns (including wreaths and diadems), necklaces, bracelets, earrings, finger rings, pins,
The
and plaques (cf
and animal motifs, and of designs.
As always
in
Crowns and wreaths,
and flowers ot flat
(I.G.
The
— such as oak,
no. 59), were
and were leaves are
(materials (2)
art,
The
the frequent use of
in elaborate,
human
minutely worked
a few basic forms were adopted
and
chief were
either simulating naturalistic
laurel, ivy,
The
worn
and myrtle
—or
in processions (cf.
dedicated in
forms of leaves
stylized
and consisting
mentioned
in
Demosthenes,
tombs and sanctuaries
mounted on hollow
{I.G.
c.
Mcid.,
II,
tubes, reinforced with pitch or
645).
wax
temple inventories).
earrings present great variety. Several of the earlier types
were retained, but were earrings end in
now
filigree,
often richly decorated.
human and animal
by the addition of pendants, or with
is
bands with embossed patterns. The crowns were used as prizes I,
522),
380).
work
filigree
Greek
constantly varied in detail. (1)
fig,
chief characteristic of this jewellery
is
Thus
heads, and the leech form
is
the spiral
elaborated
converted into a crescent, ornamented
figures in the round,
and pendants.
To
the early disk
267
381
.
Gold earring,
Museum
c.
350-325
B.C.
Boston,
of Fine Arts.
;.iS^
382.
New
Gold
earrings, fourth century B.C.
York, Metropolitan Museum.
Gold earrings, c. 350-325 York, Metropolitan Museum. 383.
B.C.
New
385. U.c;.
tan
human and
A
added
likewise
type arc
sorts
all
pendants, pyramidal
ot
350-325 c. York, Metropoli-
Hracelct,
New
Museum.
382),
(hi^.
common.
animal; Erotes, Nikai, and birds are especially
from Kerch have an embossed head of the Athena
pair of disks
Parthenos, from which hangs a network of chains with pendants and rosettes. 2
Each disk
is
7.3 centimetres in diameter.
Sometimes the disk and leech forms
are
combined
tion comprising figures in the round, pendants,
the disk
is
changed into
members or minute is
a
Nike driving
a palmette
form of the
hoop
common
(3)
human
a
is
ends
(cf.
fig.
which
sometimes remain.
cither
8-shapcd
<
the latter
381),
383 and
and
a
p. 271).
end
links,
in the
in
384. Necklace,
joints are
masked by
traces of the original blue, red,
Among
and green enamel
350-325
u.c:.
New
and
perhaps were talismans.
type of bracelet
is
a
massive hoop terminating
an animal's head, often wMth a decorated collar c.
in the
rosettes, in
the pendants elongated beads, acorns,
common; some
arc
or beads, with decorated clasps
Often they are encircled with pendants
384).
The most common end
(cf. fig.
(fig.
necklaces fitted snugly round the neck and consisted ot a
the petals of
(4)
New York
among
Boston
or spirally wound.
tbrm of heads or other motifs; the
amphorae
in
work. Or
filigree
suspended elongated
or animal head, the other attenuated into a hook;
finely plaited ribbon, or at the
eagle, in
now
one composi-
the ring type of earring with one
itself is either plain
The
and
are
sculptural groups. Outstanding
a two-horse chariot,
group of Ganymede with the Especially
from which
into
York, Metropolitan Museum.
(fig.
at
385).
269
Jewellery
The
motifs favoured are heads of lions, bulls, and rams. Specially fine
examples from Kerch have foreparts of sphinxes. ^ The hoop might be gold or
and
bronze (gold- or silver-plated), or crystal
silver or
plaques. Sometimes the bracelet
on the upper arm (5)
wound
either plain, or consists of spirally
is
Greek
—
so large that
it
must have been worn
as often represented in sculptures
finger rings
gems, for their gold and
The forms of
is
(see p. 271),
wires, or of a string of
and vase paintings.
have been discussed in the chapter on engraved silver bezels
the rings
were often engraved with a design.
went through
several stages of development.
common
article
of classical Greek jewellery.
are plain, others have decorated
knobs
in the
(6) Pins are another
or a
fruit.
An
exceptionally elaborate one,
a capital, enriched
with great delicacy terminates above in
with rampant (fig.
386).
form of a head or
now
plants,
lions,
The pin
itself
in Boston,
is
Some
a statuette
shaped as
and bees, all worked (now mostly missing)
two round knobs, which have taken
the place of
the former disks.
The
safety-pin, so popular in early times,
the postarchaic period; but beautifully
and fourth centuries of a semicircular
B.C.
bow and
Italy,
B.C.
New
270
frequent in
York, Metropolitan
fifth
Italy; they consist
an elongated catch decorated with
Safety-pin from South fourth to third century
Museum.
less
wrought examples of the
have been found in South
386. Gold pin head, fifth century B.C. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts. 387.
became
filigree
Classical and Hellenistic Periods
id.
387),
rts".
and sometimes terminatmy;
form
pins are in the
-,
,
ot brooches with
m
a
1
1
human
rounded
1-
head.
Still
other
-
r
1
r
disks, used for fastening
A
New
Embossed
diadem, century B.C. York, Metropolitan
fourth
Museum.
garments. (7)
388. '^'^'^
•
number of
large
small gold plaques of various forms have
occasionally been found in tombs.
They have
holes at the corners and
had evidently been fastened to garments which have disappeared. of Greek jewellery, a number
In addition to single examples
ensembles have come to light in various
come from
a
tomb on
the Hellespont
especially noteworthy. It has an
figures
now
to have
York, includes
The diadem
ring.
several
— Dionysos and Ariadne in the centre, flanked by arabesques and fourth-century style making music — executed in
%.
late
388).
Another necklace,
New
set in
two
York, said to be from Macedonia, consists of a
bracelets with crystal hoops, a finger ring, four fibulae,
and two earrings
(cf. fig.
383).
The
latter are
remarkable. Each consists
of a palmette, with two layers of leaves and a central is
set, said
New
embossed design composed of
female figures (cf.
in
and a finger
a diadem, a necklace, a pair of earrings, is
A
localities.
and
of
suspended
a
fruit,
from which
minute sculptural group of the eagle of Zeus carrying
off
young Ganymede. The
the
wings and
figures are cast solid;
of the eagle are
tail
Ganymede's drapery,
made of hammered
sheets ; the feathers
beaded wire, and
are chased.
Each
the fruit
covered with granulation. All the techniques perfected by
is
leaf
of the palmette
is
edged with
a
long experience have here been combined to form a goldsmith's master-
The
piece.
may be computed from
date
to that in this set
was found
at
the fact that a necklace similar
Corinth with coins assignable to about
the time of Alexander's death (323 B.C.).
Other sumptuous parures have come to
Ruvo,
Taranto),
Thessaly
is
Thessaly,
and
light in
South
Southern
Russia.
An
particularly remarkable. It consists of a
Italy
(Cumae,
ensemble
number of
from largish
medallions, with busts of deities, framed by ornamental bands, to which is
attached a network of small chains
not certain;
same
set
it is
was a
(cf.
thought that they served
little
satyr in high relief
fig.
as lids
shrine, with a sculptural
(cf.
and Benaki collections
Hg. 320).
Most of these
389). Their
purpose
is
of round boxes. In the
group of Dionysos and a objects are in the Stathatos
in Athens.
271
Jewellery
The
pieces described
the late fourth
and the
above belong first
to the early Hellenistic period of
when
the
As time went
on,
half of the third century
types evolved in the preceding epoch were continued.
B.C.,
however, came a significant change. With the help of the coloured stones that the conquests of Alexander had effects
At
made
easily available, pleasing
could be obtained without the minute working of the metal
first
their use
'Herakles knot'
was
filled
itself.
restrained.
A
with
of garnet, and a diadem in the Benaki
Museum-* are undoubtedly
strips
Museum
clasp in the British
eflfective.
But
in
the course of time,
with a
stress
was laid more and more on multi-coloured stones, and inevitably the gold work deteriorated. Consequently, in the Hellenistic
Greek forms were
largely
Roman
retained,
the
period,
when
workmanship
the is
generally flimsy, though the colours of the inserted stones lend gayness to the general effect. 389. Medallion with chains, from Thcssaly, third century B.C. Collection. Athens, National Museum.
Helcne Stathatos
r-...
%
272
?
CHAPTER
10
PAINTINGS AND MOSAICS Paintings Greek
contrast to
sculptures,
ot"
In
have been preserved, the major
and
the archaic
periods,
classical
nevertheless, possible to reconstruct at least,
tions
It
of is,
development, to some extent
which
exist in
and which often present subjects similar to those used in the
many in
least
has mostly disappeared.
its
in the following chapter),
on pottery (described
They show
larger paintings.
tion
of Greek painting, at
from a number of sources. Chief of these are the painted decora-
quantity,
its
which many important examples
art
the evolution of
Greek drawing through
phases from two-dimensional to three-dimensional representa-
unbroken succession. Their technique, however, from
different
that of murals
limited visualization of what
is
entirely
and panels, and so they can give only a
is lost.
Fortunately other evidence supplements our knowledge: (1) First of all,
there exist after
the archaic archaic
number of Greek painted
a
all
and Hellenistic periods, such
wooden
paintings, (2)
The
sixth
from various
sites.
many mosaics with compositions
There have survived,
similar to those in the
though ofcourse executed in a different technique
paintings from Etruscan tombs,
and
century,
as scraps ofarchaic wall paintings,
plaques, marble tombstones, terra-cotta metopes and
pinakes, and Hellenistic murals
furthermore,
decorations, mostly of
centuries B.C.,
fifth
many of which
(cf.
pp. 289 f.).
date from the
and from Lucanian tombs of the fourth
show strong Greek influence, and some were perhaps executed by
immigrant Greek
artists
—a supposition which
is
now
borne out by the
recent discovery near Paestum of Greek paintings markedly like those found in the Etruscan
tombs
(cf. infra). (3)
vases, particularly those
The colourful paintings on Hellenistic
from Centuripe, Canosa, and Hadra
can convey an idea of contemporary Greek wall paintings.
and mosaics found near-by
and (5)
villas, as
later, are
in
Rome, Pompeii, Herculaneum,
well as in Alexandria, dating
many of them
from the
(cf.
(4)
pp. 364
Stabiai, first
f.),
The murals and the
century B.C.
copies and adaptations of Greek originals.
Ancient writers often mention Greek paintings and painters and
give accounts of them. Plato and Aristotle, for instance, occasionally furnish useful information, (d.
though
in general terms.
The Elder
Pliny
A.D. 79) in his Natural History has given a consecutive account of
the chief
Greek
painters. Pausanias in the
second century A.D.
still
saw 273
Paintings and Mosaics
many Greek murals described
in the public buildings
some of them
and temples of Greece, and
Lucian's references to specific Greek
at length.
paintings are sometimes of considerable value.
From
And
so on.
heterogeneous evidence the following evolution can be
this
reconstructed: In the earlier periods Greek paintings were two-dimensional, like those
perspective.
of Egypt, with no attempt at foreshortening or linear
The range of colours was and yellow
black, blue, green, white,
limited
—and
— red
(in
various shades),
they were applied in
flat,
and
undifferentiated washes, without any attempt at modelling by light
shade.
A
decorative silhouette predominated, and emphasis was laid
on beauty of
line
and rhythmic composition. In the course of the
century B.C. a more
fifth
naturalistic scheme was gradually evolved. Fore-
shortening was introduced, as well as tentative perspective.
Toward
end of the century the representation of the third dimension was
the
further
developed, the colours began to be mixed, and the forms modelled. These
changes led to the This
is
realistic
schools of the fourth and succeeding centuries.
the all-over picture.
A
sequence, will serve to illustrate
Seventh AND Sixth Centuries
The
early terra-cotta
few
specific examples, in chronological
it.
metopes from Thermos can give an idea of
late-seventh-century painting.
The
subjects are mythological, mostly
B.C. single figures, painted in black, red, orange, and white, on a yellowish slip.
Among
the best preserved
game, and Perseus running
oft"
is
the picture of a hunter shouldering his
with the head of Medusa
(fig.
390).
A number of terra-cotta plaques with painted scenes of the prothesis or lying-in-state of the dead,
found in Attica, provide examples of Greek
pictorial art of the late seventh
and
early sixth century B.C.
(cf. p.
233).
390. Perseus with the head of Medusa. Terra-cotta metope from the Temple at Thermos, late seventh century B.C.
Athens, National Museum.
Seventh and Sixth Centuries
The
terra-cotta plaques
and miners, are
in the black-figured technique of the sixth century B.C.
1
Here belong
from Corinth, with representations of potters Clazomenian sarcophagi, with some-
also the terra-cotta
times elaborate compositions in black-figure and red-figure.
The
colours employed
the sixth century
The
green.2
(cf.
the painted archaic Attic tombstones of
pp. 70, 86) are red, blue,
were
figures
on
first
and the background was regularly
nude
and black, and sometimes
(now mostly faded)
traced in black outline red.
No
colour has remained on the
parts. Particularly interesting is the panel
of a
stele in
with an incised representation of a warrior mounting fig.
on which there were enough
74),
New
York,
his chariot (cf.
traces of colour preserved for a
reconstruction; the colour scheme was red and black, as in Attic vasepainting.
The four constitute style
wooden plaques discovered
little
the only
indicates
a
Greek panel paintings
that
in
a
cave at Sikyon
have survived. Their
date in the second half of the sixth century.
figures that remain include
women
conversing, parts of garments, and
— on the best preserved example —a procession of votaries carrying rings to an altar,
all
delicately
drawn
in Corinthian letters give the
The colours The remains of wall
the nymphs.
in a
brown,
paintings
votaries
brilliantly
at
gymnasium
is
and white.
Gordion
in Phrygia are
They come from
coloured paintings,
heap of fragments. Kspecially noteworthy a
and a dedication to
blue, black,
found
precious examples of the late sixth century. ^
once decorated with
offe-
harmonious design. Inscriptions
names of the
are red,
The
now
what appears
a
room
reduced to a to
have been
scene, with boys exercising to the music of the flute.
%^,
391. 'J'wo heads. I'rom a wall
painting
CJordion in Phrygia, century B.C.
at
late sixth
— Paintings and Mosaics
Other subjects include
and flowers (perhaps part
griffin heads, birds,
of an embroidered garment), and a procession of figures. The prevailing colours are blue, red, and green, applied in tempera technique. Fig. 391
shows two vivid heads found in
far-off
These murals
in profile view.
pure Greek
in
style
Phrygia demonstrate the wide range of Greek influence
in the art of the time.
The
archaic
tombs of Etruria present us with wall paintings and from the seventh century B.C. (Campana
terra-cotta plaques ranging
tomb, near
Veil),
through the sixth (the tombs of
and
inscriptions, of hunting
from Caere),
to the
third of the fifth century B.C.
first
They show
leopards and those of the Triclinium).
drawing
in
do the contemporary vase
as
tomb of
banqueters of the
found
(the
tombs of
same development
paintings.
The dancers and
the Triclinium exemplify the freedom and
Greek paintings of
five
of augurs, of
the
grace attained at the end of the archaic period actually been
bulls,
of the painted vases; also plaques
fishing,
tomb near Paestum, excellent condition. The
;
and recently there have
this type.
They have come
of a sarcophagus and
to light in a
as decorations
are in
subjects consist of daily-life scenes,
including banquet scenes, similar in style to the Etruscan examples of circa
480
B.C.^
All these paintings are executed in uniform washes.
The few remarks by (XXXV, 15) bear out
He
assigns
on the
Pliny
way
the archaeological evidence.
invention to Corinth or Sikyon and says that
its
from outlining shadows. One may surmise early silhouette
century vases.
Greek painting
subject of archaic
in a general
that he
is
it
arose
referring to the
and outline drawing known from geometric and seventh-
He
(XXXV,
also gives
Philokles, 'an Egyptian' (perhaps a
56) a few
names of early painters
Greek from Naukratis), Kleanthes
of Corinth, Aridikes of Corinth, and Telephanes of Sikyon, Nothing further is
is
Kimon
known
The
of them.
of Kleonai,
different positions,
who
is
first
personality one can perhaps grasp
said to
have marked the attachments of limbs wrinkles and folds of drapery. sixth century,
Century AND Later
Virtually
no
B.C. period of the
their
drawing of
original examples of
fifth
the decorations
most of
He
.
.
.
and to have discovered the
belongs to the
and the 'inventions' with which he
to the innovations in the
Fifth
have represented the features in
looking backward and upward and downward, to
and the
on
vases.
comments
last
credited correspond
is
early red-figure
Greek
(cf.
pictorial art of the classical
half of the fourth century remain, except
On
the other hand, ancient writers devote
and descriptions to the painters and paintings
we can
glean a
good
deal of information.
Polygnotos, a native of Thasos, and active in Athens wars, was regarded as the real 'inventor' of painting.
276
pp. 335 f.).
first
of that time, and from them
works were the murals
quarter of the
in the
Lesche of the Knidians
at
after the Persian
Among Delphi
his chief (cf. p.
46)
I'ifth
and those
and
that he
of Athens
(cf.
(Odysseus'
visit to
Delphi
in the
tion of
The
them
Mikon
his associate
painted in the Stoa Poikile
His Ilioupersis (the
p. 45).
Hades) were
of Troy) and Nekyia
tall
when he
seen by Pausanias
still
Century and Later
visited
second century A.D., and he has given us a long descrip(X, 25, 31).
of Polygnotos' art seem to have been the nobility
salient points
of his types, the expression of emotion in the faces, and the introduction
of
spatial depth, that
on
different levels.
foreshortening and the disposition of the figures
is,
According to Aristotle
was
contrast to Zeuxis,
skilful
'a
deduce from
this that, as in the Ilioupersis
on
Naples
a hydria in
(cf. p.
of the victors, but the tragedy of defeat
Euripides some
his
We may
—
showed not only the triumph in the
same way
as did his
and to an even greater degree
Persai,
years later, in his Trojan Women. Significant also
fifty
the fact that in the period of Polygnotos
Greek
Polygnotos, in
by the Kleophrades Painter
343), Polygnotos
contemporary Aischylos in
{Poetics, 6),
delineator of character'.
is
was created the first individualized
—
known the statue of Themistokles, of which the Roman herm found at Ostia (cf. fig. 122). praef. II) states that Agatharchos of Athens, when
portrait so far
head has survived in a Vitruvius (VII,
Aischylos was bringing out a tragedy,
commentary on write
that 'though
may be
all
'shadow
left
a
Demokritos and Anaxagoras to
that this led
subject, explaining the principles of perspective, so
is
drawn on
The
painter', that
(Hesychios,
and plane
vertical
painter Apollodoros
is,
^ku'c).
s.v.
'he
some
surfaces,
parts
{c.
430-400
B.C.)
was
called
mimicked form through shading and colour'
(XXXV,
Pliny
60,
61)
says that he
to give his figures 'the appearance of reality'
the gates of art to
and
the scenery
seen withdrawing into the background, and others to be pro-
truding in front'.
first
and
it,
on the same
made
which Zeuxis
and
'to
was the
have opened
seem
entered'. Specifically his inventions
have been the use of shadows and perspective, and of mixed instead
of pure colours
(cf.
Apollodoros'
{Inst. Orat.,
principles of light ot line.
were
The
leading
o/or.
seem
to
Ath., 346a).
Zeuxis
XII, 10, 4) says that the
realistic
of Herakleia
and
have expanded these discoveries.
and shade, while the
Thereby the
initiated. It
De
younger contemporaries,
of Ephesos,
Parrhasios Quintilian
Plutarch,
latter
former discovered the
discovered greater subtleness
schools of fourth-century Greek paintings
was an age of panel painting rather than of murals.
men were
first
Eupompos, who belonged to the concluding Macedonian Pamphilos and his
years of the fifth century B.C., then the
pupil Pausias of Sikyon,
who
painting, Aristeides of Thebes,
developed the technique of encaustic
and Nikias of Athens. The
contemporary of Praxiteles and painted some of
known
for paying special attention to light
the figures stand out
last
his statues.
and shade, and
for
was
a
He was 'making
from the background'.
277
Paintings and Mosaics
392. Stele of Hediste, third
century B.C. Volo,
The
Museum.
was the Ionian Apelles, the favourite
greatest of these artists
painter of Alexander the Great,
famous work was an Aphrodite
whose at
portrait he painted. His
Kos 'emerging from
the
most
waves and
pressing the sea-foam from her hair', evidently a pictorial counterpart
of the statue of Aphrodite
The
realistic ideal
related
Anadyomene
of the time
is
(cf. p.
illustrated
149).
by the well-known anecdotes
by Pliny and others of the painted grapes by Zeuxis
birds flew, and of Apelles' picture of a horse
They show
at
which
the trompe-l'oeil ideal of that time.
by successful foreshortening,
It
which
at
live horses neighed.
was attained not only
which by now had become
the order of
the day, but by the use of mixed instead of pure colours.
Some of and
the third-century painted stelai
from Pagasai (Volo),
especially those
idea of this developed phase of the stele of Hediste
dead
and
woman
in the
on
in Thessaly, can give
Greek painting.
at the
Among
392) in which an interior
a couch, her
back a young
is
husband seated
background an old nurse holding a child
an open door
which the
lying
(fig.
from Alexandria and Sidon,
girl is seen.
figures are placed are suggested
some
the finest
is
depicted with a
at the toot
in her
of
it,
arms through ;
The various depths
by intersecting
lines
at
and by
a slight diminution of the figures in the farther distance. Besides pure
colours
278
— such
as reds, yellow,
and blacks
—mixed
colours appear, for
Fifth Century and Later
and
instance, violet (for the wall
on
from Centuripe
the vases
(cf.
Furthermore, the paintings
pillars).
pp. 363 f.)
— executed in tempera tech-
nique in rose, mauve, blue, yellow, black, and white, and to the third century B.C.,
—can,
when
now
assigned
show both
well preserved,
the
colour scheme and to some extent the compositions current at the time. Vitruvius' statement regarding the discovery of perspective during the
fifth
century B.C. (see above)
of the time
p. 325).
(cf.
One
is
borne out by the vase-paintings
can watch there the development in the
rendering of the third dimension step by step. to
realize
It is
important, however,
whereas foreshortening was perfectly understood
that,
early as the second half of the
always remained partial times. Instead of
—even
fifth
as
century B.C., linear perspective
Roman, and mediaeval
in late Greek,
one vanishing point to which
all
parallel receding lines
converge, several vanishing points were used with varying points of
This conception
sight.
well illustrated in the furniture, altars, and
is
on Attic and South Italian vases, as more ambitious compositions in Pompeian paintings.
buildings that occasionally appear well as in the
Though some degree of
co-ordination was sometimes attained, the
space of the picture was never realized as a unity, that
from
a single point of sight.5
And
is,
this applies *also to the
and shade. Though the figures were no longer depicted as in the earlier periods,
in
never viewed use of light
in fiat surfaces,
but were made to stand out from the background
modelled shapes, they were not conceived as occupying one space
illumined by one light.
It
was not
of the fifteenth
until the Renaissance
century that linear and aerial perspective, as
we understand them, were
systematically explored.
How much
the paintings of the
Roman
age can give a realization *of
Greek painting has been much discussed. That the figures in the murals from Pompeii and elsewhere were mostly copied from Greek originals there can be
no doubt. Such Greek
originals
having been brought there as loot by the
were available
Roman
conquerors, and that
copying from Greek paintings was a familiar practice literary
sources
Moreover, there
(cf. is
e.g.
Pliny,
XXXV,
125;
is
Lucian,
known from Zeuxis,
the evidence of the paintings themselves.
no consistent development
in the style
in Italy,
3-8).
They show
of the figures during the several
which they were produced, only a variety of Greek styles, ranging from the fif'th to the second century B.C. The different 'repeats'
centuries in
—groups,
or extracts from groups recurring in different paintings of
varying dates It is
— point in the same direction.
even possible
now and
then to recognize in some
Roman
murals
and mosaics
specific Greek paintings of the fourth and third centuries mentioned by ancient writers. Thus, the Andromeda and Perseus Naples (fig. 395) may represent the Andromeda cited by Pliny (XXXV,
B.C. in
132) as a
work by
Nikias.
The famous Alexander mosaic
in
Naples
279
M
Achilles at Skyros. Wall painting from Pompeii. Naples, Museo Nazionale.
393.
395.
Andromeda and
Per-
seus, perhaps after Nikias.
Wall painting from Pompeii.
Naples,
Museo Na-
zionalc.
from the mosaic of Alexander and Darius, perhaps after Philoxenos of
396. Darius
Eretria. peii.
Mosaic from PomMuseo Na-
Naples,
zionale.
Paintings and Mosaics
397. Detail from the wall paintings in the Villa Item, Pompeii. In situ.
may reproduce a painting of Alexander and Darius by Philoxenos Rome^ may hark back to Eupompos' painting of that subject. The mosaic of (fig.
396)
of Eretria. The victor with the palms in the Palazzo Rospigliosi in
doves in the Capitoline
'Unswept
Museum
floor' in the Lateran"? evidently
by Sosos of Pergamon
The Roman reproduced
as
(cf, p.
291),
And
and the mosaic of the
reproduce a large composition
so on.
copies of Greek paintings, however, were not mechanically
were the
statues.
had to be adapted to new
282
394),
(fig.
They were
locations.
free copies
One
which, moreover,
must, therefore, allow for
«
Fifth Century and Later
398. Flora. Wall painting from Sta-
Naples, Nazionalc. biac.
Musco
variations in composition, in quality
and above
between original and copy.
all
take into account the difference
Now and
examples doubtless bring us near to the Greek fully
composed
picture of Achilles at Skyros
then, however, the best
— for instance the beautifrom Pompeii
(fig.
393),
the elaborate decoration of the walls of the Villa Item at Pompeii, (cf.
fig.
397),
It
was
was
first
from Stabiae
the ethereal Flora
Achilles and Briseis,
from Pompeii
in the Hellenistic period,
developed. Vitruvius
it
(cf. fig.
fig.
398),
and the
399).
would seem,
(VII, 5,
(cf.
that landscape painting
2-3) specifically mentions that
283
Paintings and Mosaics
399. Achilles. Detail of a wall painting
284
from Pompeii. Naples, Museo Nazionale.
Fifth Century and Later
'ancient artists' painted 'harbours, headlands
And
the wanderings of Odysseus'. the plaster casts found at reliefs
this
(cf. p.
.
.
groves, is
hills
now
.
.
.
in
which landscapes are frequently
we have Roman
253). Perhaps
copies of such
Greek
landscapes in the well-known Odyssey paintings in the Vatican fig.
They show,
400).
villa
and
borne out by
Begram, Afghanistan, which evidently reproduce
from Hellenistic metalware and
introduced
.
statement
better even than the picture of a garden
of Livia at Primaporta
(cf. fig.
from the and the
402), both the achievements
limitations of the ancient artists in this field.
They were
(cf.
able to represent
successfully atmospheric effects, but not aerial perspective with a unified light.
Light was always introduced from various
in the
charming
idyls
sides.
That landscape
Roman
age
from Pompeii representing shrines
(cf.
painting had great appeal also for the artists of the
is
shown
fig.
401)
and maritime scenes.
The late
(XXXV,
statements of Pliny
Greek
artists
112) and Vitruvius (VI, 7, 4) that
depicted 'humble' subjects as well as important figured
scenes suggest that genre and
still-life
compositions were included in
the Hellenistic repertoire. This branch of painting
by Pompeian
who
artists,
was
also
developed
often included flowers, fruits, and birds in
their pictures.
To what Greek
is
Roman
extent the technique of
not definitely known, as so
little
one may assume that the two were not
First
two or
mixed with sand and
latter is
dissimilar.
preserved; but
According to recent
Pompeian wall paintings must have been
research, the technique of the as follows:
paintings resembled the
of the
three carefully prepared layers of limestone,
calcite,
of the picture was painted
were applied to the
first
and
left
to dry,
walls.
The background
whereupon
the figures and
ornaments were added. The colours were mixed with soapy limestone
and some kind of glue to waxing.
By
these
act as a
medium, and were rendered shiny by
means the paintings acquired great
durability
and
brilliance.
The pigments employed
in antiquity
were
chiefly the earth colours
(such as ochres), mineral colours (such as carbonate of copper), and
vegetable and animal dyes.
Long
given by Pliny (XXXIII, 158-163,
lists
and descriptions of them are
XXXV,
30-50) and Vitruvius
(VII,
7-14).
Encaustic painting, in which the colours were mixed with melted
wax and applied with a spatula or some pointed instrument, was in both Greek and Roman times. On a South Italian vase of fourth century B.C. are depicted are
(fig.
engaged
cases of the
the early
403) and on a sarcophagus from Kerch, artists
in painting in that technique. 9
provided by the many
mummy
practised
fine,
Roman
Actual examples
well preserved portraits
period.
regarding the technique from the
And one
on Egyptian
can learn something
paintings of warriors
on Boeotian 285
mi^%
400.
Odyssey landscape. Wall painting from the Esquiline. Vatican Museum.
401. Rural Shrine. Wall painting
from Boscotrecase.
New
York, Metropolitan Museum.
^Jl^' \- *^
^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^^»J-i SBSfi^^^^tfi
tI-'^-vVv^.
•f.irrr^*'^
H 1>>
jgHlllliBlgjgl
Fifth Century and Later
T
%-
1^
^
^i;
^•^k^
:tc9^,..-;^* '
^^.i^:
^^M.
.^i-''
-5#
'^%i^-
^^.
1*
-..-f'
•f'^
./
;\i».'.»v\'
402. Ciardcn.
\\ all
painting from the Villa of Livia at Primaporta.
Rome, Tcrmc Museum.
403. Artist painting in encaustic. From a
South Italian vase of the early fourth century B.C. New York, Metropolitan
Museum.
stelai
of dark marble, datable
c.
400
B.C.
and
later,
where, however,
only the incised preliminary sketch remains, lo
We may
conclude
development of Greek
brief sketch of the
this
painting with a quotation from Dionysios of Halikarnassos, at the
time of Augustus,
when
paintings of the earlier days
:
there were
to be seen
still
'In ancient paintings the
was simple and presented no variety
in the tones
;
who
wrote
many famous
scheme of colouring
but the line was rendered
with exquisite perfection, thus lending to these early works a singular grace. This purity of draughtsmanship
was gradually
lost; its place
was
taken by a learned technique, by the differentiation of light and shade, by the full resources of the rich colouring to which the works of the later artists
owe
their strength'
(tr.
K. Jex-Blake and E.
nately 'the exquisite perfection' of line
of Halikarnassos in Attic vase-painting.
288
earlier
Greek
Sellers).
Fortu-
drawing that appealed to Dionysios
pictorial art
is
preserved for us in
Mosaics
Mosaics
Greek mosaics of the in considerable
instance,
numbers
most
at
and fourth centuries
have been found
B.C.
Olynthos, and similar ones have come, for
from Olympia, Alexandria, and Macedonia
at Pella, the birthplace
to
fifth
later
of Alexander the Great,
cf. fig.
(at Palatitsa
407). n
and
In contrast
mosaics they are worked not in cut cubes, but in natural
The
pebbles, either in black and white, or multi-coloured.
those current in the other branches of Greek
art, that is,
subjects are
animals and
monsters, mythological scenes, and floral motifs. Especially noteworthy
examples are representations of Nereids and of Bellerophon spearing the Chimaira
(fig.
404), both
from Olynthos and dating from the
first
half of the fourth century B.C.
The cube technique seems after Alexander's conquests.
found
at
to
have been introduced from the East,
Specimens of Hellenistic date have been
Olynthos, Delos, and elsewhere. In
exclusively employed,
Roman
times
and the custom of having mosaic
became widespread. Many examples ranging from the to the fourth century A.D.
empire.
Bellerophon and the Chimaira. Mosaic from Olynthos, first half of the fourth century B.C. 404.
it
was almost
floors in houses
first
century B.C.
have come to light throughout the
Roman
405. Dionysos.
Mo-
from Antioch. New York, Metrosaic
politan
Museum.
407. Stag hunt,
signed by Gnosis.
Mosaic Lorn Pella. About 300 B.C. Archaeological
Museum,
As
Salonikc.
in the paintings of the
Roman
age, so in the mosaics,
can some-
it
times be determined that they are copies of famous Greek originals. In addition to those mentioned above
(cf. p.
282)
may be
cited the small
panels in Naples signed by Dioskourides, representing street musicians (fig.
406) and old
originals.
small size.
They
women, which presumably reproduce
are executed in
The Dionysos mounted on
of the mosaics from Antioch
show
the close relation
Hellenistic
many-coloured stones of astonishingly
(cf.
fig.
a tiger,
from Delos, and many
405) and
North Africa likewise
between mosaics and paintings. The
to flourish until the fourth century
A.D.
(cf.
art
continued
especially the examples
from Piazza Armerina) and then developed into the great mosaics of the Early Christian and Byzantine periods.
291
CHAPTER
11
POTTERY AND VASE-PAINTING
the absence of significant examples of the major art of
Inpainting, pottery has assumed an importance even beyond great intrinsic value.
the vase-painter
certain periods
was not content
He
and plant motifs. around him,
During
took
as did the panel
his
themes from mythology and the
and mural
case in the Attic pottery of the sixth
painters.
and
artists in
and
this is especially the
fifth centuries.
and colour scheme, they
Greek
pictorial art.
numbers,
In spite of the
can, therefore, give a
and composition
general; and in adding these qualities in one's imagina-
tion to the colourful
in large
life
Moreover, occasionally
realization of the extraordinary feeling for line, contour,
of Greek
own
its
in certain localities
to decorate his pots with simple lines
these vase-paintings are of the highest quality,
difference in technique
and
Greek
Roman
some perception of
murals, one can gain
Furthermore, Greek terra-cotta vases have survived
for,
once
practically indestructible.
fired,
they
may be broken, but
They have been found
are otherwise
and
in sanctuaries
tombs, where they had been placed as offerings, and in or near private dwelling
when
s,
where they had been thrown on dumps or
in
unused wells
discarded. They, therefore, present a continuous story
from geo-
metric to Hellenistic times.
As
in sculpture, so in painting, the
Greeks gradually solved the many
problems of representation. They emancipated the
art
of drawing from
a conventional system of two-dimensional formulas and learned to represent to the eye.
volume
to
on
how
a flat surface three-dimensional figures as they appear
They mastered their figures,
the problem of foreshortening, imparted
and introduced
spatial
relations
into their
compositions. This evolution can be observed step by step in Greek vase-painting.
Naturally,
Greek pottery
much
offers
regarding the lost larger paintings.
apart from
The Greek
what
it
can teach
sense of form can here
be studied to advantage; for in the well preserved examples the subtle interrelation of the parts to
one another and to the whole can be
appreciated. Technically, also, the inscriptions he sometimes
custom.
292
Greek potter was
added have shed
light
a master.
fully
And
the
on many an ancient
Geometric Period
Various Fabrics Pottery
an ancient
is
stone age on.
At
By about 1800
first
art;
it
was practised
is
Greek lands from the
the vases were built with coils
B.C. the art
and wads of
skill
by the Minoan and Mycenaean
After the break-up of the Mycenaean civilization
at first
no
definite
clay.
of throwing on the wheel was introduced and
was henceforth practised with great artists.
in
(cf. p.
change observable in the pottery; but
the conceptions of a
new
in other branches of
Greek
17) there
after a while
age found expression in pottery as they did art.
By
the tenth and ninth centuries B.C.
the curvilinear patterns and the representations of plant and marine life
popular with Minoans and Mycenaeans had been transformed into
geometric designs. Zigzags, shaded triangles, chequers, network, tangent
and concentric
circles, semi-circles,
the swastika, and, later, the
Minoan
artistic
wavy lines,
rosettes,
wheel ornaments,
meander became the prevalent motifs. The
stock gradually disappeared.
Several periods can be distinguished: the sub-Mycenaean (eleventh
century B.C.), in which the curvilinear elements are the proto-geometric (tenth century, in
which the geometric
style
408. Froto-gcomctric vase, tenth
century B.C. Athens, Keramcikos
Museum.
is
in
cf.
fig.
still
in evidence;
408), of sober appearance,
formation; and the full-fledged
GEOMETRIC PERIOD,
ABOUT 1000- 700 B.C.
409. Geometric vase with Protliesis, eighth century B.C.
Athens, National
Museum.
410. Geometric vase with Prothesis and funeral procession, eighth century B.C. New York, Metropolitan Museum.
geometric (ninth to eighth century), characterized by a profusion of
ornaments and the introduction of animal and human figures
The decorations
are painted in lustrous
brown
'glaze'
the light surface of the clay, and the same dark glaze
is
(cf. fig.
(cf.
p. 316)
on
used as a wash
to cover the undecorated areas. Occasionally a touch of white
The human
409).
added.
is
figures are painted first entirely in silhouette, later occasionally
also in outline
with inner
lines
added
— an
outline head, for instance,
with a dot for the eye. Statuettes of horses and birds or miniature vases served as handles of
According to the
lids;
or
human
locality in
figures
were attached to handles.
which the vases were found
(Attica,
Corinth, Boeotia, Argos, Crete, the Cyclades, Cyprus, Samos, Rhodes,
they differ somewhat in appearance.
the style
remarkably uniform. Attica evidently played a leading
The
is
subjects range
from
in
London which
is
depart from Greece.
the whole, however, part.
single figures to elaborate groups,
some
on
a vase
perhaps with mythological import,
294
On
Italy, etc.),
as,
for instance, the scene
usually interpreted as Helen and Paris about to
€^4_ ^Mf^^i^^.:^Sl^&^!'^^!i(^
Pottery and 'Vase- Painting
411.
Shipwreck. Drawing geometric vase found
The
chief shapes are the krater, the amphora, the hydria, and various
after a
Pithekoussai, eighth century B.C. Ischia, Museum. at
forms of jugs and cups. fine
A
developed feeling for form
is
shown
in the
contours of the egg-shaped bodies and flaring necks.
The most important geometric pots are the colossal ones, some over monuments on tombs (in their bottoms are holes for pouring drink offerings to the dead). They have been found chiefly in Attica and the Islands. They were thrown on the wheel in four feet high, which served as
sections,
which were then attached
to
one another with
slip; the joins
can be seen on the insides. Decorative patterns, arranged in panels,
and figured scenes cover much of the
lying-in-state of the dead,
lying
on
is
a bier surrounded
funeral processions
(cf.
fig.
The
surface.
tiers
and
prothesis,
a frequent theme: the deceased
is
or
shown
by mourners; chariots and warriors form 410). Occasionally warships
engaged
in a
They bring before us the adventurous expeditions of the early Greeks who roamed the Mediterranean or, it has been thought, they represent Homeric legends,
battle at sea, or
shipwrecks
(cf. fig.
411) are depicted.
—
such
as the
All
shipwreck of Odysseus and his companions. representations
these
are
drawn
works of
characterizes the sculptural
in
this time.
renderings, effective as patterns, but with
conception
is
the
purely two-dimensional.
little
geometric
They
style
that
are schematized
relation to nature.
The
Three-quarter views are not
attempted. The- figures are merely pieced together from full-front and profile views,
side of It is
without perspective or foreshortening.
an object
is
shown
it is
When
the further
merely placed alongside the nearer one.
noteworthy that Greek inscriptions occur on geometric pots
datable in the middle or third quarter of the eighth century B.C. Particularly interesting in
296
which
'the
is
one on a skyphos found
cup of Nestor'
is
mentioned,
i
at Pithekoussai, in Ischia,
— Archaic Period
In the late eighth and
geometric
the
seventh century B.C. the schematized
was gradually transformed.
art
over the Mediterranean world
56).
(cf. p.
It
was a period of change
all
Colonies were being founded
east and west; intercommunications were improved; and contact with Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria, and the ancient Oriental civilizations
—
Phoenicia
—was
The
established.
by the adoption of Eastern
resultant Oriental influence
floral motifs,
and of Oriental monsters and
beasts,
is
ORIENTALIZING AND ARCHAIC PERIODS,
ABOUT 720— 550 AND LATER
B.C.
shown
such as the lotus and palmette,
such as sphinxes, panthers, and
lions.
The pottery of this epoch presents a varied picture. There were a number of important centres, each with its individual style and technique, but they divide geographically into two chief classes Mainland and
—
East Greek.
On In
the Mainland the
Attica two
(about 720-650
different
B.C.)
resemblance to the is
most important centres were Attica and Corinth.
—by
epochs have been distinguished. The
some
on the
reliefs
authorities
shields
called
found on Mount Ida
characterized by an exuberant style, with emphasis
(cf. p.
The geometric abnormal proportions
The drawing
A
its
210)
on bold, curvilinear
ornaments, and with imposing compositions of wild animals and figures.
first
Idaean from
MainlANDGREECE
human
are retained but vitalized.
partly in silhouette, partly in outline.
is
hydria found at Analatos in Attica stands
midway between
the
geometric period and the seventh century, with ornaments typical of
both periods; whereas an amphora in of the seventh century, shows the It is
3^
feet high.
On
new
New
York, of the second quarter
style in
developed form
the neck are depicted a lion
(fig.
412).
and a spotted deer;
on the shoulder grazing horses; on the body Herakles and the centaur Nessos, with, chariot.
it
would seem, Deianeira awaiting
the
outcome
in the
Ornamental motifs appear above and below, and over the whole
surface of the back.
The decoration
is
in brownish-black glaze,
with a
generous use of white and occasional incisions. The figures are partly in outline, partly in silhouette,
and with rounded limbs. In
front view,
and force absent
a life
with trunks drawn in profile or in spite
in the systematized
full
of their crudity they have
and orderly geometric com-
positions.
An amphora showing Eleusis;
on
its
neck
is
the
same farouche power has come
depicted the blinding of Polyphemos
on the body Perseus and the Gorgons from
A
c.
675-650
(fig.
to light at (fig,
413),
414). It too should date
B.C.
similar exuberance
is
noticeable in the vases found in Aegina that
have been recognized as Attic products.
—
650-600 B.C.) by some called Daedalid {c. more sober spirit prevails, and the forms of animals and human beings become more normal. It is the period of the first monuIn
(cf. p.
the
second epoch
233)
—a
mental sculpture in Greece, and some of the designs on the vases have
297
iiiiif.
fHDIi'
412. Proto-Attic
am-
phora with Herakles and Nessos, c. 675650 B.C. New York, MuMetropolitan seum.
298
the
same grandeur
,.,. epoch
which the
stvle, in ^
1
no longer drawn
figures are ^
'
57 ff.). Technically this 413-4. The blinding of Polyphemos;twoGorgons. From a Proto-Attic ampho-
(cf.
pp. 111 riiii^ marks the adoption ol the black-hgured
T It
also important.
IS
kouroi
as the early
are entirely in silhouette, with
... details incised
partly in outline, but .
.
!^^/°""^'; Elcusis c. 675650 B.C. Elcusis, Museum,
and with red and white
accessory colours. Early examples of this class are the so-called Kynosarges
amphora
650
{c.
and several
B.C.),
terra-cotta
plaques
depicting the
man laid out on a bier, surrounded by mourning women {c. 630 B.C., p. 233). Then come such masterpieces as the amphora from the
dead cf.
