21820 5 2017 a. Final Lecture Book

SEMESTER - 1

PEL 121 COMMUNICATION SKILL 1 lECTURE BOOK

DEPARTMENT OF VERBAL ABILITY PROFESSIONAL ENHANCEMENT

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UNIT I PARTS OF SPEECH

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UNIT 3 TENSES AND CONDITIONALS

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UNIT 4 SENTENCES AND CLAUSES

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UNIT 5 MODALS AND PUNCTUATION

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UNIT 6 VOCABULARY

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DEPARTMENT OF VERBAL ABILITY PROFESSIONAL ENHANCEMENT

TABLE OF CONTENT 1. UNIT 1 PARTS OF SPEECH 1.1 NOUNS 1.2 PRONOUN 1.3 ADJECTIVE 1.4 VERB 1.5 ADVERB 1.6 PREPOSITION 1.7 CONJUNCTION 1.8 INTERJECTION 2. UNIT 2 ARTICLES, DETERMINERS AND QUANTIFIERS 2.1 ARTICLES 2.2 DETERMINERS 2.3 QUANTIFIERS 3. UNIT 3 TENSES AND CONDITIONALS 3.1 TENSES 3.2 CONDITIONAL 4. UNIT 4 SENTENCE AND CLAUSES 4.1 PHRASES AND CLAUSES 4.2 SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND AND COMPOUND 4.4 TYPES OF SENTENCES 5. MODALS AND PUNCTUATION 5.1 MODALS 5.2 PUNCTUATION 6. UNIT 6 VOCABULARY 6.1 PHRASAL VERBS 6.2 IDIOMS 6.3 CONDITIONALS

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Semester 1| Communication Skills 1

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Unit 1 Chapter – I PARTS OF SPEECH The part of speech indicates how a word functions in meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence. An individual word can function as more than one part of speech when used in different circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is essential for determining the correct definition of a word when using the dictionary.

There are eight parts of speech in the English language but sometimes articles are also included in the list. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Noun Pronoun Verb Adjective Adverb Preposition Conjunction Interjection

Activity Name, Place, Animal, Thing, Emotion

Let us now look into these:

NOUN A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, animal, emotions or idea. There are different types of nouns.

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Types of Noun: 1. Proper Nouns Proper nouns always start with a capital letter and refer to specific names of persons, places, or things. Examples: Volkswagen, Shakey’s Pizza, Raphael 2. Common nouns Common nouns are the opposite of proper nouns. These are just generic names of persons, things, or places. Examples: car, pizza parlor, TV series 3. Concrete nouns This kind refers to nouns which you can perceive through your five senses. Examples: folder, sand, board 4. Abstract nouns Unlike concrete nouns, abstract nouns are those which you can’t perceive through your five senses. Examples: happiness, grudge, bravery 5. Countable nouns It refers to anything that is countable, and has a singular and plural form. Examples: kitten, video, ball 6. Uncountable/Mass nouns This is the opposite of count nouns. Mass nouns are also called non-countable nouns, and they need to have “counters” to quantify them. Examples of Counters: kilo, cup, meter Examples of Mass Nouns: rice, flour, garter 7. Collective nouns Refers to a group of persons, animals, or things. Example: faculty (group of teachers), class (group of students), pride (group of lions) 8. Gerunds Gerunds are words that are formed with verbs but act as nouns. Verb +ing acting as a noun are gerunds. Examples: Dreaming is an act at the subconscious level. Singing of the birds is melodious

PRONOUN A pronoun is a part of a speech which functions as a replacement for a noun. The word or words that a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent. The pronoun must match the antecedent in number and gender.



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There are different types of pronouns: 1. Personal They refer to a specific person or thing by indicating the person speaking, the person being addressed, or any other person or thing being discussed. Cases: Subject Object I, you, he, she, it, we, they me, you, him, her, it, us, them 2. Possessive They are used to indicate possession or ownership. Singular Plural My, mine Our, ours Your, yours Your, yours His, her, hers, its Their, theirs

3. Reflexive It refers or reflects back to a noun or pronoun already mentioned. It adds new information and cannot be removed from the sentence. Singular Myself Yourself Himself, herself, itself

Plural Ourselves Yourselves Themselves

Example: I consider myself to be a great student. 4. Intensive These pronouns add emphasis and they can be removed from the sentence. Singular Plural Myself Ourselves Yourself Yourselves Himself, herself, itself Themselves Example: Mom drove me to school herself. 5. Demonstrative They point out specific persons, places, things, or ideas. Singular Plural This (near) these (near) That (far) those (far) Example: That is my car. Those are his shoes. 3 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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6. Interrogative They are used to form questions. Words like Who, Whom, Whose, What, Which are known as interrogative pronouns. Example: Whose jacket is this? Which of those girls do you like? 7. Relative They are used to begin a special subject-verb word group called a subordinate clause. Words like Who, whoever, Whose, Whom, whomever, That, Which, whichever, What, whatever are used as relative pronouns. Example: Whoever borrowed my book needs to return it.

ADJECTIVE An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun. It usually answers the question of which one, what kind, or how many. (Articles [a, an, the] are usually classified as adjectives.) The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my! Positioning: Before a noun - She has a beautiful handwriting After a verb - Her handwriting is beautiful Royal order of adjectives



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Types of adjectives Descriptive Quantity

Demonstrative

These adjectives describe nouns that refer to action, state, or quality. An adjective of quantity tells us the number (how many) or amount (how much) of a noun.

Dangerous chemicals. Green vegetables He has eaten three apples. I don’t have much money.

A demonstrative adjective (this, that, these, those) shows the noun it modifies is singular or plural and whether the position of the noun is near or far from the person who is speaking or writing. A demonstrative adjective also points out a fact about the noun.

This red balloon is mine and those three yellow; ones are yours. These two fat cats have tails, but that this cat doesn’t have a tail.



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Possessive

A possessive adjective expresses possession of a noun by someone or something. Possessive adjectives are the same as possessive pronouns

This must be your cap. His arms have a few tattoos.

Adjectives as Noun

Some adjectives are used as nouns to describe groups of people. Each of these groups follows the determiner the (definite article).

Its skin is dry and rough. The injured were in the thousands. Every year, millions join the ranks of the unemployed worldwide.

Compound adjectives

Compound adjectives are used to modify nouns. They are called compound because they are made up of two or more words, usually with hyphens between them. An adjective clause (also called adjectival clause) is a dependent clause which modifies a noun and usually begins with a relative pronoun (which, that, who, whom, whose) or a relative adverb (where, when, why).

A heart-breaking news. An English-speaking country.

Adjectival Clause

Students who work hard get good grades. (The adjective clause’ who work hard’ modifies the noun students.) The book which you lent me is very interesting. (The adjective clause which you lent me modifies the noun (the book)).

VERB A verb expresses action or the state of being. There is a main verb and sometimes one or more helping verbs. Example: "She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb. A verb must agree with its subject in number (both are singular or both are plural). Example: The boys were playing Football. Subject: the boys – plural Verb: were playing - plural Verbs also take different forms to express tense. They take the required forms : they are conjugated accordingly. Example: The calf ran after the cow. 6 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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1. Transitive verb A Transitive Verb can take an object after it to complete its meaning. Example: The hunter killed a bear. The scholar learned his lesson. 2. Intransitive verb An Intransitive Verb cannot take a direct object after it and therefore does not require an object to complete its meaning. Examples: He sleeps We go. No object can come after such verbs as sleep or go. Note: There can be indirect objects after the intransitive verbs. Example: He sleeps in the bed. The bed – indirect object.  Conjugation of verbs Base Form be Do Have Present

is/ am/ are

do/ does

Has

Past

was/ were

did

Had

Infinitive

to be

to do

to have

Present Participle

being

doing

Having

Past Participle

been

done

Had

 Regular Verbs A regular verb forms we can add -d or -ed to the end of its base form. The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the end of its base form and the past is formed by adding -ed. If the base form verb ends with the letter -e, we can add only -d for past form verb and remove the -e then just add -ing for the present participle. Present Past Past Participle Present Participle Book Booked Booked Booking Erase Erased Erased Erasing 1. When a verb ends with a vowel followed by a consonant, the last consonant is doubled before adding - ing or –ed. Present (V1)

Past (V2)

Past Participle (V3)

Allot Bat

Allotted Batted

Allotted Batted

Present Participle (V1-ing) allotting batting 7

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 Irregular Verbs 1. Irregular verbs with similar present, past and past participle forms Present Tense Beset Broadcast Burst 2.

Past Tense Beset Broadcast Burst

Past Participle Beset Broadcast/ broadcasted Burst

Present Participle besetting broadcasting bursting

Irregular verbs with similar past and past participle forms Present Behold Tense

Past Tense Beheld

Past Participle Beheld

Present beholding Participle

Beseech

Besought

Besought

beseeching

3. Irregular verbs with similar present and past participle forms Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Come Came Come Overcome Overcame Overcome 4. Irregular verbs with three distinct forms Present Past Tense Past Participle Tense Arise Arose Arisen Awake Awoke Awoken Blow Blew Blown Choose Chose Chosen Do Did Done 5. Vowel changes from ‘I’ to ‘a’ to ‘u’ Present Past Past Participle Begin Began Begun Drink Drank Drunk Ring Rang Rung Shrink Shrank Shrunk

Present Participle Coming Overcoming Present Participle Arising Awakening Blowing Choosing Doing

ADVERB An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb but never a noun. It usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what degree. Adverbs often end in -ly.



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The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!  Types of adverbs: 1. Adverbs of degree Very, highly, totally, perfectly, partially, almost. 2. Adverbs of manner Well, badly, nicely, slowly, loudly, quietly, happily, sadly, secretly, weakly. 3. Adverbs of place Home, here, there, outside, inside, away, around, anywhere, abroad, up, down, out. 4. Adverbs of time Now, soon, later, yesterday, tomorrow, early, before, lately, recently. 5. Adverbs of frequency Always, never, sometimes, often, rarely, usually, occasionally. 6. Adverbs of duration Forever, constantly, temporarily, briefly. 7. Adverbs of probability Certainly, maybe, probably, possibly, surely. 8. Comparative Adverbs "Comparative" means "comparing something to something else. Comparative adverbs show us which action or state is better, worse, stronger, weaker, and so forth. Examples: more, less, better, worse, faster, slower, farther, and closer Example: Maggie works out more seriously than Donna. She eats less than her friends. 9. Superlative Adverbs "Superlatives" means "of the highest degree Superlative adverbs show us which action or state is the best, the strongest, and so forth. Examples: Best, most, least, worst, strongest, fastest, and slowest.

