SCIENCE REVIEWER
Fields of science Acoustics
The study of sound.
Aeronautics
Aircraft design, construction, and navigation.
Agronomy
science of soil anageent and cro! !roduction
Anatomy
The study of organiss and their !arts.
Anthropology
The study of the origin, "ehavior, "ehavior, and the !hysical, social, and cultural develo!ent develo!ent of huans.
Archaeology
The study of !ast huan lives "y e#aining reaining aterial evidence.
Astronomy
The study of outer s!ace.
Astrophysics
The "ranch of astronoy that deals $ith the !hysics of stellar !henoena.
Bacteriology
The study of "acteria, es!ecially in relation to edicine and agriculture.
Biochemistry
The study of the cheical su"stances and !rocesses in living organiss.
Biology
The science of life and living organiss
Botany
The study of !lants.
Cardiology
The edical study of the heart.
Cartography
The art or techni%ue of a&ing a!s or charts.
Chemistry
The science of the co!osition, structure, !ro!erties, and reactions of atter, es!ecially of atoic and olecular systes.
Cosmology
The study of the !hysical universe considered considered as a totality of !henoena in tie and s!ace.
Crystallography
The science of crystal structure and !henoena.
Ecology
The study of organiss and their environent.
Embryology
The study of the foration, early gro$th, and develo!ent develo!ent of living organiss.
Endocrinology
The study of the glands and horones of the "ody.
Entomology
The scientific study of insects.
Enzymology
The study of the "iocheical nature and activity of en'yes.
Forestry
The science and art of cultivating, aintaining, and develo!ing forests.
Gelotology
The study of laughter.
Genetics
The study of heredity and inherited traits.
Geochemistry
The cheistry of the co!osition and alterations of the solid atter of the earth or a celestial "ody.
Geodesy
The geologic science of the si'e and sha!e of the earth.
Geography
The study of the earth and its features.
Geology
The scientific study of the origin, history, history, and structure of the earth.
Geophysics
The !hysics of the earth and its environent, including the !hysics of fields such as eteorology, oceanogra!hy, and seisology
Hematology
The study of the "lood and "lood(!roducing organs.
Histology
The study of the icrosco!ic icrosco!ic structure of anial and !lant tissues.
Horology
The science of easuring tie and a&ing tie !ieces
Hydrology
The study of the !ro!erties and effects of $ater on earth.
Ichthyology
The study of fish.
Immunology
The study of the iune syste of the "ody.
Linguistics
The study of language and !honetics.
Mechanics
)esign, construction, and use of achinery or echanical structures.
Medicine
The science of diagnosing and treating disease and daage to the "ody.
Meteorology
The study of $eather and atos!heric conditions.
Metrology
The science of easureent.
Microbiology
The study of icroorganiss and their effects on other living organiss.
Mineralogy
The study of inerals, including their distri"ution, identification, and !ro!erties.
Mycology
The "ranch of "otany that deals $ith fungi.
Neurology
The study of the nervous syste and disorders disorders affecting it.
Nucleonics
The study of the "ehavior and characteristics characteristics of nucleons or atoic nuclei.
Nutrition
The study of food and nourishent.
Oceanography
The e#!loration and study of the ocean.
Oncology
The study of the develo!ent, develo!ent, diagnosis, treatent, and !revention of tuors.
Optics
The study of light and vision.
aleontology
The study of !rehistoric life through fossils.
athology
The study of disease and its causes, !rocesses, !rocesses, develo!ent, and conse%uences.
etrology
The study of the origin, co!osition, structure, structure, and alteration of roc&s.
harmacology
The science of the co!osition, use, and effects of drugs.
hysics
The science of atter and energy and interactions "et$een the t$o.
hysiology
The study of the functions of living organiss.
sychology
The study of the ental !rocess and "ehavior.
!adiology
The use of radioactive su"stances in diagnosis and treatent of disease.
!obotics
The science of technology to design, fa"rication, and a!!lication of ro"ots.
"eismology
The study of earth%ua&es. earth%ua&es.
"pectroscopy
The study of radiant light.
"ystematics
The science of systeatic classification.
#hermodynamic s
The study of relationshi!s and conversions "et$een heat and other fors of energy.
#o$icology
The study of !oisons and the treatent of !oisoning.
%irology
The study of viruses and viral diseases.
%olcanology
The study of volcanoes and volcanic !henoena.
&oology
the study of the structure, !hysiology, !hysiology, develo!ent, and classification of anials.
Famous "cientists and their In(ention »Al e x anderGr aham Bel l ( Mar c h3,18 47-Augus t2,19 22) :I n v ent edt he fi r s tpr ac t i c al t el ephonef ol l owi ngex t ens i v ewor konel oc ut i onand d ea f n es s . »Ant o ni ev anLe euwe nh oe k( Oc t o be r2 4,1 63 2-Au gus t2 6,17 23 ) : I nv ent edt hemi c r os c ope.Leeuwenhoeki sal s oc ons i der edast hefi r s t mi c r obi ol ogi s ti nt hewor l dandt hef at herofmi c r obi ol ogy . »Ar c hi medes( c .287212BC) :I n v ent edt heAr c hi medeanSc r e w,us edf or dr awi ngwat eroutoffl oodeds hi ps ,orf r om c anal sf ori r r i gat i on.Ar c hi medes al s odi s cov er edt hemet hodf ordet er mi ni ngt hev ol umeofi r r egul arobj ec t s . »Benj ami nFr ank l i n( J anuar y17,1706-Apr i l 17,1790) :I nv ent edt he l i ght ni ngr odandbi f oc al s ,amongot heri nv ent i ons .Hei sal s of amousas oneoft heFoundi ngFat her soft heUni t edSt at es . »Br ah ma ma gup t a( c .5 97-66 8AD) :Br a hma gu pt awa st h efi r s tt ous ez er oas anumber ,al t houghi thadbeeni nus ebef or ehi st i measas y mbol mb , r epr es ent i ngt heor derofmagni t udeoft henumberi nques t i on( 7-70-700 et c . ) .Cons equent l y ,hedev i s edt her ul esofar i t hmet i ci nv ol v i ngz er o. Br ahmagupt awasal s ot hefi r s tt onot et hatt hepr oduc toft wonegat i v e number si sapos i t i v enumber . »El i Whi t ne y( Dec ember8,1765-J anuar y8,1825) :I n v ent edt hec ot t on gi n,whi c hhel peds peedupt hei ndus t r i al r ev ol ut i onbyagr eatdegr ee.