Piraeus
(fig.
415) and several vases found at Vari with representations
of Prometheus and Bellerophon, as well as large monsters and wild
They
animals.
are followed
by the famous amphora
with Herakles, Nessos, and the Gorgons
Agora
(cf.
panels,
all
(fig.
{c.
610-600
416), the sphinx
B.C.)
from the
fig.
417), and the amphorae with horses' heads painted
in
full
black-figure.
The
favourite
in
shapes are the large,
capacious kraters, lebetes, hydriai, and amphorae, the generous areas of
which allowed
One
and grandiose forms.
for large-scale compositions
generation
the compositions
later, that is, in
become
the
first
quarter of the sixth century,
relatively smaller.
The
narrative style, with
themes taken from mythology and daily life, has become firmly established.
The monstrous
creatures
to second place. in the fig.
A
Louvre with
439).
Then,
To
lively
the
first
(For the
artists
named
of
epoch are relegated
epoch
is
a large lebes
and the Gorgons
(cf.
mythological scenes and rows of animals half of the sixth century belong also the
komast and Siana cups, which are followed Little-Master cups,
this
second quarter of the century, come the so-called
in the
tiers.
in the preceding
a representation of Perseus
Tyrrhenian vases with arranged in
dominant
remarkable product of
in the third quarter
after the miniature style
this early
period
cf.
by the
of their decoration.
pp. 326 ff.)
299
Pottery and Vase-Painting
•y
\
415. Attic
amphora
with chariots, from the Piraeus, c. 620 NaB.C. Athens, tional
300
Museum.
Archaic Period
y>
416. Attic I
amphora with
Icraklcs killing Ncssos,
and (jorgons, c. 610600 B.C. Athens, National
Museum.
301
^\t#^f^^'§^^^
417. Attic
amphora with sphinx, from
the Agora, late seventh century B.C. Athens,
Agora Museum.
_
Some of
_
these Attic products have been found in Delos, Rhodes,
Egypt, Troy,
oi T,-r--oi Southern Southern Russia,
Marseilles. Attica
htruria,
had by
this
T
1
Italy,
c-
^
1
418. Proto-Cormthian jug, rnid-seventh century B.C.
and London,
Sicily,
time evidently developed a flourishing
British
Museum.
419. Proto-Corinthian perbottle, c 650-625 b.c.
export trade. Soon she was to eliminate her commercial rival Corinth, fume
and become the chief ceramic centre of the Mediterranean world
(cf.
pp. 315ff.).
Corinth
in the seventh
and
early sixth century
commercially the most powerful Greek
state.
Her
was
politically
and
influence spread east
and west. She had become one of the chief outposts of Phoenician traders. Corinthian pottery has accordingly
only
all
The
over Greece, but in
Italy
been found in quantity, not
and the East, including Egypt,
so-called Proto-Corinthian vases,
which are
now assumed
to be
Corinthian, consist chiefly of two-handled cups (skyphoi), jugs, and small, dainty
perfume
pots.
They began
produced
to be
in the
age and were then decorated with geometric patterns. In the century animal and
geometric late
eighth
human figures appear, and occasionally Eastern The figures are no longer angular abstractions,
curvilinear ornaments.
but have rounded contours and considerable animation. Both outline
drawing and silhouette are used and there
occasional incision; white
is
occurs as an accessory colour.
This change becomes more marked in the
first
half
and the middle
of the seventh century. Co-ordinated scenes appear, with
shown still is
in definite action.
consist of cups, jugs,
in black silhouette, in a
human figures The vases
Intricate floral designs are added.
and small perfume miniature
style,
bottles,
and the decoration
with red and white as accessory
303
—
420. Corinthian oinochoe, c. 625-600 B.C. London, British Museum.
Outstanding examples are the so-called Macmillan
colours.
and Chigi^ vases the vases were
wrapped
in the British
made
and
Villa Giulia
in the shape of animals
(fig.
and human beings.
A man
in a cloak, with hair arranged in 'Daedalid' fashion, in
York, and a
little
418)
Museums. Occasionally
owl, with head turned to one side
(fig.
New
419), in Paris,^
are such attractive sculptural examples.
Out of this
dainty Proto-Corinthian style was developed the Corinthian
of the second half of the seventh and the
first
half of the sixth century
The decoration
the period of the tyrants Kypselos and Periander.
arranged in friezes covering most of the surface and the vases are
now
with an Oriental
considerably larger.
in a bold style,
flavour
motifs are animals and monsters,
(cf.
figs.
with rosettes,
304
The designs are 420, 421). The chief
is
dots, and other ornaments scattered
all
over the back-
ground, perhaps in imitation of Eastern
common
Scenes with
textiles.
human
421. Corinthian pyxis, late seventh century B.C.
armed horsemen, York, and scenes from the legends of Troy. Odysseus, Polyphemos, and ^eum. figures are fairly
;
they include padded dancers,
The decoration
Herakles are favourite heroes. light terra-cotta
red and white.
The prevalent shapes plates,
The
in black-figure,
on
Mu-
a
background, with much incision and copious accessory
perfume vases,
and
toilet
popularity of this ware
were four
is
New
Metropolitan
distinct
is
are the krater, hydria, oinochoe,
boxes. Plastic vases also occur. attested
by
its
wide distribution. There
phases: a transitional period (about 640-625 B.C.),
and the so-called Early, Middle and Late Corinthian, to each of which a quarter of a century has been assigned.
on the
The
strong, incisive drawing
the Eurytos krater (Early Corinthian; Louvre)
departure of Amphiaraos
(Late
Corinthian
and the vivacity of I;
Berlin)
gradually
30S
Pottery and Vase-Painting
422. Eretrian amphora, first half of the seventh century B.C.
Athens, National Museum.
Archaic Period
became weak and stereotyped. By 550 were over. Her pottery
modity and continued only
Among
B.C. the great days
of Corinth
practically ceased as a flourishing export
com-
as a local ware.
the other mainland potteries the
most important were those
of Euboea (Eretria and Chalkis), Boeotia, Argolis, and Laconia. In
Eretria have been found
vases of the
first
a series
of colossal, high-stemmed
half of the seventh century B.C. with large-scale
positions, executed partly in outline, partly in silhouette in the
bold
style characteristic
(cf.
of that period. They are followed
fig. c.
com422),
500
B.C.
by vases of similar form, with decoration in developed black-figure. That Chalkis was a great power in the eighth century B.C. is shown by the colonies she founded in the West, such as Pithekoussai on Ischia, Cumae, and Sicilian Naxos (cf. Strabo, 247; Livy, VIII, 22).
No
distinctive eighth- to seventh-century Chalcidian
been recognized in excavations on those is
\>v. A Rhodes,
r Cyprus,
The
ware has
as yet
pottery found there
amphora
^
with" bad:Ie'^"f
Cumae), or imported from the East Greeks and Trojans, c. B.C. Melbourne, Na1, J u r 540 and especially Cormth or it consists of tional Gallery of Victoria.
either pre-Hellenic Italic (e.g. at
— rCrete,
sites.
•
V
•
—
•
•
Pottery and Vase- Painting
imitations
local
of those
wares.
The well-known Chalcidian
painted in developed black-figure, date from
c.
550-510
B.C.
vases,
The
best
examples, such as the psykter-amphora recently acquired by Melbourne^ 423),
(fig.
glaze.
approach the Attic in excellence of drawing and quality of
Vigorous
battle scenes,
horsemen, chariots, and elaborate
floral
motifs are favourite themes. Mythological scenes are not infrequent.
The rows of animals popular
in early days are often retained.
The
frequent inscriptions are in the Chalcidian alphabet, and in recent excavations at Chalkis there have been found not only sherds of that style,
but remains of potteries. So Euboea must have been a centre of
production but, since most extant examples have been found in Etruria, ;
it is
possible that
some Chalcidian
potters
went to Etruria and practised
their art there.
A
splendid series of large and small vases, decorated with floral
motifs and assignable to the seventh and the century, have
first
come from BOEOTIA. Among them
424.
Boeotian
half of the sixth
are colossal pithoi.
pithos
with
Medusa, seventh century B.C.
Perseus Paris,
and
Louvre.
Archaic Period
425. King Arkesilas superweighing of vising the silphium(?). Drawing after a Laconian kylix, first half of the sixth century B.C. Paris,
Bibliothequc
Na-
tionale.
decorated with figures in Perseus and
Medusa
[fig.
often of mythological content (e.g.
424],
and Europa on the
bull).
Another
consists of kylikes, decorated mostly with
distinctive Boeotian class floral
relief,
motifs and flying birds, occasionally with animals and
figures, in a spirited style,
worked
in black-figure.
A
flock bears the signature
The painted
without
much
jug in the Louvre with a shepherd and his
'Gamedes made
terra-cotta
human
Boeotian potters also
detail.
shields
it'.
from TlRYNS,5 with
portioned, uncouth, lively figures belong to the
first
their ill-pro-
half of the seventh
century.
The LACONIAN around 600 in
B.C.
black-figure,
vases
passed
and continuing
until
through
550 B.C. and
sometimes on a white
phases,
various later.
Among
slip.
starting
The decoration
is
the floral motits,
bands of pomegranates, lotus buds and pahnettes, as well as a net pattern predominate. These vases were formerly called Cyrenaic, tor in a scene depicting the
Vulci,
is
weighing of silphium
(?),
on
a kylix
a figure inscribed Arkesilas (fig. 425), evidently
reigned
c.
nymph
568-550
B.C.;
and on another k\lix found
(Gyrene. Excavations at Sparta,
at
at
an important
personage, and so presumably the king of Cyrene of that
the
found
name who
Tarentum
is
however, have shown that
309
Rhodian
426.
seventh u''SSSiiS^'j*^JS*»»!»5M^
•
-^aw
Er/E"1Oi«a«!»a«S3B5iS0»'*a :*^»fefl>u'i*':"^'&«
the ware
was produced there
to later archaic,
EAST Greece AND THE Islands
British
oinochoe,
century
B.C.
Museum.
in continuous sequence,
from geometric
and the occasional inscriptions are in Laconian
Seventh- and early sixth-century vases have been found on sites
—Thera,
Naukratis,
They
etc.
The
best
known
are the so-called
consist mostly of jugs, bowls,
deer, bulls, birds,
426)
;
many
and
plates slip
Rhodian or 'Camirian'.
(stemmed and
stemless),
with rows of wild goats,
and occasionally sphinxes, in dark brown glaze
the figures are
drawn
not borrowed from Oriental
(cf.
partly in outline, partly in silhouette,
with accessory colours, but generally without incisions.
from nature,
script.
Samos, Rhodes, Crete, Chios, Paros, Melos, Klazomenai,
and are decorated on a creamy white
fig.
late
London,
art, as are
They
are mostly
the Corinthian, but observed
for in spite of obvious conventions they are full of
life.
Floral patterns are used in effective combinations. In the later examples
310
Archaic Period
of"
and second half of the
the middle
Fikellura after the cemetery in
network,
Rhodes where many of them were found),
and rows of crescents
scales,
sixth century (generally called
are the distinctive patterns.
Related to these Rhodian pots, but standing apart,
of which the most noteworthy example
is
is
a
group of vases
a plate in the British
Museum
with the combat of Menelaos and Hektor over the dead body of
Euphorbos.
The
plastic vases in the
form of heads of helmeted warriors, women,
monsters, and animals, or of sandalled events East Greek.
at all
Little-Master cups circles
on the
(cf.
inside
And
there are East
p. 334), generally
(fig.
550
Greek versions of Attic
with neatly drawn concentric
tree,
on
is
a
more ambitious
a kylix in the
Louvre
B.C., cf. fig. 428).
Amphorae and in the island of
of
perhaps also Rhodian,
427). Exceptionally there
composition, such as a bird-nester in a {c.
feet, are
women, and
hydriai,
MELOS
;
some of large dimensions, have been unearthed the decoration consists of floral motifs, busts
figured scenes, sometimes placed in panels.
They
painted partly in outline, partly in silhouette, in a bold, luxuriant
Two
are
style.
magnificent specimens, one of the middle, the other of the third
427.
Interior
of an
East
Greek Little-Master cup, 560-510 B.C. Oxford, c. Ashmolean Museum.
311
Pottery and Vase-Painting
Bird-nester, from an East Little-Master cup, c. 560C. Paris,
quarter of the seventh century, are in the National (cf.
429, 430).
figs.
chariot
On
Louvre.
Museum, Athens
the earlier are depicted Apollo in a four-horse
and Artemis holding a deer; on the
departing with his wife Deianeira.
later
Herakles
The progression of
representations, especially in the rendering of the horses,
Another
distinctive
ware has been found
is
shown two
style in the is
very evident.
in the island of
LEMNOS.
Large cuplike vases with openwork volutes could not have served practical
purpose and must have been votive. Another form
bowl, with helmeted heads on the rim.
Two
is
a
a
stemmed
kraters are decorated with
mythological scenes, painted in outline.
A
remarkable vase belonging to the Tean-Boeotian group was found
in 1961 in
Mykonos.^
It consists
of a large amphora, 1.34 m. high,
with scenes from the Ilioupersis, arranged in metope-like panels, on
on the neck, all The Trojan Horse is shown mounted on rollers and provided with seven 'windows' on body and neck, inside each of which is drawn the head of a Greek
the body, and a representation of the Trojan Horse
executed in relief in seventh-century style
soldier.
431).
Seven other Greeks have already dismounted and are preparing
for combat.
312
(fig.
It is
the earliest detailed representation of this famous legend.
429. Apollo,
Muses and
Artemis. Drawing after an amphora from Melos, century mid-seventh B.C. Athens, National
Museum.
430. Herakles and Deia-
Drawing after an amphora from Melos, neira.
c.
650-625 B.C. Athens,
National
The
Museum. so-called
NAUKRATITE
Greek product current sixth century.
The
which the design
or
CHIAN ware
an attractive East
in the late seventh century to the
best examples have a
is
is
middle of the
creamy white background on
painted in dark red, various shades of brown, and
white, without incisions. Both outline drawing and silhouette are used.
Cups of
chalice shape are
common.
Aryballoi in the form of heads and animals, covered with blue alkaline glaze,
The
show
the influence of
Daphne
the vases
Egypt and may stem from Naukratis.
ware, so called from the locality in which most of
were found, also has an Eastern flavour. The decoration
black-figure, with
human
The CLAZOMENIAN distinction.
They
are
animals, and monsters
beings in
600-550
{c.
is
in
B.C.).
vases of the sixth century have considerable
ornamented
in black-figure
with
human
figures,
— chiefly sphinxes and sirens —in a graceful
without apparent narrative content. terra-cotta sarcophagi,
lively postures
found
in a
Especially
cemetery
at
style,
noteworthy are the
Klazomenai
(cf.
p. 48).
Their rims and covers are often elaborately decorated with battle scenes
and handsome animals and monsters. The technique black-figure,
is
in developed
combined occasionally with outline drawing; white
lines
313
431. Detail of terracotta pithos from Mykonos, first half of seventh century B.C.
are sometimes substituted for incisions.
siderable time,
and the
latest
The production
lasted a con-
examples show the introduction of the red-
figure technique.
The CAERETAN
hydriai,
though found
at
Ionian Greek
artist
show animation, mighty deeds Villa Giulia
Two
his
The
scenes, executed in black-figure,
fig.
432
illustrates a
a picture of the blinding of
classes of Eastern vases stand apart.
Some
ancient
painted by an
hydria in the
Polyphemos by
One comes from
Sardis
been called LYDIAN. They show a variety of techni-
are fired blackish or greyish (like the Etruscan bucchero)
and have no painted decorations; others are covered with black with occasional ornaments in white; or they have a white
ornaments blackish
in blackish or reddish glaze
brown
(cf. fig.
433) and ;
still
slip
glaze,
with
others have
or white decorations added directly on the reddish
colour of the clay.
The shapes
are also different
from those prevalent
Mediterranean countries. High-stemmed dishes, small feet,
his
companions.
has, therefore,
ques:
B.C.
all
and humour. Herakles performing
a prevalent subject;
Museum, with
Odysseus and
and
is
around 530 originality,
the
Cervetri,
Caere, in Etruria, hence their name, were probably
jars
in
with conical
bowls with spouts, and lekythoi with concave bodies are the chief
forms. Occasionally kraters of Corinthian design occur. This pottery
belongs to the seventh and the
first
half of the sixth century, before the
advent of king Croesus, and so before increased contact with the Greek
communities. Hence
314
its
individual character.
Archaic Period In
Cyprus
there
was
a rich
output of terra-cotta vases painted,
not in lustrous glaze, but in dull black on a white or red ground. Here, as elsewhere, Oriental influence
is
apparent in the decoration. The lotus,
and the sacred
guilloche, rosette,
tree
composed of
stylized palmettes,
invade the geometric repertoire; and presently appear birds and other animals,
human and
red, white,
fantastic beings, in a decorative style, painted in
and dull black.
Athenian Vases, about 550-300 And now we must pottery.
begun
We
saw
that in the early part of the sixth century Attica
to export her wares far
the century she the
return to Attica and the remarkable history of her
was firmly established
Her
Mediterranean.
eliminated,
and wide
(cf. p.
303).
By
had
the middle of
as the chief ceramic centre in
chief commercial
rival,
Corinth,
had been
and the many other wares that had flourished during the
seventh and the early sixth century had gradually disappeared, continuing only as local products. terranean world
—
The tombs and
sanctuaries
especially those of Etruria
all
— show
over the Medithat Attic vases
have taken their place. This wide distribution of the products of Athens over an area which included Greece proper, the Aegean islands. North Africa,
Crimea,
Asia Minor, testifies to
as well as to the
Italy,
Sicily,
the political and commercial importance of Athens
high quality of her pottery.
432. Caerctan hydria with the blinding
of Polyphcmos, Villa Giulia
c.
and even France, Spain, and the
530 B.C. Rome,
Museum.
b.c.
Skyphos from Sardis, seventh or early sixth century B.C. New York, Metropolitan Museum. 433.
The dominance of Athenian ware half.
During
this
shape, and decoration
Techniques
There
modern
is
about a century and a
lasted for
long period a continuous evolution in technique,
may be
observed.
nothing corresponding to the technique of Attic pottery in
times,
and
worth while to study
it is
it
black-figured and red-figured stages. Otherwise to obtain a proper understanding of the craft.
derived at
work
(1)
from the vases themselves;
(cf. fig.
434); (3)
(2)
from modern
in detail, in
would be
it
both
its
difficult
Our knowledge of
it is
from scenes depicting potters
practice;
and
(4)
from chemical
Though the following account applies specifically to much of what is said applies also to the other wares. The clay is plastic, tough, and, when well levigated, very smooth.
experiments. Attica,
It
contains a high percentage of iron, and so
Athenian potteries white clay
is
mixed with the
fires
pink. In
red,
and
this
modern may also
have been the ancient practice.
The pots are thrown and turned on the wheel, except for the relatively few moulded and built ones. The smaller vases were thrown in one piece, the larger in sections. The sections were mostly made at the structural points, between neck and body, or body and foot, and to conceal them thin coils of clay were added on the outsides, whereas on the tools as
insides the joins are often visible. After the
had been removed
nowadays
—the
—probably
with scrapers and moist sponges
handles were attached.
made by hand, not moulded. The nature of the black medium used been a puzzle, and only recently has reproduced.
it
in the decoration
is,
it
had long
contains insuffiis
rather a
with the heavier particles eliminated by
which
the colour of the glaze changed from red
brown according
separately
been successfully analysed and
a protective colloid. Since the clay out of
contained iron,
all
fusible at a definite temperature. It
liquid clay, peptized, that
316
it
These were
not a glaze in the modern sense, for
It is
cient alkali to render
means of
marks of the turning
to the nature of the firing (see below).
it
was made
to black or
Athenian Vases
The decoration was whole surface was
applied while the clay was
first
diluted, peptized clay,
which gave
it
— white
hue
mostly for the
flesh
and white and dark
women
of
and for
manes of horses,
hair,
and parts of garments. In red-figure, which began about 530
scheme was reversed, that
after
painted in black silhouette against
and beards of old men, red generally for
the hair
The
leather-hard.
a slightly glossy, reddish
the light red clay background, with incised details,
red accessory colours
Techniques
covered with a thin protective wash, made of
In black-figure the design was
firing.
still
:
B.C., the
the figures were reserved in the colour
is,
of the clay against the glazed black background, with contours and inner lines
drawn
in glaze
procedure was as follows:
made first
A
preliminary sketch (often
still
finally the
hair for instance,
line,
was
then with a broader stripe; the inner lines were
background was painted
of red-figures there
is
in black. In the early stages
an occasional use of incision, for the contour of
and here and there a touch of white and red
but soon these remnants of black-figure were abandoned.
were drawn
visible)
;
with a narrow
however, the
The
in slight relief.
with a blunt tool the figures were then drawn in outline,
in the clay
added;
and often standing out
less significant lines
differentiate,
from the more important, the former
and the resultant golden brown colour
in diluted glaze,
contrasted effectively with the
To
added;
is
black of the contours.
full
become bone The procedure was dictated
After the decoration was completed and the vases had
were placed in the kiln and
dry, they
by the nature of the glaze. stages
—
at
oxidizing
first
smoke introduced), and the vase
It
was
fired.
a single
but had three successive
fire,
then reducing
(with air admitted),
lastly reoxidizing.
and the glaze turned
In the
first
stage the
red, in the second both
(with
body of
became black
(or grey), in the third the clay of the vase turned red again, being sufficiently
porous to readmit the oxygen, whereas the denser glaze
remained black. The
initial
wash
diluted glaze were also porous
of the
firing,
colour,
(of diluted peptized clay)
enough
to reoxidize in the third stage
and so became reddish-brown; likewise the red accessory
being red ochre plus peptized
clay,
The white
reoxidized.
accessory colour, being peptized white clay without, or with
was not
affected
by the reducing
The chemical changes from red formula 3 Fe203 CO2), that
is,
+ CO =
2 Fe304
fire
(or
FeaOa
-f-
CO = 2 FeO
-I-
carbon of the fuel combines with
two atoms of oxygen to form carbon dioxide; ferric
in the
reducing
fire
the
oxide present in the clay
into black magnetic oxide of iron (or black ferrous oxide).
Lastly a red ochre application to intensify the red of the clay.
and
iron,
and remained white throughout.
+ CO2
in the oxidizing fire the
it
little,
to black to red are expressed in the
carbon monoxide extracts oxygen from the
and converts
and the
was applied (apparently
Remnants of
it
after firing)
can often be seen here
there.
317
Potter at work. an Attic hydria, second quarter of fifth century B.C. Milan, private collection.
434.
From
In addition to black-figure and red-figure, all-black ware, without any figured decoration,
round
lip
was popular. Even
and foot for instance, were
The method
left
here,
however, a few
reserved, to lighten the effect.
of firing explains also the frequent red spots
were intended to be black
areas.
areas,
They
are
on what
due either to accidental
protection from reduction in the kiln (through stacking or through contact with a
jet
of air), or were caused by the glaze having been applied
too thinly and, therefore, being sufficiently porous to reabsorb the
oxygen during the
third, reoxidizing stage
of the
firing.
In a few vases, chiefly cups and bowls, ranging in date from about
550-540
The
An
318
red and black glazes are contrasted in clearly defined areas.
red glaze must, therefore, have been intentional, not accidental. explanation tentatively offered (by the late Dr. Theodor Schumann)
for this fire
B.C.,
phenomenon
is
that these vases
were twice
fired.
For the
first
(successively oxidizing and reducing) only those parts were painted
Athenian Vases
that
were to come out black and for the second ;
come out
only those parts that were to
would explain
the fact that in
(exclusively oxidizing)
red were painted. This theory
it
was applied subsequently;
the red glaze has often extensively peeled, as
been applied on
would be
also that
natural if
and that the extant examples in
fired clay ;
Techniques
the vases so far examined the red
all
goes over the black, showing that
fire
:
had
it
technique
this
cumbersome.
are relatively few, a second firing being of course
Another, simpler explanation would be that suggested by Dr. Marie
Farnsworth^
who
after
many experiments
and black glazes
the red
by
side
has successfully produced
by adding red
side in a single firing
ochre to the glaze that was to be red. Besides
red-figure,
black-figure,
technique that was
slip
in diluted glaze or
potters
from the
in black silhouette
with incised
details,
first
—red and yellow,
as well as blue, purple, green,
mauve, and pink. These tempera colours were of course added
—
as in the terra-cotta statuettes (cf. p. 234)
largely disappeared.
black-figure,
the
or in outline
matt colour. Later, tempera colours were used for
drapery and other areas
firing
sixth
or engobe of white clay was applied to
background for the decoration. At
part of the vase to serve as
were applied
was another
there
all-black,
commonly used by Athenian
century onwards. In this a
figures
and
The white
slip, like
after
—and have, therefore,
the white accessory colour in
was unaffected by the reducing
fire.
In addition to these standard methods of decoration a few variants
may be
cited. In
one
— the so-called
Six's technique^
—the
figures, instead
of being reserved in red against the black-glaze background, were painted in red and white on the black glaze, with details incised. In another, which has survived only in a few examples, mostly found in the Athenian
Agora and
painted directly
and then
on the unglazed
filled in
blue and green
datable around 400 B.C., the pictures were surface in matt
brown or red
outline,
with solid black, white, pink, and various shades of
(cf. p.
350).
The technique
white-ground vases as regards
its
in fact resembles that
of the
polychromy, but the white background
was dispensed with. In B.C.,
was
still
another technique, current in the
fifth
and fourth centuries
palmettes and other motifs were impressed in the clay while in leather-hard condition,
it
and the whole surface was then covered
with black glaze. Bowls, cups, and small amphorae are the prevalent shapes. Occasionally reliefs
The
plastic vases, that
were added (mostly on
is,
askoi).
those in the form of heads
(cf. fig.
made in terra-cotta moulds, like the The moulds were in two parts. Clay was pressed
435), or
animals, or groups, were
terra-cotta
statuettes.
into each,
and, after drying but while
still
The lip was generally Sometimes two positives from
with
slip.
leather-hard, the halves
separately the
were joined
thrown and attached with
slip.
same mould have survived. 319
436.
Potters'
Drawing Museum.
kiln.
century B.C. Berlin
^
435. Attic
moulded
after
a
plaque from Penteskouphia. Sixth
New
vase, late sixth century B.C.
York, Metropolitan
Museum.
Besides throwing and moulding, the ancient technique of building
survived in the plain household pots and pitchers used for storing and
cooking.
Many
such vases have been found in the excavations of the
Athenian Agora.
Greek tions
kilns
on
were not unlike modern ones, to judge from the representa-
the tablets
from Penteskouphia, near Corinth
the few remains that have
come
436),
(cf. fig.
and
to light (e.g. in Olympia, the Athenian
Kerameikos, Kylouria, Corinth, Eretria and Gela). They were quadrangular chambers,
domed
and for
insertion of the ware,
stacked, to permit as
The temperature grade, that
is
at the top,
many
has been
Greek
computed
by
to have been
all
c.
one time.
950 degrees Centi-
commonly used nowadays.
the Athenian potter
sculptor, he adhered to a
developed these. Practically
smoke. The ware was
letting out the
considerably lower than that
small. Like the
fuel, for the
pieces as possible to be fired at
The fuel was wood or charcoal. Shapes The number of shapes used by
their
with openings for the
the vases were
was
relatively
few types and gradually
made
for actual use,
forms correspond to the functions they performed. They are
their
Greek names, some of them ancient ones, others used
venience
(cf.
fig.
437).
The
chief are the following:
amphora (sometimes with neck
offset,
and then
and
known
for con-
The two-handled
called
neck amphora),
the pelike, and the stamnos served as containers for wine and other supplies.
fountain;
The hydria was it
which the water was carried from the
had three handles, one
and two horizontal for
body and wide mouth 320
the jar in
lifting.
in
The
vertical for
krater
holding and pouring,
was a vessel with broad
which the wine was mixed with water, for
Athenian Vases
STAMNOS
LEBES
PSYKTER
LEKYTHOS
SQUAT LEKYTHOS
:
Shapes
HYDRIA
LEBES GAMIKOS
OINOCHOE
KANTHAROS
SL
KYLIX
STEMLESS KYLIX
437. Shapes of sixth- to fifth-century Attic vases.
SKYPHOS
ARYBALLOS ALABASTRON PYXIS
Pottery and Vase-Painting
the Greeks did not drink their wine neat; there were four varieties,
forms of handles and body
after the
called,
and
krater, calyx krater, as a
wine vessel
The
bell krater.
—column
krater, volute
handle-less lebes also served
had
a round bottom and was placed on a stand. The body drawn in towards the base and with a high foot, was cooHng the wine. The kylix, skj^hos, kantharos, mastos, all it
;
psykter, with
used for
with two handles, and the vases in the form of heads, mostly with a single handle,
were the chief drinking cups. The kyathos, with a
single,
high handle, served for ladling the wine out of the krater.
The oinochoe, with one handle and
a
round or
trefoil
mouth, was
the standard wine- jug, and the one-handled, narrow-necked lekythos
was the
The
oil- jug.
aryballos
and alabastron were ointment and
oil jars,
used in the palaestra and the home. The askos, with convex top and arched handle, was also an oil-jug.
had no handle, but a
articles; it fifth
with
The
with a central knob,
lid
century, with a bronze, ring-shaped handle. lid,
base,
box
pyxis served as a
The
or, in the late
lekanis, a
bowl
and mostly two handles, was used to contain various
women's
things, chiefly for
use.
The
phiale
was the
libation
had no handle, but instead a central boss for inserting the pouring.
for toilet
The kothon was apparently
a water bottle. 9
bowl;
it
fingers while
The
plates
and
small stands were evidently for table use.
In addition to these standard shapes there were several that were
used for special occasions. The Panathenaic amphora, with broad body tapering sharply
downwards and with a relatively thin neck, was given games and was regularly decorated with
as a prize at the Panathenaic
an Athena on one
side,
won on
The loutrophoros,
flaring
the other.
and with the contest a
tall
at
which the prize was
vase with high neck and
mouth, was employed for bringing water from the fountain
tomb of an unmarried person; there were two varieties, one with two handles resembling an amphora, another with three handles like a hydria. The Kallirrhoe for the nuptial bath, and was placed on the
lebes gamikos, with high flaring foot,
body
in the shape of a lebes,
and double handles on the shoulder, was a marriage bowl, given present to the bride.
The plemochoe, with high
and knobbed Ud, was
a
ceremonies.
An
carding wool.
A
perfume vase used
number of
had
bath and in ritual
lids;
amphorae
for instance,
but few of them have survived.
to the general effect.
these shapes were adhered to for several centuries, others
a comparatively short
time, but retained
its
rounded. The
life.
Each shape changed
in the course ot
essential characteristics. In the hydriai
for instance, the shoulder
322
after the
these vases, the
much
they have, they add
Most of
foot, turned-in rim,
onos was an implement placed on the knee while
were regularly provided with
When
as a
is
at first
rounded, then
offset,
and lekythoi,
and then again
early kylikes have a low, conical foot and a deep bowl
;
Athenian Vases
with
gradually the
offset lip;
bowl becomes shallower and
high-stemmed, until a superb form
from
lip
later
it
is
mostly
harmonious forms of the
became but
slighter
still
and more elongated
and
sixth
late ;
the foot
finally
is
in
one
line
with
Speaking generally, the
offset.
became
sturdy shapes of the early sixth century gradually the
Decoration
evolved with a continuous curve
to stem. In the earlier amphorae the neck
body, in the
the
is
:
refined into
early fifth century; then
they changed into the weaker,
Many
graceful forms of the fourth century.
of the shapes
mentioned occur also in miniature, evidently having served as toys. Especially popular
was the oinochoe decorated with scenes of children
at play.
To
study the carefully designed shapes and to appreciate their subtle
distinctions
is
an introduction to Greek
are revealing of the
Greek mind. Shape, and
calculated for convenient use
The decoration
growth and adds
The
handles, in particular,
and position are nicely
size,
artistic effect.
has the appearance of being stuck on. the juncture suggests
The
art.
A
Greek handle never at
solidity.
of two chief elements
consisted
imparted
slight swelling
—the
ornamental
DECORATION
motifs and the figured scenes.
The ornaments, which scattered over the
— mouth,
the
preceding period had often been
whole surface of the vase,
and were relegated to parts
in
definite areas.
now became
They served
systematized
to accent the
component
neck, shoulder, body, handles; they acted as borders or
frames for the figured scenes
;
or they occupied the backs of the vases
and occasionally they formed the sole decoration. Moreover, they were reduced to a few standard motifs. The lotus, the palmette, the simple
and multiple meander, sometimes alternating with and
laurel wreaths, rays, scrolls, tongues,
used again and again in different combinations.
were survivals from former epochs, but
a crossed square, ivy
and horizontal bands were
all
Many of these ornaments now became designs of
sober elegance.
The
figured scenes were at
favourite deities
first
taken chiefly from mythology.
The
were Zeus, Apollo, Athena, Hermes, and Dionysos
with his retinue; the favourite heroes were Herakles, Theseus, and Perseus. Scenes
from the Trojan war, Amazons fighting Greeks, Centaurs,
and Lapiths were popular representations. As time went on, however, artists
them
became more and more interested
in depicting the life
around
— the youths exercising in the gymnasium, riding, arming, departing
tor battle, fighting, being
reclining the boys,
wounded, dying; the gay banquets with men
on couches, drinking, singing, having and listening to the music of the
their
cups
flute girls;
refilled
women
by
busy
with their household tasks fetching water, spinning, weaving, dressing, :
dancing, and attending to their children; children playing with their toys;
household animals;
rituals,
marriage ceremonies, burials, and
323
Pottery and Vase-Painting
Altar
with
receding an Apulian krater, fourth century B.C. Naples, Museo Nazionale. 438.
sides.
Drawing
after
mourners .
at graves; actors
pertorming in plays, both tragic and comic.
m
.
.
,,
^^^ these subjects appear
on the vases
constitute one of the chief sources for our
The rendering of
.
,
knowledge ° of Greek
this period. Until
of the sixth century the representations were figures
.
and
life.
the figures reflects the epoch-making changes that
took place in Greek drawing during
The
^
a series or vivid scenes,
were drawn
still
about the middle
purely two-dimensional.
either in full profile, or a full-front trunk
drawn on
attached to profile legs and arms; an eye in front view was a profile head; draperies were
stiff
and
foldless.
was
Depth was suggested
merely by the overlapping of forms. In furniture and architecture only the front planes were indicated.
Around 530 attempts were
and
B.C.
made
came the beginning of to
show
a change.
a figure not in a
From
combination of
profile views, but in actual three-quarter views.
The
then on full front
farther side
of abdomen, chest, and back contracts, so does the farther side of a clavicle, first
shoulder blade, foot, and hand.
drawn
as differently
zigzag edges.
At
first
The
folds of draperies
were
coloured areas, presently by oblique lines with
such renderings appear only occasionally, for the
old two-dimensional concept was slow to die. Gradually they occur
more
frequently.
feeling for space
By
the second quarter of the fifth century B.C. the
becomes pronounced. Three-quarter views become
increasingly popular. In the profile rendering of the eye the
moved to the inner corner, The old schematic drapery 324
presently the inner corner is
is
iris is first
drawn open.
abandoned; the folds assume natural
:
Athenian Vases shapes, and
go
in a
number of
directions.
The
the figures along one line in the front plane
all
some
:
Decoration
old tradition of putting is
not always followed;
are occasionally placed higher than others to suggest a farther
and the
plane,
no longer put along one and the same
feet are
line.
Muscles and folds are occasionally drawn in thinned glaze for contrast with the black contours of the figures, suggesting depth.
By
The rendering of the
present difficulties.
The
no longer
the second half of the fifth century three-quarter views
hair
is
eye in profile has been mastered.
not always painted as a compact black mass, but
The
are differentiated.
draperies are
direction, suggesting the
drawn
its
strands
in flowing lines varying in
round forms of the body beneath.
A
discreet
use of white, red (often on white), and gilding gives variety to the colour
scheme. Linear perspective makes furniture are
drawn not always
its
appearance. Shrines,
altars,
and
in front view, but with receding sides
438 and pp. 278 f.).
(cf. fig.
By the fourth century B.C. the attainment of depth was fully realized. Though vase-painting no longer occupied the prominent place it had in
former days,
to
some
which
it
reflects the
extent. Three-quarter
a century
The
rendered.
achievements in contemporary paintings
views and even violent foreshortenings,
ago had been merely attempted, are
black-glaze lines
become
now
convincingly
and attenuated. White,
thin
pink, gold leaf, and occasionally even blue and green are used in the
more
carefully executed pictures to enrich the colour scheme.
The
inscriptions occasionally
added
They are of various kinds They give the names of the
in vase paintings are
of great
INSCRIPTIONS
interest. (1)
figures represented, generally in the
nominative (Ajax, Herakles), or in the genitive, with 'likeness' understood (of Aphrodite). Sometimes a horse object
is
described
They
(2)
explain the subject represented ('games in
klos') or the action
What
(3)
named (Xanthos), or an
is
(a seat, a waterjar, a fountain).
of a figure ('he
a person
is
saying
is
is
honour of Patro-
about to jump').
written as
if
issuing
from
his
mouth
('look, a swallow').
Sometimes
(4) ('I
a phrase
is
addressed to the person looking at the vase
greet you'). (5)
A widespread custom was to call a youth or girl fair — not necessarily
the one represented in the picture, but a favourite beauty of the time.
The
regular formula
ally
boys rather than
occurs on a
is
'so
and so (he or she)
is fair'
(kalos, kale).
Gener-
girls are praised. Since the same name sometimes number of vases, valuable chronological evidence is thereby
supplied. (6)
There are many meaningless inscriptions
which make no apparent
sense.
—
letters
strung together
They were evidently added
for decorative
effect.
325
Pottery and Vase- Painting
On
(7)
the under-sides of the feet of the vases, rarely elsewhere,
appear sometimes a few
or marks or ligatures or numerals, either
letters
painted or incised, generally before
A
(8)
They were
firing.
memoranda of transactions between
at least,
seller
in
some
cases,
and purchaser.
name
piece of a broken pot served as a voting ticket, and the
of an individual to be ostracized was incised on
Names of
it.
several
prominent persons appear on such potsherds; Themistokles, for instance.
The most important
(9)
inscriptions are the signatures of artists
who made and
the potters and painters
two forms: 'So and so made
in
decorated
it'
{egraphsen
it'
{epoiesen
or
epoiei),
and
and so
'so
Sometimes the same man both
or egraphe).
fashioned and decorated the pot and signed 'so and so painted and it'.
A
few times
and so painted
a
double signature occurs:
it'.
'Made
it'
name occurs on
the same
sometimes with 'painted
two men signed with
different vases,
it'.
On two
epoiesen.
'so
and so made
commonest form.
the
is
Now
it
made
and so
and then
sometimes with 'made
name occurs
style,
evidently
had the same name.
artists
Considering the large numbers of vases preserved, signatures are
Most of
it',
black-figured Little-Masters cups
In a few cases the same
with the verb 'painted' on vases that are different in because two different
—of
decorated the vases. They appear
rare.
the extant ones belong to the second half of the sixth century
The custom continued through the fifth century and into the early fourth. By the later fourth it had practically disappeared;
and the
early fifth.
the only Athenian signatures of that time so far
of Panathenaic amphorae (cf
class
Up Ionic
to about 490 B.C. let^
ers
known
on the
are
special
p. 353).
the letters are in Attic script, after
480
B.C.
begin to appear. Evidently the Ionic forms were in general
use in unofficial writing long before they were adopted by the state (cf. p.
389).
Most
signatures are painted in the fields of the vases before firing;
occasionally they are placed incised. In
before
The Artists OF Attic Black-Figure
AND RED-FIGURE
feet,
or rims. Rarely they are
one or two instances the signature was incised on the glaze,
firing.
Though few different styles last
on handles,
fifty
Beazley
—
years
actual
names of Attic vase-painters
are
known, many
can be recognized. Through the intensive
—by
many
work of
archaeologists, but especially by Sir
the
John
the chief personalities of Attic black-figure and red-figure have
become known. To those not known from signatures invented names have been assigned, derived from the subject or location of the artist's chief work (Nekyia Painter, Berlin Painter), or from a kalos name that he used (Euaion Painter), or from the name of the potter with he collaborated (Brygos Painter),
The
differentiation of these
interest of
326
whom
etc.
many
styles
has greatly increased the
Greek vase-painting, and has made
it
equal in
many
respects
Athenian Vases
:
Sixth Century
439. Attic bowl with Perseus and the Gorgons, early sixth century. Paris, Louvre.
to that of the paintings of the Renaissance. tell
us about the lives of the painters.
works. Only a few of the foremost chronological sequence, from
About 620-530 black-figure, that
the
B.C. is,
One
c.
They
artists
620-350
of the best
But there are
known
is
no Vasari
solely
by
their
can here be mentioned, in
B.C.
artists
of the beginning of Attic
towards the end of the seventh century B.C. was
NESSOS Painter who
decorated the amphorae with Herakles,
Nessos, and the Gorgons, and with the sphinx, mentioned above figs.
to
(cf.
416, 417, p. 299). His figures are large in scale, with big features
440. Games at the funeral of Patroklos, on the fragment of a
bowl painted by Sophilos,
early
sixth
National
century.
Athens,
Museum.
327
441a, 442a, b. Krater made by Ergotimos and painteii by Kleitias ('Frangois vase'), c. 570 B.C. Florence, Museo Archeologico. Side showing (fig. 442 a) a mythological animal and (fig. 442b) the return of Hephaistos to Olympos.
328
i»Vn..
\^'
.t;UU>XV^S^
441b, 442c. Kratcr made by Ergotimos and painted by Klcitias ('Frangois vase'), Archcologico. Side showing (fig. 442c) the Kalydonian boar hunt.
c.
570 B.C. Florence, Museo
^tlSSi^^tf^lA;
329
— Pottery and V^ase- Painting
443. A)ax with the body of and serious expressions. They, and the sturdy vases Achilles; Artemis. Details , a painted, express the same spirit as the early Attic from the Frangois Vase. .
.
Monsters and epochs,
still
friezes
loom
.
•
i
on which they •
i
kouroi
r (cr.
are
p. 60).
of animals, so conspicuous during the preceding
and
large,
artists
seem to have enjoyed depicting
their
fierceness.
The
Gorgon Painter
ing generation
p. 299).
(cf.
is
the chief representative of the succeed-
Among
his
works
is
a
bowl on
decorated with the story of Perseus and the Gorgons
(fig.
a stand,
439),
and
with rows upon rows of animals. The expressive gestures, the careful drawing, the
of the whole available space with decorations are
filling
The
characteristic features.
elaborate articulations of the stand were
evidently inspired by metalwork. Their harmonious interrelations suggest interest in rhythmical composition.
