NATURE NATURE AND ENVIRONMENT ECOSYSTEM: The network of interactions that link together the living and non-living parts of an environment.
POPULATION: The totality of a closely related number of individual organisms that belong to the same species and live in the same geographical area and interact with each other through sexual (or asexual for bacteria) reproduction.
MIGRATION: When living organisms move from one biome to another. It can also describe geographic population shifts within nations and across borders.
RENEWABLE RESOURCES: upplies of biological organisms that can be replaced after harvesting by regrowth or reproduction of the removed species! such as seafood or timber.
NON-RENEWABLE: omething that cannot be replaced once it is used or that may take many hundreds of years to be replaced.
FOSSIL FUELS: "uel formed over millions of years from compression of the decayed remains of living matter.#oal! oil! and natural gas are fossil fuels.
EQUILIBRIUM: $ condition condition where structures structures or systems systems are in in complete complete balance. balance. $ state of rest or balance! in which all opposing forces are e%ual.
LIFE CYCLE: $ll the stages stages in the life of a plant plant or animal animal organism! organism! between between life and and death. death. CONSUMPTION: The amount of resources or energy used by a household. CONSERVATION: &reserving and carefully managing natural resources so that they can be used by present and future generations. We conserve resources by using them more ef'ciently! with minimum waste.BIODEGRADABLE: aterial that is able to be broken down or decomposed by natural processes into simpler compounds. atural processes include exposure to sun! water! and air.
FOOD CHAIN: $ method for for describing describing how food
energy passes from organism to organism. The description establishes a hierarchy of organisms where each feeds on those below and is the source food for those above.
of
interconnected d food chains chains in an an ecosystem. ecosystem. FOOD WEB: $ network of interconnecte
TROPHIC LEVEL: $ feeding level within within a food food web. HERBIVORES: $n animal animal that eats eats only plants. plants. organism that feeds on large bits bits of dead dead and decaying decaying plant plant and animal matter. matter. "or DETRIVORE: $n organism example! earthworms! dung beetles! and wolverines are detrivores.
CARNIVORE: $ consumer that eats other animals. animals. "or "or example! example! wolves wolves and orca orca are carnivores carnivores.. organism that breaks down down (decomposes (decomposes)) dead or waste materials! materials! such such as DECOMPOSER: $n organism rotting wood! dead animals! or animal waste and returns important nutrients to the environment.
CONSUMER: $n organism! organism! such as an animal! animal! that must obtain obtain its food food by eating eating other other organisms organisms in its environment* can be a herbivore! carnivore! or omnivore.
SCAVENGER $ny animal that preys on food predators have killed! or food recently discarded. PRODUCER: $n organism organism that creates its own food food rather rather than eating other other organisms organisms to obtain obtain food* food* forexample! a plant.
PREY: $n organism that is hunted by a predator. PREDATOR: $n organism organism that hunts another another living living thing for food. OMNIVORE: $n animal that eats both plants and animals. NICHE: The way that an organism 'ts into an ecosystem! in terms of where it lives! how it obtains its food! and how it interacts with other organisms.
BIOMES: +arge regions of ,arth where temperature and precipitation are distinct and certain types of plants and animals are found.
HABITAT: The place where an animal or a plant naturally lives or grows and that provides it with everything it needs to grow.
ESTUARY: The region where a river ows into the ocean and fresh river water mixes with saltwater. LOCAL ENVIRONMENT: $ll the inuence inuences s and conditions conditions in which which organisms organisms live! including including the actual place! circumstances! soil! water! air! and climate that surround and affect plants and animals in a particular area! and which determine their form and survival.
ADAPTATION: The physical characteristic! or behaviour trait that helps an organism survive in its local environment.
SUCCESSION: $ fundamental fundamental concept concept in ecology ecology that refers to the more or less predictable predictable and orderly changes in the composition or structure of an ecological community.
BIOMASS: $n ecology ecology term for for the total total mass of of living organisms organisms in a certain certain area. area. CELL: $ microscopic microscopic structure structure that is the basic basic unit of all living living things. things. rganisms rganisms can be made of of as little as one cell (some types of bacteria) or as many as several trillion cells (human beings).
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: $ process in green plants and and some bacteria bacteria during during which which light energy is is absorbed by chlorophyll-containing molecules and converted to chemical energy (the light reaction).
interconnected d food chains chains in an an ecosystem. ecosystem. FOOD WEB: $ network of interconnecte
TROPHIC LEVEL: $ feeding level within within a food food web. HERBIVORES: $n animal animal that eats eats only plants. plants. organism that feeds on large bits bits of dead dead and decaying decaying plant plant and animal matter. matter. "or DETRIVORE: $n organism example! earthworms! dung beetles! and wolverines are detrivores.
CARNIVORE: $ consumer that eats other animals. animals. "or "or example! example! wolves wolves and orca orca are carnivores carnivores.. organism that breaks down down (decomposes (decomposes)) dead or waste materials! materials! such such as DECOMPOSER: $n organism rotting wood! dead animals! or animal waste and returns important nutrients to the environment.
CONSUMER: $n organism! organism! such as an animal! animal! that must obtain obtain its food food by eating eating other other organisms organisms in its environment* can be a herbivore! carnivore! or omnivore.
SCAVENGER $ny animal that preys on food predators have killed! or food recently discarded. PRODUCER: $n organism organism that creates its own food food rather rather than eating other other organisms organisms to obtain obtain food* food* forexample! a plant.
PREY: $n organism that is hunted by a predator. PREDATOR: $n organism organism that hunts another another living living thing for food. OMNIVORE: $n animal that eats both plants and animals. NICHE: The way that an organism 'ts into an ecosystem! in terms of where it lives! how it obtains its food! and how it interacts with other organisms.
BIOMES: +arge regions of ,arth where temperature and precipitation are distinct and certain types of plants and animals are found.
HABITAT: The place where an animal or a plant naturally lives or grows and that provides it with everything it needs to grow.
ESTUARY: The region where a river ows into the ocean and fresh river water mixes with saltwater. LOCAL ENVIRONMENT: $ll the inuence inuences s and conditions conditions in which which organisms organisms live! including including the actual place! circumstances! soil! water! air! and climate that surround and affect plants and animals in a particular area! and which determine their form and survival.
ADAPTATION: The physical characteristic! or behaviour trait that helps an organism survive in its local environment.
SUCCESSION: $ fundamental fundamental concept concept in ecology ecology that refers to the more or less predictable predictable and orderly changes in the composition or structure of an ecological community.
BIOMASS: $n ecology ecology term for for the total total mass of of living organisms organisms in a certain certain area. area. CELL: $ microscopic microscopic structure structure that is the basic basic unit of all living living things. things. rganisms rganisms can be made of of as little as one cell (some types of bacteria) or as many as several trillion cells (human beings).
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: $ process in green plants and and some bacteria bacteria during during which which light energy is is absorbed by chlorophyll-containing molecules and converted to chemical energy (the light reaction).
/uring the process! carbon dioxide is reduced and combined with other chemical elements to provide the organic intermediates that form plant biomass (the dark reaction). 0reen plants release molecular oxygen (12)! which they derive from water during the light reaction.
CHLOROPHYLL: $ green pigment pigment found found in chloroplas chloroplasts ts that gives gives plants plants green colour. colour. It captures captures sunlight used for photosynthesis. cell structure structure containing containing chlorophyll! chlorophyll! found in all green green plant CHLOROPLAST: $ plant cell
INVERTEBRATE: $n animal animal that does does not have have a backbone backbone or spinal column. ,xamples ,xamples of invertebrates include insects! worms! and crabs. vertebrates that is born in in water and and lives both in water and and on land. land. AMPHIBIAN: $ class of vertebrates $mphibians $mphibians begin life in water water with gills* later! later! they develop develop lungs lungs and legs legs so they they can walk walk on land land as adults. ,xamples include frogs! toads! and salamanders.
COLOURATION: $n adaptation adaptation of of an organism3s organism3s colour to to help it survive in its environment. environment. imicry imicry and camouage are examples of colouration.
CAMOUFLAGE: The colouring of an animal that allows it to blend into its environment to survive better.
MIMICRY: ,volving to appear similar to another successful species or to the environment in order to dupe predators into avoiding the mimic! or dupe prey into approaching the mimic.
CONDENSATION: When a substance changes state from a gas to a li%uid. SUBLIME: occurs when a substance changes directly from a solid to a gas without becoming li%uid. OXYGEN: $ colourless! colourless! odourless! odourless! tasteless tasteless gas gas that is the most plentiful element in the ,arth4s ,arth4s crust. crust. It was discovered in 5662 by wedish chemist #arl Wilhelm cheele.