PREPOSITION Prepositions are mostly small single words used before a noun (at home), a noun phrase (across the river) or a pronoun (for you). They may also consist of two or more words acting as a single preposition called compound preposition. Prepositions are used to form relationships between the nouns and other words in a sentence by linking them. There are many prepositions, most of which are single-word such as above, along, behind, from, near, of, on, since, to, until, and with.



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A preposition is followed by a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun, each of which becomes the object of the preposition. Only the noun can be the object; other parts of speech such as verb, adjective, or adverb cannot be the object.

CONJUNCTION A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship between the elements joined. 1. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet. There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet. These words can be remembered by remembering FANBOYS (F = for; A = and; and so on). Example: They kicked and punched him. (Connecting words) The mother bought her a strawberry ice cream and a bear lollipop. (Connecting phrases) He left early, for he had to be on time for the meeting There were only small beans in the soup but delicious 2. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal: because, although, while, since, Example: She has aged a lot since the last time we met. Even though she is quite fat, she can run quickly upstairs. 3. Correlative conjunctions are paired conjunctions. The correlative conjunctions connect two words, phrases or clauses: either … or; neither … nor; both … and; not only … but also, and whether … or etc. Example: You can buy either this chick or that duckling. Either John or Johnny plays as goalkeeper in the match.

INTERJECTION An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation point. Example: Wow! That boat is big! Good grief! The sails are huge! If the interjection shows mild feeling, it begins the sentence and is followed by a comma. Example: Ah, the breeze is nice. Well, let’s go sailing!  Common Interjections Hurray Hey Good grief Ah Okay Oh

Oh, no Oops Ouch

Well Whew Wow 10



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Unit 2 Chapter 2- ARTICLES, DETERMINERS AND QUANTIFIERS

INDEFINITE ARTICLE The indefinite articles a and an are used to introduce something that has not been mentioned before. They are not used before a plural noun. We use a before a word that begins with a consonant. We use an before a word that begins with a vowel, or a word that begins with a consonant but has vowel sound (e.g. hour, honor, etc.) When a is used before a noun, it does not refer to that one particular noun; it uses this noun as representing all the others. A house in that new housing estate should have at least three bedrooms. (The article a does not point out this one house but all houses in that housing estate.) We use a: 1. When we mention something for the first time. I saw a fairy. 2. Before a word which begins with a consonant. There is a policeman waiting for you



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3. Before a word with a long sound of u (consonant sound).

It would be a unique opportunity to travel in space. 4. Before the word one because one sounds as if it begins with a W (wun) (consonant sound). I have a one-way ticket to travel from one place to another. 5. The indefinite article a also means one. I have told you a/one hundred times to leave me alone! 6. Sometimes, it is better to use a instead of one. He had a bath before he went to bed. 7. We can use a before a proper noun in some special cases. I still remember it was on a December morning when I drove through the fog into a tree. We use an: 1. Before a noun which begins with a vowel sound They say an apple a day keeps the doctor away. 2. Before a singular noun (person or thing) to mean only one in quantity She's an only child. 3. Before a noun that is representative of a group, species, etc. An ostrich has only two toes on each foot. 4. Before a noun that begins with a silent h an hour, an honest man, an heir, an honor, an honorable man 5. Before abbreviations, some of which begin with a consonant I have an X-ray on my lungs. Special cases: Articles are not always necessary. There are occasions when a noun in a sentence need not be preceded by a definite article (the) or indefinite article (a, an). In such a case, the term zero article is used

No article is used when making generalization with plural countable nouns and singular uncountable nouns. 12 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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Examples: Flying is far safer than driving. (Uncountable noun) Cars are still expensive for lower-income people. (Countable noun) Examples: Correct: He travels to work by train. Incorrect: He travels to work by a/the train. Correct: She loves taking photos of caterpillars. Incorrect: She loves taking photos of the caterpillars Zero article: 1. Before name of materials Correct: Gold is found in Australia. Incorrect: The gold is found in Australia.2. Before abstract nouns used in a general sense Correct: Money cannot buy happiness. Incorrect: Money cannot buy the happiness. 3. Before proper nouns. He is a fan of Michael Jackson. 4. Before illness Correct: She came down with measles and had to stay in bed. Incorrect: She came down with the measles and had to stay in bed. 5. Before the name of cities, states, countries, islands, or mountains Correct: India achieved independence in 1947. Incorrect: The India achieved independence in 1947.



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DEFINITE ARTICLE The, the definite article is one of the most common, if not the most common, words in English. The identifies a definite or particular noun that has been mentioned earlier. It is not about a noun that has not been mentioned beforehand or a noun that we are unaware of. Examples: He watched a movie. The movie was about the death of a ghost. (The movie mentioned in the second sentence is clear as it refers to the movie he watched.) We use the: 1. When there is only one such person, place or thing the Pope, the President of the United States, the North Pole, the earth, the sky 2. Before names of famous buildings, etc: the Eiffel Tower, the Great Wall of China 3. Before a singular noun that refers to a whole class or group of people or things the middle class, the homeless, the Canadians, the Hindus 4. Before the special names of rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges, group of islands the Nile, the Dead Sea, the Pacific Ocean, the Himalayas 5. Before certain organizations, political parties, and countries the United Nations, the Republican Party, the USSR, the UAR 6. Before nouns such as places which we know of We arrived early at the ferry terminal for our trip to the island. We went to the cinema, after which we went to the stadium for a football match. 7. Before abbreviations and initials of countries the BBC (the British Broadcasting Corporation), the EEC (the European Economic Community), the UAR, the UK, the USA, the USSR  PRONOUNCIATION: For vowel sound we pronounce it as ‘thee’. For consonant sound we pronounce it as ‘thuh’. 14 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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DETERMINERS Determiners are a group of words which include articles (a, the), demonstratives (this, those), possessive adjectives (my, their), numbers (one, two), and other words (any, both) that come before a noun, follow another determiner, or begin a noun phrase. Determiners include quantifiers, which are words or phrases used before a noun to show its quantity. Examples of quantifiers are: all, many, much, most, one, some, a few, and a lot of, etc. Determiners and quantifiers are useful in letting us know more about the noun that they refer. For example, ‘this thing’ identifies something that is close at hand; ‘her wig’ means the wig belongs to her; ‘another donkey’ tells of one more donkeys; and a ‘few marbles’ refers to a small number of marble.  Definite and indefinite articles: (the, a, an) The definite article ‘the’ as a determiner can be used before singular or plural nouns such as people or things, and before countable and uncountable nouns. We use the determiner the: 1. To refer to people or things which we know because they have already been mentioned. There is a man doing magic at the marketplace. I know the man; he is my uncle. 2. To refer to a person or thing when there is only one. He is the ex-husband of my friend’s sister. 3. Before superlatives, words such as first, only, etc. Peacocks have the most beautiful feathers. 4. Before adjectives so that the adjectives become nouns. Sometimes I hate myself for dreaming the impossible. 5. Before a singular noun that is representative of a group of similar people or things. A large and flightless bird, the dodo is now extinct. 6. Before proper nouns. The Robinsons are the latest members of the ghost-hunting club.



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We use the determiners a/an: To refer to someone or things that we know nothing about as they have not been mentioned before, or they are not particular persons or things. Examples: She brought home a puppy. They saw a man attempting to commit burglary at a house near by. There was an explosion in a nearby factory. 1. Before an uncountable noun. The husband and wife share a liking for raw fish. 2. Before an action noun. She had a quick glance at me, and then looked away. 3. Before a quantity. He uttered a few foreign words before he passed away. 4. Before a proper noun such as a person’s name. A Mr. Wilson called while you were away.

DEMONSTRATIVE This, that, these and those are called demonstratives. As determiners, ‘this’ and ‘that’ appear before singular nouns, and these and those being plurals of ‘this’ and ‘that’ respectively come before plural nouns. Examples: This color is not found in the rainbow. That hill was shaped almost like a human head. These footprints are left by a three-toed creature. They were trying to hatch those dinosaur eggs. We use the demonstratives ‘this’ and ‘these’ to refer to specific people, things, etc. that are close to us, and ‘that’ and ‘those’ that are not near to us. Examples: Look at this photo of Nessie. I will ask that policeman the way to the police station. Listen to these voices and tell me whose. Those strange noises came from the roof. 16 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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Nouns need not follow these determiners if the meaning is understood. Examples: Whose is this? Don’t touch these. Look at that. Those are not mine. The determiners can also come before one. Example: This one smells the same as that one. The words – this, that, these, those – besides being determiners, are also used as pronouns. One good way to distinguish between them is determiner, unlike pronoun, comes before nouns. Determiner This potato is still hot. That duckling is ugly. These apples are rotten. Those dark clouds are gathering overhead.

Pronoun This is a hot potato. That is a very ugly duckling. These are rotten apples. Those are dark clouds gathering overhead.

Possessive determiners indicate possession and we use them before the nouns. A few examples of possessive determiners are: my, your, his, her, its, our, their. Examples: Who broke my new cup? Your dog has more fleas than mine. His left leg was broken in two places in the accident. She looks just like her mother. Its back was bitten by another dog. Our dinner was delayed because mum was stuck in a traffic jam. Their parents refused to visit him in prison. NOTE: determiners and demonstrative pronouns are one or the same thing.



