Journal of Cleaner Production 43 (2013) 20e26
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Journal of Cleaner Production journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Vanillin, a potential carrier for low temperature dyeing of polyester fabrics V. Pasquet a, b, A. Perwuelz a, b, N. Behary a, b, *, J. Isaad a, b a b
ENSAIT-GEMTEX: ENSAIT, GEMTEX, Roubaix, France Univ Lille Nord de France, USTL, F-59655 Villeneuve d’Ascq Cedex, France
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 10 April 2012 Received in revised form 10 December 2012 Accepted 12 December 2012 Available online 11 January 2013
The potential use of vanillin for the chemical substitution of toxic carriers used in low temperature dyeing of polyester fabrics, was assessed. Both para and ortho-vanillin were used to compare the dyeing of a woven polyester fabric with two different blue disperse dyes: a high molecular weight anthraquinone dye D79 and a low molecular weight azoic dye D56. When 1 g of vanillin was used for dyeing with 3% of disperse dye, the dye uptakes increased for both vanillins, but were higher with ortho-vanillin especially in the case of the low molecular weight dye. The impact of different dyeing parameters such as pH, o-vanillin concentration and use of ethanol co-solvent, on the dye uptake was also studied. Highest dye uptake was reached with 2 g of ortho-vanillin at pH 7, without use of the co-solvent. Dye uptakes were compared to those of traditional carriers such as phenylphenol, dichlorobenzene, benzoic acid, and a commercial Levegal DTE carrier. With 2 g of vanillin, K/S of dyed fabric reached 16, which is equivalent to that obtained with 1 g of the commercial carrier. The study confirms that vanillin can be used as a chemical substitute to traditional carriers and leads to good wash and rub fastness properties. At present, few literature data are available to compare toxicity of all carriers and apply the principle of substitution. A toxicity analysis carried out using USEtoxÔ model showed that both para and ortho vanillins used in agro-food industries are not recognized as toxic for human health, unlike most traditional carriers. Ortho-vanillin has however high ecotoxicity. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Chemical substitution Dyeing Polyester Carrier Vanillin
1. Introduction Environmental issues are being increasingly taken into account in textile dyeing and finishing industries because of strict legislations and a growing ecological concern. Main environmental impacts of textile dyeing & finishing industries involve high water consumption, high energy use and also input of a wide range of chemicals (dyes, surfactants, carriers, etc.). Some of these chemicals are hazardous for both human health and environment. In the last few years, researchers working in the field of wet textile processing are trying to implement natural and safer molecules, in line with the principles of a more eco-friendly chemistry (Szente et al., 1998; Vankar et al., 2006; Montoneri et al., 2008). Meanwhile, the Substitution Principle based on hazard assessments appear to justify the use of safer chemical alternatives (Thorpe and Rossi, 2007;
* Corresponding author. Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Arts et Industrie Textiles (ENSAIT), Laboratoire de Génie et Matériaux Textiles (GEMTEX), 2, allée Louise et Victor Champier, BP 30329, 59056 Roubaix Cedex 01, France. Tel.: þ33 3 20 25 75 64; fax: þ33 3 20 24 84 06. E-mail address:
[email protected] (N. Behary). 0959-6526/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.12.032
Ozturk et al., 2009; Lavoie et al., 2010; Hansonn et al., 2011). The purpose of our study was to assess the feasibility of substituting toxic molecules called carriers used for dyeing of polyester fabrics by vanillin which is an agro-sourced product. In 2009, global production of polyester fibres reached 31.9 million tonnes; about 45% of worldwide fiber production (Oerlikon, 2010). Polyester (polyethylene terephtalate (PET)) fibers have a growing importance, and are mainly used in clothing, geotextile and automotive industries. PET has excellent tensile strength and chemical resistance. However as PET is hydrophobic and has no chemically active groups, its dyeing in aqueous conditions is quite difficult. Dyeing is achieved with disperse dyes having good diffusivity and solubility in PET fiber. Moreover, the highly crystalline structure of PET fiber slows down the rate of dye diffusion into the fiber (Trotman, 1970; Cegarra and Puente, 1967; Carrion, 1995). Dyeing of polyester fabrics can be achieved using three different methods depending on the quantity of fabrics to be dyed (Dupont, 2002; Dewez, 2008). Thermosol process used for continuous dyeing of thousands of meters of polyester fabrics, is carried by impregnation of the PET fabric in the dye bath followed by squeezing of excess dye bath and then a prior drying