FREEZING POINT: The temperature at which a li%uid becomes a solid. Increased pressure usually raises the free7ing point.
ABSOLUTE ZERO: The lowest theoretical temperature where all the molecular activities cease to continue. The absolute temperature is 189 -26:.5;<#
OZONE: $ triatomic molecule consisting consisting of three three oxygen oxygen atoms. 0round-level 0round-level o7one o7one is an air pollutant pollutant with harmful effects on the respiratory systems of animals. n the other hand! o7one in the upper atmosphere protects living organisms by preventing damaging ultraviolet light from reaching the ,arth4s surface.
ACID RAIN: =ainfall with a greater acidity than normal. GREENHOUSE EFFECT: $n increase increase in temperature temperature caused when when the atmospher atmosphere e absorbs absorbs incoming solar radiation but blocks outgoing thermal radiation* carbon dioxide is the ma>or factor. $tmospheric gases gases or vapours vapours that that absorb outgoing infrared energy emitted emitted GREENHOUSE GASES: $tmospheric from the ,arth naturally or as a result of human activities. 0reenhouse gases are components of the atmosphere that contribute to the 0reenhouse effect.
SUSTAINABILITY: The ability of ecosystems to bear the impact of the human population over a long period of time! through the replacement of resources and the recycling of waste.
NATURAL GAS: $ fossil fuel formed by the decomposition of microscopic plants and animals over millions of years.
ENERGY AND FORCES POTENTIAL ENERGY: The mechanical energy of a body that is unused or stored! when the body is at rest.
SPEED OF LIGHT: +ight speed e%uals 2??!6?2!@AB metersCsecond (5B;!111 milesCsecond). ,instein4s Theory of =elativity implies that nothing can go faster than the speed of light.
STATIC ELECTRICITY: /escribes the situation where ob>ects carry a charge at rest and interactions between them.
RADIATION: The heat transfer between two bodies without change in the temperature of the intervening medium. =adiation is also the release of energy from a source.
POWER: The amount of work carried out per second is known as power. The amount of power transmitted electrically is the product of voltage (D) with current (I).
PROTONS: $ positively charged subatomic particle. &rotons! along with other subatomic particles make up the nucleus of an atom. The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number of the element.
FRICTION: The force of resistance that develops when two ob>ects rub against each other. GRAVITY: The physical force that is exerted on all masses and is proportional to the mass of an ob>ect. CONVECTION: "luid circulation driven by temperature gradients* the transfer of heat by this automatic circulation.
CONDUCTOR: $ thing that transmits heat! electricity! light! sound or other form of energy. CIRCUIT: The path followed by an electric current. ,lectricity must flow in a circuit to do useful work. ACCELERATION: The rate at which the velocity vector changes is known as acceleration. The I unit of acceleration is metre per second
2
WORK: The movement of an ob>ect due to pushing or pulling is called work. There is increase in energy of the ob>ect due to work.
MOLECULE: ne of the basic units of matter. It is the smallest particles into which a substance can be divided and still have the chemical identity of the original substance.
HYPOTHESIS: $ testable scientific idea that can be proved right or wrong with experiments. $ hypothesis is a formulation of a %uestion that lends itself to a prediction. This prediction can be verified or falsified. $ %uestion can only be used as scientific hypothesis! if there is an experimental approach or observational study that can be designed to check the outcome of a prediction.
TIDAL ENERGY: ,nergy created by 'lling a reservoir with ocean water at high tide! and later releasing the water through hydroelectric turbines as the tide ebbs to produce electricity.
VOLTAGE: $ measure of the energy available to move charges in a circuit between positively-charged and negatively-charged terminals of a batteryE measured in volts (D).
STATIC-ELECTRIC CHARGE: $ type of electricity where the electric charges build up on an ob>ect by rubbing another ob>ect. The movement of the charge off the charged ob>ect is called a static discharge. "or example! electric charges built up in rubbing a balloon against your pet3s fur.
STATIC-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE: $ form of electrical energy moving unbalanced charged electrons on an ob>ect back to a balanced condition.
SERIES CIRCUIT: $ circuit in which the current travels along a single path to two or more electric devices* the current must travel though each part of the circuit! one device after the other! in turn.
PRESSURE: $ force applied e%ually to all surfaces of ob>ects or surfaces. $ir pressure is the force of all the atmosphere gases pushing down on people at the ,arth3s surface.
PARALLEL CIRCUIT: $ circuit in which the current travels along two or more separate paths to different devices. The current travels through each part of the circuit devices at the same time.
NET CHARGE: o static charge available as the amount of excess (F) electrons is e%ual to the amount of de'cient (-) electrons.
NEUTRAL CHARGE: o static charge and no excess electron or missing electrons. NUCLEAR ENERGY: ,nergy that uses uranium as a fuel to heat water and produce steam! which turns a turbine and produces electricity.
HEAT: The transfer of thermal energy to other substances that are at a different temperature. #old things still have heat energy.
GEOTHERMAL: ,nergy obtained from the natural heat of the ,arth. GRAVITY: The forces of attraction which the ,arth has for ob>ects on its surface* also the force of attraction between any two ob>ects.
FORCE: The physics term used to describe the energy applied in various ways to move ob>ects or change their position. "orce usually involve a push or a pulling and is either balanced or unbalanced by other forces.
ENERGY: ,nergy cannot be seen or touched. ,nergy is a property of all matter. ,nergy comes in many forms and can be transferred from one ob>ect to another! but it cannot be created or destroyed* written as the symbol ,.
ELECTROMAGNETISM: $ magnetic force caused by electric charges in motion* also! the relationship between magnetism and electricity where one can make the other.
ELECTRON: $ negatively charged particle that is found outside the nucleus of an atom. ELECTROMAGNET: $ magnet that is created by using electricity in a circuit placed around a piece of metal conductor such as steel or lead.
ELECTRICAL SWITCH: $ device that controls the ow of electric current through a circuit. In an open circuit! a light will be off* in a closed circuit! a light will be on.
ELECTRIC CURRENT: $ continuous ow of electric charges moving from one place to another along a pathway* re%uired to make all electrical devices work* measured in amperes ($).
ELECTRICAL ENERGY: The better term for electricity* the form of energy that consists of a ow of electric charges as the energy is transferred through a conductor.
BIOMASS ENERGY: ,nergy created by burning any type of plant or animal tissue to heat water and create steam! which turns turbines and generates electricity.
BATTERY: $n energy source that uses a chemical reaction to create an electric current. BALANCED FORCES: When the total of all forces on an ob>ect e%uals 7ero and the ob>ect3s motion does not change.
MATERIALS AT HOME VITAMINS: The organic compound that is re%uired as a nutrient by an organism and is often obtained from its diet. The deficiency of vitamins can cause many diseases and illness in the organism.
NUTRIENT: olecules that can be used by cells or living organism to extract energy through metabolic processes. $lthough nutrients are often sought off only as energy providers! they can also be used as molecular building block for the biosynthesis of cellular structures
ETHANOL: $ flammable! colourless! slightly toxic chemical compound with a distinctive perfume-like odour. $lso known as ethyl alcohol! drinking alcohol! or grain alcohol! in common usage it is often referred to simply as alcohol.
ANTIOXIDANT: $ molecule that protects cells from oxidative damage of oxygen and free radical molecules that are chemically unstable and cause random reactions damaging proteins! nucleic acids! and cell membranes. ,xamples of dietary antioxidants are vitamins #! ,! and 8! and diverse plant products such as lycopene
AMINO ACID: Guilding block of proteins and en7ymes. /ietary proteins need to be broken into their amino acid components before they can be used by the body. ote that there are 21 amino acids found in proteins. any nutritional lists describe only 5B occluding glutamine and asparagine. Their values are included in those reported for the acidic forms glutamate and aspartate.
ACID: $ sour tasting! corrosive substance - the opposite of a base substance. $cidic solutions will turn litmus red.
AEROSOL: +i%uid or solid particles that are suspended in air or a gas. $lso referred to as particulate matter.
VOLATILE: #ompounds with low melting temperatures! such as hydrogen! helium! water! ammonia! carbon dioxide and methane.
ACIDIC: $ term used to describe a solution that has a value below 6 on the pH scale* the more acidic a solution! the lower its pH value.
SUSPENSION: $ cloudy mixture in which clumps of a solid or droplets of a li%uid are scattered throughout a li%uid or gas. "or example! muddy water is a suspension.