Closely related in style to the identical
with him)
is
and
epoiesen; so
represents the
games
painter (and perhaps even
SOPHILOS, whose signature
three fragmentary vases. In one, egraphsen
Gorgon
is
preserved on
from Pharsalos, he signed with both
he was a potter as well as a painter. The scene
at Patroklos' funeral,
being watched by excited
(fig. 440) among them was Achilles name now remains). Without use of perspective the illusion of a crowd watching a chariot race is successfully conveyed. Below is a row of animals. KLEITIAS is the chief painter of the second quarter of the sixth
onlookers on a stepped platform
;
(only the inscribed
century.
He and
the
potter
Francois krater in Florence
ERGOTIMOS
(fig.
signed
the
magnificent
441-443), twenty-six inches high, and
decorated with more than two hundred neatly drawn, vivacious figures,
arranged in
six
two small panels 330
superimposed rows (the lowest on the at the handles.
The
foot),
and
subjects are chiefly mythological
in
Athenian leases
:
Sixth Century
AAA. Stand made by Ergotimos and painted by Klcitias, second quarter of the sixth century B.C. New York, Metro-
politan
Museum.
the Kalydonian boar hunt, a dance of the youths and maidens rescued
from the Minotaur by Theseus, the chariot race
at the funeral
games
of Patroklos, the arrival of deities after the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, the pursuit of Troilos
Olympos,
and Artemis
figures.
the battle of pygmies and
on the handles, Ajax carrying the dead body of
cranes, and,
turther
by Achilles, the return of Hephaistos to
row of animals and monsters,
a
as
queen of wild
shown in the many The vase was found
The
beasts.
names
inscribed
at Vulci, in
Achilles,
interest in story-telling
is
that serve to identify the
an Etruscan tomb, and
is
called
little
stand
after its excavator.
The same two
and Ergotimos signed a
Kleitias
artists,
with a delicately drawn gorgoneion
(fig.
now
444),
New
in
York,
as
well as Little-Master cups.
The PAINTER OF AKROPOLIS one of the ablest
which he
is
drawn
the
is
606, a contemporary of Kleitias,
of his
named, could serve
NEARCHOS the time,
artists
as
lebes
was both painter and
battle.
Lydian painted
it',
kraters
that
so vividly
potter, and, like
other
artists
of
an outstanding
He
artist
the signature of
LYDOS,
of the middle and third
decorated also one of the largest terra-
have survived, with the return of Hephaistos to
Olympos, escorted by
his retinue
of Satyrs and Maenads
large scale of the figures, placed continuously their lively gestures,
an impressive piece. cotta plaques with
Iliad,
as well as small pots.
quarter of the sixth century. cotta
was
Athens, after
His gifted contemporary
On a fragmentary bowl in Athens is preserved 'the
in
an illustration of the
Homeric turmoil of the
produced large
The
time.
(fig.
445).
The
round the whole vase,
and the rhythmical composition make the vase
The same vigorous
mourners
style
raising their
is
found on Lydos'
terra-
hands as they sing the funeral
331
445. Krater with Hephaistos returning to Olympos,
Such plaques once decorated,
dirge. ^ i
•
i
•
i
r
i
r
i
550- sun-dried brick or a type round
painted by Lydos, c. 540 D.c New York, Metropolitan
Museum.
•
a
i
represented on two kyathoi in Paris ^ ^
EXEKIAS was both and on an amphora playing draughts
The
•
i
-i
446),
i
(cf. p. 47). / i \
Twice he signed with
painter.
and made me'
:
in the Vatican decorated
(fig.
i
on an amphora
in Berlin
with Archilles and Ajax
and with the Dioskouroi welcomed home.
scenes are painted with a wealth of detail in an elegant yet forceful
style. (cf.
and
potter
egraphse kapoiese me, 'decorated
seems, quadrangular tombs of
it
m the Athenian t^ Kerameikos and perhaps
The same fig.
451
).
quiet distinction pervades
Like
Lydos
he
AMASIS
as
many of
decorated
his
other works
only
not
vases
but
plaques.
Eight signatures of
finished specimens of the potter's
are known, all on highly The decorator of these vases,
potter craft.
the Amasis Painter, imparted to his figures a
mannered
when he worked cursorily. He p.iinted number of Little-Master cups. Among
both large
including a pieces are
332
two Ickythoi
in
New
York, one showing
his
grace, even
and small pots,
most
women
attractive
engaged
in
,
446.
Amphora with Ajax and
"
'.^'^
Achilles playing draughts, painted by Exekias,
c.
550-540 B.C. Vatican, Museum.
Lekythos with women working wool, by the Amasis painter, c. 540 B.C.
447.
New
447) — weighing carding spinning, and weav—the other a wedding procession'o 448). Not only the
working wool ing
York, MetropoHtan Museum.
(fig.
it,
it,
style
(cf. fig.
of the pictures but also the pots are markedly similar.
The
so-called
stylized,
with
AFFECTER
mannerism
further, creating
concerted action.
NiKOSTHENES was
a
prolific
extant vases)
in imitation of metalware.
who
The
potter
(his
signature
liked to experiment with
artist
who
appears
on
new forms
decorated most of his pots
N painter) produced mostly conventional pictures, cursorily executed.
The TlESON Painter, who decorated signed 'Tleson, son of Nearchos, made it', is of a large class of miniature painters. His grace and precision.
334
still
elongated figures, with lively gestures, but strung together
little
some hundred (the
carried the
little
the
Little-Master
cups
the chief representative figures are
drawn with
i_»
•»•••••
'
448. Lckythos with wedding procession, by the Amasis Painter, c. 540 B.C.
New
York, Metropolitan Museum.
In the concluding years of the reign of the tyrant Peisistratos (d.
The two techniques century and beyond. Some
527 B.C.) red-figured painting was introduced.
continued side by side until the end of the painters indeed used the earliest artists
He
who worked
in red-figure
the
was the
same
vase.
(fig.
Pcisistratid
and
his
style,
pp. 79
days.
but with
His kitharist and two listeners holding
dancing Maenad on amphorae in Paris and
449) bring to
PSIAX
of the
almost affected grace, reminding us that he lived during the
luxurious flowers,
One
ANDOKIDES PAINTER.
continued the tradition of Exekias in a strong, broad
a dainty,
(cf.
two methods on
mind
the late archaic
New
York'i
Maidens from the Akropolis
f.).
signed,
as
painter,
two
alabastra
potted by HiLINOS.
He
decorated both large and small vases, in a highly finished, meticulous style,
with a wealth of detail; and he, like the Andokides Painter, was
iii
Pottery and Vase- Painting
Maenad, from an am- an experimenter. He worked in black-figure (cf. fig. 450), red-figure, phora painted by the Andokides Painter, c. 520 B.C. black on white, white on red, and used such devices as applied clay on New York, Metropolitan spear shafts, and heads in the round on oinochoai. One of his most 449.
Museum.
important works 450. Trumpeter, from a plate painted by Psiax, c. 520 B.C. London, British
is
Menon
an amphora in Philadelphia potted by
he was formerly called the
Menon
(hence
Painter).
Museum.
About 530-400 established.
B.C.
In a decade or two, red-figure was securely
For the next
fifty
years painters
decorated vases, and their manifold styles the Attic potteries of that period.
It is
of the highest calibre
show
the lively activity in
the time of the
fall
of the Peisistratid
tyranny, the reforms of Kleisthenes, and the early days of the Athenian
democracy.
Names of
vase-painters and potters that stand out
gifted artists are egraphsen.
first
EPIKTETOS
—who
ordinarily living quality.
The medallions on
Museum
a banquet,
a
and
a
youth with
his
horse
(fig.
man on
his
way home
452) are typical examples.
signed two kylikes with egraphsen, and from their style over
hundred other cups have been attributed to him. Some are
incisive lines.
with
extra-
plates in the Cabinet des
representing a
painted, others hastily. His figures are thick-set and
336
with few
lines
form harmonious designs and yet have an
Medailles and the British
OLTOS
a host of
signed with both epoiesen and
His neat, spruce figures, drawn in flowing
interior markings,
from
among
deities
One
of his masterpieces
on Olympos.
is
carefully
drawn with strong
the large kylix in Tarquinia
Athenian Vases
:
Sixth Century
I 451.
Dionysos
sailing (on rcd-giazcd ground),
by Exckias, mid-sixth century
B.c:.
Munich, Antikcnsammlung.
337
Youth with horse, from a made and painted by Epiktetos, c. 510 B.C. London, British Museum.
452.
plate
and
453.
Herakles
from
a calyx krater painted
Antaios,
by Euphronios, c. 510-500 B.C. Paris, Louvre.
*^E|^^^i5-^
33S
454.
Young
rider,
from
a kylix
painted by Euphronios,
500
B.C.
iMunicli,
c. 510Antikcn-
sammlung.
Revellers, from an amphora painted by Euthymides, 510-500 B.C.' Munich, Anc. tikcnsammlung.
455.
339
The full power of this epoch is shown in the work of EUPHRONIOS. The name appears on ten vases with epoiesen, on five with egraphsen, and are distinguished examples (but perhaps there
all
The
that name).
and Antaios
(fig.
New
is
paintings kalos,
on
the aristocratic
a kylix in
Munich
young (fig.
is
craft.
rider,
454). It
is
One
of
magnificently
York, signed by Euphronios
an outstanding example of the is
artists
a scene of Herakles
453), signed by Euphronios as painter,
drawn, and the large kylix in potter,
Louvre with
calyx krater in the
were two
as
of his most attractive
with the inscription Leagros painted on a coral red instead
of a black ground, in the effective technique only occasionally employed (cf. p.
319).
—
—
EUTHYMIDES' signature with egraphsen or egraphe has on six vases. He was a contemporary of Euphronios and of stature.
some show
a special interest in
revellers are
what
at this
time began to occupy Greek
—foreshortening. On an amphora in Munich drawn
in successful three-quarter front
and that he was proud of
his
achievement
is
Other great figures of
winsome
this
time are
(fig.
455) the
and back views;
shown by
he added: 'Euphronios never did anything like
340
the same
His statuesque figures are drawn with sureness of touch, and
draughtsmen
yet
survived
the inscription
it.'
PHINTIAS, whose monumental
paintings have survived on six vases signed with egraphsen^
4 456. Theseus and Amphitrite, from a kylix painted by the Panaitios Painter, c. 500-490 B.C. Paris, Louvre.
457. Dionysos and satyrs, from a kylix painted by the Brygos Painter, c. 500-480 B.C. Paris,
Biblioth6que Nationale.
three with epoiesen; the
SOSIAS PAINTER, who drew the remarkable
picture of Achilles tending the
wounded
and PEITHINOS, who signed
the elaborate,
Patroklos,
on
a kylix in Berlin;
somewhat
affected
tondo
of Peleus and Thetis, on a kylix in Berlin. 12
Around created
the turn of the century a
—with a high stem, and
it
kylix of great elegance
was
adequate standing base, shallow bowl, and
an unbroken curve from foot to to decorate,
form of
lip. It
was
pot and
a difficult shape to
invited the best talent of the time.
The
great
Euphro-
nios affixed his signature to six of these kylikes,
which were decorated
by a master draughtsman called the PANAITIOS
PAINTER
MOS ?). The work power,
vitality,
delicately (fig.
of
this artist
Among
works
are the
a large kylix in the
Louvre
his best extant
drawn Theseus and Amphitrite, on
Museum ;i3 and
= ONESI-
shows an extraordinary combination of
and refinement.
456); the impetuous Herakles and Eurystheus,
British
(
the youth reading aloud to
on
two
a kylix in the listeners,
on
a
kyathos in Berlin. '^
Three other names stand out among the many cup-painters of the time
— the Brygos Painter, Makron, and Douris.
The Brygos Painter decorated as potter,
and
five
kylikes
his highly individual style has
signed by Brygos
been recognized on over
one hundred and seventy vases, chiefly cups. He,
like
the Panaitios
341
^^^^^^BiigMssiiig 458. Skyphos with the rape of Helen, made by
Hieron and painted by Makron, c. 500-480 B.C. Boston, Museum Fine Arts.
of
Dancing satyrs, from a psykter painted by Douris, c. 500-480 B.C. London, British
459.
Museum.
movement, and
Painter, liked violent
his favourite subjects
were scenes
of pursuit, revels, and battles; but occasionally he produced a stately
goddess or a
woman
sitting quietly at
work is characterized by a The Dionysos and satyrs Munich, 15 and the wild
home working
wool. His early
strong, incisive line and an abundant vitality. in Paris
(fig.
457), the ecstatic
satyrs attacking Iris
and Hera,
Maenads
in
in the British
Museum,! 6 are examples of such animated pictures. His later works are more attenuated. The old joie de vivre is gone, the lines have become thin, the figures are
almost ethereal.
Makron painted all except three of about thirty extant vases
signed by
Hieron as potter, and over three hundred works have been attributed to him. On a skyphos, in Boston, with a picture of Menelaos and Helen (fig.
458), he signed jointly with Hieron: 'Hieron epoiesen,
Makron
egraphsen'. His paintings are notable for delicacy of drawing, especially in the rendering of
women's garments, and
Favourite subjects are banquet scenes
;
harmony of composition. and maenads and women,
for
satyrs
;
boys and youths, arranged in groups of three or two. In these 'conversation scenes' there
is
much
repetition, but variety
phernalia that are introduced
sponges,
strigils,
is
created by the para-
stools, cushions, wreaths, sticks,
and baskets. That the works of the Brygos Painter
and Makron were prized that vases decorated
342
—couches,
also in ancient times
by them were found in
a
is
suggested by the fact
tomb
at
Capua with pots
Athenian Vases
(cf. p.
Of DOURIS
347).
about forty signatures are preserved and over 200 vases
have been attributed to him on grounds of is
B.C.,
distinguished. in her
and an
early, a middle,
The moving picture of Eos
arms (an ancient
A kantharos in Brussels
style.
signed by him both as painter and potter.
500 to 470
Fifth Century
Deepdene
painted by artists of the next generation (the Sotades and the Paintersi7
:
He was
and
active
from about
a late period
have been
carrying her dead son
Pieta), painted as a
Memnon
tondo on a kylix in the
Louvre, 18 the animated school scene on a kylix in Berlin, i*^ and the
Museum (fig. 459) rank period. Much of his work is
rhythmical satyrs on a psykter in the British
among
the masterpieces of his middle
academic, but in his later period he acquired a monumental quality.
The women putting away
clothes,
on
a kylix in
New
York, 20
is
a
harmonious composition of large-scale figures successfully adjusted to the circular
field.
A in
number of first-rate artists of this epoch seem to have specialized the making and decorating of large pots instead of kylikes. The
KLEOI'HRADES Painter, who
decorated a large cup in Paris signed
Kleophrades epoiesen, painted over a
hundred extant
and hydriai,
in a virile, highly individual style.
spaciousness of composition, and above his
chief characteristics.
Two
all
a
vases, chiefly
A
amphorae
firm, flowing line,
monumental
quality are
large calyx kraters,2i in Tarquinia
and
343
Pot ten
(I'td
\^ase-Painting
Maenad, from an amphora painted by the 460.
Kleophrades Painter, c. 500-490 B.C. Munich, Antikensammlung.
The destruction of Troy, from a hydria painted by the Kleophrades Painter, c. 500490 B.C. Naples, Museo Nazionale. 462.
New
York, with youths arming, a pointed amphora with
Maenads, in Munich
(cf. fig.
460), 22
Naples
among
his best
462), are
(fig.
and the
Ilioupersis,
works. In the
last
on
ecstatic
a hydria in
he successfully
conveyed not only the fierceness of battle and the triumph of victory, but the pathos of defeat. In his 461.
Achilles
and Hektor,
from a volute krater painted ^^ *^ Pamter, c. ^Z^ . o.^ 500-480 B.C. London, British
Museum.
344
... produced conventional ,
,
pictures
late
on
period his strength waned and he 1
•
1
n
relatively small vases.
signed Epiktetos eeraphsen; so we know his real name ^ , that of a painter of the preceding generation (cf. p. 336).
jg
.
.
r-^ One
— the
r
^
of these
same
as
Athenian Vases
:
Fifth Century
The Berlin Painter derives his name from a tall amphora in Hermes and two satyrs. More than two hundred vases have been attributed to him. None of them is signed. 23 His lithe, graceful figures are drawn in flowing lines, often with much anatomical detail, Berlin with
in spacious
compositions.
An
early
example
is
the picture of Achilles
New
York. 24 The contests of Achilles 453 ^ight between Lapiths and Memnon, and of Achilles and Hektor (fie. 461), on a volute krater and Centaurs, from a kratcr,
and Penthesileia on a hydria
in
^, T? r, m London, are among 1his masterpieces. The Homeric joy of battle in the •
T
1
•
•
,
•
,
^.
460-450 B.C.
xMctropolitan
New
York,
Museum.
345
464. Athena, from a calyx krater painted by the Niobid Painter, c. 460-450 B.C. Paris,
Louvre.
two heroes and
the anxiety of the
two women watching
the fight are
finely contrasted.
Throughout black-figure
this period,
was retained
indeed until the middle of the as a
fifth
century,
secondary technique, mostly for small
lekythoi, neck-amphorae,
and oinochoai. The SAPPHO PAINTER, the
DIOSPHOS PAINTER,
THESEUS and ATHENA PAINTERS
of the
artists to
doubtless also
the
whom
worked
these vases have been attributed.
some Some of them are
in red-figure.
In the period of the early free style
(c.
475-450
B.C.) a
new
spirit is
observable in vase-painting as in the other branches of Greek Several trends can be distinguished. the murals
Some
artists,
of Polygnotos and his associates
art.
evidently inspired by
(cf.
p. 277),
produced
ambitious compositions on large vases with figures placed on
diflferent
Combats of Lapiths and Centaurs (cf. fig. 463) and of Greeks and Amazons are favourite themes. Foremost among levels in hilly landscapes.
346
Athenian Vases
these artists
NiOBID PAINTER, who
the
is
calyx krater in the
Niobids. Statuesque poses
(cf.
by side on these vases,
side
Other
decorated a magnificent
Louvre with the Argonauts and the Death of the 464) and contorted attitudes appear
fig.
do
as they
in the sculpture
specialized in quiet compositions,
artists
of the time.
foreshadowing the
Among them is the VILLA GlULIA PAINTER, who decorated a calyx krater in the Villa Giulia Museum with women in a stately dance. 25 His able pupil the CHICAGO PAINTER combined classicism of the next epoch.
statuesqueness with
By way of
winsome
grace.
contrast, the Mannerists harked back to the style of the
preceding period, using archaic conventions side by side with free renderings. Their most gifted
named after one of his
representative
chief works, an exuberant
another group of painters
Still
his
many
followers.
Munich26 shows note.
On
ment of
a
in
(fig.
New York as a
PAINTER, whose masterpiece rated a vase in the
on
a kylix in
new emotional
represented the Judge-
shepherd boy
is
artists
sitting
on
a rock,
belong the
PiSTOXENOS
the regal Aphrodite riding a goose,
Museum ;27
the
SOTADES PAINTER who
form of a knucklebone with
465. Pyxis with the judgement of Paris, painted by the Penthesileia Painter, c. 460-450 B.C.
New
York, Metropolitan Museum.
on
deco-
floating figures symbolizing
DEEPDEENE PAINTER who painted two Danae legend on a stamnos in New York. 29
clouds ;28 and the
from the
is
a
465).
same general group of
a kylix in the British
a goatherd.
PENTHESILEIA PAINTER
Achilles and Penthesileia
with Paris depicted
Hermes
the
PAN PAINTER,
Pan pursuing
well-known subject treated with
white-ground pyxis
Paris,
receiving
To
this
The
the
distinguished by individualistic
is
treatment of familar subjects. Such are the
and
is
scenes
:
Fifth Century
466. Lekythos with woman and maid, painted by the Achilles Painter, c. 450440 B.C. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts.
467. Phiale with visit to a
school of music, painted by the Phiale Painter, c. 440-
Museum
430 B.C. Boston, of Fine Arts.
The period of
the free style (about 450-420 B.C.) coincides with the
administration of Perikles and the sculptures of the Parthenon pp. 112 ff.).
At
architecture,
those
this
and mural painting, the best There
fields.
(cf.
time of great activity in the major arts of sculpture,
are, therefore,
talent tended to
work
in
fewer outstanding vase-painters than
before. Nevertheless, the quiet grandeur that characterizes the sculptures ,-
,
.
ot this
1
of the Achilles
•
n reflected in 1
•
•
•
•
11
•
1
1
many a vase-painting, especially in the work Achilles Painter, named after the stately^ amphora with ^
epoch and
is
Briseis in the Vatican. His distinctive style has
468.
Alkestis
friends.
after
her
an
onos painted by the Eretria Painter, c. 420 B.C. Athens,
been recog- National Museum.
imill.lllllHlllltl)limiJlLlllMWW^W^;mi[j«J«l»^^
m M^r 111
and
Drawing
A
Pottery and Vase-Painting
more than 200 vase
nized in
Among them
technique.
Boston
(fig.
He
paintings.
white-ground lekythos, and some of
are in that
are a girl bringing a casket to her mistress, in
youth departing for
466), a
particularly favoured the
finest paintings
his
and bidding farewell
battle
and two Muses on Mount Helikon,
his wife, in Athens, 3o
to
in a private
collection. 31 In the last the colours are exceptionally well preserved.
The
yellow, vermilion, wine-red, reddish brown, and black appear to
be consciously interrelated, playing their part in the harmony of the design.
The PHIALE PAINTER, perhaps
a pupil of the
introduced a lively
spirit into
attractive pictures
the Visit to a School of Music,
(fig.
467)
A
is
—which has given the
vase-painter
fifth
— stamnoi,
them
kraters,
on
the departing warrior,
a phiale in
Boston
another outstanding
is
called
a pelike in
more
and he favoured the larger followers, among name he gave to
the
after
London.32
Among the painters who favoured the PAINTER, The refinement of his
artist
He had many
and amphorae.
LYKAION PAINTER,
the
on
Painter,
of his most
century. His figures are rounder and
fleshy than those of the Achilles Painter,
vases
One
name.
artist his
named POLYGNOTOS
of the second half of the
Achilles
the Periklean serenity.
smaller pots
was the ERETRIA
apparent in the delicate profiles
line is
of his figures, in their beautifully drawn hands, and in their clinging draperies.
He
has been
named
Alkestis and her friends, (fig.
after
one of
his best
on an onos from
works
Eretria,
—a picture of
now
in
Athens
468).
The MEIDIAS Painter, who decorated
a hydria in
London with
the rape of the Leukippidai and with Herakles in the garden of the
Hesperides
469, 470), carried
(figs.
His graceful figures with of the marble p. 137)
reliefs
—both,
on the
tradition of the Eretria Painter.
rich, clinging draperies are the
counterparts
on the parapet of the Athena Nike temple
(cf.
curiously enough, produced during the agonizing last
stages of the Peloponnesian war. His style, but not his fine drawing,
was adopted by many followers.
The KLEOPHON painter and
the
called late followers of Polygnotos. Their
DiNOS PAINTER may
work shows
be
a broad treatment,
with round, fleshy forms, loose draperies, and a developed spatial sense.
They favoured
the larger vases and Dionysiac subjects.
A
potsherd
decorated by the Kleophon Painter was found in Pheidias' workshop at
Olympia, together with the moulds used for the gold drapery of the
statue of
Zeus
Here may
(cf. p. 55).
also be
—in polychrome
mentioned the
on an unglazed
artist
who
surface
decorated several oinochoai
— with
scenes connected with
the theatre and the worship of Dionysos in a highly individual, burlesque style.
350
His pots
are, in fact, the
counterparts of the South Italian phlyax
469, 470. The Rape of the Leukippidai and Herakles in the garden of the Hesperides, the Meidias Painter, c. 410 B.C. London, British Museum.
from
a hydria painted
by
Pottery and ]/ase- Painting
471. cake.
Two men
carrying a an oi400 B.C. Athens,
Drawing
nochoe,
c.
vases and the Boeotian Kabeiroi ware
after
Agora Museum.
.
3.
.
(cf.
last
i
i
•
i
two hgures carrying what has been
^^ Obelian cake on a spike. The date
During the
pp. 357, 363). Fig. 471 illustrates
•
typical scene with
quarter of the
is
fifth
years of the Peloponnesian war, a
around 400
B.C. (cf. p. 319).
century, that
number of
interpreted as
the concluding
is
artists specialized in
of white-ground lekythoi for sepulchral use.
decoration
Foremost
among them are the WOMAN PAINTER, the REED PAINTER, and TRIGLYPH PAINTER. The disillusion of the time is reflected in brooding expressions of Presently,
around 400
B.C.,
use of white and yellow.
the
the the
their figures.
a highly ornate
characterized by thick Unes, dark patterns
chiefly in three-quarter
the
style
was developed,
on garments, and
Crowded compositions and
a copious
figures
drawn
TALOS PAINTER, SUESSULA PAINTER (cf fig. 472)
views became the vogue. The
PRONOMOS PAINTER,
and the
are the chief exponents of this style. In the early fourth century the style
was further developed, with much added colour,
applied clay.
PAINTER
The MELEAGER PAINTER and the among the chief artists of this time. The
rank
a pair of lekythoi,
hunting.33
352
gilding,
and
XENOPHANTOS
from Kerch, now
latter
signed
in Leningrad, with scenes of Persians
Athenian Vases: Fifth Century
Combat
472.
from
scene,
an amphora painted by the Sucssula Painter, c. 400 B.C. New York, Metropolitan
Museum.
Side by side with these florid paintings a simpler style persists, in
which the red-and-black colour scheme, with only accessory colours,
is
retained. It
is
found
chiefly
slight touches of
on the smaller
and the decoration generally consists of only one or two
ERBACH PAINTER, (cf. fig.
the J EN A
PAINTER, and
the
vases,
figures.
The
DIOMED PAINTER
474) belong here.
The two
red-figured styles, florid and simple, continued well into the
fourth century B.C., until they developed, in the second quarter of the century, into the
Kerch
style,
so called from the city in South Russia
where many examples have been found. and represents the life
of
women and
last
The
with pink, gold is
figures are
leaf,
(fig.
473), the
deities represented,
drawn
and Herakles
is
the
Much
of the work
was produced,
for instance
and sometimes blue and green.
piece of the
Dionysos, Apollo,
in short, thin, black lines, enriched
and Pompe (Procession) on an oinochoe,
name
about 320 B.C.
phase of Athenian red-figure. Subjects from the
cursory, but occasionally a masterpiece
the Dionysos
until
cult scenes are especially popular.
and Aphrodite are the chief favourite hero.
It lasted
now in New York
POMPE PAINTER.
Painting in black-figure was retained during the fourth century for a special class of vases
—the
Panathenaic prize amphorae
(cf.
p. 322).
353
Pottery and Vase-Painting
473.
Oinochoe with Dionysos and Pompe, painted by
Museum.
354
the
Pompe
Painter,
c.
350 B.C.
New
York, Metropolitan
Athenian \/ases: Fourth Century
The form of the amphora is more elongated than before, the figure of Athena is drawn in archaizing style, whereas the representation of the contest
is
amphorae the prize
An
in the free
manner of
are inscribed with the
interesting
round to
(fig.
name of the archon of the
of these
year in which
data.
development in Attic ware which may be assigned to
was the addition of
reliefs
was nothing new
vases. Relief decoration
had been used
Crete, Boeotia,
A number
475).
was won, and so supply chronological
the late fourth century
It
the period
or figures in the in
Greek ceramics.
in the archaic period in various places, especially in
and Laconia; and
it
occurs occasionally also in the
fifth
and the early fourth century side by side with red-figure. Furthermore, the gradual
clay, first for single figures,
(CA is
a
examples
is
oinochoe
learning to
fly
The
next step was to employ applied
then for the whole decoration.
a lekythos found at
2190), decorated with a little
VARIOUS Athenian fabrics Prevalent DURING the fourth Century b.c.
development of the third dimension had introduced the use
of applied clay for minor objects.
finest
474. Kylix with Diomedes Palladion, carrying the painted by the Diomcd Painter, c. 400-380 B.C. Oxford, Ashmolean AIu-
(fig.
in
Kerch and
group of FJcusinian
New York
now
One
in the
deities.
of the
Louvre
More modest
with a charming scene of Erotes
476). Often a simple laurel wreath
round the neck
sufficed as decoration.
355
475. Panathenaic prize amphora with boxing fourth century B.C. London, contest, British Museum.
Another
common
device was to attach a statuette to the body of a
lekythos or a jug, or to fashion the whole body of the vase in the form
of a
statuette.
The
(cf.
were painted
on vases had,
Relief decoration history
figures
that of
glaze.
tempera over white
shall
see,
a long
in
Though
entirely
covered with black
the earliest examples date from the fifth century
'West Slope ware'
first
found
Athenian Akropolis, hence
South
Italian
ornaments are painted in
its
in quantity
name, but
Gnathian vases (cf red, white,
later,
is
the
on the West slope of the
later in
many
other
p. 362), floral
and yellow, on an
with occasional stamped and incised decorations.
356
(cf.
continued for a considerable time.
Belonging also to the fourth century, but continuing
in the
subsequent
Athens during the fourth century
stamped decoration on vases
p. 319), the technique
As
slip.
pp. 366 ff.).
Yet another technique practised
was
we
as
in
localities.
and other
all-black surface,
Oinochoe with clay relief of Erotes learning to fly, fourth century B.C. New York, Metro476.
politan
Museum.
Boeotian Vases, Fifth and Fourth Centuries Though
Attic pottery dominated the Mediterranean from the middle
of the sixth to the fourth century created for local needs.
Among
vases. Black-figure, red-figure,
on bowls and cups. The
B.C.,
may be mentioned
these
and
midst of
as the picture
New
York.
The
this
especially all-black,
figures are usually cursorily
secondary output, a
were
naturally other wares
the Boeotian
were used,
little
of two youths with lyre and
chiefly
worked and
the incised lines customary in Attic black-figure. Occasionally, in the
b.c.
lack
however,
masterpiece appears, such flute,
on an oinochoe
in
34
so-called Kabeiroi vases,
near Thebes, constitute a special
found class.
in the sanctuary
The
of the Kabeiroi
prevalent form
is
the skyphos
with horizontal handles. The decoration, in black silhouette against a pale terra-cotta ground, consists mostly of burlesque scenes, in
which
357
Kabeinc skyphos with gods and heroes are caricatured with Aristophanic humour. The majority Odysseus and Circe, fourth belong to the fourth century, a tew are earlier. skyphos the Ashmolean century B.C. Oxford, Ash molean Museum Museum has a scene of Odysseus with Circe (fig. 477). The deeds of
477.
t-aii-iaii A m
Herakles are a favourite subject. The drawing it is
evident that in burlesque the Boeotian
sion.
artist
is
able
found
and individual; a natural expres-
In the more conventional scenes, for instance in the Nereids
carrying off the
weapons of Achilles, the
style closely
resembles contem-
porary Attic red-figure.
South Italian Vases, Fifth and Fourth Centuries BY A. D. TRENDALL 'A more serious
rival to Attic pottery
began to be produced
in
Southern
B.C.
was the red-figured ware which
Italy
from about 440
B.C.
tinued through the fourth century to supply local needs.
examples closely
reflect the
contemporary Attic
and con-
The
earliest
style, especially that
of
the Achilles Painter, Polygnotos, and their followers; but by the turn
of the century local schools were developing, in which an increasing diverffence
is
shown. South
Italian glaze
is
not such an intense black
more varied but less precise, be more florid. The scenes attract, however,
nor so lustrous as Attic, the shapes are
and the decoration tends to
by a sense of movement and often have
a
special interest in their
representation of rare myths or lost plays.
'Two
distinct fabrics
may be observed during
leading to Lucanian, the other to Apulian
358
the fifth century
— one
— and the fourth century sees
South Italian Vases
also the
of the
development of Campanian, Paestan, and
first
school stand the PiSTICCI and
whose workshop some
three
At the head PAINTERS, from
Sicilian.
AMYKOS
hundred vases have survived, mostly
decorated with rather monotonous scenes depicting the pursuit of
women, departure of
warriors,
athletes
and Victory, or
silens
and
maenads, and only occasionally rising to more imaginative subjects and compositions on the grand scale
workshop clear
is
still
(cf.
fig.
478).
undetermined, but the line of
and leads on (through the
The
location of this
stylistic
succession
is
CREUSA and DOLON PAINTERS) to CHOEPHOROI PAINTER and his
the developed Lucanian style of the
followers in the middle and second half of the fourth century.
'The other Early South Italian
fabric,
which may with reasonable
certainty be assigned to Taranto, seems to have B.C.
and adopts from the
start a
begun about 430-420
more monumental
style,
which
expression in a fondness for large vases decorated with elaborate
finds
478. Early South Italian calyx krater with Odysseus and the Cyclops, by the Cyclops Painter (Pisticci-
com- Amykos ter
positions,
sometimes
in several registers.
^Mirr-w
^V lUJiU;U/UAUJI/AtfMUMU/Vi!g i
of
^
group), last quarcentury B.C.
fifth
This group remained in close London,
British
Museum.
Early South volute krater with
479.
Italian
women
making music and Centaur by
fight,
the
Sisyphus
Painter, last quarter of the fifth century B.C. Munich,
Antikensammlung.
480. Darius in council before his expedition against Apulian volute Greece. krater painted by the Darius Painter, third quarter of
^#
fourth century B.C. Naples, Museo Nazionale.
contact with the Attic tradition and
its
work never
has that provincial
and even barbaric quality which characterizes most other in their latest stages. Its great failing
grand
scale,
lent, the
with the result
the inability to
new
that once the
Italiote fabrics
compose on the
while individual figures are often excel-
compositions as a whole are heavy and
into Apulia
the
that,
is
lifeless. It is significant
school was firmly established the import of vases
from the other centre
virtually ceased.
The
Sisyphus Painter, whose somewhat statuesque
the influence of the Parthenon and Phigaleia sculptures
;
chief artist style
is
shows
he paints not
only monumental kraters such as his namepiece, decorated with largescale
mythological scenes
pretentious compositions.
both the main
lines
rich or 'ornate' style
vases of the
(cf. fig.
He may,
therefore, be said to stand behind
of Apulian vase-painting in the fourth century
which culminates
DARIUS PAINTER
the plain style of the humbler vases
360
479), but also smaller vases with less
(cf.
—the
in the huge, elaborately decorated fig.
480) and his followers, and
which is continued by the TARPORLEY
361
Apollo and Herakles, Lucanian volute krater by the Primato Painter, third
481.
from
a
quarter of the fourth century B.C. Naples, Museo Nazionale.
482.
Symposium, from
a
Cam-
panian bell krater, Cumae group, third quarter of the fourth century B.C. Naples, Museo Nazionale.
Painter and
his school,
and
until late in the century,
lasts
with a
The
steady increase in output and a corresponding decrease in quality. 'Ornate' style
makes great use of added white and
and sometimes
red,
vases are found decorated only with these added colours. This style,
often referred to as Gnathian from the
found, comes in just before
first
third century.
For an Attic
c.
site
where examples of
it
were
350 and continues until the early
parallel cf, the so-called
West Slope ware
(p. 356).
'The influence of both the main Apulian schools the
work of contemporary Lucanian
Group it
reflects
vase-painters.
the
richer style, with a preference for mythological
the Apulian tradition off"
to be seen also in
The ROCCANOVA
the plainer style of the mid-fourth century, but takes
further in the direction of barbarism,
cut
is
(cf.
fig.
481). Isolated,
from the main currents of
Painter lapses gradually into a
artistic
PRIMATO GROUP
and funerary scenes in
however, in Lucania and
development, the
PRIMATO
provincialism, which with his followers
descends almost to barbarism, and
it
is
hard to believe that the
Lucanian products from the end of the fourth century are in
work of Greeks. 'Apart from some
the
latest
fact the
fifth-century imitations of Attic vases, the local
manufacture of red-figure in the west does not seem to have begun until the first quarter of the fourth century.
established
group of
Two
main
fabrics are well
— Campanian and Paestan, both having their origins in a small
vases, mostly of Sicilian provenience,
which
is
strongly influ-
enced by late-fifth-century Attic. Both fabrics remain closely related in style
throughout, though Campanian
into
three
is
more
varied.
The
latter falls
main divisions— the CASSANDRA-ERRERA GROUP, per-
haps made at Capua, consisting largely of smaller vases decorated with
362
warriors,
women,
youths,
,
compositions, the
etc.,
and only occasionally
AV GROUP
vases belonging to
it
after
some
/-I of the
were found, but perhaps also based on Capua,
and the CUiMAE GROUP. The
by
last is
far
comprises more than a thousand vases,
showing warriors
scenes
rising to large-scale
1/-A111 named Avella, where
y^
A
the
J^^^sco Archcologico.
most important and decorated with
frequently
Samnite armour, or symposia
in
483. Sicilian polychrome pyxis from Lipari, late fourth century b.c. Lipari,
(cf. fig.
482),
with a rich use of added yellow and white, sometimes with green, red
and other colours
as well. It
from
is
this
group
that Sicilian red-figure
descends. Recent excavations at Gela, Lentini, and Lipari have brought to light a large locally,
number of vases, and
probably arising
MANFRIA Group
is
Cumaean
whose
are
all
painters,
that schools existed c.
340
B.C.
The
one of the better
composition and use of added colour
style,
though the
Sicilian artist
shows more
of subjects, often representing with
scenes from popular comedy. last
now certain
to be closely associated with
carefully imitated,
in his choice
it is
Timoleontic revival
after the
A
more
much
life
originality
and verve
elaborate style develops in the
quarter of the century, in which considerable use
made of added
is
blue for drapery and other details, and this in turn leads on to the richly
polychrome
style
of vases from Lipari
blue, green, red, pink, white
clay to
and
produce an
effect quite different
clearly leading
up
to the fully
vases of the third century
'The fabric of Paestum
and
Python, two
They mostly
artists
(cf. p. is
(cf.
fig.
483),
and yellow are applied to
from
that of
polychrome
on which
a rather pale
any other red-figure
style
of the Centuripe
366).
dominated by the workshop of
known
to us
ASTEAS
by name from signed vases.
depict Dionysiac, cult, or genre scenes;
from time
to time
they paint rather heavy mythological compositions but appear to best
advantage
in the representation
of phlyax plays (cf
fig.
484),
which are 363
shown with
considerable animation and rustic humour. Their style
PAINTERS OF NAPLES
continued by their successors, especially the
1778 and 2585, with progressive deterioration in the drawing and originality in the choice of subjects.
to light
vase-painters,
the
influence of the latest Apulian, and the fabric
300 B.C.
at a stage
when
its
less
Recent excavations have brought
work of another school of contemporary with these, but showing more
many examples of
is
comes
late
Paestan
strongly the
to an
end about
products are almost barbarized.'
Vases of the Hellenistic Period With
the Hellenistic age
came fundamental changes
of pottery. The black- and red-figured
styles that
in the decoration
had prevailed for more
than three centuries were practically abandoned and replaced by other techniques.
In several of these Hellenistic vases the surface was covered with
white
slip,
and ornaments were added
Hadra vases
(so called
in
tempera colours.
where most of them have been found)
are in that technique
sumptuous Canosa vases (mostly found
which combine painted with 364
Many
of the
from the cemetery of Hadra, near Alexandria,
plastic
at
;
so are the
Canosa in South
decoration; and above
Italy), all
the
Vases Zeus
484.
and
:
Hellenistic Period
Hermes.
Scene from a phlyax play
on
a Pacstan bell kratcr painted by Astcas, third quarter of the fourth century B.c:. Vatican, Museo CJregoriano Etrusco.
485.
Lekanis third
turipe,
New
York,
from
Cen-
century B.C. Metropolitan
Museum.
486.
Calene
guttus
(lamp
feeder), third century B.C.,
with
relief
ficing
British
a
of Nike sacribull.
London,
Museum.
365
—
Calene phiale with Apotheosis of Herakles, third century B.C. New York, Metropohtan Mu487.
Centuripe vases (ch „.
.,
^icily,
,
.
,
^
p. 363),
found in the .
,
little
town of Centuripe
,
.
which oiten have scenes consisting
,
.
.
,
in .
ot several ngures painted in
various colours, occasionally approximating in style the murals from
Pompeii and Herculaneum (cf
fig.
485). Here, too,
ornaments in
relief
were added. But
in the majority of Hellenistic vases the painted
dispensed with altogether and evidently
reliefs
take their place.
came from embossed metalware. The
ornaments are
The
inspiration
chief classes are the
Calene, the Megarian, and the Pergamene.
The Calene ware
— so
called because
Cales in South Italy, and because consists of reliefs. (cf. fig.
366
The
lamp feeders
(cf.
favourite subject
487).
The
reliefs are
many examples were found
some bear
fig.
at
signatures of Calene potters
486), cups and bowls decorated with
on the bowls
is
the apotheosis ot Herakles
taken from moulds, reproducing Hellenistic
— leases:
and, occasionally, earlier metal prototypes, as for example •
1
1
II-
With medaUions
and
228). p. ^ ^
earliest
rn reproducmg htth-century 1
The
surface
is
on the
c
byracusan corns
r (cr. /
kylikes r
hg. 4oo
with black " glaze. The fourth century, the majority to the
late
488. Interior of a kylix with
aoo medallion
entirely covered ^
specimens belong to the
Hellenisiic Period
a
moulded
from
Syracusan century b.c. Metropolitan
fifth-century
^°'"-
New
Jhird York,
Museum.
third.
Applique
reliefs
black-glazed vases
skyphoi
— found
taken from metalware were also added to other
— to
amphorae
(cf.
chiefly in continental
fig.
489),
kraters,
hydriai
and
and East Greece. Moreover,
large quantity of plain black-glazed pots
— either
a
entirely undecorated
or merely with palmettes and other ornaments impressed in the clay has been found both East and West.
They
represent the
common
house-
hold ware of the time.
The Megarian ware — at places, including Attica
first
found
— consists
at
Megara, but
later in
many other
almost entirely of bowls with
relief
367
;
489. Black-glazed amphora with applique reliefs, c. third century B.C. New York, Metropolitan
Museum.
decoration on the exterior. Like the Etruscan bucchero ware,
it
was
produced by a combination of wheel work, stamping, and moulding that
is,
the bowls were
interior of
condition.
thrown
in fired terra-cotta moulds, into the
which stamps had been impressed while
The
surface here, too,
is
covered with glaze,
in leather-hard
which has some-
The decoration consists of of figured scenes. The latter include
times fired blackish, at other times reddish. floral
ornaments and occasionally
some from
the epic cycle and
from well-known
tragedies, for instance,
the plays of Euripides; the extant examples date from the third and
second centuries B.C. Fig. 490
illustrates Euripides'
Iphigeneia in Aulis,
bowl with of Clytemnestra's ar-
490. Megarian relief
rival in Aulis,
pides.
Third
century B.C. Metropolitan
after Euri-
or
New
second York,
Museum.
LMmps with Clytemnestra arriving with Iphigeneia from Mycenae, to the consternation of
Agamemnon.
