Affectual Trust and Internal Networks Louise Young University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
[email protected] Abstract
While trust is increasingly recognised as central to the functioning of relationships generally and to business relationships in particular, there has been very little attention paid to the nature of the experience of trust – as distinct from its antecedents and outcomes. In addition, trust has remained rem ained a relation-centric relation-centric construct. construct. This paper presents an affect-based affect-based framework for trust consisting of of cognitive and emotional elements. This is used us ed to consider the internal internal network of an organisation orga nisation concerned with service delivery based on in-depth interviews with service providers talking about their jobs and their employer. The affect-based framework, combined with theories of cognitiv cognitivee balance, allow us to understand the importance of the trust context, in this case the context that has led to distancing within this network and to consider the reasons for this distance.
Keywords: networks, trust, service, satisfaction, emotions, affects Affectual Trust and Internal Networks
Social scientists have long recognised the centrality of trust. The ability to trust enables humans to interact in close relationships and is essential for psychological health and development (Asch, 1952; Barber 1983; 1983; Eriksson, 1959). Trust is also important in business context exchang exchanges es such as buyer-seller relations, employee-employer and other internal relationships (Argyle 1972, Blau 1964, Kanter 1977). Despite recognition of the centrality of trust in human behaviour, the nature of ‘trust’ remains unclear because as we have argued in earlier work (Young 1993, 1996, 2001, Albaum and Young 1997, 2000) the focus of study has been on the antece dents and outcomes of trust. The purpose of this paper is to develop a greater understanding of the nature of trust in the properties of an internal network. The study focuses on the workers of a larg largee Australian company c ompany and specifically specifically on the configuration configuration and nature of of the trust-rich and trust-deficient trust-deficient parts of their network. Trust and its impact are considered within a framework that considers trust as a varying varying affect, that is, as an interacting set of emotions and assessments. Growing distrust and suspicion suspi cion are shown to be substantial influencers of some parts of the network with other, more positive affects dominant in other other parts of the network. The paper closes with a discussion of the value value of researching trust and balance in networks and the way managers might build trust. An Alternative Conceptualisation of Trust
Most often trust has been considered in terms of the conditions that engender it and/or benefits that arise from it. Typologies of trust differentiate it accordin according g to how much there is, what is based on (e.g. contract, good will, etc. as per Sako 1997) longevity (short term or long term as per Meyerson et al 1996) or strength (fragility or resilience as per Ring 1996) rather than on its nature. Work
considering the nature of trust is scarce. When trust is considered in the main two varieties are are considered: one is cognitive, calculative and rational; the other is emotional (Huemer 1998, Lewis and Weingert, 1985; McAllister 1995, Ring 1992 and Williamson 1993). A calculative view of trust owes its roots to the early experimental psychology work of Deutsch (1958, 1962) 1962) and his colleagues colleagues who labelled as ‘trust’ ‘trust’ the calculated decision to cooperate. cooperate. A focus on the costs, benefits and probability of defection rather than the emotional or intuitive side of trust has endured. endured. Business literature presents emotional emotional trust as impulsive and non-rational and as associated with poorer quality decision-making (Williamson 1993). In contrast we argue this kind of “emotion free” trust is not trust but only an economic calculus of costs and benefits (in line with Williamson 1993). We assert that trust trust involves involves additional additional emotional attributes that make make what we call ‘trust’ richer and more enduring (in line with Lewicki and Bunker 1996). There is considerable work citing the centrality of emotions in effective human functioning (Tomkins 1970). They play important roles in facilitating intuition and psychological and relational relational health (Pinker 1997). It follows therefore that emotions will play important roles in business relationships including those in the workplace