METROPOLITAN PLANNING IN BANGLADESH WITH REFLECTIONS ON KHULNA CITY MASTER PLAN 1961 AND THE CURRENT TREND By Akhter Husain Chaudhury Associate Professor Urban and Rural Planning Discipline Khulna University Khulna 9208, BANGLADESH e-mail: 3wnet bdonline.com Abstract Evolved by the British, master plan approach to urban planning was introduced in the sub-continent during 1950s. But within a decade it faced challenges about its ability to tackle the dynamic nature of the problems of urban living environment. In Bangladesh master plan age started in late fifties, but without a commendable success. A new phase of planning initiative began in early 1980s in line with British Development Planning concept. But the old system of master plan still continues within the new plan package as the age long practices of urban planning and development control could not be replaced by a compatible system. Presently urban planning in Bangladesh is maintaining a low profile not only because politicians and bureaucrats are less aware about the discipline but also that the planners themselves and their professional bodies have failed to uphold their own profession.
Urban development based on master plan approach was introduced in Britain during late 40s, after end of World War II. Master plan approach to modern city development was brought to the Indian sub-continent by the British planning experts in 1950s and 60s. The decision makers in the erstwhile East Pakistan indulged indulged into master plan techniques techniques in late fifties, as an instrument to redress the urban ills, particularly, in fast growing major cities that later on turned into metropolises. But after over one and a half decades of its inception master plan concept was challenged internationally about its capability to address the diverse and dynamic nature of urban problems. There has been exhaustive deliberations on the effectiveness of the master plan concept during 1980s and 1990s sponsored by UN and among the international planning professionals. But how far it has been successful in reversing the traditional spatial planning system in the developing countries still remains a big question. Physical planning for urban development in Bangladesh began during late 1950s based on master plan approach. The master plans prepared during late 50s and early 60s for major cities of the country served as the basis for urban development in the concerned cities till 1970s. All these first phase plans expired by early 80s. After a break of about a decade a new phase of spatial planning emerged from early 1990s reinforced by the new generation planning professionals. There have been genuine attempts by donors and international consultants to reverse the traditional planning concept of ’ blue print planning’ to ‘process planning’. But the overall environment does not seem to be congenial enough for adoption of the new system of urban planning. The Master Plan Age
Master Plan for major Cities In the context of spatial planning, the period from late 1950s to early 1960s can be termed as the ‘master plan age’ in Bangladesh. During this period three comprehensive master plans were prepared for three major cities of the country. In 1956 Dhaka Improvement Trust (DIT) was created for organised development of the provincial capital city of Dhaka of the then East
Pakistan. This organisation was renamed as Rajdhani Unnayan Kartripakkha (RAJUK) during mid ‘80s with some structural changes (GoB,1953). Nearly in the same period two more similar bodies were set up in Chittagong and Khulna Cities called Chittagong Development Authority and the Khulna Development Authority respectively. The broad functions of all these prototype urban development agencies were city planning, development and development control. Immediately after establishment of these bodies they were directed to prepare city planning projects for organised development of their respective cities. The then government sought British technical assistance for preparation of master plans for Dhaka and Chittagong cities under the Colombo Agreement. A British Consortium of consultants, M/S Minoprio Spensely and P.W. Macfarlane was engaged to carry out the assignment. In 1959 two master plans were produced simultaneously for the two major cities-Dhaka and Chittagong. Later on, they were also assigned Khulna City and the master plan for city was accomplished in 1961. These were the first ever comprehensive city plans in Bangladesh prepared in a style and manner same as the British master plans prepared for British towns during late 1940s to early 1960s. Master Plan Concept and Style Master plan is a statutory plan introduced by the British during post World War II period of urban re-construction drive in Europe. The master plan of a town or city or an urban centre can be described as a mosaic of land uses woven together by a network of streets and transportation routes, water, sanitation and communication channels (DIT,1953). To arrange all these facilities properly is the function of a master plan. Besides, it also contains orderly zoning of future land uses. In brief an urban development master plan is a guide to orderly development of an urban centre in order to promote health, safety, welfare and convenience of the people. As described by Ratcliff “ it has developed from the technical professions architecture, surveying and engineering and has consequently produced solutions to urban problems that are predominantly physical in character, such as land use maps, zoning, density controls, building regulations and planning standards” (Ratcliff,1978).However, there is no universal definition of a master plan. Its nature, contents and coverage may vary from country to country depending on their respective social, economic, physical, environmental and other conditions. There exist provisions of master planning in the respective acts/ ordinance of four metropolitan development authorities and the municipal / city corporation ordinances of Bangladesh.To quote from Town Improvement Act, 1953 ( based on which Rajdhani Unnayan Kartripakkha or Capital Development Authority was established), Section 73(1), “As soon as may be after the 1953 provision of the Act comes into force, the (Kartripakkha) shall prepare a master plan for the area within its jurisdiction indicating the manner in which it proposes that land should be used (whether by carrying out of development or thereon otherwise) and the stages by which any such development should be cried out”.
