2018 OnePwaa History Study Guide

 An Entangled World | 2018

Study Guide The History of Diplomacy

Contents Introductory Questions………………………………………………………………………………. Questions………………………………………………………………………………...1 ..1 Origins of Diplomacy…………………………………………………… Diplomacy…………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………….4 .4 The Instruments of Diplomacy………………………………………………………………… Di plomacy…………………………………………………………………8 8 The Outcomes of Diplomacy…………………………………………………………………… Diplomacy……………………………………………………………………15 15 The Role of Diplomats……………………………………………………………………………… Diplomats………………………………………………………………………………..26 ..26 Selected Readings and Speeches………………………………………………………… Speeches………………………………………………………….37 .37 Additional Cases & Questions……………………… Questions………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………….39 .39

Many thanks go to the following people who researched for, organised, and formatted this study guide: Darren Tan

 Avan Fata

Rodger Nyioh

Sarah Swea

Emily Peng

Stephanie Yeung

 Victoria Sin

Tan Jie Ying

Suzu Kitamura

Charlie Goldsworthy

Isabelle Chloe Supandji

Thi To Hien

 Joshua Ng

Karla Dursin

 Jackalyn So

Patrice Yang

Disclaimer: The information in this study guide is true and complete to the best of our knowledge. However, we cannot guarantee that all information provided is 100% correct. The WSC curriculum is open to interpretation, and as such, can have many different analyses. To find out more about OnePwaa, visit our website (www.onepwaa.weebly.com www.onepwaa.weebly.com))

Introductory Questions

What is the purpose of diplomacy?  Essentially, the purpose of diplomacy is to resolve a conflict between two parties (or more) who possess opposing views on a topic. The aim of diplomacy is to find a compromise that satisfies all parties without fully conceding to the aims of one or completely ignoring those of another.

How is diplomacy different than t han discussion?  Diplomacy is different from discussion in the fact that the former aims to arrive at an agreement or resolution of sorts between the two (or more) parties. A discussion on the other hand, only aims to share thoughts without necessarily reaching an agreed conclusion. In the modern world however, with the inaction of the UN and other diplomatic bodies in major world issues, diplomacy is beginning to look more like formalized discussions (opinion)

Does a diplomat always represent one party’s interests to another party?  While technically speaking that is the duty of a diplomat, sometimes personal interests can also come into play. Generally speaking however, within diplomatic delegations such as the UN, a diplomat focuses only on representing the interests/desires of their country.

How did modern diplomatic protocols come about—and do these protocols do more to strengthen diplomacy or to limit it?  Like majority of most protocols, diplomatic protocols have been developed as history has progressed, shifting to adjust to the situation within the world. The most recent diplomatic protocol shake-up was the Vienna Accords on Diplomatic Relations. This 1961 document lays down a framework for diplomacy between all countries c ountries and clearly outlines the role of diplomats and their privileges. The effectiveness of these protocols have yet to be seen, as even though more than 50 years have passed, a conclusive statement regarding their effect cannot be said. What can be said however, is the fact that now diplomacy is fa r more formal than it once was and that diplomats have a much easi er job than before. Whereas once they might’ve had to deal with death threats, bribery and other aggressive forms of manipulation, now they can feel relatively relat ively secure when voicing the opinions of their country.

When two countries sign a treaty, what guarantees it will be upheld?  For many treaties, signing does not make them fully binding -- there is a process of ratific ation, acceptance and approval that comes c omes afterward. Treaty obligations are kept under the international law principle of pacta sunt servanda -- Latin for “agreements are to be kept”. However, this does not guarantee that they will be. Instead, the main reason why countries adhere to its obligations in the treaty is because they would like to preserve their own legitimacy -- if a country fails to t o abide by terms in a treaty, it cannot have the authority to tell others to do so. Additionally, there will be less support (by other countries) for a country that does not follow terms of a treaty. Moreover, if a country does not comply to a treaty, there may be shaming from the public, sanctions may be imposed, and war may break out.

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Introductory Questions (cont.)

Is diplomacy inherently political? Are diplomats politicians?  Yes. Diplomats are by definition representatives of their home country, much like politicians are representatives of the people in the district/state they represent.

What is the difference between an ambassador and a diplomat?  An ambassador is the head of a diplomatic mission, meaning an ambassador are the diplomats’ superior on diplomatic missions.

Does diplomacy need to look different in the 21st century?  Yes. In a time where everything in society is undergoing change at an impossibly fast rate, diplomats need to learn how to adapt to these changes quickly. In other words, the act of diplomacy should change as well.

How do countries come to diplomatic agreements—and what happens when two nations cannot reach a diplomatic agreement?  To come to a diplomatic agreement, countries must hold negotiations. They need to agree on the place and format on the negotiations. If the two countries are on bad t erms, they may choose a neutral ground. If two nations cannot reach a diplomatic agreement, they may try to continue looking for an agreement, or ignore each other and treat each other with hostility. They may also start a war.

What problems has international diplomacy helped to solve in recent years – and what problems has it helped to create? International diplomacy rose out of the carnage of WWII. The UN was founded with a mission of global peacekeeping and they did mediate various crises such as the t he Indonesian National Revolution, the Arab-Israeli conflict, the Korean War, the Rwandan crisis, and more recently the Syrian and Libyan Civil C ivil Wars and the current Mediterranean refuge crisis stemming from those conflicts.The UN's successes include facilitating the distribution of aid to conflict zones and refugees, and the application of sanctions against a gainst “rogue regimes” (like Saddam’s Iraq and Milosevic’s Serbia). However, they did have some failures. failu res. The deadlock in UN security was caused by the rivalry between bet ween global superpowers US, Russia and China. The UN combined with the US and EU still have tried and failed to mediate the Israel-Palestine conflict.

Is it ever appropriate for a diplomat to express disagreement with his or her country’s leader?  Yes. While a diplomat technically should be in agreement with their leaders, they also have a responsibility to represent everyone in their respective nations, including those who disagree with their leader.

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Introductory Questions (cont.) Should diplomats be granted special privileges when they are representing their nations abroad?  Yes and no. Yes- because they must protect information of their own country. An attack on a diplomat is basically an attack on the country itself. But also no because diplomats are citizens of a country all the same, and the fact that they can get away with misbehaviour and committing crimes may anger citizens of the t he country.

Do businesses and other non-governmental institutions need diplomats—and if so, under what circumstances? How about revolutionary movements, or terrorist organizations?  Yes, but only in situations where they need someone to represent them. For example, a business setting up a branch in another country may require a diplomat to help them with bureaucratic issues and the laws in said country. Diplomats representing a revolutionary movement and/or terrorist organisations may be beneficial, as these di plomats may be more skilled with negotiation compared to a random representative.

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Origins of Diplomacy

Key Content + City-State City-States s of Ancient Ancient Greece + Han Dynast Dynasty y China China + Byzantine Byzantine Empire + Renaissanc Renaissance e Italy Italy + Ancien Ancientt India

Big Idea Explore the origins of diplomacy in historical civilizations. How different was it than diplomacy today?

Diplomacy actually wasn’t that different 100 years ago. It still consisted of orderly and civilized discussions between two or more opposing parties. However, the main way in which it differs now is that there is a framework for diplomats to follow and protocols that need to be carried out in specific situations. Diplomacy 400 and even 300 years ago was a murky business, often compared to that of crime or even treachery. Diplomats had the free rein to do whatever they needed to accomplish their goals, including bribery, forgery and threats. At the beginning of the 19th century, as diplomacy became more formalized and new procedures put into place, the life of a diplomat was much more peaceful and slightly less convoluted with crime and other shady actions.

What does diplomacy even mean?

According to Merriam-Webster, diplomacy is defined as “the art and practice of conducting negotiations between nations”.

City-States of Ancient Greece + Developed from Ancient Greek Greek customs + Worked Worked on an ad hoc basis, typically typically travelling for one specific task. + Focused on resolving resolving disputes between city-states. + Foreign negotiation negotiation later made by some city-states to Persia and Rome

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Origins of Diplomacy Han Dynasty China + 202 202 B BC C – AD 220 + groundb groundbrea reaki king ng era in the history of Imperial China’s foreign relations + Diplomat Zhang Quian (under the long reign of Emperor Wu of Han): Han): + His travels opened up China’s China’s relations with different Asian territories for the first time. + Imprisoned by the Xiongnu for many years, but when when rescued, brought information about lands previously unknown to the Chinese. + Silk Road established after his travels travels

Consider: In what ways did Zhanq Qian’s travels impact society?