»El i a sHo we( J u l y9,1 819-Oc t o ber3 ,1 86 7) :Th eSe wi n gma c hi n e »Emi l eBer l i ne r( Ma y20,1851-Augus t3,1929) :Phonogr aphr ec or ds »Fel i xHoff mann( ma J anuar y2 1,1868-Febr uar y8 ,1946) :For mul at ed as pi r i nandher oi ni nmedi c al l yus abl ef or ms . »Fr i t zPfl eumer( Mar c h20,1881-Augus t29,194 5) :I n v ent edt hemag ne t i c t apeus edi naudi oc as s et t es . »Gal i l eoGal i l ei ( Febr uar y151564-J anuar y81642) :I nv ent ed,among ot herdev i c es ,t het el es c opeandt hemi l i t ar ycompas s.Gal i l ei mades ev er al c r uc i al as t r onomi c al obs er v at i ons( s uc hasJupi t er ' sf ourl ar ges tmoons , whi c har ec al l edt heGal i l eanmoonsi nhi shonor ) ,andpr omot edt he Coper ni c anv i ewt hatt heear t hr ev ol v esar oundt hes un-t hel at t eri nv i t i ng t hewr at hoft heChur c h. »Gar r et tAugus t usMo Mor gan( Mar c h4,1877-J ul y27,1963) :I nv ent edt he t r afficsi gnal andav er s i onoft hegasma mas k( mai nl yf orfi r efi ght er s ) . »Ha nsv o nOh ai n( De c emb er1 4,1 91 1-Ma r c h13 ,1 99 8) :J e te ng i n e »Hei nr i c hFoc k e( Oc t ober8,1890-Febr uar y25,1979) :Bui l tt hefi r s t pr ac t i c abl yf unc t i onal hel i c opt er . »J a ga di s hCh an dr aBo s e( Ba s u )( No v e mb mb er3 0,1 85 8-No v e mb mb er2 3, 1937) :I nv ent edt hec r es c ogr aph,adev i c et omeas ur egr owt hi npl ant s . Bos ei n v ent edt hec r es c ogr apht oai dhi sownr es ear c hont heeff ec t sof
e xt er nal s t i mul i ont hegr owt hofpl ant s .Bos eal s omadepi oneer i ng r es ear c hi nt hefi el dofr adi ot r ans mi mi s si on,anddemons t r at edt hefi r s t wi r el es ssi gnal l i ngi nt hewor l d.Mar c oni ' sf ut ur e( andpat ent y i el di ng) r es ear c hwasai dedb yBos e,whomadehi sr es ear c ha v ai l abl et ot he s ci ent i fi cc ommuni t yi ns t eadofr us hi ngofft opr i v at i z et hei nv ent i onoft he r adi o. »J ohannesGu Gut enber g( 1395-Febr uar y3,1468) :I n v ent edt hel et t er pr es s pr i nt i ngpr es sal s ok nownasmec hani c al pr i nt i ngpr es s.Thi si nv ent i oni s r egar dedasoneoft hemos ti mpor t anti nhumanhi s t or y . »J ohannPhi l i ppRei s( J anuar y7,1834-J anuar y14,1874) :I n v ent edan ear l yv er s i onoft het el ephonet hatonl ywor k edonan' on/ off' bas i s ,and t husc oul donl yconv eyas t eadynot ewhens pok eni nt o.I tf ai l edat r epr oduc i ngar t i c ul at eds peec h( whi c hi sac ons t ant l ychangi ngmi x t ur eof di ffer entv i br at i ons )andwast husi mpr ac t i c al . »J ohnLogi eBai r d( Augus t13,1888-J une14,1946) :I n v ent edt hefi r s t pr ac t i c al T el ev i s i on.Bai r d' sor i gi nal des i gnwasel ec t r omec hani c al r at her t hanf ul l yel ec t r oni c .Heal s oi nv ent edt hec ol ort el ev i s i ont ube. »Kar l Benz( Nov ember25,1844-Apr i l 4,1929) :I nv ent edt hefi r s ts el f pr opel l ed,gas ol i nepower edaut omobi l e. »Kar l Fr i edr i c hv onDr ai s( Apr i l 29,1785-Dec ember29,1851) :I nv ent eda pedal l es sear l yv er s i onoft hebi c y cl e,t hedr ai s i ne. »Kar l hei nzBr andenbur g( b.J une20,1954) :Coi n v ent orofMP3
T ec h no l o gy »Konr adZus e( J une22,1910-Dec ember18,1995) :Bui l tt hefi r s t wor k i ng,pr ogr ammabl e,el ec t r o mec me hani c al c omput er . »Las z l oJ oz s efBí r o( Sept ember29,1899-Oc t ober24,1985) :I n v ent ed t hebal l poi ntpen,s t i l l c ommonl yc al l edbi r oaf t erhi m. »Le v iSt r aus s( Febr uar y26,1829-Sept emb er26,1902) :Deni mt r ous er s ( J e a n s ) »Mel i t t aBent z( J anuar y31,1873-J une29,1950) :Coff eefi l t er »Ni k ol aT es l a( J ul y10,1856-J anuar y7,1943) :Bui l tt heT es l ai nduc t i on mot or ,t heT es l ac oi l andapi oneer i ngmec hani s mf orwi r el es s( r adi o) c o mmu mm ni c a t i o n. »Or v i l l eandWi l burWr i ght( Or v i l l e:Augus t19,1871-J anuar y30,1948/ Wi l bur :Apr i l 16,1867-May30,1912) :I nv ent edt heai r pl ane,i . e. , s uc ces sf ul l yc ompl et edt hefi r s tpower edheav i er t hanai rfl i ght . »Ot t oLi l i ent hal ( Ma y23,1848-Augus t10,1896) :Anear l ypi oneerof gl i der s .Li l i ent hal des i gnedandbui l ts ev er al fl yi ngmac hi nes ,i nc l udi ng monopl anes ,bi pl anesandgl i der s . »Per c ySpe nc e r( J u l y9,1 894-Se pt emb er8 ,1 97 0) :Mi c r o wa v eo v en »Pet erHenl ei n( 1479-1542) :Cons i der edt hei nv ent oroft hepoc k etwat c h
( ear l yhi s t or yofwat c heshasnotbeens uffic i ent l ydet er mi ned) . »Rudol fDi es el ( Mar c h18,1858-di s appear edSep t embe r29,1913) : I n v ent edt h ec o mp mp r e s s i o nc o mb mb us t i onen gi ne ,whi c hwasn ame dt h eDi es e l engi neaf t erhi m. »Ru do l fHel l ( De c emb er1 9,1 901-Mar c h1 1,2 00 2) :Fo r mul a t ed pi oneer i ngt ec hnol ogyf ort hes cannerandt hef axma mac hi ne( hel l s chr ei ber ) . »Th oma sEd i s o n( Fe br u ar y11 ,1 84 7-Oc t o be r1 8,1 93 1) :Ed i s o nwa s i nv ol v edi nc ount l es si nv ent i ons ,ei t herdi r ec t l yort hr ought hes ev er al engi neer sheempl o y ed.Hei sk no wnf ort hei n v ent i onand c ommer c i al i z at i onoft heel ec t r i cl i ghtandt hephonogr aph. »Wi l l i am Henr yPer k i n( Mar c h12,1838-J ul y14,1907) :Fi r s tt opr oduc ea s ynt het i cani l i nedy e-mauv ei ne,oft hec ol ormauv e. . . .AndDi s cov er er s
»Al ber tEi ns t ei n( Mar c h14,1879-Apr i l 18,1955) :Per hapst hemos t f amoussc i ent i s ti nhi s t or y ,Ei ns t ei nf or mul at edt het heor yofgener al r el at i v i t y , andt hef amousequat i onofmas s ener gyequi v al enc e-E=mc 2. »Al e x anderFl emi ng( Augus t6,1881-Mar c h11,1955) :Di s c ov e r edt he f ungusr es pons i bl ef ort hepr oduc t i onofpeni c i l l i n,Peni c i l l i um not at um. »Andr easVes al i us( Dec ember31,1514-Oc t ober15,1564) :Fi r s tt o
des c r i bet hehumans k e l e t al s y s t em andmus c ul a rs y s t em ac c ur at el yandi n gr eatdet ai l . »Ar y a bhat a( 476AD-550AD) :Appr o x i mat edt hev a l ueofpi t o3. 14 16-5 s i gni fi cantfi gur es( 4dec i mal pl ac es ) ,andwaspos si bl yt hefi r s tt onot et he i r r at i onal i t yofpi .Ar y abhat aal s odi dc ommendabl ewor ki nt r i gonomet r y , c r eat i ngoneoft heear l i es tt r i gonomet r i ct abl es( l at erf oundt obeac c ur at e) , andas t r onomy , di s cov er i ngt hedai l yr ot at i onoft heear t h. »Car l L i nn aeu s( Ma y12 ,1 707-J a nu ar y1 0,1 77 8) :Fo r medt h e t ax onomi c al s y s t em ofbi nomi al nomenc l at ur e,wher ei nt henameoft he genusi sf ol l owedb yt henameoft hespec i es .Fori ns t anc e,humanbei ngs a r et e r me da sHo mos mo ap i e ns ,wh er e i nHo moi mo st h eg en usa nds ap i e nsi s t hes pec i es . »Car l Wi l h el m Sc h ee l e( Dec e mb mb er9,1 74 2-Ma y21,1 786 ) :Di s c o v er e d ox ygen,al t houghJ os ephPr i es t l ypubl i s hedhi sfi ndi ngsfi r s tandi st hus gi v enc r edi tf ort hedi s c ov er y . »Si rChandr ashekharVenkat aRama man( Nov emb mber7,1888-November21, 1970) :Di s c ov er edt hec hangei nt hewav el engt h-andt hust hec ol or-of l i ghtt r a v el i ngt hr oughat r ans par entmedi um,aphenomenonl at ernamed af t erhi m-t heRamaneff ec t . »Char l esDar wi n( Febr uar y12,1809-Apr i l 19,1882) :For mul at edt he t heor yofev ol ut i on,ex pl ai ni ngt hehugedi v er s i t yi nor gani s msasar ms es ul tof mi l l i onsofy ear sofunc eas i ngev ol ut i onpr ogr ammedbynat ur al s el ec t i on.