V. Pasquet et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 43 (2013) 20e26
(at 100e140 C) before dye fixation (at 200e225 C during 12e 25 s). This technique is however restricted to disperse dyes that can sublimate and penetrate inside the PET fiber in gaseous state. Thus, only a limited amount of color shades can be obtained. When special shades are needed, dyeing of polyester fabrics with disperse dyes is achieved using exhaustion method (deep dyeing). The fabric to be dyed is immerged in the dye bath for longer period (about 1 h) under high temperature and pressure, under agitation, with or without addition of a carrier to allow dye diffusion inside the polyester fiber. Exhaustion method is used for dyeing of smaller quantities of polyester fabrics or for dyeing of polyester textiles in the form of fibers, yarns or knitted fabrics. Two exhaust dyeing methods are used: 1 - Dyeing under atmospheric conditions (below 100 C) with the aid of carriers and 2 - Dyeing under high-temperature and pressure conditions (125e135 C). The last method is the most commonly applied but it requires high energy consumption because of high temperature conditions. Carriers are used for dyeing of PET fibers in order to improve adsorption and accelerate diffusion of disperse dyes into the fiber at low temperature and pressure conditions. Nevertheless, most of carriers are toxic for humans and aquatic organisms (Murray and Mortimer, 1971a; Shenai, 1998; Tavanaie, 2010). During dyeing and rinsing, a large amount of carriers is released into wastewater, but part remains entrapped in the fiber (Vigo, 1994; Park, 2004) and is likely to be emitted into air during drying, thermofixation and later use (eg. ironing). Chemical carriers include: phenolics, chlorinated aromatics, aromatic hydrocarbons and ethers (Vigo, 1994). Some carriers are said “hydrophobic” and some are “hydrophilic”, and their mode of action differ accordingly. Hydrophobic carriers are more effective than hydrophilic ones (Burkinshaw, 1995). In textile industry, hydrophobic carriers such as dichloro and trichloro-benzene are already substituted by hydrophilic carriers such as benzoic acid (Vigo, 1994). 1.1. Action of carriers During the first stage of dyeing, adsorption of carriers on PET fiber takes place in a manner which is similar to that of disperse dyes. Interactions between PET fiber and carrier involve primarily dispersive forces acting between aromatic parts of the carrier and the PET polymer (Murray and Mortimer, 1971b; Ingamells and Yabani, 1977; Burkinshaw, 1995). As the carrier molecules are smaller in size than the dye molecules, they diffuse more rapidly into the amorphous regions of fiber after their adsorption onto PET fiber. There is then a swelling of PET fiber and creation of spaces between PET macromolecular chains. Amorphous regions then become more easily accessible to the dye molecules. This swelling phenomenon causes a plasticization of PET and therefore a reduction of glass transition temperature Tg (Murray and Mortimer, 1971a; Vigo, 1994; Burkinshaw, 1995). The carrier has thus the effect of accelerating dye diffusion inside PET fiber. “Hydrophilic” carriers have a different mode of action: they act as powerful dispersing agent, increasing solubility of the disperse dye in water, (Burkinshaw, 1995; Arcoria, 1989), but their increased solubility in water decreases their diffusion inside the PET fiber. Carriers such as phenols have aromatic group which contributes to their adsorption on the fiber (Balmforth et al., 1966). 1.2. Vanillin Molecular structure of vanillin is similar to that of traditional carriers, which confers to all of them a solubility parameter close to
21
that of PET. Hence it would be interesting to study the possible use of vanillin to substitute traditional toxic carriers. Naturally occurring vanillin in pods is very expensive and was for a long time replaced by petrochemical vanillin for its use in agrifood and perfumery. There is now a great concern for its production using biotechnological solution: Rhodia markets biosynthetic vanillin prepared by the action of microorganisms on ferulic acid extracted from rice bran and today lots of research is being undertaken to synthesize vanillin from agro-resources such as lignin (McShan, 2005). Moreover, vanillin is antioxidant (Tai et al., 2011) antimicrobial and anti-mutagenic effects (Walton et al., 2003). In this article, the feasibility of substituting traditional carriers by 2 different types of vanillins: para and ortho-vanillin (see Fig. 