Aristotle “Aristotle was the unimpeachable authority on every science and art known to his day.” (Maxey)
Aristotle was born in 384 BC. His father was Physician. He studied in Plato’s Academy for about 17 years. He was attached to Plato’s Academy for two reasons 1.!t was the cradle of education in "reece for ad#anced studies. 2.He was so much influenced by Plato’ teachin$.
He ser#ed as tutor of Ale%ander the "reat in 343 BC and &e't his school in the (yceum for 1) years. After the death of Ale%ander the "reat* the Athenians Athenians re#olted and 'rosecuted the accused 'ersons of whom Aristotle was one of the many. He was char$ed for im'iety but he fled to a#oid 'un ishment. +urin$ the middle A$es* he was sim'ly considered ,the Philoso'her-. he reco#ery of h is manuscri'ts in the thirteenth century mar&s a turnin$ 'oint in the history of 'hiloso'hy. Accordin$ to unnin! * “the capital si!ni"icance o" Aristotle in the history o" political theories lies in the "act that he !ave to politics the character o" an independent science.” He is founder of science of lo$ic. His monumental treatise ,Politics- is the most #aluable wor&s on Political /cience. he “#olitics” is a chief wor& on the science and art of "o#ernment $i#in$ full 0ustification for e%istin$ of the institution li&e the state* sla#ery and family is calculated to su$$est the remedies for the ill of the body'olitic of the citystate. hou$h it is $enerally said that ,Politics- is an unfinished treatise and often obscure but the half understood words of Aristotle ha#e become laws of thou$hts to other a$es. $eller says% “#olitics o" Aristotle is the richest treasure that has come down to us "rom anti&uity% it is the !reatest contribution to the "ield o" political science that we possess.”
Aristotle as 'ather o" #olitical cience
he title of fatherhood of Political /cience be stowed u'on Aristotle Aristotle is not without 0ustification. He was brou$ht u' in the order of medicine as his father was a 'hysician of the &in$ of 2acedonia. /ince his childhood he $ot e#ery o''ortunity and encoura$ement to de#elo' a scientific bent of mind. !nstead of turnin$ towards literature li&e his $reat master Plato* he built the terminolo$y of science and 'hiloso'hy. !n the words of enan% “ocrates !ave philosophy to mankind and Aristotle !ave science to it.” Aristotle $i#es us definite and clearcut do$mas* instead of $ro'in$ in illusions and ima$inations. He does not belie#e in abstract notions of 0ustice and #irtue* but has a concrete a''roach. He discarded uto'ian 'hiloso'hy of Plato and ad#ocated lo$ical and scientific theories based u'on realism. Aristotle su''orted the 'rinci'le of unity throu$h di#ersity. He was of the #iew that reality lay in the concrete manifestation of thin$s. He se'arated ethics from 'olitics. e can say that Aristotle laid the foundation of a real 'olitical science by his &een and 'ractical 'olitical a''roach and systematic treatment of the sub0ect. He may be called the ,/cientist of Politics- because of his em'irical study. study. He collected his data with care and minuteness* clarifies and defines it and draws lo$ical conclusions which deser#e nothin$ but admiration and 'raise.
Aristotle*s Aristotle*s +iews on ,ri!in o" tate
“Man is a political animal% destined by nature "or state li"e.” “tate exists "or the sake o" !ood li"e and not "or the sake o" li"e only.” (Aristotle)
Aristotle was of the #iew that the ori$in of the state is 'resent in the inherent desire of man to satisfy his economic needs and racial instincts. he family is formed by male and female on the one hand han d and master and sla#e on the other hand. hen they wor& for achie#ement of their desires. hey li#e to$ether and form a such family in household which has its moral and social unity and #alue. Aristotle said* “'amily is the association established by nature "or the supply o" man*s everyday wants. -ut when several "amilies are united and the association aims at somethin! more than the supply o" daily need% then come into existence the villa!e. hen several villa!es are united in a sin!le community% per"ect and lar!e enou!h to be &uite sel"/su""icin!% the state comes into existence% ori!inatin! in the bare needs o" li"e and continuin! in existence "or the sake o" !ood li"e.” hree elements are essential to build the state on 'erfect lines i.e.* fellowshi'* 'ractical or$aniation and 0ustice. A man without state is either a beast or a "od. Accordin$ to Aristotle* “he who by nature and not be mere accident is without a state is either above humanity or below it% he is tribe/less% lawless and heartless one.” he family is natural and inborn instinct* similarly the state is also natural for indi#iduals. -aker said* “0he state is the natural home o" the "ully !rown and natural man. t is an institution "or the moral per"ection o" man to which his whole nature moves.” Aristotle was of the #iew that state is a “#olitical oimonia” * an association which re'resents a functional unity of #aried and reci'rocal 'arts made by the 'ursuit of a common aim in which their nature* their habits and their trainin$ lead them all to 0oin. Maclwain said* “0he state is a kind o" oimonia which is a supreme over all others% and embraces them all.” /tate is an association of human bein$ and the hi$hest form of association e%istin$ for the sa&e of 'erfect and healthier life. 'unctions o" the tate 1.he state is not merely an association of associations but it is a hi$hest natural association for 'ursuits of s'iritual class of common life of #irtue. 2.he state is based on the element of 0ustice 3.!t also aims at the hi$hest $ood of the community for its 'ro'er realiation of demands and need s in it. selfsufficin$ life of all its com'onents members. 4.he state functions to ensure a 'erfect and selfsufficin$ 5.he state also ensures to fulfill all the natural needs of its members and to 'ro#ide o''ortunities to the indi#iduals for the attainment of moral* intellectual and 'hysical e%cellence. Aristotle* ,2an is essentially $ood and the function of the state is to de#elo' his $ood $o od faculties into 6.Accordin$ to Aristotle* a habit of $ood actions.ule o" 7aw Aristotle belie#ed in natural laws but not the natural ri$hts. he absence of law is the ne$ation of $ood laws and this meant lac& of constitutional laws. (aw was su'erior to the "o#ernment because it chec&ed the latter5s irre$ularities. 6ule by law was better than 'ersonal rule because law had as a s im'ersonal uality which the rules lac&ed. abine 'aid tribute to Aristotle in these words* “the supremacy o" law is accepted by Aristotle as a mark o" a !ood state and not merely as an un"ortunate necessity.”
ustice means that e#ery citien in the state shou ld abide by the dictates of law and fulfill its moral obli$ation towards community members. Accordin$ to Aristotle there should be two &ind of 0ustice 1.istributive 8ustice !t is mainly concerned with #oluntary commercial transaction li&e sale* hire* furnishin$ of security* security* acuisition of
'ro'erty etc. 2.9orrective 8ustice !t deals with 'ro'er allocation to each 'erson accordin$ to his ca'acity and an d worth. Aristotle em'hasis that reward and honors should not be offered to the #irtuous few but to others as who collecti#ely contribute in the welfare of the state and should be 'ro'ortionately rewarded.
0heory o" evolution +ecay and disturbance in 'olitical 'o litical life brou$ht crucial chan$es in the "o#ernments of the citystate in "reece* made Aristotle to contem'late dee'ly and to stress the causes cau ses of the 6e#olution 6e#o lution and its remedies. Aristotle’s Aristotle’s theory is di#ided into two 'arts 1.9irst 'art is a 'ractical manual of conduct ad#isin$ democrats* aristocrats* monarchs and oli$archs and e#en tyrants as how to &ee' themsel#es in 'ower. 2./econd 'art is a treatise on the 'hiloso'hical basis of the $ood and stable $o#ernments. hat is evolution:
o Aristotle* if any chan$e occurs in the e%istin$ e% istin$ system or constitution of the state* it means re#olution. 9or 9 or e%am'le* if in the state the constitution con stitution has chan$ed from monarchy to democracy* it is a re#olution. Aristotle was of the #iew that if the constitution remains the same* but the rulin$ 'arty has been transferred from one man to another* it is also a re#olution.
;eneral 9auses o" evolution< 1.he main feature of re#olution is to be the cra#in$ of men for euality. :uality has two charactersabsolute and 'ro'ortional. he 'roletariat are 'assionate to secure absolute euality euality for the a#ailability of the same ri$hts that are 'ossessed by few. few. he few stru$$le for 'ro'ortional euality for 'er'etual u'$radin$ su'eriority su'eriority in 'ower and 'ri#ile$e. 2./tron$ desire for 0ustice becomes another feature of re#olution. Aristotle was of the #iew that men turn to re#olution when they thin& they ha#e not $ot their dues.
#articular 9auses o" evolution< 1. +esire for $ain and 'rofit. 2. ;ni#ersal desire for honor and 'resti$e 3. he 'ossession of so#erei$n 'ower by an indi#idual or $rou' so as to create fear and a''rehension in the minds of the sub0ect 4. ;ndue 'riority and 'rominence of indi#iduals caused $reat stir in the heart of the subdued 'eo'le 5. +is'ro'ortionate increase of 'ower and wealth in any 'art of the state 6. :lections intri$ues and moral de$radation &e't u' in the selection of some 'eo'le =. Carelessness shown in $rantin$ 'ublic offices to disloyal citiens and undue fa#oritism shown to the indi#iduals
oo much 'ower concentrated concen trated in one man or class of men for 'olitical $ains >. oo
?. +issimilarity of different elements in the state 1@. he ri#alries of 'eo'le of different races in the state 11. +ynastic uarrels and conflicts 12. 9ree immi$ration of outside races with different notions of 0ustice and law
evolutions in #articular kind o" tate< 1.emocracy !n democracies* re#olutions are led by the do$matic 'olicies of dema$o$ues in attac&in$ the rich. 2.0yranny or ,li!archy !n oli$archies* re#olutions ta&e 'lace due to two reasons a)<''ressi#e or otalitarian rule b)6i#alry amon$ the rulin$ dictators 3.Aristocracy !n aristocracies* re#olution held to the 'olicy of narrowin$ down the circle of the "o#ernment. Aristocracy tends to become olio$archy* throu$h the undue encroachment of the richer classes 'olity to become democracy* throu$h the undue as'iration of the 'oorer class. Accordin$ to unnin! “tability can be maintained only by proportionate e&uality and by !ivin! to each his own.” Aristotle was of the #iew that democracy is more secure and stable than oli$archy.
emedies "or evolution< 1.Abundant 'olitical 'ower should not be concentrated in the hands of one man or one class of men. 2.he #arious classes in the state without any discrimination of color a nd creed should be treated ali&e and with 'ro'er consideration 3.Honors and rewards should be distributed as fairly as 'ossible only to deser#in$ ones because ineualities of offices and honors dri#e men to re#olt. 4.Political offices should be within reach of e#ery indi#idual who is ab le of 'erformin$ his functions best. 5.he "o#ernment should be so #i$ilantly or$anied that the 'olitical officeholders cannot ma&e money out of their offices. Bribes and other &inds of ille$al $ratification should be made uite im'ossible to acce't. 6.A "o#ernment would $ain 'o'ularity and 'olitical stability if it so arran$es thin$s that the internal details of the administration* 'articularly the administration of 'ublic finances is o'en to 'ublic scrutiny. =.Pro'er education should be im'arted to the citiens in the s'irit of constitution. >.Political stability and internal solidarity can be $ained by maintainin$ 'ro'ortionate euality. ?.he habit of obedience and submission to law should be instilled. (awlessness and anarchy should not be allowed to cree' in e#en in small and triflin$ matter. 1@.!n oli$archy and aristocracy* the inferior class must be well treated and the 'rinci'les of democratic euality must be followed amon$ the 'ri#ile$ed classes. !n democracy* the 'oor and the rich should be encoura$ed to ta&e 'art in the state administration which does not affect the so#erei$n 'ower.
Aristotle also su$$ested #arious methods in ma&in$ oli$archies and tyranniesstable which are to be followed by a tyrant. a)A tyrant must em'loy s'ies 'articularly females to trace out disloyal 'ersons to $allows the concerned. b)He should follow an a$$ressi#e 'olicy abroad c)He should always warn 'eo'le about constant fear of in#asion from outside d)He should &ee' the 'eo'le busy and ne#er allow them to remain in #erti$o and lethar$y. e)He must e%tend enthusiasm in reli$ion ")He should 'unish the $uilty so that crimes must be ended for the 'eaceful order in the state. !)He should increase the material wellbein$ of the citiens. h)He should 'erish the intellectual life of the citiens to 'erish re#olutionary tendencies. i) He should adorn his city and must wor& for its $lory )He must ha#e res'ect for the $ood.
Aristotle 'ut the security of the state abo#e e#erythin$ else. He e#en 'ermitted interference in the 'ri#acy of indi#idual’s life when necessary in the interests of the state. Accordin$ to Aristotle “A revolution constitutes more a political than a le!al chan!e. t had the e""ect o" reversin! ethical% social and economic standard.B
#lato ntroduction Plato was born in Athens in 4)7 BC when the c i#iliation of ancient "reece was at the en ith of $lory and eminence. He belon$ed to royal blood of aristocracy* from his mother’s side he was related to /olan* the law $i#er. He made efforts to disco#er the eternal 'rinci'les of human conduct ie 0ustice* tem'erance and coura$e which alone imbibed the ha''iness to the indi#idual and stability to the states. !n 3== BC* the turnin$ 'oint came in the life of Plato* the defeat of Athens by /'arta made him to des'ise democracy. He wandered abroad for twel#e years in Persia* :$y't* Africa* !taly and /icily in the hours of disillusionment* absorbin$ wisdom from e#ery source and tastin$ e#ery creedal do$ma. hen he returned to Athens and o'ened an academy. He wrote about 3> treaties all in the form of dialo$ues. His academy became the best school in Athens. ork o" #lato ,he 6e'ublic- is the most im'ortant and authentic wor& of Plato. !t was about 'olitical 'hiloso'hy* ethics* education and meta'hysics.