Regarding contents and presentation of the plan the Act adds, “ The master plan shall include such maps and such descriptive masters as may be necessary, to illustrate the proposals aforesaid with such degree of particularity as may be appropriate.
Thus it throws the master planning into a total flexibility. Again in the next part of the sentence it breaks the flexibility by saying, ”…….and any such plan may, in particular, define the sites of proposed roads, or fields, parks, pleasure grounds, and other open spaces or allocate areas of land for use for
agricultural, residential, industrial or other purpose of any class specified in the Master Plan,” .(GoB, 1953). The conditions are the same for all the metropolitan development authority acts/ordinances and Municipal and City Corporation Ordinances where there are provisions for master plan preparation. Until the preparation of the first ever master by the Dhaka Improvement Trust for Dhaka City in 1959 it was not possible to know the actual style and contents of a master plan. In 1959 two prototype master plans were prepared for Dhaka and Chittagong cities followed by the master plan of Khulna City. All the three master plans were prepared by the same British consultants in the same style and manner. Khulna City Master Plan 1961 : Framework and Features
The Khulna City master plan was prepared for an area of 70 sq. miles or 113 sq. km area which later on became the jurisdiction of Khulna Development Authority (KDA,1961). The plan was marked by four basic sets of proposals: • • • •
Land Use Zoning Development Basic Infrastructure Development and Administration and Implementation of the plan.
The entire set of proposals was prepared in a macro framework emphasizing on the physical setting of the plan area. Stated in simplified form the plan does not go for detailed analysis of the situation and background of the proposals. Most proposals were set in the form of out line instead of programs and projects. The final output of 1961 master plan project were, two versions of plans, at scales, 1: 20,000 and 1: 3960 and a supporting explanatory report. The plan in the scale of 1:3960 conforms to the cadastral survey map of early 20th century comprising revenue plots and mouza boundaries. This level of plan scale was chosen to ease implementation of development control regulations and land acquisition for undertaking development projects. The plan in 1: 20,000 scale was prepared primarily for use as a ready reference. The supporting plan report was intended to explain proposal details that were not possible to convey through plans/maps only. Following are the major features of 1961 master plan of Khulna city: 1.
3.
The plan made a 20 year forecast of master plan area population and proposed various urban services and development projects. The future city area was demarcated on buildable land and the entire area was grouped into major land use zones divided by hierarchy of road networks. The plan proposed recommendations on such services and facilities as,
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Open space, Road network. Site for health and education facilities, Market centre, Waste disposal points, Drainage
4.
Legal and administrative recommendations were set forth for implementation of plan provisions.
2.
Review of Implementation of Master Plan Proposals
Population According to 1961 census the population of Khulna City was 1,28,000.Considering 2.2% as annual growth rate the plan projected a population of 4,00,000 in the year 1981. The projection was made in consideration of a number of socio-economic factors prevailing in this region during early sixties. From 1961 to 1981 there had been substantial changes in the size of population caused by the changes in national, regional and local socio-economic and political conditions, which upset many of the master plan projections. According to 1974 census data the size of population of the municipality was 4,37,000. According 1981 population census the population KDA area was 6,65,000 which was over 66% of what was projected by master plan for the year 1981. This demographic changes consequently upset many master plan proposals and served as a major factor impeding smooth implementation of plan proposals. Transportation Sector In transport sector the plan touches all the transport means available in the city during early sixties. Road proposals were framed in the form of routes. Eighteen routes and other road projects were proposed in total. Except two routes (Route-1 and 2) all the routes were new road proposals in the form bypass, ring road, link road, relief road and bundh road. Of the road proposals nine were implemented fully, while two were implemented partially. This gives a 61.11% achievement in the road sub-sector. Brief proposals on waterway sector comprise, mainly, reconstruction and improvement of exiting facilities, institutional development of Inland Water Transport Authority (IWTA) and Chalna Port Authority offices. Reconstruction and expansion of the Khulna steamer station with improved facilities were proposed that were executed partially. A Port Trust was also suggested for Chalna Port which was done accordingly. However, the suggestion for merging railway and IWTA was not done as per plan. Khulna railway station enjoys a central location plus proximity to the IWTA waterway Ghat. To improve the condition of the node further the plan proposed relocating and rebuilding railway station on a more spacious lines slightly to the south of present site closer to a proposed bus station. In order to create new railway housing area the plan proposed 168 acres west of Jessore Road, which falls within present Sheikhpara of the city area. However, none of the proposal for development of railway facilities was materialized. Khulna was envisaged as the terminal point for road traffic and an interchange point between road, railway and river transport. The aim of the road proposals was, therefore, to create more efficient system for traffic circulating in the town, rather than deal with the thorough traffic. The plan indicated for a airport at Fultala, north of the city on an area of 1,860 acres, about 13 miles north of Khulna. But no airport project was implemented there, possibly because an airport already exists at Jessore, about 100 kms north of Khulna. Public Space and Building Four major sites were proposed by the plan for locating public buildings. The first site, on about 295 acres, was proposed in between Daulatpur and Khulna by the Jessore Road to accommodate divisional and central (erstwhile) government offices, staff quarters and ancillary service facilities. The above sites were chosen to create an integrated relationship with the proposed surrounding activity areas, like, stadium, hotel, medical college and hospital and educational establishments in a setting of attractive parkland.