1(a) and (b)) was assessed. PET fabric was dyed in atmospheric conditions using two different disperse dyes having differing molecular weight. The toxicity risks related to the use of vanillin compared to the existing carrier molecules were also analyzed using literature data. 2. Experimental 2.1. Dyeing methods A 100% PET plain woven fabric, ready-to-dye (supplied by Subrenat) density ¼ 167 g/cm2 was used. The samples, weighing 3 g, were dyed in 200 ml beakers (Labomat machine) with two dyes, disperse dye blue D56 (M ¼ 349.14 g mol1) and disperse dye blue D79 (M ¼ 639.41 g mol1), see Fig. 2(a) and (b). For each dyeing the liquor volume was set to 150 ml. The amount of dye used was 3% o.w.f. at a liquor ratio of 50:1. Dyeing was carried out at 90 C for 1 h at different pH values (3, 5, 7, 9, 11). pH was adjusted using aqueous hydrochloric acid and potassium hydroxide. Then, dyed samples were reduction cleared using soda and sodium hydrosulfite for 30 min at 50 C, to remove all physi-sorbed dye molecules on PET fabric surface. At the end, dyed samples were washed twice at 30 C for 10 min in distilled water and dried at room temperature. Dyeing was carried out using vanillin as carrier and results were compared to those of 5 traditional carriers (pure products), and to a commercial carrier Levegal DTE supplied by Bayer. The chemical formula of the 5 chemical carriers used, are shown in Fig. 3. 2.2. Measurements and analysis Reflectance of the cleaned dyed samples was measured with a spectraflash SF-650 spectrophotometer. Relative color strengths K/Smax (at l ¼ 640 nm) were then determined using the Kubelkae Munk equation
K=S ¼
ð1 RÞ2 ð1 RÞ2 2R 2R0
H
O
H
O OH
O CH 3 OH
(a) Para-Vanillin
O CH3
(b) Ortho-vanillin
Fig. 1. Chemical formula of the two vanillins used: (a) Para-Vanillin, (b) Orthovanillin.
22
V. Pasquet et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 43 (2013) 20e26
Fig. 2. Chemical formula of dyes used in this study: (a) Anthraquinone disperse dye D56, (b) Azoic Disperse dye D79.
where R is the decimal fraction of reflectance of dyed fabric (at l ¼ 640 nm), R0 is the decimal fraction of reflectance of undyed fabric, K is the absorption coefficient, and S is the scattering coefficient. Dye concentrations inside PET fiber was quantified by colorimetric analysis after dye extraction with dimethylformamide (DMF) using a Kumagawa extractor. Calibration curves (of absorbance v/s dye concentration) using pure dye solutions were used to determine the dye concentration inside PET fiber. Dyed samples were tested according to ISO standard methods. Specific tests used were ISO 105-C10 for color fastness to washing and ISO 105-X12 test for color fastness to rubbing. For the fastness to washing, a specimen of dyed polyester fabric was washed at 50 C for 45 min. Color degradation was evaluated by comparison with a non-washed specimen. Color difference was measured to assess the wash color fastness: 1 e poor, 2 e fair, 3 e moderate, 4 e good, 5 e excellent. For dry rubbing test, dyed polyester fabric was placed on the base of a crockmeter, a white squared cotton testing fabric was allowed to slide on the dyed polyester fabric back and forth twenty times. The staining on white cotton sample was assessed on a grey scale: 1 e poor, 2 e fair, 3 e moderate, 4 e good, 5 e excellent. For wet rubbing test, white cotton samples were thoroughly damped with distilled water before performing the test.
Fig. 4. K/Smax values of PET fabric dyed with 2 different disperse dyes (D56 ¼ 349.14 g mol1 and D79 ¼ 639.41 g mol) in presence of 1 g of the 3 different carriers (p-vanillin, o-vanillin and Levegal DTE) at 90 C and pH 7 for 1 h, with LR ¼ 1/50.
The smaller disperse dye molecule D56 yields a higher K/Smax value compared to the larger disperse dye D79. Several studies have shown that disperse dye uptake by PET fabrics depends on the size of dye molecules (Lee and Kim, 1998; Dhouib et al., 2006). Both ovanillin and p-vanillin increase the K/Smax values but o-vanillin yields a higher color strength value. However, the highest K/Smax value is obtained with the commercial carrier Levegal DTE. Thus, with the smaller dye D56, K/Smax value increases from 1 to 4 with p-vanillin, reaching K/Smax ¼ 8 with o-vanillin, and K/Smax ¼ 16 with the commercial conventional carrier. Moreover, Table 1 shows that with the larger dye D79, wash fastness is not very good (3.5) especially when o-vanillin or the commercial carrier is used.
3. Results 3.1. Effect of the blue dye molecule size Fig. 4 shows the color strength expressed in terms of K/Smax (at
l ¼ 640 nm) of polyester fabrics dyed separately with two disperse
dyes: D56 and D79, in presence of o-vanillin, p-vanillin and the commercial carrier Levegal DTE.