Byzantine Empire

mage: Britannica.co mage:  Britannica.com m

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Origins of Diplomacy Renaissance Italy

The Renaissance was a cultural rebirth of classical ideas and values from Ancient Rome and Greece.

 Ancient India

map showing the boundary of the  Mauryan Empire Empire mage: World Book map

Recap: How are the above civilisations different to modern-day diplomacy?

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Origins of Diplomacy Look into the evolution of modern diplomatic institutions, concluding (for now) with the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations in 1961. Have the roles, responsibilities, and privileges of diplomats changed significantly over time?  As has been discussed above, the role of diplomats and their privileges has shifted over time to adapt to the roles and responsibilities they had. In I n Ancient times, diplomats simply had the job j ob of representing their state’s interests to another state. Thus they had limited li mited privileges and received limited diplomatic immunity. Over the course of history, as diplomacy was not exactly a fair game, espionage and coercion did not allow diplomats many safeties. After the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations in 1961, it was clearly stated the responsibilities of both the diplomat and the host country. In broad terms, the document essentially gives rules and regulations on the boundaries of diplomatic immunity, protecting not only the diplomat but also the families and couriers. It also states that all conversations may be confidential, and that no diplomatic bags can be opened at any time. It places quite a bit of responsibility on the host country, but also gives them the option of declaring any diplomat a persona non grata, meaning that the host country must recall them within a suitable period of time. In conclusion, it can be said that the roles of di plomats have increased but their privileges are noticeably less l ess numerous than previously in history.

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The Instruments of Diplomacy Diplomatic Institutions Embassy  An embassy can either refer to the delegation of diplomats sent on a permanent diplomatic mission or the building in which the diplomats do their work (Ex: the Embassy of the UK in Washington, D.C). Commonwealth embassies in non-Commonwealth countries share a more special relationship, as they are expected to serve all Commonwealth citizens who have no embassies in said country. The same is expected of all EU embassies regarding its citizens.

Consulate A consulate is similar to, but not the same as a diplomatic office as it focuses on dealing with individuals and businesses. For example, an American consul may assist both American citizens staying in Germany and vice versa with bureaucratic issues, while embassies are more focused on the political side of diplomacy.

Mission A diplomatic mission is a state representing itself officially in another state by sending a group of people there, usually to the receiving nation’s capital.

 Asylum A diplomatic asylum was requested in diplomatic diplomatic missions. However, it is not recognised recognised by international law: 

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drafters of the 1961 Vienna Convention refused to introduce diplomatic asylum in spite of a strong request by Latin American countries The International Court of Justice (ICJ) did not recognise diplomatic asylum as legal concept in the 1950 Asylum Case however it does exist as regional law in Latin American countries countries

diplomatic immunity Diplomatic immunity means all diplomats are only prosecuted under their home ho me country’s

laws.

diplomatic bags Bags of diplomats are not allowed to be checked by the host country to prevent espionage- so when diplomats travel, scans and bag checks are exempted for them. However, this has been misused and exploited by people for the purpose of piracy, stealing expensive items or transporting dangerous goods.

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The Instruments of Diplomacy Rezidentura   

“resident spy” in espionage

Russian parlance resident spies can be legal / illegal legal resident spy has advantage of diplomatic status but is known by host country o (harder to spy) illegal resident spy does not have diplomatic status to give them accessibility to info but o is not known by host country

Diplomatic Offices  Ambassador  The head of diplomatic missions. Depending on the ambassador’s country of origin, the ambassador’s official title can be anything from nuncio (“envoy” in Latin) for a Vatican mission

and high commissioners for missions between Commonwealth countries. Until the mid-20th century, most ambassadors were only sent between major countries until it was declared that all nations should be seen as equals. In other words, ambassadors were sent to all countries instead of just those considered c onsidered superior to the rest.

Envoy  Usually referred to as a minister, an envoy is 2nd in rank to the ambassador and is authorised to represent their government despite not representing their head of state. Diplomatic missions headed by envoys are called legations instead of embassies.

Minister  A diplomat representing one government to another, usually the head of a government department.

Consul Unlike an ambassador, the consul does not represent their country’s head of state and only

serves as an official offici al representative of the government. government. A country may also send more consuls to a certain country c ountry but only appoint one ambassador for the same purpose. The highest rank a consul can achieve is consul-general, with their office becoming a consulate -general.

Secretary  A diplomatic official o f an embassy or legation who ranks below a counselor and is usually assigned as first secretary, second secretary, or third secretary.

Counselor A senior diplomatic title ranking just behind an ambassador and a minister. In many embassies there is no minister, and the counselor is the number two man, i.e., the deputy chief of mission. (In a very small embassy, the second may not have this rank)

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The Instruments of Diplomacy charge d'affaire The charge d’affaire takes over the role of leadership in the absence of an ambassador, like if the latter was recalled or if there’s a gap between an ambassador’s term of service and their

respective successors.

 Source: Wikipedia Wikipedia

for more, visit https://www.google.com/url?q=http://www.ediplomat.com/nd/glossary.htm&sa=D&ust=1528324382 070000&usg=AFQjCNGGFyZ8UOOMiN9M4mTz2VVmRAZH3w

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The Instruments of Diplomacy Approaches to Diplomacy Gunboat 

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Refers to the pursuit of foreign policy objectives with the aid of conspicuous displays of naval power - implying direct threat of warfare Foreign policy that is supported by the threat of military force Also known as the Big Stick Ideology o This term is often associated with the activities of the Great Powers in the o second half of the nineteenth century Most associated with Washington’s diplomatic and military interventions Theodore Roosevelt wanted to make America the dominant power in the circum-Caribbean and across the Pacific P acific James Cable defined gunboat diplomacy as the t he use of threat of naval war, otherwise than as an act of war in order to secure an advantage or avert a loss Four major uses of gunboat diplomacy o Definitive Force The use of gunboat diplomacy to create or remove a fait accompli (meaning something that has happened and is unlikely t o be reversed). Purposeful Force Application of naval force to change the policy or character of the target government Catalytic Force A mechanism used to buy time/ breathing space. Prolongs decisions to give policy makers more time to think of a plan Expressive Force Use navies to send a political message Current examples I.e. President Xi JinPing’s demonstration of naval power in o the South China Sea // Construction of anthropogenic military islands in the Spratyl islands 

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Coercive  

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Otherwise known as Forceful Persuasion An attempt to get a target, a state, or a group within a state, or a non-state actor to change its objectionable behaviour through the threat of force Essentially similar to gunboat diplomacy o Does not only use boats to coerce groups o Framework for coercive diplomacy Ultimatum o Gives the stakeholder a choice between two options and two options only and a mandatory compliance within a specific period of time Tacit Ultimatum o Like an ultimatum just without an explicit timeframe given Try-and-See o An immediate threat on the opponent Gradual Turning of the Screw o Much like the “Try-and-See” method 

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The Instruments of Diplomacy Gradually, incremental increase of pressure rather than immediate results Requirements for Success A threat of force to defeat the opponent o A deadline for compliance o An assurance to the adversary for future demands o An offer of inducements for compliance o Examples: John F.Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis C risis 

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Preventive   

An action to prevent disputes from arising between parties To prevent disputes from escalating into conflicts of mass proportions Examples: UN peacekeeping mission in Macedonia

 Appeasement 

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A diplomatic policy of conceding (making concessions) to the coercions of aggressive foreign powers Basically the on the receiving end of Gunboat/Coercive diplomacy i.e.Ramsay Baldwin, Stanley Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain conceding to the o Nazi Party and Fascist Italy Opponents of appeasement argue that it is the main reason as to what led Hitler and the Nazi Party to rise to power

Paradiplomacy  

International relations conducted by subnational or regional governments on their own with a view on promoting their interests

Soft power  

A persuasive and non-coercive approach to international relations. Approaches that do not involved threats or declarations of war o

Hard power  

A coercive and forceful approach to international relations I.e. Gunboat Diplomacy/ Coercive Diplomacy o

Nuclear  Nuclear diplomacy concerns the deadliest weapon known to humankind, nuclear weapons, and their proliferation in peacetime as well as the prevention of their use in wartime. It mainly sets down rules for nations as to their development of nuclear weapons and their ability to proliferate (multiply) their arsenals.

Counterinsurgency  Counterinsurgency refers to the prevention of extremist, insurgent or other terrorist actions. Counterinsurgency diplomacy is the use of negotiation between

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The Instruments of Diplomacy extremist factions and countries where they are active to avoid any hostile actions. This includes concessions or formally recognizing the terrorist group. Not the greatest diplomatic field in the 21st century, with little in the way of efforts to stop groups like ISIS or Al -Qaeda.