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QUANTIFIERS  COUNTABLE: Quantifiers used with countable nouns include a, an, one, each, every, both, a couple of, a few, several, many, a number of, a large number of, and a great number of. Examples: A rubber duck is floating in the bath. An evil monster like him has no friends. One page is missing from my cookery book. He had a tattoo of a dragon on each arm. Every child received a lollipop. Both donkeys are braying at the same time. A couple of people began to talk louder and louder after the third round of drinks. Someone stole several piglets from his farm. I think he is putting too many eggs in one basket. A number of her friends agreed with her that she looked overweight. Illegal loggers cut down a large number of trees. A great number of locusts swarmed the area. Usage of ‘Few’ and ‘a few’: ‘Few’ and ‘a few’ come before plural countable nouns. ‘Few’ (without ‘a’) conveys a negative meaning of only a small number or hardly any; ‘a few’ has a positive meaning of having some but enough. Examples: There were a few casualties in the train accident. (= Not many died or injured.) Few passers-by stopped to look at my paintings. (= Almost no passers-by were interested.)  UNCOUNTABLE: Quantifiers used with uncountable nouns include ‘a little’, ‘a bit of’, ‘much’, ‘a great deal of’, and ‘a large amount of’. Examples: There was a bit of cheese on your upper lip. I don’t have much money to keep in my big wallet. A great deal of her work is massaging the back of patients. The drugs were sold for a large amount of hard cash.



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Usage of ‘Little’ and ‘a little’ ‘Little’ and ‘a little’ are expressions of quantity used before uncountable nouns. ‘Little’ has a negative meaning implying scarcely any is available or almost none. ‘A little’ means a small amount. Examples: There seemed (very) little hope of recovery for the accident victim. There is a little pork in the fridge for the supper dish. (Positive - small amount but enough for supper)



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Unit 3 Chapter 3- TENSES

SIMPLE PRESENT: The simple present is a verb tense with two main uses. We use the simple present tense when an action is happening right now, or when it happens regularly (or unceasingly, which is why it’s sometimes called present indefinite). Depending on the person, the simple present tense is formed by using the root form or by adding -s or -es to the end. Example: I feel great! Pauline loves pie. I’m sorry to hear that you’re sick. The other is to talk about habitual actions or occurrences. Example: Pauline practices the piano every day. Ms. Jackson travels during the summer. Hamsters run all night. 20 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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PRESENT CONTINUOUS: The present continuous verb tense indicates that an action or condition is happening now, frequently, and may continue into the future. The Present Continuous Formula: to be [am, is, are] + verb [present participle] Example: Aunt Christine is warming up the car while Scott looks for his new leather coat. They are eating at Scott’s favorite restaurant today, Polly’s Pancake Diner. Key words: Verb, present participle, tense, dynamic verbs, stative verbs The present continuous (present progressive) tense is a way to convey any action or condition that is happening right now, frequently, and may be ongoing. It adds energy and action to writing, and its effect helps readers understand when the action is happening. Imagine Aunt Christine has surprised her nephew Scott for his birthday and is going to take him out to his favorite restaurant, Polly’s Pancake Diner. If I wanted to tell the story after it happened, I’d use the past tense: They waited at the red light, and Scott worried they might miss their reservation. (Past tense)

PRESENT PERFECT: The present perfect tense refers to an action or state that either occurred at an indefinite time in the past (e.g., we have talked before) or began in the past and continued to the present time (e.g., he has grown impatient over the last hour). This tense is formed by have/has + the past participle. The construction of this verb tense is straightforward. The first element is have or has, depending on the subject the verb is conjugated with. The second element is the past participle of the verb, which is usually formed by adding -ed or -d to the verb’s root (e.g., walked, cleaned, typed, perambulated, jumped, laughed, sautéed) although English does have quite a few verbs that have irregular past participles (e.g., done, said, gone, known, won, thought, felt, eaten).

Example: I have walked on this path before. We have eaten the lasagna here. 21 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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The important thing to remember about the present perfect is that you can’t use it when you are being specific about when it happened. Example: I have put away all the laundry. I have put away all the laundry this morning. You can use the present perfect to talk about the duration of something that started in the past is still happening. Example: She has had the chickenpox since Tuesday.

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS: The present perfect continuous is used to refer to an unspecified time between 'before now' and 'now'. The speaker is thinking about something that started but perhaps did not finish in that period of time. He/she is interested in the process as well as the result, and this process may still be going on, or may have just finished. The present perfect continuous formula is: has/ have+ been + v [present participle]+ing. ACTIONS THAT STARTED IN THE PAST AND CONTINUE IN THE PRESENT Example: She has been waiting for you all day (= and she's still waiting now). I've been working on this report since eight o'clock this morning (= and I still haven't finished it). They have been travelling since last October (= and they're not home yet). ACTIONS THAT HAVE JUST FINISHED, BUT WE ARE INTERESTED IN THE RESULTS

Example: She has been cooking since last night (= and the food on the table looks delicious). It's been raining (= and the streets are still wet). Someone's been eating my chips (= half of them have gone).

SIMPLE PAST: The simple past is a verb tense that is used to talk about things that happened or existed before now. Imagine someone asks what your brother Wolfgang did while he was in town last weekend. 22 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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Example: Wolfgang entered a hula hoop contest. He won the silver medal. The simple past tense shows that you are talking about something that has already happened. Unlike the past continuous tense, which is used to talk about past events that happened over a period of time, the simple past tense emphasizes that the action is finished. Example: Wolfgang admired the way the light glinted off his silver medal. You can also use the simple past to talk about a past state of being, such as the way someone felt about something. This is often expressed with the simple past tense of the verb ‘to be’ and an adjective, noun, or prepositional phrase. Example: Wolfgang was proud of his hula hoop victory. The contest was the highlight of his week.

PAST CONTINUOUS The past continuous tense, also known as the past progressive tense, refers to a continuing action or state that was happening at some point in the past. The past continuous tense is formed by combining the past tense of to be (i.e., was/were) with the verb’s present participle (-ing word). There are many situations in which this verb tense might be used in a sentence. For example, it is often used to describe conditions that existed in the past. Example: The sun was shining every day that summer. As I spoke, the children were laughing at my cleverness. It can also be used to describe something that was happening continuously in the past when another action interrupted it.

Example: The audience was applauding until he fell off the stage. I was making dinner when she arrived.



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The past continuous can shed light on what was happening at a precise time in the past. Example: At 6 o’clock, I was eating dinner. It can also refer to a habitual action in the past. Example: She was talking constantly in class in those days. One final caution: Though the irregularities are few, not every verb is suited to describing a continuous action. Certain verbs can’t be used in the past continuous tense. One common example is the verb to arrive. Example: At noon, he was arriving. At noon, he arrived.

PAST PERFECT The past perfect, also called the pluperfect, is a verb tense used to talk about actions that were completed before some point in the past. Example: We were shocked to discover that someone had graphitized “Tootles was here” on our front door. We were relieved that Tootles had used washable paint. The past perfect tense is for talking about something that happened before something else. Imagine waking up one morning and stepping outside to grab the newspaper. On your way back, you notice a mysterious message scrawled across your front door: Tootles was here. When you’re telling this story to your friends later, how would you describe this moment? You might say something like:

Example: I turned back to the house and saw that some someone named Tootles had defaced my front door! In addition to feeling indignant on your behalf, your friends will also be able to understand that Tootles graphitized the door at some point in the past before the moment this morning when you saw his handiwork, because you used the past perfect tense to describe the misdeed. 24 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS The past perfect continuous tense (also known as the past perfect progressive tense) shows that an action that started in the past continued up until another time in the past. The past perfect continuous tense is constructed using had been + the verb’s present participle (root + -ing). Unlike the present perfect continuous, which indicates an action that began in the past and continued up to the present, the past perfect continuous is a verb tense that indicates something that began in the past, continued in the past, and also ended at a defined point in the past. Example: He had been drinking milk out the carton when Mom walked into the kitchen. I had been working at the company for five years when I got the promotion. When, for, since, and before are words that you may see used alongside the past perfect continuous tense. Example: Martha had been walking three miles a day before she broke her leg. The program that was terminated had been working well since 1945. Cathy had been playing the piano for 35 years when she was finally asked to do a solo with the local orchestra. He had been throwing rocks at her window for five minutes before she finally came out on the balcony and said, “Hey, Romeo.”

SIMPLE FUTURE The simple future is a verb tense that’s used to talk about things that haven’t happened yet. This year, Jen will read War and Peace. It will be hard, but she’s determined to do it. Use the simple future to talk about an action or condition that will begin and end in the future. The simple future tense is a verb tense that is used when an action is expected to occur in the future and be completed. For example, let’s suppose you have a meeting tomorrow at five o’clock.



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Example: I will arrive at five o’clock. I will arrive is the simple future tense of the verb to arrive. You arrive once; beyond that, you can’t keep on arriving. However, once you get there, you may be doing something that goes on continuously, at least for a certain period of time.

FUTUTRE CONTINUOUS The future continuous tense, sometimes also referred to as the future progressive tense, is a verb tense that indicates that something will occur in the future and continue for an expected length of time. It is formed using the construction will + be + the present participle (the root verb + -ing). Example: At five o’clock, I will be meeting with the management about my raise. Will be meeting is the future continuous tense of the verb to meet. The construction will + be + the present participle meeting indicates that the meeting isn’t going to happen in an instant, all at once. It will have duration. The will + be + present participle construction always indicates the future continuous tense. Example: Michael will be running a marathon this Saturday. Eric will be competing against Michael in the race. I will be watching Michael and Eric race.

FUTURE PERFECT The future perfect is a verb tense used for actions that will be completed before some other point in the future. The parade will have ended by the time Chester gets out of bed. At eight o’clock I will have left. Key words: Verb, past participle, tense, preposition The future perfect tense is for talking about an action that will be completed between now and some point in the future. Imagine that your friend Linda asks you to take care of her cat for a few days while she goes on a trip. She wants you to come over today at noon so she can show you where to find the cat food and how to mash it up in the bowl just right so that Fluffy will deign to eat it. But you’re busy this afternoon, so you ask Linda if you can come at eight o’clock tonight instead.



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FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS The future perfect continuous, also sometimes called the future perfect progressive, is a verb tense that describes actions that will continue up until a point in the future. The future perfect continuous consists of will + have + been + the verb’s present participle (verb root + -ing). When we describe an action in the future perfect continuous tense, we are projecting ourselves forward in time and looking back at the duration of that activity. The activity will have begun sometime in the past, present, or in the future, and is expected to continue in the future. Example: In November, I will have been working at my company for three years. At five o’clock, I will have been waiting for thirty minutes. When I turn thirty, I will have been playing piano for twenty-one years. Non-action Verbs Do Not Use the Future Perfect Continuous Remember that non-action verbs like to be, to seem, or to know are not suited to the future perfect continuous tense. Instead, these verbs take the future perfect tense, which is formed with will + have + past participle. Example: On Thursday, I will have been knowing you for a week. On Thursday, I will have known you for a week. I will have been reading forty-five books by Christmas.