The Pergamene ware, perhaps
actually
probably from about 150 to 50 B.C. but the reliefs
Pergamon,
in
lasted
too has a blackish-reddish glaze,
were separately moulded and attached to wheel-thrown
The same
vases.
It
made
figures
recur in different combinations.
Eros and
Herakles are favourite motifs. In the
Roman
The Arretine as the
been
period relief decoration on pottery was continued.
Megarian, but the glaze was
fired
now
the
same technique
a uniform bright red, having
wholly under oxidizing conditions.
In another class, also dating from the the reliefs
show
vases and the later terra sigillata
first
century B.C. and
were moulded with the vase and covered with
glaze, alkaline or lead,
approximating that used in Egypt, and for a
limited time in East Greece
have been applied on a
later,
a blue-green
(cf. p.
313). Like the
modern
glazes,
it
must
fired surface.
Lamps Greek lamps of the
sixth to the fourth century B.C. form, so to speak,
a branch of pottery.
They
consist of small, round, terra-cotta receptacles,
with an opening in the middle for pouring in the
oil,
a spout for the
wick, and sometimes a handle, horizontally or obliquely placed
The technique
492).
is
the
same
as in the vases; that
is,
(figs.
491,
they were thrown
and turned on the wheel, and glazed black with some parts reserved.
There
is
no figured decoration, but the harmonious shape and the
effectively contrasted colouring often
had
a
make of them works of
long subsequent history in Hellenistic and
Roman
was lengthened and moulded
reliefs
They when
491,492. Tcrra-cotta lamps, ^^^}} century b.c. Private collection,
_
the spout
art.
times,
were added.
and British Mu-
seum.
369
CHAPTER 12
FURNITURE Greek — except
furniture
was mostly of wood, which
in such dry climates as
is
apt to disintegrate
Egypt and the Crimea —-and
much of which was melted down. Little, therefore, Nevertheless, it is possible to know a great deal about Greek
of bronze, survives.
furniture; for
it is
often represented on Greek vases and
reliefs,
some-
times articles of furniture form part of terra-cotta and bronze statuettes,
and even of larger stone sculptures, and occasionally they are mentioned in inscriptions
One
can,
and by ancient
therefore,
writers.
and development of the
trace the derivation
various types from period to period in the same
of Greek
art.
As
in architecture
and pottery, so
new
instead of continually inventing
way
as in other
branches
in furniture, the Greeks,
designs, confined themselves to a
few and developed and perfected
these.
constant; only occasionally was a
new
Each became more or
less
form introduced and then
it
took the place of the old one. There was no mass production, and so there could be constant variety of detail in the interrelation of the parts,
changes prevented monotony.
and
—in
the swing of the curves,
in the ornaments.
These subtle
of the forms —in particular those —were evidently inspired by Egyptian
Some
of the throne, couch, and chest
new creations. The methods of manufacturing furniture in ancient Greece were much the same as they were in Europe and America before the widespread use of machinery. The tools were the obvious ones the axe, saw, plane,
prototypes, but they were developed into
—
hammer, and
lathe.
Pseudo-Plato (Theages, 124 B), in referring to
carpenters, speaks of 'those
who saw and
There was a large choice of woods
bore and plane and turn'.
— maple,
beech, willow, citron,
cedar, oak, etc.
For joining the various parts wooden dowels and tenons, metal nails, and glue were used, yoiipo:, a wooden tenon, is described by Hesychios in his
Lexikon as 'joining pieces of wood'. The tenons were round,
rectangular,
Roman
or dovetailed. Veneering did not become popular until
times; but inlay was extensively practised by the Greeks.
was hand-made and
piece of furniture
could make of carpenter was
it
a
work of
highly
who
its
composition and execution
Accordingly, in early times
esteemed. In
mentioned among the men 370
art.
'are
Each
the Odyssey,
welcomed
at least, a
XVII, 382 ff., he
the world over'.
is
2
Furniture
Greek furniture before the relatively
Roman
ages consisted of
stools, couches, tables,
and chests were
Hellenistic
few forms. Chairs,
and
was needed, The couches served the double purpose
practically all that
i
of a bed and a sofa, and the chests, large and small, took the place of
our closets and wardrobes
the early epochs, so there were
no
Books were few,
pp. 377 ff.).
(cf.
at least in
no bookcases or desks; and there was
bric-a-brac as such, so display cases
were not needed. Instead of
upholstery the Greeks used loose covers, hangings, and pillows w hich
consequently became necessary and important adjuncts of furniture.
Chairs and Stools The
were of three types and each had a
chairs
and the
throws, the diphros,
kliswos.
different
The THRONOS was
name
—the
the stately chair
used by gods, the heroized dead, princes, and other important people. It
mostly had a back, low or high, and sometimes arm-rails; the legs
were carved to resemble those of animals turned
(cf.
fig.
494), or they
placed about half
way up
(cf.
fig.
493), or they
were
were rectangular, with voluted incisions
(fig.
495).
The
seat
was generally
plaited, or
of leather, and cushions and coverings were added for comfort. Decorative motifs were applied here and there a palmette, or a volute, or
—
finials
on the back
in the
form of
an animal's head; and sometimes an ornamented
panel beneath the seat, as in Egyptian thrones, or a central support in the
form of
a figure
;
and the arm-rail often terminated in a ram's head
supported by a sphinx, or small
Harpy
Tomb
In addition,
a Triton all
Olympia, which
and
is
or
some other device (on
the
added).
sorts of
in different materials at
is
pillar,
ornaments were occasionally painted or inlaid
in various places.
The throne of Pheidias' Zeus
described at length by Pausanias (V,
II,
2),
was
'adorned with gold and precious stones, ^ also with ebony and ivory';
and
it
had
'figures painted
and images wrought on
it'.
The throne of 493-495.
Asklepios at Epidauros had the deeds of the Argive heroes carved in
Three types
tbroiw's.
''!>Tv5'^^
of
496,497. Three-legged tables, and couches with turned legs; diphros oklaFrom vase-painting dias. the British Museum. t Fifth century B.C. in
(Pausanias II, 27, 2). The 'throne' of Apollo at Amyklai by ,, i/t-. ^ n n rr ^ t -Bathykles was also elaborately decorated (Pausanias, III, 18, 9ft.). In
on
relief
it
,,
-r-,,,,
•
representations on vases and in terra-cotta statuettes painted decora^ ^ tions are often added. The tradition of elaborately decorated furniture ^j^g
indeed goes back not only to Egyptian but also to Mycenaean times, as
shown, for instance, by inscriptions on the
richly
ornamented chairs,
tables,
tablets
The development of the throne can be followed on vases and
in the representations
In the scenes of the lying-in-state of the dead
reliefs.
(prothesis) depicted
from Pylos;4 and
and couches are often described in Homer.
on
eighth- and seventh-century vases, the legs of
the thrones are either straight, or they taper, or they are turned and
have
large, rather
a throne
is
clumsy swellings.
shown with
a
On
a prothesis scene in
back which has crossed stretchers
New York
(cf. fig.
410).
In the sixth century B.C. the throne became gradually standardized into the three types mentioned above, that
turned,
or rectangular.
and more harmoniously
From
is,
with legs either animal,
then on the various parts were more
interrelated, until the design reached its climax
in the course of the fifth century. Black-figured
and red-figured Attic
vases and terra-cotta and bronze statuettes, as well as full-size marble
examples Berlin,
tell
the story in detail.
for instance
(cf.
101),
fig.
panelled back with palmette
The throne of
finials,
the seated goddess in
shows the construction
clearly
—the
the arm-rail, the cushioned seat, the
rectangular legs with voluted incisions, and the tenons for fastenings.
on marble gravestones supply further handsome examples. In the fourth century B.C. the forms tend to become more slender and
The
more
reliefs
elaborate,
illustrated in
A
and often have exaggeratedly broad back boards,
South
Italian vase-paintings.
fourth type of throne
—with solid —makes
a rectangular or curved back
sides, its
carved in one piece with
appearance in the archaic
period but becomes popular only in the Hellenistic,
372
as
when
it
often served
Furniture
Greek
the seats of important personages in
as
Epidauros, and
Pricne — and
Sometimes
reliefs.
it is
it
theatres
—
ornamented with scenes
on marble
in relief.
Besides the throne, there were various types of simpler
DIPHROS was It
a stool
common
on diphroi on the Parthenon
sitting
frieze
(cf.
Gods
use.
145);
fig.
The
chairs.
without back and with four turned legs
was easily transportable and so in
Athens,
at
occasionally represented
is
(fig.
are
499).
shown
women
use
them in their home. In the classical period there are relatively few turnings on the legs;5 in the Hellenistic epoch they multiply, as seen in vase-paintings and on Ptolemaic coins. Sometimes a stool appears which is
quite
low and has
straight,
unturned
legs.
This was a favourite form
for artisans at work.
Another variant of the diphros was the DiPHROS OKLADIAS,
in
modern Whether it
which the legs, instead of being perpendicular, cross, as in the folding stool.
was
It
too was a practical, light seat
collapsible, like its descendant,
do not make
sentations
is
not
but
this clear;
(fig.
it is
probable that at
of the examples could be folded, for the joints where
connect with the seat are often marked by concentric presence of a pivotal pin.
the
actually fold. is
after
all,
least
some
the legs cross or
suggesting
circles,
Moreover, the Egyptian precursors
the chief reason for
making the
legs cross
that the stool should fold. Still
another form of stool
rectangular,
so
And,
497).
certain, for the ancient repre-
it
is
represented on Greek vases
BOX-LiKE SEAT. No
hinges and no feet are indicated,
could not be a chest. Moreover, on the Frangois vase
Priam
is
sitting
on such
—a simple,
a box, inscribed thakos,
'seat'.
(cf. p.
The
330),
sides are
sometimes ornamented either with linear designs or figured motifs.
Both the throne and the diphros had Egyptian antecedents. The 493 499 Klismos- klismos curving back and legs was a characteristically Greek and diphros. From vasepaintings in the British Mucreation- light, comfortable, and graceful (cf. figs. 498, 499). At about seum. Fifth century b.c.
KLISMOS with
—
— Furniture
the height of the shoulders the back had a board,
by three uprights. The placed on
it.
seat
was
plaited,
which was supported
and a cushion was generally
The same development took
place as in the throne.
climax, with parts beautifully interrelated,
reached in the
is
fifth
The and
The gravestone of Hegeso (cf. fig. 168) supplies a typical example of that epoch. In some red-figured Attic vases the back of the klismos is shown placed at a very oblique angle, evidently the early fourth century.
for comfort in lounging.
Footstools The
footstools depicted
on geometric vases and on
the Frangois vase
Two wooden
are plain, with four straight legs, like the Egyptian.
geometric footstools found a horse
at
Samos have
solid sides,
and decorated with incised designs^
(fig.
shaped to resemble
500).
The
footstool of
the fifth and fourth centuries as well as later had curving legs ending in animal feet
paws
(cf. figs.
101, 167, 168). It served not only for resting one's
while sitting on a throne or chair, but also for stepping on a high
couch.
Wooden footstool from Samos. Probably late eighth century B.C. (The wood has disintegrated and the footstool no longer exists.) 500.
Couches The Greek couch
{kUne)
was used not only
but during meal times; for the Greeks, the while eating.
The
form of animal design. is
An
for sleeping
men
at least, usually reclined
legs of couches, like those of thrones,
legs, or turned, or rectangular
and reposing were
in the
with incisions of voluted
important distinction between Egyptian and Greek couches
that the former have foot-boards, but
no head-boards, whereas Greek
couches regularly have head-boards and often also low foot-boards resembling modern
couch and 374
table
on
beds, in
fact.
Fig. 501
his back, evidently for a
shows
a
boy carrying
dinner party.
a
—
As
in the thrones,
decorations
— painted,
inlaid, or in the
501. Boy carrying a couch and a tabic. After a vase by the Pan Painter, second
round
were added on the more sumptuous couches filling
at appropriate places. The of the frames consisted of interlaced cords on which mattresses, quarter of B.C.
covers, and pillows were placed. Sheets are never represented in the
Museum.
numerous representations of beds on Greek vases and reliefs; nor are they mentioned in the occasional descriptions of beds by ancient writers,
a
except perhaps by
Homer
where /avov seems to mean survived,
it is
(cf.
common
IX, 661; Odyssey, XIII, 73, 118,
Egyptian sheets have
sheet). Nevertheless, as
likely that they
they were not in
I/iad,
were known to the Greeks
To
use.
judge by the
many
also,
even
the fifth century
Oxford,
Ashmolean
502. Limestone statuette of man carrying a table, from Cyprus. Sixth century B.C. London, British Mu-
seum.
if
representations
of couches on Greek vases, a bed was not 'made up' as nowadays, with sheets
and covers tucked
in.
Instead, the covers are merely laid
on top
of the bed. Mattresses, however, were substantial.
On
and elsewhere, couches are often represented too short
the vases
to permit stretching out at full length.
That
shown by
when
convention lying
is
down, the bed
couches found
at
is
the fact that
this
was merely an artistic
the occupant
is
depicted
adequately long. Moreover, the stone sepulchral
Tarentum,
in
Ruboea, and elsewhere, are sometimes
6 or 7 feet long.
The development of the
three forms of couches closely resembles that
of the corresponding thrones. Vase-paintings and
many
representations, ranging
from archaic to
several miniature examples in terra cotta,
and
reliefs
again furnish
Hellenistic. In addition,
fairly large
ones on marble
375
— s
Furniture
reliefs are
preserved; also a few actual (wooden) legs
(cf. p.
398, note
5).
The designs with which they were painted occasionally survive and give an idea of the general effect. A number of bronze appliques which once decorated the head-boards of
Hellenistic couches (and their
Roman derivatives) have also survived. ^ They
human
are in the forms of
busts and heads of horses, mules, and dogs, with lively expressions, and
often enriched with silver inlay.
Tables Tables with the Greeks had fewer uses than with us. Today almost every
room
contains several tables to display our
many
Greeks had few books, no magazines or newspapers,
possessions. little
When
not in actual use, and small lamps which stood on special stands. a mirror, or drinking cup, or flute-case
hung up on
the wall, as
chief use of a table
food.
shown
on
it
couch. Each person had his light, plain,
and low. The top
The
vases.
and the
for the support of dishes
was put alongside the couch on which the person
It
at
was generally
it
in the representations
was during meals,
and when dinner was over
two
was put away,
The
bric-a-brac
reclined,
was carried away or pushed under the
own is
individual table.
mostly oblong and
It
was accordingly
rests
on three
one end, placed nearest the head of the couch, one
legs
middle
in the
of the other end. The legs are perpendicular or oblique, and taper
downwards, ending sometimes curved.
They
in
lion's
paws; occasionally they are
are fastened to the table top with tenons or dowels,
are connected with each other for further support sionally consoles are added.
The
by
stretchers.
beyond
table top regularly projects
the legs at the upper end, whereas at the lower end
it is
flush
and
Occa-
with the
leg.
This
is
the regular form, and one can see that a three-legged table
would be convenient,
especially
on uneven ground. Four-legged
tables,
however, also existed, and they are occasionally depicted on vases, and are
mentioned by Greek writers
A
few
actual pieces help
some bronze
legs,
of the
(cf.
Athenaios,
tables are
shown
Republic, 390b).
Two
and London) with dancers performing on
on
in
London,
a man's shoulders
construction.
376
at the
tables.
Palermo
in (cf.
which fig.
Hand-
Museum
top and end below
laden with bread and meat, just as
group from Cyprus carried
Greek
numerous banquet scenes on Greek vases and
{Odyssey, IX, 8; cf. Plato
Paris
49a).
classical period, are in the
and the Louvre. They have scrolled consoles in lion's paws. In the
II,
one to visualize these
Homer
reliefs,
describes
bronze statuettes tables, ^
(in
and a stone
a three-legged table
is
being
502), give a clear idea of the
3 503.
Wooden
from Egypt. HelMusees Royaux
table
lenistic period. Brussels,
des Beaux-Arts. 504.
Marble table support from Pcrga-
mon. Second century In the later Greek period a side
by
side with the other. It
form.
It
South
Italy,
(fig.
503)
Two
a
round top and three
and an actual example from Egypt
is
legs of animal
large marble slabs
come
second century
B.C.
on the
(cf. fig.
to light at
504),
Kerch and
in the Brussels
several miniature terra-cotta ones are in
supports, have
to those
had
type of table was invented and used
frequently represented in vase-paintings from
is
;
new
B.C. Etching.
Museum
Athens and elsewhere.
which evidently served
as table
Pergamon. They can be dated
in the
from the resemblance of their akanthos decorations
altar
of Eumenes, and
type of table found frequently in
are, therefore,
Roman
precursors of the
times, especially at Pompeii.
Chests Chests served for putting away one's clothes, jewellery, and other articles.
As
worn by
the clothes
the Greeks
were mostly rectangular
and put away
pieces of cloth, they could be neatly folded better than
hung up
wardrobe. The
in a
in a chest
of chests naturally varied
size
according to use. Chests for clothes were large, those for jewellery and toilet articles
The
chief
were small and dainty.
form
box with panelled
in use
sides
was, like
and
its
Egyptian prototype, a rectangular
a slightly projecting, horizontal lid,
on hinges. There were generally four low tion of the corner posts,
feet,
and often ending
working
formed by the prolonga-
in lion's
paws. The sides
were plain or decorated. For fastening, there were corresponding knobs
on
lid
and box round which
a string
was
tied.
The most famous
chest
377
Furniture
Woman
505.
garment
placing
in a chest.
terra-cotta relief,
c.
a
Locrian 460 B.C.
Reggio, Museum.
of antiquity was that of Kypselos of the seventh century Pausanias saw in the temple of Hera at Olympia. description of
wrought
wood long
figures,
itself.
list
it
No
(V, 17, 2). It
some of
some of
gold, and
;
but
it
The forms of the on many
it
were
some of the cedar
was doubtless of the same shape
Egypt and used throughout Greek
illustrated
gives a long
was 'made of cedar wood, and on
ivory,
which
of the form or construction are given, only a
details
of the decorations
that current in
He
B.C.,
as
times.
chests of the sixth to the fourth century B.C. are reliefs
and vases. Especially interesting are those
depicted on the Locrian terra-cotta
reliefs
{c.
460
B.C.),
where they
sometimes appear richly decorated with various patterns and figured panels a
(cf. p.
woman
is
237).
(fig.
a large chest with
378
it.
10
legs regularly
shown holding
garment inside
into
The
the lid
end in
lion's
paws.
On
505) and on an Attic red-figured lekythos ;
open
lid
and
a
one
relief
open while she places a neatly folded
woman
is
depicted
putting a bundle ot clothes
Often the chests are large enough to be
sat
on or
to
accommo-
— Furniture
two people,
date
those on which the goddesses are sitting on the
like
East pediment of the Parthenon and the ones represented on vases of
Danae legend. n
the
Odessa.
Two
bronze miniature examples in the round are
Museum, 12 and an
in the Berlin
actual
wooden
chest,
from Olbia,
in
is
13
Our knowledge of by the wooden coffins
chests of the fourth century in the
is
further increased
form of chests from Egypt and the Crimea.
'•*
They
generally have gabled tops, and the panelled sides were embellished
with
floral
reliefs
and figured decorations,
either painted or in gaily coloured
of wood, plaster, or terra cotta.
Cupboards, Wardrobes, Shelves What we
wardrobes or cupboards
call
were apparently not known times. 15
There
ar»mr'tiii>i\
The
in
Greece
no Greek name
is
— with doors opening until
Hellenistic
in front
Roman
and
for cupboard, only the Latin
nor are cupboards represented on Greek vases and
name reliefs.
we saw, the that we should
regular receptacle for clothes, jewellery, etc. was, as
chest, large
and small
(cf.
p. 377);
and many
articles
put in cupboards or chests of drawers were hung up on the wall figs.
(cf.
496, 505).
Only occasionally resting
on
it-
—a
set ol shelves,!
a shelf or bracket
is
— and
vase or a greave'^-
''
represented with
some
object
once or twice there appears a
but without the doors characteristic of cupboards. In
Hellenistic times, with the introduction of libraries, etc.,
shelving must have been used; and from
it
more complicated
the cupboard with doors
was probably developed. i^
Roman flat
on
armaria are quadrangular receptacles, provided with low
feet,
or gabled tops, and doors reaching from top to bottom and working hinges.''^
sarcophagi;
They
are often represented
on Roman
reliefs, especially
on
sometimes the doors are depicted open, displaying the
contents within
— books
and so forth; not
in the
form of
scrolls,
masks, bottles, shoes,
clothes, for the proper receptacle for clothes
remained
the chest.
The standard forms of Greek tables,
and chests
furniture
— of chairs, couches, footstools,
—were transmitted to the Etruscans and the Romans,
who adopted them
with occasional slight changes in design.
heritage furniture makers have built
down
to
On
this
our time.
379
^
CHAPTER
13
TEXTILES
The
long
alone
scarlet,
—
list
of epithets given by Pollux (X, 42) to bed covers
delicate,
well-woven, glistening, beautifully coloured, of
many
flowers, covered with ornaments, purple,
violet,
with
with a purple border, shot with
scarlet flowers,
gold, with figures of animals, with stars gleaming
one
realize
what
ance of Greek tions of
a loss to
textiles
our
must
artistic heritage
be.
dark green,
There
upon them^makes
the almost total disappear-
however, frequent representa-
are,
ornamented garments, bed covers, and pillows, on Greek vases
from the seventh
from the Akropolis of Athens and designs on
their
Some of the marble maidens
to the fourth century B.C.
garments
fairly
a
few other sculptures have coloured
well preserved.
And terra-cotta
statuettes
amplify this picture. There are also occasional descriptions of covers, hangings, and garments by ancient writers and in inscriptions.' Finally, a
few actual specimens have come to
and recently of Greek
The
at
Koropi, in
textiles
Attica.'*
{Hist,
From
Mongolia,
these sources the appearance
can to some extent be visualized.
chief materials used were
Aristotle
light in the Crimea,2
anitn.
V,
19,
p.
wool and
linen. Silk
is
mentioned by
551b, 13 ff".), and there are possible
references to the mulberry in Aischylos
and Sophokles. Moreover, the
506. fabric
Embroidered from the
Crimea. Leningrad, Hermitage.
380
507,508. Painted fabric and 509.
Woven
510. Linen
fabric
woven
fabric with geometric design,
both from the Crimea. Leningrad, Hermitage.
from the Crimea. Leningrad, Hermitage.
embroidered in silver-gilt with diaper pattern and London, Victoria and Albert Museum.
lions.
Perhaps
late fifth
century B.C.
From Koropi.
381
Textile
amorgina mentioned by Aristophanes {Lysistrate, 150ff.) as 'transparent'
may refer to silk.s Cotton was apparently not used until much later. The working of these materials was of course done in the home and women. There are representations in vase-paintings of the various processes. The sheep's wool was washed, beaten, carded (either on the bare leg or on a terraconstituted one of the chief occupations of the
cotta
implement
that fitted the
upper leg and was called
322), spun on the spindle, and woven on a
cf.
p.
fig.
447).
The
like the
rule coloured, the linen ones white.
it
The decoration
women
an all-over pattern; figured scenes
it
for
men
at least
as well as linear
either woven into The fragments of textiles
was
sometimes formed a
ornaments
were used. The designs were
the material, or embroi-
dered on
that
in the
382
(cf.
wool. The woollen garments were as a
generally confined to borders, but for
511-512. Hera, Ouraniaand the Horai. Drawing after the Frangois vase, cf. fig. 432b.
loom
preparation of linen was not unlike that of today, and
was spun and woven
frieze or
onos or epinetron,
vertical
^^
it,
or painted.
Crimea show
embroidery
painted designs
(fig.
all
three techniques
508),
scroll pattern
with palmettes,
506); figures reserved in yellow against a black
background with (fig.
—a
have been preserved
details
and ducks
(fig.
painted 509)
red
(fig.
woven mto
507)
;
geometric
the material as an
Textiles
and Achilles 513. Ajax. Drawing after the amphora by Exekias, cf. fig. 446.
all-over pattern in yellow, black, to
silver-gilt
unit
(fig.
From
A
and green.
have been found in a bronze vase,
is
been dated
at the
end of the
representations (fig.
on vases
511),
— of
the
and the Horai
garments, (fig.
as
p. 332).
They
recall
methods employed,
textiles is
for
instance,
of Hera,
amphora by Exekias
or of Creusa's handmaids trying to
of the temple of Apollo
III,
125 ff.), and of
as those they
at
make out
Andromache XXII, 441),
{Iliad,
the subjects
on the
were using
in their
own
embroideries:
visualize these coloured, decorated garments,
of rectangular pieces of cloth, in
friezes
'Who
(F!,uripides, Ion,
1
is
it?
84 ff.).
one must imagine
as free-hanging, not close-fitting like ours, for they consisted
and
513
(fig.
Delphi and wondering whether they were the
Who ? On my embroidery is the hero's story told ?'
at rest
(cf.
of the horse-taming Trojans and the brazen-
'weaving an all-over pattern of flowers of varied hues'
To
obtained from
passages in ancient literature, of Helen described
battles
coated Achaeans' on a purple cloth {Iliad
them
century.
adorned with rows of chariots, horsemen, animals, and flowers;
weaving 'many
same
said
embroidered in
on the Francois vase
512)
or the mantles of Achilles and Ajax on the
and
is
fifth
these scraps one can learn something of the
Ourania
from Koropi,
with a diaper pattern and a walking lion in the centre of each 510). It has
but a better idea of the magnificence of Greek
p. 330),
piece
of linen and
which assumed beautiful
folds
mostly
both when
motion, and so became expressive of the persons
who
wore them. 383
CHAPTER 14
GLASS AND GLAZE addition to metal and clay, the Greeks used glass for vessels and
Insome
other objects; but
was
made
glass-blowing was not
Before
it
The invention of
a restricted use.
second or
until the
century B.C.
first
was mostly laboriously modelled by hand
that, glass
in a tech-
nique evidently current in Egypt; for Egypt seems to have been a great centre for glass-making throughout antiquity. Glazed beads occur there at least as early as the
glaze
is
fourth millennium
commonly found on
occur from the eighteenth dynasty of glass factories
B.C.,
and
figurines,
tiles,
(c.
1500
in the early dynasties
and beads. Glass
B.C.) on.
Moreover, remains
have been discovered on various Egyptian
from the eighteenth
to the twenty-second dynasties
vessels
sites
ranging
1500-900
(c.
There can be no doubt, therefore, that Egypt manufactured her
B.C.).
own
glass.
Pliny (XXXVI, 26)
The theory advanced by invented glass
is
the Phoenicians
that
hardly credible. According to him, Phoenician merchants
encamped on the shore and,
resting their cooking pots
on blocks of
natron, afterwards found glass produced by the union of the natron 514. Glass alabastron. HelYork, lenistic period.
(i.e.
Metropolitan Museum.
nor deposits of glass
New
alkali)
and the sand
at a
earlier
high temperature. But neither glass factories than the
fifth
century B.C. have as yet been
unearthed in Phoenicia. Glass vases similar to the Egyptian have been found in Greek and
Etruscan tombs of the sixth to the fourth century
examples have come to light in Cyprus and either
and Hellenistic
B.C.,
other places.
have been produced in Egypt and exported, or made elsewhere
in imitation of the Egyptian.
The technique was
as follows
vase was modelled in a fluid state over a core; while threads of coloured glass were applied
by
rolling,
surface
:
The
was
still
glass
hot,
and incorporated
with a sharp instrument.
The shapes adopted by
the Greeks were different, however, from the
Egyptian; they were the same in terra-cotta vases
pointed
on the
it
various patterns being produced by dragging the surface
in different directions
Greek
They must
amphora
yellow, red, blue,
—the
(fig.
515).
and white
fact as
those in use for the smaller
alabastron, aryballos, oinochoe, and
Furthermore,
—are not
Egyptian examples. So the two are
as bright
the
colours
and pure
little
—mostly
as in the earlier
easily distinguishable.
In the Hellenistic period the technique remained the same, but the
shapes and decorations changed somewhat.
384
The necks of
the alabastra
..»
became longer, the forms
lost their
were often large and elaborate
The
former compactness, and the handles 514),
(cf. fig.
and
same
brilliant colours.
They
and with
as the glass vases
are of various types
drops of glass protruding, with
suitable
have been their chief function.
that seems to
Beads were fashioned in the same way the
made them
dainty elegance of these colourful glass vases
for ointment bottles,
It
—
plain, 'eyed',
and zigzag patterns, and
spiral
with
in the
form of grotesque masks. There also
is
now
evidence of moulded, transparent glass as early
as the seventh century B.C. (e.g. at
and
tomb); and
in the Bernardini
it
In addition, glass sealstones,
moulded from stone
Greek and Roman periods
all
(cf.
Zeus
cf. p.
38)
of Pheidias,
material,
forms,
and
it
the general effect by
was
Glass at this time was evidently a precious
fusible
and so could be moulded into various
variegated colours
its
Greek word
In fact, the
(-a). oc
was pointed out
glaze,
(cf. p.
just as did
(cf. p.
modern
coloured stones.
for glass
and such
trans-
398, chapter 12, note
316), the black used
not a true glaze in the
is
—
was used both
parent stones as alabaster and rock crystal
As
on the Erech-
served as an appropriate addition to marble and metal, enhancing
it
pottery
(for instance
in sculpture (for instance in the chryselephantine
cf. p. 55).
and since
ones, were in use
pp. 246, 248); and glass inserts
were employed in architectural decoration theion,
in Phrygia, Fortetsa in Crete,
seems to have continued through
and Hellenistic periods.
the classical
during
Gordion
sense.
by the Greeks on
A
real, alkaline,
3).
their
blue
however, occurs for a limited period during the archaic period in
East Greece, evidently in imitation of the Egyptian.
on
chiefly
and small vases
aryballoi
in
animal and
It
human
was applied form,
made
not of ordinary clay, but of a white composed body, like the Egyptian
Examples have been found
'faience'.
Italy;
in various
including
localities,
but the centre of their manufacture was doubtless in the East,
perhaps
in
Naukratis and Rhodes. Later the production stopped, sub-
merged by Attic black- and
red-figure, as
were so many other wares.
Similar blue alkaline glazes, however, reappear in the late Hellenistic
and
Roman
glazes, in a
periods, together with green, yellow, and colourless lead
ware similar
The invention of B.C.
— caused
shape and technique to the Arrctinc
in
the blowing tube
—
in the
a revolution in the use of glass.
means of manufacture,
second or
With
(cf. p.
first
this easy
glass vessels of considerable size
and
and rapid
in all sorts
of shapes could be produced. Their use became widespread, and different
mosaic
techniques were evolved
(millefiori),
niques have been found
Roman
blown, blown
in
many
moulds,
onyx, grooved, spiked, with threads of glass applied
plastically, painted, gilt,
to
—
plain
369).
centur\
and
all
incised.
over the
Specimens
in these various tech-
Roman empire, and belong specificallv
art. ,
515. r^oiir glass vases, sixth to fourth century B.C.
New
York, Mctrop
/^
CHAPTER 15
ORNAMENT Ornament played an essential part in the Greeks.
artistic creations
survives mostly in architecture,
It
finials
of the
of gravestones,
metalwork, and vase-paintings, and has been discussed in the chapters dealing with those branches of
art.
Originally, however,
an important feature also in other products of which
little
now
it
was
remains,
for instance in textiles and furniture.
In contrast to
was not
Minoan and Mycenaean ornament,
naturalistic,
conventionalized,
but
position
their
many
Greek
individual motifs
was systematized. They were
assigned to definite places with precise functions
In this respect, as in
the classical
Not only were
but formalized.
others, classical
Greek
e.g.
(cf.
pp. 27, 323).
owes much
art
to the
geometric epoch, during which the spontaneous, sprawling ornaments of the Minoans and Mycenaeans were gradually schematized into orderly designs.
The of
characteristic of the
of taking over from their predecessors what appealed to them
art,
and changing
and
borrowings into new creations, can be
their
in their ornament.
The
Greeks that we observed in other branches
The
motifs as such had mostly been used by others.
lotus, palmette, guilloche, rosette, spiral, scrolls
had long been current
were transformed into grace, and,
typically
they had once
become
Only
leaf
forms
and Crete, but
in Egypt, Assyria,
lightness
all
and
retain the living quality of plant
part of the artistic repertoire they
remained constant, change being confined to occasionally
and various
Greek designs of singular
though systematized, they
When
forms.
clearly seen
and composition.
detail
was a new element introduced,
like the akanthos.
A certain development in some of the forms can be observed, especially in the palmette
and the
the progression
was from sturdy to
lotus
but naturally these changes are tations. It its
best
stones
—
may be
p. 387).
(cf.
less
516),
on
sixth-
on the North porch of
and
the case elsewhere,
obvious than in the figured represen-
said without exaggeration that
as seen, for instance, in the finials
(cf. fig.
As was
elegant, to attenuated, to luxuriant,
Greek ornament
of archaic and
fifth-century vases
classical
(cf. fig.
at
grave-
517),
and
the Erechtheion, has never been excelled in
refinement and harmonious composition; and that some Hellenistic decorations, for instance the akanthos oi> a table support
on the
altar
from Pergamon, have an exuberance and
equalled elsewhere.
386
(fig.
504) and
vitality rarely
516. Capital of a gravestone. Second quarter of the sixth century B.C. Drawing. New York, Metropolitan Museum.
517. Paris,
Amphora by
Eucharides Painter,
the
c.
490
B.C.
Louvre.
motifs and compositions, like the Greek architectural
The Greek
forms, were transmitted to succeeding generations and are current even today.
The following
a
is
list
of the principal ornaments that appear in
the various periods:
Geometric Period
wavy lines,
:
Horizontal bands, concentric circles and semi-circles,
zigzags, net pattern, simple
and shaded triangles, lozenges
of various forms, meanders, the swastika, chequers. Orientali'n^ing
Period: lotus, rosettes, scrolls, spirals, concentric circles,
leaf patterns, palmettes, wheels, zigzags, chequers,
meanders,
scales,
volutes, guilloche, various plant forms.
Sixth and
fifth centuries
squares,
stars,
chequers,
scrolls,
(laurel, ivy,
(enclosed,
Palmettes,
Meanders
:
(plain
and alternating with crossed
and other motifs), net pattern,
tongues, eggs,
guilloche,
spirals,
scales,
rosettes, rays,
leaves
with or without berries), lotus flower and bud, palmettes
and
double, lotus
flowers,
oblique,
and
bead-and-reel,
scrolls
are
leaf-and-dart).
combined
in
endlessly
varied combinations.
Fourth and third centuries
:
Many
of the motifs current in the preceding
period are continued, but particularly popular are the the laurel wreath,
forms of
and the palmette
in a late
wave
pattern,
form; also various
rosettes.
387
CHAPTER
16
EPIGRAPHY
At
certain periods, especially during the second half of the sixth
and the
fifth
century
Greek
B.C., the letters in
inscriptions are
so beautifully formed and spaced that they constitute art.
A
The
short mention of
them must,
earliest inscriptions written in
therefore, here be included.
Greek characters so
from the eighth century
B.C. (Future excavations
to light earlier examples.)
The language of the Mycenaean
as
Linear
B
—was,
now
it is
works of
far
known
date
may, however, bring script
thought, an early form of Greek
— known
(cf. p. 17).
This Mycenaean script was, however, not alphabetic, but pictographic
and
syllabic.
The Greek alphabet was apparently borrowed from Semitic
sources.
Most of
the extant
Greek
inscriptions are
on stone and
consist of
contracts, decrees, treaties, building specifications, dedications, epitaphs,
and signatures
(cf. figs.
518, 519).
They
also occur
parts of vases {ostraka), coins, metalwork,
ing material in antiquity rus (from
—
on
and wood. The commonest writ-
besides presumably wooden
which our word paper
is
terra-cotta vases, or
derived). It
tablets
—was papy-
was a product of Egypt,
and was used there from the third millennium
B.C. on. In
Greece
it
518. Epitaph for the Athenians who fell in the battle of Potidaia, 432 B.C. London, British Museum.
519. Inscribed base of the
of Dexileos (fig. 217), 394 B.C. Athens, Kerameikos Museum. stele c.
388
Epigraphy
was known
A
at least as early as the fifth century B.C.
Greek papyri have come
to light in Egypt, ranging
Roman
century B.C. to Hellenistic and
large
number of
from the fourth
times. In the
damp
climates
of Greece and Italy they have mostly disappeared, though special circum-
produced some exceptions
stances have
Herculaneum).
A
papyrus
roll,
(cf.
carbonised but not completely consumed,
was found by Mr. Makaronas near Salonike. half of the fourth century B.C.
Greek papyri and
the only
ment (pergamena), became
common
Pergamon.
It
was
in
made out of rags. The forms of the according to the various
is
its
Greek
states; that
was is,
the larger groups of Doric, Ionic,
can be dated in the second
in Greece'' (fig. 520).
Eumenes comparatively modern
the time of
inscriptions
there were
minor
and
of
paper,
differences within
to
letters
place an object
the independence of individual states, as well as their is
II
dialect in
and Western. Moreover, the
changed from period to period, and often help
Hellenism,
Parch-
and the spelling vary
diversity of alphabet
chronologically. In fact, in epigraphy, as in other branches of art,
known
of certain animals, apparently
turn ousted by the
letters in
It
thus 'one of the earliest
Greek lands from
locality, for there
Greek
and
one ever found
the prepared skin
in
the discoveries in a villa at
Greek
common
apparent.
After about 400
by many Greek
B.C.,
however, the Ionic forms of letters were adopted
states,
including Athens, and distinctions were largely 520.
obliterated. This
is
particularly true in Hellenistic times.
Papyrus
roll
from
near Salonike. 350-300 B.C.
389
.^N^eandna
Lemnos
^^^O
M
y
s
a
i
!
"^
'v^
-
.PERGAMUM
Lesboi-^;^^ /
y
L
.AlZANI
d
i
a
>
/
"^ Chios;
s
1^ ^^N^^^lazomenae ,Teos
^
su^.
/
'Philadelphia
y
-
^
-v./ffierapoHs -^EPHESUS ^ Samos /(r \ Ji-a^es •APHRODISIAS /^MAGNESIA-:^..
tP
\
V^^
\
f"^^ ^^ .'-'~-xj''^i:
^ ^^ >
\
^ AD7MEANDRUM ^
^..
\.
C7
C»EUROMUS(YAKLl)
!
'apos,
laxos
'^
Thera
CNOSSUS?
j.^r^*^
391
__
—J .
i
{
/•
IMilaiL
A(iialeia,
V
e n e t
"^ '--^VERONA
i
a
,
\ t^
/"--J,^
i
y
9":>-^ /
yv.r-
•\
-J
.
/
"V,
N..y"
Eologna 1
/
Eaveima
vVluNA"-.
MMINI
Florence
\.
^
O
/ <^ <^'
ANCONA
^
/
NA\ CORTONA
^
'''
^PALATO
'<^
?o
."^
^^ClusiWlASSfSi; /•
t^-
^
'•'
\Siitnumk.
Qj'/
-
'
=5
y
'It
o OstieiSj
Q>
"fraenfiste;
f-f
<;;>
N^
:/5
C
^Tareiitimi
Here-
^C^ •^ METAPONTUM
PAESTUM/
V^.'
Cotrone
Messiiia>^
sPalermo
SEGESTA S SELINUS
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c
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vfAGRIGENTUM
Gda?
392
"^^
X? /Jjocn
^SYRACUSE
ABBREVIATIONS OF PERIODICALS CITED
A.J. A.
American Journal of Archaeology.
Annuario
Annuario
della scuola archeologica di
Atene
e delle
Mission! Italiani in Oriente.
Arch. An^.
Archaologischer Anzeiger, Beiblatt
Deutschen Archaologischen
zum Jahrbuch
des
Instituts.
Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts,
Ath. Mitt.
Athenische Abteilung. B. C.
H.
Bulletin de
la
correspondance hellenique.
d'Arte
Bolletino d'arte del Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione.
B. S.
A.
Annual of the
Eph.
arch.
Ephemeris archaiologike.
Boll.
/.
J. /.
British School at Athens.
G.
Inscriptiones graecae.
d. I.
Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archaologischen
H.
Journal of Hellenic Studies.
S.
Journal of
J. R. S.
M. M. A.
Bull.
Mon. Plot
Roman
Studies.
Bulletin of the Metropolitan
Monuments
et
Instituts.
Museum
Memoires publics par
of Art. 1'
Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (Fondation
Academic des
Eugene
Plot).
Mus. Helv.
Museum
Not.
Notizie degli Scavi di antichita, comunicate all'Acca-
d.
Scavi
Helveticum.
demia dei Lincei. Oest.Jahr.
Jahreshefte
des
Oesterreichischen
Archaologischen
Instituts.
Rev. arch. Rof;/.
Mitt.
Revue archeologique. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts,
Romische Abteilung.
393
NOTES CHAPTER
1
regarded 2.
In the Copaic basin (cf. Stampfuss, Mannas, XXXIV, 1942, pp. 132ff.), and elsewhere (cf.J.H.S., Archeological Reports, 1957, p. 15; Daux, B.C.H., 1963, p. 690).
1.
3.
It
is
4.
2
known
also
that several fifth-
6.
the architect Pythios. 2. K. Miiller, Atb. Mitt, XLVlii, 1923, pp. 52 fF. Payne, Perachora, I, pp. 34 ff. 3. Cf. A. J. A. LVii, 1953, pp. 212ff. 4. F. Krauss, Mitt. d. Deiitschen Arch. Inst., 1948, pp. llff. 5. Whether the temple was dedicated to Theseus or to Hephaistos has recently been again discussed by
(cf.
Studien
^um
8.
Now
9.
On
the recent excavations
site
cf.
on
B.C.H.
LXlll,
1939,
Thomson,
K.
The
Greek
E. Harrison, Hesperia, XXIV, 1955, pp. 290 ff. The recently identified fragments belonging to this stele (found in the reserve collection of the National
Museum of Athens) have not yet been published and so could not be added here. For a theory that this statue dates
On this question, cf. especially E. Nash, in Rom. Mitt. LXVi, 1959, pp. 104 ff.; Jucker, Museum Helveticum, XXII, 1965, fasc. 2, p. 120; Ashmole, Boston Museum Bull., LXIII, 1965, pp. 59ff.; W. J. Young and B. Ashmole, Boston Museum Bull., LXVI, 1968, pp. 124ff. Magi, in Studies presented I,
to
D. M.
1951, pp. 615ff.
Buschor, Ath. Mitt., LXVlll, 1953,
pp. 51 ff. Cf. L. D. Caskey, Catalogue oj Greek and Roman Sculpture, Museum oJ Fine Arts, no. 64, where other reproductions are listed; to these can now be added a marble statuette in the Ashmolean Museum, Guide, 1951, pi. XXXVIII. 11. On the identification of the head of Helios, cf. Marcade, B.C.H., LXXX, 1956, pp. 161ff., and on that of Selene, ibid. 1957, pp. 76 ff. 12. For different interpretations see Holloway, Art Bull., XLVlll, 1966, pp. 223 ff. and the references there 10.
cited. 13.