»Coper ni c us( Febr uar y19,1473-Ma y24,1543) :Thefi r s tt oac c ur at el y des cr i bet hes ol ars ys t em ashel i oc ent r i c( hav i ngt hes unatt hec ent er ) r at hert hangeoc ent r i c( hav i ngt heear t hatt hec ent er ) ;s omeGr eek s chol ar shadpr ev i ous l ydes cr i bedahel i oc ent r i csol ars ys t em,butnone wasac cur at e.Wei r dl y-gi v ent het r av ai l sGal i l eowoul dl at erf ac e-t he Chur c hwasc ur i ous ,ev enac c ept i ng,aboutCoper ni c us ' fi ndi ngs .Howe v er , af ewmont hsaf t erCoper ni c uspubl i s hedhi sfindi ngs ,t heywer er i di c ul ed and" r ef ut ed"ont hebas i sofwr ongbutc onv ent i onal l yac c ept edwi s dom. »Dmi t r i Men del ee v( Febr uar y8,1834-Febr uar y2,1907 ) :Cr eat eda c ompr ehens i v eper i odi ct abl eofel ement s ,i nc or por at i ngt heNewl and' sl aw ofoc t a v esandl ea vi ngbl ank swher ehet heor i z edt hepr es enc eofel ement s t hathadnoty e tbeendi s c ov er ed.Mos toft hes egapswer el at erf oundt obe c or r ec t . »Edwa r dJ e nne r( Ma y17 ,1 74 9-J a nua r y2 6,1 82 3) :Di s c o v e r e dt h e pr oc es sofv ac c i nat i onbypr ov i ngt hatdel i ber at e( orac c i dent al )i nf ec t i onof c owpo xpr o vi dedi mmuni t yagai ns ts mal ma l po x,anunt r eat abl edi s eas ei n J enner ' st i me.J enneri ss ai dt oha v es av edmor el i v est hananyot herman i nhi s t or y ! »Er nes tRut her f or d( Augus t30,1871-Oc t ober19,1937) :Di s c ov er edt he phenomenonofr adi oac t i v ehal f l i f eandt hec hangei nt heat omi cnumberof t heel ementduet or adi at i on,s owi ngt hes eedsoft heex t ens i v ef ut ur e r es ear c hi nt onuc l earfi ss i on.Duet ohi shi ghl yi nfl uent i al fi ndi ngs , Rut her f or di st er medt he' f at herofnuc l earphy si c s' . »Fr anc i sCr i c k-J amesWa Wat s on( Cr i c k :J une8,1916-J ul y28,2004/
Wat s on:b.Apr i l 6,1928) :Di s cov er edt hedoubl ehel i c al s t r uc t ur eoft he DNAmol ecul e. »Ge Ge or gOh Ohm ( Ma r c h16,1 789-J u l y6 ,18 54 ) :Di s c o v e r e dt h e pr opor t i onal i t ybet weent hev ol t ageandt her es ul t antc ur r enti nac i r c ui t , nowk nownasOhm' sl aw:I( c ur r ent )=V( v ol t age) /R( r es i s t anc e) »Hei nr i c hHer t z( Febr uar y22,1857-J anuar y1,1894) :Pr o v edt he e xi s t enc eofel ec t r omagnet i cwav esbycons t r uc t i ngr adi oequi pment . Al t houghHer t zdi dn' tr eal i z et hef ul l r ami fi cat i onsofhi swor k ,t hes emi nal r es ear c hl edt ot hedi s c ov e r i esma madebyJ ag adi s hChandr aBos e,Mar c oni etal . »Hen r i Be c qu er e l( De c emb er1 5,1 85 2-Au gu s t2 5,19 08 ) :Di s c o v er e d r adi oac t i v i t yi nur ani um s al t s . »I s a acNe wt o n( De c emb er2 5,1 64 2-Ma r c h20 ,1 72 7) :On eo ft h emo s t r ev er eds ci ent i s t si nhi s t or y( andr i ght l ys o) ,Newt ondi s cov er edand f or mul at edt hel awsofgr av i t yandt het hr eel awsofmot i on,al ongwi t h i nv al uabl ewor ki ns ev er al ot herfi el ds .Hewasal s oc l os el yi nv ol v edi nt he de v el opmentofc al c ul us . »J a mesCha me dwi c k( Oc t o be r2 0,1 89 1-J u l y24 ,19 74 ) :Di s c o v er e dt h e el ec t r i c al l yneut r al par t i c l ei nat oms ,neut r on. »J oh an nKe pl e r( De c emb er2 7,1 57 1-No v e mb mb er1 5,1 63 0) :Fo r mu l a t e d t hel awsofpl anet ar ymo mot i on,whi c har enamedaf t erhi m.
»Mar i eSk l odows k aCur i e-Pi er r eCur i e( Mar i e:No v ember7,1867-J ul y 4,1934/Pi er r e:Ma y15,1859-Apr i l 19,1906) :Ex poundi ngont hewor kof Mar i e' sDoc t or al Adv i s orHenr i Bec quer el ,Mar i eandPi er r eCur i e di s c ov er edt her adi oac t i v eel ement sRadi um ( Ra)andPol oni um ( Po) .Thei r wor ki nr adi oac t i v i t y( at er mc oi nedbyMar i eCur i e,i nc i dent al l y )r es ul t edi n Mar i eCur i e,Pi er r eCur i eandHenr i Bec quer el r ec ei v i ngt he1903Nobel Pr i z ei nPhy si c s. »MaxPl anc k( Apr i l 23,1858-Oc t ober4,1947) :At heor et i c al phy si c i s tby nat ur eandpr of es si on,Pl anc kf or mul at edt hequant um t heor y , c ons i der ed oneoft hemos ti mpor t antt heor i esofmoder nph ys i c s . »Mi c h ae lFa r a da y( Sep t e mb mb er2 2,1 79 1-Au gu s t2 5,18 67 ) :Di s c o v e r ed el ec t r omagnet i ci nduc t i on,l awsofel ec t r ol y si sandf undament al r el at i ons bet weenl i ghtandmagnet i s m.Far m. ada yi sc ons i der edt hegr eat es t ex per i ment al i s t . »Nei l sBohr( Oc t ober7,1885-No v ember18 ,1962 ) :Fo r mul at edt heBoh r mo de lo ft h ea t o m. m. »Ot t oHahn( Mar c h8,1879-J ul y28,1968) :Di s c ov er ednuc l earfi s s i on. Dur i ngt her el at edr es ear c h,Hahnc ol l abor at edwi t hLi s eMei t nerandher n ep he wOt t oFr i s c h ,whoc o nfi r me dHa hn ' sr e s ul t san dc o i ne dt het e r m ' nuc l earfi ss i on' ;Hahnwasi ni t i al l ybaffledbyt her es ul t s ,whi c hdi dnotfi ti n t hepr ev al ents ci ent i fi cpar adi gm. »Rober tKoc h( 18431910) :Renownedf ort hei s ol at i onofBac i l l us ant hr ac i s ,My c obac t er i um t uber c ul os i sandVi br i oc hol er ae,t hebac t er i a
r es pons i bl ef ort hedi s eas esant hr ax ,t uber c ul os i sandc hol er a,r es pec t i v el y . Al t hought hedi s eas esma maynots ounds i ni s t eri nt he21s tc ent ur y , t heywer e amongt hedeadl i es ti nt he19t hc ent ur y . Koc hi sal s ok nownf orhi s epony mouspos mo t ul at esaboutt hedet er mi nat i onoft hepar t i c ul armi c r obe r es pons i bl ef oradi s eas e. »Sr i ni v as aRamanuj an( Dec ember22,1887-Apr i l 26,1920) :I s ol at edf r om t h eEu r o pe anma t h ema t i c sc o mmu mm ni t y ,Sr i n i v a s aRa man ma uj anr e di s c o v e r e d s ev er al pr ev i ous l ydi s c ov er edt heor ems ,aswel l ass ev er al newones . Ramanuj an' sgr oundbr eak i ngandunor t hodoxder i v at i onsar es t i l l bei ng heav i l yr es ear c hedbyma mat hemat i c i ansal l ov ert hewor l d. »Wi Wi l h el m Co nr a dRo nt ge n( Mar c h27 ,1 84 5-Fe br u ar y1 0,1 92 3) : Di s cov er edt heXr ay , andt huscons i der edt hef at herofdi agnos t i c r adi ol ogy . »Wi l l i am Har v ey( Apr i l 1,1578-J une3,1657) :Des c r i bedt he' doubl e c y cl e' nat ur eoft hehumanc i r c ul at or ys ys t em ( or gans v ei ns hear t l ungs hear t ar t er i es or gans ) .