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Unit 3 Chapter 4- CONDITIONALS If— BY RUDYARD KIPLING If you can keep your head when all about you Are losing theirs and blaming it on you, If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you, But make allowance for their doubting too; If you can wait and not be tired by waiting, Or being lied about, don’t deal in lies, Or being hated, don’t give way to hating, And yet don’t look too good, nor talk too wise:

If you can make one heap of all your winnings And risk it on one turn of pitch-and-toss, And lose, and start again at your beginnings And never breathe a word about your loss; If you can force your heart and nerve and sinew To serve your turn long after they are gone, And so hold on when there is nothing in you Except the Will which says to them: ‘Hold on!’

If you can dream—and not make dreams your master; If you can think—and not make thoughts your aim; If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster And treat those two impostors just the same; If you can bear to hear the truth you’ve spoken Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools, Or watch the things you gave your life to, broken, And stoop and build ’em up with worn-out tools:

If you can talk with crowds and keep your virtue, Or walk with Kings—nor lose the common touch, If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you, If all men count with you, but none too much; If you can fill the unforgiving minute With sixty seconds’ worth of distance run, Yours is the Earth and everything that’s in it, And—which is more—you’ll be a Man, my son!

The conditional tense says that an action is reliant on something else. The conditionals are used to talk about real or unreal situations; they are sometimes called if-clauses. Real Conditional describes real-life situations. Unreal Conditional describes unreal, imaginary situations.



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Example: If a certain condition is true, then a particular result happens. There are four basic conditionals that we use in English.    

Zero Conditional First Conditional Second Conditional Third Conditional

ZERO CONDITIONAL: If + present simple + present simple FIRST CONDITIONAL: If + present simple + will SECOND CONDITIONAL: If + past simple + would + base form THIRD CONDITIONAL: If + past perfect + would have + past participle THIRD AND SECOND MIXED CONDITIONAL: If + past perfect + would + base form SECOND AND THIRD MIXED CONDITIONAL: If + past simple + would have + past participle

ZERO CONDITIONAL: The Zero Conditional is used for actions that are always true when the conditions are satisfied. The structure of the conditionals is straightforward. There are two basic possibilities in terms of order in the sentence:



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TIME: Certainty and anytime

IF

Condition

If

If

Result

Possibilit y

You heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.

factuniversal

present simple

present simple

I drink coffee,

I get a headache.

factpersonal

FIRST CONDITIONAL: (REAL POSSIBILITY) A First Conditional sentence is for future actions dependent on the result of another future action or event, where there is a reasonable possibility of the conditions for the action being satisfied. TIME: A real possibility in the future IF If If If If If If

Condition she gets good grades, he gets good grades, she gets good grades, he gets good grades, she gets good grades, he gets good grades,

Result she will go to university. he may go to university. she should go to university.

Possibility If the condition is met, then she definitely will go

he can go to university.

This means that it is possible.

she could go to university. he might go to university.

This means that it is possible, but not that likely. This means that it is possible, but not that likely.

He is not sure about going to university. The speaker is expressing his or her opinion, giving advice.



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SECOND CONDITIONAL: (UNREAL POSSIBILITY) The Second Conditional can be used to talk about imaginary present situations, where we are imagining something different from what is really the case. We can also use it to talk about things in the future that are unlikely to happen, as the condition is unlikely to be met. We use the past tense in the condition part and would for the result. TIME: Imaginary Present or Unlikely Future IF

If

If

Condition past simple I had the time, past simple I won the lottery

Time present

Result WOULD + base verb I would learn Italian.

Future

WOULD + base verb I would travel around the world.

Possibility Impossible I don't have the time, so I'm not going to learn Italian. Unlikely There's a very small chance of winning the lottery, so the trip is unlikely

We can use other modal verbs in the past tense in the result part of the sentence: IF

Condition past simple

Result WOULD + base verb

If

I had the time,

I would learn Italian.

If

I had more time,

I might learn English.

If

I had more time,

I should learn some more about IT.

If

I had more time

I could learn Hindi.

Certainty Although unlikely to happen, the speaker is sure that they would do it given the opportunity. Although unlikely to happen, it is only a possibility anyway. Although unlikely to happen, the speaker is saying that it would be a good idea, but is not committed to it. Although unlikely to happen, it is only a possibility anyway.



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THIRD CONDITIONAL: (NO POSSIBILITY) The third conditional is used when we are talking about the past and imagining something different from what actually happened, that means for imaginary past actions, where the conditions for the action WERE NOT satisfied.

TIME: Imaginary Past IF

Condition past perfect

Result WOULD HAVE+ past participle

If

I had known,

I would have helped.

If

I had known,

I could have helped.

If

I had known,

I might have helped.

If

you had known,

you should have helped.

Certainty

Although this didn't happen, the speaker is sure about the result. Although this didn't happen, the result is only a possibility. Although this didn't happen, the result is only a possibility. Although this didn't happen, it is only a good suggestion or piece of advice.

THIRD SECOND MIXED CONDITIONALS For imaginary present actions or situations that are not possible because the necessary conditions were not met in the past. Example: If you had taken the course, you would know about it. (The conditions were not met because the person did not do the course and as a result does not know about it now.)



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SECOND THIRD MIXED CONDITIONALS To avoid the illogicality of saying 'If I had been you', which means that I was not you on that occasion, but could be in the future, which is, of course, impossible. Example: If I were you, I wouldn't have done that. When the first part is still true Example: If I could speak English, I wouldn't have needed to get the letter translated. (This means that I couldn't speak English then when I needed the translator and still can't)



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Unit 4 Chapter 5- Types of Sentences A sentence can be categorized in two ways i.e. a clause and a phrase. What is a phrase? – a noun, verb, or preposition with all its modifiers. It does not have a subject and verb which agree. What is a clause? – a group of words that has at least one subject and one predicate, and the verb and subject always agree. Independent clause expresses complete meaning unlike a dependent clause.

There are two types of clauses: 1. Independent clause 2. Dependent clause



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INDEPENDENT CLAUSE An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence. Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz.

DEPENDENT CLAUSE A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked by a dependent marker word. Example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (What happened when he studied? The thought is incomplete.)

DEPENDENT MARKER WORD A dependent marker word is a word added to the beginning of an independent clause that makes it into a dependent clause. Example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy. Some common dependent markers are: after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and while.

INDEPENDENT MARKER WORD An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the beginning of an independent clause. These words can always begin a sentence that can stand alone. When the second independent clause in a sentence has an independent marker word, a semicolon is needed before the independent marker word.



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Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz; however, it was hard to concentrate because of the noise. Some common independent markers are: also, consequently, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, and therefore.

 Connecting dependent and independent clauses There are two types of words that can be used as connectors at the beginning of an independent clause: coordinating conjunctions and independent marker words.  Coordinating Conjunction The seven coordinating conjunctions used as connecting words at the beginning of an independent clause are and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet. When the second independent clause in a sentence begins with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is needed before the coordinating conjunction: Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to concentrate because of the noise. Sentences can be of different kinds. There are two ways to identify the kind of sentence: 1. On the basis of structure 2. On the basis of their function

**On the basis of their structure it can be further divided into the following categories:

SIMPLE SENTENCES A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb. It expresses a single complete thought that can stand on its own. Examples: 1. The baby cried for food. There is a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought.



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2. Professor Maple’s intelligent students completed and turned in their homework. A simple sentence does not necessarily have to be short. It can have adjectives. In this case, there are two verbs “completed” and “turned in.” However, the sentence expresses one complete thought and therefore is a simple sentence. Example: Megan and Ron ate too much and felt sick. Although there are two subjects and two verbs, it is still a simple sentence because both verbs share the same subjects and express one complete thought.

COMPOUND SENTENCES A compound sentence has two independent clauses. An independent clause is a part of a sentence that can stand alone because it contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. Basically, a compound contains two simple sentences. These independent clauses are joined by a conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). Examples: 1. The shoplifter had stolen clothes, so he ran once he saw the police. Both sides of the conjunction “so” are complete sentences. “The shoplifter had stolen clothes” can stand alone and so can “he ran once he saw the police.” Therefore, this is a compound sentence. 2. They spoke to him in Spanish, but he responded in English. This is also a compound sentence that uses a conjunction to separate two individual clauses.

COMPLEX SENTENCES A complex sentence is an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A dependent clause either lacks a subject or a verb or has both a subject and a verb that does not express a complete thought. A complex sentence always has a subordinator (as, because, since, after, although, when) or relative pronouns (who, that, which). Examples: 1. After eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory, Tim went to the gym to exercise. 37 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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The independent clause is ‘Tim went to the gym to exercise.” The subordinating clause before it is dependent on the main, independent clause. If one were to say “after eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory,” it would be an incomplete thought. 2. Opinionated women are given disadvantages in societies that privilege male accomplishments. The subject is “opinionated women” and the verb is “are given.” The first part of the sentence “opinionated women are given disadvantages in societies” is an independent clause that expresses a complete thought. The following “that privilege male accomplishments” is a relative clause that describes which types of societies. 3. The woman who taught Art History 210 was fired for stealing school supplies. The dependent clause in this sentence is “who taught Art History 210” because if removed, the rest of the sentence would stand as an independent clause. “Who taught Art History 210” is an adjective clause that provides necessary details about the subject, woman.

COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES A compound-complex sentence has two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Examples: 1. After the two soccer players lost their game, they joined their other teammates for lunch, and they went to the movies. If we remove the dependent clause “after the two soccer players lost their game,” we have a compound sentence. The dependent clause makes this sentence compound-complex. 2. The man believed in the system, and he knew that justice would prevail after the murderer was sent to jail. Practice: Identify whether the sentences are simple, complex, compound or compound-complex. Please underline dependent clauses where it applies. 1. Vampires Dairies is my favorite television show, but I also love True Blood. 2. The student wiped the white board that was filthy with last week’s notes. 38 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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3. The trendy fashion designer released her new line on Wednesday. 4. Trina and Hareem went to a bar in Hollywood to celebrate their anniversary. 5. Wicked Regina cast a spell on the entire city, so the citizens decided to rebel. 6. While waiting for the paint to dry, Angela went to Home Depot, and Martin organized the kitchen appliances. 7. After listening to the Kanye West CD, I have new respect for his music. 8. After the teacher chose groups, John and Sara were selected as partners for a project, yet Sarah did most of the work. **On the basis of their function they can be further categorized as:

DECLARATIVE Declarative sentences (also called assertive sentences) give information. They may state a fact or an opinion. Declarative sentences end with periods. Example: I like riding my bicycle around the park. My essay is better than yours. Declarative sentences can be positive (affirmative) or negative. The sun is shining. (Positive) It is not raining. (Negative)

IMPERATIVE Imperative sentences give a command, a request, advice, a suggestion, a warning, or a wish. They can be followed by a period, a question mark, or an exclamation mark. Example:

Be quiet. (a command) Please have a seat. (a request) Watch out! (a command) Enjoy yourselves. (a wish) The simple subject of an imperative sentence is usually the understood you. 39 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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Turn to page 37. (You) turn to page 37. Hint: If a person's name is included in an imperative sentence, it is a direct address, not the subject. Wayne, turn to page 37. Wayne, (you) turn to page 37. Imperative sentences may be written like a question, but they aren't asking anything. Will you please mind your manners?

INTERROGATIVE Interrogative sentences ask a question. Interrogative sentences end with question marks. In English, interrogative questions often begin with interrogative words like who, when, where, why, what, and how. Example: Why are you late? What time is it? Where is the library? Interrogative sentences without question words are generally formed by moving the helping verb before the subject. Example: Do you have any more cough drops? A question fragment can be added onto the end of a declarative or imperative sentence. This fragment is called a tag/tail question. You have answered all the questions on this test, haven't you? (After a declarative sentence) Close the window, will you? (After an imperative sentence) A question fragment can also be used by itself, either before or after a sentence. What? You lost your wallet? You are late. Why? 40 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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Hint: An indirect question is a declarative sentence that tells that information was asked. It is not asking the question. Indirect questions end with periods. The driver asked if we knew which way to turn. We wondered if it was going to rain.

EXCLAMATORY Exclamatory sentences exclaim, or show great emotion. Exclamatory sentences end with exclamation marks. Use exclamation marks only when necessary. It's easy to overuse them. Example: Wow! That magic trick was amazing! Exclamatory sentences can begin with question words. What wonderful weather we are having today! How lovely to see you! Fun fact: The ‽ is called the interrobang. It truly is a type of punctuation mark. It was invented by a journalist in 1962. Martin K. Speckter combined the? and! Since he didn't like using two end marks. It didn't catch on. Most teachers don't like two end marks either. Sometimes, though, you really need both. It's okay in informal writing. Only one exclamation mark at a time is enough in formal writing. Read the following sentences and state their kind. 1. Please leave your footwear outside. 2. Will you wait here? 3. Where have you been all this while? 4. We will not tolerate this. 5. I am your friend. 6. My sister lives in Mexico. 7. What did you do then? 8. Do be a bit more careful. 9. Never speak to me like that again. 10. Always remember what I told you. 41 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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Unit 5 Chapter 6- Modals The modal verbs include can, could, must, may, might, will, would, should. They are used with other verbs to express ability, obligation, possibility, and so on. Modal verbs are unlike other verbs. They do not change their form (spelling) and they have no infinitive or participle (past/present). The modals must and can need substitute verbs to express obligation or ability in the different tenses. Here are some examples:



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Unit -5 Chapter 7- PUNCTUATION Correct punctuation is essential for clear and effective writing. The following list contains some of the most critical punctuation rules.

COMMAS Commas are used to separate parts of a sentence. They tell readers to pause between words or groups of words, and they help clarify the meanings of sentences. 1) Commas are used to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a series. Example: Practice will be held before school, in the afternoon, and at night. 2) Commas are used after an introductory dependent clause (a group of words before the

subject of a sentence that do not form a complete sentence). Example If your friends enjoy Chinese food, they will love this restaurant. 3) Commas are used to set off introductory words, introductory adverbial, participial, or

infinitive phrases, and longer introductory prepositional phrases. Example Incidentally, I was not late this morning. (Word) Hoping for a bigger fish, Rob spent three more hours fishing. (Phrase) 4) Commas are used between independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (for,

and, nor, but, or, yet, so). Example My dog had fleas, so we gave him a bath. 5) Commas set off nonessential phrases or clauses.

Example The man, I think, had a funny laugh. 6) Commas set off an appositive (a word or phrase that renames a noun).

Example Tanya, Debbie's sister, gave a brilliant speech last night. 45 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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END OF PUNCTUATION 1) End of sentence punctuation is used to let the reader know when a thought is finished. A statement (or declarative sentence) is followed by a period. Example: Orem is the home of Utah Valley State College. 2) A direct question (or interrogative sentence) is followed by a question mark. Example: When did Joe buy a red shirt? 3) Do not use a question mark after a declarative sentence that contains an indirect question. Example: Marie wants to know when Joe bought a red shirt. 4) An exclamatory sentence is followed by an exclamation point. Example: What a good movie! NOTE: Use exclamation marks sparingly because they can unnecessarily exaggerate sentences. Example: Monet was the most influential painter of his time! (Most emphasizes influential painter; therefore, an exclamation point is not needed.)

SEMICOLONS 1) Semicolons are used to separate clauses or phrases that are related and that receive equal emphasis. Semicolons join independent clauses in a compound sentence if no coordinating conjunction is used. Example: Michael seemed preoccupied; he answered our questions abruptly. 2) Semicolons are used before a conjunctive adverb (transition word) that joins the clauses of a compound sentence. Example: The emergency room was crowded; however, Warren was helped immediately. 3) Semicolons help avoid confusion in lists where there are already commas. Example: We traveled to London, England; Paris, France; Berlin, Germany; and Sofia, Bulgaria.



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COLONS Colons follow independent clauses and are used to call attention to the information that comes after. Colons come after the independent clause and before the word, phrase, sentence, quotation, or list it is introducing. Example: Joe has only one thing on his mind: girls. (Word) Joe has only one thing on his mind: the girl next door. (Phrase) Joe has only one thing on his mind: he wants to go out with Linda. (clause) Joe has several things on his mind: his finals, his job, and Linda. (list) (Never use a colon after a verb that directly introduces a list.)

HYPHENS Hyphens are used to form compound words or join word units. They are used to join prefixes, suffixes, and letters to words. Use hyphens with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and with fractions used as modifiers. Example: Forty-two applicants Two-thirds majority (two-thirds is an adjective modifying majority) Three-fourths empty (three-fourths is an adverb modifying empty) Two thirds of the voters (two thirds is not being used as an adjective here because thirds is a noun being modified by two) Use hyphens in a compound adjective only when it comes before the word it modifies. However, some compound adjectives are always hyphenated, such as well-balanced. Look up compound adjectives in the dictionary if you are unsure whether or not to hyphenate them. Example: A well-liked author an author who is well liked A world-renowned composer is a composer who is world renowned. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex-, self-, and all-; with the suffix -elect; and with all prefixes before a proper noun or proper adjective.



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Example: All-star ex-mayor pro-Canadian senator-elect Anti-Semitic Non-European self-control selfimage

DASHES Dashes connect groups of words to other groups of words in order to emphasize a point or show that the information is unessential. Usually the dash separates words in the middle of a sentence from the rest of the sentence. In the middle of a sentence, a dash can put special emphasis on a group of words or make them stand out from the rest of the sentence. Example: Linda Simpson's prescription for the economy, lower interest rates, higher employment, and less government spending, was rejected by the president's administration. BECOMES: Linda Simpson's prescription for the economy—lower interest rates, higher employment, and less government spending—was rejected by the president's administration. The dash can also be used to attach material to the end of a sentence when there is a clear break in the continuity of the sentence or when an explanation is being introduced. Example: The president will be unable to win enough votes for another term of office—unless, of course, he can reduce unemployment and the deficit soon. Example: It was a close call—the sudden gust of wind pushed the helicopter to within inches of the power line.

APOSTROPHES Apostrophes are used to show possession or to indicate where a letter has been omitted to form a contraction. To show possession, add an apostrophe and an -s to singular nouns or indefinite pronouns that end in one or body. Example: Susan's wrench, anyone's problem. Add only an apostrophe for plural possessive nouns ending in -s. 48 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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Example: my parents' car, the musicians' instruments. Add an apostrophe and an -s for plural possessive nouns that do not end in -s. Example: the men's department, my children's toys. Add an apostrophe and an -s for singular possessive nouns that end in -s.

Example: Chris's cookbook, the business's system. Do not use an apostrophe with possessive personal pronouns including yours, his, hers, its, ours, their, and whose. Apostrophes are also used in contractions, two words which have been combined into one, to mark where the missing letter or letters would be. Example: I am= I'm I have = I've who is = who's let us =let's cannot = can't he is, she is, it is = he's, she's, it is=it’s you are = you're they are = they're Avoid confusing it's with its. It's is a contraction for it is; its is a possessive pronoun.

QUOTATION MARKS Quotation marks are used to show the beginning and end of a quotation or a title of a short work. Quotation marks enclose the exact words of a person (direct quotation). Example: Megan said, "Kurt has a red hat." Do not use quotation marks around a paraphrase (using your own words to express the author’s ideas) or a summary of the author's words.



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Example: Megan said that Kurt’s hat was red. Quotation marks set off the titles of magazine articles, poems, reports, and chapters within a book. (Titles of books, magazines, plays, and other whole publications should be underlined or italicized.) Example: "The Talk of the Town" is a regular feature in Time magazine. QUOTATION MARKS WITH OTHER PUNCTUATION Place periods and commas inside quotation marks.

Example: Aida said, “Aaron has a blue shirt.͟” Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks. Example: He calls me his "teddy bear"; I'm not a bear. Place question marks or exclamation points inside the quotation marks if they punctuate the quotation only. Example: "Are we too late?" she asked. Place question marks or exclamation points outside the quotation marks if they punctuate the entire sentence.