SUPERSATURATED: $ solution that is more than saturated* using temperature changes! a solution is forced to dissolve more of the substance (the solute) than would normally be found in a saturated solution. oluteE The smaller part that is put into a solution. $ solute is mixed with a solvent to form a solution.
SOLUTION: $ homogeneous mixture of two or more substances that combine so that the mixture is the same throughout and the properties of the substances blend.
SOLUBILITY: The ability of a substance (the solute) to dissolve in another substance (the solvent). Temperature plays an important role in solubility. "or example! you can dissolve more orange- drink crystals in warm water than in cold water.
SATURATED: $ solution that contains as much of one substance (the solute) as can be dissolved in another substance (the solvent). "or example! when you cannot dissolve any more drink crystals in water! the solution is saturated.
PURE SUBSTANCE: $ substance that is composed of only one type of atomic particle and therefore always has the same properties. There are two kinds of pure substancesE elements and compounds.
PH SCALE: $ scale that measures the acidity of substances in solution* has numbers from 1 (strongly acidic) to 6 (neutral) to 5@ (strongly basic).
NEUTRAL PH: either an acid nor a base. n the pH scale! a neutral substance or solution has a pH value of 6. &ure distilled water has a pH of 6.
EMULSION: $ special kind of suspension that has been treated to prevent the parts of the mixture from separating. "or example! homogeni7ed milk is an emulsion.
DISSOLVE: To completely mix one substance (the solute) in another (the solvent) to form a solution. "or example! if you add sugar to water! the sugar dissolves in the water.
DILUTE: $ solution that has a low concentration of the dissolved substance (the solute).
BASIC: $ term used to describe a solution that has a value above 6 on the pH scale* the more basic a solution! the higher its pH value.
BASE: $ compound that produces hydroxide (H-) in water. $ solution that is basic turns red litmus paper blue because it has less hydrogen ions.
THE EARTH AND ITS COMPONENTS TROPOSPHERE: The lower region of a planetary atmosphere where convection keeps the gas mixed and maintains a steady increase of temperature with depth. ost clouds are in the troposphere.
STRATOSPHERE: The cold region of a planetary atmosphere above the convecting regions (the troposphere)! usually without vertical motions but sometimes exhibiting strong hori7ontal >et streams.
LITHOSPHERE: ,%uivalent in part to the crust! the lithosphere comprises of a number of tectonic plates that 4float4 on the asthenosphere.
ATMOSPHERE: The blanket of air that surrounds the ,arth. It is thickest near the ground and gradually fades away to nothing in outer space.
BIOSPHERE: The parts of ,arth where life can be found! from mountaintops to the deepest parts of the ocean.
SUBDUCTION: The process in which one plate is pushed downward beneath another plate into the underlying mantle when plates move towards each other.
SUBDUCTION ZONE: $ place on ,arth3s crust where high pressure pushes an oceanic plate under another! converging tectonic plate.
PLATE TECTONICS: $ concept stating that the crust of the ,arth is composed of crustal plates moving on the molten material below. The theory that the surface of ,arth consists of large plates that are continually moving.
CRUST: The outermost rock layer! divided into continental and oceanic crust. The continental crust is 2A-?1 km thick and is mostly granite and andesite. The oceanic crust is ;-55 km thick and mostly basalt. thin! outer layer of ,arth* made of solid rock. The crust JoatsK on the inner layers of ,arth because it is made of lighter materials than the lower layers
ASTHENOSPHERE: /uctile rocks that lie from below the lithosphere to 2A1 km below the surface.
MANTLE: The mantle stretches from the below the crust to 2?11 km below the surface. The upper part is partially molten and the lower part is very dense. The main mantle rock is peridotite. +ayer of ,arth between the crust and the outer core* a hot! thick layer of solid and partly melted rock.
EARTH’S INNER CORE: The innermost layer of ,arth! which is made up of iron and nickel. CONTINENTAL SHELF: $ shallow underwater ledge located between a continent and the deep ocean crust.
CONTINENTAL CRUST: The parts of ,arth3s crust that have continents on them.
AURORA BOREALIS : The orthern +ights caused by the interaction between the solar wind! the ,arth4s magnetic field and the upper atmosphere* a similar effect happens in the southern hemisphere where it is known as the aurora australis.
EXTRACTION: =emoving rock or minerals from the earth. ROCK is a mixture of such minerals! rock fragments! volcanic glass! organic matter! or other natural materials.
JAMES HUTTON developed the concept of the Ro! C"#$ to show how rocks and natural! physical processes are interrelated.
ROCK CYCLE is a se%uence of events involving the formation! alteration! destruction! and reformation of rocks as a result of natural processes such as magmatism (melting of rock into magma)! erosion! transportation! deposition! lithification! and metamorphism.
SEDIMENT: mall pieces of material that have broken off of rocks and have been deposited by water! wind! or ice.
SEDIMENTARY ROCK: +ayered rock formed when sediment is compressed and forced together naturally over millions of years.
BEYOND EARTH PERIHELION: The point in its orbit where a planet is closest to the un. PLANET: The large! spherical body made of rocks and ice orbiting the un or another star. PULSAR: $ rotating star or a pair of stars that emit electromagnetic radiation characteri7ed by rapid fre%uency and regularity.
RED GIANT: $n old star that has low surface temperature and a diameter that is large relative to the un.
MILKY WAY: ur galaxy is observed as a misty band of light stretching across a night sky due to which it is known as ilky Way. There are one hundred million stars in our milky way.
METEOR: The luminous phenomenon seen when a meteoroid enters the atmosphere! commonly known as a shooting star.
METEOR SHOWER: $ group of meteors that are seen in the same part of sky and which occur over a period of few days or few hours is known as meteor shower.
LUMINOSITY: The radiation amount that is emitted by a star or celestial ob>ect at a given time is known as +uminosity
METEORITE: $ part of a meteoroid that survives through the ,arth4s atmosphere. METEOROID: $ small rock in space. KUIPER BELT: The spherical region of the outer solar system that has a population of 4ice dwarfs4 is known as the 8uiper Gelt.
JOVIAN PLANET: $ny of the four outer! gaseous planetsE Lupiter! aturn! Mranus! and eptune. COMA: The tail made of gases and dust particles that surrounds a comet is known as coma. It is made by the vapori7ation of the nucleus due to which >ets of gas and dust are released.
COMET: It is the icy body that contain a solid nucleus made of water and other dark organic compounds orbiting the un. $s the comets gets closer to the un the nucleus vapori7es forming a 4coma4.
APHELION: The point in its orbit where a planet is farthest from the un. APOAPSIS: The point in orbit farthest from the planet. APOGEE: The point in orbit farthest from the ,arth. ASTRONOMICAL UNIT %AU&: The average distance from the ,arth to the un* 5 $M is 5@?!A?6!B61 kilometres (?2!?;1!55; miles).
ALPHA CENTAURI: The closest bright star to our solar system. LIGHT YEAR: The distance light travels in a year! at the rate of :11!111 kilometres per second (;65 million miles per hour)* 5 light-year is e%uivalent to ?.@;1A:e52 km! A!BB1!111!111!111 miles or ;:!2@1 $M.
ASTRONOMY: is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial ob>ects (such as moons! planets! stars! nebulae! and galaxies).
STAR: $ massive! luminous sphere of plasma held together by gravity. $ hot glowing sphere of gas that produces energy by fusion.
SUN: is the nearest star in the earth
GALILEO GALILEI: Italian physicist! mathematician! astronomer! and philosopher who played a ma>or role in the cientific =evolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and conse%uent astronomical observations and support for #opernicanism. 0alileo has been called the Nfather of modern observational astronomyN
REFRACTOR TELESCOPE E $ telescope with lenses that bend light rays REFLECTOR TELESCOPE $ telescope that uses mirrors RADIO TELESCOPE is a special telescope which can see images of ob>ects with the help of radiation.
EDWIN HUBBLE was an $merican astronomer who played a crucial role in establishing the field of extragalactic astronomy and is generally regarded as one of the most important observational cosmologists of the 21th century. SPACE EXPLORATION
O'o($) *+ ,./--oviet Mnion launches S01'23! I. No4$5($) 6+ ,./ --putnik II launches! with ill-fated L73!7 '8$ 9o on board J7217)" 6,+ ,.;--Mnited tates launches E<0#o)$) I from #ape #anaveral in "lorida. O'o($) ,+ ,.;--NASA is formed after #ongress passes the ational $eronautics and pace $ct. A0)3# ,=+ ,>, --#osmonaut Y1)3 G77)32 becomes the first human to enter space and return safely.
