The I-Jseof Media in LanguageTeachingr DONNA
M BRINTON
ln "The Useof Mediain LanguageTeachinp" Brintonpresentsa rationalefor and an overViewof media materialsand equipmenttraditionaliy usedin the second/foreign language classroom.To better guide teachersin their use of media,she providesa five-partframewor-kfor structuringmedia-based language lessons, accompanied by a varietyof samplelessons that illustratethis fr^amework.
INTRODUCTION As a tool for language learning/teaching, rnedia have undoubtedly always facilitated the task of language learning for both instructed and noninstructed learners.Just as childr-en learning a firsr or second language grasp the meanine of rvords from the objects that surround them, ncn.narive speakers(both inside and outside the classr-oon'r) make use of the here and no\Aror objeca in the irnmediate environment (see Hudelson 1984; Pica, Young, and Doughry l9B7; \{Iesche and Ready 1985; Lynch 1996) to process incoming speech. In the second language classroom, the extent to which media are used has varied rvidely, depending on the methodology selected.In some methods, media have figured prominend,v as a force that drives the curriculum. In tire St. Cloud (or audiovisual) method, l'hich n'as developed primarily for the teaching of French as a foreign language (Bowen, Madsen, and Hilferty 1985;Stevick 1976), all language items \\'ereintroduced to learners via contextualized, audior.isual presentations (usually filmstrips or slide shorvs r,r'ithan accompanying soundtrack. The underl,ving approach assumed that language is an acoustic-visualwhole that cannot be separated from its constituent elements. Similarl;', in the Silent Way (Gattegno 1972; Larsen-Freeman 1986; Stevick 1998), the sound-color charts and rods form a central visual component of the method, allowing the teacher to present and
elicit language rvhile at the sanre tinte providing the studentswith tools for the creative consrnlction of language. In other methods, rneclia are r-elcgated more to the design or procedule level.z In Communicative Langtrage teaching (LarsenFreeman 1986, Littlervood l981; see also Savignon'schapter in this volume), fbr example, much emphasis is placed on the need for reallife objects or texts (e.g., r-r-raps, railroad timetables,application iorms) to lend auther-rticiryto the communicative siruatior-r,rvhile in the Natural Approach (Krasl-renand Terrell 1983), magazine pictures are used as all elicitation devicein the listening comprehension and early production stages,and charts, lnaps, and props are used to motivate and enhance communicative interchange in later stages of acquisition. Finally, in experiential approaches to language learning (see Eyring's chapter in this volume), language teaching media are ofren taken out of the hands of the teacher and placed in the hands of the students. such that students involved in project work might be expected to produce a scripted slide shorv or a voice-over video documentary as their final classproduct. Whatever the approach, language teachers seem to agree that media can and do enhance language teaching, and thus in the daily practice of language teaching we find the entire range of media-from nonmechanical aids such as household objects, flashcards, and magazine pictures all the way up to sophisticated mechanical
459 B r i n t o n ,D o n n aM ' 2 0 0 1 ' T h e U s eo f M e d i a I n t a n g u a e e T e a c h i n sI.n C e l c e - M u r c i aM, . ( e d . )T e a c h i n g EnglishAs A SecondOr foru ini".
aicls strch as r,iclco c.ulcrits ancl cor-r-rltutcl-s (seel S o k o l i k ' s c h a p t e r - i n l l t i s r r r l u r n e) - a s s i s t i l u 1 . r : a c h e Li ns t h e i r j o b s , b r i n g i n i r t l r e o n t s i c l eu . o t - l r l ir-rto the classroorrr, ancl, ir-r shcr-t, making the task of langtrage learning a more rneaning{irl a n d e x c i t i r - r qo l l e . I ( e e p i n g t l r i s f a c t i n m i n c l , l e t rrs exiuline the tvpes of instrr,rctiorralrnedia used i n t i " r cl u n g u a g e c l a s s r o o n .