PARENTHESES Example: Why did she say, "We are too late"? Elements inside parentheses are related to the sentence but are nonessential. Parentheses set off additions or expressions that are not necessary to the sentence. They tend to de-emphasize what they set off.



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Example: We visited several European countries (England, France, Spain) on our trip last year. Parentheses enclose figures within a sentence. Example: Grades will be based on (1) participation, (2) in-class writing, and (3) exams. When the group inside the parentheses forms a complete sentence but is inserted inside a larger sentence, no period is needed. However, if a question mark or exclamation point is needed, it may be used. Example: The snow (she saw it as she passed the window) was now falling heavily. When parentheses are used to enclose an independent sentence, the end punctuation belongs inside the parentheses. Example: Mandy told me she saw Amy’s new car. (“I saw Amy’s car before Mandy.) She said it was a nice car.



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Unit 6 Chapter 8- PHRASAL VERBS What are phrasal verbs? Phrasal verbs are verbs that consist of a verb and a particle (a preposition or adverb) or a verb and two particles (an adverb and a preposition as in get on with or look forward to). They are identified by their grammar (more about that in Unit 2), but it is probably best to think of them as individual vocabulary items, to be learnt in phrases or chunks. They often – but not always – have a one-word equivalent. For example, you can come across a new phrasal verb or you can encounter it. You can pick up a language or you can acquire it. Come across and pick up sound less literary or formal than encounter or acquire. Why are phrasal verbs important? Phrasal verbs are extremely common in English. They are found in a wide variety of contexts. You may have noticed them in songs, for example the Beatles’ I’ll get by with a little help from my friends or Roll over Beethoven, Bob Marley’s Get up, stand up and red Hot Chili Peppers’ Knock me down. You find them in film titles such as The Empire Strikes Back, Spirited Away, Along Came Polly or Cast Away. What can I do to help myself master phrasal verbs? Try to think positively about them! And, now you are at a more advanced level, try not just to understand them, but also to use them in your own speaking and writing. Keep an eye open for them whenever you are reading anything in English and make a note of any interesting ones you find. Write them down in a complete phrase or a sentence to fix in your mind how they are used. Be aware that one of the special features of phrasal verbs is that some of them have many different meanings – for example, you can pick something up from the floor, you can pick up a language or bad habits, the weather can pick up, you can pick up a bargain, a radio can pick up a signal, the economy can pick up, you can pick up a story where you left it, you can pick someone up in your car. Sometimes the meanings are clearly related, some being more literal and some more metaphorical. 52 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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PHRASAL VERBS WITH AND WITHOUT OBJECTS Some phrasal verbs take an object (transitive); others do not take an object (intransitive). with object (transitive) They are knocking down the old hotel.

no object (intransitive) The path branched off to the river.

The plumber soon sorted out the shower problem. The noise of the train died away. She tied her hair back so she could work better.

In the winter the lake froze over.

Some verbs can be used both with and without an object, but the meaning may change. Use the context to decide if the verb has a different meaning from the one you are familiar with. Examples: Tina and Jo were so clever the teacher moved them up to a higher class. (With object) Tina and Jo moved up to a higher class. (No object = same meaning) I can drop you off at the station.(With object = drive you somewhere and leave you there) I was sitting in the armchair and I dropped off.(No object = fell asleep, different meaning) Some verbs must have two objects, one after the verb and one after the particle. I always associate that song with our holiday in Jamaica. Playing tennis for three hours every evening after school deprived her of her youth. POSITION OF THE OBJECT In many cases, the particle may come before or after the object. Examples: The teacher marked two students down / marked down two students because they answered the wrong questions in the exam. 53 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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Very long objects usually come after the particle. The accident cut off domestic and industrial water and electricity supplies.

When the object is a personal pronoun, the pronoun always comes before the particle. Noun object I picked my parents up / picked up my parents and drove them to the airport.

Personal pronoun object I’ll pick you up at 5; 30. (Not: I’ll pick up you at 5:30) you at 5.30.)

Some verbs (sometimes called prepositional verbs) must have the object after the particle, even if it is a pronoun. A good dictionary will tell you if this is so. Example: We’ve had to contend with a lot of problems lately. (Not: contend a lot of problems with) [Deal with a difficult or unpleasant situation] You probably already know some of these verbs (look for, look after, cope with).

THREE-PART VERBS Some phrasal verbs have three parts, the verb and two particles. The object comes last. Example: I will not put up with such bad behavior. [Tolerate] Other examples include: look forward to, look down on, get on with, catch up on [do something you did not have time to do earlier], face up to [accept that a difficult or unpleasant situation exists].



Verb

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Meaning

Example

ask around

ask many people the same question

I asked around but nobody has seen my wallet.

add up to something

Equal

Your purchases add up to $205.32.

Back someone up

Support

My wife backed me up over my decision to quit my job.

blow up

Explode

The racing car blew up after it crashed into the fence.

Blow something up

add air

We have to blow 50 balloons up for the party.

break down

stop functioning (vehicle, machine)

Our car broke down at the side of the highway in the snowstorm.

break down

get upset

The woman broke down when the police told her that her son had died.

break in

force entry to a building

Somebody broke in last night and stole our stereo.

break into something

enter forcibly

The firemen had to break into the room to rescue the children.

break in

Interrupt

The TV station broke in to report the news of the president's death.

break up

end a relationship

My boyfriend and I broke up before I moved to America.

break up

start laughing (informal)

The kids just broke up as soon as the clown started talking.

Bring someone down

make unhappy

This sad music is bringing me down.

Bring someone up

raise a child/Nourish

My grandparents brought me up after my parents died.

Bring something up

start talking about a subject

My mother walks out of the room when my father brings up sports.



call around

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We called around but we weren't able to find the car part we needed.

Call someone back

phone many different places/people return a phone call

Call something off

Cancel

Jason called the wedding off because he wasn't in love with his fiancé.

call on someone

ask for an answer or opinion

Call someone up

Phone

calm down

relax after being angry

The professor called on me for question 1. Give me your phone number and I will call you up when we are in town. You are still mad. You need to calm down before you drive the car.

check in

arrive and register at a hotel or airport

We will get the hotel keys when we check in.

check out

leave a hotel

You have to check out of the hotel before 11:00 AM.

check out someone/something

look at (informal)

Check out the crazy hair on that guy!

cheer up

To support somebody with applause

She cheered up when she heard the good news.

Cheer someone up

make happier

I brought you some flowers to cheer you up.

chip in

Help

If everyone chips in we can get the kitchen painted by noon.

come across something

find unexpectedly

I came across these old photos when I was tidying the closet.

come forward

volunteer for a task or to give The woman came forward with her evidence husband's finger prints.

come from somewhere

originate in

I called the company back but the offices were closed for the weekend.

The art of origami comes from Asia.



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count on someone/something

rely on

I am counting on you to make dinner while I am out.

Cut something down

make something fall to the ground

We had to cut the old tree in our yard down after the storm.

Cut something off

remove with something sharp The doctors cut off his leg because it was severely injured.

Cut something out

I cut this ad out of the newspaper.

do away with something

remove part of something (usually with scissors and paper) Discard

dress up

wear nice clothing

It's a fancy restaurant so we have to dress up.

eat out

eat at a restaurant

I don't feel like cooking tonight. Let's eat out.

end up

eventually reach/do/decide

We ended up renting a movie instead of going to the theatre.

fall apart

break into pieces

My new dress fell apart in the washing machine.

Figure something out

understand, find the answer

I need to figure out how to fit the piano and the bookshelf in this room.

Fill something in

to write information in blanks Please fill in the form with your name, (Br. E.) address, and phone number.

Fill something out

to write information in blanks The form must be filled out in capital (N. Amer.) letters.

find out

Discover

It's time to do away with all of these old tax records.

We don't know where he lives. How can we find out?



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Get something across/over

communicate, make understandable

I tried to get my point across/over to the judge but she wouldn't listen.

get along/on

like each other

I was surprised how well my new girlfriend and my sister got along/on.

get away with something

do without being noticed or punished

Jason always gets away with cheating in his maths tests.

get back

Return

We got back from our vacation last week.

Get something back

receive something you had before

Liz finally got her Science notes back from my room-mate.

get back at someone

retaliate, take revenge

My sister got back at me for stealing her shoes. She stole my favorite hat.

get over something

overcome a problem

The company will have to close if it can't get over the new regulations.

get together

meet (usually for social reasons)

Let's get together for a BBQ this weekend.

get up

get out of bed

I got up early today to study for my exam.

get up

Stand

You should get up and give the elderly man your seat.

give in

reluctantly stop fighting or arguing

My boyfriend didn't want to go to the ballet, but he finally gave in.



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Give something out

give to many people (usually at no cost)

They were giving out free perfume samples at the department store.

Give something up

quit a habit

I am giving up smoking as of January 1st.

give up

stop trying

My maths homework was too difficult so I gave up.

go after someone

follow someone

My brother tried to go after the thief in his car.

go against someone

compete, oppose

We are going against the best soccer team in the city tonight.

go without something

suffer lack or deprivation

When I was young, we went without winter boots.

grow apart

stop being friends over time

My best friend and I grew apart after she changed schools.

Hand something out

to distribute to a group of people

We will hand out the invitations at the door.

Hand something over

give (usually unwillingly)

The police asked the man to hand over his wallet and his weapons.

hang in

stay positive (N. Amer., informal)

Hang in there. I'm sure you'll find a job very soon.

hang on

wait a short time (informal)

Hang on while I grab my coat and shoes!

hang out

spend time relaxing (informal) Instead of going to the party we are just going to hang out at my place.



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hang up

end a phone call

He didn't say goodbye before he hung up.

hold on

wait a short time

Please hold on while I transfer you to the Sales Department.

hold onto someone/something

hold firmly using your hands or arms

Hold onto your hat because it's very windy outside.

Keep someone/something stop from entering Out

Try to keep the wet dog out of the living room.

Let someone down

fail to support or help, disappoint

I need you to be on time. Don't let me down this time.