M7" .+ ,>, --With the launch of "reedom 6! A#72 S8$07)9 becomes the first $merican man in space. The suborbital flight! which was part of the ercury &ro>ect! lasted 5A minutes! 2B seconds. M7" =.+ ,>, --M.. &resident Lohn ". 8ennedy announces the goal of sending astronauts to the moon before the end of the decade. F$()17)" =?+ ,>=--+aunch of "riendship 6 (also part of the ercury &ro>ect) makes astronaut Jo82 G#$22 the first $merican to go into orbit. Total flight time was >ust shy of five hours. J12$ ,>+ ,>6 - Vostok 6 carries oviet #osmonaut V7#$2'37 T$)$@8!o47 ! the first woman in space and orbits the ,arth @B times. M7)8 ,;+ ,>. - The first spacewalk is made from oviet Voskhod 2 by #osmonaut A#$<$3 A L$o2o4. /uration is 52 minutes. J7217)" =/+ ,>/--ission $-21@ is struck by tragedy when a flash fire breaks out during a launch pad test! killing three astronautsE Dirgil 0rissom! ,dward White! and new astronaut =oger #haffee. The mission! one of $$4s first ma>or setbacks! was later renamed $pollo 5. J1#" ,>+ ,> --+aunch of A0o##o ,, J1#" =?+ ,> --$stronauts E932 B1 A#9)32 729 N$3# A)5@')o2 become the first men to walk on the moon. M7)8 =+ ,/= --+aunch of unmanned P3o2$$) ,?: E7)'8@ 3)@' @07$ 0)o($ 'o 72 o1'$) 0#72$'! the first spacecraft to travel through the asteroid belt! the first spacecraft to make direct observations and obtain close-up images of Lupiter! and the first man-made ob>ect to leave the solar system. M7" ,*+ ,/6 --Mnited tates launches its first experimental space station! the S!"#7(. A11@' =?+ ,/. --+aunch of V3!32 ,! the first orbiter and lander sent to ars. Diking 2 would launch a few weeks later. Goth landed safely on ars and for six years sent back the first set of images and data from the artian surface. A11@' =?+ ,// --+aunch of Vo"7$) =! one of a pair of spacecraft sent by $$ on what was supposed to be a five-year mission to study Lupiter and aturn. Doyagers 5 and 2 continue to send back pictures and data today! :1 years later from nearly 51 billion miles away. S$0'$5($) .+ ,// --+aunch of Vo"7$) , J12$ ,;+ ,;6 --S7##" R39$ becomes first $merican woman in space with launch of shuttle mission T-6 aboard the space shuttle #hallenger. A11@' 6?+ ,;6 --0uion . Gluford! Lr.! becomes first black man in space with launch of shuttle mission T-B aboard the space shuttle #hallenger. J7217)" =;+ ,;>--"irst ma>or catastrophe for $$! when space shuttle C87##$2$) %53@@3o2 STS-.,L) explodes 6: seconds after take-off with seven crew members aboard F$()17)" ,+ ,;>--ir space station launches. /ecember @! 5??;--+aunch of ars &athfinder Luly @! 5??6--&athfinder lands on ars. The rover o>ourner would go on to explore the artian surface for more than B1 days. J12$ ,? 729 J1#" /+ =??6 --ars ,xploration =overs pirit and pportunity launch. J7217)" =??*--S03)3' 729 O00o)'123'" arrive on the artian surface. They continue to explore the =ed &lanet today.
HEALTH AND BODY SYSTEM M7o) O)72 S"@'$5@
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O)72@ 32 '8$ S"@'$5 Heart Glood vessels (arteries! capillaries! veins) ose outh &harynx +arynx Trachea Gronchi +ungs Grain pinal cord erves (both those that carry impulses to the brain and those that carry impulses from the brain to muscles and organs) kin (both the surface that is generally thought of as skin and the underlying structures of connective tissue! including fat! glands! and blood vessels) uscles Tendons and ligaments Gones Loints Glood cells and platelets &lasma (the li%uid part of blood) Gone marrow (where blood cells are produced) pleen Thymus outh ,sophagus tomach mall intestine +arge intestine =ectum $nus +iver 0allbladder &ancreas (the part that produces en7ymes) $ppendix •
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Thyroid gland &arathyroid gland $drenal glands &ituitary gland &ancreas (the part that produces insulin) tomach (the cells that produce gastrin) &ineal gland varies Testes 8idneys Mreters Gladder Mrethra &enis &rostate gland eminal vesicles Dasa deferentia Testes Dagina #ervix Mterus "allopian tubes varies CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: This system is made up of the heart! blood! blood vessels! and lymphatic. It is the body3s delivery system! concerned with circulating blood to deliver oxygen and nutrients to every part of the body.
PULMONARY CIRCULATION transports deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs! where the blood picks up oxygen and returns to the left side of the heart.
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION carries highly oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart to all of the tissues of the body (with the exception of the heart and lungs). ystemic circulation removes wastes from body tissues and returns deoxygenated blood to the right side of the heart.
CORONARY CIRCULATION: set of blood vessels that provide the myocardium with the oxygen and nutrients necessary to pump blood throughout the body. The left and right coronary arteries branch off from the aorta and provide blood to the left and right sides of the heart.
HEART is a muscular pumping organ located medial to the lungs along the body3s midline in the thoracic region.
BLOOD VESSELS are the body3s highways that allow blood to flow %uickly and efficiently from the heart to every region of the body and back again. There are three ma>or types of blood vesselsE arteries! capillaries and veins.
ARTERIES AND ARTERIOLES: are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Glood carried by arteries is usually highly oxygenated
CAPILLARIES: are the smallest and thinnest of the blood vessels in the body and also the most common. #apillaries carry blood very close to the cells of the tissues of the body in order to exchange gases! nutrients! and waste products.
VEINS AND VENULES: are the large return vessels of the body and act as the blood return counterparts of arteries.
BLOOD: human body contains about @ to A liters of blood. $s a li%uid connective tissue! it transports many substances through the body and helps to maintain homeostasis of nutrients! wastes! and gases. Glood is made up of red blood cells! white blood cells! platelets! and li%uid plasma.
RED BLOOD CELLS E also known as erythrocytes! are by far the most common type of blood cell and make up about @AO of blood volume. ,rythrocytes are produced inside of red bone marrow from stem cells at the astonishing rate of about 2 million cells every second. ,rythrocytes transport oxygen in the blood through the red pigment haemoglobin. Haemoglobin contains iron and proteins >oined to greatly increase the oxygen carrying capacity of erythrocytes.
WHITE BLOOD CELLS: also known as leukocytes! make up a very small percentage of the total number of cells in the bloodstream! but have important functions in the body3s immune system.
PLATELETS: $lso known as thrombocytes! platelets are small cell fragments responsible for the clotting of blood and the formation of scabs.
HEMOSTASIS: or the clotting of blood and formation of scabs! is managed by the platelets of the blood.
PLASMA: is the non-cellular or li%uid portion of the blood that makes up about AAO of the blood3s volume. &lasma is a mixture of water! proteins! and dissolved substances. $round ?1O of plasma is made of water
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: The purpose of the digestive system is to turn the food you eat into something useful for the body. When you eat! your body uses this system to digest food so your cells can use it to make energy. The organs involved in this system include the mouth! stomach! and intestines.
ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM MOUTH: "ood begins its >ourney through the digestive system in the mouth! also known as the oral cavity. Inside the mouth are accessory organs that aid in the digestion of foodPthe tongue! and salivary glands.
many teeth!
TEETH: :2 small! hard organs found along the anterior and lateral edges of the mouth. ,ach tooth is made of a bone-like substance called dentin and covered in a layer of enamelP the hardest substance in the body.
TONGUEE located on the inferior portion of the mouth >ust posterior and medial to the teeth. It is a small organ made up of several pairs of muscles covered in a thin! bumpy! skin-like layer.
SALIVARY GLANDS: accessory organs that produce a watery secretion known as saliva. aliva helps to moisten food and begins the digestion of carbohydrates. The body also uses saliva to lubricate food as it passes through the mouth! pharynx! and oesophagus.
PHARYNXE or throat! is a funnel-shaped tube connected to the posterior end of the mouth. The pharynx is responsible for the passing of masses of chewed food from the mouth to the oesophagus. The pharynx also plays an important role in the respiratory system! as air from the nasal cavity passes through the pharynx on its way to the larynx and eventually the lungs.
EPIGLOTTISE a flap of tissue that acts as a switch to route food to the oesophagus and air to the larynx.