and will be connected to or be be part of to the trust and distrust occurring there. A review of social scienc sciencee literature indicates that positive emotions have been considered as components of trust, as antecedents or outcomes of trust and/or have been used as synonyms of trust. Trust has been described in terms liking (e.g. Swan et al 1987), admiration (e.g. Childers & Ruekert 1986), respect (e.g. Jackson 1985), faith (e.g. Zaltman and Moorman 1988), acceptance acceptance (e.g. Bonoma 1976) 1976) confidence (e.g. Luhmann Luhmann 1979), 1979), and security se curity (e.g. Zand 1978). Though there is little direct discussion of the centrality central ity of emotion in business trust, some literature moves towards the notion that emotions are important (Bagozzi et al 1999, Glaser 1991). The variety of emotions used to describe trust also lends credence to there being multiple forms of emotion-grounded trust. Hence, ‘trust’ is envisaged here as an umbrella term incorporating in its i ts different manifestations differing forms and combinations of emotions and calculations. Figure 1 summarizes summarizes what we argue is the process of the formation formation of interpersonal trust. The figure depicts depict s trust as emergi emerging ng through the combining of certain emotions emot ions and cognitions. This is denoted by the just-touching points of the two-way arrows (signifying their combination) at the centre of the trust box. Building on the discussions of Argyle (1991) and De Rivera (1984) emotions and hence forms of trust are differentiated according to whether they function to allow the building, sustaining and/or enjoying of relationships. Examples of emotions that are of each type and have been reported as similar to or components of trust are shown in each group (based on De Rivera’s Structural Theory [1984]). As the figure indicates, these different types type s of emotions interact and/or combine with each other – depicted by three arrows leading from them to a circle. This is in line with authors who argue that emotions can be inevitably linked, as are delight and happiness, or contingently linked, as are anger and shame (Smedslund, 1988). Emotions can be compounded (Millenson, 1967) 19 67) yet can at the same time retain their separate identity (Appley 1990). (See Young [2001] for further discussion of emotional factors of trust.)
.
Relationship Sustaining Emotions:, Emotions:, Affection, Gratitude, Security, Confidence, Acceptance
Relationship Building Emotions: Emotions: Interest, Admiration, Respect and Liking
Trust Cognition/Calcula-tion of: costs, benefits, value and risk,
External Factors: Factors: Norms, environmental uncertainty, social structures, cultural predisposition to trust, Internal factors: predisposition to trust, personality
Relationship enjoying emotions Appreciation, Contentment, Satisfaction,
Perception of others: i.e. motivation and competence in recipient of trust
Contextualisation i.e. embedding of present response into focal environment: relationship dynamics (process of trust-building), history and relative levels of power and trust
Benefits of trust: trust: Transaction cost reduction, Relationship coordination, development and enjoyment, Job satisfaction, etc.
Figure 1: The Nature of Trust Figure 1 also depicts what we argue are the cognitive elements of trust including the calculation of costs, benefits, and risks associated with particular situations (Bagozzi et al 1999), the way that others who are recipients of trust are perceived (Young and Wilkinson 1989) - with competence and motivation being the perceptions most central to the development of trust (Butler 1991, Heider 1958, Lewis and Weigert 1985) - and assessment of the state of the focal relationship (Wilkinson and Young 1994). These perceptions combine to form an overall assessment of a relationship relati onship – depicted by three arrows from each type of assessment leading to a circle. As Figure 1 indicates, indicates, emotions influen influence ce assessments of risk and/or vice vice versa. If consistent, the emotions of trust and the the assessments assessments of relational relational risk combine combine to form affectual trust, i.e. tr ust that contains both both emotion and and cognition. If inconsistent, discomfort with emotions being being experienced relative relative to the situation will will generate a different mix of of emotions and/or reassessment of the relational situation will occur (in line with the cognitive balance theories of Heider 1958 and others). The two-way arrows leading from the centre of the trust box back to the circles denoting the combination of emotions and calculations indicate this.