0he epublic and #lato “0he true romance o" the epublic is the romance o" "ree intelli!ence% unbound by custom% untrained indeed by human stupidity and sel" will% able to direct the "orces% even o" customs and stupidity themselves alon! the road to a national li"e.” (#ro". abine)
he 6e'ublic is an e%cellent 'roduct of Plato’s maturity. !t is a ma0or contribution to 'olitical 'hiloso'hy* education* economics* moral as'ects of life and meta'hysics. Plato’s 6e'ublic &nown as ,6es'ublica- in (atin is translated from "ree& word ,Politeia or Polity- which means a 'olitical constitution in $eneral. !t is an achie#ement of com'rehension* 'erfection and uni#ersality of thou$ht. !t 'resents a 'icture not of any e%istin$ state in "ree& but of an ideal state in which wea&ness of the e%istin$ states were to be a#oided. ousseau said* “0he epublic is not a mere work upon politics but the "inest treatise on education that ever was written.”
2ain feature of the 6e'ublic is the #irtue of &nowled$e. Plato was of the #iew that different classes and indi#iduals had different ca'acities for the attainment of #irtues. he labor class showed the least ca'a city. Philoso'hers were the best entitled to rule the state because of their su'eriority in #irtue. Plato considered 0ustice to be the su'reme #irtue and his ideal state be dwelt with it. e can say that the 6e'ublic is his master 'iece. Plato’s 6e'ublic is the crownin$ achie#ement of art* science and 'hiloso'hy. Accordin$ to -aker* “0he mainsprin! o" the epublic is #lato*s aversion to contemporary 9apitalism and his !reat desire to substitute a new scheme o" ocialism.” 9riticism he 6e'ublic contains a $ood deal of criticism on contem'orary institutions* o'inions and 'ractices. he 6e'u blic re'resents a stron$ 'rotest a$ainst the teachin$s of /o'hists and the e%istin$ social and 'olitical corru'tion.
Plato stresses that state should not be an assembly of corru't and selfish indi#iduals but be a communion of souls united for the 'ursuit of 0ustice and truth and also for the welfare of the 'eo'le.
#lato*s deal tate “Cntil philosophers are kin!s or the kin!s and princes o" this world have the spirit and the power o" philosophy and political !reatness and wisdom meet in one% cities will never rest "rom their evils.” (#lato)
he 6e'ublic of Plato is inter'reted as ;to'ia to end all ;to'ias* not because it is a romance* but because he constructed an ideal state in it. He com'ares the construction of an ideal state with an act of an artist who s&etches an ideal 'icture without concernin$ himself with the fact whether indi#idual characteristic features of ima$inati#e 'icture are to be found anywhere or not? !n the same way* Plato ne#er thou$ht of the 'ossibility of the institutions of his ideal state* bein$ ca'able of e#er becomin$ a reality. He ne#er thou$ht of the im'racticability of this idea concernin$ his ideal state. Plato built his state on the analo$y of an indi#idual or$anism. He belie#ed that the #irtues of an indi#idual and of the state were identical. He was of the #iew that an indi#idual 'resented almost the same features and ualities on a smaller scale as society on a bi$$er scale.
'eatures o" an deal tate 1.ule o" #hilosophy Plato was of the #iew that in an ideal state the 'hiloso'herruler should be 'rominent. He should has a broaden #ision of unity of &nowled$e. Philoso'her&in$s are immune from the 'ro#isions of law and 'ublic o'inion. 2.Do un&uali"ied absolutism hou$h* neither* there is any restraint of law nor of 'ublic o'inion o#er 'hiloso'herrulers but that is not an unualified absolutism. !t is not all des'otism* because rule of 'hiloso'hy is not free from the basic articles of the constitution. 3.9ontrol over the education system Philoso'her ruler should control the education system in an ideal state. 4.8ustice in ideal state ustice is the main feature of Plato’s 6e'ublic and it is also 'resent in his ideal state. ustice is the bond which binds e#ery member of society to$ether. !t forms a harmonious union of indi#iduals. 5.9ensorship o" art and literature !n ideal state* there should be a com'lete censorshi' of art and literature. !t is necessary so that no thin$ immoral thin$s mi$ht falls into the hands of the youn$ indi#iduals. 6.ystem o" 9ommunism Plato was of the #iew that $uardian class should li#e under the system of communism of 'ro'erty and family. he rulers and soldiers do not 'ossess any 'ro'erty of their own. =.E&uality amon! men and women Accordin$ to Plato* eual o''ortunities should be $i#en to both men and women for their economic* social* intellectual and 'olitical u'lift. e can say that Plato was the first feminist of his time. >.#rinciple o" 'unctional pecialiFation Plato was of the #iew that due to multi'le wants* an indi#idual could not fulfill all his desires by himself alone due to lac& of ca'acity. hus coo'eration amon$ indi#iduals should be necessary to satisfy their mutual desires. /ome 'eo'le are s'ecialied in 'erformin$ some certain tas&s. 9riticism 1.Plato built his ideal state on the analo$y of indi#idual and this identification leads to confusion. He failed to distin$uish ethics from 'olitics. His ideal state is based not merely on analo$y but almost identification between the indi#idual and the state* which is uite wron$. 2.Plato fails to condemn the institution of sla#ery and re$ard it as fundamental e#il. 3.Plato’s system of communism of women and tem'orary marria$e is detestable and unethical. 4.Plato is a moralist rather than a 'olitical idealist. His assum'tion that the state should control the entire li#es of its citiens is false and contrary to human liberty. 5.By the system of functional s'ecialiation* Plato tends to dwarf the 'ersonality of the indi#idual. here is no 'ossibility of any full de#elo'ment of human 'ersonality in his ideal state. 6.Plato com'letely i$nores the lower class in his ideal state which forms the $reat bul& of 'o'ulation. /uch ne$li$ence may di#ide the society into two hostile $rou's.
9omparison between #lato and Aristotle Aristotle* the fa#orite and most brilliant 'u'il of Plato* is more conscious of h is differences than of the 'oints of a$reement with him. he differences which these $iants of 'hiloso'hy were n ot the outcome of any $rud$e or ill will* but reflected their own way of sol#in$ the e%istin$ 'roblems of their state. imilarities 1.Both u'held sla#ery and 0ustified its continuation in true s'irit of "ree& ideals. :ach re$arded sla#es as an indis'ensable 'art of the community for the manual 'erformance and o#erall de#elo'ment 'ro$ress of the state. 2.Both des'ised forei$ners and re$arded races other than "ree&s fit for sub0ection and bonda$e and as mentally inferior to the "ree&s. 3.Both condemned democracy and wanted to re'lace it with some sort of constitutional or ideal 'olity while #lato echoed in condemnin$ democracy* as “hat could have been more ridiculous than this mob/led% passion/ ridden democracy% this !overnment by a debatin! society% a mobocracy.”
i""erences 1.hile Plato draws conclusion throu$h the use of allusion and analo$y* Aristotle stri&es at the #ery 'oint with definite and clearcut do$mas and doctrine. 2.hile Plato belie#es in the abstract notions of 0ustice* #irtue and idea. Aristotle 0ud$es the s'eculati#e fundamentals on the basis of e%act com'arison and deduces a thou$ht 'resentable and acce'table e#en in modern ci#iliation. 3.here Plato is #isionary* ima$inati#e and uto'ian* Aristotle is lo$ical* realist and scientific in his a''roach of 'ro'oundin$ theories. 4.!f Plato belie#es in the doctrine that the reality of a material thin$ lies in its idea not in its form. Aristotle belie#es that reality in the concrete manifestation of a thin$* and not in its su''osed inherent idea. 5. Plato belie#ed in the 'henomenon of unity throu$h uniformity.
create a state as !ood as can be. 0hus% all who believe in new worlds "or old are disciples o" #lato% all who believe in old worlds made new by the toilsome use o" science are disciples o" Aristotle.” (Maxey)
Machiavelli “Machiavelli had been represented as an utter cynic% an impassioned patriot% an ardent nationalist% a political 8esuit% a convinced democrat and an unscrupulous seeker a"ter the "avor o" depots.” (abine) “n Machiavelli we "ind the "rankest and the most brutal analysis o" the sel"ishness% audacity% cunnin!% deception% treachery% malevolence% cynicism% hatred and lust that were necessary "or a prince.” (G. 0homas)
2achia#elli* the hated belo#ed 'ro'het of secularism* had one of the eni$mas of modern history* whom Allama !bal has characteried as the “harp A!ent o" evil” was born in 9lorence in 14>=. (ittle is &nown about his early education. Howe#er he was &nown as a wellread fellow in !talian and (atin classics. he 9lorence was ruled by the 2edici family in 14=4* the 2edicis were e%'elled from the city and 9lorence became a re'ublic. !n the same year* 2achia#elli first 0oined 'ublic life as a chancery cler&. !n 14=8* 2achia#elli became second chancellor and secretary of the Council of en* a body which had res'onsibility for war and interior affairs. He held that 'ost for fourteen years. He was stron$* #i$orous and intelli$ent man.
* 2achia#elli 'ersuaded the counsel to ado't his 'lan for formation of a citien army. But he failed in his 'lans because 2edicis reestablished their control o#er 9lorence. he 2edici e%iled him and forbid his 'resence in 9lorence. /oon afterward 2achia#elli ha#in$ been wron$ly accused of im'lication in the Boscoli c ons'iracy a$ainst the 2edici was im'risoned and tortured. He e#entually freed and 'ermitted to return to his family. 2achia#elli* as a true 9lorentine was naturally shoc&ed to see the 'olitical u'hea#al and social decay in his belo#ed country and he determined to sa#e her from all intri$ues* disorders and 'etty wars. He denounced all the church doctrines and held the Po'es res'onsible for the 'li$ht state of affairs. He tirelessly stru$$led for the attainment of $lory and ma$nificence of 6ome by consolidatin$ all scattered forces. He enunciated the 'hiloso'hy of art of "o#ernments for effecti#e disci'line and stability in the state. He ad#ocated stron$ly for usin$ the harsher methods and o''ressi#e means for the stability of the state. He firmly belie#ed that ,fear is the domineerin$ wea'on for a Prince for com'lete obedience and is mi$htier than lo#e.-
Moral ndi""erence o" Machiavelli he reasons of 2achia#elli’s moral indifferences are followin$ 1.2achia#elli does not belie#e in any ethical do$mas or in any di#ine law because of intentional se$re$ation of 'olitics from reli$ion. 2.!n 2achia#elli’s 'hiloso'hy* moral 0ud$ments are wholly subordinate to the e%istence of 'olitical and tem'oral e%istence and welfare. 3. 2achia#elli calculated that the institution of Pa'acy brou$ht decline and destruction to the $lory of 6ome. He wanted to 'ractice 'a$an #irtues of cunnin$ness* du'licity and &na#ery for achie#in$ successful $oals. 4.He did not at all deny the e%cellence of moral #irtues* but he refused to acce't them essential to the 'olitical stability. He 'leads that the reli$ion must be s&illfully e%'loited as a useful wea'on for achie#in$ the anne%in$ desi$ns by the so#erei$n.
5.2achia#elli stands coura$eously for the 'reser#ation of his state. He says that there must be no consideration of what is 0ust or un0ust* merciful or cruel* $lorious or shameful@ on the contrary* e#erythin$ must be disre$arded. 6.He im'arts 'riority to the state and 'uts it abo#e morality and reli$ion* because it is the hi$hest form of social or$aniation and the most essential of all institutions for the 'rotection and 'romotion o f human welfare. =.2achia#elli’s ad#ocacy of unreli$ious and his indifference to morality ha#e become so much disru'ted that e#en his name has become a byword for fraud* force and dishonesty. He wrote 'rimarily for the e%altation of the state.
!n modern world* some of the /tates Heads acted as ,Prince of 2achia#elli- by freein$ all channels of human 'ro$ress and liberty and also by reducin$ the citiens to that of animals and sla#es. he Prince and the +iscourses are still modern theories and are bein$ 'racticed in many secular countries of modern a$ e.