ESOPHAGUSE a muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach that is part of the upper gastrointestinal tract. It carries swallowed masses of chewed food along its length.
STOMACHE a muscular sac that is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity! >ust inferior to the diaphragm. This ma>or organ acts as a storage tank for food so that the body has time to digest large meals properly. The stomach also contains hydrochloric acid and digestive en7ymes that continue the digestion of food that began in the mouth.
SMALL INTESTINEE a long! thin tube about 5 inch in diameter and about 51 feet long that is part of the lower gastrointestinal tract . The entire small intestine is coiled like a hose and the inside surface is full of many ridges and folds. These folds are used to maximi7e the digestion of food and absorption of nutrients. Gy the time food leaves the small intestine! around ?1O of all nutrients have been extracted from the food that entered it.
JEJUNUM: The mid-section of the small intestine of many higher vertebrates like mammals! birds! reptiles. It is present between the duodenum and the ileum.
LIVER: roughly triangular accessory organ of the digestive system located to the right of the stomach. The liver weighs about : pounds and is the second largest organ in the body. The main function of the liver in digestion is the production of bile and its secretion into the small intestine.
GALLBLADDERE a small! pear-shaped organ located >ust posterior to the liver. The gallbladder is used to store and recycle excess bile from the small intestine so that it can be reused for the digestion of subse%uent meals.
PANCREASE a large gland located >ust inferior and posterior to the stomach. It is about ; inches long and shaped like short! lumpy snake with its JheadK connected to the duodenum and its JtailK pointing to the left wall of the abdominal cavity. The pancreas secretes digestive en7ymes into the small intestine to complete the chemical digestion of foods.
LARGE INTESTINE E a long! thick tube about 2 Q inches in diameter and about A feet long. The large intestine absorbs water and contains many symbiotic bacteria that aid in the breaking down of wastes to extract some small amounts of nutrients.
PROCESS OF DIGESTION INGESTIONE The first function of the digestive system is ingestion! or the intake of food. The mouth is responsible for this function! as it is the orifice through which all food enters the body.
SWALLOWING: the process of using smooth and skeletal muscles in the mouth! tongue! and pharynx to push food out of the mouth! through the pharynx! and into the oesophagus.
PERISTALSIS: a muscular wave that travels the length of the 0I (gastro-intestinal) tract! moving partially digested food a short distance down the tract.
SEGMENTATION: occurs only in the small intestine as short segments of intestine contract like hands s%uee7ing a toothpaste tube. egmentation helps to increase the absorption of nutrients by mixing food and increasing its contact with the walls of the intestine.
DIGESTIONE the process of turning large pieces of food into its component chemicals. MECHANICAL DIGESTION: is the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces.
CHEMICAL DIGESTION: begins in the mouth with salivary amylase in saliva splitting complex carbohydrates into simple carbohydrates. The en7ymes and acid in the stomach continue chemical digestion! but the bulk of chemical digestion takes place in the small intestine thanks to the action of the pancreas.
ABSORPTION: nce food has been reduced to its building blocks! it is ready for the body to absorb. $bsorption begins in the stomach with simple molecules like water and alcohol being absorbed directly into the bloodstream. ost absorption takes place in the walls of the small intestine! which are densely folded to maximi7e the surface area in contact with digested food.
EXCRETIONE The final function of the digestive system is the excretion of waste in a process known as DEFECATION /efecation removes indigestible substances from the body so that they do not accumulate inside the gut.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: This system is made up of a collection of glands! including the pituitary and thyroid glands! as well as the ovaries and testes. It regulates! coordinates! and controls a number of body functions by secreting chemicals into the bloodstream. These secretions help control moods! growth and development! and metabolism.
ANATOMY OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
HYPOTHALAMUS: a part of the brain located superior and anterior to the brain stem and inferior to the thalamus. It serves many different functions in the nervous system! and is also responsible for the direct control of the endocrine system through the pituitary gland. &ituitary 0land
PITUITARY GLAND: also known as the HYPOPHYSIS! is a small pea-si7ed lump of tissue connected to the inferior portion of the hypothalamus of the brain. any blood vessels surround the pituitary gland to carry the hormones it releases throughout the body.
PINEAL GLAND: is a small pinecone-shaped mass of glandular tissue found >ust posterior to the thalamus of the brain. The pineal gland produces the hormone melatonin that helps to regulate the human sleep-wake cycle known as the circadian rhythm.
THYROID GLAND: is a butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck and wrapped around the lateral sides of the trachea. The thyroid gland produces : ma>or hormones
PARATHYROID GLANDS: are @ small masses of glandular tissue found on the posterior side of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands produce the hormone parathyroid hormone (&TH)! which is involved in calcium ion homeostasis.
ADRENAL GLANDS: are a pair of roughly triangular glands found immediately superior to the kidneys. The adrenal glands are each made of 2 distinct layers! each with their own uni%ue functionsE the outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla
GONADS: ovaries in females and testes in malesPare responsible for producing the sex hormones of the body. These sex hormones determine the secondary sex characteristics of adult females and adult males.
TESTESE are a pair of ellipsoid organs found in the scrotum of males that produce the androgen testosterone in males after the start of puberty. Testosterone has effects on many parts of the body! including the muscles! bones! sex organs! and hair follicles.
OVARIES are a pair of almond-shaped glands located in the pelvic body cavity lateral and superior to the uterus in females. The ovaries produce the female sex hormones progesterone and estrogens.
THYMUSE is a soft! triangular-shaped organ found in the chest posterior to the sternum. The thymus produces hormones called thymosins that help to train and develop T-lymphocytes during fetal
development and childhood. The T-lymphocytes produced in the thymus go on to protect the body from pathogens throughout a person3s entire life.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM: This system consists of the skin! hair! nails! and sweat glands. Its main function is to act as a barrier to protect the body from the outside world. It also functions to retain body fluids! protect against disease! eliminate waste products! and regulate body temperature.
ANATOMY OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM EPIDERMIS: is the most superficial layer of the skin that covers almost the entire body surface. The epidermis rests upon and protects the deeper and thicker dermis layer of the skin.
DERMISE the deep layer of the skin found under the epidermis. The dermis is mostly made of dense irregular connective tissue along with nervous tissue! blood! and blood vessels. The dermis is much thicker than the epidermis and gives the skin its strength and elasticity.
PAPILLARY LAYER is the superficial layer of the dermis that borders on the epidermis. The papillary layer contains many finger-like extensions called dermal papillae that swell superficially towards the epidermis.
RETICULAR LAYER is the thicker and tougher part of the dermis. The reticular layer is made of dense irregular connective tissue that contains many tough collagen and stretchy elastin fibers running in all directions to provide strength and elasticity to the skin.
HYPODERMIS: /eep to the dermis is a layer of loose connective tissues known as the hypodermis! subcutis! or subcutaneous tissue. The hypodermis serves as the flexible connection between the skin and the underlying muscles and bones as well as a fat storage area.
HAIR: an accessory organ of the skin made of columns of tightly packed dead keratinocytes found in most regions of the body.
NAILS: accessory organs of the skin made of sheets of hardened keratinocytes and found on the distal ends of the fingers and toes.
SUDORIFEROUS GLANDS: exocrine glands found in the dermis of the skin and commonly known as sweat glands
SEBACEOUS GLANDS are exocrine glands found in the dermis of the skin that produce an oily secretion known as sebum. ebaceous glands are found in every part of the skin except for the thick skin of the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.
CERUMINOUS GLANDS are special exocrine glands found only in the dermis of the ear canals. #eruminous glands produce a waxy secretion known as cerumen to protect the ear canals and lubricate the eardrum
MUSCULAR SYSTEM: This system is made up of muscle tissue that helps move the body and move materials through the body. Ruite simply! muscles move you. uscles are bundles of cells and fibers that work in a simple wayE they tighten up and relax.
TYPES OF MUSCLES VISCERAL MUSCLE: found inside of organs like the stomach! intestines! and blood vessels. The weakest of all muscle tissues! visceral muscle makes organs contract to move substances through the organ. Gecause visceral muscle is controlled by the unconscious part of the brain! it is known as involuntary musclePit cannot be directly controlled by the conscious mind. The term Jsmooth muscleK is often used to describe visceral muscle because it has a very smooth! uniform appearance when viewed under a microscope.
CARDIAC MUSCLE: "ound only in the heart! cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. #ardiac muscle tissue cannot be controlled consciously! so it is an involuntary muscle.
SKELETAL MUSCLE: keletal muscle is the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human bodyP it is controlled consciously.