Public Public diplomacy focuses on manipulating the opinions/interests of the public within a foreign country to support the interests of one’s own government. After all, without any backing or support, you might as well toss in the towel when it comes to convincing the other side to agree with your terms.

Dollar  Specific to the United States, Dollar Diplomacy was a term used during the term of President William Howard Taft, wherein American foreign policy furthered its aims in Latin America by guaranteeing loans to foreign countries.

Cyber  An evolution of Public Diplomacy, Cyber Diplomacy focuses on using the many widespread communication devices of the 21st century to widen the voice a foreign power has on manipulating the public of another country. This includes social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook or online news outlets. The aim is not so much to convince the other side to give in to your terms, but to get more backing for your terms, pressuring the other side to eventually give in.

Zero-sum Zero-sum diplomacy focuses on creating terms or interests that entail a gain for one country or party, but a corresponding loss for the other. One example of this can be found in the Treaty of Versailles, wherein the Triple Entente gained money, while Germany suffered a loss of it.

third neighbor  The Third Neighbor diplomacy is a concept rooted in history. It traces back to when Mongolian foreign policy meant developing relations with countries other than China and the USSR, since these two superpowers possessed a sphere of influence on the country. As such, help from other foreign powers was necessary should either China or the USSR try to exploit Mongolia’s market mar ket on mineral extraction.

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The Instruments of Diplomacy Additional Terms to Know Proxenos An arrangement whereby a citizen (chosen by the cit y) hosted foreign ambassadors at his own expense, in return for honorary titles from the st ate

Paiza A tablet carried by Mongol M ongol officials and envoys to signify certain c ertain privileges and authority

Plenipotentiary A person who has full power over something

Peacekeeper  A soldier, military force, etc., deployed to maintain or restore peace

non-state actors Individuals or organizations that hold significant political influence and are not in alliance with a country or state. Some forms of non-state actors are liberation l iberation movements, nongovernmental organizations, large business magnates, religious groups, or paramilitary forces.

 Alliance A relationship between two or more people, groups or states (known as allies) that have joined in an agreement that mutually benefits one another.

Summit A meeting or conference between heads of state, especia lly to conduct diplomatic negotiations and ease tensions between countries.

Embargo An official ban on trade or commercial activity with a particular country.

Persona non grata An unacceptable or unwelcome person. In diplomacy, this means a person whose entry and residence or even communication with their state is prohibited. Often times, that person will then be removed by force from the country, unless they are already off the state’s soil.

Extraterritoriality  A place where the inhabitants/citizens are immune to prosecution by local law, usually given by a foreign nation. Places that are usually common with this status are foreign embassies, military bases and UN offices.

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The Outcomes of Diplomacy Sanctions Actions taken against foreign countries due to displeasure with diplomatic opinions or entirely personal reasons. These can include Diplomatic Sanctions, where diplomatic ties are cut. Economic Sanctions, where trade is limited to certain goods and amounts or stopped entirely. Military sanctions, where an armed force intervenes and sport sanctions, where teams and athletes from a foreign country are prohibited from participating in any international sporting events.

Self-determination Self-determination is the right for all peoples to freely determine their political status and pursue any economic, cultural and social developments. It is often a cla use outlined in diplomatic agreements, treaties and even formation documents. The most notorious might be the Atlantic Charter of 1940, which gave British dominions like Canada and Australia (but more famously excluded India) the determination to break free from British rule.

Polarity  Any way in which power is distributed within the international stage. Be it superpowers such as the USA and Russia, or with seemingly less powerful countries such as African or South American ones.

Realpolitik  A system of politics and principles based on considerations of given circumstances and factors, as opposed to considering ideological notions or moral and ethical frameworks. Most commonly associated with Otto Von Bismarck, the “Iron Chancellor” of Germany who used this method to declare war on other nations regardless of human c onsideration.

Ultimatum A final demand or statement of terms by one party, the rejection of which will lead to breakdowns in relations and retaliation. Usually associated with war, ultimatums are given as a sort of “take it or leave it” declaration amped up to 11. If you were to take it, chances are the terms are very much against your interests, if you were to leave it, well even harsher consequences could arise.

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The Outcomes of Diplomacy Notable Pacts and Treaties (examples)  Amarna letters    

WHEN ~14th century WHO Ancient Near East and a nd Egypt WHAT a body of 14th century correspondence correspondence between the rulers of the Ancient Near East and Egypt- the earliest examples of international diplomacy (written on clay tablets), mentioning diplomatic marriage, friendship statements and exchanged materials

Treaty of Nerchinsk   

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WHEN 25 May 1858 WHO Russian Empire, Chinese Qing Dynasty WHAT A border treaty and peace settlement between Russia and the Manchu M anchu Chinese empire- China stopped Russia’s expansion. By the treaty’s terms, Russia lost access to large masses of land but gained the right of passage to Beijing for its trade caravans WHERE Nerchinsk, Russia

Peace of Westphalia  

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WHEN 24 October 1648 WHO 109 parties involved in the war in the Holy Roman Empire including France, Spain, Holy Roman Empire, Venice, Venice, Sweden, Dutch Republic Republic (Protestant and Catholic Church) WHAT brought an end the Eighty Years' War between Spain, Netherlands and Germany's 30 year involvement. WHERE Osnabrück and Münster, Westphalia, modern-day Germany WHY to seek peace within the Holy Roman Empire OTHER Some scholars of international relations credit the treaties with providing the foundation of the modern state system and articulating the concept of territorial sovereignty

 Abuja Treaty (also known as the African African Economic Community Community Treaty)   

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WHEN adopted in 1991 by the African Union (AU), enforced in 1994. WHO Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi WHAT established the African Economic Community (AEC), aimed to establish a single African currency by 2023 WHY cooperation and integration among African countries was becoming increasingly important in economic, social and cultural aspects. This was indispensable to the accelerated transformation and sustainable development of the African continent. It also further aims to raise the standard of living for Africa’s people and increase harmony amongst member states.

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The Outcomes of Diplomacy Treaty of Utrecht   

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WHEN March and April, 1713 WHO Spain, Great Britain, France, Portugal, Savoy, Dutch Republic WHAT A series of individual peace treaties signed by the forces of the War of the Spanish succession, with the aim to preserve the power balance of Europe. It allowed Philip to take the t he Spanish throne in exchange for dethroning the French throne completely, along with ensuring France and Spain would not merge in the near future. WHERE the Dutch city of Utrecht Ut recht

Treaty of Versailles    

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WHEN end of WW1, 1919 WHERE Hall of Mirrors, Versailles Palace, France WHO “Big Three” Clemenceau: from France, which suffered the most war loses. He strongly o wished that Germany would be punished severely Lloyd-George: from the UK. He was more lenient on Germany as he wished for o economic revival so the two countries could trade. t rade. However he was insistent on having the strongest navy in Europe, so he wanted terms in the treaty restricting the size of Germany’s naval forces fo rces Wilson: president of the USA. Being a non-European state, Wilson had a more o optimistic and idealistic outlook, wanting the treaty to be based on his Fourteen Points. He wished to be as lenient on Germany as possible. WHAT A Germany had little littl e to say in the t he setup, and ended up paying high reparations, territorial losses (Alsace-Lorraine, the Saar Basin, Eupen, Malmedy, and much more), demilitarisation of the Rhineland, restrictions restrictions on the army and weapons, weapons, and getting the blame for starting the war (Article 231, War Guilt Clause). A League of Nations was set up to enforce and uphold this treaty. WHY to negotiate a “just” peace at the end of the first world war after Germany signed the armistice and decided to seek peace One of the most important treaties in history that ended World War 1 on July 18, 1919.

Paris Peace Accords    

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WHEN 27 January 1973 WHERE Paris WHO North Vietnam, South Vietnam, United States of America, Provisional Revolutionary Government WHAT reunification of Vietnam was to be carried out “step by step through peaceful means”, and the USA would replace any of South Vietnam’s weapons used for defence against Northern Vietnamese aggression WHY to establish peace in Vietnam at the end of the Vietnam War

 Antarctic Treaty    

WHEN 1 December 1959 WHERE Washington DC, United States WHO Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, UK, US, USSR

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The Outcomes of Diplomacy 

WHAT negotiated terms on the use of Antarctica as it is the only continent uninhabited by humans. Seven countries got partial territorial claim out of this treaty.