Machiavelli and tate iplomacy 2achia#elli wrote his most im'ortant wor& ,Prince- and dedicated it to de 2edici* the 'rince of 9lorence. ,Princeof 2achia#elli is neither an academic treatise nor a boo& on 'olitical science. !t is a memorandum on the art of "o#ernment and of /tate di'lomacy. !t $i#es an aweins'irin$ techniue for successful rulershi' and as such is a $uide to the rulers and &in$s of his time and of succeedin$ times* about the best means of maintainin$ their 'ower. he whole ar$ument of Prince is based u'on the 'remise directly deri#ed from Aristotelian 'hiloso'hy* that the state is the hi$hest form of human association and that consideration for the state welfare must be $i#en ' riority and 'reference than the wellbein$ of the indi#iduals. hese 'remises led to the conclusion that it was Caesar and not "od to be worshi''ed. Here 2achia#elli 'ersonified Caesar with a state and almost identifies the state with the ruler. Caesar must ma&e himself worthy of this worshi' by a cruel* ruthless and successful seiure of 'ower. A 'rince must 'ossess the ualities of wisdom* e$oism* selfishness and brutalities for the attainment of his moti#es. A 'rince must consider his friend and nei$hbors his ardent foes and does not re'ose any confidence in them. 2achia#elli was of the #iews that “+irtue brin!s ruin% while vice brin!s security and prosperity.” “9ruelty is better than mercy.” “A wise ruler ou!ht not to keep "aith when such observance may be turned a!ainst him.”
he main 'oint of 2achia#elli’s state di'lomacy are followin$ 1.!m'art 'riority to your own interests. he stron$ must im'ose intimidatory laws u'on the wea& to arrest their rebelliousness. 2.Honor to nobody but to yourself. He who as'ires to acuire mastery can afford to ha#e no ri#als. 3.+o e#il but 'retend to do well. 2achia#elli was of the #iew that to be $ood is harmful but to 'ose to be $ood is useful diabolic attitude. (et mercy be on your ton$ue and e#il in your heart. 4.he Prince should ha#e no re$ard for the ri$hts of others* es'ecially forei$ners. He should im'ose hea#y ta% u'on them to the 'oint of robbin$ them. 5.A Prince should not be 'rodi$al with the money of his own 'eo'le* but he should be #ery liberal and $enerous with the money 'lundered from other countries throu$h a$$ression and other mean resources. 6.A Prince must discard all the canons of leniency and decency.
=.A Prince* in order to crush his com'etitors* must turn into a murderer and a looter. >.he Prince must &ill his enemies and if necessary* his friends. He must remain #i$ilant and alert from his relations so that he may not be de'osed* e%iled and murdered. ?.;se force and du'licity rather than beni$n ness in dealin$ with other 'eo'le. !t is better to be creator of horrors than to be maintainer of lo#e and affection. hen you o#er'ower your enemy* root out the entire roots of his family* otherwise some of his relati#es will become # indicti#e to ta&e re#en$e for the wron$ you ha#e inflicted. [email protected] all your efforts on war. !n the 2achia#ellian state* all re$ular channels of human acti#ities are barred and all roads lead to war
estern #olitical 0hou!ht///0homas Gobbes “Gobbes was in "act the "irst o" the !reat modern philosophers who attempted to brin! political theory into intimate relations with a thorou!hly modern system o" thou!ht% and he stroke to make this system broad enou!h to account on scienti"ic principles% "or all the "acts o" nature% includin! human behavior both in its individual and social aspects.” (abine)
homas Hobbes was born near 2almesbury in 188. He was the #ictim of bro&en home. His father* the icar of est'ort* deserted his wife and children when Hobbes was still a boy. Hobbes recei#ed his early education in iltshire* a 'lace in 2almesbury. At the a$e of fifteen years* he 0oined <%ford. He $ot the de$ree of $raduation at the a$e of nineteen. His soul remained insatiate with the ;ni#ersity education and found it worthless. 1. He attac&ed the ancient institution of Pa'acy and also won disfa#or from royalists. !t was an im'ortant wor& of Hobbes which brou$ht him immortal fame in the history of estern 'olitical thou$ht. Hobbes built u' a systematic 'hiloso'hy of state* ta&in$ his stand neither on tradition nor on theolo$y but on his study of human nature. !t was the crucial 'eriod when u'holders of constitutional rule were fiercely fi$htin$ for the annihilation of the su''orters of +i#ine 6i$ht of Din$s. Hobb es saw the miserable condition of his belo#ed cou ntry and ardently ad#ocated for the maintenance of authority and order* and he constructed a system of stron$ and res'onsible so#erei$n "o#ernment on the basis of the then #ery 'o'ular doctrine of social contract. Hobbes was* thus* as much a creature of his times as 2achia#elli was. Howe#er he found a lin& between 6enaissance and the 6estoration.
Gobbes*s 9onception o" tate o" Dature Hobbes was of the #iew* “0he only basis o" human action is a perpetual and restless desire o" power a"ter power that ends only in death. -y nature man is sel"ish and e!oistical. Every one is strivin! "or the !rati"ication o" his appetites and these appetites are di""erent "rom individual to individual because o" physical constitution% education and experience.B Hobbes’s man li#ed ori$inally in state of nature without the benefits of "o#ernment. All human actions were re$ulated by two thin$s
1.he instinct of self'reser#ation 2.!ndi#idual e$oism
Accordin$ to Hobbes* the state of nature was “a state o" war o" all a!ainst all in which the chie" virtue o" mankind were "orce and "raud.” here was no "o#ernment of ci#il laws to maintain 'eace and order* but a "o#ernment of fear* dan$er and coercion. Hobbes said* “urin! the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe% they are in that condition which is called war% and such a war% as is o" every man a!ainst every man. n such condition there is no place "or industry because the "ruit thereo" is uncertain% and conse&uently no culture o" the earth% no navi!ation% no use o" commodities that may be imported by seas% no knowled!e o" the "ace o" the earthH no account o" time% no arts% no letters% no society% and which is worst o" all% continual "ear and dan!er o" violent death.” 7o!ical 9onclusions< 1.Hobbes was of the #iew that there was no distinction between ri$ht and wron$ in the state of nature.
Accordin$ to Hobbes* man undoubtedly wanted 'eace and tranuility@ but his fear of others* his an%iety to retain what is already had and his ne#er endin$ desire for self a$$randiement on the basis of Emine and mine’ led him to 'erennial conflict and anarchy in the state. 2an is the state of nature becomes the sla#e and tool of im'ulses and 'assions. (ater on man realied that 'eace had definitely more utility than constant was and fear of #iolent death brou$ht man’s 'assions into line with his reasons. 2an could li#e in harmony and 'eace with one another either throu$h fear of 'unishment or d esire for 'rofit. And this 'ur'ose could only be achie#ed by establishin$ a stron$ and stable "o#ernment ca'able of ins'irin$ awe and fear by usin$ harsh and arbitrary methods who disobey its laws and of $i#in$ attracti#e rewards to those who do conform.
Gobbes and 0heory o" overei!nty Hobbes’s so#erei$n was 'resented as a 2ortal "od #ested with absolute and unchallen$ed 'ower to rule o#er his sub0ects arbitrarily. He was the smasher of the re$ular channels of democracy* a way of life. Hobbes’s so#erei$n suffocated all the social and cultural communication between the 'eo'le brin$in$ about a rei$n of o''ression and harshness. Hobbes said* “-y this authority% !iven him every particularly man in the wealth% he has the use o" so much power and stren!th con"erred upon him% that the terror thereo"% he is enable to "orm the wills o" them all to peace at home and mutual aid a!ainst their enemies abroad. And in him consists the essence o" the 9ommonwealth which is one person% o" which acts a multitude% by mutual covenants one with another have made themselves% every one the author% to the end he may use the stren!th and means o" them all% as he shall thinker expedient% "or their peace and common de"ense.” 'eatures o" overei!nty 1.he so#erei$n is absolute and all 'owerful. His 'owers to frame laws of the land are not restricted by any human a$ency. 2.He is the sin$ular lawma&in$ authority. 3. Fo condition* e%'licit or im'licit* can be im'osed on the so#erei$n* for his 'ower is unlimited.
4./ub0ects ha#e no authority to call any e%'lanation from the so#erei$n for his misdeeds. hey ha#e no ri$ht to threaten* to 'unish him* to banish or de'ose him. 5.he so#erei$n is the fountain of 0ustice and honor. 6.he so#erei$n has full 'ower to declare war a$ainst any country or nation whene#er he li&es. =./o#erei$nty is indi#isible@ inalienable and un'unishable. >.he so#erei$n formulates laws re$ardin$ 'ro'erty and ta%ation etc* and he has full ri$hts to allow or disallow freedom of s'eech to his sub0ect. ?.he so#erei$n has to 'rotect his 'eo'le from internal disru'tion and e%ternal a$$ression for the 'reser#ation of 'eace and $lory of the state. 1@.!f the so#erei$n i$nores the 'act* he can do so* because he is no 'arty to the contract.
0ypes o" overei!nty
Accordin$ to Hobbes the difference of commonwealths consist in the difference of the so#erei$n or the 'erson re'resentati#e of all and e#ery one of the multitude and it is manifest* there can be 'ut three &inds of commonwealth 1.!f the re'resentati#e is one man* the commonwealth will be &nown as 2onarchy. 2.!f the re'resentati#e is com'osed of an assembly* the state will be called a democracy. 3.hen the re'resentati#e is an assembly* but only a 'art of it* then it is called aristocracy.
Hobbes ardently fa#ors monarchical form of "o#ernment. here must be an im'ortant monarch to ser#e the end for which the state is established. But a monarch without absolute 'ower will utterly be failed for the attainment of his ideals. hat is why@ Hobbes is ran&ed as one of the $reat cham'ions of absolute so#erei$nty. Hobbes $i#es a 'erfect and most satisfactory theory of so#erei$nty which is all 'owerful authority within the state. !t is absolute* unlimited* nontransferable and irre#ocable. Hobbes e%celled 2achia#elli’s Prince* an e#il $enius in e%altin$ 'olitical authority. 2achia#elli had made 'olitics inde'endent of reli$ion but Hobbes set 'olitics abo#e reli$ion and ethics. he 'owers #ested in so#erei$nty must be absolute* unlimited and all 'owerful. 9riticism
he 'olitical theory of homas Hobbes has been bitterly criticied on different $rounds e#er since this day. 1.he whole conce'tion of social contract and an or$anied society resultin$ from it is unhistorical. here are no e%am'les in history when Hobbes’s men $athered to$ether and si$ned a contract for the formation of a ci#il society. 2.Hobbes 'ortrays a dismal 'icture of the state of nature* which is far from satisfactory. He 'aints a dar&er side and com'letely i$nores a bri$hter side of human nature. His 'icture reflects the e#ils of his man. He declares man selfish* solitary and brutish. But human nature has two essential as'ects* $ood and bad. He always s'ea&s of the badness of human nature. 3.Hobbes was of the #iew that the state of nature is a state of war* the war of all a$ainst all* in wh ich the cardinal #irtues are force and fraud. How could such a man $o a$ainst his own nature and suddenly enter a ,state not of war*
but of 'eace* not of force and fraud but of ri$ht and 0ustice.4.Hobbes says that there were no laws in the state of nature. his is baseless. 5.Hobbes’s so#erei$n a''ears to be the re'resentati#e of the 'eo'le* who follows 'ublic o'inion and loo&s after 'ublic welfare. his is the only one as'ect in which Hobbes has reco$nied the limitations of his (e#iathan. 6.Hobbes did not foresee the distinction between the "o#ernment and the state. hile the "o#ernment of a state mi$ht be re'laced with another because of its corru'tion or inefficiency* the state as a reality remains intact and does not sin& into lawless condition. =.Hobbes a''ears to be a mi%ture of anarchy and absolutism. he only remedy to control of $ood beha#ior of men was the coerci#e 'ower of the so#erei$n. >.he Hobbesian system condemns the state for 'urely ne$ati#e functions. !t is sole function in the 'reser#ation of life and maintenance of order. ?.he ci#il society created by Hobbes is not much of a society. !t is li&e a floc& of cattle dri#en by the omni'otent (e#iathan who sums u' in himself the life of all and who is a uni#ersal re$ulator of thou$hts and actions of all.
Hobbes was a materialist and rationalist to the core of his heart. His 'olitical 'hiloso'hy indicated the absolute so#erei$nty of whate#er "o#ernment ha''ened to be in 'ower. He bade 'eo'le render unto Caesar and unto "od whate#er Caesar commanded. His state absorbed the will of all its members in matters secular and s'iritual and it was wron$ to will or act a$ainst it.
8ohn 7ocke “uccess"ul revolutions are stimulatin! to those who believe in them. 7ocke is the most "ortunate o" all philosophers "or% he completed his work in theoretical philosophy ust at the moment when the ;overnment o" his country "ell into the hands o" men who shared his political opinions. Gis political doctrine is embedded in the American 9onstitution.” (-ertrand ussel)
ohn (oc&e was born at rin$ton in north /omersetshire in 1>3). His father was an attorney and landowner of modest means. He $ot his early education at home and later on he was admitted to estminster /chool. !n 1>)* he was sent to <%ford for hi$her education. At that time he was only twentytwo and entered Christ Church Colle$e G<%ford. His uni#ersity career was not #ery shinin$ because the narrow disci'line of the 'lace dulled his enthusiasm for formal studies. !n 1>>* he $ot the de$ree of 2aster of Arts. After ta&in$ the 2.A. de$ree* (oc&e was a''ointed as a tutor in "ree&. (oc&e did not li&e teachin$ 'rofession and he started medicine. He was $reatly influenced by +escartes and became 'hysician. (ater on he became the confidential /ecretary of (ord /haftsbury* the founder of the hi$ +ynasty. He went o#er to the Parliamentary side and was later on made a field marshal in the rebel forces. hen Charles !! became &in$* he was made :arl of /haftsbury in 1>7). !n 1>8)* /haftsbury was char$ed with the crime o f cons'iracy. He was arrested and tried for treason. He was* howe#er* acuitted but was com'elled to lea#e :n$land. (oc&e also facin$ his 'ersecution fled with him to Holland and remained there until the bloodless 6e#olution. After the $lorious re#olution of 1>88* he came under the liberaliin$ influences that were be$innin$ to be felt in :n$land and he de#oted his entire intellectual faculties towards literary wor& and to numerous contro#ersies arisin$ out of his wor&s. abine attributes ohn (oc&e in these words* “his sincerity% his pro"ound moral convictions% his !enuine belie" in liberty in human ri!hts% and in the di!nity o" human nature united with his moderation and !ood sense% made him the ideal spokesman o" the middle/class revolution.”