NERVOUS SYSTEM: The nervous system is the control center of the human body. It is made up of the brain! spinal cord! and nerves. It receives and interprets stimuli and transmits impulses to organs. Sour brain uses the information it receives to coordinate all of your actions and reactions.
ANATOMY OF NERVOUS SYSTEM NEURONS: eurons! also known as nerve cells! communicate within the body by transmitting electrochemical signals.
TYPES
OF NEURONS AFFERENT NEURONS: $lso known as sensory neurons! afferent neurons transmit sensory signals to the central nervous system from receptors in the body.
EFFERENT NEURON: $lso known as motor neurons! efferent neurons transmit signals from the central nervous system to effectors in the body such as muscles and glands.
INTERNEURONS: Interneurons form complex networks within the central nervous system to integrate the information received from afferent neurons and to direct the function of the body through efferent neurons.
BRAINE a soft! wrinkled organ that weighs about : pounds! is located inside the cranial cavity! where the bones of the SKULL surround and protect it. The approximately 511 billion neurons of the brain form the 5732 o2')o# $2')$ of the body. The brain and spinal cord together form the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM %CNS&+ where information is processed and responses originate. The brain! the seat of higher mental functions such as consciousness! memory! planning! and voluntary actions! also controls lower body functions such as the maintenance of respiration! heart rate! blood pressure! and digestion.
SPINAL CORD is a long! thin neurons that carries information through the spine beginning at the medulla oblongata of the brain on its and continuing inferiorly to the lumbar region of the spine.
NERVES are bundles of axons in the peripheral system (&) that act as carry signals between the brain spinal cord and the rest of the body.
MENINGES are the protective nervous system (#). They consist of three arachnoid mater! and pia mater.
DURA MATER: The
mass of bundled the vertebral cavity of superior end nervous information highways to and coverings of the central layersE the dura mater! dura mater! which means
Jtough mother!K is the thickest! toughest! and most superficial layer of meninges. ade of dense irregular connective tissue! it contains many tough collagen fibers and blood vessels. /ura mater protects the # from external
damage! contains the cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds the #! and provides blood to the nervous tissue of the #.
ARACHNOID MATER: The arachnoid mater! which means Jspider-like mother!K is much thinner and more delicate than the dura mater. It lines the inside of the dura mater and contains many thin fibers that connect it to the underlying pia mater. These fibers cross a fluid-filled space called the subarachnoid space between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater.
PIA MATER: The pia mater! which means Jtender mother!K is a thin and delicate layer of tissue that rests on the outside of the brain and spinal cord. #ontaining many blood vessels that feed the nervous tissue of the #! the pia mater penetrates into the valleys of the sulci and fissures of the brain as it covers the entire surface of the #.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID: The space surrounding the organs of the # is filled with a clear fluid known as cerebrospinal fluid
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: The human reproductive system ensures that humans are able to reproduce and survive as a species. It is made up of organs such as the uterus! penis! ovaries! and testes.
ANATOMY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM SCROTUM is a sac-like organ made of skin and muscles that houses the testes. It is located inferior to the penis in the pubic region. The scrotum is made up of 2 side-by-side pouches with a testis located in each pouch.
TESTES also known as testicles! are the male gonads responsible for the production of sperm and testosterone.
EPIDIDYMIS is a sperm storage area that wraps around the superior and posterior edge of the testes. The epididymis is made up of several feet of long! thin tubules that are tightly coiled into a small mass. perm produced in the testes moves into the epididymis to mature before being passed on through the male reproductive organs.
SPERMATIC CORDS connects the testes to the abdominal cavity. The spermatic cords contain the ductus deferens along with nerves! veins! arteries! and lymphatic vessels that support the function of the testes.
DUCTUS DEFERENS also known as the vas deferens! is a muscular tube that carries sperm superiorly from the epididymis into the abdominal cavity to the e>aculatory duct. The ductus deferens is wider in diameter than the epididymis and uses its internal space to store mature sperm.
SEMINAL VESICLES are a pair of lumpy exocrine glands that store and produce some of the li%uid portion of semen. The seminal vesicles are about 2 inches in length and located posterior to the urinary bladder and anterior to the rectum.
PROSTATE is a walnut-si7ed exocrine gland that borders the inferior end of the urinary bladder and surrounds the urethra. The prostate produces a large portion of the fluid that makes up semen. This fluid is milky white in color and contains en7ymes! proteins! and other chemicals to support and protect sperm during e>aculation.
COWPER’S GLANDS also known as the bulbourethral glands! are a pair of pea-si7ed exocrine glands located inferior to the prostate and anterior to the anus. The #owper3s glands secrete a thin alkaline fluid into the urethra that lubricates the urethra and neutrali7es acid from urine remaining in the urethra after urination.
PENIS is the male external sexual organ located superior to the scrotum and inferior to the umbilicus. The penis is roughly cylindrical in shape and contains the urethra and the external opening of the urethra.
SEMEN is the fluid produced by males for sexual reproduction and is e>aculated out of the body during sexual intercourse. emen contains sperm! the male reproductive gametes! along with a number of chemicals suspended in a li%uid medium. emen is the fluid produced by males for sexual reproduction and is e>aculated out of the body during sexual intercourse. emen contains sperm! the male reproductive gametes! along with a number of chemicals suspended in a li%uid medium.
ANATOMY OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OVARIES are a pair of small glands about the si7e and shape of almonds! located on the left and right sides of the pelvic body cavity lateral to the superior portion of the uterus. varies produce female sex hormones such as estrogen and progesterone as well as ova (commonly called NeggsN)! the female gametes.
FALLOPIAN TUBES are a pair of muscular tubes that extend from the left and right superior corners of the uterus to the edge of the ovaries.The inside of each fallopian tube is covered in cilia that work with the smooth muscle of the tube to carry the ovum to the uterus.
UTERUS is a hollow! muscular! pear-shaped organ located posterior and superior to the urinary bladder. #onnected to the two fallopian tubes on its superior end and to the vagina (via the cervix) on its inferior end! the uterus is also known as the womb! as it surrounds and supports the developing fetus during pregnancy.
VAGINA is an elastic! muscular tube that connects the cervix of the uterus to the exterior of the body. It is located inferior to the uterus and posterior to the urinary bladder.
VULVA is the collective name for the external female genitalia located in the pubic region of the body. The vulva surrounds the external ends of the urethral opening and the vagina and includes the mons pubis! labia ma>ora! labia minora! and clitoris. The mons pubis! or pubic mound! is a raised layer of adipose tissue between the skin and thepubic bone that provides cushioning to the vulva.
BREASTS are speciali7ed organs of the female body that contain mammary glands! milk ducts! and adipose tissue. The two breasts are located on the left and right sides of the thoracic region of the body. In the center of each breast is a highly pigmented nipple that releases milk when stimulated.
ZYGOTE: $ 7ygote is a fertili7ed egg containing two sets of chromosomes! one from the egg (oocyte) and one form the sperm. The 7ygote is a single cell and the result of a fusion between two gametes! an egg (female) and one sperm cell (male).
OVULATION: The process of menstruation cycle in females! in which the mature ovarian follicle ruptures to discharge an ovum or egg to participate in reproduction.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: The primary function of the respiratory system is to supply the blood with oxygen in order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all parts of the body. The respiratory system does this
through breathing. It consists of the nose! larynx! trachea! diaphragm! bronchi! and lungs.
ANATOMY OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM NOSE: the main entry point of air. Inside the
nose is a passageway called the nasal cavity. It has tiny hair called vibrissae that help filter out dirt! smoke and other nasty particles that need to be removed. It also has mucous glands that secrete mucus and hair-like structures called cilia. Goth mucus and cilia warm and JhumidifyK or add moisture to the air that goes down into your lungs.
MOUTH: a very important part of the respiratory system for babies. This is because they have not yet learned how to breathe through their nose. Therefore! the mouth acts as a supplemental airway.
PHARYNX: serves as the airway that connects the nasal cavity and the oral cavity with the larynx and the oesophagus. It is! therefore! an important part of both the respiratory and digestive systems.
EPIGLOTTIS: a tissue that shuts off the larynx when you swallow. When it is positioned downward! you are able to swallow. When this tissue is positioned upward! air moves into your trachea.
LARYNX: or voicebox is responsible for voice generation. It has two pairs of vocal cordsPa false pair and a true pair. $s you breathe! air is forced through the true vocal cords. When you want to make a sound! your nervous system sends signals to these vocal cords! which tighten or loosen according to the pitch you want.
TRACHEA: $lso called the windpipe! the trachea is composed of cartilage rings. Sou can feel these rings when you run your palm over the front of your neck. It branches into two airways called bronchi.