Let someone in

allow to enter

Can you let the cat in before you go to school?

look after someone/something

take care of

I have to look after my sick grandmother.

look for someone/something

try to find

I'm looking for a red dress for the wedding.

look forward to something be excited about the future

I'm looking forward to the Christmas break.

look into something

Investigate

We are going to look into the price of snowboards today.

look out

be careful, vigilant, and take notice

Look out! That car's going to hit you!

look out for someone/something

be especially vigilant for

Don't forget to look out for snakes on the hiking trail.

Make something up

invent, lie about something

Josie made up a story about why we were late.



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make up

forgive each other

We were angry last night, but we made up at breakfast.

pass away

Die

His uncle passed away last night after a long illness.

pass out

Faint

It was so hot in the church that an elderly lady passed out.

Put something out

Extinguish

The neighbors put the fire out before the firemen arrived.

Put something together

Assemble

I have to put the crib together before the baby arrives.

run into someone/something

meet unexpectedly

I ran into an old school-friend at the mall.

run over someone/something

drive a vehicle over a person or thing

I accidentally ran over your bicycle in the driveway.

Set something up

arrange, organize

Our boss set a meeting up with the president of the company.

Set someone up

trick, trap

The police set up the car thief by using a hidden camera.

stick to something

continue doing something, You will lose weight if you stick to the limit yourself to one particular diet. thing stop the energy flow, turn off The light's too bright. Could you switch it off.

Switch something off

Switch something on

start the energy flow, turn on

We heard the news as soon as we switched on the car radio.

take after someone

resemble a family member

I take after my mother. We are both impatient.



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take off

start to fly

My plane takes off in five minutes.

Take something off

remove something (usually clothing)

Take off your socks and shoes and come in the lake!

Think something over

Consider

I'll have to think this job offer over before I make my final decision.

Throw something away

dispose of

We threw our old furniture away when we won the lottery.

Turn something down

decrease the volume or strength (heat, light etc)

Please turn the TV down while the guests are here.



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Unit 6 Chapter 9- IDIOMS Idioms are groups of words with a special meaning that is quite different from the meaning of the individual words. For example, the idiom "to be on the ball" really has nothing to do with a ball or being on top of one. It means that someone is very industrious, intelligent and organized. For this reason, we can say that idioms’ meanings are opaque rather than transparent. What’s wrong with this sentence? “I have a lot on my plates with school, and I have been working around my watch.” EXPLANATION: There are many phrases in English which can be very confusing to people trying to learn the language, especially phrases which we try to understand literally, but actually mean something very different. These phrases are known as idiomatic phrases, or idioms. Example: “I have a lot on my plate tomorrow as I have to finish with an assignment and work in the evening.” If we try to understand these words literally, it means I have a plate with many items on it, meaning I have a lot of food. (Is this what we mean???) The phrase actually means ‘I am busy’. Example: “I am busy tomorrow as I have to finish an assignment and work in the evening.”



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Importance of idioms: There are two main reasons to learn common idioms. 1. When used in speaking, and sometimes writing, they show a high level of vocabulary.

This is because they are natural phrases commonly used by native speakers. Remember, when we study English, we want to sound as natural as possible, as close to a native speaker as possible. Therefore, using idioms helps us in this. 2. We can recognize them when listening to others speaking.

It may be very difficult understand native speakers, or expert users of English, when they are speaking if they use idioms. Often when learners of English read, watch a movie or listen to the radio, they may misunderstand a lot if idioms are used. A good understanding of common idioms will enable learners to understand a great deal more of natural speech. Ways to understand: As mentioned above, the nature of an idiom is that we cannot understand it if we try to look at the literal meaning. If we try to define an idiomatic phrase, we will often completely misunderstand the meaning of what someone is saying. (see the example of “a lot on my plate”) This means, we have to follow a simple process for understanding idioms: Try to guess the meaning from context. Look at the sentence and try to understand it without the idiom, and then guess some words that could replace the phrase and make sense. This is a very important skill and should always be the first thing you do before asking for help or checking in a dictionary. What should we do when we find a new idiom? First, we need to decide if it is useful or not. “So what makes a phrase useful? Well, useful means to have a lot of uses “or “something that can be used a lot͟. “So if you think you could use this phrase in many situations, then that means it is useful!

Now that we have decided if a phrase is useful, we need to record it. Everyone studying English, whether at a high level or low level, should keep a vocabulary journal (a notebook to record new and useful words and phrases). It is a good idea to have an area to record idioms 64 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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so that you can find them again easily. Finally, use and review! Try to use your new phrases in speaking and writing, and go back to older phrases and use them again. How do we use idioms? The most important things to know when learning to use idioms are:

What changes, what doesn’t? Often mistakes are made when using idioms because learners try to change too much. Example: I have a lot on my plate today. ‘OR’ She works around the clock at weekends. (This means she works long hours. Probably all day, and maybe at night too.) In these phrases there are only two parts we can change, the verb and the pronouns: She has a lot on her plate today. (Correct)

I work around the clock at weekends. (Correct)

She has a lot in her bowl today. (Incorrect)

I work over the clock at the weekends. (Incorrect)

When can we use this phrase? One very common mistake is using a phrase in the wrong situation, or trying to use it literally. Example: I am very hungry so I will have a lot on my plate. (Incorrect) (Remember, this phrase means busy, so this is not the correct idiomatic use!) so… I have a lot on my plates with school, and I have been working around my watch. (Incorrect) I have a lot on my plate with school, and I have been working around the clock. (Correct)



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English Idioms Commonly Used In Daily Language Common Idioms

Meaning

Example

A blessing in disguise

seems bad, but is actually good

Accidently registering for the wrong class was actually a blessing in disguise.

Actions speak louder than words

actions are more important than words

You say you love me but actions speak louder than words.

A piece of cake

Easy

That test was a piece of cake.

Beating around the bush

not discussing what is important/procrastinating

I needed to study, but I kept beating around the bush.

Big task on your hand

having something important to finish

My teacher gave me a new assignment, so I have a big task on my hands.

Break a leg

wishing someone to do well/ good luck

You will do fine on your presentation. Go break a leg out there.

Can’t stand something

to dislike something

I can’t stand having to do homework on a Sunday.

Check out that

give that a look

Check out that very cool looking car.



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Close but no cigar

close but failed at the end

You got a 79% on the test. Almost a B…. close but no cigar.

Don't sweat it

Don’t worry about it

You accidently scratched my car but I don't care. Don’t sweat it.

Driving me bananas

making me feel crazy

My very loud neighbors are driving me bananas.

Easier said than done

easy to say, but hard to actually do

Changing the world is easier said than done.

Get out of town

I don't believe you

You got an A in your Finance class? Get out of town!

Get over it

forget about the past

He broke up with his girlfriend but he needs to get over it.

Gone off track

forgot about your future goal

My friend really got off track because he failed three classes this semester.

Hands down

for certain the right answer

America is hands down the best place to study abroad.

Hang on a second

wait for a moment

Hang on a second…I am waiting for my laundry to finish.



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Hang out

spend time with a friend

Joe and I hang out after class every week.

Have stumbled upon

to accidentally discover something

I stumbled upon a new restaurant while walking around downtown.

Hold your horses

wait/calm down

Hold your horses. I am still eating my lunch.

How is it going?

How are you?

How is it going Bobby?

I made a key decision

make an important decision

I made a key decision to finish college.

Inside scoop

the details

Hey give me the inside scoop on how you met John.

In the bag

will definitely happen

My baseball team will win the game. It is in the bag.

I was knocked on my heels

I was surprised

I was knocked on my heels when I realized I got the job.

I’ll toss it around

to casually suggest an idea

I am tossing around the idea of having a party



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Unit 6 Chapter 10- CONFUSING WORDS INTRODUCTION Confusing words questions have been designed to check primarily for mental alertness – differentiating between two similar words. English has a lot of commonly confused words. They look alike, sound alike or, worst of all, look and sound alike but have completely different meanings. Other words look and sound different but are hard to determine which the correct one in a given context is. To excel in this area, having a good vocabulary alone is not sufficient. A good vocabulary can be useful when used to trigger a word already in your vocabulary bank. But simply plucking out a near- synonym in trying to the guess the meaning of a word that seems similar to a word that you already know, can result in some disastrous situation because the word may not fit the context. And thus comes the need of understanding the usage of words and having mental alertness to identify subtle differences between/ among them. CATEGORIES OF CONFUSING WORDS 1. contractions vs. possessions Example: it’s Vs. its 2. words with multiple meanings Example: ail, capital, seen, die 3. wrong usage of words with same meaning Example: Fewer (Used with countable nouns) and Lesser (Used with uncountable nouns)

IRREGULAR WORDS 1. Spelling different – Words with same letters but different spellings Example - sale and seal 2. Pronunciation different – Words with same letters but different pronunciations Example – Wind (Air), Wind (Turn) 69 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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3. Mistaken to be one another – Words that are often based on the usage Example: Affect, Effect Accept vs. Except Accept (verb) - to receive 

I accepted all my birthday gifts with gratitude.

Except (conjunction) - apart from; otherwise than; were it not true 

When Susan travels, she packs everything except the kitchen sink.

Affect vs. Effect Affect (verb) - to have an effect on; influence; produce a change in; to stir the emotions 

The dog's death affected his owners.

Effect (noun) - anything brought about by a cause or agent; result 

The new speed limit law had little effect on the speed of the motorists.

All Intensive Purposes vs. All Intents and Purposes "All intensive purpose" is an incorrect use of the phrase "all intents and purposes." "All intents and purposes" is a phrase that means "for all practical purposes" or "under most usual situations." 

For all intents and purpose, she planned to buy the refrigerator but still wanted to check the reviews.

A Lot vs. Allot A lot (noun phrase) -many 

A lot of people came to the party.

*"A lot" is always two separate words. "Alot" is not a real word. Allot (verb) - to distribute, give or assign 

Fifteen minutes were allotted to each of the speakers at the conference.



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Allusion vs. Illusion Allusion (noun) - an indirect reference 

The Austin Powers movies often make allusions to the James Bond films.

Illusion (noun) - a false idea or conception; belief or opinion not in accord with the facts; an unreal, deceptive, or misleading appearance or image 

The magician created the illusion that he was levitating.

Awhile vs. A While Awhile (adverb) - for a while; for a short time 

The guests planned to stay awhile.