The process of trust generation generati on is evolutionary. As Figure 1 indicates, affectual trust results in certain benefits benefits (or (or costs) for a relationship and those participating in it. These in turn chang changee the nature and context of the relationship by changing the value placed on it, the expectations of those involved and the the conditions surrounding surrounding the relationship. relationship. Changed relational conditions conditions in turn create changed opportunities for trust (Young and Wilkinson 1997). Assessments of risk and the recipient of trust may change because the relationship context (i.e. that which is assessed) has changed and/or the emotions may change because stimuli that will engender emotions has changed, as may have the source of trust. As the relationship context (i.e. history and surrou surroundi nding ng conditions) becomes richer, more complex trust-generating emotions experienced are likely to develop. In early stages trust can evolve from being an amalgam of simple, exploratory emotions enabling the decisions to take low-level low-level risks. Simple forms of trust enable people to approach each other and gain the experience necessary for stronger emotions, more sophisticated assessment and higher risk choices (DeRivera 1984, Young 2001). Early stage sta ge emotions include the relationship re lationship building emotions of interest and admiration with the likely associated cognitions concerned with determining of level of competence, nature of motivation and congruence of goals (Heider 1958, Young Young 2001). 2001). As the cycle continues, emotions of the relationship sustaining and enjoying enjoying ty pe s may become more important. Alternatively, Alternative ly, early disappointments may lead to decrease in relationship building emotions of trust and movement to a cycle of indifference or distrust. Balance in systems of relationships
Theories of cognitive balance are useful to further analyse the evolutionary state that we argue is trust – particularly particularly in a network context. Theories of balance posit that tha t certain conditions minimise minimise or eliminate elimina te stresses. stresses . Heider’s Heider’ s balance theory (1958) argues that tha t psychological and social social equilibrium is manifested in certain combinations of affect and/or cognition. The simplest socia sociall balance balance is between two actors a ctors with one of two connections between them: the feeling feeling or sense of belonging 1 that one entity has about the other and reciprocal connection. Balance theory the ory argues argues that th at both connections must be positive or both negative for the relationship to be balanced. balanced. Experiments in psychology have tended to support this (eg. Willis 1963). Heider’s theory of balance is further concerned with the mix of links contained in relations between interconnected entities. A number of factors contribute to the formation of positive linkages between entities in relationships. including proximity, more frequent contact, familiarity, similarity of beliefs and goals, predisposition towards certain sentiments and perception of potential benefits (Heider 1958). However a similar mix of factors can lead to the formation format ion of negative linkages. linkages. For example, familiarity and similarity of goals goals may lead lead to unhappiness when one party pa rty is not present pre sent and ultimately ultimatel y can lead to dislike if the party pa rty continues continu es to be absent. abse nt. Similarly, goals goals may be alike but congruently interdependent, i.e. the satisfaction of one party’s goals goals precludes the satisfaction satisfact ion of the other’s (Deutsch 1949), and this can lead to negative links. Alternatives to balance are imbalance, where there is stress to change, and vacuous balance, where there is absence of balance (this is distinct from imbalance) (Heider 1958, 202). Vacuous balance balance is
1
Heider (1958) argues there are two basic basic types of connections that need need to be considered in this context: context: sentiment links and perceived connectedness, or as he calls it, “unit bonding”.
associated with absence of trust (this is ambivalence or or not trusting as distinct from distrusting) and absence of unit formation (this is based on separation rather than disinclination or difference). Balance can be used used to consider consider relationships with with three or more entities. According to Heider (1958) conditions for balance and imbalance in a three entity system 2 are balance = all three relations are positive or two are negative and one is positive.3 imbalance = two relations are positive and one is negative ambiguous = three negative relationships or three entities where a link li nk is missing. Ambiguous Ambiguous systems may be under stress to change or ambiguity may be a means of achieving balance. • • •
Case Methodology
The case focuses on attitudes of the employees within a large Australian company most directly involved with customer service provision. 41 The organisation’s management are concerned with what they perceive as a lack of trust in them by their employees. It is their belief that this thi s may be the cause of a resistance to ongoing ongoing changes changes in service service protocols and that this in turn tur n could lead to a decline in service standards. They believe certain aspects aspects of the internal internal network of the organisation organisation impede Management’s efforts to build trust and reform the processes of the network. Fifteen semi-structured, face-to-face interviews of 30-90 minutes with employees and one interview with a senior manager were undertaken. These have been augmented with secondary information from the organisation, union and media that address relations within this organisation. To maximise the heterogeneity of employees interviewed, they have been selected so that different lengths of employment, differing levels of job performance (according to management-based indicators) and people in different service-provision settings settings are represented. Upon completion of 15 interviews, it it was decided that this number was sufficient sufficient for analysis as views expressed were fairly uniform and no new themes emerged after the first