A civic centre was proposed in a central place between Bhairab Strand Road and KD Ghosh Road to accommodate public offices and ancillary public facilities. Khulna Development Authority building was also proposed to be accommodated within this civic centre. Another building zone was proposed on the Lower Jessore Road facing the Maidan and extending south to the proposed Central Area Ring Road. A town centre over an area of 87 acres was proposed for Daulatpur keeping in view of the need to develop Daulatpur as a self contained town. The proposed town centre was conceived to accommodate local public buildings, places of entertainment, shopping and commerce. However, it was not implemented. About 33 acres of land was acquired by Government on the western side of Jessore Road where establishments like Divisional Commissioner, Bangladesh rifles (BDR), and some some government residences have been set up. No land was acquired on the eastern side following the plan proposal. Though the idea of civic centre was not implemented through clearance of the site as proposed, many new administrative establishments, like, DC office, court building were developed in the area creating the place a public activity area. The public building zone proposal on Lower Jessore Road was not implemented. However, substantial part of the proposed land remains within government control till now. Housing The plan estimated 11,225 acres of land for accommodating about 4 hundred and 71 thousand population by the year 1981. The plan also recommended a minimum gross density of 70 persons per acre. The plan earmarked housing land use zone in different parts of the planning area.
Implementation of housing proposals has two main dimensions, -
execution of housing development projects, either on public or on private initiatives, and, implementation of housing land use provision through development control mechanism.
Upto mid eighties, in the public sector, there were two main actors in housing developmentHousing and Settlement Directorate (HSD) and Khulna Development Authority (KDA). HSD has lately been converted into National Housing Authority. Both of these agencies were, primarily, responsible for housing development. They provided housing land through site and services projects. HSD developed the entire Khalishpur Township for housing and industrial development and Boira Housing Estate during 1960s. The major housing projects of KDA are, Sonadanga Housing Estate, Mujgunni Housing Estate and Nirala Housing Estate. HSD and KDA together developed 12 housing projects over an area of about 1039 acres, which is only about 9.25% of the recommended 11,225 acres of housing land. However, overwhelming part of the housing development was carried out by individual land owners on private initiatives. Private organised housing development (cooperative or commercial) hardly existed in Khulna before 1981. Regarding implementation of housing land use zoning provision, it is observed that there were land use zoning violations, but those were not so severe as had happened in case big cities like, Dhaka. Informal housing settlement developed almost every where in the city irrespective of master plan land use provisions. Open Space Open space was perhaps the most neglected area of master plan implementation. The planning area had only 37.10 acres of formal open space during preparation of the master plan, mostly in scattered and small patches. The ratio was only 0.43 acre per 1000 population. The plan
recommended 4 acres per 1000 population and proposed 21 open space projects to attain the above standard. But only four projects were implemented partly, while 17 projects were not at all implemented. Out of proposed 1566 acres of open space proposals only 97 acres could be put into formal open space use, which stands at only little over 6% of the total, while in consideration of the number of project implementation the figure stands at 7.14%. The reason for low level of open space development lies in the failure of the open space projects to pay back project costs. The Planning Commission, the approving authority of the public sector projects, on principal prioritises those projects that pay back costs of development. Since open space projects usually have no return they get least priority in resource allocation. Commerce Commercial development proposals in the master plan were in the form of commercial land use earmarked at different locations and site development for specific commercial purposes. The plan recommended for two town/civic centres at Daulatpur and Khulna main city area on an area of 87 acres and 40 acres respectively. But none of these proposals were executed. Markets, shops and commercial sites were proposed at 13 locations, development took place only at 3 locations. Including two town/civic centres, altogether there were 15 commercial development proposals in the master plan of which only 3 could be implemented. In percentage, the performance stands at 20 only. However, the greatest failure was that the concerned authority failed to check large scale informal commercial development taking place almost any where in the city, mostly as ribbon development which was not foreseen by the consultants of the master plan. Industrial Area During preparation of the master plan Khulna was experiencing an industrial boom due to its jute goods export supported by its excellent transport and port facilities. The master plan consultants expected further expansion of industrial activities and recommended an area of 5060 acres for industrial and storage use at 15 locations