3.2. Influence of pH Fig. 5 shows the variation of K/Smax values as a function of pH for dyeing with disperse dye D56, with 1 g of each vanillin carrier. At low pH values (pH 2e7), K/Smax does not vary significantly but at basic pH values (9e11), K/Smax values decrease sharply for both vanillins. We used Marvin software to identify species charge distribution according to pH values. The pKa of p-vanillin is around 7.4 and that of o-vanillin is around 9. For pH values higher than the pKa values, predominant species are anionic forms of p-vanillin and o-vanillin because alcohol groups lose a hydrogen ion. As far as the disperse dye D56 is concerned, it acquires an anionic form for pH > 9.8. At basic pH, it has already been shown that PET was negatively charged (Ran et al., 2011). At high pH values, electrostatic repulsion between negatively charged
Table 1 Fastness properties of dyed polyester fabrics with 3% dye owf. Washing
Fig. 3. Chemical formula of chemical traditional carriers used in the study: (a) phenylphenol, (b) para and ortho-dichlorobenzene, (c) benzoic acid, (d) biphenyl.
No carrier 1 g p-vanillin 1 g o-vanillin 1 g commercial carrier (Levegal DTE)
Dry rubbing
Wet rubbing
D56
D79
D56
D79
D56
D79
4.5 4.5 4.5 3.5
4 4 3.5 3.5
5 5 4.5 4.5
4.5 4.5 4.5 3.5
4.5 4.5 4.5 4
4 4 4 4.5
V. Pasquet et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 43 (2013) 20e26
23
9 8 7
o-vanillin
K/Smax
6
p-vanillin
5 4 3 2 1 0 0
2
4
6
8
10
12
pH Fig. 5. K/Smax values of PET fabric dyed with D56, (at 90 C, 1 h, LR 1/50, 1 g of p-vanillin or 1 g of o-vanillin) at different pH values.
PET, and negatively charged dye and vanillins, would make dye adsorption more difficult and would thus decrease the dye uptake. Dye fastnesses were almost the same (Table 2) whatever the pH used. However, to reduce the input of chemical additives in dye bath, all dyeings in the following parts were carried out at pH 7, where dye uptake was maximal. Also, the impact of vanillin on dye uptake being higher for the smaller disperse dye D56, only this dye was retained for the following part of the study.
Fig. 6. K/Smax values of PET fabric dyed at 90 C during 1 h at pH 7, with a LR 1/50, and 3% owf of disperse dye D56) with different amounts of o-vanillin at two different concentrations of ethanol.
The presence of ethanol did not influence the wash and rub fastness values which were similar to those obtained without ethanol (values not shown here). 3.4. Comparison of vanillin with other chemical traditional carriers
3.3. Influence of vanillin concentration and presence of ethanol solvent on dye uptake The dashed curve in Fig. 6 shows that increasing the concentration of o-vanillin leads to a higher dye uptake (K/Smax values). Burkinshaw (Burkinshaw, 1995) showed that the amount of carrier increased the amount of dye inside the fiber to a certain value. Here, we can see that as the concentration of vanillin increases from 0 to 2 g, the K/Smax value increased proportionally. 2 g of vanillin was the optimum quantity necessary for optimum dyeing, with K/Smax value reaching 16. Beyond 2 g, there is no further significant increase in dye uptake, and unlevel dyeing took place. A recent study (Ferrero et al., 2011) showed the benefits of using ethanol as co-solvent for dyeing fibers such as polyester. Indeed, disperse dyes and vanillin are not (or little) water soluble. Thus, the influence of ethanol when dyeing with vanillin as carrier was studied. K/Smax values were recorded for dyeing with different concentrations of vanillin carrier without and with 1 ml/l or 2 ml/l of ethanol. Fig. 6 shows that for quantities of vanillin 1 g, very little increase in K/Smax values was measured with 5 ml/l of ethanol only (DK/S w 1). Indeed, Arcoria et al. (1985) showed that ethanol has an effect on the dyeing of PET with disperse dyes, but the effect is highly dependent on the structure of dye.