eight interviews (this is in line with the recommendations of Patton 1990 for determining sample size). An indirect/disguised indirect/disguised interviewing approach has been used to avoid the over-reporting over-reporting of trust tru st and/or the placing of trust into an unduly prominent position. Interviewers Intervie wers were briefed to avoid avoid using the word ‘trust’ or “distrust” in questioning. questioning. Instead the instrument guided guided discussion towards workplace atmosphere, including relations with colleagues, superiors and the organisation generally and encouraged interviewees to speculate on the causes and evolution of this atmosphere. For effective triangulation, two interviewers carried out interviews with the employees – managed by the author. Content analysis of completed interviews was conducted by another research research assistant with detailed analysis of her work being undertaken by the author. Findings emerg emergin ing g have been analysed on a case-by-case basis for convergence and divergence with the theoretical frame, with the other interviews and secondary secondary information. information. This approach reduces the biases of a particular researcher being introduced into the interviews and results and conforms to 2
Heider (1958) alludes to larger systems but only examines three party systems in detail. The reasons for the positive negative combinations are explained in detail in Heider (1958, pg 202-212) 4 At this time the sponsoring organisation prefers not to be identified, so circumstances and data have been somewhat disguised to respect their wishes and to further protect the privacy of employees participating. 3
recommendations for source, interviewer and analytical triangulation in qualitative research (e.g. Yin 1994).5 The Affects of the Employees and Their Drivers
Overall, there are few indications of trust. Informants used the word ‘trust’ infrequently infr equently with wit h some never mentioning mentioning it and no one one mentioning mentioning it more that a few times. times. Other emotions associated with w ith trust in empirical studies (Young 1996) were also infrequently mentioned, e.g. confidence, appreciation and respect. The absence of trust or presence of distrust and suspicion is more more often commented on, with two-thirds of informants doing so. When positive emotions are mentioned, mentioned, relationship-enjoying emotions of trust rather then relationship sustaining or building that are are indicated to be present. However they are associated with the service providers’ jobs rather than actors within the organization. Virtually all of those interviewed reported reported themselves to be enjoying enjoying their jobs and most of these indicated they derive considerable satisfaction from working working and expect to continue to do so. As one informant said: “ I actually enjoy going to work every day. I do. A lot of us really love our jobs.”
Both positive and negative assessments of Management were made, though negative assessments were in the majority. Most of the negative assessments assessment s related to the collective Management’s motivation. Positive motivation was more more likely to be associated with specific specific managers. One informant related as a significant significant event a story sto ry of the demonstration of positive po sitive motivation of a supervisor. She was very homesick but was scheduled to work a number of days over the Christmas period. With some trepidation she approached approached her supervisor supervisor and asked that the shift be modified so she could go home for Christmas. I said “Please is there anything you can do? Can I swap any of these days?" And she let me … I really appreciated that. … (T)hey do not have have to do that. And that was something that really meant a lot. Because she had no need to do that for me.” This one action by a supervisor, both because of the perception of altruistic motivation that was demonstrated and as it was beyond what was required, assisted in building trust (McAllister 1995). Situational factors and Management’s poor motivation were coupled in a number of informants’ minds. High levels of uncertainty uncertainty about job requirements requirements and risk associated associated with job future (in line with Meyerson, et al, 1996, Mayer, et al, 1995, Ring and Van der Ven 1992) were mentioned by a number of respondents as significant situational factors and Management’s perceived lack of responsiveness and sympathy to these issues were seen as evidence of Management’s lack of positive motivation. Lack of employer competence c ompetence was also mentioned (in line with Lewis Le wis and Weigert 1985, 1985, Luhmann Luhmann 1979), 1979), particularly with respect to poor management management practices by b y the employer organisation. About a third of those those interviewed indicated their reasons for negati negative ve feelings towards management were based on the way the organisation and specifically HRM practices are organised and/or the resulting uncaring treatment to which they were subjected subjected..
5
Triangulation is a common validation tool used in qualitative research. Multiple interviewers, sources of data being analysed separately and multiple analysts working independently with subsequent checks for convergence are all ways in which triangulation is used.
Another third had both negative feelings and reported uncaring treatment but did not not directly make make a link between them. Proximity analysis (looking at what is what is discussed before, after and in conjunction with focal statements) and causal analysis (looking at informant attributions of causation) were used to further explore the situational factors that contributed to the emotional and cognitive responses to Management in employees. Four factors emerged: emerged: unequal power, the presence of barriers to relationship formation, the distant nature of the workplace culture and poorly poorl y regarded regarded institutional norms of this organisation as drivers of the perceived distrust of Management. All of these are indicated to contribute a vicious rather than virtuous process of relationship development. development. It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss these at length (instead see Young and Daniel 2003).
