ARTICLE An article: • is a piece of writing usually intended for publication in a newspaper, magazine or journal • is written for a wi de audience, so it is essential to attract and retain the readers’ attention • may include amusing stories, reported speech and d escriptions • can be formal or informal, depending on the target audience • should be written in an interesting i nteresting or entertaining manner • should give opinions and thoughts, as well as facts • is in a less formal style than a report An article can: • describe an experience, event, person or place • present an opinion or balanced ar gument • compare and contrast • provide information • offer suggestions • offer advice Articles are written for newspapers, magazines, newsletters, etc and use a variety of styles. In general an article should contain: A suitable eye-catching title that suggests the theme of the article. Articles can also have subheadings before each paragraph. Followed by an introduction which clearly defines the topic to be covered and keeps the reader’s attention. Techniques for attracting the reader’s attention include using: Direct address (if you need help wi th your studies, look no further…) o A rhetorical question o Background information o A main body, in which you write about the main points in the rubric. You should start a new paragraph for each point o Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence, followed by explanations or examples. o A conclusion in which you can summarise the main points or re-state your opinion, recommendation or comment. The conclusion can leave the reader something to think about. The style of writing should be appropriate for the target reader (which in this case is determined by the type of publication). Before you begin writing it is important to consider: • Where is the article going to appear - in a newspaper or magazine? • Who are the intended readers - a specific group such as students or teenagers, or adults in • What is the aim of the article - to advise, suggest, inform, compare and contrast, describe, etc.? DO NOT use over-personal or over-emotional language or simplistic vocabulary. DO NOT talk about yourself. You are writing for the general public, not a close circle of friends. Your opinions are only interesting to other people if you can make them amusing, justify them or explain them.
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DISCURSIVE ESSAY Contents: arguments agreeing and disagreeing. You have to choose your personal option. Structure:
Title: you can write it at the end Introduction: 1 paragraph (3 sentences) to explain the situation, aim of the essay, problem or even personal option. A good introductory paragraph describes the present present situation and gives supporting evidence. evidence. It should refer to the statement of question you have been asked to discuss. This can often be done in the form of a question to the reader which the subsequent paragraphs should answer. One easy way to write the introduction for an argument or opinion essay is to write THREE sentences: two about the topic and one thesis sentence. You can write either Situation or Opini on introductions Situation Introductions: Write two sentences to describe the two sides of the present situation . The third sentence – sentence – the the Thesis sentence – sentence – will will describe what you are going do in your essay. Who should take care of our old people? In my country, most old people live happily with their children. Increasingly, however, many families cannot take care of their parents. This essay will describe some of the problems involved with taking care of old people, and discuss who should be responsible.
Opinion Introductions: In this kind you give two opposite opinions in the first two sentences. The third sentence says what you are going to do. Does space exploration benefit mankind? Many people are excited about space exploration. However, others feel it is a massive waste of money. This essay will look at some of the arguments for and against space exploration.
Body: What makes a body look good? Paragraphs, that’s the answer! If your paragraph is in good shape, your body will look good and feel good. Here’s what you need to have in a b ody paragraph. o Topic Sentence o Argument or Reason 1 o Example, Explanation, or supporting detail o Argument or Reason 2 2
Example, Explanation, or supporting detail Argument or Reason 3 (Three is a magic number. Always aim to have 3 ideas.) o o Example, Explanation, or supporting detail o Paragraph summary (optional ) Conclusion: The conclusion is the end of the essay. It is the last part of the essay and it is the part that the reader may remember most. It should be clear and avoid confusing the reader. The conclusion should briefly sum up the arguments you have made, and can include your personal opinion. The opinion you express should follow logically form the arguments you have presented. The reader expects the conclusion to do some or all of the following o
rephrase the question summarize the main ideas give your opinion, if you haven’t given it already look to the future (say what will happen if the situation continues or changes)
The reader DOES NOT expect new information in the conclusion. Never add a new idea just because you have thought of it at the end! You must do all of this in just t hree or four sentences!
Vocabulary is Important. The conclusion is very similar to the introduction. However, you should avoid repeating the same words. This is why a few minutes spent at the start of the exam writing down synonyms (words with the same meaning) and related words is very helpful. After all, if you only have a 250-word essay but use the same word 10 times, this will not show the examiner what you know. Link your ideas together with varied discourse markers and linking phrases, because an essay should show the development of a logical argument; it is not just a list of random ideas and opinions.