Khitomer Accords   

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WHEN 2293 (Star Trek) WHERE originally scheduled to be on Planet Earth, but changed to Camp Khitomer due to the assassination of Chancellor Gorkon from Klingon WHO Klingon Empire / United Federation of Planets P lanets WHAT the first peace treaty between the Klingon Empire and United Federation of Planets WHY the explosion of the Klingon moon Praxis caused severe ecological damage on the Klingon homeworld

Treaty of Tordesillas    

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WHEN 7 June 1494 WHERE Tordesillas WHO Portugal and Castile WHAT divided trading and colonising rights for f or all newly discovered lands of the world between Portugal and Castile to the exclusion of other European countries WHY to make trade fair OTHER the treaty was ignored by many countries

Paris Climate Agreement     

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WHEN 22 April 2017 WHERE New York WHO 175 countries out of 196 WHAT it aimed to 1- keep warming "well below 2 degrees Celsius"; o 2- rich countries provide USD $100 billion by 2020 as a "floor"; o 3- specialisation where MEDCs take the lead in reducing GHGs; o 4- aim for GHG emissions to peak ASAP, preferably by 2050; o 5- burden sharing where countries help each other in terms of providing o finance; 6- review mechanism every 5 years; o 7- averting, addressing, minimising losses from natural disasters o WHY to attempt to reduce climate change OTHER (RESULT) 3 countries withdrew and/or refused to s ign/ 

 Sugauli Treaty     

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WHEN 2 December 1815 WHERE Sugauli, India WHO Gurkha Chiefs of Nepal and the British Indian government WHAT The treaty determined the boundary line of Nepal. Nepal claimed the territory of Tarai (low lands) OTHER (RESULT): Nepal remained independent independent but received a British Brit ish ambassador.

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The Outcomes of Diplomacy Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty  

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WHEN 1970; extended in 1995 WHERE Moscow (Russia), London (UK), Washing DC (United States) in 1970; UN HQ in NYC in 1995 WHO 190 countries involved- all countries except India, Israel, North Korea, South Sudan and Pakistan WHAT the treaty is uniquely unfair, telling non-nuclear states to forgo making nuclear weapons while allowing nuclear countries to keep their weapons. There were three pillars to the treaty: non-proliferation, disarmament and peaceful use of nuclear energy. WHY to prevent the spread of nuclear technology and the production of nuclear weapons in all countries but especially the stronger ones OTHER the treaty was extended ex tended indefinitely without condition in 1995 at UN headquarters in New York

Douglas Treaties (aka Victoria Island Treaties / Fort Victoria Treaties)   

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WHEN 1850-1854 WHERE Colony of Vancouver Island WHO indigenous groups on Vancouver Islands and colonies of Vancouver Islands (before they became a part of Canada) WHAT a person named Douglas bought land on Vancouver, Canada 14 times, and all treaties signed each of the times became a part of the Douglas Treaties. Peopled sued this because there were a lot of terms and conditions added after  the  the signing OTHER (RESULT) Douglas became practically broke after buying 14 territories so he stopped after that

The Outcomes of Diplomacy

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The Outcomes of Diplomacy Institutions of Accord (examples) Congress of Vienna    

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WHEN 1814-1815: After Napoleon’s defeat in 1814 WHERE Vienna, Austria WHO Great Britain, Russia, Prussia (later known as Germany), Austria WHAT a meeting between national leaders l eaders in Europe talking about the rearrangements of borders in Europe, as well as a s the discussion of human rights issues (e.g. slavery, German Jews’ rights) WHY Following the defeat of Napoleon, the 4 greater powers in Europe (Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria) met together to talk about how to resolve the territorial t erritorial disputes arising from Napoleon’s defeat OTHER The Congress nearly tore apart and broke down over the splitting of Poland, but through compromises, the nations managed to stay together

https://www.historytoday.com/stella-ghervas/what-was-congress-vienna https://www.historytoday.com/stella-ghervas/what-was-congress-vienna https://www.britannica.com/event/Congress-of-Vienna https://ww w.britannica.com/event/Congress-of-Vienna

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WHEN Jun-Jul 1884 WHERE Berlin, Germany (Prussia) WHO Russia, Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Germany (Prussia), the Ottoman Empire and Balkan states: Greece, Serbia, Romania and Montenegro WHAT Dealt with resolving the territorial outlines detailed in the Treaty of San Stefano in the Balkan area WHY After the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78), ( 1877-78), Russia made the Ottoman Empire sign the Treaty of San Stefano, which violated promises Russia had previously made with Britain, hence prompting Britain to get involved with this treaty and revise it by the Congress of Berlin OTHER It can be said that the arrangemen a rrangements ts that came c ame out of this Congress impacted the Balkans deeply, as it did not consider their will to self-determination, possibly leading on to the clashes in later years, sparking World War 1

https://www.britannica.com/event/Congress-of-Berlin http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Treaty_of_San_Stefano https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/modern-europe/turkish-a https://www.encyclopedi a.com/history/modern-europe/turkish-and-ottoman-history/congress-berlin nd-ottoman-history/congress-berlin

Conference of Ambassadors 

WHEN Jan 1920 - 1931/35 (dates vary, as there is no official end date, its presence simply became too low to detect since 1925 after the Locarno Treaties of peace)

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The Outcomes of Diplomacy  

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WHO France, Great Britain, USA, Italy, Japan, Belgium (later) WHAT Organisation within the Allied powers’ to uphold the peace treaties and resolve territorial conflicts between countries WHY Following WW1, it helped to discourage war (later grouped under LoN with similar objective) CASE STUDY Corfu Incident 1923, dispute between Italy & Greece, showed failure of the Conference of Ambassadors when they succumbed su ccumbed under Mussolini’s pressure

http:/  /www.encyclopedia  /www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?l ofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5C inkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CConferenceofAmbassadors.htm ConferenceofAmbassadors.htm http:/  /archive.spectator.co.uk/articl  /archive.spectator.co.uk/article/14th-february-1947/14/the-corfu-incident e/14th-february-1947/14/the-corfu-incident

League of Nations   

WHEN 1920-1946 (but pretty much ignored i gnored since 1933 onwards) WHERE est. at Paris Pa ris Peace Conference 1920 WHO A total of 63 nations have joined LoN Council (has veto power) o Great Britain France Italy (-1937, withdrew under Tripartite Pact pressure) Japan (-1933, withdrew after Lytton Report regarding Manchurian Crisis) Germany (1926-33, only allowed to join after Locarno Treaties of peace, withdrew under Hitler) USSR (1934-39, joined to help resist German expansionism, kicked out for invading Poland) Some occasional countries that are selected for certain periods of time to represent the nations Assembly o The rest of the countries WHAT Constitution of peace aiming to resolve conflicts by peaceful means rather than o violence, condemning war whilst promoting global demilitarisation Also dealt with human rights issues and slavery o Based on US President Woodrow Wi lson’s 14 points o Main flaws: no army, required total agreement on issues/decisions, council’s o veto power WHY Established as part of the Treaty of Versailles after WW1 to prevent a similar war from sparking (obviously failed)    

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_of_the_League_of_Nations https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_of_the_League_of_Nations http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/ir1/aimsrev2.shtml http://ww w.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/ir1/aimsrev2.shtml https://www.bbc.com/education/guides/zsf439q/revision https://ww w.bbc.com/education/guides/zsf439q/revision https://www.bbc.com/education/guides/z98xj6f/test https://ww w.bbc.com/education/guides/z98xj6f/test (Test  (Test Yourself!) Yourself!)