throughout the planning area. But it was proved to be a wrong apprehension. From early 60s the export market was dwindling and by 1970s it almost collapsed. Industrial agglomerations gradually shifted to Dhaka and Chittagong. In the industrial estate developed over an area of 511 acres at Shiromoni area, outskirts of Khulna City, only a handful of industries have been developed so far. There already existed industrial agglomeration in Daulatpur and Khalishpur area that were marked as industrial zone in the master plan. About 465 acres of land marked for industries in the southern part of the city remained almost unutilised. It has been estimated that out of total industrial land, only about 1412 acres had been developed for industrial use which is only 28% of the total. In terms of industrial projects the percentage stands at 30.00% only. Lack of capital and export market, lack of entrepreneur and political turmoil in the country are among the major reasons for set back in smooth growth of the industrial sector. Other Proposals There were proposals for water supply network expansion, creation of sewerage network, new fire station, development of central eidgah and cemetery. Old jail was proposed to be shifted to a new site outside the city, so as the slaughter house. Bangladesh Rifles Sector Headquarters was proposed for shifting to a new site. No step was taken for development of sewerage network due to paucity of fund. Eidhag and cemeteries were not built, jail was not shifted, no new slaughter house was built during the plan period. Rifles Headquarters was shifted with slight change in the location. The plan recommended setting up of city fuel stations at appropriate locations through mutual discussion between KDA and the distribution companies instead of locating them on road
intersections. However, it did not happen. There exists an agricultural training centre on the north-western part of the city covering a large area. It was proposed to be shifted to outside the city in a rural environment. But the task was not accomplished. There was proposal for three general hospitals, instead one general hospital was built long after expiry of the plan period. The plan recommended for four specialised hospitals, but so far only one came into being. Planning Administration The plan report in its concluding parts sets forth some brief recommendations with regard to planning administration and plan implementation . However, it did not pinpoint the institutional lacking of KDA nor did it suggest any measure to overcome the same. The plan suggested KDA to work as executive authority for coordinating planning and development within KDA area. It was said in the plan document that all development proposals including those for use of land, erection of buildings, or change of use of existing buildings, whether by government departments or by private persons, should at the initial stage, be referred to the planning authority for consultation and decision. But it did not happen the same way as the plan recommended. The plan did consider whether the recommendations were feasible in terms of prevailing legal or administrative provisions and practices. As a result there was hardly any response from any public or private agency regarding adherence to the recommendations about coordination. Instead there were sheer disregard for the master plan. All agencies proceeded with their own development activities ignoring the master plan. Interesting enough, KDA or its controlling ministry hardly ever took any effective step to redress the problem. There are large number of departments working in the city under different ministries. Without a central and legally powerful body, it is difficult to coordinate activities of these departments belonging to many different ministries. In reality most departments considered the master plan as a KDA product and thought it to be only their affair to execute it. Therefore, other departments hardly felt any obligation to follow the provisions of the plan. The plan report also failed to make recommendations about institutional strengthening including recruitment of planning professionals to monitor plan execution and revise it. The plan, also did not spell out the mechanism to execute the proposals including sources of funding for execution. Problems of Evaluating the Status of Implementation Evaluation of the status of implementation of the master plan is an extremely difficult task. There are many elements of the plan implementation process that can not be quantified which restrict determination of an overall status of either individual sector or overall level of implementation of the plan proposals. For example, in housing sector the proposals call for maintaining certain density of population per acre. However, no mechanism was suggested to achieve the target. The plan earmarked certain areas for residential development, but did not mention how the housing would be developed in the those areas, through private residential development on individual effort or by public sector housing projects based on compulsory land acquisition. Same applies to commercial and industrial development. Despite all these constraints an attempt has been made to draw a rough picture of the level of implementation of major proposals based on the number of major projects in various sectors recommended and their full or partial implementation during the plan period. The overall assessment shows that on average only about 25% of the major development proposals of the Khulna Master Plan could be implemented during the plan period (Table:1.0).