Table 2 Fastness properties of PET fabric dyed with D56, (90 C, 1 h, LR 1/50, 1 g of p-vanillin or 1 g of o-vanillin) at different pH, with 3% dye owf. Washing
pH pH pH pH pH
3 5 7 9 11
Dry rubbing
Wet rubbing
p-vanillin
o-vanillin
p-vanillin
p-vanillin
o-vanillin
p-vanillin
4.5 5 4.5 4.5 5
5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4
4.5 4.5 5 5 5
5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
4.5 4.5 4.5 4 5
5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
After studying the influence of several parameters on the dyeing of PET with vanillin, dye uptake in presence of vanillin was compared to 5 other chemical carriers. Fig. 7 shows the measured K/Smax values of fabrics dyed in presence of 1 g of carrier and 3% of dye D56. Indeed, compared to the 5 conventional carriers, o-vanillin yields a K/Smax value which is similar to that of benzoic acid. The other 4 conventional carriers yield very high K/Smax values which are 5e6 times higher than that obtained with o-vanillin. P-vanillin yields the smallest K/Smax. However when fastness (Table 3) results are compared, the wash fastness of polyester fabrics dyed using any of the two vanillins is better than that using chemical carriers such as the two dichlorobenzenes or the commercial Levegal DTE. The K/Smax values of the dyed fabrics were then compared to the % of dye from the dye bath which penetrates inside PET fiber. Dye extraction method described in part 2 was used to quantify the amount of dye inside the PET fiber. Fig. 8 shows that without any carrier, only 7.5% of the dye from the dye bath solution penetrates the PET fiber. With the chemical carriers, dye penetration inside the fiber is highly increased especially with p-dichlorobenzene, where 63.8% of dye in dye bath penetrates the PET fiber. Only 13.8% and 18.3% of the dye penetrates the fiber with the p-vanillin and ovanillin respectively, but with o-vanillin, dye penetration inside PET fiber is slightly higher than that with benzoic acid. Indeed when all K/Smax values are plotted against the % of dye inside the PET fiber, a linear regression curve appears (see Fig. 7), indicating that the K/Smax values are proportional to the concentrations of dye inside the fiber, and this is true for all carriers studied here. This would mean that the kinetics of dye penetration inside the PET fiber is similar for all carriers used in this study. This result also confirms that the small size dye D56 diffuses uniformly inside the PET fiber whatever is the nature of the carrier used. To better understand the differences in dye uptakes with the different carriers, the K/Smax values were compared to the Hoy
24
V. Pasquet et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 43 (2013) 20e26
Fig. 7. K/Smax values of PET dyed fabric plotted against the % of dye from dye bath which penetrates inside PET fiber.
solubility parameter and to the solubility limit in water, of each carrier. As specified in literature, carrier molecules which are smaller in size than dye molecules, diffuse more rapidly into the amorphous regions of PET causing a swelling of PET and creation of spaces between PET macromolecular chains facilitating thus, the access to dye molecules. Penetration of carrier molecules in PET will depend on the solubility of the carrier in the PET (Tavanaie, 2010). Indeed, several studies have shown (Slark and O’Kane, 1997) correlation between good absorption of a molecule by a polymer and proximity of the solubility parameter. Using group contribution method for each chemical group, the Hoy solubility parameter of the two vanillins and of polyethylene terephtalate were calculated, and compared to that of the other carriers. Table 4 shows that though the Hoy solubility parameter of all carriers is close to that of PET, there is no real correlation between the carrier Hoy parameter and K/Smax of dyed fabrics. The measured K/Smax values were also compared to the solubility limit of each carrier in water (see Fig. 8). The higher is the solubility limit in water, the lower is the K/Smax value of the PET dyed fabric The values of the solubility limit in water of the two vanillins are even higher than that of the hydrophilic carrierbenzoic acid. The very low dye uptake with p-vanillin would thus be explained by its very high solubility in water. However, though the solubility limit in water of the o-vanillin is higher than that of benzoic acid, the dye uptake (K/Smax values) in presence of o-vanillin is slightly higher than that with the benzoic acid. 3.5. Summary on the potential use of vanillin as a carrier for dyeing PET fabric
Fig. 8. K/Smax values of PET fabric dyed (at 90 C, 1 h, pH 7, LR 1/50) with 3% of disperse dye D56 and 1 g of carrier, compared to the solubility limit in water, of each carrier.
vanillins are similar to that of PET, their diffusion inside the PET fiber would be reduced due to their increased affinity with respect to water molecules in the dye bath. Our study showed that the color yield (K/Smax value) is higher with ortho-vanillin than with paravanillin. With 1 g of o-vanillin, dye uptake is slightly higher than that with 1 g of hydrophilic benzoic acid carrier (K/Smax ¼ 7.5), and with 2 g of o-vanillin, dye uptake value is doubled (K/Smax value ¼ 16), which is a value obtained with 1 g of commercial Levegal carrier.