359-362.
A.
J.
Robinson,
Theseustempel,
1955, and Wycherly, /.//. J., lxxix, 1959, pp. 153ff. 6. H. A. Thompson, Hesperia, XVIII, 1949, pp. 241ff.; Gottlieb, A.J. A., LXi, 1957, pp. 161 ff. 7. I.G. IV, 1484; Cavvadias, Fouilles d'Epidaiire, no. 241, pp. 78 ff. 8. On these tombs and plaques cf. now Boardman, ^.i".^., L, 1955, pp. 51 ff. 9. published in detail by I. Kleemann, Der Satrapen-Sarkaphas aus Sidon, 1958. 10. Devambez, Grandes bronf<^es du Musee de Stamboul, pp. 9f., and the references there cited. 11. Hackin and others, Nouvelles recherche s archeologiques a Be pram, figs.
Amandry,
pp. 43 ff. 7.
;
12.
of stone
from the first century B.C. cf. B.S. Ridgway, Antike Plasfik, Vll, 1967,
and fourth-century artists wrote books on proportion, e.g. Polykleitos, Pollis, Euphranor, Silanion, and
Koch,
sort
Tradition, p. 22.
Architecture 1.
a
pp. 86 ff
5.
CHAPTER
as
p. 385).
Forerunners
The
attribution of the Prokne and group in the Akropolis Museum to Alkamenes is not certain, for Itys
this
Vanderpool, A.J. A., LXI,
Pausanias (l, 24, 3) merely says that the group was dedicated by Alkamenes. On the possibility that Alkamenes' cult statue of Hephaistos in the Hephaisteion (p. 24) is represented on a Roman lamp, cf. Papa-
1957, pp. 284f., pi. 86, figs. 14-16. 13. On all these doors cf. Mendel, Catalogue des Sculptures, under no. 138. 14. Cf. B. R. Brown, Ptolemaic Paintings and Mosaics, 1957, pp. 33ff. pi. XXII.
spyridi-Karousou, Ath. Mitt., LXIX-
Lxx, 1954-55, pp. 67 ff.
CHAPTER Larger
14.
3
Works
Aurigemma, 1954, pp.
of Sculpture
15.
As
1.
Gnomon, XXVII, 1955, pp. XXVIII, 1956, pp. 318ff.; in Deutsche Ausgrabungen im Mittel-
222f.,
Neue
meer ., 1959, pp. 278 ff. Pausanias speaks of inlay of stone, but glass in that early period was precious and .
d' Arte,
XXXIX,
type, one could now published by Eichler, Oest. Jahr. XLlll, 1956-58, pp. 7ff.,
take
Kunze,
Boll,
7ff.
a
fifth
that
and so restore
Pliny's original text. Cf. Richter, Archaeology, Xll, 1959,
pp. lllff.
.
16.
Cf.
on
this
style
'Archaisierende
especially
griechische
Bulle,
Rund-
;
Notes
Akademie
17.
fig. 16, pi.
Metropolitan Museum, figs. 97-98, 104-105. Payne, f.H.S., Liv, 1934, pp. 163ff.,
The
pi. Vll.
identified
M.M.A.,
fragments were found and by N. Yalouris in the reserve collection of the National Museum, Athens; cf. Daux, Chronique, B.C.H., 1966, pp. 783 f.,
On
1-8.
question cf. especially 'Who carved the Hermes of Praxiteles ?', A.J. A., XXXV, 1931, pp. 249ff. (R. Carpenter, Casson, Bliimel, Richter, V. Aliillcr, Dinsmoor);
Der Hermes
eines Praxiteles,
1948; Kreuzer, J.d.I., pp. 133 ff.
LVIH,
9.
11.
20.
(1966), p. 26. the stele found at Tegea not far from the temple of Athena Alca with the names of Ada and Idreus (sister
12.
21
.
;
Ancient
Painting, p. 187, Zeichnung,
Rumpf, Malerei u.
Lamb,
pi.
LXXVII, b.
14. Ibid. pi. LXXVIII, a.
XC, a. LXXIV, b. Neugcbauer, Berlin, Museum, Fiihrer, Die Bronzen, pi. 49. M.M.A. Handbook, 1953, pi. 109, f. M.M.A. Handbook, 1953, pi. 109, i.
15. Ibid. pi. 16. Ibid. pi. 17. 18. 19.
Cf. D^! Visschcr, Heracles Epitrape':(ios,
1962,
and
philologie
Richter, d'hist.,
et
Revue beige de 1963, pp.
XLI,
137ff.
22.
337
13. Ibid. pi. LXXVII, c.
and
brother of Maussollos and Artemisia) inscribed, cf. my Sculpture and Sculptors of the Creeks (1950), p. 271, note 107.
Ridder, Les bronv^es antiques du
pi. 37, 2; Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeichnung der Griecben, fig. 627.
cf.
On
98.
Swindler, fig.
copy and to represent Alexander the ;
De
Louvre, no. 196.
1943,
E. B. Harrison, Hesperia XIX, 1960, pp. 382 ff. Bieber, Alexander the Great in Creek and Roman Art
pi. 59, c.
Bronzes, pi. LV, b. For a theory that it was originally intended for a mirror support cf. Bliimel, Arch. Amy. 1955, col. 313. Walters, Catalogue of Bronzes, no. 1084. Richter, Animals in Greek Sculpture, fig.
10.
Now thought by some to be a Roman Great;
Handbook, 1953,
Lamb, Greek and Roman
this
Bliimel,
19.
Cf.
der Wissenscbajten, philos.,
philolog., und hist. Klasse, XXX, 2, 1918; C. Karousos, 'Archaistika', Archaiologikon Deltion, X, 1926, pp. 91 ff.
figs.
18.
Daux, B.C.H., 1962, pp. 854 f., XXIX. Richter, Handbook of Etruscan Art,
Ahhandlungen der Bayerischen
plastik',
On
the
much
Laokoon
discussed date of the
my
Three Critical Periods in Creek Sculpture (1951), pp. 66ff. Jacopi, Arch. cl. X, 1958, pp. 160ff.; Magi, Mem. Ace. Pont. Arch., 1961, pp. 39 ff; and the forthcoming new edition of my Sculpture and Sculptors of the Greeks. 23. The signature, to which the lower part of a figure found near this base may belong, has been assigned to cf.
about 100
CHAPTER
5
Decorative Metalwork 1.
Lamb, Greek and Roman Brons^es, pp. 55 ff. (shields); Myres, Cesnola Handbook, pp. 457 ff. (bowls).
2.
B.C.H., Lxxiii, 1949, p. 438. Cf. Kunze, VIII. Olympiabcricht,
3.
4. 5.
B.C. Cf. Lippold, Griecbi-
Plastik, pp. 333 f., 383, and Bieber, The Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age, p. 130.
sche
6.
7.
1967, pp. 111-183. pi. XLVI, b. p. 134; Not. d. Scavi, 1897, p. 164; Arch. An^., 1925, pp. 191 ff. On the handles of such vases cf. D. K. Hill, A.f.A., LXii, 1958, pp. 193ff. Sestieri, Boll. d'Arte, XL, 1955, pp. 53 ff. Joffroy, Le Tresor de I'ix (Mon.
Lamb, Lamb,
Piot, XLVIII, 1).
CHAPTER
8.
4
pp. 22ff., pis. xix-xxi.
Statuettes and Small Reliefs 9. 1.
Experiments made by Mr. Dcnys Haynes and myself in the British
Museum perfectly 2.
(in
1957)
possible.
showed this to be The designs re-
semble those on geometric sealstones. Mr. R. J. H. Jenkins has suggested to me that the relief may once have decorated the Chest of Kypselos (cf. p. 378) as part of the judgment of Paris scene since period, dimensions, and material would fit.
Filow, Die archaische Nekropole von Trebeniscbte, 1927; Joffroy, op. cit.,
Lamb, Lamb, Lamb,
pl.XLVlll, b.
XLIV, a, c. XLIV, d. 12. Walters, Catalogue of Silver Plate, no.
10. 11.
pi.
13.
pi.
pi.
9,
numbered 8 by mistake). A.f.A., XLV, 1941, pp.
11 (there
Richter,
363 ff., 14.
LIV, 1950, pp. 357ff. Ridder, Les bron^^es antiques du Louvre, no. 1518.
De
15.
Lamb,
16.
On cf.
pis. LXXII, LXXIII, a.
South Russian metalware, Minns, Scythians and Creeks, pp. this
395
;
.
Rostovtzeff, Iranians and Greeks, pis. XIX-XXII Richter, Metropolitan Museum Studies, IV, 1932, pp. 109ff. and the references to Russian publications there cited. 17. Filow, Die Grabhiigelnekropole bei Diwanlij, pis. IV, V. 155ff.
;
;
CHAPTER
;
1
Von Bothmer, Roman
Baker Collection, Century Association,
Antiquities,
Exhibition,
New
Greek, Etruscan, and
York, 1950,
Art
Ancient
no.' 30;
3.
Furtwangler, Antike Gemmen,
4.
1-10. Beazlev, Lewes House Gems, no. 28.
5.
A.G.',^\.
Collections, 1954,
Private
no. 215.
My
permission of Mr. Haynes.
pis. 6, 7.
10.
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 17.
M.M.A.
Handbook, 1953,
Amandry. Les bijoux
pi.
105, h.
Collection Helene Sfatbatos, antiques, no. 232, pi.
XXXV.
Daux, B.C.H. Lxxxvii, 1963, pis. xvi-xx. Concev, Archaeology, VIII, 1955, pp. 218ff. Svoboda and Concev, Keue Denkmaler ant ike r Toreutik, p. 162. Cf. Rubensohn, Hellenistisches Silbergerdt, and Hackin, Nouvelles recherches archeologiques a Begram ; Richter, A.J. A., LXil, 1958, pp. 369 ff. ;
VIII, 37. Richter, A. J. A., LXI, 1957, p. 263, pi. 80, Hg. 1.
A.G., A.G., A.G., A.G., A.G., A.G., A.G., A.G., A.G., A.G., A.G.,
Cf.
20. 21. 22. 23.
3.
On
1934, fig. 17. the statuettes
pi. XIII, 30. pi. XI, 42. pi.
X, 53.
pi. IX, 39. pi. LVii, 3.
A.G., pi. XXXIII, 15. A.G., pi. XXXIV, 18. A.G., pi. Liii, 1, 2. For a recent interpretation of the cf.
Charbonneaux, Alon.
Plot,
1958, pp. 85ff. 24. A.G., III, p. 157, figs. 108, 109. 25. A. G., pi. XLix, 4. statue of Diomedes of this type has 26. recently been found in Athens, cf. A.J. A., LXi, 1957, pi. 83, fig. 2. 27. A.G., pi. LVl, and vol. ill, p. 315,
A
158.
8
1.
For a recent suggestion that coinage was primarily introduced for the payment of mercenaries by the Lydian kings, cf. R. M. Cook, 'Speculations on the Origins of Coinage',
Terracottas
257 ff. Mr. Schwabacher has pointed out to me that the coins of Northern Greece, especially those of Macedonia, during the archaic period, show
in
the British
Museum,
Richter, pi. 52,
M.M.A.
from Kourion,
p.
Handbook, 1953,
j.
Brooke,
Casson, Catalogue of the II, no. 1333. P. Gardner, Mel. Perrot, p. 121, pi. II. Graham, A.J. A., LXll, 1958, pp. in
Acropolis Museum,
315ff.
Thompson, pp. 51
ff.
A.J. A.,
LXX,
2.
I,
viii.
Terracotta Figurines 189.
9.
pi. XIII, 10.
L,
from Lemnos, now
Athens, cf. B.C.H., Llll, 1929, p. 517; Arch. An^., 1930, col. 140; Lippold, Griechische Plastik, p. 72. On this white being a clay slip cf. Bimson in Higgins, Catalogue of the In other experiments, however, made on Cypriote material, it is claimed that the white was 'essentially calcium carbonate, and therefore a lime wash', cf. Young,
8.
p. 137, fig. 94.
in
1954, p.
7.
XIV, 4.
III,
Coins
Vanderpool, A.J. A., LXI, 1957,
Karo, Fiihrer durch Tiryns, 2nd edn.,
6.
pi.
CHAPTER
2.
5.
X, 27.
pi. XIII, 2.
figures
p. 281, pi. 84, fig. 9.
4.
pi.
6
Terra-Cotta Statuettes and Small Reliefs 1.
pi. XIII, 37.
Lemes House Gems, no. 102. A.G.,'ph. XXXIV, 43, xxxv, 23, 26.
fig.
CHAPTER
pi. Vll,
18. Beazley, 19.
28. Cf.
30.
9.
16.
25. lantzen, Bron^^ewerkstdtten in Grossgriecbenland und Si-:(ilien, pp. 21 ff.,
29.
7. 8.
20. Richter, Catalogue of Bron^^es, no. 760. 21. Arch. An^., 1937, cols. 237 ff. 22. Lamb, pi. LXX, b. 23. M. M. A. Handbook, 1953, pi. 105, g. illustration shows the ornamented 24. tang of the mirror as recently cleaned, and is here reproduced with the kind
26. 27.
6.
Hanfmann,
American
in
Richter, Catalogue of Engraved Gems, M.M.A., 1956, no. 13.
2. Ibid. pi. IV.
18. Ibid. pi. VII. 19.
7
Gems
Engraved
1966,
Historia,
VII,
1958,
pp.
special stylistic features. Richter, Archaic Greek Art, fig. 304. 4. Guide to the Principal Coins of the British Museum, 1932, pi. 1, 20. 3.
5.
Ibid. pi.
XIX, 45, 46.
6.
Ibid. pi.
7.
Cf. also the
XXIV, 48. head of Pan on a fourth-
century
relief
from
Kyzikos
in
Istanbul, Mendel, Catalogue, no. 571 Illustrated Guide, 1956, p. 45, no. 35 there, however, in profile view. 8. Cf. for the portraits of Tissaphernes
—
and Pharnabazos now E. S. G. Robinson, Numismatic Chronicle, 1948, 48 f.; Schwabacher, Charites, pp. pp. 27 ff.
Notes
9.
10.
remains that, though occasionally a considerable degree of co-ordination obtained in parts of Pompeian is paintings, 'the composition of the 7vhole scene is not constructed with reference to a single point of view corresponding to the eye of the
Br. Mus. Guide, pi. XXXII, 3. Conveniently grouped in Imhoofantiken Portrdtkopfe aiif Blumcr, Miint^en hellenischer imd hellenisierter
Volker, pis. VI, VII; cf. also Bicber, Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age, figs. 243, 244, 247, 248. 'I'be
(Bunim,
spectator'
op.
cit.,
p. 34).
The theory that the lost Hellenistic paintings may have shown true per-
CHAPTER
spective
9
Jewellery 1.
Madame
Stathatos informs me that, knows, all these bands
as far as she
when found were
Minns, Scythians and Greeks,
Minns,
4.
Katalog Segall, Arbeiten, Benaki
op.
cit.,
p. 195,
p. 199, fig. 1.
GoldscbmiedeMuseum, no. 28.
Cf. also
der
6.
10
8.
Paintings and Mosaics Fraenkel, Antike Denkmdler, I, pi. 8; Swindler, Ancient Painting, fig. 206; Richtcr, Craft of Athenian Pottery, p. 77, figs. 74-79. 2. Hall, A.j.A., XLVlll, 1944, pp. 334f. 3. R. S. Young, A.j.A., LX, 1956, pp. 1.
255 4.
50, pp. 38-43, with illustrations in colour.
argued that, since in Euclid's Optics the convergence of lines is cited as a principle of seeing, and in several passages of Vitruvius' De Architectura (cf. White, op. cit., pp. 45 ff.) an exact knowledge of true perspective implied (cf. also Lucretius, De rerum natura IV, lines 426-431, edn. Bailey), the painters could not have been igiK^rant of this knowledge. But, as has been pointed out (cf. is
Space, p. 24), 'Euclid's Optics
concerned with the laws of seeing (jnly, not with the bearing of these laws on representation as a specific problem of painting'. Nor was the theoretical knowledge of an architect necessarily shared by the practising
At
all
events,
cit.,
84-86; LXVi, 109-110.
CHAPTER
pp. 123f.,
figs. 11,
1962,
p. 390,
pis.
the
fact
11
Pottery and Vase Painting Cf. Buchner and Russo, Rendiconti delP Accademia dei Lincei, X, 1955, pp. 215ff. Malerei und Zeichnung der 2. Pfuhl, Griechen, fig. 59. 3. For a similar owl, cf. Szilagy and Fiihrer, Museum der Castiglione, bildenden Kiinste, Budapest, 1957, pi. 1.
V,
I.
4.
Trcndall, The 1958, pp. 5 ff.
5.
Karo, Fiihrer durch
Felton
Greek
Tiryns,
Vases,
2nd
edn.,
1934, p. 17.
is
painters.
op.
copious
For varying views on this much discussed subject see the bibliography on perspective p. 405. Some authorities, e.g. Bcycn and White, have
Bunim,
Rumpf,
12, and p. 13; Vanderpool, A.J.A., LXi, 1957, pp. 284f., pi. 86, figs. 14-16, LXii, 1958, pp. 324f., pis.
They will presently be published by M. Napoli, the discoverer, but are briefly mentioned in Magna Graecia, III, 5, Scpt-Oct, 1968, p. 3, and by M. Bonini in Atalante, Feb. 1969, no.
5.
Neue Beohachtungen am Fries der Mysterien-Villa in Pompeji, 1958. 9. Swindler, op. cit., fig. 636. 10. Cf. Swindler, op. cit., p. 290; Rumpf, Malerei und Zeichnung, pp. 117 f.; Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeichnung der Griechen, figs. 633, 634. 11.
ff.
my forthcoming book Perspec-
Greek and Roman Art. Swindler, op. cit., fig. 442. Renard, Aquileia Ibid. fig. 488; and Chiama, I, 1954, pp. 50 ff., Collection Latomus, XXIII, pp. 307 fT. On the interpretation of these much discussed paintings cf. now Herbig, in
tive
1.
CHAPTER
can only be
artists — starting from the purely two-dimensional concept that had obtained in art for thousands of years — made great strides in the direction of optical representation. It was only the final step — that is, the production of a systematically unified composition — that seems to have been reserved for later times.
fig. 88.
3.
cit.)
The Greek
p. 45, fig. 25. 2.
White, op.
until rediscovered in the Renaissance.
straight, not bent
form as they would have been had they served as bracelets. For similar bands found at Narce, Etruria, cf. Amandry, Les bijoux antiques. Collection H. Stathatos, circular
into
(cf.
proved by the finding of such examples. Moreover, it would seem strange that such knowledge of true perspective should have been entirely lost
6.
Daux, 854f.,
B.C.H., LXXXV, 1962, fig. 16, pi.
pp.
29.
A.J.A., LXII, 1958, pp. 165ff. Cf. Beazley, Vases in Poland, p. 8. 9. Cf. Mingazzini, Arch. An:^^., 1967, 7.
8.
pp. 344 fT.
397
10.
M.M.A.
11. Pfuhl,
M.M.A. 201
Bull.,
313.
fig.
ff.,
Bull.,
October 1956, p. 54. D. von Bothmer, February 1966, pp.
figs. 4, 11.
4.
5.
Pfuhl, figs. 383-384, 417, 418. Pfuhl, fig. 401. 14. Neugebauer, Fiihrer durcb das Antiquarium, II, Vasen, pi. 55, 8. 12. 13.
15.
Furtwangler und Reichhold, Griecbische Vasenmalerei, pi. 49.
Pfuhl, fig. 424. 17. Cf. Beazley, A.J. A.,
6.
16.
18. 19. 20.
21.
7.
XLix,
1945,
pp. 153ff. Pfuhl, fig. 466. Pfuhl, fig. 468. Richter, Greek Painting, p. 12. Beazlev, Der Kleophrades-Maler, pis. 16-19.' Ibid., pis. 3-6. On the possibility that a kylix from the Athenian Agora signed Gorgos epoiesen is an early work by the Berlin Painter cf. Beazley, A. R. V.\ p. 213, no. 242; but this would only give us the name of the potter. Richter and Hall, Red-Figured Athenian Vases, M.M.A., pi. 16.
Cf. Ventris, Eranos, LIII, 1955, pp. 109ff.; Palmer, Minos, V, I, 1957,
pp. 58 ff. Cf. the actual wooden pieces of furniture found in Egypt, Bulgaria, and Olvmpia, Richter, Furniture,^ figs. 216-218, 377, and Filow, Die Grabhiigelnekropole bei Duvanlji, pp.
122 ff. Ohly, Ath. Mitt., LXVIII, 1953,
p. 91.
Ransom, Couches, pis. IX-XVII; Hoffmann, A.]. A., LXi, 1957, pp. 167 ff.
8.
Richter, op.
9.
Ibid. figs. 467, 468.
cit., figs.
350, 351.
10. Ibid. fig. 387. 11. Richter, op. cit., fig. 384; Clairmont, A.]. A., LVii, 1953, pp. 92ff.
32. Beazley, Attic Red-Figured Vases in American Museums, p. 173, fig. 106
18.
Richter, op. cit., figs. 403, 404. jMinns, Scythians and Greeks, p. 322, fig. 232. Richter, op. cit., 408-410. For a theory that some of the large chests on the Locrian pinakes above mentioned are really cupboards, with openings at the side instead of at the top, cf. E. G. Budde, Armarium und KiPuTo:, Wiirzburg, 1940; and, contra, Pritchett, Hesperia,XXV, 1956, Richter, Collection Latopp. 220ff. mus, XXVIII, 1957, pp. 420ff. Amyx, A.J. A., XLIX, 1945, pp. 508 ff. On a Corinthian aryballos, cf. Weinberg, Studies presented to Hetty Goldman, p. 263, fig. I, and on an Attic kylix, cf. Richter and Hall, RedFigured Athenian Vases in the Metropolitan Museum no. 51, pi. 47. Cf. Birth, Die Buchrolle in der Kunst,
19.
Cf. the
many examples
33.
and A.R.V.^, p. 1045, no. 3. Hoppin, Handbook of Red-Figured
Budde,
op.
34.
D. von Bothmer,
22. 23.
24.
und Reichhold,
25. Furtwangler
op.
12. 13.
14. 15.
cit.,
17-18.
pis.
;
26. Pfuhl, fig. 501. 27. Pfuhl, fig. 498. 28. Furtwangler und Reichhold, op. cit., pi. 136, 2. 29. Richter and Hall, op. cit., pis. 85, 86. 30. Pfuhl, fig. 543. 31. Lullies, Eine Sammltmg griechischer Kleinkunst, 1955, pis. 39-41.
bis,
Vases,
II,
16. 17.
1907, pp. 244ff. illustrated
by
cit.
p. 475.
November
M.M.A.
1949, p. 95,
Bull.,
fig. 3.
CHAPTER
13
Textiles
CHAPTER
12 1.
Furniture 1.
Many
different articles of furniture are listed by name in ancient literature and inscriptions, cf. Pritchett, Hesperia, XXV, 1956, pp. 201 ff. but only those discussed in my short sketch can, I think, with confidence be equated with the relatively few and constantly recurring forms figured
2.
3.
;
in 2.
3.
Greek
On
XXV, 1956, pp.
cf.
Richter,
pieces of glass inlay p. 55).
found
The word
in
Olympia
ra't.nt,
glass,
also used for transparent stones, such as alabaster and rock crystals
Stephani, Compte-rendu, 1878-79, pp. lllff., pis. III-Vl; Minns, Scythians and Greeks, fig. 113. Schaefer, A.J. A., XLVll, 1943, pp. 266 ff.; Illustrated London News, July
11th, 1953, pp. 69ff. 4.
art.
such furnishings,
Archaeology, XVIII, 1965, pp. 26 ff., and Furniture (1966), pp. 117ff. The stones that Pausanias mentions were probably glass, to judge by the (cf.
Pritchett, Hesperia,
244 ff.
5.
(Roman
period).
Beckwith, Illustrated London News, January 23rd, 1954, pp. 114f. Now in the Victoria and Albert Museum. On silk, cf. Richter, A.J. A., XXXIII, 1929, pp. 27 ff.
CHAPTER
16
Epigraphy
was
references cited in Liddell and Scott's Lexicon, e.g. Herodotos, III, 24, and my p. 385). (cf.
398
1.
A. J. A., LXVI, 1962, Hood, J.H.S. also cf. 390; Archaeological Reports for 1961-62,
Vanderpool, p.
p. 15.
BIBLIOGRAPHY In these bibliographies
I
have confined myself to
works (where references to other writings studies,
especially those in
listing a
few fundamental
be found), and recent
will
which objects mentioned
my
in
text are
described at greater length. For accounts of recent discoveries, see
Daux, B. C. H.
Chronique des Fouilles
in his
logiques; Vanderpool and
from Greece, znd
J.
Decouvertes archeo-
et
M. Ervin, A. J. A.,
in their
News
H.S., Archaeological Reports; also The
Letters
Illustrated
London News.
CHAPTER
in the Argolid', Hesperia,
1
pp.
The Forerunners Evans, The Palace of Aliiws at Kuossos, 1921-35. Reprinted 1964. Pcndlebury, Handbook to the Palace of Minos, 1933 (last edn. 1954); The
A
Archaeology of Crete, 1939. W'ace, Mycenae, An Archaeological History and Guide, 1949; articles in recent numbers of the f.H.S., in Viking, 1956, and in Studies presented to Hetty Goldman, 1956; etc. Blegen and others, Troy l-iv, 1951-58. Blegen, articles on the excavations at Pylos in recent numbers of A.f.A. and Archaeology and in Proceedings of the
American Philosophical
101, 1957, pp. 379ff.;
A
Society,
Guide
Iff.,
and
1956, pp. 238ff. 'Gli scavi italiani in Creta' iVnova Antologia, 1956, pp. Iff.; and articles in recent numbers of the Annnario. Ventris and Chadwick, Documents in Mycenaean Greek, 1956, with a foreword ;
by Wacc. Ventris' Decipherment of the iMinoan Linear B Script', /.//.. V., Lxxvi, 1956, pp. Iff. Botsford and C. A. Robinson, Hellenic History, 4th edn., 1956, ch. II, 'The Bronze Age', pp. 9-33. Platon, Guide to the Archaeological Museum of Heraclion, 1956. Forsdyke, Greece before Homer, 1957. Mylonas, Ancient Mycenae, 1957. Webster, From Mycenae to Homer, 1958. D. L. Page, History and the Homeric Iliad, 1959. Marinatos, Crete and Mycenae, 1960. Hutchinson, Prehistoric Crete, 1962. J. L. Caskcy, 'The Early llelladic Period Bcattic, 'Mr.
A
1960-61, 263 ff.
Excavations Hesperia, XXXI,
Boardman, The Cretan
XXIX, 1960, in Keos,
Coll.
1962, in
pp.
Oxford,
1961.
Wace and Stubbings,
A
Companion to Homer, 1962. Helen Wace, Mycenae, Guide, 2nd ed. 1962. Blegen, The Alycenaean Age, 1962 (University of Cincinnati) Troy and the Trojans, ;
1963. J.
Alsop, From
the Silent
Earth,
A
Report
on the Greek Bront^e Age, with photo-
graphs by Alison Frantz, 1964.
Demargne, Aegean Art, 1964. B.S.A., passim.
vol.
to the
Palace of Nestor, 1962 (with iM. Rawson); Blegen and Rawson, The Palace of Nestor at Pylos, vol. I (1966), The Buildings; II (1969) The Frescoes, by M. L. Lang; III and IV forth-
coming. D. Levi, Boll. d'Arte, 1955, pp.
285 ff.;
CHAPTER
2
Architecture
GENERAL WORKS Stevens, in Fowler and Wheeler, Handbook of Greek Archaeology, 1909, ch. II, on Architecture. Durm, Die Baukunst der Griechen, 3rd edn., 1910 (in Handbuch der Architektur, II, l). Weickert, Typen der archaischen Architektur in Griechenland und Kleinasien, 1929; Antike Architektur, 1949. Grinnell, Greek Temples, 1943.
D. S. Robertson, A Handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture, 1945. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece, 1950 (with full bibliography).
A new A.
edition
W. Lawrence,
is
in
preparation.
Greek Architecture, 1957.
SPECIFIC ASPECTS
Von Gcrkan,
Griechische
Stddteaniagen.
1924.
Paton and others. The Brechtheum, 1927. Buschor, 'Heraion von Samos', Ath. Mitt., LV, 1930, pp. Iff.; LVlll, 1933, pp. 146ff. (with Schleif).
399
Bibliography
Dunkley, 'Greek Fountain Buildings', B.S.A., XXXVI, 1935-36, pp. 142-204. Shoe, Profiles of Greek Mouldings, 1936. Payne and others, Peracbora, I, 1940, pp. 27 ff. (on geometric temples). Wycherley, Hoa> the Greeks built cities, 1949.
D. M. Robinson, and others. Excavations Olynthus, VIII, at 'The Hellenistic House'; also vols, x and Xll; vol. xi, 1942, 'Cemeteries'. T. Hill, The Ancient City of Athens, 1953. The Athenian Agora, Guide to the Excavations, 1954. Kunze and others, Olympia Bericbte, l-vill, 1937-67, passim. Stevens, Hesperia, V, 1936, XV, 1946, and Supplement XV, 1946 (articles on the Athenian Akropolisand the Parthenon). Stevens, Restorations of Classical Buildings, 1955. Bundgaard, Mnesicles, 1957. F. Krauss, Griechische Tempel in Paestum I, 1959. Berve, Grubcn, Hirmer, Griechische Tempel und Heiligtiimer, 1961.
I.
A
Sjoquist, 'The Excavations at
Morgan-
A.f.A., LXVi, 1962, pp.
tina',
Scichilone,
Grecia,
Architettura
135ff.
e
ur-
banistica, in Di^ionario di Architettura e
Urbanistica, Vol. Ill, 1969.
Cf. also the articles
of buildings
in
M arcade. grecs,
Re cue iI
des signatures de sculp teurs
1953.
I,
Alscher, Griechische Plastik, 1956, IV, 1957; ii, 1961.
1954,
I,
III,
LuUies and Hirmer, Greek Sculpture, 1957. Schuchhardt, Die Epochen der griechischen Plastik, 1959. Schefold, Meisterwerke griechischer Kunst, 1960, and Klassisches Griechenland, 1965 (applies also to other categories). Carpenter, Greek Sculpture, 1960. Hausmann, Griechische W^eihreliefs, 1960. Hafner, Gesch. der griechischen Kunst, 1961. Zanotti-Bianco and von Matt, Grossgriechenland, 1961 (on all categories). Langlotz, Die Kunst der Westgriechen, 1963. Boardman, Greek Art, 1964. Becatti, Scultura greca, Eta 1961, classica, 1965. Schefold, Die Griechen und ihre Nachbarn, 1967. Hanfmann, Classical Sculpture, 1967. Schuchhardt, Griechische Kunst, 1968.
U
ARCHAIC PERIOD Furtwangler and others, Aegina, 1906.
Deonna, 'Ees Apollons archaiques\ 1909. Heberdey, Altai tische Porosskulptur, 1919. E. D. Van Buren, Archaic Fictile revetments in Sicily and Magna Graecia, 1923,
and
on the various types
Pauly-Wissowa's Real-
Encyclopddie.
Greek Fictile revetments in the Archaic Period, 1926. Picard and De La Coste-Messeliere, Fouilles de Delphes, 1927 (archaic and later).
CHAPTER
;
3
Works
Larger
Buschor, Altsamische Standbilder, I-V, 1934-61 Friihgriechische fiinglinge, 1950. Schuchhardt, 'Die Sima des alten Athenatempcls der Akropolis', Ath. Mitt.,
of
LX, 1935, pp.
Sculpture
GENERAL WORKS
(on
Ovcrbeck, Die antiken
Loewy,
periods)
all
Schriftquellen, 1868.
Inschriften griechischer
Bildhauer,
1885.
Collignon, Histoire de la Sctdpture grecque, 1892-97; Ees statues funeraires, 1911.
Deonna, Ees
statues
de
terre
ctiite
dans
Delphes, 1936; Delphes, 1943. and others, Olympia
Kunze
II-VIII,
werke 1948.
Charbonneaux, Ea aiqiie,
Berichte,
1937-67; Kunze, Neue Meistergriechischer Kunst aus Olympia, sculpture grecque arch-
1938.
Das
Grace, Archaic Sc. in Boeotia, 1939. Schrader (with Langlotz and Schuch-
Alter turn, 1912. Hildebrand, Das Problem der Form, 1918
hardt), Die archaischen Marmorbildiverke der Akropolis, 1939.
(4th cdn.). Bieber, Griechische Kleidung, 1928. Rumpf, Griechische und Romische Kunst, 1931.
Rodenwaidt, Korkyra, II, 1939-40. Akurgal, Griechische Reliefs des G.fhts. aus
F. R.
Pantiquite, 1908. ^X inter,
Kunstgeschichte
in
Bildern,
Beazlcy and Ashmole, Greek Sculpture and Painting, 1932, 2nd edn. 1966. Picard,
Manuel
d^archeolo3,ie
Sfecque,
I-IV,
1935-63. Buschor, Die Plastik der Griechcn, 1936. Richter, The Sculpture and Sculptors of the Greeks, 1st edn. 1929, 3rd edn., 1950;
new
cdn. in preparation.
Schuchhardt, Die Kunst der Griechen, 1940. Matz, Geschichte der griechischen Kunst, I, 1949-50. Giglioli, Arte greca, 1955.
400
Iff.
Payne and Young, Archaic Sculpture of the Acropolis, 1936. 2nd edn., 1950. De La Coste-Messeliere, Au Musee de
Lykien, 1942. Richter, 'Kouroi, 1942, 2nd edn., 1960; 3nd edn., forthcoming. Archaic Attic Gravestones, 1944; Archaic Greek Art, 1949; The Archaic Gravestones of Attica,
1961; Korai, 1968.
Dunbabin, The
]Festern Greeks, 1948.
Raubitschek, Dedications from
the
Athenian
Akropolis, 1949.
Homann-Wedeking,
Die
Anfdnge
der
griechischen Grossplastik, 1950.
Zancani Montuoro and Zanotti-Bianco, Heraion 1954.
alia
Face del
Sele,
I,
1951,
II,
Bibliography
E. Harrison, 'Archaic Gravestones from the Athenian Agora', Hesperia, XXV, 1956, pp. 25 ff.; Archaic and Archaistic Sculpture, The Athenian Agora, XI, 1965. S. S. Weinberg, 'Terracotta Sculpture at Corinth', /T^w/Ji-r/V/, XXVI, 1957, pp. 289fF. Demargnc, h'oiiilles de Xanthos, I, 1958. Kontoleon, 'Theraischcs', Atb. Mitt. LXXIII, 1958, pp. 117ff. C. Karouzos, Aristoclikos, 1961.
FIFTH
Die
49ff.,
Parthenon, 1967.
Brunns^ker, The Tyrant Slayers of Kritios and Nesiotes, 1955.
Devambez,
U Art
au
de
siecle
Pericles,
1955.
'L'Aurige', Fouilles de Delphes,
IV, 5, 1955.
attischen
Grabreliejs,
1893-
1922. Furtwiingler, Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture (tr. Sellers), 1895. Treu, Olywpia, III, Die Bildwerke, 1894-97. Bernoulli, Griechiscbe Ikonographie, 1901. A. H. Smith, Sculptures of the Parthenon, 1910. Collignon, Les statues funeraires, 1911. Kjellberg, Stiidien ^u den attischen Reliefs
desV.Jh.v.Ghr.,\92(i. Paton and others, The Erechtheiim, 1927. Carpenter, The Sculpture of the Nike Temple Parapet, 1929. Mobius, Die Ornamente der qriechischen Grahstelen, 1929. Diepoldcr, Die attischen Grabreliefs, 1931. Binncbcissel, Studien ^u den attischen Urkundenreliefs, 1932. Speier, 'Zwcifiguren-Gruppcn im fiinften und viertcn Jahrhundert', Rom. Mitt., XLVII, 1932, pp. Iff. Rizzo, Thiasos, 1934. Ashmole, Late Archaic and Early Classical Greek Sculpture in Sicily and South Italy, 1934. Bianchi Bandinelli, Policleto (Quad. 1),
1938. L. Curtius, Die klassische Kunst Griechenlands, 1938. Arias, Mirone (Quad. 2), 1940; Pheidias, 1944. Schweitzer, 'Pheidias der Parthcnonmeister',/.^./., LV, 1940, pp. 170-241. Laurenzi, Ritratti greci (Quaderni 3-5), 1941. Schefold, Bildnisse der antiken Dichter, Redner und Denker, 1943. Karo, An Attic Cemetery, 1943. Becatti, // Maestro d'Olimpia, 1943.
Charbonncaux, Ta sique,
Ath. Mitt. 69/70, 1954-55, pp.
71, 1956, pp. 30ff., 232ff.; Die Giebel des Parthenon, 1959; Die Skulpturen der Parthenongiebel, 1963; Die Metopen des
Chamoux,
CENTURY
Conze,
Becatti, Problemi fidiaci, 1951.
Brommer, 'Zu den Parthenongiebein',
sculpture grecque clas-
Dinsmoor, 'The sculptured Frieze from Bassae', A.f.A. LX, 1956, pp. 401-452. Marcade, B. C. H., LXXX, 1956, pp. 161 ff., Lxxxi, 1957, pp. 76ff., Lxxxviii, 1964, pp. 623 ff. (on Parthenon pedimental figures). Becatti, 'I
Tirannicidi di Antenore', Archeologia classica, IX, 1957, pp. 97 ff. Dohrn, Attische Plastik vom Tode des Pheidias bis s^um Wirken der grossen Meister des vierten fahrhunderts, 1957. Proanaskaphikes ereunes ste Bakalakis, Tbrake, 1958. E. Simon, Die Geburt der Aphrodite, 1959. P. E. Corbett, The Sculpture of the Parthenon, 1959. H. A. Thompson, 'The Sculptural Adornment of the Hephaisteion', A.f.A., Lxvi, 1962, pp. 339 ff. B. Ashmole and N. Yalouris, Olympia, The Sculptures of the Temple of Zeus, 1967.
FOURTH CENTURY Johnson, Lysippos, 1927. Siisserott, Griechiscbe Plastik des 4. fabrh. V. Chr., 1938. Rizzo, Prassitele, X^lil. Blinkenberg, Knidia, 1933. Ashmole, 'Demeter of Cnidus', f.H.S., LXXI, 1951, pp. 13-28. Crome, Die Skulpturen des Asklepiostempels von Tzpidauros, 1951. Arias, Skopas, 1952. De Visscher, Heracles Bpitrape:^ios, 1962. E. Sjoquist, Lysippos, l967. Cf. also the books by Conze, Bernoulli, Collignon, Diepolder, Binneboessel, Speier, Laurenzi, Schefold, Dohrn, listed under the fifth century, for they apply also to the fourth.
1943.
Kunzc and
Schleif, I\
'.
Olympia Bericht,
HELLENISTIC PERIOD
1944, pp. 143ff.
Kenncr, Der Fries
des
Tempels von Bassae-
Phigalia, 1946.
I.anglotz, Phidiasprobleme, 1948. Kcipfe von den Siidmetopen des Parthenon, 1948. Eichler, Die Reliefs des TIeroon von Gjblbaschi-'Trysa, 1950.
Rodenwaldt,
Der Pries des Tempels der Athena Nike, f.d.L, LXV-LXVI, 1950-51, pp.
iiliimcl,
135ff.
Three Critical Periods in Greek Sculpture, ch. I, 1951; Greek Portraits, l-iv, Coll Latonus, 1955, 1959, 1960,
Richtcr,
1962; The Portraits of
the Greeks,
1965.
Altertiimer von Pergamon, 1885-1937. Roussel, Delos, Colonic atbenienne, 1910. Lawrence, Later Greek Sculpt/ire, 1927. Horn, Stebende weibliche Gewandstatuen in der hellenistiscben Plastik, 1931. Schober, Der Fries des Hekateions von Lagina, 1933; Die Kunst von Pergamon,
195L Zschietzschmann,
Die
hellenistische
romische Kunst, 1939. Kahler, Der grosse Fries von
1948. Adriani,
Testimonian\e e Scultura alessandrina, 1948.
und
Pergamon,
Momenti
di
40^
;;
Bibliography
Bieber, 'Portraits of Alexander the Great', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 93, 1949, pp. 373ff.; The Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age~, 1961;
Alexander the Great Art, 1964.
in
Greek and Roman
M. C. Toynbee, 'Some Notes on Artists of the Roman World', Collec-
J.
tion
Latomus,
Richter,
VI, 1951. Three Critical Periods in Greek
Sculpture, ch.
Ill,
1951; Ancient
Italy,
1955, pp. 34ff.
Three Critical Periods in Greek II and III, 1951. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World, 1951. Lauer and Picard, Les Statues Ptolemaiqiies dit Sarapieion de Ale phis, 1955. m Richter,
Sctdpture, chs.
Charbonneaux, La nobile, 6),
W.
I'^entis
de
Milo {opus
1958.
Fuchs, Die X^orbilder der neuattischen
1959. Ripristino del Laocoonte', Mem. Pont. Ace. Arch., 1950. Dohrn, Die Tyche von Antiocheia, 1960. E. Schmidt, The Great Altar of Pergamon, 1962.
CHAPTER
4
Statuettes and Small Reliefs
Reliefs,
Magi,
W".
'II
Fuchs,
Der
Schiffsfund von
Mahdia,
1963. Cf.
also the
books on
portraits
listed
above.
Furtwangler, Olympia,
ON THE TECHNIQUE
Kluge
Lehmann-Hartleben,
and
Die
antiken Grossbron^en, 1927. Bliimel, Griechische Bildhatierarbeit, 1927. Greek Sculptors at irork, 1955. Casson, The Technique of Early Greek Sculpture, 1933. Rich, The Materials and Methods of Sculpture, 1947. Miller, Stone and Marble Carvings, 1948. S. Adam, The Technique of Greek Sculpture, 1967. In addition, for all periods, cf. the relevant entries in the various encyclopedias and lexicons, as well as the catalogues of sculptures in the various museums and private collections, especially those in the British Museum (by
A. H. Smith and Pryce); Munich (by Furtwangler) Berlin (by Bliimel); Athens, Akropolis Museum (by Dickins), National Museum, Guide (by Papaspiridi), and Catalogue (by S. Karouzou) Vatican (by Amelung and Lippold) Capitoline and Con;
;
;
Museums
(by Stuart Jones) (by Mustilli); Terme Museum (by E. Paribeni); Uffizi Gallery (by Mansuelli) Cyrene (by Rosenbaum) portraits in the Terme Museum (by Feletti Maj); Boston (by L. D. Caskey) New York (by Richter) Constantinople (by Mendel); Hermitage (by W'aldhauer). Also Michaelis, Ancient Marbles in Great Britain, 1882; and the Helbig-Amelung Guide to the Museums of Rome (a new edition by Speier and others, in 4 volumes, in preparation; vols. 1, 2 and 3 appeared in 1963, 1966 and 1969).
servator!