(oc&e’s father* a renowned attorney of his time e%erted a considerable influence in ma&in$ him ealous ad#ocate of liberty* euality and democracy. (oc&e com'letely discarded the Hobbes’s conce'tion of man who de'icted as utterly selfish* irrational* solitary and brutish. He 'ortrayed his men in the state of n ature fully 'ossessed a sense of sociability brin$in$ all men in to$etherness of mutual benefit and for the 'ro$ress of ci#il society. He ad#ocated for the elimination of the coerci#eness and intimidation o#er the sub0ect for 'eaceful 'ro$ress of the state.
-ases o" his #hilosophy ensationalism< (oc&e was of the #iew that all &nowled$e and beliefs come throu$h our senses and e%'eriences. here is nothin$ in mind e%ce't what was first in the sense. Ctilitarianism< He is one of the $reat 'leader of utilitarianism. His conce'tion is uite a''arent from his contention that ,ha''iness and misery are the two $reat s'rin$s of human action.- He was of the #iew that morality is 'leasure and 'leasure is only conformity to uni#ersal law. ,ptimistic 9onception o" Guman Dature< (oc&e belie#es in the inherent $oodness of human bein$s. He says that man is a rational* sensible and social creature. He feels lo#e* sym'athy and tenderness towards his fellowbein$s and is ca'able of bein$ actuated by altruistic moti#es. He wants to li#e in 'eace and harmony with others. eection o" Absolute Monarchy based on ivinity and Geredity< (oc&e refuted em'hatically the hereditary 'rinci'le in &in$shi' ad#ocated most fer#ently by 9ilmer in his Patriarcha and u'held by the An$lican Church. 9ilmer contended that 'olitical 'ower is deri#ed from the authority of father o#er his children and that re$al authority is sub0ection of children to 'arents* and since the actual monarchs are the heirs of Adam* therefore they can demand from the citiens unflinchin$ loyalty. (oc&e 'oints out the in0ustice of 'rimo$eniture Gthe 'rinci'le by which 'ro'erty descends to the eldest son which is una#oidable if inheritance is to be the basis of monarchy. 9urther* Adam can ha#e only one heir* but no one &nows who he is. And if the true heir could be disco#ered* would all e%istin$ monarchs 'ut their crowns at his feet. 2oreo#er* in case of this disco#ery all &in$s e%ce't* at most one* would be usur'ers and would ha#e no ri$ht to demand the obedience of their de facto sub0ects.
7ocke*s +iew on Datural i!hts o" Man (oc&e a''ears to be a true democrat when he says that the establishment of a commonwealth stands for the com'lete security of natural ri$hts of men. Fatural ri$hts of citiens are 1.6i$ht to life 2.6i$ht to 'ro'erty 3.6i$ht to liberty “Most distinctive contribution o" 7ocke to political theory is the doctrine o" natural ri!hts.” (unnin!)
(oc&e was of the #iew that the ri$ht of 'ro'erty is a most im'ortant because all other natural ri$hts are analo$ous to the ri$ht of 'ri#ate 'ro'erty. He further maintained that the ri$ht to 'ri#ate 'ro'erty e%isted in the state of nature under the o'eration of natural law. (oc&e thou$ht of natural ri$hts as thin$s which man brin$s with him from birth. /ociety e%ists to 'rotect them@ they can be re$ulated only to the e%tent that is necessary to $i#e them effecti#e 'rotection. “0he li"e% liberty and estate o" one person can be limited only to make e""ective the e&uality valid claims o"
another person to the same ri!hts.” (abine)
Accordin$ to 7ocke* “;od% who has !iven the world to men in common% has also !iven reason to make use o" it to the best advanta!e o" li"e and convenience. 0he earth and all that is therein% is !iven to men "or support and com"ort o" their bein! and all the "ruits it naturally produces and beasts it "eeds% belon!s to mankind in common% as they are produced by the spontaneous hand o" nature% and nobody has ori!inally a private dominion% exclusive o" the rest o" mankind% in any o" them% as they are thus in their natural state. hatsoever he removes out o" the state that nature has provided and le"t it in% he ahs mixed his labor with and oined to it somethin! that is his own and thereby makes it his own property.”
7ocke*s 9onception o" #opular overei!nty (oc&e is re$arded as the cham'ion of 'eo'le’s ri$hts and a harbin$er of their sacred and fundamental liberties. His social contract did not create the irres'onsible* cruel and absolutist ,(e#iathan- of Hobbes* but reser#ed the so#erei$n ri$hts to the final 0ud$e of all actions* the community. he ultimate su'reme 'ower is not #ested in the sce'ter of &in$@ but it remains in the hands of the 'eo'le. (oc&e did not ad#ance the idea of le$al* absolute and indi#isible so#erei$nty. he #ery idea of it was discarded by him because 2achia#ellian and Hobbesian conce'tion of so#erei$nty brin$s about a rei$n of terror for the 'eo'le who would loudly whis'er for freedom and euality. He initiated the conce'tion of 'o'ular so#erei$nty* which has been firmly acce'ted* a best way of rule by the succeedin$ thin&ers and the whole world own him too much* because real and 'ractical democracy was stron$ly enunciated. (oc&e stood for a "o#ernment which should be sub0ect to a number of limitations. !t cannot rule with coercion and intimidation and ta% them without their will. A $o#ernment which #iolated its limitations is not wo rthy of obedience. he state is created for certain c on#eniences and it must 0ustify itself by creatin$ those con#eniences. he basic ri$hts of the indi#idual life* liberty and 'ro'erty are to be 'rotected rather than restricted by the state. he &in$ has neither the di#ine authority nor any moral 0ustification to o#er load the sub0ect. All men are eual in the eye of Almi$hty "od and their basic ri$hts must not be #iolated under the ci#il laws of the state. (oc&e’s "o#ernment created by the unanimous consent of the ma0ority should ha#e freedom of s'eech* of election and of reli$ious worshi' and in order that it may be 're#ented from becomin$ too autocratic and arbitrary. his democratic $o#ernment should be run by a system of chec&s and balances. !n other words* the $o#ernment should be di#ided into three main or$ans ie* le$islature* e%ecuti#e and 0udiciary. And of these three* the le$islature should be su'reme* as is e#idently a#ailable in the modern constitutions.
Montes&uieu “," all 'rench political philosophers in the ei!hteenth century (other than ousseau) the most important was Montes&uieu. ," them all he had perhaps the clearest conception o" the complexities o" a social philosophy% and yet he too was !uilty o" extreme over simpli"ication.” (abine)
2ontesuieu was born in 1>8= at Chateau de la Bordeau% in a noble aristocratic family. His father was an eminent 9rench lawyer. At the a$e of twenty se#en he became 'resident of Parliament of Bordeau%* the most im'ortant of 'arliaments in 9rance e%ce't that of Paris. 9or a lon$ 'eriod of twel#e years he continued as chief ma$istrate at Bordeau%* but he was not satisfied with the 0ob because he was an e%tensi#e reader of literature and history and had dee' sym'athetic ties with the intellectual mo#ements of his days. At last he left 'residency and mo#ed to Paris. !n 17)8 he #isited Austria* Hun$ary* enice* 6ome* /witerland* Holland and lastly :n$land where he remained for abo#e two years. +urin$ his tour* he came across the leadin$ 'oliticians and 'olitical thin&ers in :n$land and he
was dee'ly im'ressed by the :n$lish conce'tion of liberty and by the :n$lish system of "o#ernment. After his return he settled at (a Brede and &e't himself busy with the tas& of writin$ of 'olitical 'hiloso'hy. At that time 9rance althou$h under absolute control of Din$ (ouis I!* yet was more fertile for $rowth of 'olitical theory but 9renchmen were not satisfied with the 'olitical situation* as were their fellows across the channel. !m'ortant wor&s of 2ontesuieu are 1.0he #ersian 7etter< He 'ublished these letters in 17)1. it embodied a brilliant satire on the e%istin$ 'olitical* reli$ious and social institutions in 9rance. 2.e"lections and the causes o" the ;reatness and ecline o" the omans. his boo& was 'ublished in 1734. 3.0he pirit o" 7aw 'ublished in 1748. his boo& won a $reat fame and immortality for 2ontesuieu because it came out after fourteen year unremittin$ labor and he made it a master'iece for all a$es.
Montes&uieu*s doctrine o" eparation o" #owers 2ontesuieu e%'ounds his theory of se'aration of 'owers to set forth the $o#ernmental or$aniation in order to safe$uard the 'olitical liberty. He belie#ed that the se'aration of 'owers amon$ the different or$ans of the $o#ernment is the best safe$uard a$ainst tyranny. He 'leads that each 'ower must be e%ercised by a se'arate or$an and a system of chec&s and balances should thus be established for solidarity and h armony of the state. he theory of se'aration of 'owers amon$ (e$islati#e* :%ecuti#e and udicial branches of $o #ernment was best realied in the British Constitution. He came to realie that for maintainin$ liberty* the se'aration of 'owers was absolutely essential. 2ontesuieu did not rely u'on o bser#ation. (oc&e and Harrin$ton had tau$ht him what to e%'ect and for the rest he ado'ted the myth which was current amon$ the :n$lish themsel#es. -olin!broke said* “t is by this mixture o" monarchial% aristocratically and democratically power blended to!ether in one system and by these three estates balancin! one another% that our "ree constitution o" ;overnment has been preserved so lon! inviolate.” Accordin$ to 2ontesuieu there are three &inds of 'ower 1.By #irtue of the le$islati#e 'ower* the 'rince or ma$istrate e%erts tem'orary or 'ermanent laws and amends or abro$ates those laws* which are contrary to the will of the sub0ect. 2.By #irtue of the e%ecuti#e 'owers* he ma&es 'eace or war* sends or recei#es Ambassadors* establish the 'ublic security and 'ro#ide 'rotection a$ainst in#asions. 3.By #irtue of the 0udiciary 'owers* he is #ested with the 'owers to 'unish criminals and also to safe$uard the life and 'ro'erty of the indi#iduals.
hen the e%ecuti#e and le$islati#e are united in the same 'erson* there can be no liberty because a''rehensions may arise. !f the 0udiciary 'ower be not se'arated from the le$islati#e and the e%ecu ti#e then a$ain there will be no liberty. hen it is combined with the le$islati#e* the e%istence and liberty of 'eo'le would be e%'osed to arbitrary rule. hen it is combined with e%ecuti#e or$an* then there will be #iolence and o''ression in the ca'acity of a mortal "od. !t is uite ob#ious from all abo#e cited discussion* that the se'aration of 'owers amon$ the three or$ans of $o#ernments fully ensures liberty and freedom* by im'osin$ healthy chec&s on the des'otism of the $o#ernment
bureaucrats. 2ontesuieu was of the #iew that liberty is an indis'ensable fundamental for human 'ro$ress and $lory. :#eryone is born to en0oy it without any distinction of color* creed and reli$ion. 9riticism< 1.2ontesuieu’s study of :n$lish constitution is not #ery correct u ntil this day@ there is no full se'aration of 'owers between different $o#ernmental a$encies. here the House of (ords is a le$islati#e as well as a 0udicial body. he (ord Chancellor 'arta&es of all the three functions of $o#ernment. 2.!f all the branches are made se'arate and inde'endent of each other* each branch will endea#or to safe$uard its interests and 'ossibly may 0eo'ardie other’s interest. 3.Perfect se'arate 'ower in the functions of the $o#ernment is im'ossible. 4.Mill was of the #iew “the separation o" powers will result in a clash between the three di""erent or!ans o" the !overnment because each one will take interest only in its own powers.”
!n s'ite of all inconsistencies in the theory of se'aration of 'owers* it too wielded a considerable influence in Pa&istan* 9rance and America. 2ontesuieu is 'laced in the first ran& of those distin$uished thin&ers who in the ei$hteenth century* held hi$h standard of idealism in all that 'ertains to liberty.
Montes&uieu*s views on 'orms o" ;overnment he classification of $o#ernment of 2ontesuieu is base 'a rtly on the number of those who hold 'olitical 'ower and 'artly on the manner in which that 'ower is e%ercised. He $i#es more im'ortance to the 'rinci'le on which $o#ernment is based than to its nature. He assi$ned a 'articular basic 'rinci'le to e#ery form of $o#ernment. he 'rinci'le of democracy was #irtue* of an aristocracy #irtuecummoderation* of monarchy honor while that of des'otism was fear. He enunciated the dan$ers attendin$ each form of $o#ernment if it lost its basic 'rinci'le. 2ontesuieu forms the $o#ernment into three ty'es 1)epublic< 2ontesuieu was of the #iew ,A re'ublican $o#ernment is that in which the body or only a 'art of the 'eo'le* is 'ossessed of the su'reme 'ower.- o him* when in a re'ublic* the body of the 'eo'le is 'ossessed of the su'reme 'ower it is called democracy. /o#erei$nty rests with the 'eo'le in democracy. !n 6e'ublics* there can be no e%ercise of so#erei$nty but by the #otes of the 'eo'le and these #otes e%'ress their own will. 2)Monarchies< 2ontesuieu remar&s that monarchial $o#ernment is that in which a sin$le 'erson $o#erns the state by fi%ed and established laws. He was of the #iew that the most intermediate 'ower is that of nobility. his in some measure seems to be essential to a monarchy* whose fundamental ma%im is no nobility no monarch* but there may be des'otic 'rocess. 3)espotism< A des'otic $o#ernment is that in which a sin$le 'erson directs all functions of the $ o#ernment with his own ca'ricious will* without any law and without fi%ed rules. His own words become laws of the land and com'lete subordination to these laws a e%'edient.