All the study carried here showed that when compared to chemical carriers, both vanillins seem to allow a uniform distribution of the small dye D56 in the fiber, just as the other chemical carriers. However, though the Hoy solubility parameters of the two
4. Toxicity assessment
Table 3 Fastness properties of fabrics dyed using 1 g of different carriers, with 3% dye D56 owf.
Table 4 Solubility parameters of different carriers used.
p-vanillin o-vanillin Benzoic acid Biphenyl Phenylphenol p-dichlorobenzene o-dichlorobenzene Levegal DTE
Washing
Dry rubbing
Wet rubbing
4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4 3.5 3.5 3.5
5 4.5 4.5 5 4.5 4 4 4.5
4.5 4.5 4.5 4 4 4 4 4
A further study, based on literature data was conducted to compare toxicity of these molecules to show the interest of using
Solubility parameter (Hoy) en Cal1/2 cm3/2 p-vanillin o-vanillin Benzoic acid p-dichlorobenzene o-dichlorobenzene Biphenyl Phenyl-phenol PET
9.9 10.17 10.87 9.31 9.31 9.24 12.12 11.18
V. Pasquet et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 43 (2013) 20e26
25
Table 5 Different parameters of toxicity for the different carrier molecules.
p-vanillin o-vanillin Benzoic acid p-dichloro-benzene o-dichloro-benzene Biphenyl Phenyl-phenol a b c d
Acute toxicityb,d
Cancerogenicityc
Neuro-toxicityb
Developmental or reproductive harma,b
Endocrine disruptora,b
Ecotoxicitya,d
Slight Slight to moderate Slight Slight Slight Slight High
Not listed Not listed Not listed 2B 3 3 2Be3
No No No No No No No
? ? ? ? ? ? Yes
? ? ? ? ? Suspected Suspected
Not acutely toxic ? Not acutely toxic Moderate Slight to moderate Moderate Moderate to high
Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB). Pesticide Action Network (PAN). International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS).
Table 6 Characterization factors of ecotoxicity and human health calculated by USEtoxÔ model.
p-vanillin o-vanillin Benzoic acid Phenylphenol Biphenyl o-dichlorobenzene p-dichlorobenzene
Freshwater ecotoxicological characterization factor in CTUe [PAF m3 day/kg emitted]
Human health characterization factor in CTUh [cases/kg emitted]
Emission to
Emission to
Water
Air
Soil
Water
Air
Soil
528 5050 49 8300 1730 613 1030
31 242 5.30 163 12 3 4.1
108 969 3.62 13.4 2.3 22 34
n/a n/a 1.43$108 9.03$10.8 2.32$108 1.52$108 9.19$108
n/a n/a 7.82$109 8.10$1010 1.45$109 1.13$108 6.88$108
n/a n/a 5.77$108 3.55$108 5.52$108 2.65$108 1.74$107
The characterisation factor for aquatic ecotoxicity (ecotoxicity potential) is expressed in comparative toxic units (CTUe) and provides an estimate of the potentially affected fraction of species (PAF) integrated over time and volume per unit mass of a chemical emitted (PAF m3 day kg1).
vanillin as a carrier. We attempted to apply principles of chemical substitution advocated in literature (Hansonn et al., 2011) to justify the use of vanillin. The toxicity risks involved at different stages (dyeing and final use) in the life cycle of PET textile product dyed using a carrier, were considered. Carriers can come in direct contact with human being when inhaled by workers or when they are in direct contact with the user’s skin. They can also be released in water or in air, causing water or air pollution and inducing thus, some ecotoxicity. So, parameters such as human toxicity and ecotoxicity have to be taken into account when assessing the toxicity risks of two vanillins. Toxicity risks of the two vanillins were compared to those of traditional carriers. The following toxicity risks were considered: acute toxicity, carcinogenic potential, toxicity on reproduction or development of a species, neurotoxicology, and endocrine disruption. Several reports give information on safety data of molecules used in our study. There is however still a lack of data for all toxicities considered here (Hansonn et al., 2011). Thus data on the following toxicities are still missing: toxicity on reproductive system or development of a species and endocrine disruption (see Table 5). Moreover, the different toxicity risk parameters are not necessarily related to each other, and each of them yields to different conclusions. For example, although ortho-vanillin is not listed as a potentially cancerigenous molecule when compared to dichlorobenzene, it has nevertheless, a higher acute toxicity. Finally, the USEtoxÔ model was used to carry out a comparative study on the different molecules used as carrier. Indeed, USEtoxÔ model is an environmental model for characterization of human health and ecotoxic impacts in comparative assessment and for ranking of chemicals according to their inherent hazard characteristics (Ralph et al., 2008). It has been developed by a team of researchers and has already been applied to several thousands of chemicals. In particular, emissions to air and water are considered. Table 6 shows that it is not proved that the two vanillins are toxic