REPORT AND PROPOSAL Reports and proposals are usually written to present information in formal situations. They are usually divided into sections. Each section is written as a paragraph, but the sections are given headings. You will be given a role (e.g. you are a secretary of your local music club ...) and specific instructions as to what you should include. Reports tend to be about past events or present situations and proposals usually outline a course of action for the future. 3
A report or proposal should contain:
An introduction in which the reason for writing is stated.
A main body with headed sections. It is essential to choose appropriate section headings.
A conclusion in which the main points are summarised. The conclusion may include a reference to future action.
Reports and proposals usually begin with the following: To: From: Subject: Date: The first paragraph is usually a short section entitled Purpose or Introduction which give the reason for writing. In the conclusion you can:
Summarise the points in the main body
Make a recommendation for future action
Offer a personal opinion
Reassure the target reader
In a proposal, you can also end by mentioning the benefits of the proposal being accepted.
Tips:
Look carefully at whom the report is for and what they need to know. This will help you choose what information you have to include.
In the introduction state what the aim of the report is.
Decide what the subdivisions are going to be within the areas of the report and think of headings for them.
For each paragraph state the situation ( strengths and weaknesses) and then make a r ecommendation.
If in an exam you are given information on which to base your report, try not to use exactly the same words.
Try to use a variety of expressions for generalizing and making suggestions.
Use an appropriate professional style, avoiding very informal expressions.
Introduction or purpose: The aim/objective/purpose of this report is to compare / examine / evaluate / describe / outline (some suggestions) / analyse (some suggestions) / expose / present / give information on / recommend / consider / suggest, ... This report aims to... etc. Nouns: information, ideas, suggestions, situations, conditions, comments in order to improve/decide In case of survey/discussion: It is based on a survey conducted among/It is the result of a discussion which took place among Body (2 paragraphs maximum) Headings from the task It should be considered, it is worth considering The first observation to make is (concerns) First of all/Firstly
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Secondly/ Furthermore/Moreover Lastly/Finally In fact According to (the majority of respondents) However, although, alternatively In spite of (the fact [that])/Despite (the fact [that]) + Noun, Pronoun or ...ing Predicting the future: The outlook for ... is (far from [+ing]) bri ght/optimistic/depressing/daunting The future looks bleak/remains uncertain/is promising This seems unlikely in the near/foreseeable near/ foreseeable future Conclusion(s) As long as/provided that these recommendations are taken i nto consideration In conclusion... The reseach shows/demonstrates From the research/the evidence we conclude that It has been stressed that Making/giving recommendations I would strongly recommend that ... should + bare infinitive In the light of the results of the survey I would advise against... I feel it would be to our advantage if... The best solution is/would be to... This will have an impact on + noun
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FORMAL LETTER Formal letters are written for a variety of reasons (to present information, to make an application, to recommend someone or something, to complain, to apologise, etc). The main difference between formal and informal letters is the language that you use. In all cases it is essential that the style of the letter is appropriate for the targ et reader. A letter should contain: An introduction in which the reason for writing i clearly stated. In formal letters, it is often necessary to state who you are. A main body in which the task is covered according to the instructions given. Each different issue should be discussed in a separate paragraph. You usually begin each main body paragraph with a topic sentence. Examples and /or explanations are the added in supporting sentences. A conclusion in which you restate the main points of the letter and /or state an opinion. For formal letters, any action you want taken should be clearly stated at the end of the letter. How formal your letters need to be depends o the target reader and the reason for writing. It is very important to maintain the same level or formality throughout your letter (in other words, you should not mix very formal expressions with very informal ones. Formal style includes: sophisticated vocabulary, impersonal tone, more frequent use of the passive voice, complex grammatical constructions, formal inking devices and advanced vocabulary. Remember that formal letters begin and end with either: Dear Sir/Madam, -> Yours faithfully, or Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms Smith -> Yours sincerely, All formal letters begin with the reason for writing. In addition, you can include one or more of the following: Who you are A reference to something you have seen or read Details of place, time, people spoken to, etc. Depending on the reason for writing, letters can end with one or more of the following: A summary of the main body A reiteration of the reason for writing A reassurance A reference to future action An expression of gratitude Tips for writing an email or letter of complaint: Make a note of all the relevant details you want to include before you start drafting your letter. Decide what action you want the person you are writing to take. Use appropriate expressions for opening and closing the letter. Use a formal style, and be clear and assertive but not aggressive. Try to use a variety of expressions for generalizing and making suggestions. User the passive to make it more impersonal or to make clear that you are not accusing individuals. Tips for writing an email or letter of application: It is important to include only the information that is relevant to the particular job you are applying for. It is also important to use exactly the right tone; otherwise the application will be rejected. Typically such letters contain some of all of the following: The name of the job or course you are applying for Where you saw it advertised What you are doing now What work experience you have Your academic qualifications The personal qualities which make you suitable for the job or course.