:ach of the form is associated with its 'eculiar 'rinci'le a) +emocracy is based u'on 'olitical #irtue b) Aristocracy is based u'on moderation c) 2onarchy is based u'on honor d) +es'otism is based u'on fear and o''ression
elation between 'orms o" ;overnment and reli!ion I iFe o" tate<
2ontesuieu was of the #iew that certain reli$ions had a definite affinity for certain ty'es of $o#ernments. !slam $oes well with +emocratic 6e'ublican form of $o# ernment* wherein fundamentals of reli$ion ie.* euality* fraternity and freedom are dee'ly inculcated and 'racticed for the security of man&ind and $lory of the state. 6oman Catholicism is closely affiliated with monarchial form of $o#ernment with arbitrary rule and Protestantism e#en in this modern a$e is dee'ly attached with des'otism and cruel e%'ansionism. 6e'ublican form of $o#ernment is 'ossible only in a state of small sie@ monarchy suited the moderatesied state while a bi$ country or an em'ire must ha#e des'otic $o#ernment. 6eal democracy is 'ossible only ion small city state. 9rance of 2ontesuieu’s time was too lar$e for a re'ublic form of $o#ernment* 2onarchy would suit her best. 2ontesuieu declared monarchy* a worst form of $o#ernment and he unli&e 2achia#elli discarded the doctrine of a$$randiement and e%'ansion. 9riticism< 1.!t is uite wron$ to assume* as 2ontesuieu does* that democracy and aristocracy are subty'es of re'ublican form. 2.!t is a uite unfair to 'lace des'otic $o#ernment at 'ar with monarchial and re'ublican forms. +es'otic state is not at all state because it is established by the absence of established law* and hence it is a lawless state* which should not be included in the 'lan at all. 3.2ontesuieu’s scheme creates distinction between the re'ublican and monarchic form based u'on the number of 'ersons who 'ossess the su'reme 'ower* the distinction between the monarchic and des'otic ty'es de'ends u'on the way in which the 'ower of $o#ernments are to be e%ercised.
Montes&uieu as the Aristotle o" 1>th 9entury 1.2ontesuieu follows the inducti#e and historical methods of Aristotle and li&e him* ta&es &een interest in the 'ractical 'olitical acti#ities. 2.(i&e Aristotle* 2ontesuieu too 'ays his attention on the influence of 'hysical en#ironment on the life o f man and social institutions. 3.2ontesuieu ste's into the shoes of Aristotle* when he reco$nies basic ty'es of $o#ernment ie* re'ublican* monarchial and des'otic. 4.2ontesuieu closely follows Aristotle when he says that the fundamental ty'es of 'olitical constitutions are fi%ed once and for all but they are different to some e%tent under the im'act o f the local conditions. 5.2ontesuieu’s obser#ation that the law of a society $i#es to its uniue and 'articular character* has its 'arallel in Aristotle’s statement that the constitution of a state determines the #ery life and character of its 'eo'le* if there occurs a chan$e in the constitution* the state itself becomes alto$ether a different state.
8ean 8ac&ues ousseau “ousseau was the "ather o" the romantic movement% the imitator o" system o" thou!ht which in"er non/ human "act "rom human emotions and the inventor o" the political philosophy o" pseudo/democratic
dictatorship as opposed to traditional absolute monarchs. Gitler was the outcome o" ousseau.” (-ertrand ussel)
6ousseau was born on une )8* 171) at "ene#a of 'arents of 9rench Protestant ancestry* in a middle class family. His father* !saac* was a s&illed watchma&er* but abandoned this 'rofession to become a danc in$ master. 6ousseau left school at the a$e of 1)* learnt #arious crafts but ado'ted none. He also wor&ed as an a''rentice under a cruel en$ra#er. He filled with a wonder lust that was ne#er to be satisfied. 6estless* im'ulsi#e* unstable he embraced the career of a #a$abond as others mi$ht enter u'on a 'rofession and thereafter for twenty years he led the life of a #a$abond wanderin$ in different 'laces. !n 174)* he $ra#ely mediated to lead a re$ulated life* went to Paris and tried his luc& at different schemes* the o'era* the theatre but his efforts ended in fiasco. hen he o'ened a small hotel. he year of 174= was a turnin$ 'oint in his life* chance brou$ht 6ousseau fame and immortality. he Academy of +i0on announced a 'rie for the best essay on the sub0ect ,Has the 'ro$ress of sciences and arts contributed to corru't and 'urify morals-. He thou$ht a stron$ 'lea that 'ro$resses of sciences and arts had tended to de$rade human morality. 6ousseau de'icted in the essay* an early state of society in which all men li#ed under conditions of sim'licity and innocence* and traced the 'ur$in$ e#ils of society emanated from the artificialities introduced by ci#iliation. He won the 'rie. Gearn haw remar&ed* “it created a !reat sensation in the arti"icial society o" the A!e o" eason. t was the "irst ramble o" the evolution.” he 'ublication of his boo& ,/ocial Contract- aroused the indi$nation of the 9rench "o#ernment* which ordered his arrest. He esca'ed to "ene#a* where the +emocratic Council burned his boo& and threatened his life. He too& refu$e in "ermany* where an an$ry mob almost stran$ulated him. He fled to :n$land where only one man* Hume* too& him into his affection. By this time* howe#er* 6ousseau’s sufferin$ had $reatly 'erturbed his brain and he was tormented by a 'rosecution mania. He sus'ected that Hume was 'lottin$ to 'oison him. He thou$ht that “Everyone hurts me because o" my love "or mankind.” 9inally his fear of bein$ murdered dro#e him to commit suicide. Gearn haw said* ,ousseau led a li"e o" "u!itive "or sixteen years and he drove throu!h a period o" deepenin! !loom% "ailin! health% broken spirit% hauntin! terrors% paralyFin! illusions and accumulatin! despair.”
ousseau*s tate o" Dature “Man is born "ree and everywhere he is in chains. Many a one believes himsel" the master o" others% and yet he is !reater slave than they. Gow has this chan!e come about: do not know. hat can render it le!itimate: believe that can settle this &uestion.” (ousseau)
2an is born free only in the sense that freedom is his inborn ri$ht@ it is the necessary condition for the de#elo'ment of the #arious 'otentialities of human nature. e can say that he is born for freedom that he ou$ht to be free. he second 'art of the first sentence that he is e#erywhere in chains im'ly that customs and con#entions of society and state re$ulations im'oser u'on him certain artificial and unnecessary restraints which arrest the de#elo'ment of his 'ersonality. 6ousseau* a 'hiloso'her of the heart rather than of the head* 'resented his /tate of Fature to be an earthly 'aradise thou$h he himself confessed that the conce'tion of the /tate of Fature was uite hy'othetical. As ousseau says* “A state which exists no lon!er% perhaps never existed% probably never will exist and o" which none the less it is necessary to have ust idea in order to ud!e well our present state.” He always maintained that the natural state was also better than the social state. 9or* in it* the natural man* or the noble sa#a$e* li#ed a solitary* ha''y and carefree life of the brute was inde'endent* contented and selfsufficin$. !n short* 6ousseau’s man was a nonsocial bein$ un&nown to $ood or e#il or the comin$ death. hus the noble
sa#a$e was in the state of 'aradise* e#eryone bein$ eual to the other. 2an’s life in the state of nature was re$ulated not by reason but by the feelin$s of self'reser#ation and hatred towards incalculable massacre and incredible #iolence. Accordin$ to ousseau* “primitive man was near animal than manH he lived an isolated and solitary li"e havin! no ties and obli!ations. Ge was !uided by two sentiments sel"/interest and pity% and havin! no oral obli!ation with other men he could not be !ood or bad% virtuous or vicious. Ge led a solitary li"e completely devoid o" lan!ua!e and wandered about the primeval "orests be!ettin! his o""sprin! by the way% huntin! "or his "ood% and concerned only with the satis"action o" physical needs. n a word% the natural man was neither happy nor unhappy.” But with the a''earance of fi%ed homes* family and 'ro'erty* the &nell of human euality was sounded. But e#en this 'rimiti#e society was tolerable. he least sub0ects to re#olutions* the best for man.
ousseau*s ;eneral ill “0he development o" the theory o" the !eneral will in the ocial 9ontract was involved in paradoxes% partly because o" cloudiness o" ousseau*s ideas but partlyH it seems% because he had a rhetorician*s likin! "or paradox. Mani"estly% in view o" his criticism o" the natural man% he ou!ht to have avoided the notion o" contract alto!ether as both meanin!less and misleadin!.” (abine)
he will of each indi#idual mer$ed into a "eneral ill* which is the cardinal 'illar in the 6ousseau’s 'hiloso'hy* has aroused &een contro#ersy and has been sub0ected to se#ere criticism. !t has been remar&ed by -ertrand ussell that the doctrines enshrined in his /ocial Contract* “thou!h they pay lip service to democracy% tend to the usti"ication o" the totalitarian state.” r. Mcou!hall defines "eneral ill as “0he ;eneral ill is conceived as comin! to be when every individual in a !roup or society has a conception or idea o" the !roup as a whole and identi"ies his !ood with the !ood o" that whole.”
6ousseau e%'lains that by the free act of those who enter into an a$reement* all their 'owers and ri$hts #ested in the community and their res'ecti#e wills are su'erseded by the "eneral ill. He was of the #iew that man 'ossesses two &inds of wills 1. Actual ill< !t is related to the will of the indi#iduals. !t is irrational will of man. his ill ma&es selfconfined and self centered. 2. eal ill< !t is rational will of the indi#idual. !t always aims at $eneral welfare of the society. !t leads to eternal decision im'artin$ selfsatisfaction to the indi#idual. !t is based u'on reason and rationality.
6ousseau’s whole ar$uments de'ended u'on the fact that a community of citiens is uniue with its members* they neither ma&e it nor ha#e ri$hts a$ainst it. ousseau said* “0he social order is a sacred ri!ht which is the basis o" all other ri!hts. 0he problem is to "ind
a "orm o" association which will de"end and protect with the whole common "orce the person and !oods o" each associate% and in which each% while unitin! himsel" with all% may still obey himsel" alone% and remain as "ree as be"ore. Each o" us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction o" the ;eneral ill% and in our corporate capacity% we receive each member as an indivisible part o" the whole.”
6ousseau clearly distin$uishes the "eneral ill from will of the ma0ority and the minority. he "eneral ill may or may not coincide with any of these ills@ it may sometimes be coincident with the ill of an indi#idual.
9haracteristics o" the ;eneral ill< 1. Cnity< !t is not selfcontradictory. !t is indi#isible* because if it were di#ided it would not remain "eneral ill but would become /ectional ill. 2. Cnlimited< !t is unlimited. 6ousseau assi$ns absolute 'owers to his so#erei$n by followin$ the Hobbes’s line of action. 3. nalienable< he "eneral ill and so#erei$nty are inalienable and undetectable. 4. Cn/representable< he "eneral ill cannot be re'resented. hat is why 6ousseau laid the foundation of direct democracy. he "eneral ill can con#eniently be realied in a small city state where the 'o'ulation can assemble and 'ass laws for their interest. !t does not admit of re'resentati#e democracy. . 0. 8ones a''reciated 6ousseau’s theory in these words* “0he notion o" the ;eneral ill is not only the most central concept o" ousseau*s theory% it is also the most ori!inal% the most interestin!% and historically the most important contribution which he made to political theory.”
9riticism< 1. 6ousseau’s theory of "eneral ill is incom'lete and #a$ue. 2. !t is in actual 'ractice difficult to distin$uish the "eneral ill from the ill of all. he "eneral ill is not the unanimous ill of the whole 'eo'le because that mi$ht be the ill of all. "eneral ill has its own merits and demerits. 3. 6ousseau’s belief that an indi#idual has his actual and real ills at the same time is uite wron$. An indi#idual’s ill is a cor'orate thin$* one com'lete whole* inca'able of any di#ision. 4. He was of the #iew that the "eneral ill ne$lects the force of moral law which dictates to anyone as to what is 0ust and un0ust. 5. here arises a sort of conflict between the common interest and the interest of the indi#idual. he "eneral ill assi$ns a #ery hi$h 'lace to the state and the indi#idual will ha#e to sacrifices his interest o#er the interest of the state. 6. 6ousseau’s conce't of "eneral ill is rather abstract and narrow. !n actual 'ractice* it is nothin$ if it does not mean the ill of the ma0ority. =. !t 'resu''oses common interests* which is difficult to define or determine. hese interests $row out of or$anic relations between members of a community and are hardly 'ossible in the multinational states of today with their
conflictin$ ideals and interests. >. his theory is not a''licable to the bi$$er state in 'o'ulation and territory* and does not admit of re'resentati#e $o#ernment. ?. !t is rarely and for a short time that $eneral will is actually realied. /elfconsciousness can e%ist only at 'eriods of $reat crisis in the life of a nation* when the whole society is in dan$er. 1@. here we are determined to decide what are the #isible manifestation of this ill* 6ousseau lea#es us in the realm of dar&ness. He stresses that "eneral ill always tends to the 'ublic ad#anta$e and that is infallible. But it does not follow that the deliberations of the 'eo'le are eually correct.