Table: 1.0 Status of Implementation of Major Master Plan Proposals Sector
No. of Development Proposals
Road Transport Public Building Commerce Industrial Area Open Space Health Facilities Special Projects
18 4 15 15 21 7 4
Status of Implementation of Proposals Fully Partly or in Modified Form No. % No. % * 9 50 2 11.11 1 25.00 1 1250 3 20.00 3 20.00 3 10.00 3 7.14 1 15.71 1 7.86 1 0.13 Overall Status of Implementation :
Overall Implementation Status % 61.11 37.00 20.00 30.00 7.14 23.57 0.13 25.26
Note: Proposals partly implemented or implemented in modified form is valued as 50% of full implementation.
A Look into the Causes Behind Failure to Achieve Commandable Success in Master Implementation Causes behind failure to materialise master plan proposals can broadly be grouped under the following headings :
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Lack of appropriate legal measures, policy and institutional setting Enforcement failure Problems of responsibility sharing Lack of coordination Lack of resources Lack of awareness, and Prediction failure
Lack of Appropriate Legal Measures, Policy and Institutional Setting It is evident from past activities of the government that urban development is being gradually marginalised despite increasing GDP support to the national economy by the urban sector. It is evident that the urban sector had received greater importance and priority during pre-liberation period. There was an Urban Development Council at national level prior 1971 headed by the Chief Secretary of the erstwhile provincial government. There was also an Urban Development Division under the Ministry of Works headed by an Additional Secretary. All these were abolished after liberation. All these happened at a time when urbanisation in Bangladesh was maintaining faster rate than anywhere in south and south-east Asia. Implementation of master plan provisions in Dhaka, Chittagong and Khulna was more pronounced during pre-liberation period than after liberation. Of course, government policy change in favour of rural development and resources constraint were among the major reasons. However, there were sheer evidences of negligence, ignorance and disregard for urban development plans despite their superior legal and policy status. Khulna City Master 1961 was a statutory plan document legally prepared under the powers conferred by Section 22(1) of the Khulna Development Authority Ordinance 1961. The plan provisions were bindings on all concerned. But the reality was somewhat different. Most public
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sector agencies totally ignored the plan proceeded with their own development schemes. There were violations in respect of locating establishments and land use provisions. However, one lacking was that there were no provision in the legal document of KDA to compel public sector agencies follow the master plan recommendations. Due to weak institutional set up KDA failed to monitor and check large scale informal developments that grew over the years through violation of land use provisions of the master plan. Enforcement Failure East Bengal Building Construction 1952 empowers KDA to enforce development control rules to prevent growth of unlawful structures. It is also the custodian of the master plan and responsible for enforcement of the master plan proposals and land use provisions. But KDA despite all its powers utterly failed to uphold the master plan provisions. Khulna Development Authority Ordinance 1961 empowers KDA to penalise any person for any land development in contravention of master plan land use provisions. As Section 99 of the Ordinnance says,” whoever uses any land, included in a Master Plan in contravention of Section 23, shall be punishable— (i) (ii)
with fine which may extend to one thousand rupees and with a further fine which may extend to fifty rupees for each day after the first day during which such contravention continues.”
Though the penalty amount stated in the Ordinance is extremely meagre in the present context , but so far no one is known to have been penalised for the said violation, though the violation incidents are rather not infrequent. Problems of Responsibility Sharing Responsibility sharing is another problem in Bangladesh, particularly, in urban areas. Overlapping of functions is very common. It is found that more than one organisation doing the same work. The main reason for such a situation is that each organisation works under a separate ministry. There is no central arrangement for responsibility sharing, no measure for coordination of activities. Lack of Coordination Coordination is a major area of concern that lead to wastage of resources. Consultant of the master plan failed to realise and foresee ability of KDA in ensuring coordination among urban development agencies working under many different ministries. As a result repeated road cutting and filling of natural drainage systems resulted in wastage of resources and severe drainage problems in the city. Lack of Resources Lack of resource is perheps the most important reason for failure to implent development projects under the master plan. After liberation government emphasized on rural-agricultural development. Rural infrastructure received priority in resource allocation. As a result urban sector failed to receive adequate fund for implementing development projects. Lack of Awareness There is serious lack of awareness among public sector agencies about the necessity and importance of physical planning for urban development. Many public sector urban development agencies consider the master plan as KDA’s plan and they hardly feel any responsibility towards it. Land owners and developers are ignorant of the purpose, content, rules and provisions of the
master plan. People were never educated about the master plan nor there were any access of the general people to the master plan. Prediction Failure The study team of the master plan failed to make appropriate predictions about the future economy and demographic situation of the city. Failure to make appropriate projection of future the economy and demography upset many variables. As export market collapsed industrial growth came to stand still which affected the overall city economy and its growth. Population growth rate slowed down due to low rate of inmigration. As the city did not expand as per expectation necessity for development of many infrastructure was not felt. All the three master plans of Dhaka, Chittagong and Khulna embraced the same fate. Partly implemented by concerned development authority , and largely remaining unmaterialised. Has Master Plan Approach Been Totally Abolished in Bangladesh ? Khulna City Metropolitan Planning project titled ‘Structure Plan, Master Plan and Detailed Area Plan for Khulna City’ was undertaken in 1997 with a view to prepare a new city plan after expiry of 1961 master plan. This new plan was completed in 2001. The new plan was a package plan consisting of three hierarchical plans- Structure Plan, Master Plan and Detailed Area Plans. The mid level plan of the package called ‘Master Plan’ is nothing but the same old master plan of 1960s. Lately produced ‘Structure Plan, Master Plan and Detailed Area Development Plan for Rajshahi Metropolitan City’ also contains the three hierarchies of plans same as Khulna. The mid level plan of the package known as ‘Functional Master Plan’ (as per terminology used in respective law) follows the same old approach of 50s/60s master plans.