Evolution and Balance of Trust
Balance theory tells us that symmetric relationships relationships are likely to continue (Heider 195 1958). 8). Symmetry of trust could take a number of forms including mutual trusting and/or attribution of trustworthiness to those those who see you as trustworthy (Rotter 1971). Both perceived and actu actual al symmetry exist in this network but is negative. Informants, who reported repor ted Management as disinterested in them, reported themselves as disinterested in aspects of their jobs and/or disinterested in what Management thought thought of them. Those who saw Management as distrustful and suspicious suspicious were likely to report themselves themselves as suspicious suspicious of Management. Management. Management reported considerable suspicion of employees' motivation and competence with the one interview with a senior manager reporting this as the general view. Each of the above factors is likely to make some contribution to the generally suspicious atmosphere that in turn influences both ongoing emotional responses responses to and assessment a ssessment of the situation. In this case, the negativ negativee outcomes of the relationship seem to create the conditions for further negative emotions emotions and assessment assessment and to ensure that tha t Management is viewed with increas increasing ing rather than decreasing suspicion (as discussed by Wilkinson Wilkinson and Youn Young g 1994). This dysfunctional process appears to be occurring in both Employees and Management. Management. The interviews indicate that tha t most employees commenced their careers with positive emotions and cognitions towards Management. Early interest and admiration by employees e mployees did not result in desired relationship benefits –management responsiveness and good work conditions– as have been discussed. Therefore these emotions failed to develop further in most informants, interest was replaced by disinterest and uncaring uncaring and/or and/or by suspicion. For a few informants emotions have evolved evolved to more actively negative emotions such as disappointment, dislike and resentment (De Rivera 1984). A fairly typical story from an informant is of being very admiring of the organisation and its management when joining. During her early years on the job as she perceived a continued lack of interest by the organisation in her input and efforts, her admiration was replaced by disinterest, more recently resentment has become prominent.
A number of factors appear to be working together to inhibit the development of trust in Management in this workplace setting. In line with the results reported re ported here, previous work wor k has emphasized the importance of personalised relationships (Wilkinson and Young 1994), perceptions
of competence and positive motivation (Heider 1958, Young and Wilkinson 1989) the trust perceived to be emulating emulating from the other othe r party pa rty (Rotter (Rotte r 1971), and acceptable levels of risk and uncertainty (Warne and Holland 1999) as sources of trust. All are indicated to play inverse roles in the development of distrust in this network.
Figure two summarises the reported affects in the form of an employee’s internal network. Not all all relationships included in the figure have been discussed in detail here (see instead Young and Daniel 2003). The network network that Management perceives to exist for workers is of smaller scope (as indicated by the darker grey ellipse) than is that described by the employees interviewed (as indicated by the combined ellipses). In addition workers make the distinction between their work/delivery of service and the customer and between individual managers and the organisation’s Management as a whole, where Management does not (as indicated by the striped ellipses). The management versus worker worker views of the network are also qualitatively qualitatively different. The portion por tion of the network envisaged envisaged by management contains contains distrust/dislike distrust/dislike relations (as indicated by the minuses) and positive relations that for the purposes of Management work adversely – in this case unit bonding of union and workers so they can work against Management Management interests. The network net work as perceived by the workers includes more positive aspects and indicated by the pluses. Likin Liking g of the th e job and trust in direct supervisors are included here.