*A+RATR- AARAT/S AN) T0EIR /SES #est tube ( use for co"ining cheicals Crucible ( used to head su"stances at a very high te!erature ipette ( used for accurate easureent of su"stances )ire gauze ( used to s!read heat Burette ( easures volue of solution Clay triangle* $ire frae $ith !orcelain used to su!!ort the cruci"le Forceps* used to hold sall aount of solution Graduated cylinder ( easure a!!ro#iate volue Graduated pipette ( easure solution1s volue Condenser ( used in distillation )ash glasses ( holding sall sa!les or for covering "ea&ers )ash bottles ( used to dis!ense $ater #ong* used to !ic& large aount of solution Mortar and estle ( used to grind !aste or !o$der Bea+ers are useful as a reaction container or to hold li%uid or solidsa!les. They are also used to catch li%uids fro titration andfiltrates fro filtering o!erations. /sed to easure a!!ro#iatevolue. %olumetric ,las+s are used to easure !recise volues of li%uid or to a&e !recise dilutions. Glass ,unnels are for funneling li%uids fro one container to another or for filtering $hen e%ui!!ed $ith filter !a!er Clay triangles are !laced on a ring attached to a ring stand as asu!!ort for a funnel, cruci"le, or eva!orating dish Bunsen burners are sources of heat plastic syringe
( easures sall volues of li%uid. gas syringe* it is usually ade of glass. test tube holder ( it holds a test tu"e. test tube brush 2 use in cleaning the test tu"e erlenmeyer ,las+ ( used in a!!lications $here solutions ust "ei#ed ulti!le ties. ,lorence ,las+ ( 3also &no$n as a boiling ,las+ 4 is a ty!eof flas& flas&used used as an ite of la"oratory glass$are. glass$are. It can "e used as a container to hold solutions of cheicals round bottom ,las+ ( used as la"oratory glass$are, glass$are, ostlyfor cheical cheical or or "iocheical "iocheical$or&. $or&. -atch glass* used in cheistry cheistryas as a surface to eva!orate eva!orate a a li%uid, tohold solids $hile "eing $eighed, or as a cover for a "ea ea&e &err . e(aporating dish ( used to heat and eva!orate li%uids. thermometer * use to easure te!erature stirring rod* used to i# cheicals and li%uids for la"oratory!ur!oses. #ripod ( used to &ee! things a"ove "unsen "urners $hen you needto heat soething dropper* used for adinistering li%uid edicines, es!ecially one for dis!ensing edications into the eye. centri,uge* used to se!arate sus!ensions in li%uids. reagent bottle* used to hold li%uid cheicals. Filter paper* use to se!arate the solid !articles fro the solution Microscope* used for agnifying sall o"5ects
FORMS OF ENERGY Kinetic Energy: Consider a baseball flying through the air. he ball is said to ha!e "#inetic energy" by !irtue of the fact that its in $otion relati!e to the ground. Yo You can see that it is has energy because it can do " %or#" on an object on the ground if it collides with it (either by pushing on it and/or damaging it during the collision). The formula for Kinetic energy, and for some of the other forms of energy described in this section will, is gien in a later section of this primer.
&otential Energy: Consider a boo# sitting on a table. he boo# is said to ha!e "'otential energy" because if it is nudged off( gra!ity %ill accelerate the boo#( gi!ing the boo# #inetic energy. !ecause the arth#s graity is necessary to create this $inetic energy, and because this graity depends on the arth being present, we say that the "arth%boo$ system" is what really possesses this potential energy, and that this energy is con!erted into $inetic energy as the boo$ falls.
her$al( or heat energy: Consider a hot cu' of coffee. he coffee is said to 'ossess "ther$al energy"( or "heat energy" %hich is really the collecti!e( $icrosco'ic( #inetic and 'otential energy of the $olecules in the coffee )the $olecules ha!e #inetic energy because they are $o!ing and !ibrating( !i brating( and they ha!e 'otential energy due their $utual attraction attraction for one another * $uch the sa$e %ay that the boo# and the Earth ha!e 'otential energy because they attract each other+. Temperature is really a measure of how much thermal energy something has. The higher the temperature, the faster the molecules are moing around and/or ibrating, i.e. the more $inetic and potential energy the molecules hae.
Che$ical Energy: Consider the ability of your body to do %or#. he glucose )blood sugar+ in your body is said to ha!e "che$ical energy" because the glucose releases energy %hen che$ically reacted )co$busted+ %ith o,ygen. Your muscles use this energy to generate mechanical force and also heat. &hemical energy is really a form of microscopic potential energy , which e'ists because of the electric and magnetic forces of attraction e'erted between the different parts of each molecule % the same attractie forces inoled in thermal ibrations. These parts get rearranged in chemical reactions, releasing or adding to this potential energy.
Electrical Energy ll matter is made up of atoms, and atoms are made up of smaller particles, called protons (which hae positie charge), neutrons (which hae neutral charge), and electrons (which are negatiely charged).lectrons orbit around the center, or nucleus, of atoms, just li$e the moon orbits the earth. The nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons.
So$e $aterial( 'articularly $etals( ha!e certain electrons that are only loosely attached to their ato$s. hey can easily be $ade to $o!e fro$ one ato$ to another if an electric field is a''lied to the$. -hen current of electricity those electrons $o!e a$ong the ato$s of $atter( a current of is created. his is %hat ha''ens in a 'iece of %ire %hen an electric field( voltage( is a''lied. he electrons 'ass fro$ ato$ to ato$( 'ushed by or voltage( the electric field and by each other )they re'el each other because li#e charges re'el+( thus creating the electrical current. he $easure of ho% %ell so$ething conducts electricity is called its conductivity ( and the resistance. &opper isused for reci'rocal of conducti!ity is called the resistance. many wires because it has a lower resistance than many other metals and is easy to use and obtain. ost of the wires in your house are made of copper. *ome older homes still use aluminum wiring. he energy is really transferred transferred by the chain of re'ulsi!e interactions interactions bet%een the electrons do%n the %ire * not by the transfer of electrons 'er se. his is ust li#e the %ay that %ater $olecules can 'ush on each
other and trans$it 'ressure )or force+ through a 'i'e carrying %ater. /t 'oints %here a strong resistance is encountered( its harder for the electrons to flo% * this creates a "bac# 'ressure" in a sense bac# to the source. his bac# 'ressure is %hat really trans$its the energy fro$ %hate!er is 'ushing the electrons through the %ire. Of course( this a''lied "'ressure" is the "!oltage". /s the electrons $o!e through a "resistor" in the circuit( they interact %ith the ato$s in the resistor !ery strongly( causing the resistor to heat u' * hence deli!ering energy in the for$ of heat. Or( if the electrons are $o!ing instead through the %ound coils of a $otor( they instead create a $agnetic field( %hich interacts %ith other $agnets in the $otor( and hence turns the $otor. $otor. 0n this case the "bac# 'ressure" on the electrons( %hich is necessary for there to be a transfer of energy fro$ the a''lied !oltage to the $otor1s shaft( is created by the $agnetic fields of the other $agnets )bac#+ acting on the electrons * a 'erfect 'ush*'ull arrange$ent2
Electroche$ical Energy: Consider the energy stored in a battery. 3i#e the e,a$'le abo!e in!ol!ing blood sugar( the battery also stores energy in a che$ical %ay. 4ut electricity is also in!ol!ed( so %e say that the battery stores energy "electro*che$ically". /nother electron che$ical de!ice is a "fuel*cell fuel*cell". ".
Electro$agnetic Energy )light+: Consider the energy trans$itted to the Earth fro$ the Sun by light )or by any source of light+. 3ight( %hich is also called "electro*$agnetic radiation" . -hy the fancy ter$5 4ecause light really can be thought of as oscillating( cou'led electric and $agnetic fields that tra!el freely through s'ace )%ithout there ha!ing to be charged 'articles of so$e #ind around+. also be thought of as little 'ac#ets of energy 0t turns out that light $ay also be called photons called photons )that is( as 'articles( instead of %a!es+. he %ord "'hoton" deri!es fro$ the %ord "'hoto"( %hich $eans "light". +hotons are
created when electrons jump to lower energy leels in atoms, and absorbed when electrons jump to higher leels. +hotons are also created when a charged particle, such as an electron or proton, is accelerated, as for e'ample happens in a radio transmitter antenna. !ut because light can also be described as waes, in addition to being a pac$et of energy, each photon also has a specific freuency and waelength associated with it, which depends on how much energy the photon has (because of this weird duality % waes and particles at the same time % people sometimes call particles li$e photons "waicles"). The lower the energy, the longer the waelength and lower the freuency, and ice ersa. The reason that sunlight can hurt your s$in or your eyes is because it contains "ultraiolet light", which consists of high energy photons. These photons hae short waelength and high freuency, and pac$ enough energy in each photon to cause physical damage to your s$in if they get past the outer layer of s$in or the lens in your eye. -adio waes, and the radiant heat you feel at a distance from a campfire, for e'ample, are also forms of electro%magnetic radiation, or light, e'cept that they consist of low energy photons (long waelength and high freuencies % in the infrared band and lower) that your eyes can#t perceie. This was a great discoery of the nineteenth century % that radio waes, '%rays, and gamma%rays, are just forms of light, and that light is electro%magnetic waes
Sound Energy: *ound waes are compression waes associated with the potential and $inetic energy of air molecules. hen an object moes uic$ly, for e'ample the head of drum, it compresses the air nearby, giing that air potential energy. That air then e'pands, transforming the potential energy into $inetic energy (moing air). The moing air then pushes on and compresses other air, and so on down the chain. nice way to thin$ of sound waes is as "shimmering air".