The main reason for continuation of the old master plan approach lies with the age old planning and development control practices in the city planning and development organisations. Before submission of a building plan by a developer for approval of the planning authority, planning permission regarding use of land is required from the planning section. For planning permission a developer has to lodge an application in a prescribed form indicating the use of the building the applicant intends to build. The application has to accompany a site plan showing the proposed site in the respective cadastral plot including its surrounding plots. The planning section superimposes the site map on the land use zoning map prepared on a cadastral map as a component of the master plan. If the proposed land use of the applicant matches the master plan land use zoning the applicant is accorded permission. If it does not he is refused permission and is discarded to submit the building plan. This system of development control is continuing in Bangladesh for over four decades, which requires a future land use zoning map drawn on cadastral map, and it is nothing but the old style master plan. Since no alternative system of planning permission has yet been evolved to replace the old system the old style master plan still continues. Another reason for continuation of the term ’master plan’ even in the new planning approach is that, none of the urban planning agencies has yet incorporated the new planning approach or its terminologies in their respective laws. The term ‘ master plan’ is still being used by these laws. The ‘master plan’ has been used by the Town Improvement Act 1953 based on which the city development plans of Dhaka are prepared. Also the relevant act of Chittagong contains the same terminology of ‘master plan’. The term is also there in East Bengal Building Construction Act 1952, where a developer is asked to prepare his building plan for such use as prescribed in the land use provision of the master plan for that particular area. The term is also in use in the Paurashava (Municipal ) Ordinance and in the Ordinances of four metropolitan cities. To replace the terminology from these acts and ordinances needs approval of the parliament which is a complex and time consuming process and the authorities are reluctant to indulge into
the task. Dhaka city master plan prepared in 1959 expired in 1979 without any replacement or revision. However, despite loss of its legal validity the plan continued to be used as the basis for planning permission and it is still on. New Era In Urban Planning in Bangladesh After liberation in 1971 there had been substantial changes not only in the politics but also in policy and administration. Administrative rearrangements brought about negative impact on urban planning and development. Amid deteriorating quality and skill in the bureaucracy, some new ideas were imported into the urban planning by international experts.
First Strategic Planning Effort In 1979, initiated by the Bangladesh Planning Commission and jointly funded by Asian Development Bank, UNDP and GoB, a project was undertaken ‘to prepare a long term urban development strategy to guide and regulate the future growth of Dhaka metropolitan area and particularly Dhaka City.‘ Under the Project a 20 year strategic plan was prepared for Dhaka City in 1981. It was the first ever strategic plan for a city in Bangladesh. An urban development strategy was defined in the plan document as ‘ a comprehensive package of social, economic and physical policies which deal, in principal only, with all aspects of urban development over a relatively long period of time.’ The strategy attempts not to be precise, but establish general principles to guide ‘general content, form and location of development and the methods by which it might be financed and implemented. The Dhaka Strategic Plan 1981, after reviewing nine options selected two for promoting the future growth of Dhaka city (GoB,1981). These were, -
peripheral growth around existing urban centres, and northern expansion along Tongi-Joydebpur corridor.
The combined peripheral growth/northern expansion strategy was adopted as the basis for recommendations on urban development strategy of Dhaka. The strategy set general policy guidelines and physical planning principles to be adopted in three phases. The strategy also laid down sectoral policies for such areas as, employment, physical infrastructure, land, transportation, housing, healthcare. It had recommendations on investment programmes, resource allocation, definitive plans, institutional framework. The strategic plan also formulated some prototype designs for housing the urban poor. Within a very short time, however, the recommendations of the so called strategic plan was forgotten. It was shelved like hundreds of donor funded project reports, while things went on spontaneously as usual.