United Nations   

WHEN 24 Oct 1945 - present WHERE NYC (HQ); Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi (Regional Offices) WHO 51 members (1945) → 193 members (2011)

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The Outcomes of Diplomacy If you bother to look and memorise all these countries, be my guest at http://www.un.org/en/sections/member-states/growth-united-nationsmembership-1945-present/index.html WHAT International organisation aimed at promoting international cooperation and peace, also promoted equality between nations, the principle of self-determination, tackling human rights issues … WHY To replace the ineffective LoN, UN is basic ally LoN reincarnated after WW2, with improved constitutional laws and structure after learning mistakes from the past LoN o

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http://www.un.org/en/index.html https: //www.britannica.com/topic/Unite  //www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations d-Nations

 ASEAN    

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Aka. Association of SouthEast Asian Nations N ations WHEN 8 Aug 1967 - present WHERE est. at Bangkok; Jakarta (HQ) WHO Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Brunei, Cambodia WHAT Organisation between 10 SE Asian nations nat ions seeking socio-economic cooperation and collective security, holds yearly ASEAN Summit si nce 2001 between national leaders discussing about their current issues WHY Initially established establi shed out of fear of communism in Vietnam and need for economic economic development

https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=WAnfj8v5acM www.youtube.com/watch?v=WAnfj8v5acM http://www.scmp.com/topics/asean http://w ww.scmp.com/topics/asean

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The Outcomes of Diplomacy G20   

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Aka. Group of Twenty WHEN 1999 - present WHERE Meeting venues hosted by G20 members, different each year https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_G20_summits o WHO 20 representatives from different major global economies (19 countries + EU) Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, France, India, Indonesia, o Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi S audi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States WHAT International forum / annual meeting between 1) key economic leaders 2) heads of states discussing matters regarding the economic development in nations around the world, but in recent years, the topics covered during the G20 summit have broadened, including aspects of climate change WHY G20 emerged as a result of the G7/8 summit realising the need to include heads of states when discussing and deciding on global policies to help the world develop EXTENSION QUESTIONS What was the G7/8 Summit? How does it compare/contrast with the G20 o Summit? Why just 20 representatives? Why not G195 to be inclusive? (195 countries in o the world)

https://www.g20.org/en/g20/what-is-the-g20 http://www.oecd.org/g20/  http://www .oecd.org/g20/  https://twitter.com/hashtag/g20?lang= https://twit ter.com/hashtag/g20?lang=en en https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/0/what-is-the-g https://ww w.telegraph.co.uk/business/0/what-is-the-g20-and-how-does-it-work/  20-and-how-does-it-work/ 

NATO  

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a.k.a. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation WHAT: an intergovernmental intergovernmental military alliance around collective & mutual defence by member states towards external aggressor(s) FIRST EST: 1949 WHO: 29 North American and European countries Original 12 states: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, o Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the UK, the USA Additional 17: Greece, Turkey, West Germany, Spain, Czech Republic, Hungary, o Poland, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Albania, Croatia, Montenegro Montenegro WHY: devised to “keep the Russians Russia ns out, the Americans in, and the Germans down” OTHER: Precursored by the Treaty of Brussels o

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The Outcomes of Diplomacy

OPEC   

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a.k.a. Organisation of P Petroleum-Exporting etroleum-Exporting Countries WHAT: an intergovernmental organisation accounting for 44% of global oil production and 73% of known reserves FIRST EST: 1960 WHO: 14 (West) Asian and African nations that export oil Original 5: Venezuela, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia o Additional 9: Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Libya, o Nigeria, Qatar, UAE Ex-member: Indonesia o WHY: to coordinate and unify petroleum policies and st abilise oil markets OTHER: Has been criticised of being an anti-competitive cartel o

 Arab League    

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a.k.a. League of Arab States WHAT: a regional organisation of Arab states FIRST EST: 1945 WHO: 22 Arab states in and around North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and Arabia Original 6+1: Kingdom of Egypt, Kingdom of Iraq, Transjordan (now: Jordan), o Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria + Palestine Pal estine (annexed) Additional 16: Algeria, Bahrain, the Comoros Islands, Djibouti, Kuwait, Libya, o Morocco, Mauritania, Oman, Qatar, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia, UAE, Yemen WHY: to improve relationships between, develop, and coordinate collaboration between Arab states OTHER: Syria’s membership is for now suspended o Has an anti-extremism force & a common market o

Commonwealth of Nations  

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a.k.a. the British Commonwealth WHAT: an intergovernmental organisation of (mostly) former British Empire territories, most of which has since gained independence FIRST EST: 1949 WHO: 53 former British Empire territories WHY: dates back to decolonisation of the British Empire; member states are not otherwise connected, but united by history, hi story, language, culture, values of democracy, etc. under British rule OTHER: Member states have no legal obligation to each other o

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The Outcomes of Diplomacy

 APEC   

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a.k.a. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Cooperation WHAT: an economic forum for member economies promoting free trade t hrough the Asia-Pacific Region FIRST EST: 1989 WHO: 21 Pacific Rim member economies Original 13: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, o Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, USA Additional 8: China, Vietnam, Russia, Peru, Hong Kong, Mexico, Thailand, C hile o WHY: in response to other regional trade blocs; to establish new markets beyond Europe OTHER: Meet once annually o

 African Union    

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WHAT: continental union replacing the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU) FIRST EST: 2001 WHO: 55 countries on African continent WHY: to socioeconomically develop, protect and defend, unite, democratise, and promote cooperation of member states OTHER: Made up of the Assembly, Executive Council, Permanent Representatives Representatives o Committee, and Economic, Social, and Cultural Council

European Union   

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WHAT: political and economic union that has developed an internal single market FIRST EST: 1993 WHO: 28 member states primarily in Europe Original 6: Germany, Italy, France, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg o Additional 22 -1: Poland, Spain, Romania, Sweden, Croatia, Bulgaria, Greece, o Republic of Ireland, Czech Republic, Austria, Hungary, Finland, Kingdom of Denmark, Portugal, Cyprus, Malta, Lithuania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Latvia, Estonia, - United Kingdom Leaving the EU: United Kingdom o WHY: to maintain common policies on trade & commerce as well as regional development across Europe; ensure free movement of people, goods, & capital OTHER: Originated from the European Coal and Steel Community o Study: Brexit o Who’s involved? When will it come into force? What are the implications -- not just for the UK but the rest of the EU? Ireland and Scotland Who will profit/lose?   

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The Role of Diplomats Famous Diplomats and Peacemakers Niccolo Machiavelli 

BACKGROUND Born in Florence, 1469 o Regarded as one of the Fathers of Modern Political Sciences/Theory o Famous works: The Prince, The Discourses on Livy o Main theory: an effective leader is strict and pragmatic, where the ends justify o the means

Otto von Bismarck  

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Background Born in Prussia, 1815; died in Germany, 1898 o Known as the “Iron Chancellor” o Prime Minister of Prussia (1862-1871), Chancellor of Germany (1871-1890) o Unification of Germany Bismarck led orchestrated battles against other ot her European powers (e.g. Dutch, o Austria) to reclaim land l and of German-speaking people In the Franco-Prussian War, France was easily defeated by the Prussian forces o The signing of the Treaty of Frankfurt at Versailles included the unification and o formation of a new Reich (Germany) ( Germany) under King Wilhelm I Question: How had the Treaty of Frankfurt differed from the ones signed by the Dutch/Austrians? Did this lead to different consequence in later years (per say 1918)?

Henry Kissinger  

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Background Born in Germany, 1923 o Escaped Nazi Germany with family under the persecution of the Jews o Secretary of State to Richard Nixon, National Security Advisor to Gerald Ford o Detente Eased tensions between the Cold War superpowers superpowers - USA & USSR o Signing of SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) I & II to restrain the arms o race going on between the 2 nations Eventually signed the ABM (Anti-Ballistic Missiles) System → regulated the o intercontinental missiles on both sides China Resumed communications and diplomatic relations between USA & China since o the takeover of the communists Made a secret trip to Beijing in 1971 following the success of the Ping-Pong o Diplomacy Vietnam War Helped Nixon carry out policy of Vietnamisation o Helped negotiate a ceasefire between North and South Vietnam o Awarded joint-Nobel Peace Prize after negotiation o Shuttle Diplomacy Simply put, it’s like having havin g a middle person transferring messages o between two people who have gotten into a big argument

The Role of Diplomats 

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The Role of Diplomats o

Kissinger (USA) played the middle-man in the Arab-Israeli War

Eleanor Roosevelt 

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BACKGROUND (1884-1962) Full name: Anna Eleanor Roosevelt o Husband (and fifth uncle): Franklin D. Roosevelt o WHO WAS SHE? Longest-serving First Lady of the USA (1933-1945) o First US delegate to UN General Assembly o First chair of UN Commission on Human Rights o Often spoke for her husband (who was later in life paralysed) o Publicly disagreed with him in politics often: it was this outspokenness that made her unique (and controversial) at the time Advocate for women’s and civil rights o CONTRIBUTIONS Pressured USA to join UN o 

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K. R. Narayanan 

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BACKGROUND (1921-2005) Full name: Kocheril Raman Narayanan o Of the Dalit/Outsider caste: part of the “coconut-pluckers” according to the o caste system WHO WAS HE? Tenth President of India o First Dalit President of India o (pre-presidency) Ambassador to Japan, the UK, Thailand, Turkey, PRC, China, o USA CONTRIBUTIONS Set several new precedents (apart from first Dalit President) o First President to vote while in office Married a woman of foreign origin Transparency in government o Reminder of social and economic injustices o  