A while (noun) - for a short time; when while is used as the object of the preposition (for a while) then the "a" is separated from the "while" 

The guests planned to stay for a while.

Bad vs. Badly Bad (adjective) - not good 

Your feet smell bad.

Badly (adverb) - not well; in a bad manner; harmfully; incorrectly; wickedly; unpleasantly 

Charlotte plays tennis very badly.



The people involved in the accident were badly hurt.

Borrow vs. Lend Borrow (verb) - to take or accept something for a short time with the intention of returning it to its rightful owner 

May I borrow a pencil, please?

Lend (verb) - to give something for a short time with the intention of getting it back 

Would you please lend me a pencil? 71



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Breath vs. Breathe Breath (noun) - air taken into the lungs and then let out 

Take a deep breath.

Breathe (verb) - to inhale and exhale 

Just calm down and breathe.

Butt Naked vs. Buck Naked Butt Naked is a phrase that means to be without clothes. 

The baby tore off his diaper and ran around the house butt naked.

Buck Naked is a phrase that also means to be naked and without clothing. 

The baby tore off his diaper and ran around the house buck naked

Cache vs. Cash Cache (noun) - a safe place to store supplies; anything stored or hidden in such a place 

The hikers found a cache with some cash and jewels.

Cash (noun) - money, coins, bills; currency 

ATM machines dispense cash.

Chomp at the Bit vs. Champ at the Bit Chomp at the bit - an overused and incorrect form of "champing at the bit" Champ at the bit (idiom) - ready or anxious; eager to be going or moving along. 

The kids were champing at the bit to see the newest Harry Potter movie.

Complement vs. Compliment Complement (noun) - that which completes or brings to perfection; (verb) - to make complete 

Red wine is a nice complement to a steak dinner.



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Compliment (noun) - something said in admiration, praise, or flattery; (verb) - to pay a compliment to; congratulate 

She gave me a nice compliment when she said I looked thin.

Comprise vs. Compose Comprise (verb) - to include; to contain; to consist of; to be composed of 

The state of North Carolina comprises 100 counties. Compose (verb) - to form in combination; make up; constitute



One hundred counties compose the state of North Carolina.

Desert vs. Dessert Desert (verb) - to forsake or abandon; to leave without permission; to fail when needed 

Soldiers should not desert their posts.

Desert (noun) - dry, barren, sandy region 

The largest desert in the world is the Sahara.

Dessert (noun) - a sweet course served at the end of a meal 

Fruit makes a healthy dessert after lunch or dinner.

Done vs. Did Done (adjective) - completed; sufficiently cooked; socially acceptable Done (verb) - the past participle of do 

After an hour, the roast was done.

Did (verb) - past tense of do 

The children did not want to leave the playground.



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Elicit vs. Illicit Elicit (verb) - to draw forth; evoke 

The teacher elicited answers from the students.

Illicit (adjective) - unlawful; illegal 

The teacher discovered illicit drugs in a student’s desk.

Fair to Midland vs. Fair to Middling Fair to midland - an incorrect use of the phrase "fair to middling" Fair to middling (phrase) - something that is moderate to average in quality 

The temperature was fair to middling today.

Had Bought vs. Had Boughten Had Bought (verb) - the past perfect tense of the verb buy 

The teacher had bought Christmas presents for all of students early in the year.

Had Boughten - incorrect usage of the past perfect tense Hone vs. Home Hone (verb) - to sharpen; to yearn or long for; to grumble or moan 

Practicing the piano daily is a good way to hone your skills.

Home (noun) - dwelling; place where a person lives 

After the long drive, we were all ready to be home and asleep.

Idiosyncrasy vs. Idiosyncracy Idiosyncrasy (noun) - any personal peculiarity or mannerism; individual reaction to food or drug. 

Twins have idiosyncrasies, which often help to distinguish one from the other.

Idiosyncracy is a misspelling of idiosyncrasy.



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Imitated vs. Intimated Imitated (verb) - past tense of the verb imitate, which means to seek to follow the example of; impersonate; mimic 

The toddler imitated the dog by crawling on hands and knees and barking.

Intimated (verb) - to make known indirectly; to hint or imply 

The pirate intimated that he knew where the treasure was buried.

In a Sense vs. In Essence In a sense (idiom) - in a way; in one way of looking at it 

In a sense, computers have been a boon to society.

In essence (idiom) - by nature; essentially 

The cat is, in essence, quiet and timid.

In One Foul Swoop vs. In One Fell Swoop In one foul swoop - an incorrect use of the phrase "in one fell swoop" In one fell swoop - a phrase meaning "all at once" 

In one fell swoop, the toy was demolished by the child.

Its vs. It’s Its (possessive pronoun) - of, belonging to, made by, or done by it 

The dog will only eat its food when I am also eating.

It’s (contraction) of it + is 

It’s a very strange dog.

I Could Of vs. I Could Have I could of - an incorrect use of the verb phrase could have; when written as a contraction "could've" sounds like "could of." I could have - is the past perfect tense of the verb could 75 School of Professional Enhancement 1




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I could have gone to the play, but I had to study that night

I Should of vs. I Should Have I should of - an incorrect use of the verb phrase should have; when written as a contraction "should've" sounds like "should of." I should have - is the past perfect tense of the verb should 

I should have gone to the play instead of study because I failed my test anyway.

I Would Of vs. I Would Have I would of - an incorrect use of the verb phrase would have; when written as a contraction "would've" sounds like "would of." I would have - is the past perfect tense of the verb would 

I would have gone to the play except my car wouldn't start.

Lead vs. Led Lead (noun) - a heavy, soft, malleable, bluish-gray metallic chemical element used in batteries and in numerous alloys and compounds 

I think it was Mrs. White in the billiard room with the lead pipe.

Led (verb) - past tense and past participle of the verb "to lead" 

The two coaches have each led their teams to numerous championships.

Lose vs. Loose Lose (verb) - to become unable to find; to mislay; to fail to win or gain 

Did you lose your glasses again?



How many games did your team lose last season?

Loose (adjective) - not tight; giving enough room 

I’ve lost twenty pounds, and now these jeans are really loose. 76



PEL 121

More/Most Importantly vs. More/Most Important More/most importantly - a phrase used often in writing to show emphasis; however, many grammarians insist that this is not correct usage. The adverbial ending of -ly is not needed. More/most important - this phrase should be used instead 

The most important part of story is the ending.

Passed vs. Past Passed (verb) - past tense of the verb "to pass" 

I think we passed the store. Let’s turn around and go back.

Past (adjective) - of a former time; bygone; (noun) - the time that has gone by; days, months, or years gone by 

In the past, I’ve gotten lost a lot, but this time I know where we are.

Precede vs. Proceed Precede (verb) - to be, come, or go before in time, place, order, rank, or importance 

The election of a new president precedes his inauguration.

Proceed (verb) - to advance or go on, especially after stopping 

After your first assignment has been completed and approved, you may proceed to the second one.

Principal vs. Principle Principal (noun) - a governing or presiding officer, specifically of a school; (adjective) - first in rank, authority, importance, degree, etc. 

The student’s parents had to have a meeting with the principal.

Principle (noun) - a fundamental truth, law, doctrine, or motivating force, upon which others are based 77 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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PEL 121

The student’s parents thought that they had instilled stronger moral principles in their son.

Seen vs. Saw Seen (verb) - past participle of the verb see; must be used with the verbs has, have, or had 

I have seen the movie three times.



*Note: I seen the movie three times is not correct though it is commonly used in spoken language.

Saw (verb) - past tense of the verb see 

I saw the movie yesterday.

Sell vs. Sale Sell (verb) - to give up, deliver or exchange for money 

People who move often sell unwanted items instead of packing them.

Sale (noun) - the act of selling; the work, department, etc. of selling 

After Christmas sales always bring in the bargain shoppers.

Site vs. Sight Sight (noun) - something seen, a view, field of vision 

She was a sight for sore eyes.

Site (noun) - a piece of land considered for a specific purpose 

The corner lot was a perfect site for the new shopping center.

Spitting Image vs. Spirit and Image "Spitting image" is a phrase that means exactly like. The first known use in writing of this phrase was in 1901. 

Karen is the spitting image of her mother.

Stationary vs. Stationery Stationary (adjective) - not moving or not movable; fixed or still 78 School of Professional Enhancement 1


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PEL 121

I rode the stationary bike at the gym for an hour.

Stationery (noun) - writing materials; specifically, paper and envelopes used for letters 

My grandmother has given me a lot of stationery over the years. I think she wants me to use it to write her.

Taut vs Taunt Taut (adjective) - tightly stretched; showing strain; tidy or well-disciplined 

The taut rope held the luggage to the roof.

Taunt (verb) - to reproach in scornful or sarcastic language; to drive or provoke 

The home team taunted the visitors with cheers every time the visiting team made an error.

Than vs. Then Than (conjunction) - used to introduce the second element in a comparison 

My right foot is bigger than my left foot.

Then (adverb) - at that time; next in order; (adjective) - of that time; (noun) - that time 

Take off all your clothes first. Then get in the shower.



Emily drove up to New York with her then boyfriend, Nick.



Let's wait until we're hungry; we can decide what we want to eat then.

Their vs. There vs. They’re Their (adjective) - of, belonging to, made by, or done by them 

They were proud of their work.

There (noun) - that place or point 

Just put it over there.

They’re (contraction) of they + are 

They’re going out to dinner tonight. 79



PEL 121

To vs. Too vs. Two To (preposition) - in the direction of and reaching; as far as; to the extent of 

I’m going to Baltimore.

Too (adverb) - in addition; as well; besides; also; more than enough; superfluously; overly; to a regrettable extent; extremely 

I’m going to Baltimore, too.



I'm too busy. I can't go to Baltimore.

Two (adjective) the number 2 

I have two jobs.

Your vs. You're Your (adjective) - belonging to you 

Is this your dog?

You're (contraction) - you are 

You're a great mother!

Who vs. Whom Who (subject pronoun) - what or which person or persons; the person or persons that, or a person that (used to introduce a relative clause) 

Who is going to the party with you?

Whom (object pronoun) - what or which person or persons; the person or persons that, or a person that (used to introduce a relative clause) 

With whom are you going to the party?


21820 5 2017 a. Final Lecture Book

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