Nuclear Energy: he Sun( nuclear reactors( and the interior of the Earth( Earth( all ha!e "nuclear reactions" as the source of their energy( that is( reactions that
in!ol!e changes in the structure of the nuclei of ato$s. n the *un, hydrogen nuclei fuse (combine) together to ma$e helium nuclei, in a process called fusion, which releases energy. n a nuclear reactor, or in the interior of the arth, 0ranium nuclei (and certain other heay elements in the arth#s interior) split apart, in a process called fission. f this didn#t happen, the arth#s interior would hae long gone cold1 The energy released by fission and fusion is not just a product of the potential energy released by rearranging the nuclei. 0n fact( in both cases( fusion or fission( so$e of thematter thematter $a#ing $a#ing u' the nuclei is actually con!erted into energy . 6o% can this be5 The answer is that matter itself is a form of energy! This concept inoles one of the most famous formula#s in physics, the formula, E7$c8. This formula was discoered by instein as part of his "Theory of *pecial -elatiity". n simple words, this formula means2
he energy intrinsically stored in a 'iece of $atter at rest e9uals its $ass ti$es the s'eed of light s9uared. hen we plug numbers in this euation, we find that there is actually an incredibly huge amount of energy stored in een little pieces of matter (the speed of light suared is a ery ery large number1). 3or e'ample, it would cost more than a million dollars to buy the energy stored intrinsically stored in a single penny at our current (relatiely cheap1) electricity rates. To get some feeling for how much energy is really there, consider that nuclear weapons only release a small fraction of the "intrinsic" energy of their components.
TA6N7IC RAN8 S!ecies 9enus Faily rder Class hylu 8ingdo
Ci r c ul at or ySy st em Thec i r c ul at or ysy s t em i st hebody ' st r ans por ts y st em.I ti sma madeupofagr oupofor ganst hat t r a ns po r tbl oo dt h r o ug ho utt hebo dy . Thehe ar tp ump st h ebl o odan d t h ea r t e r i e sandv dv ei ns t r ans por ti t .Ox ygenr i c hbl oodl eav est hel ef ts i deoft hehear tandent er st he bi gges ta r t er y ,c al l edt heaor t a.Theaor t abr anc hesi nt os mal ma l erar t er i es ,whi c ht henbr anc hi nt o ev ens mal ma l erv es sel st hatt r a vel al l o vert hebody . Whenbl oodent er st hes mal ma l es tbl oodv es sel s , wh i c har ec al l edcapi l l ar i es,andar ef oundi nbodyt i s sue,i tgi v esnut r i ent sandox ygent ot hec el l s a ndt a k esi nc ar b ond i o x i d e,wa t e r ,a ndwa s t e .Th eb l o od ,wh i c hn ol o ng erc on t a i n so x y ge na nd nut r i e nt s ,t h engoesbac kt ot hehear tt hr ou ghv ei ns .Vei nscar r ywas t epr odu ct sawa yf r o mc el l sand br i ngbl o odbac kt ot hehear t,wh i c hpumpsi tt ot hel ungst opi c kupo xy genan del i mi nat ewa st e c ar bo ndi o x i de .
Di ges t i v eSy s t em Thedi ges t i v es y s t em i sma mad eupofo r ganst ha tbr eakdo wnf oodi nt opr o t ei n ,v i t ami ns ,mi n er al s , c ar bo hy dr at e s,andf a t s ,whi c ht heb odyneed sf o re ner g y ,gr o wt h,andr epai r .Af t erf oodi sch ewe d a nds wa l l o wed ,i tgo esdo wnt h ee s oph ag usan de nt e r st h es t o ma ma c h,wh er ei ti sf u r t h erb r o k endo wn b ypo wer f ul s t omac hac i ds .Fr om t hest omac ht hef oodt r av el si nt ot hes mal ma l i nt es t i ne.Thi si swher e y ourf oodi sbr ok endowni nt onut r i ent st hatc anent ert hebl oods t r eam t hr ought i n yhai r l i k e pr oj ec t i ons .Thee xc es sf oodt hatt hebodydoes n' tneedorc an' tdi ges ti st ur nedi nt owas t eandi s el i mi nat e df r om t h ebody .
Endoc r i neSy s t em Th ee nd oc r i n es y s t e mi sma ma deupofag r o upo fg l a nd st h atp r o du c et h eb od y' sl o ng d i s t a nc e me s s e ng er s ,o rh o r mo ne s .Hor monesar echemi c al st hatc ont r ol bodyf unc t i ons ,s uc has me t a bo l i s m,g m, r o wt h ,a nds e xu al de v el o pme nt .Th e gl ands,whi c hi nc l udet hepi t ui t ar ygl and,t h y r o i d gl and,par at h yr oi dgl ands ,adr enal gl ands ,t h ymusgl and,pi neal body ,panc r eas ,o var i es ,andt es t es , r el eas ehor mone sd i r ec t l yi nt ot hebl oods t r e am,whi c ht r ans por t st h eho r monest oo r g an sa nd t i s s uest hr o ugh ou tt hebody .
I mmuneSy s t em Th ei mmu nes y s t e mi sou rb o dy ' sde f e ns es y s t e ma gai n s ti n f e c t i o nsan ddi s e as es .Or g an s,t i s s ue s, c el l s ,andc el l pr oduc t swor kt oget hert or es pondt odanger ousor gani s ms( ms l i k ev i r us esorbac t er i a) a nds u bs t a nc est h atma yen t e rt h eb od yf r om t h ee nv i r o nme nt .Th er ea r et h r e et y p esofr e s po ns e s y s t e msi ms nt h ei mmu nes y s t e m:t m: h ea na t o mi mi cr e s po ns e ,t h ei n fl amma t o r yr e s po ns e ,a ndt h ei mmu ne r e s p o n s e .
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The ph ys i c al l ypr ev ent st hr eat eni ngs ubs t anc esf r om ent er i ngy our anat omi mi cr esponse b od y .Ex a mp mp l e soft h ea na t o mi mi cs y s t e mi n c l u det h emu c ou sme me mb mb r a ne san dt h es k i n .I f s u bs t a nc e sd og etb y , t h ei n fl amma t o r yr e s po ns eg oe so na t t a c k .
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Thei ei nflamm mmat or ysyst em m wor k sbye x cr e t i ngt hei n v ader sf r om y ourbo dy . Sneez i ng,r unn y n os e s ,a ndf e v e ra r eex a mp mp l e soft h ei n fl amma t o r ys y s t e ma two r k .So me me t i me s ,e v e nt h ou gh y oudon' tf eel wel l whi l ei t ' shappeni ng,y ourbodyi sfight i ngi l l nes s.
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Wh ent h ei n fl amma t or yr e sp on sef a i l s ,t h ei mmuner es ponse goest owor k .Thi si st he c ent r a lpar toft h ei mmunes y s t e ma ndi sma madeupofwh i t eb l oo dc el l s ,whi c hfi ghti n f ec t i on b ygob bl i n gu pant pa i gens.Aboutaquar t erofwhi t ebl oodcel l s ,c al l edt hel y mphoc mp yt es , mi g r a t et ot h el y mp mp hn od esan dp r o du cea nt i b od i e s,wh i c hfi gh tdi s e as e.
L y mphat mp i cSy s t em Thel y mphat mp i csy s t em i sal s oadef ens es y s t e mf ort hebody . I tfi l t er soutor ga ni s mst ms hatc aus e di s eas e,pr oduc eswhi t ebl oodcel l s ,andgener at esdi s eas efi ght i ngant i bodi es .I tal s odi s t r i but es fl ui dsandnut r i ent si nt hebo dyanddr ai n se x ce ssflui d sandp r o t ei ns ot h att i s s uesdono ts we l l .The l y mphat mp i cs y st em i sma madeupo fane t wo r kofv es s el st hathel pc i r c ul a t ebodyfl ui d s.Thes ev es s el s c ar r yex c e s sfl ui da wa yf r o mt h es pa c esbe t we ent i s s ue sa ndo r g an sa ndr e t u r ni tt ot h e b l o od s t r e am.
Mus c ul arSy s t em Th emu s cul a rs y s t e mi sma ma deu po ft i s s ue st ha two r kwi t ht h es k e l e t a ls y s t em t oc o nt r o lmo v eme nt o ft h eb od y .So memu me mu s c l e s —l —l i k et h eo ne si ny o ura r msa ndl e gs —a —a r ev o l u nt a r y ,me an i n gt h aty o u dec i dewhent omo mo v et hem.Ot he rmus c l es ,l i k et heonesi ny ours t omac h,hear t ,i nt e st i nesandot her or gans ,ar ei nv ol unt ar y . Thi sme meanst hatt he yar econt r ol l edaut omat i c al l ybyt hener v ouss y st em and h or mo ne s—y o uo f t end on ' te v enr e al i z et he y ' r ea two r k . Thebod yi sma ma deupoft hr e et y pesofmu sc l et i s s ue:s k el e t al ,s moo mo t handcar di ac .Ea choft he se hast heabi l i t yt oc ont r a ctande xpand,wh i c hal l o wst hebodyt omo v eandf u nc t i on.. •
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Sk e l e t a lmus cl e s h e l pt h ebo d ymo mo v e . c har ei n vol unt ar y ,ar el oc at edi ns i deor gans ,s uc hast hest omac h Smoot hmuscl es,whi andi nt es t i nes . Car di acmuscl e i sf oundonl yi nt hehear t .I t smot i oni si nv ol unt ar y
Ner v o usSy s t e m
Th en er v o uss y s t em i sma ma deu po ft h eb r a i n ,t h es pi n al c or d ,a ndn er v e s .On eo ft h emo s ti mp or t a nt s y s t emsi ny ou rb od y ,t hen er v oussy s t em i sy ourbody ' scon t r ol s y s t em.I ts ends ,r ec ei v es ,an d p r o ce s se sn er v ei mp ul s e st h r o ug hou tt hebo dy . Th es en er v ei mp ul s est e l l y o urmu s cl e san do r g an s wh att odoandho wt or e sp on dt ot h ee nv i r on me me nt .Th er ear et h r e ep ar t so fy o urn er v o uss y s t e m t hatwor kt o ge t her :t h ec ent r a lner v ouss ys t em,t heper i pher al ne r v o uss ys t em,andt h eaut on omi c n er v o u ss y s t e m. m. •
The ce nt r a lne r v o uss y st e m m c ons i s t soft hebr ai nands pi nal c or d.I ts endsoutner v e i mpul s esandanal y z esi nf or mat i onf r om t hes ens eor g ans ,whi c ht el l y ourbr a i na bou tt hi n gs y ous ee,hear ,s mel me l ,t as t eandf eel .