MEDIA: A DEFINITION .Ju.stas rve often clifferentiate the teaching of " i a r g e ( , ' 6 s | 1 1 1 1 - s " - i . e . ,t l ' r e s r e a t l i t e r a t l l r c . a n . a t r c lo t h c r c o n t r - i b r i t i o n so { ' a s o c i e t l ' - I r - o n t t t a t o{"'srnall 1'61111111'6"-i.e., the cLlstoms ar-rdhabits o f a p e o p l e - ( C h a s r : r i n 1 9 8 8 ) , i t i s g er n t u n c h e r c to differentiate benveen "lar-ge M nteciia" ancl" "small iii.rticdia." C)ertainl1,,zrsu'ith cullurc. ureclia r n e a l t s r n a n i ' c l i { f e r e n t r i , i r r g st r l d i i f r : r r : n t n e o n l r ' . 'fhe most imr"nediate conn()iatiotr o{' the tcn'rr "uredia," at least as related to lauguaue tenchine, is tl-ratof the "larse i\,f rnedi:r"-of technoloqical innovations in lanuu:rge teaching, of urcchanical paraphernalia, ar-rdof slossr,,polished audiovisrral aicis-rvitir all tlre meclia anxictv tl-ial tlrcse can conjure lrp in teacher-s.Horver er-,rher-eis Iirtle eviclence that such glossr' :rudiovisual aicls are any more effectir,e than teacher-made, nonrlechanical aicls (e.g., paper plate l-rand puppers, ittrrcher papef verb charts, and rhe like) or props fi-orn daily life (e.g., cereal boxes, calnpaign iilrttons, travel pamphles, bumper stickers) rhar have been adapted for classroom teaching purposes. I would therefore like to suggest that all rhese aiCs, mechanical and nonmechanical, glossy anci noneloss1,,commercially' available and teacher-r-rlade, should be part of our definition of language teachins media.
A R A T I O N A L EF O R T H E U S E OF MEDIA IN LANGUAGE TEACHING I often assume that the l^easonsnhy we sirould use media rvhen teaching second or foreign languagesare self-evidentto experiencedclassroom
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given case, the preparation of teacher-made media materials does demand an investment of time and energ'y above and beyond that of normal lesson planning. However, this statement overlooks the reality that any lesson preparation is time-consuming, and that many media materials (such as the preparation of vocabulary flashcards or the selection of magazine pictures to elicit and practice a given language point) do not require exhaustive amoultts of tirne, Adciitionally, and Ferlral:s rnore imnortantll', tl-lestatement ignores the "payoff' that can result from the hours spent preparing or assemblingsirnple classroommedia materials (e.9., a set of prespecified role assignmenls prepared on index cards to set up a rolepla;'situatiolt,or a collection of menus from local restauraltts for a lesson on food items). ht fact, this pa,vofi which is realized in renns of the teacher'scontinuously,recl'cling thesesanremateriirls rvith different student audiences (and even fclr difl'erent reaching purposes), is often far greater tlian the amolrnt of tirne investedin more traditional classroom lesson planning (see Jensen'schapter in this volume).3 Statement 4, I believe, is based on a comrnonll; held misunderstanding of media as "extraneolls" to normal lessonactivities.In other words. proponents of this view fail to recognize that media can form a viable point of departure for achieving lesson objectives. In facr, rather than taking up additional classhours, rhe use of media designed with a parricular srudenr population and teaching objective in mind can often help to economizethe teaching task.This is achierad in the sense that the media appeal to students' senses and help them process information (Hartnett 1985), thus reinforcing the teaching point and saving the teacher unnecessaryexplanation. Finally, those who hold the view expressed in statement 5 are neglecting the fact, grounded in the very definition of language, rhar language skills are not isolated entities, and that as language _teacherswe need to build bridges benveen skills. We can do so by creating u .rnifi.d context in which the teaching of tarious skills is effectively integrated around media. For example, rve can structure multiskill thematic unitsa requiring students to process information from a variety of The Use of Media in Language Teaching
sources (e.g., a political cartoon, a video documentary and letters to the editor, all concerning the same controversial topic) followed by an interview assignment in which students poll native speakersfor their opinions on this topic and, as a culminating activity, lrite a paper summarizing the opposing points of view on the topic. In short, media help us to motivate students by bringing a slice of real life into the classroom and by presenting language in its rnore complete commrrnicative context. Media can also provide a density of information and richness of cultural input not othen^rise possible in the classroom, they can help students process information anci free the teacher from excessiveexplanation, and they can provide contextualization and a solid point of departure for classroom actirrities.The folloi,ving statementssummarize the rationale for using media in the language classroom: I
Given the role media play in the world outside the classroom,students expect to lind media inside the classroom as well. Media thus serve as an important motivator in the language teaching process. Audiovisual materials provide students with content, meaning, and guidance. They thus create a contextualized situation within which language items are presented and practiced. Media materials can lend authenticity to the classroom situation, reinforcing for students the direct relation between the language classroom and the outside world. Since the learning styles of students differ (Oxford 1990; Reid 1987; Skehan 1989; Wenden and Rubin 1987; see also Oxford's chapter in this volume), media provide us with a way of addressing the needs of both visual and auditory learners. The role that input plays in language learning is virtually uncontested (Krashen 1987). By bringing media into the classroom,teachers can expose their students to multiple input .sources. Thus, while decreasing the risk of the students' becoming dependent on their teacher's dialect or idiolect, they can also enrich their language learning experiences.