8eremy -entham
“-entham was the "irst amon! modern philosophers to place women upon a political e&uality with men. n #lato*s epublic this e&uality was to be "ully reco!niFed. -ut a"ter #lato it was completely "or!otten "or over two thousand years.” (G. 0homas)
ntroduction< eremy Bentham was the intellectual leader and the real founder of :n$lish utilitarianism@ whose dee' interest in 'ublic affairs co#ered the 'eriod from the American 6e#olution to the 6eform Bill of 183). He was born in a rich lawyer’s family in 1748 in (ondon. 9rom the #ery childhood* Bentham was scholarly and 'edantic. He learnt (atin when he was only three years old. He also learnt "ree& and 9rench and later on he de#oted to the study of uris'rudence and le$al 'hiloso'hy. He recei#ed the de$ree of $raduation at the a$e of fifteen from Jueen’s Colle$e <%ford. He had an instincti#e interest in science and a distincti#e talent for intros'ecti#e 'sycholo$y. 9rom his youth he showed a 'assionate de#otion to social welfare* identifyin$ himself in ima$ination and determinin$ to a''ly to the social sciences the methods that were bein$ wor&ed out in the natural science.
!n 17>3 Bentham entered (incoln’s !nn to be$in the study which was to be his lifelon$ 'ursuit. !n 177) after ha#in$ studied law* he entered the bar for 'ractice. As he $rew older* his interests widened and his o'inions became more sub#ersi#e. His su'reme mission was to reconstruct the entire le$al system on healthier lines. At the time of his death* he was at the enith of fame and $lory because of his un'aralleled contribution in the sub0ect of 0uris'rudence and le$al 'hiloso'hy. After his death* oyle says* “Ge was venerated by a !roup o" disciples% as a #atriarch% a spiritual 7eader% almost a ;od with 8ames Mill as his t. #aul.” eremy Bentham was a 'rolific writer and he collected wor&s com'rised of twentytwo #olumes. His writin$s co#er a wide ran$e of interest includin$ ethics* theolo$y* 'sycholo$y* lo$ic* economics* 'enolo$y etc. he wrote followin$ most im'ortant boo&s 1. 'ra!ments o" ;overnment 2. A e"ence o" Csury 3. iscourse on 9ivil and #enal 7e!islation 4. ntroduction to the #rinciples o" Morals and 7e!islation 5. A 0reatise on 8udicial Evidence 6. A 0heory o" #unishments and ewards =. Essay on #olitical 0actics
mportance o" -entham in Gistory o" #olitical 0hou!ht
Bentham holds a distincti#e 'lace in the history of 'olitical thou$ht. He was more a le$al reformer and 0urist rather than a 'olitical 'hiloso'her. He had nothin$ ori$inal in his 'olitical doctrine and also he did not create new ideas. Bentham was the first to establish the utilitarian school of thou$ht. Maxey said* “Gere was a doctrine to rock the "oundations o" all accredited political theory. ith ruthless lo!ic he brushed aside the ancient varieties o" both radical and conservative thou!htH had erased all distinction in principle between "ree and despotic politics< had put it down that divine% "eudal ri!ht% historical ri!ht% natural ri!ht and constitutional ri!ht e&ually and like were rubbish and nonsense. 0here was no ri!ht to rule and no ri!ht to be "ree% there was only the "act o" power and the circumstances which made that power a "act.”
n"luence o" Ctilitarianism< ;tilitarianism* a British $ift to 'olitical 'hiloso'hy* re'resented a British reaction a$ainst the #alue $eneralities about mutual ri$hts and social contract and the mystic idealism of the "erman 'olitical thin&ers. !t brou$ht 'olitical theory bac& from the abstractions of the A$e of 6eform to the le#el of concrete realities. he utilitarian 'hiloso'hers 'articularly Bentham and Austin rendered #aluable ser#ice to 'olitical thou$ht. hey were the thin&ers who #iewed society not from the i#ory tower of isolation but from close 'artici'ation. hey were not idealistic* they were not uto'ian* they were not #isionary and their 'hiloso'hy was not transcendental. hey built a new theory of $o#ernment accordin$ to which $o#ernment was based not on contract but on the habit of obedience of utility.
Achievements o" -entham< Bentham was a true 'ractical reformer and a $reat smasher of 'olitical e#ils in his a$e. He too& &een interest in the 'olitical life of his country. Bentham and his followers are mainly res'onsible for the 'arliamentary reforms in :n$land durin$ the nineteenth century li&e the 2unici'al 6eform Act of 183. he followin$ reforms are also due to Bentham’s su$$estion 1. 6eform of law and le$al 'rocedure 2. ;ni#ersity education became uni#ersal 3. :stablishment of trade union
His theory of law established the 'oint of #iew of analytic 0uris'rudence* which was almost the only system of the sub0ect $enerally &nown to :n$lish and American lawyers throu$hout the nineteenth century. Bentham contributed* sometimes on the reuest* sometimes as #olunteer to the re#ision of the le$al codes of many countries. !n 1811 he made a formal 'ro'osal to P resident 2adison to draw u' a scientific code of law for the ;/A. (ater he made a similar offer to the Car of 6ussia and to the "o#ernor of Penn syl#ania* and in 18)) he a''ealed to ,all nations 'rofessin$ o'inions.- His confidence in his ability to create a system of laws $uaranteed to 'romote the $reatest $ood of $reatest number was unbounded. Bentham’s writin$s became 'o'ular in many countries. His doctrines were #ery 'o'ular in /'ain* 6ussia* and !berian Peninsula and in se#eral 'arts of /outh America. His ideas were used by the leaders of the national mo#ements that defeated the Holy Alliance and created new nations on the ruins of the /'anish and ur&ish :m'ires. /uch was the tremendous influence which Bentham e%ercised in the History of Political hou$ht.
-entham*s +iews on i!hts and uties
Bentham discarded natural ri$hts to the indi#iduals. But he did not &ill the conce't of natural ri$hts. Bentham totally denied the e%istence of natural law* holdin$ that law is the e%'ression of the so#erei$n will in the sha'e of a command. his so#erei$n was absolute and omni'otent a$ainst which indi#iduals 'ossessed no natural ri$hts nor did they ha#e any le$al ri$ht to show resistance a$ainst it.
Bentham was a 'assionate cham'ion for the e%istence of freedom and euality but he would not base them natural law. He su''orted for the e%istence of an authority for the 'ur'ose to enforce ri$hts by im'osin$ 'enalties in case of #iolation. Feither law of nature or natural ri$hts could im'ose limitations on the unlimited absolute 'owers of so#erei$n authority. he only concei#able im'osition to the authority could 'ossibly be made by effecti#e resistance by the determined sub0ects. !t is ueer to note that* thou$h Bentham denied natural ri$hts* yet he could not disre$ard the ri$ht of 'ri#ate 'ro'erty. He ad#ocated it for its 'reser#ation on the basis of $eneral utility. he ha''iness of the indi#idual de'ended u'on security* subsistence* abundance and euality. /ecurity includes liberty* safety and 'ro'erty of the indi#idual. hus the le$al reformer reco$nies the ri$ht of 'ro'erty. He 'refers security to liberty.
inds o" i!hts< 1. 7e!al i!hts< A #i#id and intelli$ible e%'ression means a faculty of action sanctioned by the will of a su'reme lawma&er in a 'olitical society.
2. Moral i!hts< !t means #i#id and intelli$ible e%'ression than the o ther. !ts sanction is the o'inion or feelin$ of a $rou' of 'ersons who cannot be 'recisely identified* but who ne#ertheless are able to ma&e their collecti#e or o#er a$e will unmista&ably manifest.
3. Datural i!hts< !t is a term commonly used without any definite meanin$ or any form of usefulness. Fature is a #a$ue and indefinite entity. !t may indeed be used as synonymous with "od. !n any other sense it denotes somethin$ that cannot be thou$ht as endowed with will* and is inca'able of ma&in$ law. ,Fatural 6i$hts- is a 'hrase that can contribute only confusion in a national system of 'olitical science.
inds o" uties< Accordin$ to Bentham* duties of followin$ &inds 1. #olitical uty< !t is determined by the 'enalty which a definitely &nown 'erson i.e.* a 'olitical su'erior will inflict for the #iolation of certain ri$hts.
2. eli!ious uty< !t is determined by the 'unishment to be inflicted by a definitely &nown bein$ ie the Creator.
3. Moral uty< !t de'ends u'on circumstances hardly certain and definite enou$h to be called 'unishment* yet such as to create an un'leasant state of mind in the 'erson concerned* by 'uttin$ in disa$reeable relations with that infinite body of indi#iduals &nown as the community in $eneral.
Bentham denied natural ri$hts and natural law* yet he carried both these thin$s in his 'olitical 'hiloso'hy. abine said* “0he liberal elements in -entham*s #hilosophy resided lar!ely in its tacit premises. hen he observed that one man is worth ust the same as another man or that in calculatin! the !reatest happiness% each person
is Jto count "or one and no one more than one%* he was obviously borrowin! the principle o" e&uality "rom natural law.”
-entham*s +iews on overei!nty and ;overnment
Bentham em'owered the so#erei$n with unlimited 'owers to le$islate all and e#erythin$. he su'reme $o#ernment authority* thou$h not infinite must una#oidably* be allowed to infinite unless limited by e%'ress con#ention. he only 'ossible restraint on the so#erei$n authority is his own antici'ation of 'o'ular resistance* based u'on 'o'ular interests. Bentham firmly belie#ed in the written constitutions as $uarantees of rational $o#ernments* but he was a$ainst any bill of ri$hts* limitations u'on the 'owers to amend the constitution and all other de#ices for restrainin$ the su'reme authority and re$arded them unsound in theory and worthless in 'ractice. He said that ri$hts emanated from the su'reme authority of the state* ie* the so#erei$n. he so#erei$n was not bound to res'ect any indi#idual ri$hts. A $o#ernment was liberal and des'otic accordin$ to the arran$ement of distribution and a''lication of su'reme 'ower.
i!hts o" esistance< Bentham thou$ht that a sub0ect had no le$al ri$ht to show resistance or re#olt a$ainst so#erei$n. heir le$al duty is unconditioned obedience to the so#erei$n. But a sub0ect has a moral ri$ht and a moral duty to resist his so#erei$n if the utility of resistance were $reater than the e#il of resistance. he e%ercise of his unlimited 'owers by the so#erei$n would de'end on considerations of utility.
;overnment< Bentham belie#ed that in the lon$ run a re'resentati#e democracy was a more suitable form of $o#ernment than any other to secure the $reatest ha''iness of the $reatest number. he main thin$ is that the $o#ernment should be an a$ency of $ood* ie* of ha''iness and not of e#il. he e%tension* duration and intensity of $o#ernment 'ower should be 'ro'erly restricted and delimited with a #iew to secure the ma%imum of ha''iness and 'leasures. Bentham seems reluctant to a$ree with Blac&stone’s characteriation of the British constitution as 'erfect* and su$$ested some amendments to it. He was for the 'romul$ation of uni#ersal manhood suffra$e* annual 'arliaments and #otin$ by ballot. He disli&ed oth the monarchy and the House of (ords in Britain. A re'ublican $o#ernment was best because it ensured efficiency* economy and su'remacy of the 'eo'le and brou$ht about the $ reatest $ood of the $reatest number on the basis of the identity of interests between the ruler and the ruled. +emocratic constitution is 'resented by him.
0heory o" #unishment< Bentham held that 'unishment should be 're#enti#e and correcti#e rather than coerci#e and retaliatory. !t should be calculated to 're#ent the s'read of e#il and to secure the e%tension of $ood. Punishment must not be inflicted where it was ineffecti#e* $roundless* needless or un'rofitable. !t should be ob#iously 0ustifiable and 'ro'ortionate to the offence committed but it must be sufficient to secure its ends. !t ou$ht to be able to 're#ent the offender from re'eatin$ the offence. !t should be indi#idualied* ualitati#ely and uantitati#ely* to suit the indi#idual offender. he basic 'rinci'les of 'unishment are 1. :uable 2. :%em'lary 3. 9ru$al of Pain 4. 6emissible 5. Com'ensatory 6. 6eformatory =. Po'ular
>. Certain and not se#ere
Accordin$ to Bentham* the only #alid test of the adeuacy of a 'unishment was its ability to secure 'ublic welfare. He belie#ed that the :n$lish criminal law was inhuman. He was in fa#or of the reform of the criminal and the 'risons and su$$ested the buildin$ of his moral Pano'ticon* a wheelsha'ed buildin$ for the housin$ and 'ro'er obser#ation of the criminals. He had a $reat faith in education as he wanted to brin$ about adult franchise* a res'onsible e%ecuti#e* uni#ersal education and a re'resentati#e 'arliament.