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INFORMAL LETTER Informal letters are written for similar reasons that formal letters but are usually written to people you know. Informal style includes: colloquial (spoken) and idiomatic English, personal tone and direct address, less frequent use of the passive voice, less complex grammatical constructions, simple linking devices, less advanced vocabulary, contractions. Informal letters usually begin and end with first names in the following way: Dear John, -> Lots of love, Susan Dear Margaret, ->Take care and write soon, Bill Informal letters can begin with the reason for writing. Alternatively, they can begin with an informal greeting. The closing comment depends on the content of the letter.
Opening Dear... Hi/Hello... 7
Beginning Great/Lovely to hear from you (after so long) Thanks (a lot) for the letter / It was great to get your letter Sorry to hear about your Sorry for not writing for so long/I haven’t written/I haven’t been in touch for so long
Persuading You’d get so much out of out of it It’d be a wonderful/marvellous opportunity for you to.. Just think of (all the people you’d meet) Just imagine how it would (improve your cv), not to mention (the money you could earn)
Advising Whatever you do, make sure you.. It’s (not) worth/There’s no/little point + gerund I’d/I wouldn’t…if I were you. You’d be much better off + gerund
Ending I must go now Phone me as soon as possible. Write back soon and let me know how it goes (I’m) Looking forward to hearing from you Please reply quickly I’ll finish now as I’m running out of space Bye for now I’d better get going Can’t wait to see you again (Give my) love/regards to
Signing off Friends: All the best/Best wishes/Bye for now Relatives: Lots of love/All my love/Love
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When possible, use:
Contractions
Present continuous instead of present simple ('I’m looking forward to hearing from you' instead of 'I look forward...')
Present simple instead of conditional ('I want to visit your farm' instead of 'I would like to visit your farm')
Colloquial expressions ('I’m most interested' instead of 'I am really interested')
Direct sentences ('I think it's a good idea' instead of 'It would be a g ood idea')
Phrasal verbs
REVIEW Reviews are usually written for newspapers, magazines, newsletters, etc, and their style (format or semi-formal) depends on how serious the publication is. The purpose of the review review is to give your opinion about a book, film, play, CD, etc. You might be asked to do a combination of the foll owing: describe, narrate, explain and compare. A review should contain: An introduction in which you give the main details A main body which focuses on the details requested by the rubric A conclusion which can contain a summary of the main body and /or a positive or negative opinion. The conclusion usually contains a recommendation Choose a book or film that you know well. Organize the review into clear paragraphs and make sure you use a suitable style (semiformal). Use the present tense when you describe the plot. Use participle clauses will help to keep ti concise. Try to use a range of adjectives that describe as precisely as possible how the book or film made your feel (gripping, moving… moving…). Use adverbs of degree to modify them (absolutely gripping). Remember that even a god review will usually include some criticism as well as praise. 9
Structure: o Paragraph 1: The title of the book or film, and the author or director. Where and when it i s set. o Paragraph 2: The plot, including information about the main characters. Paragraph 3: What you liked about the book/film, and any criticisms you may have. o Paragraph 4: A summary of your opinion and a recommendation. o
NARRATIVE Narrative writing is used when we want to describe a series of events. This can be in the present or in the past. Characteristics of narrative writing include: An introduction which sets the scene. Correct use of tenses to link the main events. Use of appropriate time words and phrases. Describing feelings. Mentioning the senses (the smell of freshly cut flowers filled the room …) Narratives are written in the first person (I/we) or in the third person. They may be accounts of real events that happened to us or somebody else, or imaginary stories. This can be humorous stories, spy stories, detective stories, etc. Before we star writing the story we should decide on the plot line (events that make up the story). A narrative should consist of: An introduction in which the scene is set (when and where the story took place, who the people in the story were and what happened first). A main body of two or more paragraphs whre the story id developed describing the events, usually in chronological order. One of the events should be the climax event (the event where interest, suspense and feelings reach their peak).
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A conclusion which includes what happened at the end of the story, as well as people’s feelings, final comments or reactions. A twist (surprising ending) makes a long lasting impression on the the reader. A narrative may also have a catchy title in order to attract the reader’s attention, especially if it is for a magazine, newspaper, etc.