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Thep epe r i phe r a lne r v o uss y st e m m i nc l udest hecr ani os pi nal ner v est hatbr anc hofff r om t he br ai nandt hes pi nal c or d.I tc ar r i est hener v ei mpul s esf r om t hec ent r al ner v oussy s t em t o t h emu s c l e san dg l a nd s .
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Thea eaut onomi cner voussyst em m r egul at esi n vol unt ar yac t i on,s uc hashear tbeatand di ges t i on.
Repr oduc t i v eSy s t em Ther e pr oduc t i v esy s t em al l o wshuma nst opr oduc ec hi l d r en.Sper mf r om t hema l ef er t i l i z est he f emal e' segg,orov um,i nt hef al l opi ant ube.Thef er t i l i z edeggt r a vel sf r om t hef al l opi ant ubet ot he ut er us ,wh er et hef e t u sd ev el opso v eraper i odofni n emon t h s.
Res pi r at or ySy s t em Ther es pi r at or ys y st em br i ngsai ri nt ot hebodyandr emo vesc ar bondi o xi de.I ti nc l udest henos e, t r a c he a,a ndl u ng s .Wh eny o ub r e at h ei n ,a i re nt e r sy o urn os eo rmo ut ha ndg oe sd ownal o ngt u be c al l edt het r ac hea.Thet r ac heabr anc hesi nt ot wobr onc hi al t ubes ,orpr i mar ybr onc hi ,whi c hgot o t hel ung s.Thepr i ma r ybr onc hi br anc hoffi nt oe v ens mal ma l erb r on chi a lt ubes ,orbr onc hi ol es .The br onc hi ol esendi nt heal v eol i ,orai rs ac s .Ox y genf ol l o wst hi spat handpas sest hr ought hewal l sof t heai rs ac sandbl oodv es s el sandent er st h ebl oodst r eam.Att hesa met me i me,c ar bo ndi o x i de pas s esi nt ot hel un gsan di se xhal ed .
Sk el et al Sy st em Th es k e l e t a ls y s t e mi sma ma deu po fb on es ,l i g ame nt san dt en do ns .I ts h ap est h eb od ya ndp r o t e ct s o r g an s .Th es k e l e t a ls y s t e m wo r k swi t ht hemu mu s cu l a rs y s t em t oh el pt hebo dymo mo v e.Mar r ow, w,whi c h i ssof t ,f at t yt i s s uet hatpr oduc esr edbl oodc el l s ,man ywhi t ebl oodc el l s ,andot heri mmunes y st em c el l s ,i sf oundi ns i debones .
Ur i nar ySy s t em Theur i nar ys y s t em e l i mi n at e swas t ef r om t hebody , i nt hef or m ofu r i n e.Theki dn ey sr e mo mo v ewas t e f r om t heb l oo d.Th ewa st ec ombi neswi t hwa t ert of or mu r i ne.Fr om t heki dne y s,ur i net r a v el sdo wn t wot hi nt ubescal l edur et er st ot hebl adder .Whent hebl adderi sf ul l ,ur i nei sdi s char gedt hr ought he u r e t h r a .
Cell Parts and Functions Table Cell Organelle
Cell Function
Nucleus
Directs all cell activities "Brain or Control Center of cell"
Nucl Nuclea earr Enve Envelo lope pe (Me (Memb mbra rane ne
Cont Contro rols ls !at !at passe passess in and and out out of of te te nucle nucleus us
C#toplasm
$ell#%li&e substance found inside cell tat acts as a medium for cemical reactions !itin te cell
'olgi Bod# (pparatus
Pac&ages te proteins made b# te ribosomes so te# can be sent out of te cell) Te *P+ store of te cell
Mitocondrion
"po!erouse of te cell" brea&s do!n sugar molecules to release energ#, site of cellular respiration, double membrane, self%replicating, contains o!n DN, cristae
-acuole
"+torage tan&s" Can old food, !ater or !aste for te cell
.ibosome
Ma&es proteins for te cell, can be found attaced to te endoplasmic reticulum or free in te c#toplasm
Endo Endopl plas asmi micc .e .eti ticu culu lum m (E. (E.
Tran Transp spor orta tati tion on net! net!or or&& for for te te cell cell,, move movess materials around in te cell
.oug Endoplasmic .eticulum (.E.% endoplasmic reticulum tat as ribosomes attaced) +moot Endoplasmic .eticulum (+E.% does not ave ribosomes attaced /#sosome
"+tomac of te cell" 0elps te cell digest food, !aste and !orn out cell parts
Nucleolus
Produces ribosomes and r.N( stuff ribosomes are made of
Cell Membrane (plasma membrane
"'ate&eeper" +eparates te cell from te rest of te environment and elps control !at passes in and out of te cell) +emi%permeable1 allo!s some materials to pass troug but not all
Cloroplast
special plastid tat contains clorop#ll a pigment tat captures te sun2s energ# to produce glucose in a process called potos#ntesis
Cell 3all
.igid outer la#er made of cellulose tat supports and protects te cell (plant, fungi, and bacterial cells
-esicle
+tores and Transports substances from te 'olgi Bod# to te cell membrane for e4port) "Te *P+ truc& of te cell"
C#tos&eleton
gives support and sape to te cell, made of proteins
Centriole
Organi5es special parts of te c#tos&eleton called microtubules for cell division, migrates to opposite ends (poles of te cell to assist !it cell division
SOLARSYSTEM
The solar system is made up of the sun and everything that orbits around it, including planets, moons, asteroids, comets and meteoroids. It extends from the sun, called Sol by the ancient Romans, and goes past the four inner planets, through the Asteroid Belt to the four gas giants and on to the diskshaped !uiper Belt and far beyond to the giant, spherical "ort #loud and the teardropshaped heliopause. Scientists estimate that the edge of the solar system is about $ billion miles %&' billion kilometers( from the sun.
)iscovery *or millennia, astronomers have follo+ed points of light that seemed to move among the stars. The ancient reeks named these planets, meaning -+anderers.- ercury, /enus, ars, 0upiter and Saturn +ere kno+n in anti1uity, and the invention of the telescope added the Asteroid Belt, 2ranus, 3eptune, 4luto and many of these +orlds5 moons. The da+n of the space age sa+ do6ens of probes launched to explore our system, an adventure that continues today. The discovery of 7ris kicked off a rash of ne+ discoveries of d+arf planets. 8 Infographic9 Structure of the Solar System :
*ormation any scientists think our solar system formed from a giant, rotating cloud of gas and dust kno+n as the solar nebula. nebula . As the nebula collapsed because of its gravity, it spun faster and flattened into a disk. ost of the material +as pulled to+ard the center to form the sun. "ther particles +ithin the disk collided and stuck together to form asteroid si6ed ob;ects named as planetesimals, some of +hich combined to become the asteroids, comets, moons and planets. The solar +ind from the sun +as so po+erful that it s+ept a+ay most of the lighter elements, such as hydrogen and helium, from the innermost planets, leaving behind mostly small, rocky +orlds. The solar +ind +as much +eaker in the outer regions, ho+ever, resulting in gas giants made up mostly of hydrogen and helium.
The sun The sun sun is is by far the largest ob;ect in our solar system, containing $$.< percent of the solar system5s mass. It sheds most of the heat and light that makes life possible on
7arth and possibly else+here. 4lanets orbit the sun in ovalshaped paths called ellipses, +ith the sun slightly offcenter of each ellipse.