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With reference to schema theory (Schank and Abelson1977), which proposes that we approach new information by scanning our banks for related knowledge' -"*oty media can help students call up exrsting schemata and therefore maximize their use of prior background knowledge in the language learning process. Finally, research suggests that media provide teachers u'ith a means of presenting material in a time-efficient and compact manner, and of stimulating students' senses' thereby helping them to Process infonnation more readilv (Mollica 1979).
CLASSROOMMEDIA: "AN OVERVIE\^/ At the height of the audiolingual era, if we had asked the average second or foreigrr language teacher to designate those media tl-rat they felt were appropriate for the teaclring of languages, we rvould no doubt have received a fairll'large range of responses, with the blackboard and other simple classroomaids along with the audiotape medium (and the ubiquitous language laboratorl,) dominating the responses. Today, needlessto say,that range of responsesu'ould be even largeq as the ever-expanding horizons of technology present us with exciting new adrances such as computer-assisted instr-uction, satellite transmission,and interactive video. Despite these expanding horizons, rve find 'todaythat rather than abandoning the more trzditional, or small m, media and shifting allegiance to the newe! more technological innor'ations, lanne\\'techSrage teachersare simply incorporating aids, with of teaching repertoire into their nology techand computer video many using sophisticated volume) nologies (see Sokolik's chapter in this alongside the lesssophisticated (but tried and tme) magnetboard or ovet"headprojector. In attempting to provide an ovendeu'of the range of media available to classroornteachers today, it is per-hapsbest to use the trzditional classification of "noutechnical" and "technical" media, as listed belon'.5
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Nontechnical Media Tl-riscategory presents ol--'''iottsadvantagesin settings rvl-rere electricity is unreliable' technical resourcesare scarce,or funding is limited. Other advantagesof the forms of media included in this categorl'are their lotv cost, their availability,their accessibilin,,and their user-friendliness.Items that belong in this category npically include: cltr-toons,/ blackboalds/ line drawings rr'hiteboards objectsT/realia n-ragnetboards/ flanr-relboards/ PamPhlets/ brochttres,/ pegboalds fl)'ers,/urenus cards flasl'icardsr/iudex rrallcltarts,posters. eqtripment operatioll manuals lnaps, scrolls board gaines PtlPPets r'rervspapers/ rnoiiuted pictures/ photi-rs
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Technical Media Altl-rough these forrns of n-rediaare costlier and less ttset-friendlythan the uoutechuical media, thev carn'rvith thern a larger degree of "psychological reality" in that they can bring the outside n'orld in all its cornplexities iuto the classroom. In fact, since studentsin todar''slanguage classes tend to sttrround themselves u'ith technology in their dailv lives, they may gro\\' to expect it in the languageclassroomas n'elI. Items that belong in this category tlPicallY include: record player audiotape player/ recorder CD plaver/recorder radio telerision video player/ recorder telepl-rone/ teletrainer overhead projector
filmstrip,/ film projector opaque projector slide projector computer language lab cornputer lab multimedia lab center self-access
In considering this group, it is important to make a fervfurther distinctions-namely, whether the mecliaconstifttte software (consumable media Unit V Skillsfor Teachers
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items) or hardware (equipment), whether the materials are commercially produced or teacherproduced, and whethcr they are authentic or not.6 \4b must also consider rvhether they are being used alone or together with other media in a multimedia environment. Finally, we must also consider the purposes for which these media are being used-i.e., to aid in presentation, to provide practice or stimulate coulmunicative interaction, or to provide feedback (as in the case of audio,/videotaping student oral products for subsequentdiscussionand evaluation). To include a description of the possibleuses ot all the above forms of media is beyond the scope of this chapter. Horvever, to take but one example, the blackboard, we can see hou' even this simple medium can function effectivelyar rhe rarious stages of a lesson. In the presentation stage, for example, the blackboard can be used for'verb paradigms, time lines, or orher graphic or visual cues to elucidate a teacl-ringpoint, while matrices or grids written on the blackboard can serre as elicitation tools. In tl-re practice stage, maps, stick figures, and other line drawings can function as contextualizers for a giren activit)l Firrally, in the communication stage, the blackboard can be used to storyboard student ideas in a groupproduced narrative or to cluster and map student concepts as they are being developed. Suffice it to say, then, that each form of media presents unique advantages-be it the ar.ailability and immediacy of feedback that the black/whiteboard can supply, the economy of time that pre-prepared overiread transparencies or a Powerpoint presentation can provide the teacher, or the richness of authentic input that film or the Internet can offer. Ultimately, each medium leavesits own imprint on the teaching/ learning process, and it is up to the teacher to decide which one to select in order to teach a given point.