for human health. Moreover, Lirdprapamongkol et al. (2009) confirmed the antimutagenic properties of the two vanillins. However safety data sheet from suppliers does point out that o-vanillin may cause eye irritation, skin inflammation and respiratory irritation when inhaled. Ecotoxicity in terms of emissions to air, of p-vanillin is higher than that of benzoic acid, while o-vanillin has the highest ecotoxicity. In spite of its high ecotoxicity, o-vanillin seems to be a promising carrier molecule to improve disperse dye uptake by PET fibres. In addition, both vanillins present antibacterial and antifungal characteristics and would probably impart these properties to the polyester fabric, too. 5. Conclusion Conventional carriers having high toxicity are gradually being replaced by other processes, which are not always environmentallyfriendly. This study was carried out to study the potential use of an agro-sourced vanillin molecule for substituting carriers used for polyester fabric dyeing process. Increased disperse dye uptake is observed when o-vanillin or p-vanillin is used, but for small size disperse dye only. Our experiments showed that both vanillins seem to allow a uniform distribution of the small disperse dye in the fiber, just as other chemical carriers. Our study showed that in the dyeing conditions used (3% of dye solution), the color yield (K/Smax value) is higher with o-vanillin than with p-vanillin. With 1 g of o-vanillin, color yield is slightly higher than that with 1 g of hydrophilic benzoic acid carrier (K/Smax ¼ 7.5), and with 2 g of o-vanillin, dye uptake value is doubled (K/Smax value ¼ 16), which is a value obtained with 1 g of commercial Levegal carrier. Moreover dyeing with vanillin can be carried at neutral pH without addition of other chemicals to adjust pH. The study confirms that vanillin may substitute traditional carriers used in the dyeing of polyester with disperse dyes of small sizes.
26
V. Pasquet et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 43 (2013) 20e26
USEtox model shows that both vanillins do not present any proved human toxicity, however o-vanillin which gives the highest dye uptake has a high fresh water ecotoxicity. These results highlight the perspective of studying other agrosourced products as substitutes for chemicals used in textile processing. However, in the framework of a life cycle assessment, several toxicity data are missing. Environmental and toxicity risks of using carriers are mainly due to their inhalation, their cytotoxicity and ecotoxicity. The quantity of vanillin present or which may be released (during use) at the fabric surface or emitted in air or water should be evaluated for similar dye uptake values. Acknowledgments This work was realized within the framework of ACVTEX project which is financed by Europe (Interreg and FEDER), Conseil Régional du Nord e Pas-de-Calais, ADEME, DIRECCTE and Région Wallone. The authors also would like to thank Christian Catel for his kind help. References Arcoria, A., Longo, M.L., Parisi, G., 1985. Effects of the phenol on the dyeing of polyester fibre with some disperse azo-dyes. Dyes and Pigments 6, 155e161. Arcoria, A., 1989. Carrier dyeing of polyester fibre with some disperse azo dyes. Dyes and Pigments 11, 269e276. Balmforth, D., Bowers, C.A., Bullington, J.W., Guion, T.H., Roberts, T.S., 1966. Equilibrium studies on the dyeing of polyester fibre with disperse dyes in the presence of carriers. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 82, 405e409. Burkinshaw, S.M., 1995. Chemical Principles of Synthetic Fibre Dyeing. Blackie Academica & Professionnal, London. Carrion, F.J., 1995. Dyeing polyester at low temperatures: kinetics of dyeing with disperse dyes. Textile Research Journal 65, 362e368. Cegarra, J., Puente, P., 1967. Considerations on the kinetics of the dyeing process of polyester fibers with disperse dyes. Textile Research Journal 37, 343e350. Dewez, S., 2008. Utilisation des micro-ondes dans l’ennoblissement textile. PhD thesis, University of Lille. Dhouib, S., Lallam, A., Sakli, F., 2006. Study of dyeing behavior of polyester fibers with disperse dyes. Textile Research Journal 76, 271e280. Dupont, G., 2002. La teinture. Editions de l’Industrie Textile, Paris. Ferrero, F., Periolatto, M., Rovero, G., Giansett, M., 2011. Alcohol-assisted dyeing processes: a chemical substitution study. Journal of Cleaner Production 19, 1377e1384. Hansonn, S.O., Molander, L., Ruden, C., 2011. The substitution principle. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 59, 454e460. Ingamells, W., Yabani, A., 1977. The swelling and plasticization of poly (ethylene terephthalate) during carrier dyeing. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 93, 417e423. Lavoie, T.E., Heine, G.L., Holder, H., Rossi, S.M., Lee II, E.R., Connor, A.E., Vrabel, A.M., Difiore, M.D., Davies, L.C., 2010. Chemical alternatives assessment: enabling