Thomas Jefferson 

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BACKGROUND (1743-1826) American founding father o Family: rich Southern farmers who owned many slaves o WHO WAS HE? US Minister to France o First Secretary of State o 2nd Vice President of the United States o 3rd President of the United States o CONTRIBUTIONS Purchased the Louisiana Territory o Authored the Declaration of Independence Independence o (Ineffective and unpopular) embargo on American shipping during o Napoleonic Wars

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The Role of Diplomats Kim Dae-jung   

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Born on January 6 1924, died on August 18 2009 Was the President of South Korea from 1998 to 2003 Was the 2000 Nobel Peace Prize P rize recipient, and the only Korean Nobel Prize recipient in history. He is sometimes referred to as the, “Nelson Mandela of South Korea.” Kim was almost killed in August of 1973, when he was kidnapped from his hotel in Tokyo by KCIA agents in response to his criticism of President Park’s yushin program; that granted near-dictatorial powers. When he returned to South Korea, he was banned from politics and was imprisoned in 1976. However, his political rights were restored in 1979. In 1980, Kim was arrested and sentenced to death as he was suspected to help organize a coup by Chun Doo-hwan. Kim did not receive the death sentence, but was instead exiled to the US, where he taught in Harvard University as a visit ing professor. When Kim became President later in 1998, he pushed for economic reform and restructuring. The economy pushed from 5.8% in 1998 to become 10.2% in 1999. Has head a policy of engagement with North Korea, now termed as t he Sunshine S outh Korea. Policy. He worked for the reunification of North and South 

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Oscar Arias   

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Born on September 13 1940 Was the President of Costa Rica from 1986 to 1990 Received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1897 for his efforts in ending the Central American Crisis. He received it for his work towards signing the Esquipulas II Accords; a plan intended to promote democracy and peace on the Central American i sthmus during a time of great turmoil. Was the recipient of the Albert Schweitzer Prize for Humanitarianism and a trustee of Economists for Peace and Security. In 2003, was elected to become the Board Director of the international Criminal Court Trust Fund for Victims. Arias was born into a higher upper-class family, descendants of Ferdinand III of Castile and Henry II of England. Arias has received over 50 honorary degrees including doctorates from Ivy League Schools. Arias promoted a neoliberal economic model and is often regarded as one, however he is a member of a nominally social democratic party. Created the Central American Parliament in an attempt of integration in Central America. Arias reintroduced standardized academic tests to primary and secondary schools in Costa Rica. Costa Rican constitution has a clause forbidding former presidents to run again for presidency, however, ignoring that clause, Oscar Arias ran for the second time. He switched Costa Rica’s diplomatic recognition from the Republic of China to the People’s Republic of China. 

Zhou Enlai 

Born on March 5 1898, died on January 8 1976

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The Role of Diplomats 

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Although he studied abroad, upon his visit to China, C hina, he participated in the May Fourth Movement acknowledging communist policies. Enlai joined the China Communist Party (CCP) ( CCP) from abroad, and formed a team t eam of young communist expatriate Chinese students. Became a popular and influential CCP figure, where he organized a strike in 1926. Formed friendship and firm political allies with Mao Zedong. He participated in the Long March of 1934, where afterwards emerged as a party leader alongside Mao. After the communist victory in 1949, Zhou became premier and foreign minister of the People’s Republic of China. Supported Mao Zedong’s policies during the 1950s, including his policy regarding the Great Leap Forward. Zhou Enlai continued to become a st rong implementing role in Mao’s economic reforms. Because Zhou Enlai was a skilled negotiator and an canny political operature, he was able to negotiate visits to China by US leaders, H enry Kissinger and Richard Nixon. 

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Mikhail Gorbachev     

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Born on March 2, 1931 In 1921, he became a delegate to the Communist Party Congress. In 1985, he was elected general secretary. Recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990, and in the same year, became Soviet Union’s very first president. While being the president, Gorbachev promoted a lot for peaceful international relations; both with foreign powers and among the country. In 1991, Gorbachev founded the Gorbachev Foundation and he c ontinues to remain politically and socially active.

Samantha Power  

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Born on September 21, 1970 Is an Irish-born American academic, author, political critic and diplomat who served as the United States Ambassador to the United Nations from 2013 to 2017 She began her career as a journalist (war correspondent) covering the Yugoslav Wars. From 1998 to 2002, she served as the Founding Executive Director of t he Carr Center for Human Rights Policy, where she later l ater became the first Anna Lindh Professor of Practice of Global Leadership and Public Policy. She was the senior adviser to Senator Barack Obama until March Ma rch of 2008, when she resigned from his presidential campaign after referring to Hillary Clinton as “a monster.” She rejoined his team, and Obama chose her to chair a newly formed Atrocities Prevention Board. During her time in the office, she focused on issues such as United Nations reform, women’s rights and LGBT rights, religious freedom and religious minorities, refugees, human trafficking, human rights and democracy. She is viewed to be a key figure in Obama’s administration in persuading the president to intervene militarily in Libya. Won a Pulitzer Prize in 2003 for her book, “ A “ A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide.” Genocide. ” 

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The Role of Diplomats 

She was also awarded the 2015 Barnard Medal of Distinction and the 2016 Henry A. Kissinger Prize.

Ban Ki-Moon  

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Born on June 13 1944 Ban Ki-Moon is a South Korean diplomat who was the eighth Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 2007 to December 2016 Prior to becoming the UN Secretary General, Ban Ki-Moon served as a ca career reer diplomat in South Korea’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and in the United Nations As the UN Secretary General, Ban Ki-Moon was responsible for major reforms on peacekeeping and UN employment practices. Has strong views on Global Warming, pressing the issue repeatedly with U.S. President George W. Bush. He has even helped persuade Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir to allow peacekeeping troops to enter Sudan. He is considered to be One of the Most Powerful People ranking in 32nd - being the highest ranking among South Koreans. Ban Ki-Moon was awarded Top 100 Global Thinkers for his achievement in making the Paris Agreement, a legally binding treaty less than a year after it was adopted.

Dag Hammarskjöld  

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Born on July 29 1905, died on September 18 1961 Was a Swedish diplomat, economist and author who served as the second Secretary General of the United Nations from April 1953 until his death in a plane crash in September 1961 At his appointment as Secretary General for the UN, he was considered to be youngest to have ever held the post (being that he was 47 years old). He is one of four f our people to have been awarded a posthumous (after death) Nobel Prize, and was the only United Nations Secretary to have died while in office He was killed in a DC-6 plane crash, on his way to ceasefire negotiations during the Congo Crisis There are many conspiracies surrounding his death, the first being that his plane was shot down by either the CIA, MI6, Belgian Mining Company and/or any mining companies that profited from the war he was trying to stop. Considered to be one of the best secretary-generals of all time in the UN, and was even called, “the greatest statesmen of our century.” During his time in the office, he helped alleviate the economic problems post World War II and was a delegate to the Paris Conference that established the Marshall Plan. He also tried to smoothen relationships between Israel and the Arab States. He visited China in 1955 to negotiate the release of 11 captured US pilots who had served in the Korean War. In 1956 he established the United Nations Emergency Force. 

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U Thant  

Born on January 22 1909, died on 25 November 1974 Was a Burmese diplomat and the third Secretary General of the United Nations, serving from 1961 to 1971. U Thant refused to serve third term, thus retiring in 1971.

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The Role of Diplomats He was the first non-European to hold the positions, holding the office for a record of 10 years and one month. During the political climate in Burma, U Thant held moderate views. He is known for his calm and unassuming demeanor. He was appointed as Secretary General in 1961 when his predecessor, Dag Hammarskjold died in an air crash. In his first term, he facilitated negotiations between U.S President P resident John F. Kennedy and Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev during the Cuban Missile Crisis U Thant ordered for Operation Grandslam, which ended the secessionist insurgency in Congo. In his second term, U Thant publicly criticized the American conduct during the Vietnam War. Oversaw the entry of newly independent African and Asians states into the UN. 

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 Ambassador Spock   

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Star Trek character, extremely famous throughout the Sci-Fi universe. Ambassador for the Federation of United Planets and the Klingon Empire, helping to ease strained relations between the two. Later on in the series, Spock became an ambassador to the Romulan Star Empire Involved in the unsuccessful attempt to save the capital planet of the empire (Romulus) from being consumed by a Supernova.