G U I D E L I N E SF O R U S I N G MEDIA IN THE CLASSROOM Given the range of classroom media (both harduare and software) discr"rssedabove, it is not surprising that language teachers are overrvhelmed The Use of Mediain Language Teaching
by tl-re choices available ro them. As Penfield (1987, p. 1) rightfully notes, "roo ofren [media] are neglected because teaclters are not always certain horv to adapt these rich and complex learning materials to studertts' needs and language competencies."Clearly,guidelines for use are in order. In fact, guidelines for the selection, adaptation, development, and implementation of media-based materials do not differ radically from the kinds of guidelines n'e find mentioned more universally regarding lesson planning and textbook evaluation(see,e.g.,Jensen'sand Byrd's chapters ir-rthis volume). Thus, such issuesas the appropriateness of the materials for the target audience, their: technical and pedagogical quality, their teaching objectir.'e(s),and the pre-/postprocedures to be nsed all pla;,as important a role in the selection and use of audioaisualmedia ir-r the classroomas they cio in rirose of conventional print media. Further, and this point cannot be stressed enough, media-based materials should not be vier,r,ed simply as extraneous to the lesson, or as contingenq/ plans. Rather, they should be planned as carefully as the lesson itself and should form a central (if not tlu central) component of the lesson-one that is interwoven with the other lessoncomponents, such as the reading text, the writing assignment,or the speaking task.
A FRAMEWORK FORSTRUCTURING MEDIA LESSONS The framework presented belowT is intended to put the application of media to language teaching into a unified perspective and to assistteachers in better structuring media lessons.In constmcting this franework, I've divided up the tvpical "lesson" into five stages: (1) the infortnation andmot'iuation stage,where the topic and relevant background information are presented; (2) the input stage, where the teacher ensures comprehension of the item or items presented; (3) the focussiage,where the students practice the tasks and are provided with guided opportuniries ro manipulate items until they feel comfortable and confident;
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(4) the more communicativr:ly oriented transfer slage,in rvhich studentsare given opportunities to offer personal comments or share experiences relating ro the given context; and (5) an optional feedbac!;sta,gein which audio or video recordings of students are used to guide the assessment of the students' pcrformance (e.g.,a student speech, an interview, a ciassdiscussion, a role play, a group problem solving activity).8 Figure 1 presentsthe fiamenork.
In applying this framework, teachers need to be aware that the above points in the framework outline olttions availabie to teachers in designing and implementing media lessonsand are not intended to represent procedures that must be foilowed lockstep. Note also that media can play a role at any or all of the five stagesof the lesson,anC that a variety of media might be used in the various stagesto complement each other and to achieve the designated teaching objective.
I. lnformation and motivation stage ll. lnput stage L Teacherpresents/elicits vocabulary 2. Teacherpresents/elicitsstructures 3. Teacherpresents/elicits functions 4. Teacherpresentslelicitsconcepts 5. Teacherpresents/elicitscontent ffr ||r.