LEAFLETS AND INFORMATION SHEETS These can be both FORMAL and INFORMAL; it depends on the target reader. • Like ARTICLES you need a HEADING; • Like REPORTS/PROPOSALS they need to be divided into SECTIONS with subheadings. with subheadings. FORMAL: The focus is on providing factual information and therefore, you need to use tactful/diplomatic language: e.g. coming
INFO year:
SHEET Use
announcing
language
which
major reassures
changes the
public
within that
your very
little
company
over
inconvenience
will
the be
caused. INFORMAL: The focus is on being informative but more light-hearted/persuasive language is required: e.g. LEAFLET: “Write a leaflet encouraging young people to attend a cultural/sporting event that you have helped to organise”. Both organise”. Both leaflets and information sheets must include: • A title which attracts the attention of the reader and states the content; 11
• An introduction which makes the reader want to continue reading; • A main body divided into headed sections focusing on relevant inform ation in the rubric; • A brief conclusion where main points are summarised. LAYOUT summarised. LAYOUT is important! Remember: • Clear headings; • Make sure writing is well spaced out on page; • Use bullet points
BROCHURE AND GUIDEBOOK ENTRY Introduction What you write for a book entry is very similar to an article so: • There should be a title • It should include section headings • The language should be quite formal as book entries are usually written for serious publications • The subject – whether – whether person or place – place – should should be made clear in the first section • The opening section should be as interesting as interesting as possible to make the reader want to carry on reading • It is important that what you write is as real istic as possible and therefore should look like an authentic text 12
Writing style Book entries will include a combination of : Descriptive: e.g. describe a person/place etc Discursive: e.g. give and support your opinion, analyse a situation, give explanations Narrative: e.g. narrate an event or a discovery
Guidebook entry:
Write down the names of at least four places in the area you could write about.
For each place make notes according to the bullet points in the task (why ( why they will appeal to visitors, the kind of things they cane expect to see and do there, historical information,...)
Select three of the places. When choosing, consider how much you have to say and the range of language you could use.
Include a brief introduction and give each paragraph a heading.
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CHARACTER REFERENCE As a rule, character references have three sections.
Opening. Usually a paragraph of only a sentence or two, the the opening explains who you are and how you know the subject (person you're referring). Before it you can start with the general sentence: To whom it may concern. Body. The body is the majority of the letter. It can be several paragraphs. paragraphs. Here you make the case case for your friend or relative-- describing your experiences with him or her and giving examples of the subject's good qualities. reinforces your belief in your friend friend or relative and contains your actual actual Closing. The last paragraph reinforces recommendation. Employment related character references are usually best when the recommendation is as open-ended as possible. For example, your friend John has asked you to write a letter because he hopes it will help him land a sales position position at the local hardware hardware store. John is polite and out-going, out-going, and you feel he'd be great in sales. When closing your letter letter which is the better way to make your recommendation? recommendation? "I enthusiastically recommend John for a position selling selling hardware" OR "I enthusiastically enthusiastically recommend John for any position position where patience, courtesy and a winning manner m anner are important". The second way would be preferable: John could reuse the letter for other job opportunities in the future, jobs that might not involve hardware or even sales. John's qualities drive drive the recommendation (as opposed to his desire for a job driving it). This makes the recommendation seem more sincere and therefore makes it more powerful.
Non-employment related letters are usually written in response to special, one-time occurrences (scholarship competition, competition, child custody award, award, etc.) and the recommendation must reflect reflect this. That is, by necessity whatever you recommend must be very specific to be effective. Build your letter around specific traits: traits: Identify your subject's positive attributes. Then think of the traits that are important important to the position, award, etc. he he or she is seeking. Construct your letter around around 1 to 3 of the attributes that overlap. Here are some positive attributes often found in character reference letters:
Ambitious, wants to learn and grow Charming, has sense of humor, lighthearted Committed, loyal, devoted Considerate, caring, empathetic Courteous, polite Creative, is a problem-solver Detail-oriented, punctual, quality-minded Determined, persevering, goal-oriented Efficient, economy-minded Fair-minded, honest, trustworthy Follows instructions, aims to please 14
Generous, giving, helpful Good leader, responsible, mature for age Good listener, good communicator Hardworking, diligent, industrious Intelligent, is a quick study, naturally curious Organized, methodic, orderly Patient, level-headed People oriented, easygoing, team player Works independently, is a self-starter
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