Museo Mussolini
Die
Bront^en,
Neugebauer, Broni^estatuetten, 1921. Langlotz, Antike Friihgriechische
Bild-
hauerschulen, 1927.
Dawkins and
Ariemis
others,
Orthia,
1929.
Lamb, Greek and Roman V.
SPECIFICALLY
IV,
1890. Walters, Select Bronzes, 1915.
Bront^es, 1929. Miiller, Friihe Plastik in Griechenland und Vorderasien, 1929.
Buschor, Altsamische 1934-1961.
Standbilder,
Jantzen, Bron^eiverkstdtte land und Si^ilien, 1937.
I-v,
in Grossgriechen-
Payne and others, Perachora,
I,
1940,
II,
1962 (applies also to other categories). Kunze and others, Olympia Berichte, I-vill, 1936-67. Barnett,
'Early
Greek
and
Oriental
Ivories', /.//.J., LXVlll, 1948, pp. Iff.
Jacobsthal,/.//.!., LXXI, 1951, pp. 85 ff". (on Ephesian Foundation-Deposit). Charbonneaux, Ees Bronzes grecs, 1958. Raven-Hart, f.H.S., LXXVIII, 1958, pp. 87 ff. (on technique). D. V. Bothmer, Ancient Art from New York Private Collections, 1961. Cf. also the catalogues and handbooks of the various museums and private collections, especially those by de Ridder of the Akropolis Museum (1896), and of the Louvre (1913-15); by D. K. Hill of the Walters Art Gallerv, Baltimore (1949); by Perdrizet of Delphi {Fouillesde Delphe's, V, 1908); S c h efo d Meisterwerke griechischer Kunst, 1960. 1
,
;
;
;
FIRST
CENTURY AND LATER
Lippold, Kopien und Umbildungen scher Statuen, 1923.
402
griechi-
CHAPTER
5
Decorative Metalwork Furtwangler, Olympia,
IV,
Die Bronzen,
1890. Pernice and Winter, Hildesheimer Silberfund, 1901. Puschki and Winter, Oest. fahr., V, 1902, pp. 112ff. (on Trieste rhyton).
Rubensohn,
Hellenistisches
Silbergerdt
antiken Gipsabgiissen, 1911.
in
Bibliography
Minns, Scythians and Greeks, 1913. Walters, Select Bront(es, 1915. E. Babclon, Tresor de Berthotwille pres Bernciy, 1916. Rostovtzcff, Iranians and Greeks in South Russia, 1922. Pern ice. Die hellenistische Kiinst in Pompeii, 1926-41. Filow, Die archaische Nekropole von I'rehenischte, 1927. Neugebauer, Bronzegerdt des Altertiims,
Willcmsen,
Dreifiisskessel von Olympia, 1957. Richter, 'Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware', A.J. A., LXIl, 1958, pp. 369ff. 'Calenian Pottery and Classical ;
Greek
Metalware',
Kontoleon,
I,
1930,
'Una
II,
La
Bron^ereliefs,
1950. casa
Friihe
of
1962,
mesomphalos
Latomus,
LVIII,
a
1962,
pp.89ff.
D.
V.
Bothmer, 'A Gold Libation Bowl',
del
griechische
Sagenbilder
Bull., 1962, pp.
154 ff.
D. E. Strong, Greek and Roman Gold and Silver Plate, 1966.
Kunze, 'Waffenweihungen' and 'Helme', VIII.
Alenandro e il sno tesoro di argenteria, 1933. Filow, Die Grabhilgelnekropole bei Dtivanlij in Siidbtdgarien, 1934.
Hampe,
phiale
Coll.
M.M.A.
1931; OlympiaBerichte, I-VI, 1937-58; 'Archaische Schildbiinder', Olympische ForKretische
schungen
Studies,
389f., pis. 107f.
Johansen, Acta archeologica, pp. 273 fF. (on Hoby cups).
Alaiuri,
Treasure
Balkan
Vanderpool, A. J. A., LXVI, 1962, pp.
Tarente, 1939. Friis
Kunze,
LXIII,
pp. 185ff. Alfieri,
Bronzes, 1929. Tarente, 1930;
Gold
'The
Panagurischtc',
stagno'.
Lamb, Greek and Roman Wuillcumicr, Le Tresor de
A.J. A.,
1959, pp. 241ff.
Olympia Bericbt, 1967, pp.
83ff.,
lllff.
Cf. also the Catalogues of the various
museums and
private collections.
in
Bootien, 1936.
Rodenwaldt, Arch. An^., 1937, cols. 237 ff. (on Hoby cups). Ippel, Giiss und Treibarbeit in Silber, 1937. Beazley, 'A Greek mirror in Dublin', Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, XLV, c, 5,. 1939, pp. 31 ff. D. B. Thompson, 'Mater caelaturae. Impressions from ancient metalwork', Hesperia, VIII, 1939, pp. 285 ff. Richter, A. J. A., XLV, 1941, pp. 363ff., and LIV, 1950, pp. 357 ff. (on silver phialai).
Schcfold,
Ant ike, Ziichner,
'Griechische Spiegel', XVI, 1940, pp. llff.
Die
Griechische Klappspiegel,
1942;
'Von Toreutcn und Topfern',
J.d.I.,
65-66, 1950-51, pp. 175ff. Maryon, 'Metal Working in the Ancient World', A.J. A., Llll, 1949, pp. 93ff. H. A. Thompson, Hesperia, XIX, 1950, pp. 333 ff. S.
Karouzou, 'Attic Studies presented to
Bronze
Mirrors', Robinson, I,
D. M.
1951, pp. 565ff and Vollgraf, 'Le Canthare de Stcvenswecrt', Man. Piot, XLVI, 1952,
Roes
pp. 39 ff.
Ohly,
Griechische Goldbleche
des 8. Jhds.
1953.
Brom, The Stevensweert Kantharos, 1952. Joffroy, Le I'resor de Vix, 1954. D. von Bothmcr, 'Bronze Hydriai',
M.M.A.
1955, pp. 193ff. Ciold Treasure of Panagurishtc', Archaeology, VIII, 1955, pp. 21 8 f. Jantzen, Griechische Greifenkessel, 1955.
Tsonchcv,
Bull.,
'The
Svoboda and Concev, Neue Denkmdler antiker Toreutik, 1956. in Hackin, Nouvelles
Kurz
recherches archeologiques a Begram, 1954, pp. llOff.
R.
Young,
Articles on the bronze found at Gordion in recent numbers of A.J. A. S.
vases
CHAPTER
6
Terra-Cotta Statuettes and Small Reliefs and Reinach, Myrina, 1886.
Pottier
Les
Pettier,
La
statuettes de
Necropole
terre
cuite
de
dans
Tantiquite, 1890.
Hutton, Greek Terracotta Statuettes, 1899. Winter, Die Typen der figiirlichen Terrakotten, 1903. Quagliati, Ausonia,
III,
1908, pp. 136ff.
(on Locrian reliefs). Orsi, Boll. d'Arte, II, 1909, pp. 406 ff. (on Locrian reliefs). Zahn, Arch. An^., 1921, cols. 292ff. Jacobsthal, Die Melischen Reliefs, 1930. Burr, Terra-cottas from Myrina, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1934. Jenkins, Dedalica, 1936. Charbonneaux, Les TerresCuites Grecques, 1936. Bielefeld,
Ein
1937.
attisches Tonrelief,
Wuilleumier, Tarente, 1939. R. J. H. Jenkins in Payne, Perachora,
I,
1940, pp. 191 ff. Van Ufford, Les Terres Cuites Siciliennes, 1941. Kleiner, Tanagrafiguren, 1942. Webster, Greek Terracottas, 1950. Goldman, Tarsus, I, 1950, pp. 297. A. N. Stillwell, Corinth, XV, 2, 1952ff. D. Levi, Annuario, N.S. XVII-XVIII (1955-56), pp. \ff.;Boll. d'Arte, 1956, pp. 270 ff. (on finds from Gortyna). Zancani Montuoro, 'Note sui soggctti c sulla tecnica dclle tabcllc di Locri',
Atti
e
Grecia,
Memorie della Societa Magna and 'La Teogamia di
1954,
Locri Epizcfiri', Archivio Storico per la Calabria e la Lucania, XXIV, 1955, .', Atti pp. 283ff. 'Lampada arcaica ;
.
.
403
e
Mem.
'II
Soc.
tempio
Rend. Ace.
Magn. Gr., 1960, pp. 69ff.; di Persephone a Locri',
Fossing, Catalogue of the Antique Engraved Gems, Thorvaldsen Museum, 1929.
Lincei, 1959, pp. 225ff.;
D. M. Robinson, Hesperia, Supplement,
d.
corredo della sposa'. Arch, 1960, pp. 37 ff.
'II
Xll,
cl.,
Young,
Terracotta Figurines from Kurion Cyprus, 1955. Boardman, 'Painted Funerary Plaques .', B.S.A., L, 1955, pp. 51fF' Richter, 'Ceramics', in History of Technology, 112, 1957^ pp. 259 ff. (on technique). D. B. Thompson, 'Ostrakina Toreumata', Hesperia, Supplement VIII, pp. 365 flf.; 'Three Centuries of Hellenistic Terracottas', Hesperia, XXI, 1952, pp. 116ff. XXIII, 1954, pp. 72ff., XXVI, 1957, pp 108ff.; XXVIII, 1959, pp. 127 ff.; xxxi 1962, pp. 244 ff.; xxxii, 1963, pp 276ff., pp. 301ff.; xxxiv, 1965, pp in
.
.
1949, pp. 305ff., A.f.A., LVii, 1953, pp. 16ff. Richter, Catalogue of Engraved Gems, Metropolitan Museum, 1956; A.f.A., LXI, 1957, pp. 263 ff.; Ancient Engraved Gems, Greek, Etruscan and Roman, (1968), II (forthcoming). Kenna, Cretan Seals, 1961. Boardman, Island Gems, 1963; The lonides Collection, 1968; Archaic Greek Gems, 1968. VIII,
I
M.-L.
Vollenweider,
Die
Steinschneide-
kunst und ihre Kiinstler in spdtrepublikanischer und augusteischer Zeit, 1966. S. Sena Chiesa, Gemme del Museo Na^^ionale di Aquileia, 1966.
34 ff.
Graham, A.f.A., (on Alelian
LXII, 1958, pp. 313ff.
reliefs).
R. Stilhvell, A.f.A., LXlll, 1959, p. 169, pi. 41 (on protomes from Morgantina).
'Greek Portraits IIF, Coll. Richter, Latomtis, XLVII, 1960. Terrakotta-AppUken Vergoldete Lullies, aus Tarent, 1962. Higgins, Greek Terracottas, 1967. Cf. also the catalogues of the various museums, especially the recent ones of the important collections in the British
Museum by
Higgins, and in
the Louvre by Besques-Mollard; also Pedrizet, Foidlles de Delpbes, V, and D. M. Robinson, Olynthus, VII, XIV.
CHAPTER Engraved
Gems
Story-Ma '.kelyne, The Marlborough Gems, 1870.
Imhoof-Blumer and
Keller,
Tier-
und
auf Miin^en und Gemmen,
1889.
Reinach, Les Antiquites du Bosphore Cimmerien, 1892. Furtwangler, Beschreibung der Geschnittenen Steine in Berlin, 1896; An tike Gemmen, 1900; 'Studien iiber die Gemmen mit Kiinstlerinschriften' in Kleine Schriften, II, 1913, pp. 147 ff. (reprinted from thef.d.L, III, iV, with additions by Sieveking and L. Curtius). E. Babelon, Camees de la Bibliotheque Nationale, 1897; Collection Pauvert de la Chapelle, 1899. F. H. Marshall, Catalogue of Finger Rings, British Museum, 1907. Beazley, The Lenses Collection of Ancient Gems, 1920; (Beazley), Story-Maskelyne Collection, Sale Cat., 1921. Lippold, Gemmen und Kameen, 1922. Walters, Catalogue of the Engraved Gems and Cameos, British Museum, 1926. Eichler and Kris, Die Kameen im Kunsthistorischen Museum, Wien, 1927. S.
'
404
8
Coins Imhoof-Blumer, Portrdtkopfe auf antiken Miin^en
hellenischer
und
hellenisierter
Volker, 1885.
Imhoof-Blumer and Pflan-yenbilder
auf
Tier- und und Gemmen,
Keller,
Aliin^^en
1889. E. Babelon, Traite des monnaies grecques et romaines, 1901. Head, Historia Numorum, 2nd edn., 1911, 3rd edn. in preparation (by E. S. G.
Robinson and
others).
Regling, Die antike Miin^e als Kunstwerk, 1924. Hill, Select Greek Coins, 1927. Guide to the principal Head and Hill, Coins of the Greeks, British Museum, V^yi; new edition, 1959. Newell, Royal Greek Portrait Coins, 1937. Seltman, Greek Coins, 1933; 2nd edn.,
A
7
Pflant^enbilder
CHAPTER
1955. Rizzo, Monete greche della
Sicilia,
1946.
W. Lehmann,
Statues on Coins, 1946. Lacroix, Les Reproductions de statues sur les P.
monnaies grecques, 1949. Babelon, Le Portrait dans Vantiquite d'apres les monnaies, 1950. E. S. G. Robinson, 'The Coins from the J.
Ephesian Artemision Reconsidered', f.H.S., LXXI, 1951, pp. 156ff. Sutherland,
Art in Coinage, 1955. Das Demareteion
Schwabacher, nobile
7),
(opus
1958.
Schwabacher, Griechische AIi
Franke and Hirmer, Die griechische Miin^e, 1964. English edn., with text by Kraay, 1966. also the catalogues of the various museums and private collections, especially of the British Museum,
Cf.
Sylloge
land,
Xummorum Denmark,
and the Museum Boston (by Brett).
etc.),
(EngU.S.A. of Fine Arts,
Graecorum
Germany,
Bibliography
CHAPTER
D. M. Robinson and others. Excavations at Olyntbus, II, 1930, pp. 81 ff. and V,
9
Jewellery Hadaczek, Der Obrschmuck der Griecben imd Etnisker, 1903. Minns, Scythians and Greeks, 1913. Rosenberg, Geschichte der Goldscbmiede-
2nd
kimst aiif tecbniscber Grundlage,
edn.,
1933 (on mosaics). Beyen, Die pompejanische Wanddekoration. 1938.
Bianchi Bandinelli, 'Tradizione ellenistica e gusto romano nella pittura pompeiana', Critica d' Arte, VI, 1941, pp. 3ff.
1924-25.
Zahn, Sammlung Bachstit^, 1921; SammItmg Scbiller, 1929; Aiisstellimg Schmiickarbeiten, Berlin, 1932.
von
Alexander, Greek and Etruscan Jewelry, Picture Book, 1940.
A
Reichel, Griecbiscbes Goldrelief, 1942.
Bruns, Scbat^kartimer der Antike, 1946. Wagner de Kertesz, Historia Universal de las Joy as, 1947. Maryon, 'Metal Chasing in the Ancient World', A.J. A., Liil, 1949, pp. 93-125 (pp. llOff. on granulation). Amandry, Les hijoiix antiques,
Gollection
Helene Statbatos, 1953.
D. M. Robinson, 'Unpublished Greek Gold Jewelry and Gems', A. J, A., LVli, 1953, pp. 5ff. Becatti, Oreficerie anticbe, 1955.
Coche de
Fcrte,
la
Les bijoux
antiques,
1956. Jacobsthal, Greek Pins, 1956.
Richter, Greek Painting, The Development oJ Pictorial Representation Jrom Archaic to Graeco- Roman times, 1944; 4th edn., 1952. Lippold, Antike Gemdldekopien, 1951. Coche de la Fertc, Les Portraits romanoegyptiens du Louvre, 1952. Rumpf, Malerei und Zeicbnung, Handbuch der Arcbdologie, IV, I, 1953. Maiuri, La peinture romaine, 1953. Schefold, Pompejanische Malerei, Sinn und Ideengeschicbte, 1952; Pompeji, Zeugnisse griecbischer Malerei, 1956; Die Wdnde Pompejis, 1957; Vergessenes Pompeji, 1962.
Jrom
1965. also the catalogues of the various and private collections, especially those of the British Museum,
Cf.
Gabriel, Masters oJ Campanian Painting, 1952; Livia's Garden Room, 1955. Adriani, 'Ipogco dipinto della Via Tigani
H. Marshall, 1911; of the National Naples, by Breglia, 1941, and Siviero, 1954; and of the Benaki Museum, Athens, by Segall, 1938. For recent extensive bibliographies cf. Becatti, op. cit., pp. 229-34; Coche de la Fcrte, op. cit., pp. 105-10; Higgins, 193-223.
Societe
archeolo-
pp. 58 ff.; Greek Painting, 1959; 'Greek Mosaics', J.H.S., LXXXV, 1965, pp.
72 ff.
F.
op. cit., pp.
Bulletin de la
giqued'Alexandrie, no. 41, 1956, pp. Iff. L. Richardson, Jr., Pompeii : The Casa dei Dioscuri and its Painters, 1955. C. M. Robertson, 'The Boscoreale Figure-Paintings', J.R.S., XLV, 1955,
museums
Museum,
Paintings
Boscoreale, 1953.
Pascia',
Higgins, Greek and Roman Jen'ellery, 1961. H. Hoffmann and P. F. Davidson, Greek Gold, Jewelry Jrom tbe time oj Alexander,
by
W. Lehmann, Roman Wall
P.
Elia, Pitture di Stahia, 1957.
R. Brown, Ptolemaic Paintings and Mosaics and the Alexandrian Style, 1957. Borda, La pittura romana, 1958. Chehab, 'Mosaiques du Liban', Bull, du Musee de Beyrouth, XIV-XV, 1958-59. E. Schiavi, // Sale della Terra, 1961 (on the technique). Makaronas, Arch. Delt. XVI, 1960 (1962), pp. 73 ff. (on mosaics from Pella). B.
Von Blankenhagcn and
CHAPTER
10
Paintings and Mosaics Helbig, Wandgemalde Campaniens, 1868. Brunn, Gescbicbte der griecbisclien Kiinstler, 1889,
II,
pp.
C. Alexander, Tbe Paintings Jrom Boscoreale, 1962. See also the Catalogues of the collections in the various museums, especially those in the British Museum (by Hinks) and the National Museum, Naples (by Elia).
3fr.
Hermann and Bruckmann, Denkmaler
ON
der Malerei des Alter tums, from 1904. A. Reinach, Recueil Milliet, Textes grecs et latins relatijs a rbistoire de la peinture
For early discussions
ancienne, 1921. Pfuhl, Malerei tind Zeicbnung der Griecben, l-lll,
1923 (vol.
Ill
rc-ed.
by Schefold.
1940).
Swindler, Ancient Painting, 1929. Rizzo, La Pittura ellenistico-romana, 1929;
Monumenti
della pittura antica scoherti in
Italia.
L.
Curtius, 1929.
Die
Wandmalerei
Pompejis
PERSPECTIVE
cf. the references Red- Figured Athenian Vases, Metropolitan Museum oJ Art, 1936, p. 191, note 12. Among the more recent writings may be mentioned: Panofsky, 'Perspektive als symbolische Form', VortrdeeBihl. lVarbur^,\924~25, pp. 266ff. (1927); Bulle, 'Erne Skenographic', 94. Winckelmannsprogramm, 1934; Richter, 'Perspective, Ancient, Mediaeval, and Renaissance', Scritti in onore di Bartolomeo Nogara, 1937, pp.
cited in
my
405
;
:
'Perspective and Scene Bulletin, XIX, 1937, pp. 487 ff.; Kern, Arch. An^., 1938, cols. 245ff.; Beyen, Arch. An^., 1939, cols. 47 ff. Bunim, Space in Medieval Painting and the Forerunners of Perspective, 1940; Schweitzer, Vom Sinn der Perspective, 1953; White, Perspective in Ancient Drawing and Painting, 1956, and The Birth and Rebirth of Pictorial Space, pp. 236 ff.; Bianchi Bandinclli, in Archeologia e Cidtura (1961), pp. 155ff. Richter, in Furniture,^ 1966, pp. 130ff.
Corinth: Weinberg, A.]. A., XLV, 1941, pp. 30 ff. Attica: R. S. Young, Hesperia, Supplement, II, 1939. Kiiblcr and others, Kerameikos, I, 1939, IV, 1943, V, 1954. Davidson, Attic Geometric Workshops,
381
ff.;
Little,
Painting',
Art
;
Perspective
Kraiker, Aegina, Die Vasen des 1951. South Italy: Dunbabin, The Western Greeks, 1948. Buchner, Rom. Mitt., 60/61, 1953-54, pp. 37ff., Rendiconti delTAccademia dei Fincei, X, 1955, pp. :
10. bis 7. fahrhunderts,
Greek and Roman Art,
in
215ff.
Brann, Late Geometric and Proto-Attic Pottery, The Athenian Agora, VIII, 1962.
forthcoming.
CHAPTER
1961.
Aegina
ORIENTALIZING
11
Pottery and Vase Painting
In addition to the above books and articles, many of which treat of seventhcentury wares as well as geometric, cf.
GENERAL Furtwangler and Reichhold,
Griechische
EAST GREEK
Vasenmalerei, 1900-32.
Walters, Ancient Pottery, 1905.
Buschor, Griechische l^asenmalerei, 1925; Griechische Vasen, 1940. Pfuhl, Alalerei und Zeichmmg der Griechen, I-III, 1923 (III, re-ed. by Schefold, 1940). Swindler, Greek Painting, 1929.
Kinch, Vroulia, 1914. Price, f.H.S., XLIV, 1924, pp. 180ff. (Chios). Kunze, Ath. Mitt., Lix, 1934, pp. 81 ff. (Ionian kylikes). Maximova, Fes vases plastiques, 1927. R. M. Cook, B.S.A., xxxiv, 1933-34, pp. Iff., and XLVll, 1952, pp. 123ff. (Fikellura andClazomenian).
Rumpf, f.d.L,
XLVlll, 1933, pp. 69 ff. (Clazomenain). Friis Johansen, Acta
Beazley and Ashmole, Greek Scidptiire and Painting, 1932; 2nd edn., 1966. Lane, Greek Pottery, 1948.
Arch., XIII (Clazomenian sarcophagi). Schefold,/.^./., LVll, 1942, pp. 124ff.
Handbook to the Nicholson Museum, 2nd edn. 1948, pp. 240-336. Rumpf, Alalerei und Zeichnung {Handbuch Trendall,
Werkstdtten
der Archdologie, IV, I), 1953. Villard, Fes Vases grecs, 1956.
R. C.
(Rhodian).
Homann-Wedeking, Ath.
Mitt., LXV, 1940, pp. 28 ff. Schiering,
Keramik
orientalisierender
A
M. Cook, Greek Painted Pottery, M. Robertson, Greek Painting,
1960. 1959.
A
History of Greek Arias and Hirmer, Vase Painting, 1961. Cf. also the Catalogues of the various museums and private collections; the fascicules of the Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum ; and the Bilder griechischer Vasen (ed. by Beazley and Jacobsthal) on special classes and individual painters (by Beazley, Hahland, Schefold, Payne, Smith, Ducati, Rumpf, Diepolder, Trendall, Technau, Webster, S. Karou-
Guide to auf Rhodos, 1957. Dikaios, the Cyprus Museum, 3rd edn., 1961. Akurgal, 'The Early Period and the Golden Age of Ionia', A.f.A., LXVI, 1962, pp. 369 ff.
CHIAN-NAUKRATITE Price, /.//.J"., XLIV, 1924, pp. 180ff.
Boardman, B.S.A.,
LI,
1956, pp. 55ff.
CORINTHIAN Johansen, Fes vases Payne, Necrocorinthia,
1923. Proto1931 korinthische X^asenmalerei, 1933. Benson,
Friis
zou).
Die Geschichte
sicyoniens, ;
der korinthischen
Vasen,
1953.
GEOMETRIC BOEOTIAN Desborough, Protogeometric Pottery, 1952. Cyclades: Dugas, Fa ceramique des Cyclades, 1925.
Ath.
Mitt.,
Kondoleon, pp.
406
P.
Liv,
Eph.
1929, Arch.,
N. Ure, Ary ballot and Figurines from 1934; A. and P. N. Ure, Arch. An^., 1933, pp. Iff. A. Ure, Rhitsona,
Buschor, 'Kykladisches', pp. 142ff.
Aletropolitan Aluseum Studies, IV, 1932,
1945-47,
pp. 18ff.
Iff.
Rhodes: Friis Johansen, E.xoki, 1958. Samos: Technau, Ath. Mitt., LIV, 1929, pp. 6ff. Eilmann, Ath. Mitt., LVIII,
J.
1933, pp. 47 ff. Eretria: Boardman, B.S.A., XLVII, 1952, pp. Iff. Crete: Payne, B.S.A., XXIX, 1927-28, pp. 224ff. D. Levi, Hesperia, XIV, 1955, pp. Iff. Brock, Fortetsa, 1957.
Beazley, 'Groups of Early Attic BlackFigure', Hesperia, XIII, 1944, pp. 38ff. KiJbler, Altai tische l^asen, 1950. Brann, Fate Geometric and Proto-Attic Pottery, The Athenian Agora, VIII, 1962.
ATTIC
M. Cook, 'Protoattic Pottery', B.S.A., XXXV, 1934-35, pp. 165ff.
Bibliography
Brokaw, Concurrent Styles in Late Geometric and Early Proto- Attic Yase-Painting, Ath. Mitt., 78, 1963, pp. 63 ff.
BLACK-FIGURE OUTSIDE ATTICA
CHALCIDlAN:Rumpf,
Lane, 1933-34, pp. 99 ff.
Chalkidische Vasen, T/je Origin of
B.S.A.,
XXXIV,
CAtRETAN: Devambcz, Man
Piot, XLI, 1946, pp. 29 ff. Santangclo, Mon. Piot, XLIV, 1950, pp. 1 ff. Callipolis, Antiquite classiqite, XXIV, 1955, pp. 384ff. BOEOTIAN: P. N. Ure, Sixth- and FifthCentury Pottery from Rhitsona, 1927; A. and P. N. Ure, Arch. An^., 1933, cols. 1 ff. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, London, 6, 1959. For Boeotian red-figure cf. LuUies, Ath. Mitt., LXV, 1940, pp. Iff. ;
ATTIC BLACK-FIGURE
AND RED-FIGURE
Beazlcy, Attic Red-figure Vase-Painters, 1942, 2nd edn. 1963; The Development of Attic Black- Figure, 1951; Attic Black-figure Vase-Painters, 1956; and the references cited in these three fundamental books. Also Paralipotnena (forthcoming). Hoppin, Handbook of Greek BlackFigured Vases, 1924; Handbook of Attic Red-Figured Vases, 1919. Still useful for the illustrations. Haspels, Attic Black-Figured Lekythoi, 1936. Caskcy and Beazlcy, Attic Vase- Paintings in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, I, 1931, II, 1954, III, 1963. Schefold, Kertscher Vasen, 1931; Untersuchungen ^u den Kertcher Vasen, 1 934. Richter and Hall, Red-Figured Athenian Vases, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1936; Richter, Attic Red-Figured Vases, Survey, 1946, 2nd edn., 1958. LuUies, Griechische Vasen der reifarchaischen Zeit, 1953. S. Karouzou, The Amasis Painter, 1956. Kraiker, Die Malerei der Griecljen, 1958. Alficri, Arias, and Hirmer, Spina, 1958. Sparkcs and Talcott, Pots and Pans of Classical Athens, 1958. M. Robertson, Greek Painting, 1959. H. Hoffmann, Attic Red-figured Rhyta, 1962. Bcazley, The Berlin Painter, Occasional Papers no. 6, Melbourne University Press, 1964. Sec also works listed under GENERAL.
A
Crosby, Hesperia, XXIV, 1955, pp. 76 ff. (on polychrome ware). Hesperia, IV, 1935, pp. 481ff. (on black-glazed stamped ware). P. E. Corbctt, Hesperia, XVIII, 1949, pp. 298 ff. (on later fifth-century ware), XXIV, 1955, pp. 172ff. (on stamped Talcott,
1927, H. R. W. Smith, Chalcidian Ware, 1932.
lACONlAN:
OTHER ATTIC FIFTH- AND FOURTHCENTURY WARES
A
A
ATTIC WHITE-GROUND
palmettes). Sparkes, 'The Greek Kitchen', f.H.S., Lxxxii, 1962, pp. 121 ff., pis. IV-VIII; 'Black Perseus', Antike Kunst, XI, 1968, pp. 3ff. Talcott and Sparkes, on household wares and all-black, from the Athenian Agora (forthcoming).
ON THE PROPORTIONS Hambidgc, Dynamic Symmetry, The Greek L.
Vase, 1920. D. Caskey, Geometry of Greek Vases, 1922.
ON
THE SHAPES
Richter and Milne, Shapes and Names of Athenian Vases, 1935. Bloesch, Formen attischer Schalen, 1940. Beazley, A.B.V., pp. Xlf., A.R.V^, pp. XLIXff.
ON
THE ORNAMENTS
Walters,
Ancient Pottery,
II,
1905,
pp.
209 ff. Jacobsthal, Ornamente griechischer Vasen, 1927.
ON
THE TECHNIQUE
The Craft of Athenian Pottery, 1923; in Red- Figured Athenian Vases, M.M.A., 1936, pp. xxxvff.; B.S.A., XLVI, 1951, pp. 143ff.; in History of Technology, II, 1956, pp. 259ff.; Attic Red-Figured Vases, Survey, 2nd edn.,
Richter,
A
1958, pp. 23ff. Hussong, Zur Technik der attischen Gefdsskeramik, 1928. Weickert, Arch. An:^., 1942, cols. 512ff. Schumann, Berichte der d. ker. Ges., XXIII, 1942, pp. 408 ff.; Forschungen und Fortschritte, XIX, 1943, pp. 356 ff. Beazley, Potter and Painter in ancient Athens, 1944.
Bimson, 'The Technique of Greek Black and Red Terra Sigillata', Tlje Antiquaries fournal, XXXVI, 1956, pp. 200ff. Farnsworth and Wisely, 'Fifth Century Intentional Red Glaze', A.f.A., LXII, 1958, pp. 165ff.
A. Winter, Die Technik des griechischen Topfers in ihrcn Grundlagen, in Technisclje Beitrage ^ur Archdologie I (Mainz 1959).
Riczler,
Weissgrundige
attische
Lekythen,
1914. Fairbanks, Athenian White Lekythoi, I, 1914, II, 1917. Bcazley, Attic White Lekythoi, 1938; see also in his books on black-figure and red-figure.
Farnsworth,
'Draw-pieces as aids to A. J. A., LXIV, I960,
correct firing',
pp. 72 ff. U. Hoffmann, 'The Chemical Basis of Ancient Cireek Vase-Painting', in Angewandte Chemie (International ed.), I, 1962, pp. 341 ff.
407
Farnsworth, Greek Pottery: A Mineralogical Study, A.J. A., LXVlll, 1964, pp. 221 ff. Technique of Painted Attic J. V. Noble, The Pottery, 1965. Cf. also, on modern pottery making, 1922; Potters' The Craft, Binns,
Honore, Pottery Making, 1950, 2nd edn. 1954; K. Zimmerman, Formende Hdnde, 1952; Hampe and Winter, Bei und Topferinnen in Kreta, Topfern Messenien und Zypern, 1962, and Bei Topfern und Zieglern in Siidit alien, Si^ilien und Griechenland, 1965. Greek kilns of classical times cf. Rhomaios, Ath. Mitt., xxxill, 1908,
On
pp. 177 ff.; Gebauer, Arch. Anf^. 1937, 184fr.;
cols.
Kunze and
Schleif,
III.
Olympia-Bericht, pp. 33fF. ; Binns in Richter, Red-Figured Athenian Vases, p. xlv; Not. d. Sc. 1956, pp. 277ff.; R. M. Cook, B.S.A., LVI, 1961, pp.
SOUTH ITALIAN RED-FIGURE Trendall, Paestan Pottery, 1936 (additions in Papers of the British School at Rome, 1952); Fruhitalienische Vasen, 1938; Vasi italioti ed etruschi a figure rosse, Vaticano, I, 1953, II, 1955; Phlyax Vases, 1959; 2nd edn. 1967; Cassandra Painter and his Circle, fb. Berl. Mus., II, 1960, pp. 7ff.; South Italian RedFigured Pottery, Atti, VII Congresso
di
Archeologia
ON
SUBJECTS OF ALL PERIODS CLASSES
AND
Walters, Ancient Pottery, 1905, ii, pp. Iff. Bieber, The History of the Greek and Roman Theater, 1939 (new edn. 1961).
Hampe,
griechische
Friihe
Sagenbilder
1961,
II,
Meligunis-Lipdra, II, 1965, South Italian Vase-painting Museum, 1966); The red(British figured Vases of Lucania, Campania and Sicily, 1967; Greek vases in the Felton Collection, 1968. figure',
in
pp. 271ff.
;
Trendall and Cambitoglou, Red-Figure Vase-Painters of
Apulian the Plain
1962.
H. Hoffmann, South Italian Rhyta, 1964. Beazley, 'Groups of Campanian RedLXIll, 1943, pp. Figure', f.H.S., 66-111. Lidia Forti, La (Naples, 1965).
ON
Ceramica
Gnathia
di
PERSPECTIVE
in
1936; Die Gleichnisse Homers und die Bildkunst seiner Zeit, 1952. Clairmont, Das Parisurteil in der antiken Bootien,
See bibliography for chapter 10,
Kunst, 1951.
HELLENISTIC POTTERY
Bielefeld, Ama^onomachia, 1951. Vian, Repertoire des gigantomachies, 1951.
Index
in Beazley's
A.R.V^., 1963, pp.
1720ff.
Appendix
Beazley's
ll
in
A.B.V.,
pp.
723 ff. Webster, 'Homer and Attic Geometric Vases', B.S.A., L, 1955, pp. 40 ff.
Brommer,
Vasenlisten Heldensage, 1956.
^ur
D. von Bothmer, Amazons
in
griechischen
Pagenstecher, Die calenische Reliefkeramik, 1909. Courby, Les vases grecs a reliefs, 1922. H. A. Thompson, 'Two centuries of Hellenistic Pottery', Hesperia, III, 1934, pp. 312ff. Schwabacher, A.f. A., XLV, 1941, pp. 182ff. S. Weinberg, Hesperia, XVIII, 1949, p. 152. Zuchner, J.d.I., LXV-LXVi, 1950-57, pp. 175 ff. Byvanck Quarles van Ufford, 'Les bols megariens', Bull, van der VereeniEdwards, ging ., XXVIII, 1953, pp. 1 ff. Hesperia. Supplement X, 1956, pp. 86 ff. D. M. Taylor, 'Cosa, Black Glaze .
Friihgriechische
p. 396.
—
Greek Art,
1957.
K. Schefold,
pp.
;
Style,
65 ff.
Classica,
'The Lipari vases and their place in the history of Sicilian red117ff.
Sagenbilder,
1964.
.
Memoirs American Academy in Rome, XXVI, 1957. Richter, 'Calenian
Pottery',
ON
INSCRIPTIONS
Kretschmer, Die griechischen Vaseninschriften, 1894. Beazley, 'Some Inscriptions on Vases', ^./.^.,xxxi, 1927,pp. 345ff.,xxxiii,
1929,
pp. 361ff.,
xxxix,
1935,
pp.
XLV, 1941, pp. 593ff., Liv, 1950, 1553ff., A.R.V.,-' pp. pp. 310f.,
475ff.,
A.B.V., pp. 664ff. kalos names cf. Beazley's A.R.
On
V.^,
pp. 1559ff.
On
stamped inscriptions on wine jars used as shipping containers cf. V. R.
Pottery and classical Greek Metalware', A.f. A., LXIII, 1959, pp. 241ff. Greifenhagen, Beitrage zur antiken Reliefkeramik, Ergdn^ungsheft f.d.L, 1963. Hausmann, Hellenist ische Reliefbilder, 1959. Libertini, Centuripe, 1926, Nuove ceramiche di Centuripe, 1934. Trendall, M.M.A. Bulletin, 1955, pp. 161 ff. Zahn, 'Glasierte Tongefasse im Antiquarium', Amtliche Berichte aus den kgl. Kunstsammlungen, XXXV, 1914, cols. 277 ff., 81. Berliner Winckelmannspro.
gramm, 1923, pp.
5ff.
Grace, Hesperia, Supplement, X, 1956,
ON GREEK
pp. 117ff.
On
dipinti see, in general, Hackl, Miinchener archdologische Studien, 1909, pp. 5ff.; Talcott, Hesperia, v, graffiti
1936, pp. 346 ff.
408
LAMPS
and
D. M. Robinson, pp. 129ff.; pp. 264ff.
;
in Olynthus,
II,
Graham,
ibid.,
Broneer,
Corinth,
V,
1930, 1933, IV,
2,
;
Bibliography
pp. 31
ff.
;
Howland, Greek Lamps and The Athenian Agora IV,
their Survivals,
Beckwith,
Illustrated
ary 24th,
London News, Janu(on textile
1954, pp. 114f.
from Koropi).
1958.
Picard-Schmitter,
Demetrios
'Sur
chlamide de
la
Poliorcetcs',
Rev.
arch.,
XLVI, 1955, pp. 17ff.
CHAPTER
12
Furniture Bliimncr, 'Dcr altgricchische Mobelstil', in Ktinst und Gewerbe, 1885. Koeppen and Breuer, Geschichte des Mbbels, 1904. Watzinger, Griechische Hol:^sarkophage aus der Zeit Alexanders des Grossen, 1905. Edgar, Graeco- Egyptian Coffins, 1905. Ransom, Couches and Beds of the Greeks, Etruscans and Romans, 1905. Minns, Scythians and Greeks, 1913, pp.
322 ff.
14
Glass and Glaze Kisa, Das Glas im Alter tum, 1906. Richter, 'The Room of Ancient Glass', Supplement of the Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum, June 1911 (on the
M.M.A.
collection).
Sangiorgi, Colle^ione di
1914.
vetri antichi,
Zahn, 'Glasierte Tongefasse im Anti-
Ricliter, Ancient Furniture, Greek, Etruscan,
and Roman, 1926; 'A marble Throne in the Akropolis Museum', A.f.A., LVIII, 1954, pp. 271ff.; 'Were there Greek armaria ?', Collection Laiomus, XXVIII, 1957, pp. 420ff.; The Furniture of the Greeks, Etruscans and Romans, 1966 {cited as Furniture-). Rcincke, in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopddie.
Supplement
Mobel;
also the single articles
VI,
1935,
S.V.
on the
various types both in Pauly-Wissowa,
quarium', Amtliche Berichte der preuss. Kunstsammlungen, XXXV, 1913, cols. 277 ff., 309 ff. Galerie Bachstit^, 1, 1922. Harden, Roman Glass from Karanis, 1936; f.R.S.,xx.v, 1935, pp. 163ff. Fossing, Glass Vessels before Glass-Blowing, 1940. Toll, 'The Green Glazed Pottery, with technological notes by Matson', The Excavations at Dura-Europos, Final Report, IV, I, 1943, pp. Iff., 81 ff. R. W. Smith, M.M.A. Bull., 1949, pp. 1
;
R.E., listed by Reincke on col. 508, and in Daremberg and Saglio, Diction-
49 ff. Vessberg, Roman Glass
naire des antiquites.
Hackin and others, Nouvelles
Deonna,
Delos, XVIII, 1938, pp. 235ff. Pritchett, Hesperia, XXV, 1956, pp. 210ff. (on the furniture cited in inscriptions).
E.
CHAPTER
G. Budde, Armarium und Kipcoro:, Ein Beitrag t^iir Geschichte des antiken Mobiliars, 1940.
Neugebauer and Greifenhagen, Delische Betten, Ath. Mitt., LVii, 1952, pp. 29 ff. Ohly, Ath. Mitt., LXVlll, 1953, pp. 89ff.
in
Cyprus, 1952. recherches
archeologiques a Begram,
Coche de
la
pp. 131
ff.
1954, pp. 95 ff. Ferte, Mon. Plot, XLV, 1956,
Roman Glass from dated finds, 1957. G. Davidson Weinberg, articles in recent numbers of A.f.A., Hesperia, fournal
Isings,
of Glass Studies, The Corning
Museum
of
Glass.
Piccot-Boube, Les lits de bronze de Mauretanie Tingitane, Bulletin d'Archeologie
Marocaine, IV, I960, pp. 189ff.
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
13
15
Ornament
Textiles Bliimner, Technologie und Terminologie, I, 1875, pp. 89 ff. Stcphani, Comptes rendus de la Commission imperialc archeologique, 1878-79, pp. 3, iv, v, 2-3 (on Crimea). Minns, Scythians and Greeks, 1913, pp.
120ff., Atlas, pis.
textiles
found
Ill,
in the
335 ff. Bicber, Griechische Kleidung, 1928, pp.
1 ff.
Ricgl, Stilfragen, Grundlegung ^u einer Geschichte der Ornament ik, 1893. Conze, Attische Grabreliefs, 1893-1922.
Walters,
Ancient Pottery,
II,
1905,
pp.
209 ff. Jacobsthal, Ornamente griechischer Vasen, 1927.
Mobius, Die Ornamente Grabs telen, 1929. Bakalakis,
Ellenika
der griechischen
Trape^ophora,
1948.
Entwicklungsgeschicbte der griechischen Tracht, 1934, pp. lOff.; 2nd edn. 1967. Schaefcr, 'Hellenistic Textiles in Northern
Hermann, 'Bronzebcschlage mit Orna-
Mongolia', A.f.A., XLVll, 1943, pp. 266 ff. Wacc, 'The Cloaks of Zcuxis and Demet-
Bakalakis, Proanaskaphikes ereunes Thrake, 1958. See also bibliographies for Chapters
rius', Oest.fahr.,
XXXIX, 1952, pp.
1 1 1 ff.
mentik', VI. Olympia Bericht, 1958, pp. 152ff.
and
ste
1, 2,
12.
409
Bibliography
CHAPTER
16
Raubitschek, Dedicationsfrom
Loewy,
Marcade, Recueil
Inscbriften
griechiscber
Bildbaiier,
1885. Roberts, Introduction to Greek Epigrapby, I, 1887, II, 1905. Kern, Inscriptiones Graecae, 1913. Larfeld, Griecbiscbe Epigrapbik, 3rd edn., 1914.
Tod,
A
of Greek Historical 1933, II, 1948. Kirchner, Imagines inscriptiomim atticarnm, 1935. Schubart, in Pauly-Wissowa, R. E., XVIII, 3, 1949, S.V. papyrus, cols. Selection
Inscriptions,
1116ff.
410
tbe
Athenian
Akropolis, 1949.