Inner solar system The four inner four planets = ercury ercury,, /enus /enus,,7arth 7arth and and ars ars = = are made up mostly of iron and rock. They are kno+n as terrestrial or earthlike planets because of their similar si6e and composition. 7arth has one natural satellite = the moon moon= = and ars has t+o moons = moons = )eimos and 4hobos. Bet+een ars and 0upiter lies the Asteroid Belt Belt.. Asteroids are minor planets, and scientists estimate there are more than >'?,??? of them +ith diameters larger than threefifths of a mile %& km( and millions of smaller asteroids. The d+arf planet #eres #eres,, about '$? miles %$'? km( in diameter, resides here. A number of asteroids have orbits that take them closer into the solar system that sometimes lead them to collide +ith 7arth or the other inner planets.
"uter solar system The outer planets = 0upiter , Saturn Saturn,, 2ranus 2ranus and and 3eptune 3eptune = = are giant +orlds +ith thick outer layers of gas. 3early all their mass is made up of hydrogen and helium, giving them compositions like that of the sun. Beneath these outer layers, they have no solid surfaces = the pressure from their thick atmospheres li1uefy their insides, although they might have rocky cores. Rings of dust, rock, and ice encircle all these giants, +ith Saturn5s being the most famous. #omets are often kno+n as dirty sno+balls, and consist mainly of ice and rock. @hen a #omets are comet5s orbit takes it close to the sun, some of the ice in its central nucleus turns into gas that shoots out of the comet5s sunlit side, +hich the solar +ind carries out+ard to form into a long tail. Shortperiod comets that complete their orbits in less than ?? years are thought to originate from the diskshaped !uiper Belt, Belt , +hile longperiod comets that take more than ?? years to return are thought to come from the spherical"ort spherical "ort #loud. #loud .
Trans3eptunian region Astronomers had long Astronomers long suspected suspected that that a band band of icy material kno+n as the !uiper !uiper Belt existed past the orbit of 3eptune extending from about ? to '' times the distance of
7arth to the sun, sun , and from the last decade of the ?th century up to no+, they have found more than a thousand of such ob;ects. Scientists estimate the !uiper Belt is likely home to hundreds of thousands of icy bodies larger than C? miles %&?? km( +ide, as +ell as an estimated trillion or more comets. The "ort #loud lies +ell past the !uiper Belt, and theoretically extends from ',??? to &??,??? times the distance of 7arth to the sun, and is home to up to trillion icy bodies , according to 3ASA. 4ast the "ort #loud is the very edge of the solar system, the heliosphere, a vast, teardropshaped region of space containing electrically charged particles given off by the sun. any astronomers think that the limit of the heliosphere, kno+n as the heliopause, is about $ billion miles %&' billion km( from the sun. 4luto , no+ considered a d+arf planet, d+ells in the !uiper Belt. It is not alone = recent 4luto, additions include additions include akemake akemake,, Daumea Daumea and and 7ris 7ris.. Another !uiper Belt ob;ect dubbed Euaoar is is probably massive enough to be considered a d+arf planet, but it has not been classified as such yet. Sedna Sedna,, +hich is about threefourths the si6e of 4luto, is the first d+arf planet discovered in the "ort #loud. 3ASA5s 3e+ Dori6ons mission performed history5s first flyby of the 4luto system on 0uly &F, ?&', and continues to explore the !uiper Belt.
Terrestri Te rrestrial al planets planet s The inner four +orlds are called G terrestrial planets,H planets ,H because, like 7arth, their surfaces are all rocky. 4luto, too, has a solid surface %and a very fro6en one( but has never been grouped +ith the four terrestrials
0ovian planets The four large outer +orlds = 0upiter, Saturn, 2ranus, and 3eptune = are kno+n as the G0ovian planetsH %meaning G0upiterlikeH( because they are all huge compared to the terrestrial planets, and because they are gaseous in nature rather than having rocky surfaces %though some or all of them may have solid cores, astronomers say(. Accordin say(. According g to 3ASA 3ASA , -t+o of the outer planets beyond the orbit of ars = 0upiter and Saturn = are kno+n as gas giants the more distant 2ranus and 3eptune are called ice giants.- This is because, +hile the first t+o are dominated by gas, +hile the last t+o have more ice. All four contain mostly hydrogen and helium.
)+arf planets The ne+ IA2 definition of definition of a fullfledged planet goes like this9 A body that circles the sun sun +ithout +ithout being some other ob;ect5s satellite, is large enough to be rounded by its o+n gravity %but not so big that it begins to undergo nuclear fusion, like a star( and has -cleared its neighborhood- of most other orbiting bodies. Jeah, thatKs a mouthful. The problem for 4luto, besides its small si6e and offbeat orbit, is that it shares its space +ith lots of other ob;ects in the !uiper Belt, Belt , beyond 3eptune. Still, the demotion of 4luto remains controversial. controversial . The IA2 planet definition puts other small, round +orlds in the d+arf planetcategory, planet category, including the !uiper Belt ob;ects 7ris 7ris,, Daumea Daumea,, and akemake akemake.. Also no+ a d+arf d+arf planet is is #eres #eres,, a round ob;ect in the Asteroid Belt bet+een ars and 0upiter. #eres +as actually considered a planet +hen discovered in &
The planets Belo+ is a brief overvie+ of the eight primary planets in our solar system, system , in order from the inner solar system out+ard9
ercury The closest planet to the sun, ercury is only a bit larger than 7arth5s moon. Its day side is scorched by the sun and can reach
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Discovery: !no+n Discovery: !no+n to the ancients and visible to the naked eye Named for: for: essenger essenger of the Roman gods
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Diameter: ,?& Diameter: ,?& miles %F,<>< km(
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Orbit: << Orbit: << 7arth days
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Day: '<.C Day: '<.C 7arth days
/enus The second planet from the sun, /enus is terribly hot, even hotter than ercury. The atmosphere is toxic. The pressure at the surface +ould crush and kill you. Scientists describe /enusK situation as a runa+ay greenhouse effect. Its si6e and structure are similar to 7arth, /enus5 thick, toxic atmosphere traps heat in a runa+ay -greenhouse effect.- "ddly, /enus spins slo+ly in the opposite direction of most planets. The reeks believed /enus +as t+o different ob;ects = one in the morning sky and another in the evening. Because it is often brighter than any other ob;ect in the sky = except for the sun and moon = /enus has generated many 2*" reports. •
Discovery: !no+n Discovery: !no+n to the ancients and visible to the naked eye Named for: for: Roman Roman goddess of love and beauty
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Diameter: >,'& Diameter: >,'& miles %&,&?F km(
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Orbit: ' Orbit: ' 7arth days
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Day: F& Day: F& 7arth days
7arth The third planet from the sun, 7arth is a +ater+orld, +ith t+othirds of the planet covered by ocean. ItKs the only +orld kno+n to harbor life. 7arthKs atmosphere is rich in lifesustaining nitrogen and oxygen. 7arth5s surface rotates about its axis at &,' feet per second %FC> meters per second( = slightly more than &,??? mph %&,C?? kph( = at the e1uator. The planet 6ips around the sun at more than &< miles per second %$ km per second(. •
Diameter: >,$C Diameter: >,$C miles %&,>C? km(
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Orbit: C'.F Orbit: C'.F days
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Day: Day: hours, 'C minutes
ars The fourth planet from the sun, is a cold, dusty place. The dust, an iron oxide, gives the planet its reddish cast. ars shares similarities +ith 7arth9 It is rocky, has mountains and valleys, and storm systems ranging from locali6ed tornadolike dust devils to planet engulfing dust storms. It sno+s on ars. And ars harbors +ater ice. Scientists think it +as once +et and +arm, though today itKs cold and desertlike. ars5 atmosphere is atmosphere is too thin for li1uid +ater to exist on the surface for any length of time. Scientists think ancient ars +ould have had the conditions to support life, and there is hope that signs of past life = possibly even present biology = may exist on the Red 4lanet. •
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Discovery: !no+n Discovery: !no+n to the ancients and visible to the naked eye Named for: for: Roman Roman god of +ar
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Diameter: F,&> Diameter: F,&> miles %C,><> km(
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Orbit: C<> Orbit: C<> 7arth days
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Day: 0ust Day: 0ust more than one 7arth day %F hours, > minutes(
0upiter The fifth planet from the sun, 0upiter is huge and is the most massive planet in our solar system. ItKs a mostly gaseous +orld, mostly hydrogen and helium. Its s+irling clouds are colorful due to different types of trace gases. A big feature is the reat Red Spot, a giant storm +hich has raged for hundreds of years. 0upiter has a strong magnetic field, and +ith do6ens of moons, it looks a bit like a miniature solar system. •