8ohn tuart Mill
“" the caliber o" writers is to be ud!ed by their e""ect on policy% Mill must rank hi!h. As lo!ician% economist and political philosopher he was re!arded as a prophet in his own a!e.” (8ohn -owle) ntroduction< ohn /tuart 2ill was born on 2ay )* 18> in (ondon. He was the eldest son of his father ames 2ill who was the disci'le of Bentham. . /. 2ill started the learnin$ of "ree& lan$ua$e at the a$e of three and then (atin at the a$e of ei$ht. As a youn$ boy of twel#e* he had studied the 'hiloso'hy of some of the $reat 'hiloso'hers* such as Plato* Herodotus* Homer* Aristotle and hucydides. He also learned 9rench lan$ua$e and acuired a $reat fluency.
2ill was trained by his father and by ohn Austin. He was $reatly influenced by Bentham’s utilitarian 'hiloso'hy and his 'ro$rammes for reformation. But with the 'assa$e 'f time* many of the e#ils a$ainst which the early utilitarian had been wor&in$ hard* had ceased to e%ist and Benthamism be$an yieldin$ before other 'hiloso'hic systems. he biolo$ical s'eculations of +arwin and /'encer and the sociolo$ical researches of Au$uste Comte stirred the 'assionate see&ers of learnin$ and &nowled$e with the initiation of new currents of thou$ht and 2ill was also influenced by them. He modified Bentham from ethical* sociolo$ical* 'sycholo$ical* economic and 'olitical 'oints of #iews. he year of 18> was a year of tribulations and chaos on account of !ndian freedom fi$hters and formidable a$$ressions of forei$n masters. History of !ndia was written with !ndian blood and in this crucial 'eriod of life and death* 2ill ser#ed the :ast !ndia Com'any as an :%aminer of !ndian Corres'ondence. !n 188 he retired. hen he became the radical member of the Parliament and remained almost in the limbo of obli#ion. 2ill died on 8th 2ay* 1873 at A#i$non. He wrote followin$ boo&s 1. A system of (o$ic 2. /ome unsettled uestions in Political :conomy 3. :ssay on (iberty 4. Consideration on 6etentati#e "o#ernment 5. ;tilitarianism 6. hou$hts on Parliamentary reforms =. /ub0ection of omen >. Princi'les of Political :conomy ?.
mportance o" 8. . Mill in the Gistory o" #olitical 0hou!ht . /. 2ill sou$ht after #i#id ideas with the ardency of a mystic* the 'atience and arduous industry of a man of science. He encountered o''onents with ma$nanimity and $enerosity. !n 'raise of his immortal ideas which will e#er echo in the corridors of time* it has been said* “Do calculus can inte!rate the innumerable pulses o"
knowled!e and o" thou!ht that he had made to vibrate in the minds o" !eneration.”
2ill was the $reat 'ro'het of sane !ndi#idualism or (iberalism. He insisted u'on the im'ortance of human 'ro$ress in its richest #ariety. He was one of the stoutest cham'ions of indi#idual liberty. hen we turn the 'a$es of antiuity* Plato distincti#ely a''ears to be the first feminist* 'assionately ad#ocatin$ the cause of women to ta&e 'art in the functions of the $o#ernment. . /. 2ill too was a $reat feminist and he 'ractically 'leaded their causes in the 'arliament. He firmly belie#ed for euality of women for the benefit and u'lift of the state. 2ill’s im'act of 9eminism ob#iously a''eared in the early )th century when the 9eminist 2o#ement fou$ht for women freedom for 'artici'atin$ in the functions of the state. 2ill was one of the foremost indi#idualists of all times. He ran&ed with 6o usseau* efferson and 2ilton as an ardent crusader of indi#idual liberty. He humanied utilitarian 'hiloso'hy. He was a staunch enemy of des'otism and monocracy and a $reat su''orter of democracy. He combined 'olitical liberalism with economic socialism and a''ro#al of a common ownershi' in the raw materials of the $lobe and an eual 'artici'ation of all in the benefits of the combined labor. 2ill’s 'olitical 'hiloso'hy contains followin$ im'ortant facts 1. His theory of liberty was his most im'ortant contribution to the history of 'olitical 'hiloso'hy. 2. He fa#ored democracy as the best form of $o#ernment as a result of adult franchise. 3. He su''orted uni#ersal suffra$e $rantin$ the ri$ht of #otin$ to women also* with a system of 'ro'ortional system. 4. He o''osed the secret ballot because it led to fa#oritism and corru'tion and #i$orously 'ro'osed for o'en ballot system. 5. He recommended a second chamber. He belie#ed that the final le$islati#e authority should rest with the House of Commons* but at the same time he assi$ned the tas& of draftin$ bills* before they come to the 'arliament for consideration to the House of (ords. 6. 2ill’s method was analytic. He belie#ed that study of history combined with a &nowled$e of human nature and a careful analysis of 'olitical 'henomenon would result in a $au$in$ of tendencies of $reat #alue to le$islators and statesmen. =. Bentham thou$ht of uantitati#e 'leasures. 2ill belie#ed in ualitati#e 'leasures. He drew a distinction between se#eral &inds of 'leasures* considerin$ some as hi$her while others as lower. #ro". abine said* “Mill*s ethics was important "or liberalism because in e""ect it abandoned e!oism% assumed that social wel"are is a matter o" concern to all men o" !oodwill% and re!arded "reedom% inte!rity% sel"/respect and personal distinction as intrinsic !oods apart "rom their contribution to happiness.”
Mill*s +iews on ndividual 7iberty
. /. 2ill is uni#ersally re$arded as a 'assionate ad# ocate of liberty. He #i$orously whis'ered for im'artin$ $reat im'ortance to indi#idual liberty and em'hasied that $o#ernmental interference in indi#idual acti#ity should e reduced to the minimum. !n the middle of the 1=th century* due to the utilitarian reforms* the sco'e of administrati#e acti#ities increased. Parliament became the su'reme and unchallen$ed lawma&in$ authority* who enacted such laws which #i#idly obstructed indi#idual liberty. ith the im'osition of increasin$ state re$ulations* human acti#ities were suffocated and he firmly belie#ed that liberty was a 'rime factor for the de#elo'ment of the society. At that time* 'olicy of (aisse fair was bein$ abandoned in fa#or of $reater re$ulations by the state. he 'eo'le became 'olitically conscious and demanded uni#ersal suffra$e. hen 2ill wrote* utilitarian liberalism was $enerally acce'ted in :n$land. he democratic efforts made by the earlier utilitarian had been lar$ely successful and 'olitical 'ower had been e%tended to a considerable 'ro'ortion of
the 'o'ulation. A lar$e number of old e#ils and ineualities had be en remo#ed. !n this 'rocess some of the dan$ers of democracy became #isible* and the tendency toward state centraliation led 'olitical theory to the sco'e of state acti#ities and to the liberty of the indi#idual. he leader in the intellectual life of the 'eriod was . /. 2ill. 2ill’s essay on liberty which euals in eminence to 2ilton’s Aero'a$itica was a stron$ ad#ocacy for the freedom of thou$ht and e%'ression with 2iltonian fa#or a$ainst le$islati#e interference as well as a$a inst the 'ressure of the 'ublic o'inion. He reco$nied the necessity to the mental wellbein$ of man&ind of freedom of o'inion and freedom of e%'ression of o'inion. he limitations of the 'ower of $o#ernment o#er indi#iduals lose none of its im'ortance when the holders of 'ower are re$ularly accountable to the community. !n 'olitical s'eculations the tyranny of the ma0ority is now $enerally included amon$ the e#ils a$ainst which society reuires to be on its $uard. 2ill a''rehended that the $rowth of democracy and the increasin$ le$islati#e 'owers of the state tended to reduce indi#iduals to a common ty'e and to swam' them in the tyranny of collecti#ism. He belie#ed that social 'ro$ress could not be achie#ed if each and e#ery indi#idual is im'arted with fuller o''ortunity for free de#elo'ment of his 'ersonality. 2ill fa#ored freedom of thou$ht* s'eech and action. He belie#ed in toleration of o'inions and unham'ered freedom of discussion. He had confidence that truth would definitely sur#i#e in the stru$$le of ideas.
'reedom o" the ndividual<
2ill 'leads for certain freedoms for the indi#idual without which he cannot de#elo' his 'ersonality 'ro'erly. hese are a. 9reedom of conscience b. (iberty of thou$ht and of its e%'ression in s'eech and writin$ c. (iberty of 'ursuits and tastes d. (iberty of association e. (iberty to ado't his own 'rofession in life ". (iberty of reli$ion and morals
2ill laid $reat stress on liberty of thou$ht and e%'ression. 2ill’s theory of liberty of the indi#idual is based u'on three essential elements 1. A stron$ 'lea for the im'ortance of im'ulse and desire in the indi#idual and lettin$ the indi#idual follow his own im'ulses in actions which concern him alone. 2. !nsistence on the #iew that s'ontaneity and indi#iduality are essential elements in indi#idual and social welfare. 3. 6e#olt a$ainst the tyranny of custom* tradition or 'ublic o'inion which mi$ht hinder the e%'ression and de#elo'ment of indi#iduality.
mportant points o" Mill*s ndividual 7iberty< 1. 2ill ad#ocated that indi#idual is so#erei$n o#er his body and mind. He must be left free in all actions that
concern himself alone. And society has no ri$ht to im'ose any restraint o#er the indi#idual because restraints as such in an e#il and retards the 'ro$ress of the indi#iduals. 2. 2ill assumed that the acti#ities of e#ery indi#idual are either selfre$ardin$ or otherre$ardin$. !n the s'here of selfre$ardin$ acti#ities may be included matters which affect the a$ent only* ha#in$ no concern with others e.$. $amblin$* drin&in$ etc. 3. 2ill belie#ed in the indi#idualistic or atomistic conce'tion of society. He says that indi#idual is not res'onsible to society for his actions in so far as they concern the interest of himself and do no affect others. 4. 2ill #i$orously ad#ocated for absolute and unfettered freedom of thou$ht and e%'ression. 5. he freedom of action and association was to be limited by the condition that none should 0eo'ardie other’s ri$hts and freedom.
9riticism< 2ill was bitterly criticied because of his certain inconsistencies on the doctrine of liberty at the hands of Earnest -arker who said* “Mill was the prophet o" an empty liberty and an abstract individual.” 2ill’s theory was criticied on the followin$ $round 1. 2ill assumed that the indi#idual is so#erei$n o#er his bo dy and mind. He should be left free to act as he wished and society cannot im'ose any limitation on his freedom. he soundness of this statement may be d oubted. he so#erei$nty of indi#idual o#er himself is not a selfe#ident 'ro'osition. As Mill himself admits* “there can be circumstances under which it may become le!itimate "or others to intervene in a purely personal matter% e.!% when one is about to commit suicide% surely no one will call it an attack upon one*s liberty.” 2. he bifurcation of human actions into twoself re$ardin$ and other re$ardin$ as made by 2ill is uite im'racticable. Fo indi#idual is an island in himself. here is #ery little that one can do which does not affect other 'erson. !t is but natural and each action of indi#idual will definitely affect the others. herefore it is difficult to set a'art a s'here of conduct which should be re$arded e%clusi#ely the affair of the indi#idual concerned.
arl Marx
“ith Marx% socialism became international or cosmopolitan n scope in contrast to the association or national industrialism o" his predecessors.” (. ;. ;ettell)
ntroduction< Darl 2ar% born in a 'ros'erous family became a #ictim of misfortunes* a 'rey of 'er'etual crushin$ 'o#erty and a 'ainfully sensiti#e to see the incredible sufferin$s of humanity because of economic ineuality* social dis'arity* incalculable #iolence and maltreatment towards laborers at the h ands of feudal lords and industrialists. He was born at re#es in Prussia on th 2ay* 1818. His aristocratic ewish 'arents embraced Christianity when Darl 2ar% was only a child. At the a$e of 17* he became a law student at Bonn ;ni#ersity. !n 18)>* he left for the ;ni#ersity of Berlin. !n 1843* he married enny* a member of 'etty nobility who remained a faithful counter'art throu$hout his life.
!n 1841* Darl 2ar% $ot his de$ree of +octor of Philoso'hy at the ;ni#ersity of ena on the tro'ic of ,he +ifference between the Fatural Philoso'hy of +emocratus and :'icurus.- He mi%ed with the re#olutionaries and his radical thin&in$ made him sus'icious which created obstacle in the security of em'loyment as a uni#ersity teacher. hen he entered into the field of 0ournalism. Darl 2ar% studied He$el #ery thorou$h ly and noted basic fallacies in his idealistic 'hiloso'hy.