Colin Powell  

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1937 (81 years) A man of many jobs, all of which were in a way related to diplomacy and politics. These were: US National Security Advisor (1987-1989) o Commander of US Army Forces Command (1989) o Chairman of the Joint Chief of Staffs (1989-1993). o 65th Secretary of State, serving the George W. Bush administration from 2001 o to 2005, becoming the first American African to serve in such a position During his time as the Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staf f, Powell helped the United States lead a coalition force against Iraqi troops who had invaded Kuwait in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. In his term as Secretary of State, Powell unsuccessfully tried to get another coalition to combat reports of Iraqi weapons proliferation yet later revealed his sources were inaccurate and likely untrue. One of his most notable legacies was the Powell Doctrine, a concept of warfare wherein a nation utilizes overwhelming force to minimize casualties and maximize success.

 António Guterres 

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Currently Secretary-General of the United Nations- formally elected by the UN General Assembly in 2017 Portuguese politician and diplomat Other previous titles include:

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The Role of Diplomats o o o o o

Prime minister of Portugal United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees President of the Socialist International Secretary-General of the Socialist Party Leader of the Opposition (Carnation Revolution)

How were diplomats (and diplomacy) involved in…  July Crisis 

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Interrelated diplomatic and military escalations among the major European powers in the summer of 1914 Eventually led up to the breakout of the first World War Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne) was assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian and Yugoslavic partisan Austro-Hungary viewed the South Slav irredentist movements promoted by Serbia as a threat to the unity of the t he country On 5 July, Kaiser Wilhelm II issued his famous “blank cheque” to Austria-Hungary- they could proceed as they saw fit, and Germany would back them if Russia intervened On 23 July, almost a lmost one month after the assassination, the Serbian governmen governmentt received an ultimatum from Austria-Hungary. In it was a set of ten firmly worded demands, plus a requirement for the Serbs to respond in agreement within 48 hours. Winston Churchill, then in charge of Britain’s Royal Navy, called the ultimatum “the most insolent document of its kind ever devised”. Serbia immediately sought the counsel of the Russians. Tsar Nicholas II and his ministers offered to publicly condemn the ultimatum, but refused to offer any military guarantees Austro-Hungarian emperor Franz Josef declared war on Serbia on 28 July

Cuban Missile Crisis  

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1962- tensions were high between the superpowers at the time, t ime, during the Cold War 13-day political standoff over the installation of Soviet missiles just 90 miles from US shores People thought that a nuclear war would break out Disaster was avoided when the U.S. agreed to Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev’s offer to remove the Cuban missiles missil es in exchange for the U.S. promising not to invade Cuba. Kennedy also secretly agreed to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey.

Fashoda Incident 

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The climax of imperial territorial disputes between Britain and France in Eastern Africa in 1898 A French expedition to Fashoda on the White Nile sought to gain control of the Upper Nile river basin and thereby exclude Britain from the Sudan The French party and a British-Egyptian force met on friendly terms, but back in Europe, it became a war scare The British held firm as both empires stood on the verge of war with heated rhetoric on both sides

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The Role of Diplomats 

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Under heavy pressure the French withdrew, securing Anglo-Egyptian control over the area. The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant power in Morocco.

Great Game  

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Started in 1813 A political and diplomatic confrontation that existed for most of the nineteenth century between the British Empire and the Russian Empire over Afghanistan and neighbouring territories in Central and Southern Asia Existed for majority of the 19th century Began on 12 January 1830 when Lord when  Lord Ellenborough, the Ellenborough, the President of the Board B oard of Control for India, tasked Lord tasked Lord William Bentinck, the Bentinck, the Governor-General, Governor-General, to establish a new trade route to the Emirate the  Emirate of Bukhara Britain intended to gain control over the Emirate the  Emirate of Afghanistan and make it a protectorate, and to use the Ottoman the  Ottoman Empire, the Empire, the Persian  Persian Empire, the Empire, the Khanate  Khanate of Khiva, and Khiva, and the Emirate of Bukhara as buffer states between both empires- this would protect India and also key British sea trade routes by stopping Russia from gaining a port on the Persian Gulf or the t he Indian Ocean Russia proposed Afghanistan as the neutral zone The end of the Great Game is considered to be on 10 September 1895 when the Pamir Boundary Commision protocols were signed

One China Policy  

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U.S. policy of diplomatic acknowledgment of China’s position that there is only ONE

Chinese government U.S. recognizes and has formal ties with China rather than the island of Taiwan China sees Taiwan as a breakaway province to be reunified with the mainland one day Fundamental bedrock of Chinese policy-making and diplomacy a n inalienable part of Distinct from One China principle → China insists Taiwan to be an one China to be reunified one day Washington maintains a “robust unofficial” relationship with Taiwan Continued arms sales o Taiwan’s government claims it is an independent country = “Republic of China” Any country that wants diplomatic relations relat ions with mainland China must break official ties with Taipei → Taiwan’s diplomatic isolation from the international community End of Chinese civil war in 1949- Communists defeated Nationalists (Kuomintang) Nationalists retreated to Taiwan - created own government o Communists began ruling mainland as People’s Republic of China o Both sides said they represented all of China o China and U.S. saw a mutual need to develop relations beginning in 1970s → U.S. and other countries cutting ties with Taipei in favor of Beijing U.S. remains Taiwan’s most important security ally U.S. established formal diplomatic ties with Beijing in 1979 under President Jimmy Carter → U.S. had to sever ties with Taiwan and closed c losed its Taipei embassy U.S. can benefit from formal relations with China (biggest foreign lender and top trade partner) while quietly continuing to maintain strong ties with Taiwan

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The Role of Diplomats Middle East Qatari embargo  

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Also known as the 2017-18 Qatar diplomatic crisis Several countries abruptly cut off diplomatic relat ions with Qatar om June 2017 Saudi Arabia o UAE o Bahrain o Egypt o Imposed a “air, land and sea blockade” on Qatar Cited Qatar’s alleged support for terrorism Criticised Qatar’s relationship with Iran On 27 July 2017, Qatari foreign minister Mohammed minister  Mohammed bin Abdulrahman Al Thani told reporters that Egypt, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Bahrain were showing "stubbornness" to Qatar and had not taken any steps to solve the crisis Al Thani added that the t he Security Council, the General Assembly and "all the United Nations mechanisms" could play a role in resolving the situation On 24 August 2017, Qatar announced that they would restore full diplomatic relations with Iran

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A message from the German foreign secretary, Arthur Zimmermann, to the German ambassador to Mexico proposing a Mexican-German alliance in the case of war between the U.S. and Germany Was intercepted and deciphered by British intelligence Zimmermann instructed the ambassador, Count Johann von Bernstorff, to offer significant financial aid to Mexico if it agreed to enter any future U.S.-German conflict as a German ally Germany also promised to restore to Mexico the lost territories of TX, NM, and AR U.S. President Woodrow Wilson learned of telegram’s tel egram’s contents on February 26 Proposed to Congress that the U.S. should start arming its ships against possible German attacks, authorized State Dept. to make public the Zimmermann Telegram Germany has already triggered America with its policy of unrestricted submarine warfare and its continued attacks against American ships Public opinion in the U.S. now swung firmly toward American entrance into WWI

South China Sea disputes 

⅓ of global maritime traffic, $5 trillion in annual trade, 6 claimant nations

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The geographic commons of SE Asia’s navigable rimland- 3.5 million square km of

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underlying bedrock contain oil and natural gas deposits The territorially disputed region may be the t he most strategically important waterway of the 21st century- lucrative fishe ries and supply routes that carry 80% of China’s crude imports Sea is bound to the north by China → 95% of the region cite ancient maritime records Waters have been vital to t o the economic survival of neighboring Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines South China Sea shipping lanes provide access to trade-intensive waters of the Indian Ocean Many nations have urged Beijing to abide ab ide by the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea- maritime zones of control based on coastlines

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The Role of Diplomats U.S. often relies on the international agreement agreement to settle territorial disputes China has refrained, invoking intertemporal laws based on deep historical o record China views UN-backed codes of maritime governance as incompatible with o domestic laws → instruments of Western hegemony designed to undercut its expanding influence as a world power Low-level skirmishes between Chinese naval patrols and civilian fishing fleets from f rom neighboring countries could spark international conflict Waterway promises remain a fulcrum upon which the geopolitics of international trade pivots o