Reasons for Non-adoption of the Strategic Plan Policies It would require an intensive and thorough investigation to unveil the real facts behind nonadoption of strategic plan policies for development of Dhaka. However, apparently four factors can be made responsible. These are, first, after the project report was submitted a new government came to power with new vision that ignored many issues and policies of the earlier government; second, it was an integrated planning approach, where physical development policies were integrated with economic polices and thus a major deviation from traditional economic planning approach. This called for reshuffling of the prevailing system of resource allocation which may not have been favoured by people sitting in the Planning Commission; third, Dhaka Improvement Trust (DIT), responsible for phyiscal development of Dhaka City, was just a member of the project execution committee. The entire project was initiated and governed by the Planning Commission which did not have any legal or administrative authority to implement the recommendations of the report; fourth, the plan lacked legal backing. Even if it had been DIT as the executing authority, it would not have been possible to execute all the policy recommendations by it. Because by law DIT was empowered to prepare a ‘master plan’ and not a ‘strategic plan.’ Besides, all the socioeconomic policies set out in the plan were beyond the executing powers of DIT. Current Trend in Metropolitan Planning Before expiry of Dhaka Master Plan in 1979, efforts were being made to formulate a new plan for the city replacing the old one. In 1989 a technical assistance project was prepared by RAJUK and was approved by the Planning Commission. The project aimed at preparation of Metropolitan Development Plans for Dhaka and Chittagong cities. Project funding was offered by Asian Development Bank, World Bank and UNDP. The new project started in 1991 and ended in 1995, one year before the schedule due to scarcity of fund. Preparation of new metropolitan development plans for Dhaka and Chittagong were completed in 1995. The project was substantially funded by donors. These plans replaced the 1959 master plans of both the cities. However, the plans were, in many respects, incomplete ones. The plans did not match the traditional development control practices prevailing in the respective city planning and development authorities. It was envisaged in the project report that more detailed (called detailed area plans) plans would need to be prepared overlaid on mouza maps for spatial planning zones created in the structure plan phase of the plan package. But due to scarcity of fund UNDP had to wind up its project one year earlier and the detailed area plans could not be produced by the consultant. As there were no mouza based land use zoning maps the planning permission could not be based upon the new land use plan. Thus old master plan land use zones (with or without amendment)continued to be used as the basis for planning permission within the old master plan boundary. Out side the above boundary the planning department used its own discretionary powers to offer planning permission based on the on going development trend in the area concerned. To replace its old master plan, expired in 1981, Khulna Development Authority (KDA), with GoB funding prepared a new metropolitan plan in 2001. It was package plan comprising structure plan, master plan and detailed area plans. Only three detailed area plans were prepared as samples leaving rooms for subsequent local level planning at a later stage. Structure Plan laid down
sectoral policies relating to socio-economic and physical development of the city during next 20 years. Implementation of socio-economic policies were beyond the jurisdiction of KDA. It was presumed that concerned departments would execute those, which never happened. The master plan, prepared for a period of 10 years, concerned those areas that are likely to be urbanised during the plan period. It also served as a land use zoning plan used for planning permission. The master plan also laid down some broad development proposals including physical and social infrastructure. The Khulna master plan is nearing to its half way duration, but so far only one road proposal is now being implemented. In the meantime KDA is preparing for a new project to formulate detailed area plans, elaborating master plan sub-areas. In 2001 Rajshahi Development Authority (RDA) completed a metropolitan development plan package project for Rajshahi City funded by GoB. The style and manner of the RDA project is the same as Khulna. The plan is awaiting government approval through gazette notification. From 1995 to 2004 metropolitan plans have been prepared for four major cities of the country. Except Dhaka and Chittagong Metropolitan Development Plans, the other two plans were prepared using local expertise and local funding. However, the most deplorable aspect of these planning efforts is that no major initiative is visible to execute the recommendations of the plans except being used only as a development control instrument. Implications of the Plans on Metropolitan Development Virtually, the new series of plans hardly had any implications on metropolitan development except being used as instruments of planning permission (except Dhaka and Chittagong) and development control. The recommendations of the plans are hardly taken care of during city development by various urban development agencies except the custodian planning authority. By city plan, most people mean a piece of drawing or map only. The recommendations incorporated in the plan report are ignored even by most decision makers in the government. Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan recommended land use proposals, interim rules and regulations but so far, after a period of nine years, very few of those have been executed.