!n early 184* Darl 2ar% left Paris for Brussels. But before he left 9rance* he $ot an e#erlastin$ friendshi' with 9riedrich :n$el which brou$ht many chan$es in his life. 2ar%:n$el collaboration was one of the history’s most uniue 'rominent and endurin$ collaboration. 9riedrich :n$el became the friend* disci'le and 'assionate see&er of &nowled$e and a warm 'artner. !n the summer of 184* 9riedrich too& Darl 2ar% to :n$land and there he was introduced to the founders of the ,"erman or&ers :ducational ;nion- that had recently started in (ondon. After remainin$ for sometime in (ondon* he a$ain came bac& to Brussels. 2ar% had to flee from one country to an other on account of his cons'iratorial acti#ities. hen he steeled d own in (ondon till his death. ,:n$land has often been called the mother of :%iles-* but for Darl 2ar%* it became the dwellin$ 'lace of miseries and misfortunes. He e%'erienced $reat distress and 'o#erty alon$ with his bi$ family. !n s'ite of lot of misfortunes and hardshi's* Darl 2ar% made endea#ors relentlessly to unchain the wor&in$ classes from the bonda$e of ca'italism. Darl 2ar% wor&ed round the cloc& in the British 2useum for de#elo'in$ the economic theories of ca'ital. Darl 2ar% wrote many 'am'hlets defendin$ himself and se#erely criticiin$ his o''onents. He died as a wounded soul on 2arch 14* 1883. He led a life of full of 'an$s and des'ondency and faced the hardshi's of worldly a$ency with determination* coura$e and 'erse#erance. !n a s'eech o#er his $ra#e in Hi$h ate Cemetery* 9riedrich :n$el declared that ,his name and wor&s will li#e on throu$h the centuries.Darl 2ar% was a $reat writer and will e#er li#e on the 'a$es of e%istence. He wrote the followin$ master wor&s 1. 9ommunist Mani"esto immortalied Darl 2ar%. He wrote this with the assistance and hel' of his faithful friend 9riedrich :n$el. his is considered the Bible of the Communism all o# er the world. 2. as apital is considered as the foundation stone of communism. 3. #overty o" #hilosophy 4. A 9ontribution to the criti&ue o" #olitical Economy 5. 0he Goly 'amily 6. evolution and 9ounter evolution
#olitical #hilosophy o" arl Marx Darl 2ar% is ri$htly called the 9ather of 2odern Communism. he theory of communism owes its birth to Darl 2ar% and 9riedrich :n$el. Accordin$ to the theory of communism* the o nly 'ractical thin$ was to acuire mastery o#er the $o#ernin$ laws of society. A'art from this* Darl 2ar% and :n$el wanted to &now the causes of economic chan$es in human society. hey also wanted to e%'lore what further chan$es are reuired. hey concluded that the chan$es in human society were not the least accidental li&e chan$es in e%ternal nature. hey wor&ed out a scientific theory of society based on the actual e%'erience of men. Darl 2ar% a''lied this theory to the society in which he li#ed mainly Ca'italist Britain. He was of the o'inion that it was uite im'ossible to se'arate his economic theories from historical and social theories. 2ar% attac&ed the e%istin$ ca'italist institutions. He did not belie#e in the essential $oodness of man. He concei#ed of a man more as an economic as a 'olitical animal. Darl 2ar% borrowed from He$el the a''aratus of +ialectics but substituted matter of He$elian idea. He built his conce't of dialectic materialism by inter'retin$ He$el’s orld /'irit as an economic force. Darl 2ar% held the #iew that the meanin$ of history lay in the inter'retation of material world. Darl 2ar% is correctly di#isible into three 'ortions 1. A 'urely 'hiloso'hical section on dialectics 2. Pure economics 3. Historical materialism
Ge!el*s in"luence over arl Marx< Darl 2ar% remains incom'lete without the study of He$el. !t is true that Darl 2ar% re0ected the substance of
He$el’s 'olitical 'hiloso'hy and it is a star& reality in history that Darl 2ar% ado'ted the dialectical method de#elo'ed by He$el* as the basis for his historical materialism. He$el was of the #iew that history $ained its meanin$ from the interaction of ideas. here was a 'erennial stru$$le of ideas for dominance o#er one another.
#roletarian ictatorship
he Proletariat class com'rises of the wor&ers* laborers or wa$eearners would naturally be in the #ast ma0ority in e#ery society. Darl 2ar% was of the #iew that it is then uite natural that the dictatorshi' of the 'roletariat would be a democracy of the ma0ority. he “9ommunist Mani"esto” also says “0he "irst step in the workin! class revolution is the raisin! o" the proletariat to the position o" the rulin! class% the victory o" democracy. 0he proletarian movement is the conscious movement o" the immense maority in the interest o" the immense maority.” Darl 2ar% belie#ed in the ine#itability of this class stru$$le and the ultimate #ictory of the 'roletariat after a successful bloody re#olution* he did not li&e to lea#e this de#elo'ment to the forces of economic e#olution. He wanted that this re#olution should be 'reci'itated throu$h or$aniation and ener$etic so'histicated action on the 'art of wor&ers. All the confronted titanic forces should be crushed by the laborers. he 2ar%ian ideal was to brin$ about 'roletarian dictatorshi' throu$h #iolent means and no t throu$h 'eaceful e#olution* resultin$ in the 'olitical and economic domination by the 'roletarians. he 'roletarian re#olution a$ainst the bour$eoisie class in the state is directed towards the achie#ement of two ends 1. 9irstly* this 'roletarian re#olution has to destroy the ca'italist structure of society. !n destroyin$ the ca'italist stat it is #ery essential for the 'roletarian re#olution to destroy all the social* 'olitical* le$al and other such institutions of the ca'italist state. 2. /econdly* the 'roletarian re#olution has to re'lace all the social* 'olitical* le$al and other institutions with new institutions. hese new institutions should be such as it suits the needs of the 'roletarian class.
arl Marx said* “-etween capitalist and communist society lies the period o" the revolutionary trans"ormation o" the one into the other. 0here corresponds to this also a political transition period in which the state can be nothin! but the revolutionary dictatorship o" proletariat.” 7enin was the true follower of Darl 2ar%. He was of the #iew that 9ommunism is to be achieved in two sta!es. 0he "irst sta!e o" 9ommunism "ollows immediately a"ter the seiFure o" power by the proletarian. n this sta!e o" communism% society would not be a "ree society. 0his sta!e o" communism contains the blend o" vesti!es o" old and bour!eoisie order. n the old capitalist state% the capitalist employer and exploiter used to suppress the minority and in the new sta!e o" 9ommunism or in the proletariat dictatorship it would be proletariat class which would suppress the minority or the capitalist. he Communist state differs from the ca'italist state in two ways a) !n it the ma0ority i.e. the wor&ers will e%'ro'riate the ma0ority. b) he re#olutionary 'roletariat will abolish all classes and then disa''ear as a class.
he 'roletarian dictatorshi' in the transitional 'eriod is not a fluctuatin$ 'eriod of ,/u'er 6e#olutionary- deeds and decrease.
he Communist holds that the 'roletarian dictatorshi' means the des'otic rule of the Communist minority. !t will be a #ictory of democracy and not a des'otism of a minority. he 'roletariat class in 'ower will not maintain the affairs of the state with re'ression and #iolence. 7aski was of the #iew that the dictatorship o" the proletariat means% not the anti/thesis o" democracy% but the anti/thesis o" the dictatorship o" the bour!eoisie. !t will be e%ercised throu$h elected bodies and sub0ect to 'ublic o'inion. 7enin also remar&s in this re$ard* “evolutionary dictatorship o" the proletariat is power won and maintained by the violence o" the proletariat a!ainst the bour!eoisie power that is unrestrained by any law.” he dictatorshi' of the 'roletariat is not an end* but a means to an end the creation of society in which the basic 'rinci'le of life and social or$aniation would be* “"rom each accordin! to his capacity% to each accordin! to his needs.” he dictatorshi' of the 'roletariat is transitory in nature. After the establishment of the society* dictatorshi' of the 'roletariat will not remain. he state will wither away. All functions of the state will administer themsel#es and administration will be a matter of technical and scientific &nowled$e instead of e%ercise of 'olitical will and authority. here will be an ideal society of the free and the eual without any internal disru'tion and mutual dissension.
arl Marx and 9apitalism Darl 2ar% de#oted a $reat 'art of his life to the study of ca'italism ! order to describe the ca'italist method of 'roduction of his own a$e and for all a$es to come. By studyin$ ca'italism* Darl 2ar% wanted to &now the $uidin$ 'rinci'le of its chan$e. Darl 2ar% studied the ca'italism with missionary s'irit to ma&e a scientific forecast on its de#elo'ment. he salient feature of the feudal ' roduction was 'roduction for local consum'tion. !n the a$e of feudalism* 'ersons used to 'roduce for themsel#es and for their feudal lords. !n those days* 'roduction was meant for consum'tion. "radually feudal units of 'roduction be$an to brea& u'. Profit became the only aim of 'roduction in the modern world. Production for 'rofit reuired two thin$s* ca'italists’ means of 'roduction* and the laborers
whose only chance of $ettin$ a li#elihood was to sell his labor. !n this new system of 'roduction* there was a com'lete chan$e. Fow the laborers 'roduced thin$s not for their 'ersonal use.
!n the ca'italist system of 'roduction* the ca'italist always become $reedy and ambitious to increase the amount of sur'lus #alue which means more 'rofit for him. (ust for 'rofit is the 'rime factor in the ca'italist system of 'roduction. he ca'italist ma&e more 'rofit only by e%'loitin$ the laborer. Accordin$ to Darl 2ar% e%'loitation of the laborer is another salient feature of ca'italism. his e%'loitation results in class stru$$le. Class stru$$le is 'erennial and 'er'etual in the ca'italism. he wor&er is fi$htin$ for the e%istence of his life and he wanted to a#oid intimidation and ultimately class stru$$le starts. he laborer demands hi$her wa$es and shorter hours of wor& for im'ro#in$ his 'osition.
0heory o" tate
“0he executive o" the modern state is but a committee "or mana!in! the common a""airs o" the bour!eoisie as a whole.” (arl Marx)
/tate is thou$ht of as 'arliament or some re'resentati#e institution. Darl 2ar% conc luded that the de#elo'ment of the state had nothin$ to do with any form of re'resentati#e institutions. But he was of the #iew that state is a machine throu$h which the rulin$ class im'oses its will on the ma0ority. Accordin$ to Darl 2ar%* state is not meant for the 'romotion of the welfare of its 'eo'le nor bestows any ri$ht of 'olitical obli$ation and obedience but its coercion and that a class coercion. he state acts as an a$ency of class coercion in the hands of dominant economic class rather than an association of citiens is the 'ursuits of a common 'ur'ose. Accordin$ to the Communist theory* the state is nothin! but a tool o" the dominant class in society. :conomic is the domineerin$ factor which becomes the base of all structures of the society. Accordin$ to Aristotle the state came into birth for the sa&e of life and state continues to e%ist for the sa&e of $ood life. Accordin$ to classical #iew* state is an institution meant for the 'ro'er de#elo'ment of the 'ersonality of its each and e#ery citien. 7aski said* “tate strives to hold a ust balance between the di""erent elements in society. t strives by its policy to e""ect such an adustment o" the relationship between citiFens and will enable each o" them to realiFe% i" he so desires% the "ullest implications o" human personality.” Darl 2ar% #i#idly differs from the classical #iews re$ardin$ state. He says the state has ne#er and can ne#er aim at the common $ood of the community as a whole. Accordin$ to Communist 2anifesto* the state is the e%ecuti#e committee of the bour$eoisie. arl Marx said* “tate is nothin! more than the "orm o" or!aniFation which the bour!eoisie necessarily adopt both "or internal and external purpose "or the mutual !uarantee o" their property and interest.” Accordin$ to Darl 2ar%* there was no state in 'rimiti#e society and as soon as human society was formed it bifurcated into two classes. !t became #ery essential for the 'ri#ile$ed class to ha#e an armed force for the 'ur'ose to maintain the 'ri#ile$es of the 'ri#ile$ed class and secondly to 'rotect the interests of the 'ri#ile$ed class. 'riedrich En!el said* “0his public "orce exists in every state% it consists not merely o" armed men% but o" material appenda!es% prisons and repressive institutions o" all kind.” Faturally* the rulin$ class ha#in$ the a''aratus of force and absolute rod of authority will always coerce u'on the other classes of society. 9ear and intimidation of the rulin$ class constrained the 'eo'le to subdue for com'lete obedience and hence the 2ar%ian state aims at crushin$ the inde'endent will of its sub0ects. Communists hold the #iews from the record of history that the state e%ists only to hel' the ca'italist in e%'loitin$ and su''ressin$ the laborers. Darl 2ar% #iewed state as a 'roduct of class anta$onism. 7enin said* “here% when and to what extent% the state arises depends directly on which where and to what extent% the class anta!onism o" a !iven society cannot be obectively reconciled. And% conversely the existence o" the state proves that class anta!onisms are irreconcilable.” arl Marx was of the #iew that the state will be able to wither away com'letely when society has realied the #alue* “'rom each accordin! to his ability< to each accordin! to his needs.” hen there would be no 'roblem of 'roduction and its distribution. here would be no uestion of mine and thine. :#ery one will wor& #oluntarily accordin$ to his ability and ca'a city and will $et share accordin$ to his needs and reuirements.
9lassless ociety< Darl 2ar% was of the o'inion that class stru$$le is 'er'etual and constant between man and man and conseuently man always fou$ht for his own e%istence. !t ends only if the final and ultimate #ictory of the labor is achie#ed. his is a &nown factor that in the ca'italist structure of society* but not o#er the means of 'roduction and its direction was #ested in the hands of the ca'italist. Proletariats in that society are ne$lected 'eo'le always li#in$ at the sweet mercy of ca'italist. hen #iolent bloody re#olution in the name of communism brin$ about com'lete and ultimate #ictory to the 'roletarian re#olutionaries* and the com'lete annihilation of the aristocratic and ca'italist class in the society ushers a new e'och of social euality and economic 'arity. ith the ad#ent of 'roletarianism* a new system