BRONCHI: Sou have two bronchi. ne bronchus goes to your right lung and the other goes to your left lung. Goth bronchi are lined with cilia and mucous glands! which also help prevent infection.
LUNGS: They are lobed elastic organs that expand when air goes in and contract when air goes out. Their main function is to facilitate gas exchange. /eoxygenated blood (blood without oxygen) from your organs goes to the lungs for removal of carbon dioxide and for absorption of oxygen.
OXYGENATED BLOOD: Glood that supplies oxygen bound to haemoglobin that is carried in red cells to the various tissues! and cells of the body is known as oxygenated blood. The heart pumps out the oxygenated blood through the important artery known as coronary artery.
SKELETAL SYSTEM: The skeletal system provides the shape and form for our bodies in addition to supporting and protecting our bodies! allowing bodily movement! producing blood cells! and storing minerals. This system consists of bones! cartilage! and >oints.
ANATOMY OF SKELETAL SYSTEM SKULL: composed of 22 bones that are fused together except for the mandible. These 25 fused bones are separate in children to allow the skull and brain to grow! but fuse to give added strength and protection as an adult.
VERTEBRAE: Twenty-six vertebrae form the vertebral column of the human body. They are named by region : C$)437# (neck) - 6 vertebrae! T8o)73 (chest) - 52 vertebrae! L15(7) (lower back) - A vertebrae! S7)15 - 5 vertebra! Co"< (tailbone) - 5 vertebra
STERNUM: or breastbone! is a thin! knife-shaped bone located along the midline of the anterior side of the thoracic region of the skeleton.
JOINT: is a point of contact between bones! between a bone and cartilage! or between a bone and a tooth.
URINARY SYSTEM: The purpose of the urinary system is to filter out excess fluid and other substances from your bloodstream. ome fluid gets reabsorbed by your body but most gets expelled as urine. The organs found in this system are the kidneys! ureters! urinary bladder! and urethra.
ANATOMY OF URINARY SYSTEM KIDNEYS are a pair of bean-shaped organs found along the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity. The kidneys filter metabolic wastes! excess ions! and chemicals from the blood to form urine.
URETERS are a pair of tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. The ureters are about 51 to 52 inches long and run on the left and right sides of the body parallel to the vertebral column.
URINARY BLADDER is a sac-like hollow organ used for the storage of urine. The urinary bladder is located along the body3s midline at the inferior end of the pelvis. Mrine entering the urinary bladder from the ureters slowly fills the hollow space of the bladder and stretches its elastic walls. The walls of the bladder allow it to stretch to hold anywhere from ;11 to B11 milliliters of urine.
URETHRA is the tube through which urine passes from the bladder to the exterior of the body. The female urethra is around 2 inches long and ends inferior to the clitorisand superior to the vaginal opening. In males! the urethra is around B to 51 inches long and ends at the tip of the penis. The urethra is also an organ of the male reproductive system as it carries sperm out of the body through the penis.
ORGAN: $ body part composed of a collection of differing cells and tissues organi7ed to perform a speci'c function.
MICRO-ORGANISM: $ living thing that is too small to be seen without the help of a microscope. "or example! bacteria and some algae are micro-organisms.
VIRUS: $ microscopic infectious agent that has the ability to reproduce only in a host cell .
SENSE ORGANS in humans and other animals! faculties by which outside information is received for evaluation and response. This is accomplished by the effect of a particular stimulus on a speciali7ed
organ! which then transmits impulses to the brain via a nerve or nerves.
HEARING a sense by which sound waves are perceived by the organ of hearingPthe earPin vertebrate animals. The process of sound perception is called audition. The physical stimulus of auditory sensation is the vibration of some material ob>ect. The vibration is transmitted from the ob>ect to the ear! under ordinary conditions! by a wave movement of air particles.
SIGHT (vision)! is the ability to see the features of ob>ects we look at! such as color! shape! si7e! details! depth! and contrast. Dision is achieved when the eyes and brain work together to form pictures of the world around us. Dision begins with light rays bouncing off the surface of ob>ects. These reflected light rays enter the eye and are transformed into electrical signals. illions of signals per second leave the eye via the optic nerve and travel to the visual area of the brain. Grain cells then decode the signals into images! providing us with sight.
SMELL a sense by which odors are perceived. The nose! e%uipped with olfactory nerves! is the special organ of smell. The olfactory nerves also account for differing tastes of substances taken into the mouth! that is! most sensations that appear introspectively as tastes are really smells.
TASTE a sense by which four gustatory %ualities (sweetness! sourness! saltiness! and bitterness) of a substance are distinguished. Taste is determined by receptors! called taste buds! the number and shape of which may vary greatly between one person and another. In general! women have more taste buds than men. $ greater number of taste buds appears to endow a greater sensitivity to sweetness! sourness! saltiness! and bitterness.
TOUCH a sense by which the body perceives contact with substances. In humans! touch is accomplished by nerve endings in the skin that convey sensations to the brain via nerve fibers. erves end in or between the cells of the epidermis! the outer layer of the skin! in all parts of the body.
MAIN PARTS OF THE EYE AND THEIR FUNCTION P7)' Co)2$7 I)3@
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D$@)30'3o2 "ront part of the tough outer coat! the sclera. It is convex and transparent. &igmented - decides the colour of your eyes - so light cannot pass through. Its muscles contract and relax to alter the si7e of its central hole or pupil. Transparent! bi-convex! flexible disc behind the iris attached by the suspensory ligaments to the ciliary muscles. The lining of the back of eye containing two types of photoreceptor cells - rods - sensitive to dim light and black and white - and cones - sensitive to colour. $ small area called the fovea in the middle of the retina has many more cones than rods. Gundle of sensory neurones at back of eye.
F12'3o2 refracts light - bends it as it enters the eye controls how much light enters the pupil
focuses light onto the retina contains the light receptors
carries impulses from the eye to the brain
PARTS OF
THE EAR AND THEIR FUNCTIONS O1'$) E7)
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The outer ear is the portion of the ear that sits atop the skull! which is made of flesh and cartilage. It is the visible part which serves to protect the eardrum. It also collects and guides sound waves into the middle ear.
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P3227 %$7) #70& The ear flap or pinna is the outer portion of the ear. This is the physical portion of the ear that you see on the side of your head! which is used like a satellite dish to collect sound and transmit it inward where it can be translated into the appropriate medium. M$7'1@ %$7) 727#& This is the ear canal! which extends inward from the outer ear. This 2 cm canal helps to amplify sound as it enters the middle ear so it can be interpreted properly. This area also contains cells which produce ear wax! which helps keep debris out of the middle ear. M399#$ E7)
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The middle ear contains tissue and bone but no skin! and is the area where sound is translated into mechanical energy so it can pass through the body. ost diseases such as ear infections will take hold in the middle ear! though some can also affect the inner ear. It translates sound waves from the outer ear into the form of pressure waves.
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T"50723 M$5()72$ %E7)9)15& The eardrum! known scientifically as the tympanic membrane Is a thin piece of tissue that is stretched between the outer and middle ear. It is called the drum because sound waves will hit it and cause it to vibrate! which will take the sound from acting as wave energy and translate it to mechanical energy that can travel through the rest of the ear. M7##$1@ %H755$)&
The malleus or hammer of the ear is one of the smallest bones in the body. It is connected to the ear drum! and will vibrate as the drum is hit by the sound waves! passing the sound on to the rest of the ear. I21@ %A243#& The anvil bone or the incus sits on top of the hammer! and will collect the vibrations coming from the ear drum! sending them on to the stirrup. S'70$@ %S'3))10& The stirrup or stapes sits below the anvil! and is the final bone in the inner ear to collect and pass on sound. These sound waves will cause the stirrup to compress! compressing the waves so they can be passed on to the inner ear.
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The inner ear is the portion of the ear which is responsible for translating the message and sending it to the brain where it can be interpreted. It is filled with fluid that helps to balance the ear organs and comprise the hearing so it can be passed to the nerves.
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Co8#$7 This is a spiral tube that is covered in a stiff membrane. This membrane is filled with nerve cells! commonly known as ear hairs. These UVhairsU are each designed to pick up on a different type of vibration! which hits in different fre%uencies. $s the nerves begin to vibrate they will turn these fre%uencies into an electrical pulse which will be sent up to the brain. If the ear is exposed to sound that is too high pitched or too loud! these hair-like nerves can break off! and they will not grow back. This is one of the biggest contributors to hearing loss. A193'o)" N$)4$ These nerves receive the electrical impulses generated by the ear and pass this information up to the brain so it can be interpreted. S$533)1#7) C727#@ These are attached to the cochlea! but do not spend much time interacting with the hearing portion of ear function. Instead! these fluid filled tubes will turn and sway with movement! helping you keep your balance.