Epigraphy
I,
des signatures de scnlpteiirs
1957. Ventris and Chadwick, Documents in Mycenaean Greek, 1956. Klaffenbach, Griecbiscbe Epigrapbik, 1957. Woodhead, Tbe Study of Greek Inscriptions, 1958. Jeffery, Tbe hocal Scripts of Archaic Greece, 1961. Meritt, Greek Historical Studies, 1962, pp. 16ff. Guarducci, Epigrafia greca, vol. I, 1966, vol. II, 1969, (vol. Ill forthcoming). Cf. also the various Corpora of Greek grecs,
I,
1953,
Inscriptions.
II,
;
TENTATIVE CHRONOLOGY
OF GREEK SCULPTURAL WORKS from c. 850 to c. 100 B.C.
The The in
book arc inserted in the second column, after each item. column are principally to recent catalogues and handbooks
references to pages in this references in the third
which other publications arc cited, e.g.: B. Dinsmoor, The Architeciiire of Ancient Greece, 1950 (cited as Dinsmoor). H. Dicpoldcr, Die attischen Grahreliefs, 1931 (cited as Dicpolder). C. Picard, Manuel de Tarcheologie grecqiie. La sculpture, I-V, 1935-66 (cited as Picard). F. N. Pryce, Catalogue of Sculpture, British Museum, I, 1, 1928 (cited as Pryce). W. Lamb, Greek and Roman Brons^es, 1929 (cited as Lamb). G. Lippold, Die griechische Plastik, in Handhuch der Archdologie, III, 1, 1950 (cited
W.
as Lippold).
G. M. A. Richter, The Sculptures and Sculptors of the Greeks, third edition 1950 (cited as Sc. and Sc); Kotiroi^, 1960 (cited as Kouroi-); Archaic Gravestones of Attica^, 1961 (cited as Gravestones^); Archaic Greek Art, 1949 (cited as
Handbook of
M.M.A.
A.G.A.);
Greek Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1953 (cited as Handbook, 1953); The Portraits of the Greeks, 1965 (cited as Portraits, the
1965).
H. Payne and G. M. Young, Archaic Marble Sculptures from
1936
the Acropolis,
(cited as Payne).
H. Schrader, with E. Langlotz and W.-H. Schuchhardt, Die archaischen Marmorbildwerke der Akropolis, 1939 (cited as Schrader). M. Bicbcr, The Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age, 1955; 2nd cdn. 1960 (cited as Bieber). G. H. Chase, Greek and Roman Antiquities, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Guide, 1950 (cited as Chase, Guide). For Roman copies the date of the original is given. When the material is not mentioned the object is of stone.
A
c.
850-700
U.c;.
Cieometric
bronze
statuettes
and groups
Lippold, pp.
9ff.
(p. 186) c. c.
750 700
Ivory statuettes, Athens (p. 186) Bronze statuette dedicated by
Mantiklos
Lippold,
p. 10, pi.
Picard,
I,
p.
Kunze,
Kretische Bron:^ereliefs.
137;
I,
1.
Lamb,
p. 74.
(p. 186)
c.
700-600
Bronze shields from Idacan cave (pp. 210f.) bronze protomes of griffins (p. 211)
Earliest
Lamb, pp. 70 ff.; Kunze, pp.
104 ff.; Jantzen,
kessel,
660-650
Statue dedicated by Nikandrc (p. 60)
Earliest torsos of kouroi
c-
650 650
Bronze
c.
630-600
Bronze breastplates from Olympia
c.
640-610
Bronze
c.
650-625
Sculptures from Prinias (p. 62) Seated statue from Ciortyna (p. 62) Ivory group. New York (p. 190)
c.
pp.
13flr.,
statuettes
from Delos
from Drcros
Greifen-
I, p. 570; Lippold, p. 43, pi. ll, 2; Marcadc. B.C.H., LXXIV, 1950, p. 182;
Picard,
(p. 57)
(pp.
(p.
186f.)
211)
from Delphi and Crete
1.
Kouroi-, figs. 20, 21.
Marinatos, Arch. An:^. 1936, cols. 217ff. Lippold, p. 22, pi. 3, 1-3. Olympia, IV, pis. LVIII, LIX; Lamb, pp. 62f.
B.C.H., statuettes
Olympia Bericht,
84ff.
Richter, Korai, no. c.
II.
Griechische
I-amb,
pi.
Picard,
I,
VII, 1883, pp. Iff., XXI, b, XXV, b.
pis. l-lli.
(pp. 186f.)
pp. 448fT.; Lippold, p. 22, pi. 2, 1. d'Arte, 1956, pp. 272f., fig. 58.
D. Levi,
Boll.
M.M.A.
Handbook, 1953,
pi. 20, a.
411
;
c.
640-620
Terra-cotta
and
antefixes
metopes
temple at Thermon (p. 274) Figure formerly at Auxerre, (p.
from
now Louvre
Picard,
p. 349.
I,
pp. 450 ff.; Lippold, p. 22; Richter,
I,
Korai, no. 18.
60)
Female figures supporting vessels, Olympia and Isthmia (p. 188) Reliefs
Dinsmoor, pp. 51 ff.; Picard,
from
from Mycenae
Pediments of lioness and calf and of Herakles and the Hydra from the Akropolis, Athens (p. 62) Terra-cotta plaques with reliefs representing the prothesis (p. 233) Statues from Eleuthernai and Haghiorgitica
Wooden group
of Zeus and Hera, and head
of wooden statuette from Samos Lions from Delos (p. 62)
Gold bowl from Olympia, Boston
Lippold, p. 31, pi. 9, 2; Broneer, Hesperia, XXIV, 1955, p. 129, f^g. 1; Richter, Korai, pp. 27 ff. Dinsmoor, pp. 50 f.; Lippold, p. 25, pi. 4, 3. Dickins, Acropolis Cat.,
1,
pp. 76 ff.
;
Lippold,
p. 36.
Boardman, B.S.A.,
L,
1955, pp. 51
ff.
Lippold, p. 22, pi. 2, 2 Picard, I, pp. 499 ff. Ohly, Atb. Mitt., LXVlll, 1953, pp. 77 ff. ;
(p. 190)
Picard, (p.
211)
419; A.G.A.,
p.
I,
figs. 47, 48.
L. D. Caskey, Boston Mus. Bull.,
XX, 1922,
pp. 65 ff.; Payne, Necrocorintbia, pp. 21 If.; Chase, Guide, fig. 29.
Lion Tomb from Xanthos (p. 62) Sounion group of statues of kouroi (from Attica, Boeotia, Delphi,
Pryce,
B
286.
Kouroi\ pp. 30 ff.,
figs.
25-131.
Thasos, Delos,
Samos, Thera,
Gorgon from Sphinx from
etc.) (p. 57) the Akropolis
New York
stele.
Head of Hera, Olympia
(p.
Schrader, no. 441. Gravestones^ no. 37,
62)
Picard,
(p. 62)
96-98, 105, 106.
505; Lippold,
p.
I,
figs.
p.
26, pi. 8, 1;
Richter, Korai, no. 36.
Limestone sphinx from Kalydon
Payne, Necrocorintbia, pi. 49, 1 Dyggve, Das Laphrion, figs. 191 f. (a piece of the body has now been added). Rodenwaldt, Korkyra; Picard, I, pp. 475 ff.; Dinsmoor, pp. 73 ff.; Lippold, p. 28, pis. ;
Pedimental figures from the temple of Artemis, Corfu (p. 62)
and
6, 1,
Earliest seated statue
from Didyma, London
Pryce,
B
7, 1.
271.
(p. 62)
Orchomenos-Thera group of kouroi (from Samos, Rhodes,
132-207.
figs.
etc.) (p. 63)
Standing Goddess, Berlin (pp. 63 f.) Headless maiden, Akropolis, 593
Rampin horseman
pp. 59 ff.,
Kouroi'-,
Thera, Actium, Delos,
Boeotia, Attica,
(pp. 68
Lippold, p. 37, pi. 10, 2. Payne, pi. 12; Schrader, no. 2; Richter, Korai, no. 43. Payne, pp. 7ff. Schrader, no. 312; Lippold,
f.)
;
p. 79, pi. 22, 3.
Sphinx from Spata Lions from Perachora (p. 70) Calfbearer, Akr. 624 (p. 68)
Gravestones-, no. 12, figs. 40, 41.
Payne, Perachora, pp. 135 f., pi. 113. Payne, pp. 17 f.; Schrader, no. 408; Lippold, p. 37, pi. 10, 3.
Naxian sphinx, Delphi (p. 48) Metopes of Sikyonian Treasury (p. 71) Metopes from the Heraion, Foce del Sele (p. 74) Statue from Samos, dedicated by Cheramyes,
Louvre
(pp. 64 f.)
Akropolis kore 677 Attica,
p. 44, pi. 7, 2.
pp. 480 f. Lippold, pp. 24 f., pi. 4, 1. Zancani Montuoro and Zanotti-Bianco,
Picard,
I,
Heraion,
;
II.
Buschor, Alt. pi. 14, 1;
(p. 66)
Tenea-Volomandra group of kouroi (from Tenea,
Lippold,
Samos, Naukratis,
St.
ll,
p. 24;
Lippold,
p. 56,
Richter, Korai, no. 55.
Schrader, no. 23. Kouroi^ pp. 75 ff.,
figs.
208-272.
etc.)
(p. 63)
Metopes of temple
Y
at Selinus (p. 74)
Group of statues signed by Geneleos, Samos (p. 66)
Lippold, p. 50, pi. 4, 2; Dinsmoor, p. 80. Buschor, Altsamiscbe Standbilder, II, pp. 26 ff. Lippold, p. 57.
;
Chronology
c.
560-550
pediments from the Akropolis: Introduction Thrcc-bodied Typhon and Herakles; Lion and bull (p. 71) Relief from Samothracc, Louvre Hero relief from Chrysapha, Berlin Reliefs from Kyzikos with chariots
Dickins,
Winged Nike from Dclos
Picard,
Poros
;
c.
550
c.
555-540
c.
550-540
(p.
Cat.,
and
pis. 6, 2,
Lippold, Lippold, Lippold,
62ff.
pp.
;
Lippold,
36,
p.
8, 3.
p. 72, pi. 18, 2. p. 31, pi. 4, 4. p. 65, pi. 18, 3.
p. 366; Lippold, p. 63, pi. 7,4; Marcadc, B.C.H., LXXIV, 1950, p. 182.
69)
from Delphi (p. 197) Melos group of kouroi (from Mclos, Epidauros, Boeotia, Euboea, Delphi, Thasos, Samos, Dclos, Paros, Rhodes, etc.) (p. 63) Head of ex-Knidian karyatid, Delphi Ivories
I,
Lippold,
p. 64.
Koiiroi\ pp. 90 ff., figs. 273-390.
Fouilles dc Delphes, IV, 2, pi. XVI; Lippold, p. 64, pi. 15, 3; Richter,
B.C.H., LXXXII,
1958, pp. 92 ff.
Lyons korc
Payne, pp.
14ff.
Schrader, no. 253; Richter,
;
Korai, no. 89. c.
555-530
drums of
Parts of sculptured
Artemis, Ephcsos, c.
550-525
Friezes
540
the temple of
London
in
women
Bacon and
dancing, from Teichioussa
Metopes of temple
Dinsmoor, pp. 127 ff.; Pryce, pp. 47 ff.
74)
(p.
from temple of Athena, Assos
Relief of f.
now
Dinsmoor, pp.
C, Selinus (p. 74)
Lippold, c.
540-530
Gravestones of brother and warrior,
New York
Sphinx from
stele,
and of
sister,
others.
Investigations
pp. 155ff.; Lippold, p. 65, Pryce, B 285. 80ff.
Picard,
I,
pp. 351
ff.;
p. 91, pi. 29, 1.
M.M.A.
Richter,
;
Assos,
at
pi. 17, 1.
Cat. of Sc, nos. 15, 16.
(p. 70)
Boston
(p. 70)
Peplos kore, Akr. 679 and korc 678
(p.
79)
Chase, Guide, fig. 40. Payne, p. 21 Schrader, nos. ;
p. 77, pi. 23, 2 f.
530-5U0
Later korai from Akropolis
f.
540-515
Anavysos-Ptoon 12 group of kouroi (from
(pp.
79 f.)
;
4, 10; Lippold, Richter, /Tora/, nos. 113, 112.
Payne, pp. 26 ff.; Lippold, pp. 78 f.; Richter, Korai, pp. 68 ff. Kouroi\ pp. 163 ff.,
391-449.
figs.
Attica, Keos, Boeotia, Chalkis, etc.) (p. 75) c.
530-525
Pediment,
frieze, and karyatids of Siphnian Treasury, Delphi (pp. 82, 88) Kore by Antcnor, Akr. 681 (p. 80)
Dinsmoor, pp. 138 ff.; Lippold, pp. 70 f., pis. 15, 4; 16, 4; 19, 1 and 2. Payne, pp. 31
Schrader, no. 38; Lippold,
ff.;
p. 81, pi. 24, 1; Richter, Korai, no. 110. f.
525-500
Seated statue from Branchidai, London Statue dedicated by Aiakcs, Samos (p. 82)
Pryce,
B
280.
Buschor, Alt.
St.,
pp.
I,
40 ff.; Lippold,
p. 58, pi. 13, 4.
Athena perhaps by Endoios c.
520-510
Picard, pp. 639fr.; Lippold, p. 75, pi. 21, 2.
(p. 82)
Pediment of Treasury of Megarians, Olympia
Lippold,
p. 86, pi. 25, 2.
(p. 88) f.
f.
520
520-510
Pediment with Athena and Zeus battling giants, from Akropolis (p. 88) Incised stele. Louvre (p. 86) Pediments of temple of Apollo, Delphi (p.
88)
Schrader,
520-500
Metopes of temple
f.
520-485
Ptoon 20 group of kouroi (from Boeotia, Attica, Euboea, Naxos, Samos, Cyprus,
c.
510-500
Metopes of
F, Selinus
464-470;
Lippold,
p.
75,
Gravestones^, no. 57, figs. 138-140.
Dinsmoor, pp. 91 f.; Lippold, fold,
c.
nos.
pi. 21, 1.
Mus.
Lippold,
Helvet.,
p. 81; Sche1956, pp. 61 ff.
ill,
p. 91, pi. 29, 2.
Kouroi\ pp. 126 ff.,
figs.
450-563.
Italy) (p. 75)
later
Heraion
at
Focc
del Sele
(p. 92)
Relief of helmetcd runner, Athens,
1959
Montuoro
Zancani
Heraion,
N.M.
and
Zanotti-Bianco,
I.
Lippold, p. 84,
pi.
27, 4.
(p. 83)
Statue bases, Athens (p. 88)
Picard,
pp. 628ff.,
I,
li,
pp. 20fr.; Lippold,
p. 85, pi. 28.
Aristion
stele, Athens, N.M., 29 (p. 86) Metopes of Treasury of Athenians, Delphi
(p. 88)
Lippold,
p. 84, pi. 27, 2.
Dinsmoor,
p. 117; Picard, II, pp. Lippold, p. 82, pi. 26, 1 and 3.
24ff.
413
;; ;
Reliefs of
mounting charioteer and Hermes,
Akropolis Pedimental statues
of temple
of Apollo
Daphnephoros, Eretria Bronze krater from Vix (p. 215)
Harpy Tomb, London Stele
(p. 88)
by Alxenor, Athens, 139
Head of Athena on
(p. 86) issued during
coins
Ionian Revolt
Picard,
pp. 34 ff.; Lippold, p. 83,
II,
pi. 26, 2.
Dinsmoor,
91; Picard, II, pp. 42 f.; p. Lippold, pp. 72f., pi. 20, 3 and 4. Joffroy, Le Tresor de Vix, 1954. Picard, I, pp. 552 flF.; Pryce, B 287; Lippold, p. 67, pi. 17, 2 and 3. Lippold, p. 114, pi. 38, 1. Baldwin, The Electrum Coinage of Lampsakos, pp. 26 ff. Payne, p. 44.
Daphni torso Pedimental sculptures and akroteria of temple of Aphaia, Aegina (pp. 92 f.) Nike, Akropolis, no. 690, dedicated after battle of Marathon (p. 86) Stelai, Villa Albani and from Esquiline 107) Terra-cotta sculptures
Furtwangler, Aegina; Picard, II, pp. 73 ff.; Lippold, p. 99, pi. 30. Raubitschek, A.J. A., XLIV, 1940, pp. 53ff. Lippold, p. 94,
24, 4.
pi.
(p.
from Olympia
(pp.
93 f.)
Euthydikos kore. Blond boy, Kritios youth, Akropolis, nos. 609, 689, 698 (pp. 79, 80) Sparta warrior
Kunze,
III. Olympia Bericht, pp. 119ff. Y.Bericbi,pp. 103ff.; VI. Berichi, pp. 169ff. Payne, pp. 38 ff.; Schrader, nos. 37,299,302;
Lippold, pp. 78 ff. II, pp. 163 flp.;
Lippold,
Picard,
105,
p.
pi. 32, 4. f.
480
Running Maiden, Eleusis (p. Reliefs of sphinxes, Xanthos Seated goddess, Berlin
Picard,
86)
pi.
35, 3.
290.
Picard,ll,pp. 110ff.;Lippold,p. 101,pl.21,4. E. Paribeni, Cat., Terme Aliis., no. 1.
(p. 83)
Head of goddess, Rome Demareteion of Syracuse, struck after defeat of Carthage at Himera (p. 255) Tyrannicides by Kritios and Nesiotes (p. 99) Reliefs from Thasos, Louvre Bronze statuette of diskobolos. New York (p.
82; Lippold, p. 109,
p.
II,
B
Pryce,
Head, Historia Ntimoritm, 2nd edn., pp. 172 f. Schwabacher, Demareteion. Picard,
pp. llff.; Lippold, p. 107.
II,
Picard,
II,
pp. 87 ff.
;
M.M.A.
Richter,
Lippold, p. 116, pi. 40, 1. Handbook, 1953, p. 66,
pi. 59, c.
197)
Three-sided
reliefs
in
Rome and Boston
102) Charites, Vatican (p.
ii, pp. 144ff. L. D. Caskey, Cat. of Sc, Boston, no. 17 Lippold, pp. 1 18 f., pi. 42. Lippold, p. 112, pi. 35, 4. Pryce, B 309-314. Marcade, B.C.H., LXXIX, 1955, pp. 467 ff. Picard, II, pp. 126ff.; Lippold, p. 128, pi. 29, 3 and 4.
Picard,
;
;
Procession of chariots, Xanthos Frieze from Doric temple, Marmaria, Delphi Metopes of temple E, Selinus (p. 109)
Head, Historia Num., 2nd edn.,
Tetradrachm of Aetna (p. 257) Bronze Charioteer, Delphi (p. 97)
4
;
p. 131.
pp. 133ff. Lippold, p. 113, pi. 37, Aurige, Fouilles de Delphes, Chamoux,
Picard,
II,
;
U
IV, 5.
Pollux,
Louvre;
Valentini
torso;
Boboli
Lippold, p. 125,
pi. 49, 1.
statue
Pedimental sculptures and metopes of Temple of Zeus, Olympia (pp. 97, 108)
Picard
II,
pp. 176ff.
;
Dinsmoor, pp. 151 ff.; Kunze, IV. Olympia Ashmole and Yalouris,
Lippold, pp. 120ff. Bericht, pp. 143ff.
;
;
Olympia.
Large bronze statuette of horse, Olympia (p.
Kunze,
III.
Olympia
Bericht, pp. 133ff.
198)
Relief of stephancphoros, Athens
Bronze Poseidon-Zeus, Artemision (pp. 99 f.) Mourning Athena, Akropolis (p. 107) Melian terra-cotta reliefs (p. 237)
Lippold, p. Lippold, p. Lippold, p. Jacobsthal
Locrian terra-cotta
Orsi,
reliefs (p.
237)
Boll.
110, pi. 35, 2. 131, pi. 37, 3.
110, pi. 35,
1.
Melische Reliefs.
d'Arte,
Quaglati, Aiisonia,
III, III,
pp. 406ff.; 1903, pp. 136ff.
1909,
Zancani Montuoro, Atti Societa
Pharsalos
relief.
Bronze hydria.
Louvre
New York
Magna
Lippold, p. 117, (p.
217)
Richter,
e
Memorie
della
Grecia, 1954, pp. 73 ff. pi. 41, 3.
M.M.A.
Handbook, 1953, p. 82.
S ;
Chronology
Youth
liy
Stephanos
Lippold,
129, pi. 36, 3; Richtcr, Ancient
p.
pp. 112fT. Lippold, p. 129, pi. 36, 2. R. (ialza, Mtiseo Ostiense. Italy,
Apollo of Mantua
(p.
97)
Portrait of 'I'hcmistoklcs (pp. lOOf.)
Criticad'Arte,
Stclai
of athletes, Vatican, Delphi, Naples,
no.
85; Bccatti,
1942, pp. 76ff. Richter, Coll. Latomus, XX, 1955, pp. 16ff. Lippold, pp. 115, 123, pi. 38, 2 and 3. vil,
;
Istanbul (p. 107)
Bronze mirror-supports
(p.
Lamb,
Karouzou, Studies S. pp. 160ff. presented X.O D. M. Robinson, I, pp. 576 ff.;
221)
;
Lippold,
Hcrculaneum Dancers, Naples
Picard,
p. 105, pi. 33, 3
pp. 166ff.
II,
;
and
Lippold,
4.
p.
112, pi.
35, 4.
Hcstia
Ciiustiniani,
pcplos statues
and similar
'Aspasia',
(p. 102)
Elgin Athena, bronze statuette Esquiline Venus c.
c.
(p.
470-450
Spinario
460-450
Maidens from Xanthos, London Omphalos Apollo (pp. 97 f.)
200)
Lippold, pp. 132f., pi. 47, 1 and 2; p. 102, pi. 32, 2; E. Paribeni, Cat. Terme Mus., no. 89. M.M.A. Handbook, 1953, pp. 81 f. Picard, II, pp. 121 f, Picard,
(p.
102)
pp. 172 f.
II,
B 316-318;
Pryce, Picard,
Lippold,
p. 123.
p. 55; Kouroi-, no.
II,
197; Lippold,
p. 102, pi. 32, 1.
Heads, Chatsworth and from Perinthos Diskobolos and Marsyas by Myron (pp. 109f.)
Protesilaos,
New York
Picard,
II,
Picard,
II,
pp. 124, 911. pp. 225ff., 232flF.; Lippold, p. 137, pis. 48, 1 and 2, and 49,4; E. Paribeni, Ca/., Terme Mus., no. 20.
M.M.A.
Richter,
Sc. Cat., no.
27; Lippold,
p. 203, pi. 68, 4.
Herakles, Boston, Oxford
(p.
Lippold, p. 139,
Ill)
Athena 'Promachos' by Phcidias
(p.
119)
'Penelope', Vatican c.
450-440
Frieze of
Temple on
i\[ctopcs of
Parthenon
(p.
pi. 49, 2.
pp. 338ff.
p. 134, pi. 47, 3.
Dinsmoor,
of Philis, Louvre; Giustiniani, Berlin; Brocklesby, New York
447-443
II,
Lippold, Ilissos
Stelai
c.
Picard,
p. 185; Picard, II, pp. 709 ff.; Lippold, p. 159, pi. 58, 1. Lippold, pp. 115-116, 176, pis. 38, 4; 41, 4;
64, 1.
Dinsmoor, pp.
115)
169ff.
;
Lippold, pp. 149 ff., c.
442-438
Frieze of Parthenon (pp. 115f.)
Picard,
II,
pp. 434ff.;
Picard,
II,
pp. 401
ff.;
pi. 52.
Lippold, pp. 150ff.,
pi. 53. c.
438-431
Pedimental sculptures of Parthenon
(p. 113)
Picard,
pp. 470ff.; Lippold, pp. 152ff., 55; Marcade, ^.C./y., LXXX, 1956,
11,
pis. 54,
pp. 161
447-439 435-430
Athena Parthenos by Pheidias (pp. 116f.) Zeus, Olympia, by Phcidias (pp. 116f.)
Picard,
ff.
pp. 374 ff.; Lippold, pp. 145 ff.
pp. 354ff.; Lippold, pp. 142ff.; and Sc, pp. 220 ff.; Kunze, Gnomon,
Picard, Sc.
II,
II,
1956, p. 318. c.
460-440
Cassel Apollo
Athena Lcmnia (p. 118) Tiber and Cherchel Apollo c.
450-430
Lippold, p. 142, pi. 51,1. Lippold, p. 145, pi. 51,3. Picard, II, pp. 316ff. Lippold, p. ill, pi. 36, 1 E. Paribeni, Cat. Terme Alris., no. 13.
(p. 97)
ll,
pp.314ff.
Picard,
II,
pp. 330 ff.
;
;
;
'Sappho' Albani Dioskouroi, Monte Cavallo Athena Medici Barberini Suppliant
Diadoumcnos Farnesc Zeus, Dresden Portrait of Pcriklcs and Anakreon (pp. 122, 129)
Niobids
Picard,
Lippold, p. 154, pi. 56, 1. Lippold, p. 156, pi. 56, 4. Lippold, pp. 155f., pi. 56, 3. Picard, II, pp. 692ff.; Lippold, p. 162, pi. 57,4. Picard, li, pp. 344ff.; Lippold, p. 154. Lippold, p. 190, pi. 66, 3. Lippold, p. 172, pi. 50, 3; Richtcr, Portraits, 1965, pp. 102ff.
in
Rome and Copenhagen
(p. 134)
Picard,
II,
pp. 685
f.;
Lippold,
p. 177, pi. 65,
1-3.
Goddess from Ariccia
Lippold, pp. 173 ff.,
pi. 62, 4.
41
; ;;
Eleusinian Relief, Athens (p. 131)
Lippold, p. 160,
Beneventum Head, Louvre (from Herculaneum?)
Picard,
Perseus
Lippold, p. 139, pi. 50, 2. Lippold, p. 173, pi. 62, 3. Picard, II, pp. 554 ff.; Lippold, p. 186, pi. 67, 3. Lippold, p. 179; E. Paribeni, Cat. Terme Mus., no. 28.
Athena from Velletri, Louvre Herm by Alkamenes (p. 122) Hermes Ludovisi, Terme Mus. 440
and friezes from temple of Hephaistos (p. 134) Sculptures from temple of Poseidon,
Metopes
Sounion (p. 34) Doryphoros by Polykleitos
(p.
Louvre
statuette,
79ff.
pp. 714ff.
II,
2.
;
pi. 59, 1.
Policleto, pi. IX.
pp. 266 flf.
II,
59,3. Smith, Cat., no.
Westmacott Youth, London
Picard,
;
pp. 279 flf. Lippold, p. 163,
II,
Picard,
200)
(p.
XXV.
Lippold, p. 158, pi. 57, 1 and Lippold, pp. 158 f., pi. 57, 3.
Bianchi Bandinelli,
Herakles, Barracco
Bronze
Dinsmoor, pp.
Picard,
120)
pi. 58, 3.
p. 702, pi.
II,
Lippold,
;
164, pi.
p.
Lippold,
1754;
p.
164,
pi. 60, 1.
Diadoumenos by
Polykleitos (p. 120)
Polykleitan Hermes,
Amazons by
Terme Mus.
Pheidias, Polykleitos, Kresilas,
Kydon, and Phradmon
(pp.
126 f., 394,
ch. 3, note 15)
Prokne and Itys, Akropolis (p. 122) Diomedes, Naples, etc. Metopes and frieze from Temple of Apollo Epikourios, Phigaleia
,
1955, pp. 19ff. Lippold, p. 185, pi. 66,
Lippold, p. 184,
Dinsmoor, pp. pp. 401 p. 201.
134)
(p.
Picard, II, pp. 287 fF.; Lippold, p. 166. E. Paribeni, Cat. Terme Mus., no. 53. Picard, II, pp. 300flF.; Lippold, pp. 171 ff.; Sc. and Sc. no. ?)1 ,Kungcmm'3.,Boll.d'' Arte,
Satrap sarcophagus, Istanbul (pp. 48, 131)
ff.;
(p.
131)
Dioskouroi from Lokroi c.
420
Sculptures from
nous
Temple of Nemesis, Rham-
122)
(p.
Sculptures from Argive Heraion
Record relief, Eleusis, dated by inscription Hera Borghese, Terme Mus.
boy (p. 129) Engraved gems by Dexamenos (p. 248)
Idolino, Narkissos, Dresden
and A. J. A., LX, 1956,
154ff.,
Picard,
Lippold, p. 207, Lippold, p. 206, Lippold, p. 187, Lippold, p. 186, Lippold, p. 177.
pp. 802ff.; Lippold,
II,
Mendel, Cat.,
75, 1;
pi.
no. 9; Kleemann, Stele of Krito and Timariste 'Aphrodite' herm, Naples Ares Borghese, Louvre
1.
pi. 48, 4.
Der
Satrapen-Sarkophag.
pi. 64, 3. pi. 67, 4. pi. 68, 1.
Dinsmoor, pp. 181 f.; Picard,
II,
pp. 536ff.
Lippold, p. 188, pi. 69, 1. Dinsmoor, p. 183; Picard, II, pp. 816ff. Lippold, pp. 201 f., pi. 74, 3. Ath. Mitt., XIX, 1894, pi. VII. Lippold, p. 188, pi. 66, 2; E. Paribeni, Cat. Terme Mus., no. 94. Lippold, p. 165, pi. 60, 2 and 3. Furtwangler, Ant. Gemmen, III, pp. 137 ff.; Beazley, Lewes House Gems, p. 48 Richter, Cat. of Gems, M.M.A., 1956, pp. xxxii, XXXV. E. Paribeni, Cat. Terme Mus., no. 5. Lippold, p. 191, pi. 70, 1. ;
Palatine
Aura
Demeter, Eleusis Head of Apollo on tetradrachms of Chalcidian League
Bronze boy, Munich Diskobolos attributed to Naukydes Gjolbaschi
Monument
(p.
(p. 126)
in
no. 18,
archonship
Attic tetradrachms with portraits of Tis-
II,
Bieber,
pi. 8;
Frieze of
Temple of Athena Nike
(p. 134)
pi. 68, 2.
76,3. Ath. Mitt., XXXV, 1910, figs.
binson,
427-424
pi. 50, 4.
pp. 874 ff.; Lippold, p. 209, pi.
243,
Numorum, 2nd
saphernes and Pharnabazos
Num.
pi. iv, 2.
244;
Head,
edn., p. 597; E. S. Chronicle,
Schwabacher,
Dinsmoor, pp. 185f. Lippold, pp. 193 f.
416
Olynthus, IX, p. 21,
pi. IV.
Lippold, p. 174, Lippold, p. 199, Picard,
137)
Record relief. Louvre, dated of Glaukippos (p. 134)
Robinson and Clement,
;
Historia
G. Ro-
1948, pp. 48f.,
Charites, pp. 27
Picard,
ll,
ff.
pp. 760ff.
; ;
;
Chronology
420-413 410-407
Parapet of temple of Athena Nike
409-406
Frieze of Erechtheion (p. 137)
Lippold, p. 192,
Karyatids of Erechtheion (pp. 134f.) 137)
(p.
pi. 70, 2.
pp. 772ff.; Lippold, p. 194, 69, 4; Dohrn, Attische Plastik, p. 24.
Picard,
ll,
pi.
Paton and others. The Erechtheum Dinsmoor, pp. 187ff.; Picard, ii, pp. 738 ff.; Lippold, ;
pp. 192f., pi. 69, 2. c.
c. c.
of shoemaker, London; youth with birdcage; in Grottafcrrata; horseman. Villa Albani (p. 131)
430-420
Stelai
430-400 420-410
'Venus Genetrix'
(p.
Nike by Paionios
(p. 122)
Maenads
129)
Diepolder, pp.
4, 6, 9;
Lippold, p. 168,
pi. 60,
attributed to Kallimachos; Kala-
4; Picard,
II,
pp. 620 ff.
pp. 587 ff.; Lippold, p. 205; Sc. and Sc, pp. 244 f. Picard, II, pp. 625ff. Lippold, pp. 222f. Richter, M.M.A. ; Cat. of Sc, no. 58; Caputo, Menadi di Tolemaide; Rizzo, Picard,
thiskos dancers (p. 122)
Lippold, pp. 195 f.
II,
;
Thiasos. f.
400
Nereid
Monument
(p.
Picard,
137)
1
of Hegeso, Phainerete, and Phrasikleia from Lowther Castle; of Ktesileos and Theano (p. 131).
Stelai
c.
425^20
Three-figured
c.
417
Akroteria from temple of Athenians, Delos
425-400
Dekadrachms signed by Eumenes, Euainetos, Kimon, etc. (p. 259) Silver phialai, London and New York (p. 21 8)
c.
420-400
406-405
reliefs (p.
II,
pp. 849ff.; Lippold, p. 208,
Diepolder, pp. 27, 26, 25; Lippold, p. 196, pi. 72, 2.
Lippold, p. 202,
133)
pi. 76,
and 2; Dinsmoor, pp. 256f.
pi. 74, 2.
Lippold, p. 192, pi. 71, 1. Rizzo, Monete della Sicilia, pp. 203 ff., 230 ff. Head, Hist. Num., 2nd. edn., pp. 175 f.
'Lycian' sarcophagus, Istanbul (p. 131)
A. J. A., XLV, 1941, pp. 363ff.;Llv, 1950, pp. 357 ff. Mendel, Cat., no. 63; Lippold, p. 210, pi.
Record
75,2. Svoronos, Ath. N. M.,
relief,
between Athens and
treaty
Richter,
pi. CCII.
Chios
403 400/399
Record Record Record
relief,
Athens, treaty with Samos
Athens Athens 1479
relief,
398/397 c. 400-350
Attic grave stelai (pp. 161
394/393
Stele of Dexileos (p. 162)
relief,
Lippold, p. 229,
who 400-380
mente, p. 24.
Acanthus Column, Delphi Sculptures from temple Epidauros (pp. 138f.) Leda, Boston,
etc. (p.
p. 26; Lippold, p. 229, pi. 80, 1. Papaspiridi, Guide, no. 137; Mobius, Orna-
Diepolder,
Corinth
fell at
pi. CCIII.
pi. 88, 1.
Diepolder, pp. 29 ff.; Lippold, pp. 228 ff.; Dohrn, Attische Plastik, pp. 127 ff.
ff.)
Ornament from gravestone of Athenians c.
Lippold, p. 198. Svoronos, Ath. Nat. Mus.,
49) of Asklepios,
(p.
Picard,
III,
Dinsmoor,
pp. 223 ff.; Dinsmoor, p. 253. p. 218; Picard, III, pp. 330ff.;
Lippold, p. 220, pi. 79, 1 and 2; Sc and Sc, pp. 276 ff. Caskey, Cat., no. 22; Lippold, p. 209, pi.
141)
70, 3.
375/374
c.
375-370
Record relief, treaty between Athens and Korkyra, dated in archonship of Hippodamas (p. 166) Sepulchral Ickythos,
Munich
Chaircdcmos and Lykeas, Piraeus Eircne and Ploutos, by Kephisodotos (p. 141) Stele of
Hermes and Dionysos by Kephisodotos (p.
141)
Record
370-350
Sculptures from temple
Tegea 367-353
Diepolder, pi. 34. Diepolder, pi. 16. Rizzo, Prassitele, pp. 4ff. Picard, 85 ff.; Lippold, p. 224, pi. 83, 1. Rizzo, Prassitele, pp. 7ff. Picard, ;
III,
pp.
;
III,
pp.
107ff.
362/361
relief
Rizzo, Prassitele, p. 7; Lippold, p. 230.
with Athena, Athens
Picard,
of Athena Alca,
p. 103, fig. 27.
218ff.; Picard,
Lippold, pp. 250f.,
(pp. 149f.)
Head of Apollo and
III,
Dinsmoor, pp.
seated Zeus
on
tetra-
pi. 90,
Head, Hist. Num., 2nd edn.,
3
III,
pp. 150 ff.;
and
4.
p. 629.
drachms issued by Maussollos c.
355-352
Head of Apollo on tetradrachms of Chalcidian
League
Robinson and Clement, no. 133, pi. XVH.
Olynthus, IX, p. 81,
417
;
Chronology
c.
350
Demeter of Knidos
158)
(p.
Sarcophagus of Mourning (p.
Women,
Istanbul
no. 10.
166)
Pothos
150)
(p.
Lansdowne Herakles (now in the Getty Museum, Cal.) (p. 153) c. c.
360 350-330
Lippold, p. 260, pi. 93, 4; Ashmole,/.//.!., LXXI, 1951, pp. 13ff. Lippold, p. 231, pi. 82, 1; Mendel, Cat.,
Meleager, Vatican, etc. Satyr, Dresden, etc.
(p.
(p.
Paul
p. 252, pi. 91, 3. p. 251, pi. 91, 1.
Lippold, p. 289, pi. 102, Rizzo, Prassitele, p. 17.
153)
Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles
Apollo Sauroktonos
J.
Lippold, Lippold,
(p.
141)
Rizzo, Prassitele, pp. 45 ff.; Lippold, p. 239; Sc. and Sc, pp. 260 ff.
Rizzo, Prassitele, pp. 41
144)
4.
ff.
;
Lippold, p. 240,
pi. 84, 3.
Eubouleus, Aphrodite of Aries, Artemis of Gabii, Apollo, Lykeios, Eros of Parion, Leconfield Aphrodite, Capitoline Satyr, Dionysos Sardanapalus (pp. 144, 147) Hermes of Olympia (p. 144)
Rizzo,
Mantineia base
Rizzo, Prassitele, pp. 86 ff.; Lippold, p. 238;
Prassitele,
pp.
103 ff.; Lippold, pp.
238 ff.
Rizzo, Prassitele, pp. 66 ff.; Picard, IV, pp. 250 ff.; Lippold, p. 241; Sc. and Sc, pp.
259 f. (p.
144)
Sc. andSc, pp. 264 f., Rizzo, Prassitele, p. 74.
Aberdeen Herakles (p. 147) Hermes of Andros; Farnese Hermes 380-350
Portraits (p.
of
Thucydides,
Plato,
Lysias
156)
pi. 85,
1-3.
Rizzo, Prassitele, pp. 75 f. Laurenzi, Ritratti, nos. 20, 26, 18; Lippold, p. 273; Richter, Portraits, 1965, pp. 147 ff.,
164 ff., 207 f. c.
355-330
Sculptures from
Temple of Artemis, Ephe-
Lippold,
sos (p. 149)
Sculptures from
Mausoleum of Halikarnassos
c.
340-330
Dinsmoor, pp. 257 f.; Picard,
Lippold, p. 247,
Ostia, Medici, etc. (pp. 149, 158)
c.
350-330
Portraits of Sophokles, Euripides, 'Aischylos' (p.
160)
Apollo Patroos by Euphranor c.
340-310
335-334
(p.
Monument
of Lysikrates
(p.
ill,
pp.
7ff.
3.
1.
3. ff.;
Lippold, p. 242,
2.
Lippold, p. 301, Lippold, p. 274,
pi.
107.
pi. 96, 3.
Lippold, pp. 284, 290f., pis. 101, 3, 104, 1; Felletti Maj, 'Afrodite pudica', Archeologia classica. III, 1951, pp. 33 ff. Laurenzi, Ritratti, nos. 31, 32, 45; Lippold, pp. 215, 271.
H.A.Thompson, E'i; Moi'ijiiiu F.II. OiKov6|iov'
156)
III, 1953-54, pp. 30 ff. Laurenzi, Ritratti, nos. 30, 44, 47; Richter, Portraits, 1965, pp. 87 f., 86 f., 170 ff.
Portraits of Bias, Periander, Aristotle
Choragic
and
pp. 108 ff.;
pi. 88, 4.
Lippold, p. 258, pi. 94, Lippold, p. 258, pi. 93, Rizzo, Prassitele, pp. 91 pi. 86, 1
Muses, Vatican Bronze Marathon Boy (pp. 147 f.) Aphrodite of Capua, Capitoline, Townley,
III,
pi. 89, 2.
Record relief honouring three princes of the Bosphorus Base signed by Bryaxis (p. 154) Korai of Herculaneum
320-280
254,
Lippold, pp. 256 f. Lippold, p. 218, pi. 78,
Sarapis (p. 154)
c.
p.
149) Athlete from Ephesos, Vienna (p.
347-346
Dinsmoor, pp. 223 ff.; Picard,
49)
Dinsmoor,
pp.
237f.
;
Lippold,
p.
271,
pi. 94, 3. c.
c. c.
350-320
350-300 325-300
Asklepios of Melos and related types Apollo of Belvedere (p. 158) Artemis of Versailles (p. 158) Ganymede and the eagle (p. 155) Ares Ludovisi Fragments of Altar of Kos (p. 154) Later Attic
stelai (p.
162)
Apoxyomenos by Lvsippos
(p.
Borghese Satyr Herakles Farnese (p. 153) Herakles Epitrapezios (p. 153)
418
153)
(p.
158)
Lippold, p. 259, pi. 95, 2. Lippold, p. 269, pi. 98, 3; Bieber, p. 63. Lippold, p. 270, pi. 98, 2; Bieber, p. 63. Lippold, p. 269, pi. 98, 1; Bieber, pp. 62f. Lippold, p. 289, pi. 102, 2. Lippold, p. 299; Sc. and Sc, figs. 684-687. Diepolder, pp. 43 ff.; Lippold, pp. 245 ff. Lippold, Lippold, Lippold, Lippold,
p. 279, pi. 100, 1. p. 298, pi. 104, 3. p. 281, pi. 101, 1.
p. 283.
Chronology
Hermes adjusting
sandal
Eros stretching
;
Lippold, pp. 280ff.,
pi.
100, 2
and
4.
bow Dionysos
with satyr; seated Naples; wrestlers, Naples Agias, Delphi (p. 153)
Poulydamas base
(p.
Hermes
in
Lippold, pp. 281 Lippold, Lippold,
ff.,
pis. 100, 3, 102, 1, 101, 1.
p. 287, pi. 102, 3.
p. 284, pi. 94, 2. Biebcr, Proceedings of the American Philoso-
153)
Portraits of Alexander (p. 153f.)
xcill, Society, 1949, pp. 373 ff.; Lippold, pp. 267 f., pi. 97, 1 and 2. Lippold, p. 288, pi. 82, 2; Bieber, pp. 72f.; Mendel, Cat., no. 68.
phical
Alexander Sarcophagus
321-317
Record
relief,
(p.
154)
Athens
Speier,
Rome
c.
330-300
Dancer,
c.
320-280
Medici Aphrodite (p. 149) Head from Southern slope, Akr. Artemis Colonna Bronze Praying boy, Berlin
From 305
Portraits (p.
c.
320-280
Rom.
Lippold, 158)
(p.
of Hellenistic princes on
coins
260)
Mitt., XLVII, 1932, pi. 29, no. 1.
p. 284, pi. 101, 4.
Lippold, Lippold, Lippold, Lippold,
p.
312.
p.
304,
pi.
109, 3.
p. 291, pi. 110, 4. p. 296, pi. 105, 2.
Newell, Royal Greek Portrait Coins; Bieber, pp. 85 ff.; Seltman, Greek Coins, pp. 218ff.