-
Union
0-workers + Mngmnt
- Workers
Not differentiated by Management, differentiated but not linked by workers
Organisation and its management
+-mngmnt (0=ambivalent)
Focal worker +
Direct supervising managers
0 workers/
+ mngmnt
+ workers
+
- mngmnt + Colleague workers
+
Customer
+ Job, including effective service delivery
+ workers - mngmnt
Figure 2: The internal network of employees The network relations perceived by Management and employees are different but both are balanced. balanced. In the both views of the network dyads are symmetric (not depicted in Figure 2 but discussed previously). In the Management view all triads are balanced balanced as the three components are either all all positively linked or are linked via two negative and a positive positive link. Where there might have been potential imbalance as would occur occur in the triad Worker-Job-Customer this is avoided by not perceiving customers and jobs as separate entities - as occurs in the mind of employee - and hence no triad exists. When the network is viewed from the employee’s perspective there are relationships of different valance (e.g. Management perceives workers to have a negative relation to their job but workers report a positive relation) but the triads are balanced balanced.. Sometimes Sometimes the nature of the triad balance balance is different. The colleague-worker-job triad is three positive links in the mind of workers and two negatives and a positive according according to Management Management reports. Another way imbalance is avoided is b y ambiguity, i.e. the absence of links. For example there is distancing in the minds of employees empl oyees between Management and direct supervisors and hence no link between them. The The positive link that tha t one might expect between them would place a Management-Supervisor-Worker triad into imbalance (two positives and a negative link). While this network can be seen as “balanced,” this does not mean there is unlikely to be further evolution. evoluti on. As discussed discusse d by Young and Johnston (1998) networks net works are likely to change change if individual
relationships relationships within them them change, then then placing the triads triads of which they they are part under stress. stress. As other “connected relations” (here we mean by this the other two relationships in the triad) diminish in strength and/or positiveness, balance theory would hypothesize that the third relation is likely to diminish diminish as well. Figure Figure 2 indicates indicates via via dashed lines lines the relationships that tha t employees report r eport to be changing – these include relations with customers and colleagues. colleagues. The still-positive still-posi tive but chan changi ging ng relations may explain the indications that for some the positive connection with their job is also diminishing. diminishing. Two informants report this. As one informant informant said said when questioned about what the organisation should be doing better: I thought there would be more support from the company and more making it an environment conducive to a Customer Services role, that is more productive and supportive of what lengths we go to – to satisfy customers This respondent went on to comment that this lack of perceived support is gradually leading to less commitment by employees. The lack of support and hence lack of Management commitment was perceived by several informants to have have the potential to diminish their job performance. One informant who claimed it had already done so supported her argument by b y saying that when after a fter finishing work but while still present at the workplace: ….(C )ustomers are coming up to you and asking you questions. You tend to tune off. And as they come to you – you say, “Oh, ask a sk that person over there.” You do pass the buck. The comment was then made that this would have been less likely to happen in the past. It is our belief that the situational factors and the way they are linked, as depicted in Figure 2, have led to a cycle of escalati escalating ng distrust. One anomaly in in the cycle of distrust is the positive emotions associated with the job. job. Present are relationship-enjoying relationship-enjoying emotions but these are associated with a relationship to the job and to good quality relations with co-workers and are not translating into positive emotions with respect to the other parts of the organisation. However when the objects of trust and distrust are mapped into a network form and analysed using balance t heory the reasons for this become plain. The critical critical “link” “link” in in the network pattern depicted is a missing missing one. Negative Negative experiences with management appear to be largely unconnected in informants’ minds to feelings about their job, hence the latter remain positive – for the time being.