EARTHQUAKE (also known as a %uake! tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of energy in the ,arth4s crust that creates seismic waves.
FOCUS point inside the ,arth where an earth%uake begins EPICENTER point on ,arth3s surface above focus
FAULT is an area of stress in the earth where broken rocks slide past each other! causing a crack in the ,arth4s surface.
STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS involve motion which is parallel to the strike of the fault--fre%uently described as a Nside-by-sideN motion.
THRUST AND REVERSE FAULTS form by hori7ontal compressive stresses and so cause shortening of the crust.
NORMAL FAULTS generally occur in places where the lithosphere is being stretched.
MAGNITUDE is the amount of energy released by an earth%uake. $n $merican scientist named CHARLES F RITCHER developed a scale to indicate the magnitude of an earth%uake. This scale is popularly known as =itcher agnitude cale that uses numbers from 5 to 51. The stronger the earth%uake is the higher the number on the scale. The feebler or weaker the earth%uake is the lower is the number.
INTENSITY is the measure of the strength of an earth%uake. It refers to the effect of earth%uake on people! ground and structures.,arth%uake intensities are descriptions of earth%uake effects on man! ground and structures. The scale that measures an earth%uake3s intensity was developed by de Ro@@3 o I'7#" 729 Fo)$# o S3'$)#729 32 ,;;*
ANEMOMETER: $ device used to measure the speed of wind. ATMOSPHERC PRESSURE: ne atmospheric pressure is 51A ewton per s%uare meter* the average atmospheric pressure at sea level on ,arth.
CORIOLIS FORCE: The apparent force! resulting from the rotation of the ,arth that deflects air or water movement.
LIGHTNING: $ powerful flash of electricity between the negative electrical charges in clouds or between a cloud and the ground.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY: The ratio of the amount of water vapour present in a specified volume of air to the maximal amount that can be held by the same volume of air at a specified temperature and pressure.
CLIMATE: The weather pattern for a geographical region over a long period of time. CLOUD: Water vapour in the atmosphere that has cooled and come into contact with tiny particles of dust.
CONDENSATION: The process of changing from a gas or a vapour to a li%uid.
THE MEASUREMENTS The International ystem of Mnits (I)
$ll systems of weights and measures! metric and non-metric! are linked through a network of international agreements supporting the International ystem of Mnits. The International ystem is called the I! using the first two initials of its "rench name ystXme International d4MnitYs. The key agreement is the Treaty of the eter (#onvention du Xtre)! signed in &aris on ay 21! 5B6A. @B nations have now signed this treaty! including all the ma>or industriali7ed countries. The Mnited tates is a charter member of this metric club! having signed the original document back in 5B6A. The I is maintained by a small agency in &aris! the International Gureau of Weights and easures (GI&! for Gureau International des &oids et esures)! and it is updated every few years by an international conference! the 0eneral #onference on Weights and easures (#0&! for #onfYrence 0YnYrale des &oids et esures)! attended by representatives of all the industrial countries and international scientific and engineering organi7ations. The 2@th #0& met in 2155* the next meeting will be in 215@. $s GI& states on its web site! NThe I is not static but evolves to match the world4s increasingly demanding re%uirements for measurement.N $t the heart of the I is a short list of base units defined in an absolute way without referring to any other units. The base units are consistent with the part of the metric system called the 8 system. In all there are seven I base unitsE
the METER for distance! the KILOGRAM for mass! the SECOND for time! the AMPERE for electric current! the KELVIN for temperature! the MOLE for amount of substance! and the CANDELA for intensity of light.
TEMPERATURE: The measure of how hot or cold something is. In relative terms! it is a measure of the amount of heat present.
PREDICT: Thinking by using prior knowledge about what a student knows to work out what is going to probably happen next! in a pattern of events.
MEASURE: Msing special tools to accurately determine the amount of an ob>ect without guessing or estimating. The measured amount must be described relative to a standard unit system.
MASS: The amount of matter in something! which is measured in grams (g). LOAD: The mass (weight) of an ob>ect to be moved. ESTIMATE: $ math and science term for referring to how students use prior knowledge to make a reasonable and sensible decision about amounts. $mounts can be %uantity! number! volume! length! weight! or si7e.
CONSTRUCT: To make or build a model or to build a simple structure by >oining materials together. COMPARE: To look and identify two or more ob>ects and see how they are different and how they are the same.
CLASSIFY: 0rouping and labelling a collections of items! ob>ects! or living things. The grouping arrangements match a set of classi'cation rules and common characteristics indicating their similarities and differences.
CALCULATE: To 'gure out by using mathematics the number for %uantities! amounts! si7es! lengths! or mass of items.
BUOYANCY: The ability to oat in water* the upward force of water on any ob>ect placed in water. WEIGH: To determine the mass of a certain ob>ect WEIGHT: Term often used as a synonym for mass in commercial and everyday use* in scienti'c and technical work! this term should be replaced by mass or force! depending on the application.
DENSITY is a physical property of matter! as each element and compound has a uni%ue density associated with it. /ensity defined in a %ualitative manner as the measure of the relative NheavinessN of ob>ects with a constant volume.
Machines WORK: is the amount of energy necessary to move an ob>ect. MACHINE is a tool containing one or more parts that uses energy to perform an intended action. achines are usually powered by mechanical! chemical! thermal! or electrical means! and are often motori7ed. Historically! a power tool also re%uired moving parts to classify as a machine.
SIMPLE MACHINE is a non-powered mechanical device that changes the direction or magnitude of a force. In general! they can be defined as the simplest mechanisms that use mechanical advantage (also called leverage) to multiply force
LEVER: is a long tool such as a pole or a rod put under an ob>ect to lift it. The lever is more efficient when combined with a fulcrum. The fulcrum is another ob>ect! perhaps a rock! used to brace under the long tool. This gives the long pole something to push down against.
INCLINED PLANE E is simply a ramp. ne end is higher than the opposite end. This allows things to go from a low place to a higher place. r vice versa. It takes less work to move an ob>ect up a ramp then it does to lift that ob>ect up the vertical distance.
WEDGE: is used to separate an ob>ect apart. This is needed to cut! tear or break something in two. $ wedge can also be used to keep things together or secure things from movement. ome examples of wedges that are used for separating might be a shovel! a knife! an axe! a pick axe! a saw! a needle! scissors! or an ice pick.
PULLEY: is actually a version of a wheel and axle that is combined with a rope! chain or other cord to allow moving something up and down or back and forth. The pulley can be combined with other pulleys to reduce the amount of work necessary to lift huge amounts of weight or to lower them down.
SCREW: is really a twisted inclined plane. It allows movement from a lower position to a higher position but at the same time it moves it in a circle. That makes it take up less hori7ontal space. $ screw can also act to hold things together in some cases.
FULCRUM: The point on which a lever rests or turns. RADAR: $n acronym for =$dio /etection $nd =anging. $ device that sends out radio waves and picks up any echoes that are bounced back off ob>ects to tell the distance! speed! direction of motion! and shape of ob>ects.
RAMP: Interchangeable with term meaning an incline plane or sloping surface. SCUBA: $n acronym for elf-#ontained Mnderwater Greathing $pparatus* allows divers to carry their air supply on their backs.
SONAR: $n acronym for und $vigation and =ange* a device that ships use to chart the depth of oceans using the echoes of sound waves.
ANIMALS HABITAT is a special place where a plant or animal lives. Lust like you have a home or place to live! so do animals and plants. When we talk about an animal3s or a plant4s home it is more like a neighbourhood than a Nhouse.N $n animal needs five things to survive in its habitatE oo9+ 7'$)+ @8$#'$)+ 73)+ 729 7
0#7$ 'o )73@$ 3'@ "o12 POPULATION: the total of living organisms in a given area COMMUNITY: The animals and plants that live together in a habitat.The community of living things interacts with the non-living world around it to form the
NICHE: is the smallest unit of a habitat that is occupied by a plant or animal. The habitat niche is the physical space occupied by the plant or animal. The niche is the role the plant or animal plays in the community found in the habitat.
BIOME: a complex community of plants and animals
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS VERTEBRATESE they are animals that have a backbone. ome vertebrate animals like monkeys and birds have bony backbones and other like fish have cartilage as support. Gones are muscles made up of minerals and they are hard! while cartilage does not contain and they are tough and flexible.