substitution to safer chemicals. Environmental Science and Technology 44, 9244e9249. Lee, W.J., Kim, J.P., 1998. Effect of particle size of disperse dyes on their dyeing properties. Journal of the Korean Fiber Society 35, 100e104. Lirdprapamongkol, K., Kramb, J.P., Suthiphongchai, T., Surarit, R., Srisomsap, C., Dannhardt, G., Svasti, J., 2009. Vanillin suppresses metastatic potential of human cancer cells through PI3K inhibition and decreases angiogenesis in vivo. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 57, 3055e3063. McShan, D., 2005. Heuristic search for metabolic engineering: de novo synthesis of vanillin. Computers & Chemical Engineering 29, 499e507. Montoneri, E., Boffa, V., Savarino, P., Tambone, F., Adani, F., Micheletti, L., Gianotti, C., Chiono, R., 2008. Use of biosurfactants from urban wastes compost in textile dyeing and soil remediation. Waste Management 29, 383e389. Murray, A., Mortimer, K., 1971a. Dye auxiliaries in the application of disperse dyes to man-made fibres. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 87, 173e181. Murray, A., Mortimer, K., 1971b. Carrier dyeing. Review of Progress in Coloration and Related Topics 2, 67e72. Oerlikon, 2010. The Fiber Year 2009/10 A World Survey on Textile and Nonwovens Industry, Management. Ozturk, E., Yetis, U., Dilek, F.B., Demirer, G.N., 2009. A chemical substitution study for a wet processing textile mill in Turkey. Journal of Clean Production 17, 239e247. Park, K.H., 2004. Contribution à la modélisation, à l’identification et à la simulation d’un procédé de teinture des microfibres de polyester. PhD thesis, University of Lille. Ralph, K., Rosenbaum, R.K., Till M Bachmann, T.M., Gold, L.S., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Jolliet, O., Juraske, R., Koehler, A., Larsen, R.F., MacLeod, M., Margni, M., McKone, T.E., Payet, J., Schuhmacher, M., Van de Meent, D., Hauschild, M.Z., 2008. USEtox e the UNEP-SETAC toxicity model: recommended characterisation factors for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in life cycle impact assessment. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 13, 532e546. Ran, J., Bénistant, G., Campagne, C., Périchaud, A., Chai, F., Blanchemain, N., Perwuelz, A., 2011. Characterization of nonwoven poly (ethylene terephtalate) devices functionalized with cationic polymer. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. Shenai, V.A., 1998. Toxicity of polyester dyeing carriers. Textile Dyer and Printer 31, 11e16. Slark, A.T., O’Kane, J., 1997. Solute diffusion in relation to the glass transition temperature of solute-polymer blends. European Polymer Journal 33, 1369e1376. Szente, L., Mikuni, K., Hashimoto, H., Szejtli, J., 1998. Stabilization and solubilization of lipophilic natural colorants with cyclodextrins. Journal of Inclusion Phenomena and Macrocyclic Chemistry 32, 81e89. Tai, A., Sawano, T., Yazama, F., Ito, H., 2011. Evaluation of antioxidant activity of vanillin by using multiple antioxidant assays. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) e General Subjects 1810, 170e177. Tavanaie, 2010. Polypropylene/poly (butylene terephthalate) melt spun alloy fibers dyeable with carrier-free exhaust dyeing as an environmentally friendlier process. Journal of Cleaner Production 18, 1866e1871. Thorpe, B., Rossi, M., 2007. Require safer substitutes and solutions: making the substitution principle the cornerstone of sustainable chemical policies. New Solutions 17, 177e192. Trotman, E.R., 1970. Dyeing and Chemical Technology of Textile Fibres, pp. 521e531. Vankar, P.S., Shanker, R., Verma, A., 2006. Enzymatic natural dyeing of cotton and silk fabrics without metal mordants. Journal of Cleaner Production 15, 1441e1450. Vigo, T.L., 1994. Textile Processing and Properties: Preparation, Dyeing, Finishing, and Performance. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam. Walton, N.J., Mayer, M.J., Narbad, A., 2003. Vanilin. Phytochemistry 63, 505e515.