Group of Niobids, Florence (p. 169) Head from Chi(js, Boston (p. 149)
Lippold, p. 309, pi. Ill; Bieber, pp. 74ff. Caskey, Cat., no. 29; Lippold, p. 306, pi.
Metope from Ilion Tychc of Antioch (pp.
Lippold, p. 307, 168f.)
Lippold,
Group of Artemis and
Iphigeneia
Bieber, pp. 77 f.
109, 4.
After 300
280/279
c.
320-270
Portrait of
Demosthenes
Portraits of Aischines,
(p.
110,
1.
106, 2; Bieber, p. 40.
Laurcnzi, Ritratti, no. 61 Lippold, p. 303, pi. 108, 2; Bieber; p. 66. Richter, Portraits,
177)
Epikouros
pi.
p. 296, pi.
;
(p.
177)
1956, pp. 215ff. Laurenzi, Ritratti,
nos.
65;
46,
Lippold,
p. 314. c. c.
c.
c.
300-250 250-240
280-230 240-200
Themis of Chairestratos (p. 169) Crouching Aphrodite by Doidalsas (p. 169) Sleeping Ariadne (p. 169) Menelaos and Patroklos Boy with goose Girl from Anzio, Terme Mus. Dying Gaul, Gaul and wife (pp. 170, 174)
Lippold,
p.
Lippold, Lippold,
p.
302,
pi.
108, 1; Bieber, p. 65.
319; Bieber, pp. 82f.
p. 347, pi. 122, 4; Bieber, pp. 145f. Bieber, pp. 79ff.; Lippold, p. 362, pi. 122, 2.
Lippold, Lippold,
p.
Lippold,
p. 342,
pi.
353,
pi.
p. 329, pi. 117, 2.
332,
pi.
119, 3. 122,
1
and 3; Bieber,
p. 108. c.
200
Statues of Gauls,
Amazons,
Persians, giants
Lippold,
p.
127; Bieber, pp. 109f.
(p. 174)
Portrait of Chrysippos (p. 177)
Laurcnzi, Ritratti, no. 76; Lippold, p. 338; Bieber, p. 68; Richter, Portraits, 1965,
Nike of Samothrace (pp. 169f.) Market women. Fishermen, Sleeping Erotes, Jockey, Drunken Woman, Satyrs and
Lippold, p. 360,
pp. 190ff. c.
240-200
Nymphs
(p.
Wrestlers, Florence
Castellani Spinario,
London
Lippold, p. 347, pi. 121, 3 and Lippold, p. 331, pi. 113, 4. Lippold, pp. 334f., pi. 120. Lippold, p. 326.
statues
Nile and 'liber c.
f. c.
220-170 197-159 200-150
Apotheosis of Homer (p. 181) Altar of Zeus and Athena, Pergamon Sleeping Satyr, Munich
(p. 175)
(p. 175)
Hanging Marsyas (p. 177) Red Faun, ('apitoline Mus. f.
200-100 180-140
Aphrodite of Melos (p. 170) Sculptures of temple at Lykosoura
f.
160-140
Laokoon
f.
126, 4; Bieber, p. 125.
177)
Boy from Subiaco; Draped female
pi.
Bieber, pp. 140 ff.; Lippold, pp. 320 ff.
(p.
181)
4.
Lippold, p. 373, pi. 131, 3; Bieber, pp. 127ff. Lippold, pp. 355f., pi. 128; Biebcr, pp. 113ff. Lippold, p. 330, pi. 118, 2; Bieber, p. 112. Lippold, p. 321; Bieber, pp. llOf. Lippold, p. 330. Lippold, p. 370, pi. 130, 3; Bieber, p. 159. Lippold, p. 350, pi. 124, 1 and 2; Bieber, p. 158.
(p. 175)
Lippold, pp. 384 f.; Bieber, Three
Mem.
p.
134; Richter,
pp. 66 Pont. Ace. Arch., 1960. Critical
Periods,
ff.;
Magi,
419
Chronology
Some heads and
torsos from Sperlonga
London Neivs, Oct. 26th, 1957, and 3 Dec.28th, 1957, p. 1 133, figs. 5 and 6; Jacopi, Antra di Tiberio a Sperlonga, 1963; L'Orange, Ada Inst.
Illustrated
p. 711, figs. 1
Portraits of
Homer, Pseudo-Seneca
(p.
181)
Belvedere Torso (p. 177) Bronze Boxer Borghese Warrior, Louvre (p. 177) Farnese Bull, Naples Aphrodite and Pan from Delos Hermaphrodite
c.
150-100
c.
167
Monument
c.
160-120
Frieze
c.
150-100
(p. 181) Frieze of Temple of Artemis Leukophryene,
of Aemilius Paulus (p. 181) temple of Hekate, Lagina
from
Magnesia (p. 181) Head of Athena by Euboulides, Zeus from Aigeira,
Kalydon c.
100
420
Exact
sculptures (p.
Roman
from
183) copies begin
Heroon
(cf. p.
183)
;
U
Rom. Norvegiae, 1965, pp. 261 ff. Lippold, pp. 385, 387, pi. 133, 3 and 4; Laurenzi, Ritratti, no. 133, p. 138; Richter, Portraits, 1965, pp. 50 ff., 58 ff. Lippold, p. 380, pi. 134, 1. Lippold, p. 380, pi. 134, 2. Lippold, p. 382, pi. 134, 3. Lippold, p. 383, pi. 135, 1. Lippold, p. 369, pi. 135, 3. Lippold, p. 366, pi. 130, 1 and 2. Lippold, p. 351, pi. 125, 2. Dinsmoor, p. 282; Lippold, p. 375, pi. 132, 3; Bieber, p. 161.
Dinsmoor, pp. 274 ff.; Lippold,
p. 374, pi.
132, 2; Bieber, pp. 169f.
Lippold, pp. 365 ff.; Becatti, Attica.
of Richter, Ancient Italy, pp. 105
ff.
GLOSSARY
(For vase names see
— —
fig.
437)
Agora The market-place in a Greek city. Abacus The uppermost member of a capital. Akroterion The ornamental finial of a stele or pediment. Anathyrosis The contact surface of a stone, of which the
— —
central portion
is
roughened and sunk, and
the margin smoothed.
Anta
—
Pilaster slightly projecting
from the
lateral walls.
— Ornament terminating the covering of a Architrave— The lowest member of the entablature,
Antefix
tiles
i.e.
another.
roof and concealing the joins with the flat tiles. the lintel carried from the top of one column to
—
Bouleuterion The Greek Senate house. Cavetto Concave moulding derived from the Egyptian concave cornice. Cella The enclosed principal chamber of a temple. Chiton The tunic, short or long, and generally of linen, worn by Greek men and women. Chlamys Short, woollen cloak, worn by men and Amazons, and fastened on right shoulder. Chryselephantine Combining gold (xpvcyoc) with ivory (e>.e'|)ac). Cornice The upper, horizontal member of the entablature. Diazoma The ambulatory or horizontal passage separating the several ranges of seats in a theatre or stadium. Fxhinus The convex moulding beneath the abacus of a capital. F.ngaged column Semi-detached (from wall or pilaster) and about semi-circular in plan. Fngobe See Slip. 'Entablature The superstructure carried by the columns, consisting of architrave, frieze, and cornice. Futhynteria -The top course of the foundation or levelling course of a building. Filigree Decoration with fine wire (used in jewellery). Granulation Decoration with tiny balls (used in jewellery). Guttae Small, pendent, tapering cylinders, placed under the mutules of a Doric entablature. Hcraion Temple of Hera.
— — — — — — — —
I
—
—
— —
— — — — Hcrm — usually square, surmounted by head. Himation — A Greek mantle, generally of wool. Karyatid — Figure of maiden (kore) taking the place of column supporting an entablature. Kerameikos — Potters' quarter. Komos — Revel. Kore, Korai — Maiden, maidens; used for the standing archaic statues of maidens. Kouros, Kouroi — Youth, youths, used to designate the archaic statues of youths symmetrical, generally with the foot advanced. Krepidoma — The stepped platform of Greek temple. Kyma, Kymation — A wave-like moulding, of double curvature. Leather hard-— (of consistency of between wet and bone dry. Lesche — An informal meeting place, resembling a Levigated — (of freed of impurities, made smooth. Little-Master — Term applied to special type of black-figured cup with miniature decoration. Mcgaron — The principal Mycenaean house. Metope — Panel between the triglyphs of Doric Pillar,
a
a
a
in
specifically
in frontal
specifically
attitude, bilaterally
left
a
i.e.
clay)
leather, state
stoa.
clay)
a
hall in a
a
frieze.
421
Glossary
— — —
Mutule Projecting slab on the soffit of a Doric cornice. Obverse (opposite of reverse) the side of a coin bearing the principal emblem. Odeion Roofed building used mostly for musical performances. Opisthodomos Porch at the rear of a temple.
—
—
Orthostates Bottom course of the walls of a cella, usually placed vertically. Palaestra Place for athletic training requiring restricted space, e.g. boxing or wrestling. Parapet A low protecting wall at the edge of a platform.
— — entrances to the orchestra of Greek theatre (formed by the ends of Parodos — One of the two the auditorium walls and the stage building). the back Pediment — The triangular space forming the gable of two-pitched roof, including the wall (tympanon), the raking cornice above, and the horizontal cornice below. Peplos — The woollen garment, also called the Doric chiton, worn by Greek women; often open on one lateral
a
a
side,
at
and fastened on both shoulders.
removed by means of protective with the heavier — (of — The covered colonnade surrounding building. Petasos — Man's cap with broad brim. cap. Pilos — Conical Polos — Cylindrical headdress. Pronaos — The front porch of a temple. Propylaion, Propylaia — The gate-building or buildings of the sacred enclosure of a temple. Prothesis — Lying-in-state of the dead. Prytaneion— Meeting place of the Senate committee. Ramp — Sloping approach to a temple. event. Record — Relief with an inscription recording under the taenia of a Doric architrave. Regula— The narrow the colour of the Reserved— (of vase decoration) Reverse Obverse). Revetment — Applied, decorative facing. cap. Sakkos — Kerchief wound round head to serve Sima — Gutter. Skene — Stage. coating on vases and applied — Liquid which hammered plates of metal are nailed on wooden core. Sphyrelaton— technique gravestone. often used for — An upright colonnade the back and with Stoa — Roofed portico, walled Stylobate — Pavement or platform on which the columns are placed. crowning the architrave of Doric entablature. Taenia — Band or into Mysteries. Telesterion — Hall of ceremonies, generally for Temenos — Sacred precinct. building. Tholos — A Greek Tiara — Oriental cap with three a sacred precinct for housing valuables. Treasury— A treasure house generally with Doric between the metopes projecting Triglyph— Rectangular, channels and two chamfers. two the back of the pediment. Tympanon — The triangular wall Peptized
particles
clay)
colloid.
a
Peristyle
a
felt
a historical
relief
strip
left in
clay.
(see
as a
Slip
terra cottas.
as a
clay,
a
in
Stele
a
slab,
a
at
in front.
a
fillet
initiation
circular
flaps.
in
slab
slightly
vertical
at
422
in a
frieze,
SOURCES OF PHOTOGRAPHS
museums
Objects in the following
museum Museum of
from official photographs, by courtesy of Art Gallery, Baltimore; Staatliche Museen, Berlin;
are reproduced
authorities concerned: Walters
the
Museum, Cambridge; Musee archeologique, Chatillon; Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen; British Museum, London; Antikensammlung, Munich; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Pierpont Morgan Library, New York; Ashmolean Museum, Oxford; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna National Museum, Athens; and Dumbarton Oaks Foundation, Washington, D.C. In addition, photographs from the following sources have been used for reproduction: Agora Fine Arts, Boston; Musees Royaux, Brussels; Fitzwilliam
;
Excavations, Athens
43, 115, 417, 471); Alinari, Florence (figs. 18, 23, 39, 80, 106, 107,
(figs.
117, 124, 127, 133, 144, 145, 152, 153, 155, 169, 174, 180, 193, 194, 202, 203, 214, 215, 216, 229,
Rome
231, 233, 394, 396, 399, 400, 441, 446); Anderson,
395); Archives Photographiques, Paris siades,
Athens
(fig.
Archaologisches
(figs. 71,
326); Maurice Chuzeville, Paris
Institut,
Athens
(figs.
77, 134, 163, 188, 232, 289, 393,
285, 292, 293); Bulloz, Paris (figs.
(fig.
300); Chari-
105, 424, 439, 453, 464); Deutsches
91, 92, 96, 99, 114, 123, 159, 183, 220,
(figs. 59, 62, 68, 85, 89,
253, 258, 263, 264, 267, 275, 276, 280, 297, 298, 305, 408, 409, 415, 500, 519); Ecole fran9aise,
Athens
(fig.
251);
J.
Felbermeyer,
Rome
(figs.
239, 434); Alison Frantz, Athens
London
(figs.
360-372); Gabinetto Fotografico Nazionale,
225, 402); Giraudon, Paris (fig.
227);
(figs. 78,
Kennedy
(figs. 67,
154, 197);
(figs.
Rome
175, 456, 457); Istituto
G. Macworth-Young
(figs.
28, 53, 65,
John R. Freeman,
72, 98, 103, 108, 116, 178, 192, 196, 211, 217, 241, 255, 262, 328, 416, 422);
119, 122, 135, 161, 179,
(figs.
Archeologico, University of
(figs. 52, 86, 90,
118);
Rome
Foto Marburg
79, 94, 97, 100, 207, 222, 250); Use Schneider-Lengyel (figs. 84, 95, 102, 109, 120, 121,
130, 156, 164, 168, 173, 184, 185, 190, 191, 195, 198, 199, 218, 224, 229, 230, 236, 242, 274);
W.
Stevers,
Melbourne
(fig.
423); Tombazi, Athens
165, 189, 208, 212, 223, 245, 484);
Buschor, (fig.
4);
Frilhgriechische
Jiinglinge
413, 414); Vatican
Furtwangler und Rcichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei
Grinnell, Greek Temples
(figs.
Ornamente griechischer Vasen
tmdZeichmmgder Griechen Alterti'mier von
Pergamon
(fig.
(fig.
(figs. 50,
517); Payne and others, Perachora
425, 468); Rizzo, Prassitele
(fig.
(figs.
407); Antike Denkmdler
photographique
(figs.
131, 136, 157,
429, 430, 438, 511-513);
1-3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 14, 19-22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29-31, 34-37); Jacobsthal,
(figs.
Stevens, Classical Buildings
(fig.
(figs.
Wagner, Athens (fig. 64). (fig. 83); Fowler and Wheeler, Handbook of Greek Archaeology
33); Zancani
(fig.
(figs.
260, 271); Pfuhl, Malerei
187); Rodenwaldt, Korkyra
Montuoro and Zanotti-Bianco,
Ileraion
38, 505); American Journal of Archaeology 1957
(fig.
390); Bulletin de correspondance helleniqne
428); Romische Mitteilungen
(fig.
AW); Journal
(fig.
(fig.
(fig. 9);
(fig.
12);
327); 1962
295); Encyclopedic
of Hellenic Studies^ Archaeological
Reports for 1961-62 (fig. 520). The drawings for figs. 75, 104 and 437 are by L. F. Hall. Figs. 5, 7 and the maps at the end of the book are reproduced from Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece {1950),
by courtesy of Messrs. B. T. Batsford, London. Figs. 1-4,
8,
10-12, 14-17, 19-22,
24-27, 29, 30, 31, 33-38, 40, 42, 44, 46-49 have been re-drawn by Lucinda Rodd.
423
Sources of Photographs
Thanks
due to the following for their help in providing photographs: Mr. Walter C. Baker; Mrs. Felletti Maj; Mrs. Karouzou; Miss J. Konstantinou Mr. D. Levi; Mr. Maiuri; Mr. Marcade; Mrs. Zancani Montuoro; Mr. Mylonas; Mr. V. Poulsen; Mr. Rhomaios; the late D. M. Robinson; Miss M. Santangelo; Mr. Sestieri; Mrs. Stathatos; Miss L. Talcott; Mr. A. D. Trendall; Mr. R. S. Young; and the late Mr. Zanotti-Bianco. are also
;
424
OF PLACES
LIST
The numbers
reter to the illustrations
kouros from Melos; 72, Nike from Delos; 83, Aristodikos; 85, kouros from Anavysos; 86, kouros from Mount Ptoon;
Aegina
Temple of Aphaia, 20
88,
Akragas Temple of Zeus, 21
Piraeus Apollo;
meted runner;
hel-
98,
102,
stele
Collection of Helenc Stathatos,
now
National Museum, 320, gold shrine; 341, terra-cotta Hermes; 378, gold ornament; 389, medallion with chains
of
Aristion; 103, stele of Alxenor; statue
109,
Alexandria Benaki collection, 346, terra cotta
156,
Athens Temple of Hephaistos,
23,
24
Parthenon, 25, 28 Temple of Athena Nike, 30 Erechtheion, 31-33
Temple of Zeus, 37 Stoa of Attalos, 43 Akropolis Museum,
70,
calf-
Rampin Horse79, Typhon; 87,
bearer; 71, the
man;
78,
boy; 89, 90, Peplos kore; 91, Antenor kore; 92, kore 674; 93, kore 675; 97, Athena; 100, Nike; 107, Athena and giant; 129, Mourning Athena; 145, deities from Parthenon frieze; 181, Nike Kritios
adjusting sandal
Agora Museum,
115, terra-cotta
Apollo Patroos; amphora; 471, poly417, chrome oinochoe Kerameikos Museum, 217, 519, stele of Dexileos 330, Protohead;
210,
vase; 408, metric vase National Museum,
'Om-
118,
Diadoumenos;
Baiae 126, 'Aspasia'
168, stele
of Hegeso; 173, Votive relief; 183-185, reliefs from temple at Epidauros; 192, base from Mantineia; 195, 'Eubouleus'; 196, Marathon boy; 198, 199, heads from Tegea; 207, base signed by Bryaxis; 209, Plato; 211, statue from Antikythera; 218, stele of father and son; 220, votive relief; 222, record
Baltimore Walters Art Gallery, 257, bronze statuette
Bassae
Temple of Apollo, 27
Berlin Staatliche
Themis; 229, Poseidon from Melos; 241, jockey; 246, Anytos; 249, Meleager from Kalydon; 250, Athena; 253, statuette of charioteer; 260, bronze bird from Perachora; 261, 262, ivory reliefs from Sparta; 265, 271, bronze statuettes; 275, ivory relief from Samos 282, bronze incense burner from Delphi; 305, 314, bronze mir-
Musco
rors; 326, terra-cotta chariot;
nia
relief;
224,
Museen,
66, standing
maiden; 101, seated goddess; 234, 235, frieze
from Pergamon
Altar; 256, 269, bronze statuettes; 323, silver patera; 324,
plaster relief; 436, terra-cotta
plaque showing kiln. See also under Hildesheim
;
328,
horsecart;
329,
Bologna civico, 154,
Athena Lem-
funeral
proto-geo-
wagon; 374, electrum rosette; 390, metope from Thermos;
Museum of Fine Arts, 76, sphinx;
head
geometric vase; 415, 409, Piraeus amphora; 416, Nessos
amphora; 422, Erctrian amphora; 429, 430, Mclian am-
head from Chios; 206, 'Menander'; 221, votive
phorae; 440, fragment painted by Sophilos; 468, onos
bronze statuettes; 294, gold
;
Attic
base;
Apollo; 120, 121, bronze Poseidon; 152, 153, copies of Athena Parthenos; phalos'
52,
from Dipylon; 53, kouros from Sounion; 57, statue dedicated by Nikandre; 64, kouros from Volomandra; 65,
Boston 128,
head
relief;
197,
relief;
245,
from
three-sided
Homer;
254, 266,
425
hist of Places
bowl; 325, terra-cotta barber; 354,
te; 336,
Ephesos
statuet-
gem by
LiPARI
Museo
Temple of Artemis, 14
archeologico, 483, pyxis
Dexamenos; 381, gold Nike; 386, gold pin head; 458, skyphos painted by Makron; 466,
white lekythos; 467, phiale
Brussels
Musees Royaux, 503, wooden
Epidauros British
Temple of Asklepios, 34
177,
Florence
Fitzwilliam
Museum,
352,
gem
archeologico,
441,
50,
178,
trapezios;
Demeter
213,
of
Knidos; 248, Apotheosis of
vase; 165, Idolino
Homer; 272, banqueter; 281, goat; 299, greave; 311, silver phiale; 313, bronze shoulder
FocE DEL Sele
diadem from Vix
frieze;
442, 443, 511, 512, Francois
by Dexamenos
Chatillon-sur-Seine Musee archeologique, 302, 303, bronze krater from Vix; 379,
Phigaleia
Erechtheion karyatid; 180, Nereid; Mausoleum 200, frieze; Herakles Epi204,
table
Cambridge
hydria;
from Didyma; 125, kore from Xanthos; 137Parthenon sculptures; 143,
60, 69, statues
Tholos, 40 Theatre, 41, 42 Palaistra, 46 Hotel, 49
Museo
London Museum, 45,
piece; 317, 319, mirrors; 338,
Temple of Hera, 12
Bellerophon;
342,
343,
347,
360-372, coins; 373, gold plaque; 380, jewelterra
GORDION
cottas;
lery; 418, 420, 426, early vases;
391, wall painting
450, 452, 459, 461, 469, 470, 475, 496-499, Athenian vases;
Copenhagen
Ny
Carlsberg
Rayet head; 243,
Grottaferrata
Glyptotek, 166,
82,
Abbey, 167,
478, South Italian vase; 491,
stele
492,
Anakreon;
Demosthenes
National
Museum,
lamps;
limestone
502,
statuette; 518, inscription
Museum,
255,
and
Victoria
Heraklion
318, silver cup
from
statuette
Museum,
Albert
510, textile
Dreros; 331, 332, terra cottas
Melbourne
Corinth
Temple of Apollo, 10
National Gallery of Victoria, 423, Chalcidian amphora
Hildesheim
Museum Delos Museum, 251, Gaios Ophellios
(formerly,
Berlin),
323,
silver
now
in
patera;
324, plaster relief
Milan Private collection, 434, potter hydria
on
Ischia
Delphi
Museum,
Temple of Apollo, 19 Treasury of the Athenians, 39 55, 56, Kleobis and
Museum
Biton; 94, 106, 108, sculptures from Siphnian Treasury; 116, Charioteer; 203, Agias; 247,
base of statue of Aemilius Paulus; 377, gold flowers
Antikensammlung, 63, kouros from Tenea; 84, kouros from Istanbul marble door; 158, Hermes; 170, Lycian sarcophagus; 205, Alexander sarco-
Museum,
51,
phagus; 259, Bronze statuette from Ephesos; 273, ivory statuette from Ephesos
KORKYRA Temple of Artemis, 8 Museum, 62, pediment
426
wooden
amphora
Hermitage, 506-509,
312, textiles
electrum
sculptures
113,
186,
Eirene;
statuette;
451,
454, 455, 460, Athenian vases; 479, South Italian vase
Mykonos 431, pithos
Naples Nazionale, 119, Aristogeiton; 155, Doryphoros; 216,
Leningrad running maiden;
413, 414, Proto-Attic
274,
112,
Aegina;
Museo
Eleusis Telesterion, 44 99,
Attica;
from
Museum,
DiDYMA Temple of Apollo, 35
Museum,
Munich
411, geometric vase
Euripides; jar;
233,
Gaul;
289,
357, 358, cameo; 393, 395, 398, 399, wall paintings; satyr;
;
List of Places
396, 406, mosaics; 438, 480, 481, 482, South Italian vases;
Reggio
OSTIA
Museum,
Museum,
122, Themistokles
339, 505, Locrian reliefs
462, Athenian vase
Oxford Ashmolean Museum, 337, 340, terra cottas; 427, East Greek
New York Metropolitan Museum of Art, 54, kouros; 61, 73, 74, 171, 516, archaic stelai; 350, 351, 353, 356,
Maenad; votive
relief;
gems;
238, bronze Eros
252, 270, 277, 279, 283, 286,
bronze statuettes; 304, 316, bronze mirrors; 306, 307, 309, 310, bronze hydriai; 308, bronze foot-bath; 333, terra288,
cotta
348,
334,
relief;
terra-cottas;
335,
355,
375, 376, 382, 383, earrings; 384, necklace;
Paestum Temples of Hera and Athena, bronze hydria; 111, metopes from
301,
110,
81,
Foce del Sele
Palermo
Museo
nazionale,
77,
134,
80,
metopes from Selinus
387, safety-pin; 388, diadem;
Paris
401, wall painting; 403, South
Louvre, 58, Auxerre figure; 67,
vase;
Italian
mosaic;
405,
geometric vase; 412, 410, Proto-Attic vase; 421, Corinthian vase; 433, Lydian vase;
435, 444, 445, 447, 448, 449,
463,
465,
472,
473,
476,
Athenian vases; 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 490, Hellenistic vases
514—515, glass vases Pierpont Morgan Library, 322, silver cup Walter Baker collection, 291, bronze dancer; 315, bronze
mirror; 344, terra-cotta statuette
from Samos;
statue
144, Parthenon frieze; 'Venus Genetrix'; 175, record relief; 190, Artemis from Gabii; 191, Aphrodite from Aries; 228, Aphrodite from Melos; 230, Nike of Samothrace; 242, Chrysippos; 284, 285, 293, bronze statuet164,
wooden
292,
statuette;
pithos;
Temple of Hera, 9 Temple of Zeus, 22 Museum, 59, head of Hera?; 114, Zeus and Ganymede; 117, 123, 132, 133, sculptures
the
temple
of
Zeus;
;
Nationale,
287,
Museum,
dei
Gessi,
244, 119,
Epi-
Aristo-
geiton; 227, Ariadne Villa
bronze hydria
amphora
landscape; 446, 513,
by Exekias 484, krater painted by Asteas
Museo
Boeotian
Ama-
163,
214,
owl;
428, bird-nester; 439, 453, 456,
Bibliothcque
Crouching Gaul and
Aphrodite; 232, Dying Gaul; 240, Centaur; 394, mosaic of doves Conservatori Museum, 130, stele; 201, Pothos; 225, Niobid Lateran Collection, now in the Vatican Museum, 136, Marsyas; 215, Sophokles Vatican Museum, 131, stele; 157, Perikles; 188, Aphrodite of Knidos; 189, Apollo Sauroktonos; 202, Apoxyomenos; 208, the eagle and Ganymede; 212, Apollo of Belvedere; 223, Tyche of Antioch; 227, Ariadne; 236, Laokoon; 237, Belvedere Torso; 400, Odyssey zon;
Barracco kouros
424,
231,
Museum,
Capitoline
327, terra-cotta plough; 419,
464, 517, Athenian vases
Olympia
159,
Ram-
stele;
Petit Palais, 300,
from
71,
pin head; 95, kore; 105, incised
tes;
176, Niobid; 226,
Aphr(xlite;
wife; 402, wall painting
15, 16, 17, 18
Museum,
bracelet;
385,
124, 127, three-
sided relief; 135, Diskobolos;
345, ring;
Rome Termc Museum,
160,
219,
172, stele
cup; 474, 501, Athenian vases; 477, Kabeiric cup
148, 349,
Amazon;
162,
Rhodes
Museum,
Albani,
169,
stele;
174,
relief
Villa Giulia, 432, Caeretan hydria
bronze statuette of negro; 425, Laconian kylix; 457, Attic kylix;
149,
gem
Salonike Archaeological Museum, 321, bronze krater; 407 mosaic; 520, papyrus roll
Pergamon Altar, 38
Nike by Paionios; 193,
194,
Hermes
258,
karyatid;
runner;
280,
of
bronze
bronze
Samos
Phigaleia
Praxiteles;
276,
See Bassae
Tigani
96, statue de-
dicated by Aiakes
horse;
296, 297, griffin heads; 298, embossed shield band
Museum,
Vathy Museum,
Piraeus
Museum,
146,
amazonomachy
263,
264,
68,
267,
Philippe;
268,
bronze
statuettes; 500, footstool
Pompeii
Olynthos 47, 48, houses; 404, mosaic
Villa
Item
(dci
wall painting
Misteri),
397,
Sardis
Temple of Artemis, 36
427
List of Places Segesta
Selinus
Temple 'C,
VOLO
Sperlonga
Museum,
Museum, 239
Temple, 29
11, 13
SOUNION
Temple of Poseidon, 26
TlVOLI Villa of Hadrian, 161,
Amazon;
179, karyatid
Vienna Kunsthistorisches Museum, 182, relief from Gjolbaschi
428
392, painted stele
Washington Dumbarton Oaks Foundation, 278, 290, bronze statuettes
;
INDEX OF NAMES
Numbers
in italic refer to figures
Aspasios, gem engraver, 253 Asteas, vase painter, 363; 484
Athanodoros, 236 Athena Painter, 346 Athenaios, 376 Achilles Painter, 349, 358; 466 Ada, 48, 395, ch. 3, n. 20 Aemilius Paulus, 181; 247 'Affecter', vase painter, 334 Agamemnon, 17 Agathangelos, gem engraver, 253
Agorakritos, sculptor, 122 Aiakcs, 82 cf. 96 Aischylos, 43, 44, 160, 277, 380 Alexander the Great, 38, 41, 48, 154, 166, 204 251, 260, 272, 278, 289; ;
205, 292 Alkamcnes, sculptor, 33, 122, 204,
394, ch. 3, n. 13; 158 Alkibiades, 49 Alkmaionidai, 31 Alxcnor of Naxos, sculptor, 86;
103 Alyattes, 217 Amasis, potter, 332 Amasis Painter, 332; 447, 448 Amykos Painter, 359
Anakreon, 129; 166 Anaxagoras, 277 Andokides Painter, 335; 449 Antenor, sculptor, 80, 99; 91
Antimachos of Bactria, 260; 371 Antiochos I of Syria, 260; 370 Antiochos III, 209 Antiochos IV Epiphanes, 39
Atheniades, gem engraver, 248 Athenion, gem engraver, 251; 357 Attalos I, 174 Attalos 11, 45
Bathykles, 372 Berlin Painter, 345; 461 Biton, 57; 56 Boethos, gem engraver, 252 Boutades of Sikyon, sculptor, 94 Bryaxis, sculptor, 154; 207 Brygos, potter, 341 Brygos Painter, 341 ; 457
Artemisia, 48
Endoios, sculptor, 82; Epikouros, 177; 244
cf.
97
^2>(i;452
Chairestratos, sculptor, 169;
224
Chares, 68 Cheirisophos, metal worker, 224; cf. 318 Cheramyes, 64; 67 Chicago Painter, 347 Choephoroi Painter, 359 Chrysippos, 177; 242 Cicero, 33, 209, 226 Cossutius, 39 Creusa Painter, 359
367
Croesus, 29, 68, 74, 196, 217, 255,
sculptor, 181;
246
Daochos, 49, 153 Darius Painter, 360; 480
Deepdecne
Painter, 343, 347 Demetrios of Alopeke, sculptor,
129
Demetrios of Phaleron, 162 Demetrius, 118 Demokritos, 277 Demosthenes, 177, 267; 243, 359 Dermys, 58, 190
Dexamenos, gem engraver, 248; 352, 354 Dexilcos, \(32;
217,519
cf.
sculptor,
181,
183;
250
Eucharides Painter, 517 Eucheiros, sculptor, 94 Euclid, 397, ch. 10, n. 5 Eudemos, sculptor, 67 Eugrammos, sculptor, 94 Eukleidas, coin designer, 255, 259
314 Cyclops Painter, 478
Damophon,
vase painter, see Kleophrades Painter Epimenes, gem engraver, 247; cf. 351 Epitynchanos, gem engraver, 253 Erbach Painter, 353 Eretria Painter, 350; 468 Ergotimos, potter, 330 (.; 441 — 444 Euainetos, coin designer, 255, 259;
Epiktetos,
Euboulides,
ApoUodoros, painter, 277 ApoUonios, sculptor, 237
Aristokles, sculptor, 86; 102 Aristokles of Sikyon, sculptor. 111 Aristophanes, 43, 245, 248, 382 Aristotle, 52, 244, 273, 277, 380 Arkcsilaos, sculptor, 183 Arkesilas of Kyrcnc, 309; 425
Painter, 353; 474 Dionysios of Halikarnassos, 288 Dionysios of Syracuse, 51 Dionysios of Athens, sculptor, 183 Diopos, sculptor, 94 Dioskourides, gem engraver, 253; cf. 359 Dioskourides, mosaic artist, 291 406 Diosphos Painter, 346 Doidalsas, sculptor, 169, 208; 226 Dolon Painter, 359 Douris, vase painter, 343; 459
Epiktetos, potter and vase painter,
Apellcs, painter, 278
Archeiaos of Priene, sculptor, 181; 248 Archermos of Chios, sculptor, 69; cf. 72 Aridikcs of Corinth, painter, 276 Aristeides of Thebes, 277 Aristion, 86; 102 Aristogeiton, 98; 119
Dinos Painter, 350 Diogenes Lacrtios, 156
Diomed
Agatharchos, painter, 277
Agathopous, gem engraver, 252 Agias, 153; 203
Dexios, 166
Eumencs
II,
40, 175,
389
Eumenes, coin designer, 248, 255 Euodos, gem engraver, 253 Euphranor, sculptor, 156, 394, ch. 2, n. 1; 210 Euphronios, potter and vase painter, 340; 453, 454 Euphyes, 166 Eupompos, painter, 277, 282 Euripides, 31, 43, 141, 160, 277, 368, 383; 216, 490 Euthydemos of Bactria, 181, 260 Euthymides, vase painter, 340; 455 Eutychidcs, sculptor, 168; 22^
429
;
of
Names
Exekias, potter and vase painter, 332, 383; 446, 451, 513
Felix,
Kresilas,
sculptor,
126,
120,
127;
157, 163 Kritios, sculptor, 99; 119 'Kritios' boy, 87
Pasiteles, sculptor,
Krito, 131; 172 Kroisos, see Croesus Kydon, 126, 127 Kypselos, 211, 304, 378
gem engraver, 253
Gaios Ophellios, 183; 251 Gamedes, potter, 309 Gelon, gem engraver, 252
217 Glykon, copyist, 153
Leagros, 340 Leochares, sculptor, 154, 155; 208 Leonidas, 50 Livy, 209, 307 Lucian, 109, 127, 141, 144, 274, 279
Gnosis, signed mosaic, 407 Gorgon Painter, 330; cf. 439
Lucretius, 397, ch. 10, n. 5 Lydos, vase painter, 331 445
Geneleos, sculptor, 66; cf. 68 Glaukos of Chios, metal worker,
Gorges, potter, 398, ch.
11, n.
;
23
Lykaion Painter, 350 Lykourgos, 43, 44, 160 Lysikrates, 49
Hagesandros, sculptor, 174; 236 Harmodios, 98 Hediste, 278 392 Hegeso, 131, 374; 168 Hektoridas, sculptor, 138 Herakleidas, gem engraver, 252; coin designer, 255, 259; 366 Herodes Atticus, 44 Herodotos, 31, 56, 82, 211, 217, 244 Hesychios, 277, 370 Hieron, potter, 342; 458 Hieron II, 40 Hilinos, potter, 335 Hippodamos of Miletos, architect, 52 ;
Homer,
23, 181, 370, 375, 376, 383;
245, 248 Hyllos, gem engraver, 253
Lysippos, of Sikyon, sculptor, 141, 153, 154, 156, 160, 166, 200, 208,
25^;
202-204
Lysistratos, sculptor, 156
painter, 342; 458 Mantiklos, 186; cf. 254 Maussollos, 48, 160 Meidias Painter, 350; 469, 470
Makron, vase
Meleager Painter, 352 Menander (?), 154; 206 Menon, potter, 336 Mikkiades of Chios, sculptor, 69; cf.
72
Mikon, painter, 277 Minos, 15
sculptor,
109,
111,
253:
135, 136
28
Jena Painter, 353
Myr(on), coin designer, 255, 259
Naukydes, sculptor, 126 Nearchos, potter and vase painter, 331
Kalamis, sculptor, 109 Kallikrates, architect, 33 Kallimachos, sculptor, 122; cf. 160 Kallon of Aegina, sculptor. 111 Kanachos of Sikyon, sculptor. 111 Kephisodotos, sculptor, 141, 144, 208; 186, 187 Kephisodotos, son of Praxiteles, 154 Kimon of Kleonai, painter, 276 Kimon, coin designer, 255, 259;
365 Kittylos, 58, 190
Kleanthes of Corinth, painter, 276 Kleisis, 68 Kleitias, vase painter, 330, 331
Nesiotes, sculptor, 99; 119 Nessos Painter, 255, 327; 416, 417 Nikandre, 60; 57 Nikias of Athens, planter, 277, 279;
395 Nikosthenes, potter, 334 Niobid Painter, 347; 464
Oltos, vase painter, 336 Onatas of Aegina, sculptor. 111 Onatas, gem engraver, 248 Onesas, gem engraver, 252 Onesimos, gem engraver, 247 Ornithe, 66
441-443 Kleobis, 57; 55
Paionios, sculptor, 122; 159
Kleophon
Pamphilos, painter, 277 Pan Painter, 138, 347 Panaitios Painter, 341 456
^ainter, 350 Kleophrades Painter, 277,
460, 462
430
343 f;
183
Pausanias, 27, 32, 35, 38, 42, 45, 53, 82, 111, 120, 141, 144, 147, 150, 156, 168, 183, 273, 277, 371, 378, 394, ch. 3, n. 1 Pausias of Sikyon, painter, 277 Peisistratos, 29, 31, 69, 255, 335 Peithinos, vase painter, 341 Penthesileia Painter, 347; 465 Pergamos, gem engraver, 248 Periander, 304 Perikles, 33, 44, 112f., 122; 157 Perseus of Macedon, 260; 372 Phainerete, 131 Pharnabazos, 396, ch. 8, n. 8 Pheidias, sculptor, 32, 34, 48, 55, 113, 116, 118, 120, 126, 127, 208, 209, 249, 253, 261, 371, 385; cf. 137-154, 161 Pheidias, gem engraver, 252 Phiale Painter, 350; 467 Phileia, 66
Philetairos of Pergamon, 260 Philippe, 66; 68 Philiskos of Rhodes, sculptor, 183 Philokles, painter, 276 Philoxenos of Eretria, painter, 282; cf.
396
Phintias, potter
and vase
painter,
340
Phradmon,
sculptor, 126 f. Phrasikleia, 131 Phrygillos, gem engraver, 248, 255 Pisticci Painter, 359; cf. 478 Pistoxenos Painter, 347 Plato, 44, 156, 160, 206, 273, 370,
376; 209
Mithradates III, 261 Mithradates, 156 Mnesikles, architect, 42
Myron, Idrieus, 48, 395, ch. 3, n. 20 Iktionos, architect, 33, 35; cf.
Parrhasios of Ephesos, painter, 277
;
Pliny the Elder, 53, 54, 94, 120, 141, 150, 153, 154, 155, 162, 181, 183, 209, 245, 252, 253, 276, 278, 279, 285, 384 Plotinos, 10, 23 Plutarch, 49, 58, 113, 277 Pollis, 394, ch. 2, n. 1 Pollux, 380 Polydoros, sculptor, 236 Polyeuktos, sculptor, 177; cf.
126, 169, 273,
243 Polygnotos of Thasos, painter, 46, 276 f., 346 Polygnotos, vase painter, 350, 358 Polykleitos of Argos, sculptor, 120, 126, 127, 129, 153, 200, 208, 209, 243, 253, 394, ch. 2, n. 1; 155, 156, 162,
348
Polykleitos the Younger, architect,
41,43;cf. 41,42 Polykrates of Samos, 30, 82, 244 Polykrates, coin designer, 255, 259 Pompe Painter, 353; 473 Poulydamas, 153 Praxiteles of Athens, sculptor, 141, 144, 147, 149, 162, 201, 208, 217,
253,277; 188-194 Primato Painter, 362; 481 Pronomos Painter, 352 Psammetichos, 56 Psiax, vase painter, 335 450 Ptolemy I, 177 Ptolemy II, 49 Pyrgoteles, gem engraver, 252 ;
Index of Pythagoras, sculptor, 109 Pythcas, sculptor, 253 Pythios, architect, 394, ch. 2, n. Python, vase painter, 363
1
Quintilian, 118, 277
Sophilos, potter and vase painter, 255, 330; 440 Sophoklcs, 42, 160, 380; 215 Sosias, gem engraver, 248 Sosias Painter, 341 Sosion, coin designer, 255 Sosos, painter, of Pergamon, 282; cf.
Reed
Painter, 352 Rhoikos, architect, 30 (Rh)ombos, 68; cf. 70
Sappho
397
Sostratos of Knidos, architect, 49 Sotades Painter, 343, 347 Strabo, 111, 244, 307 Strongylion, sculptor, 122 Suessula Painter, 352; 472 Syries, gem engraver, 247
Scipio, 209
Silanion, sculptor, 156, 160, 394, ch. 2, n. 1 209 Sisyphos Painter, 360; 479 Skopas of Paros, sculptor, 38, 141, 149, 150, 153, 253; cf. 198-200 Sokrates, 141, 160 ;
Theodotos, coin designer, 255 Theseus Painter, 346 Thcspis, 42 Thrasymedes, sculpt<;r, 38, 138 Timarchides of Athens, sculptor, 183 Timarchos, sculptor, 154 Timariste, 131
;
1
72
Timothcos, sculptor, 138, 154, 155f. Tissaphcrnes, 396, ch.
8, n.
8
Tleson Painter, 334 Triglyph Painter, 352
Villa Giulia Painter, 347 Vitruvius, 20, 23, 156, 277, 279, 283, 285, 397, ch. 10, n. 5
Painter, 346
Seleukos, 153 Semon, gem engraver, 247 Seneca, 245
Names
Talos Painter, 352 Tarporley Painter, 360 f. Tclekles, 244 Tclephanes of Sikyon, painter, 276 Themistokles, 100, 277; 122 Theodoros, architect, 30 Theodoros of Samos, gem engraver, 244 Theodotos, architect, 38
Woman
Painter, 352
Xenophantos
Painter,
352
Zeuxis of Herakleia, painter, 277
431
bout this book... 520 musrranons
An
authoritative
and beautifully
illustrated
introduction to the Greek visual arts by one of the great archaeologists of our time. Dr. Richter's
and concise presentation will enable every reader, whether or not he has a previous knowledge of ancient Greece, to understand one lucid
of the greatest chapters in the history of European
and to appreciate the countless masterpieces that have survived from Hellenic times.
art
The book, now redesigned,
is
in
its
sixth edition
and
divided into chapters dealing with
architecture, large-si2e sculptures, statuettes
small
reliefs,
and
metalwork, gems, coins, jewellery,
paintings and mosaics, pottery and vase painting,
ornament and epigraphy. It is completed by notes, a bibliography and a chronology of Greek sculpture. For many years, Dr. Richter was Curator of Greek and Roman Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Cover design by Edward Gould. furniture, textiles, glass,
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