Discovery: !no+n Discovery: !no+n to the ancients and visible to the naked eye
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Named for: for: Ruler Ruler of the Roman gods
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Diameter: <<,>? Diameter: <<,>? miles %F<,F?? km(
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Orbit: &&.$ Orbit: &&.$ 7arth years
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Day: $.< Day: $.< 7arth hours
Saturn The sixth planet from the sun is kno+n most for its rings rings.. @hen alileo alilei first alilei first studied Saturn in the early &C??s, he thought it +as an ob;ect +ith three parts. 3ot kno+ing he +as seeing a planet +ith rings, the stumped astronomer entered a small dra+ing = a symbol +ith one large circle and t+o smaller ones = in his notebook, as a noun in a sentence describing his discovery. ore than F? years later, #hristiaan Duygens proposed Duygens proposed that they +ere rings. The rings are made of ice and rock. Scientists are not yet sure ho+ they formed. The gaseous planet is mostly hydrogen and helium. It has numerous moons. moons . •
Discovery: !no+n Discovery: !no+n to the ancients and visible to the naked eye
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Named for: for: Roman Roman god of agriculture
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Diameter: >F,$?? Diameter: >F,$?? miles %&?,'?? km(
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Orbit: $.' Orbit: $.' 7arth years
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Day: About Day: About &?.' 7arth hours
2ranus The seventh planet from the sun, 2ranus is an oddball. ItKs the only giant planet +hose e1uator is nearly at right angles to its orbit = it basically orbits on its side. Astronomers think the planet collided +ith some other planetsi6e ob;ect long ago, causing the tilt. The tilt causes extreme seasons that last ?plus years, and the sun beats do+n on one pole or the other for
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Discovery: Discovery: &><& &><& by @illiam Derschel %+as Derschel %+as thought previously to be a star( Named for: for: 4ersonification 4ersonification of heaven in ancient myth Diameter: &,>C Diameter: &,>C miles %'&,&? km(
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Orbit:
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Day: &< Day: &< 7arth hours
3eptune The eighth planet from the sun, 3eptune is kno+n for strong +inds = sometimes faster than the speed of sound. 3eptune is far out and cold. The planet is more than ? times as far from the sun as 7arth. It has a rocky core. 3eptune +as the first planet to be predicted to exist by using math, before it +as detected. Irregularities in the orbit of 2ranus led *rench astronomer Alexis Bouvard to suggest some other might be exerting a gravitational tug. erman astronomer 0ohann alle used calculations to help find 3eptune in a telescope. 3eptune is about &> times as massive as 7arth. •
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Discovery: &
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Diameter: ?,>>' Diameter: ?,>>' miles %F$,'? km(
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Orbit: &C' Orbit: &C' 7arth years
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Day: &$ Day: &$ 7arth hours
4luto %)+arf 4lanet( "nce the ninth planet from the sun, 4luto is unlike other planets in many respects. It is smaller than 7arth5s moon. Its orbit carries it inside the orbit of 3eptune and then +ay out beyond that orbit. *rom &$>$ until early &$$$, 4luto had actually been the eighth planet from the sun. Then, on *eb. &&, &$$$, it crossed 3eptune5s path and once again became the solar system5s most distant planet = until it +as demoted to d+arf planet status. 4luto +ill stay beyond 3eptune for < years. 4lutoKs orbit is tilted to the main plane of the solar system = +here the other planets orbit = by &>.& degrees. ItKs a cold, rocky +orld +ith only a very ephemeral atmosphere. 3ASA5s 3e+ Dori6ons mission performed history5s first flyby of the 4luto system on 0uly &F, ?&'. [Related: New Horizons' Pluto Flyby: Latest News !ma"es and #ideo $ •
Discovery9 Discovery9 &$? by #lyde Tombaugh
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Named for 9 Roman god of the under+orld, Dades
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Diameter 9 &,F? miles %,?& km(
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Orbit9 Orbit9 F< 7arth years
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Day: C.F Day: C.F 7arth day
Characteristics of Gases, Liquids and Solids and the Microscopic Explanation for the Behavior gas
liquid
solid
assumes the shape and assumes the shape of the retains a fixed volume and volume of its container part of the container which shape particles can move past one it occupies rigid - particles locked into another particles can move/slide place past one another compressible lots of free space between particles
not easily compressible little free space between particles
not easily compressible little free space between particles
flows easily particles can move past one another
flows easily particles can move/slide past one another
does not flow easily rigid - particles cannot move/slide past one another
War mbl ooded
Ani malGr oups
ani mal s r egul at e t h ei ro wnbod y t emper at ur es ;t hei r b od i e su s ee ne r g y Ver t ebr at esandI nv er t ebr at es t omai nt ai na o n s t a n t Al mos tal l ani mal sf al l i nt ooneoft wogr oups .Adul tv er t ebr at e s h a v eas pi n al c t e mp mp er a t ur e . Col dc ol umn,orb ac k bone,r unni ngt hel e ngt hoft hebody ;i nv er t ebr at es d on ot . ooded Ver t eb r at e sa r eof t enl ar ge randha v emor ec omp l e xbodi e st ha ni n v er t eb r at es . bl ani mal s depend Ho we v er ,t he r ear ema man ymo mor ei n v er t ebr at e st hanv er t ebr at es . ont hei r s ur r oundi n gst o es t abl i s ht hei r body t e mp mp er a t ur e s. Fi sh br eat het hr oughgi l l s ,andl i v ei nwat er ;mos tar ec ol dbl ooded
Ver t ebr at es •
andl a yeggs( al t houghs har k sgi v ebi r t ht ol i v ey oung) .
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ar ec ol dbl oodedandl i v ebot honl and( br eat hi ngwi t hl ungs )andi nwat er Amphi bi ans ( br eat hi ngt hr oughgi l l s )a tdi ffer entt i mes .Thr eet y pesofamphi bi ansar ef r ogsandt oads , s al aman der s ,andc ae ci l i an s.Caec i l i ansar epr i mi t i v ea mphi mp bi anst hatr e sembl eea r t hwo r ms . The yar ef oundi nt het r opi c s. Rept i l es ar ec o l d b l o ode da ndbr e at h ewi t hl u ng s.Th eyha v es c al e s,a ndmo s tl a ye gg s . Rept i l esi nc l udes nak es ,t ur t l esandt or t oi s es ,c r o codi l esandal l i gat or s ,andl i z ar ds . Di n os au r swe r er ep t i l e s,a l t h ou ghs omes c i e nt i s t sbe l i e v et ha ts omewer ewa r mb l oo de d. ar ewa r mb l o od eda ni ma l swi t hf e at h er san dwi n gs .Th eyl a yeg gs ,a ndmo s tc a nfl y Bi r ds ( al t h oughman y ,i nc l udi ngpen gu i nsandos t r i c hes ,c anno t ) . Mammal Ma s ar ewa r mb l oo ded ,a ndar eno ur i s hedb yt h ei rmo t he r s ' mi l k ;mo star eb or nl i v e ( h owe v er ,t h ep l a t y p usl a y seg gs ) .Mo s tmamma l sa l s oh av ebo dyh ai r .
I n v e r t e b r a t e s •
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Sponges ar et hemos tpr i mi t i v eofani mal gr oups .The yl i v ei nwat er( us ual l ysal t wat er ) ,ar e s es s i l e( donotmo vef r om pl ac et opl ac e) ,andfi l t ert i n yor gani s msoutoft ms hewat erf orf ood. Coe l e nt e r a t e s ar eal s ov er ypr i mi t i v e.Thei rmout hs ,whi c ht ak ei nf oodandge tr i dofwas t e, ar es ur r oundedb ys t i ngi ngt ent ac l es .Somec oel ent er at esar ej el l y fi sh,c or al s ,ands ea anemone s .
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Echi noder ms i nc l udes t ar fi s h,s eaur c hi ns ,ands eac uc umb er s .The yl i v ei nsea wat era nd ha veex t er nal s k el et ons . Wo Wor ms c omei nman yv ar i e t i esandl i v ei nal l s or t sofhabi t at s— f r om t hebot t om oft he o ce ant ot h ei n si d eofo t h era ni ma l s .The yi n cl u defl a t wo r ms( fl uk e s ) ,r ou ndwor ms ( hook wor ms ) ,s egmen t edwor ms( e ar t hwor ms ) ,a ndr o t i f e r s( ph i l odi na ) .
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Mo Mol l usks ar es of t bodi edani mal s ,whi c hof t enl i v ei nhar ds hel l s .The yi nc l udes nai l s ,s l ugs , oc t opus ,s qui d,mus sel s ,oy st er s ,c l ams ,s cal l ops ,c hi t ons ,andcut t l efi sh.Mol l us ksar et he s ec ondl ar ges tgr oupofi nv er t ebr at es ,wi t h50, 000l i v i ngs pec i es .
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Ar t hr opods ar et h el a r g es ta ndmo s td i v e r s eo fa l l a ni mal g r o up s .The yha v es e gme nt e d bo di e ss uppor t edb yah ar de xt e r na ls k el e t on( ore .Ar t hr opodsi nc l udei ns ec t s , x os ke l e t on) ar ac hni ds( s pi der sandt hei rr el at i v es ) , c ent i pedes ,mi l l i pedes ,andc r u st ac eansl i k ec r abs , l obs t er s ,ands hr i mp.