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 XYZ Affair 

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A diplomatic incident between France and America in the late 18th century that led to an undeclared war at sea France went to war with Great Britain while America remained neutral U.S. and Britain signed the Jay Treaty- resolved several longstanding issues between the two nations French were infuriated by Jay’s Treaty - violated earlier treaties between the U.S. and France → seized a substantial number of American merchant ships President George Washington sent Charles Pinckney as the U.S. minister to Francegovernment refused to receive him President John Adams dispatched a three-member three -member delegation to Paris later in an effort to restore peace between the two countries American diplomats tried to meet with France’s foreign minister, Charles de Talleyrand Talleyrand put them off and eventually had three agents inform the U.S. commissioners that in order to see them they first would have to pay him a bribe and provide France with a large loan Caused an uproar in the U.S. and prompted calls for war Adams handed members of Congress over with names of French agents replaced with the letters X, Y, and Z Congress authorized American ships to attack French F rench vessels → undeclared naval war that came to be referred to as the Quasi-War, settled w/ Convention of 1800 (Treaty of Mortefontaine)

U-2 Incident   

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Occurred during the Cold War in 1960 A United States U-2 spy plane was shot down in Soviet airspace The aircraft, flown by pilot Francis pilot Francis Gary Powers, was Powers, was performing photographic photographic aerial reconnaissance when it was hit by an S-75 an S-75 Dvina (SA-2 Guideline) surface-to-air Guideline)  surface-to-air missile and crashed near Sverdlovsk near Sverdlovsk Initially the United States St ates government lied about the plane's purpose and mission, but was forced to admit to spying when the Soviet government revealed the captured pilot and remains of the U-2 U -2 including spying technology and photos of military bas es in the Soviet Union taken by the aircraft. a ircraft. This incident was a great embarrassment to the United States, and proved yet again that the Soviet-American relationship was deteriorating

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The Role of Diplomats Christmas Truce  

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Christmas Day 1914 during WWI Holiday celebrations that took place in the trenches and included gestures of goodwill between enemies Pope Benedict XV suggested a temporary hiatus of the war for the celebration of Christmas Soldiers in the trenches declared their own unofficial truce Many German and British troops sang Christmas carols to each other across the lines Allied soldiers even heard brass bands ban ds joining the Germans in their joyous singing German soldiers emerged from their trenches and approached the Allied lines across no-man’s-land → called out “Merry Christmas” in enemies ’ native tongues Allied soldiers feared it was a trick, t rick, but saw Germans unarmed → climbed out of their trenches and shook hands with the enemy soldiers Men exchanged presents of cigarettes and plum puddings a nd sang carols and songs Documented case of soldiers from opposing sides playing a game of soccer Used time to retrieve bodies of fellow combatants who had fallen within the no- man’sland between the lines One of the last examples of the outdated notion of chivalry between enemies in warfare Never repeated but served as heartening proof that the soldiers’ s oldiers’ essential humanity endured

Pig and Potato War  

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Between the UK and the US 1859 confrontation over their borders in the San Juan islands i slands between Vancouver Island and the mainland Was triggered by the shooting of a pig This dispute was a bloodless conflict

the Falkland Islands 

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April 1982: troops from Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, which were under British colonisation Argentina had long claimed internationally that these i slands were their territory, but Britain would not let go of their colony Margaret Thatcher, British prime minister, sent a fleet of 127 ships with a landing force 8000 miles to protect the islands isla nds The war ended with Argentine forces surrendering at Port Stanley

Partition of India   

The division of British India in 1947 Accompanied the creation of Pakistan and India, two t wo independent dominions Today: Dominion of India: Republic of India o Dominion of Pakist an: Islamic Republic of Pakistan and People’s o Republic of Bangladesh Displaced over 14 million people along religious lines o

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Selected Readings & Speeches

The Practice of Diplomacy (“The Art of Negotiation” to “Courage” p. 7 -29) | Francois de Callieres It was in this book that the first known principles of diplomatic conduct and procedure were listed. Mainly the art of negotiation and the power a diplomat must have to defy the interests of other nations. It is still looked back on as one of the key cornerstones of diplomacy and how it should be done.

Remarks on Russia | Samantha Power Samantha Power, a former US Ambassador to the UN, gave this speech in her final tenure in January of 2017. In the speech, Power denotes that Russian and US interests have been aligned for much of history, referring to the t he recent Syrian conflict and World Wars as evidence. However, her speech then turns to harsh criticism of how the modern-day Russia, under Vladimir Putin’s leadership, has deteriorated and drifted away from the alliances with the US the country once had. She calls Russia as a threat to the US Government and politics and urges all member nations of the UN to stand with America against the Eastern European country. A rather rousing speech, as it is so rarely seen in history (at least since 1950) that a politician outright slanders another country on public television. Now we must see how Putin’s administration will address her remarks.

Blood and Iron (excerpt) | Otto von Bismarck Delivered by the iron chancellor himself, the Blood and Iron (Blut und Eisen) speech by Otto Von Bismarck was delivered on the 30th of September 1962. It came in response to the Prussian House of Representatives (essentially the congress at the time) refused a bid for increased military spending submitted by King Wilhelm I. Bismarck appeared in front of the House’s Budget Committee and stressed the need for military readiness to solve the German Question (a debate throughout the 19th century regarding how best to unify the separate German states). It was during the end of his speech that he earned his nickname as the Iron Chancellor. Here it is: "The position of Prussia in Germany will not be determined by its liberalism but by its power [...] Prussia must concentrate concentrate its strength and hold it for the favorable moment, which has already come and gone several times. Since the treaties of Vienna, our frontiers have been ill-designed for a healthy body politic. Not through speeches and majority decisions will the great questions of the day be decided d ecided—that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849 —but by iron and blood."(During 1848 and 1849 there were multiple unsuccessful German revolutions in uniting the area). Thus the Prussian states were then united in their goal for a unified Germany. It would be shortly after this speech that Bismarck began to go about reclaiming “Prussian” territories from other nations, by declaring war on them. This included Schleswig-Holstein from Denmark and Alsace-Lorraine Alsace-Lorraine from the French.

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Selected Readings & Speeches An Independent Diplomat | Carne Ross In the world of international politics, some developing and small countries have no say in votes or other matters, their say considered insignificant insignificant or their inability to produce diplomats overwhelming. This is where Carne Ross comes in, a former British Foreign Office worker, he now runs a nonprofit organization called the Independent Diplomat. The Independent Diplomat offers freelance diplomatic representation to small, developing and unrecognized nations in the confusing tangle of international negotiations.

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 Additional Cases & Questions

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Should schools teach be required to teach courses in diplomacy and conflict resolution? If you were a diplomat working on behalf of your school, where would you be sent and what would you be asked to do? In first inaugural address, American president Thomas Jefferson called for "honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none" - a doctrine that guided the foreign policy of the United States for many years. Discuss with your team: what are entangling alliances, and is it good for nations to avoid them? To what degree does the United States follow this doctrine d octrine today? How about your own country? Want to try diplomacy firsthand? Try playing this playing this online version of a famous diplomatic board game, one ostensibly beloved by figures such as John F. Kennedy and Henry Kissinger. What can we learn from it? How do different cultural expectations affect negotiations between countries? Consider the case the case of Chen Guangcheng, Guangcheng, which  which required some tricky diplomac d iplomacy y between two countries with very different approaches to directness. To thrive in today’s economy, nations must participate in regional and global trade agreements. Research some of these agreements —including those that are up are up for renegotiation, and renegotiation, and those  those that failed. What failed.  What is the difference between a bilateral and multilateral trade agreement, and why might one be more difficult to negotiate than the other? As you explore how nations attempt to influence one another, consider the difference between "hard between "hard power" and "soft power". Under power". Under what circumstances would you recommend a nation employ one or the other, or are they always best used in tandem? Discuss with your team: do we have the equivalents of hard and soft power in our everyday interactions and entanglements? Amidst all of the bloodshed of World War I, there was one was one Christmas day when thousands of soldiers on either side temporarily banded together for the sake of festivity. Are there any lessons we can take from this brief moment of harmony to apply in diplomatic efforts today —and if so, are they also applicable to interpersonal interpersonal situations? Sometimes, the little ball moves the big ball. Explore how "ping how "ping pong" may have paved the way to improved relations (and, arguably, economic economic interdependence) between the United States and China. Discuss with your team: are there lessons to be learned from this case for other difficult international relationships in the world today? Consider this Consider this iconic image of the Yalta Conference toward the end of World War II, then (after researching the details of the conference) discuss with your team: was this one of diplomacy's finest hours? Learn about the diplomatic maneuvering behind the behind the signing of the Iran Nuclear Deal. Is Deal. Is it indeed a triumph of diplomacy, and could similar arrangements be made with other nations?

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Consider the practice of "panda of "panda diplomacy" by the People's Republic of China. Discuss with your team: what makes panda diplomacy so effective, and d o other countries use similar tactics? Is it fair to the pandas?

 YOUR TURN: Complete the additional cases and answer the questions.

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