Observation of the overall situation in urban planning in Bangladesh reveals that the discipline is still maintaining a low profile in the country. It has failed to draw sufficient attention of the decision makers and the citizenry in general to uphold its position as a necessary tool for urban development. Reasons Behind Low Profile of Urban Planning The reasons for low profile of urban planning in Bangladesh is associated not only with the failure to comprehend the nature and severity of human settlement problems by the decision makers and but also with inability of the planning professionals to play effective roles in upholding their position. Following are the major identified reasons for low profile of urban planning Bangladesh.
Apathetic Role of the Government Bangladesh is one of the fastest urbanising countries in South Asia. Largely contributed by ruralurban migration, the urban population in Bangladesh is growing at a rate of over 5% annually, while the national population growth rate is only 1.47%. Large cities are being overwhelmed by migrants creating pressure on housing, transport, infrastructure and utility services. Spontaneous growth of informal settlements are degrading the overall city environment and making the situation unmanageable by the city managers. But these concerns are not reflected in government policies, programmes and projects. Urban planning and development is still looked at as a low priority area of public investment.
Lack of Skill and Awareness Among the Urban Development Managers The top officials and managers of urban development agencies are not capable enough to handle growing complex and multiplicity of urban area problems. In most cases they are not aware of the solutions to critical urban based problems. They seldom act themselves to tackle problems, rather usually they act upon on the pressure from the masses or on the direction of the government. Ineffective Professionals and Professional Bodies Urban planning at government level is not yet a widely aware discipline with respect to its subject matter and importance in tackling urban development problems. Ignorance about urban planning is wide spread among bureaucrats and politicians. In such a situation responsibility lies with the planning professionals and professional bodies to educate government and the public in general through advocacy planning and mass contact. With innovative ideas to resolve urban management problems they can draw attention of the government. But the professionals and professional bodies have so far failed to uphold their responsibilities. There is lack of skill and prudency in leadership. Lack of Planning Professionals in Planning Bodies There are only two mid level and five junior level qualified planners in RAJUK to handle the planning functions of Dhaka Mega City comprising a population of about 9.1 million. It is almost impossible to ensure proper planning administration with this small size of planning professionals. More over, low salary, lack of scope for up gradation in career building and up gradation of knowledge handicap the entire planning administration. Concluding Observations
Spatial or physical planning is a highly dynamic discipline, influenced and dictated by the on going and expected economic trend, social dynamics and changing politics and technology. All these parameters are characterised by temporal and location variations. Currently, in all respects, Bangladesh is passing through an unstable situation with decaying social values, decadence of quality, skill and efficiency in public administration, lack of vision by politicians, bureaucrats and professionals, added by of lack of integrity. The overall state of affairs of the society is also reflected in urban planning administration. Urban planning in Bangladesh is maintaining a low profile for last few decades. Low paid salary and uncertain career in public sector planning jobs fail to attract talented and promising professionals in the field. The country not only need effective human settlement and urbanisation policies but also their effective implementation. There is need for establishment of the rule of law in all spheres of life as well as administrative re-organisation at right direction. Only these achievements can give a lasting solution to planned urban development. It is not only necessary that planning should respect the prevailing social, cultural and political situation, but the same conditions must need to be congenial and compatible enough to nurture and promote planning as a discipline aimed at lasting social welfare.
References:
Chaudhury, AH. 1996. An Overview of Urban Planning in Bangladesh, Journal of Local Government, Vol.25,No.2, July-Dec.,1996.pp.110-113. DIT.1959. Dacca Master Plan,1959, Dacca Improvement Trust, Dacca. GOB. 1953. Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, East Bengal Building Construction Act,1953,pp. 5-6. GOB. 1959. Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh Chittagong Development Authority Ordinance, 1959. GOB. 1961. Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh Khulna Development Authority Ordinance,1961. GOB. 1975. Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh Rajshahi Town development authority Ordinance,1976. GOB. 1977. Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh Paurashava Ordinance 1977. GOB. 1984. Government of the peoples Republic of Bangladesh Khulna city Corporation Ordinance,1984. GoB. 1981. Dacca Metropolitan Integrated Urban Development Project, Planning Commission, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, ADB, UNDP,1981. KDA.1961. Khulna city Master Plan, 1961, Khulna Development Authority, pp.2-45. KDA. 1998. Khulna Development Authority, Vol. VI, Interim Report. Khulna City Master Plan Project, 1998. Ratcliff, John. 1978. An Introduction to Town and Country Planning, Hutchinson & Co. Ltd., 3 Fitzroy Square, London W1, UK.pp.11-12.
For genuine reasons, therefore, spatial planning concepts may vary not only from country to country but also over time within the same country even between its regions. Unlike economics and sociology, the discipline of spatial planning can not claim to be based on standard theories or concepts rather ‘there are probably as many concepts of planning as there are planners, possibly more.’