Implications and Future Research
This case illustrates illustrates the effectiveness of considering considering trust as an affect and balance theory as a means of analysing connected, affectual relations. Emergi Emerging ng from the analysis an alysis is i s both an understanding of the relationships and insight into ways in which network network problems might be addressed. addressed. Using Using balance theory highlights the need to address the building of trust of both parties as they are both mired in distrust of the other and this is mutually reinforcing. From the perspective of building worker trust, a starting point might be better information provision to employees about what is happening in the organisation and better communication with them. This has been shown to significantly enhance trust in other service-providing settings (Podadkoff et al 1996). If this is combined with Management demonstrating trustworthiness –
probably via initiatives showing positive motivation (as it is more quickly demonstrated than is competence and may be the greater problem) – and better information provision means that Employees can assess this motivation motivation more effectively (Krammer et al 1993). Initiatives focussing focussing on empowerment of employees could also be effective in developing trust (Krammer et al 1993). The still-present job enjoyment and commitment could serve as an important part of the platform upon which empowerment could be built. The job enjoyment still present indicates that employees are likely to welcome the greater accountability accountability empowerment would would engender - if it is accompanied accompanied by greater participation and the clear message that contributions are valued (Dobbs 1996). Initiatives focussing on the building of mutual trust are also needed. Of central importance is i s to to develop greater personalisation between the employees and Management. At the organi organisat sation ional al level a greater opportunity for and appreciation of employees’ contribution should assist in this. At a more individual level initiatives that allow specific supervisors to develop relationships with and demonstrate positive motivation towards specific employees will be critical. In addition addition exploration of ways to develop positive and clear associations in the minds of employees between relationships with more personalised supervisors and distant management (i.e. seeing liked immediate supervisors supervisors as representing representing more distant distant managers) managers) is likely to be necessary. This might might be particularly effective in overturning the long-term suspicion in some that may not respond to initiatives that are seen as purely organisationally driven. Critical to this process is to balance the building of of trust. Trust is based in part on how trusted one believes oneself to be. Therefore Therefor e remedies need to include programs to make employees employees trustworthier in Management’s eyes. Within this framework, activity ac tivity aimed at changing changing the perceptions of job-related risk (for example fear of losing the job for speaking out, being demoted, not being being valued, valued, etc.) should be undertaken. undertaken. Uncertainty makes makes more difficult the creation of t rust ru st yet paradoxically requires that there be more trust present to compensate for its presence (Daley 1991). Critical to this organisation is provision of high quality service. This analysis has highlighted that the relationship between Management and Employee trust and effective service delivery can be complex – as evidenced by apparently contradictory relationship between job satisfaction and organisational distrust. Further work needs to consider the factors that most mos t impact on service service quality delivered and the more precise role of trust in this dynamic with further in-depth interviews to be undertaken if needed. In the longer term these issues might be explored in a large-scale large-scale survey sur vey of service-providing service-providing employees. employees. While this could could be beneficial within within large companies companies so as t o create focussed profiles of trust, there is also a need to compare industries to enable exploration of any situational factors that contribute to trust. We would would also like like to extend this work to a crosscultural context. It is argued that societal characteristics characterist ics impact on individual’s trust – its i ts nature, propensity and role (Fukayama 1995). Future research needs also to be concerned with whether whether high levels of concern with trust are are warranted. There is still very little evidence as to whether trust increases increases network network productivity, pr oductivity, competitiveness competitiveness or profitability. profitability. There are indications that it may play pl ay a more limited role than psychologists would have us believe. It has been argued that often only very low levels of trust t rust are present in many interdependent relationships and yet some of these relationships function reasonably well (Stannack 1999). Trust has been argued to be sometimes counter-productive
(Hakansson and Snehota 2002?); a study in Germany showed too much workplace trust increased the resistance to change (Kern 1999). Here, there are indications that job enjoyment and satisfaction do not depend on trust. This may mean that quality provision of service is likely whether Management is trusted or not. Indeed the challenges challenges that these service providers’ jobs present, pres ent, perhaps the same challenges that cause disputes and distrust, may be the very thing that makes the job interesting and satisfying. And job enjoyment enjoyment and/or satisfaction rather r ather than trust may be what drives service delivery. This is a case case study of of a single internal internal network’s network’s trust relations. relations. However we believe that these findings can be generalised in several several ways. This work work has illustrated the effectiveness of analysing analysing networks with a model that uses emotional cues to indicate the presence or absence absence of trust as well as highlighting the issues that are associated associat ed with affiliated emotions emoti ons and cognitions. This could be applied in other settings settings where trust is missing. However, it is our belief belief that this approach would be even more useful useful in settings where there are reasonable reasonable levels of trust as this approach approa ch allows the t he subtleties of trust to be considered. Young (2001) argues that trust containing different emotions emerges from different stimuli and that different forms of trust are likely to play different roles in relationships. relationships. An understanding understanding of this might enable “trust engineering”. engineering”. Such a conceptual structure also can have real value as a comparative framework in cross-cultural research (see Dawson et al 1997 for an example example of this applied to B2B market relationships). The centrality of emotions to humans could make more credible comparisons of trust accross different cultures. Using the more traditional approach of using only the environmental and cognitive antecedents of trust trust is likely to result in significant significant methodological problems. However further work will be needed as to universality and interpretability of emotional expressions and extent to which they combine with cognitions to form affective trust.
Reference List
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