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l. Teachermodels languageitems/proceduresltasks 2. Studentspractice items/tasksin conlext a. Drill b. Elicitation 3. Studentsmanipulate language/content/tasks a. Notetaking b. lnformation transfer c. Pair work/small-groupwork lV. Transferstage l. Classdiscussion 2. Studentsinteract,usingcontext set by mediamaterials as a point of departure a. Role play/sociodrama b. Problernsolvingacrivity c. Informationtap activiry d. Game assignment 3. Task-based 4. Follow-upwriting assignment 5. Sharingof personalexperience 6. Fieldtrip V. Feedbackstage l. Teachertapesthe activity. 2. Studentsli: en to/view the tape. 3. Studentsperform a self-assessment of their performance. 4. Studentsyiovide peer feedbackto others. 5. Teacherprovidesfeedbackto studenrs. Figurel. A Framework for Structuring MediaLessons
S A M P L EM E D I A L E S S O N S The following sample lessons,selected to illustrate a range of available media, demonstrate how the framework in Figure 1 can be applied in making
decisions about media use for languagc teaching purposes.eNote that numbers in brackets indicati the relevant parts of the framework that irave been applied in designing each lesson.
sample Lesson r: The "Ugry Lamp" (magazine picture) Audience: Teaching objective:
Beginning-level adult students enrolled in an intensive language/visa program; intermediatelevel EFLstudents. To provide studentswith the languageneededto expresspreasure/ displeasure; requestan exchangefor an unwanteditem.
Media: Mounted magazinepicture of woman holdingan ugly lamp (see Figure2). Skills: Speaking, vocabulary, writing. Time:
2 classperiods (r hour each)prusfoilow-up(r5 minutes).
Procedures:
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l. Teacherintroducesthe concept of gift givingand receiving.lf appropriate (e.g.,holidaytime), students may want ro shareinformation ibout'whai they I are givingto friends or wish to receive [l]. 2. Teacherintroducesthe magazinepictureof the uglylamp (seeFigure 2),elic_ iting explicit vocabulary(e.g.,lampshade, bow,frlwn) itt.t.1 ana structures (present progressive,descriptiveadjectivet tll.2.]. 3' The studenb and teacher examine the picturemore closely,and the teacher ' asks questionswhich elicit more implicitvocabulary l.] and structures [ll. il1.2.].For example:'yVho do you ihink gavethe womair thii gift?,'(sister_inlaw,elderly relative);"]vhe1e do you thinkAunt Harriet mrglt havl bought the lamp?"(she mighthavebought it from a thrift shop/garale,"il1"*1." 4. Teacher presents languagefunctions relevant to giving and receiving gifts fl1.3]and provides srudentswith guided practice 1rr.z.a-1. ln pairs (gift g"iv", and receiver),r,.ud:lF_practicethe sequenceof givingthe gift, opening it, -"and ' r -""'o '-' expressing thanks[lll.3.c.]. 5. For homework, as follow-up writing practice,students write a lecer to the giver of the gift thankinghim or her [1V.4.]. 6. a subsequentday,the context is recycred,and the ranguagenecessary 9n : ,, for returningunwanteditemsttoa store and requesting."r[1",i"*.6r1gu i', presented[11.4.] and practiced[lll.2.a.]. 7. students are videotaped [v. r.] rore-prayingthe situation Thev [1v.2.a.1. then watch the video footage [v.2.] and receivepeer andieacher [v5] [v4.] .,i:r'' feedback. t ;;;inating activiry studenrsbring in unwanteditems they havereceived and sharetheir reactionsto receivingthesegifrswith their classmates [1V5.,].
The Use of Mediain Language Teaching
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Teacherdistributes photccopies of a computer hardware or software advertisement.Together,theclassmembers identif the item beingadvertisedand locateany information relevant to writing a concise senience definition of the product [lll.2.b.].[Note:This advertisementand the subsequentadverrisements should be carefullyselectedso that there is no overt sentencedefinition of the product.The ad should,however,contain the necessaryinformation for studentsto draw from in writing their definition.]
4. bgetheri students construct a complete sentence definition of the product. The teacherwrites this definitionon the blackboard fl|.1.],stressingthe previously studiedformula for definitions,as in the followingexample:
A(n) 1x1is a(n) [Y]that [z] IX] SPECIFIC TERM Software Bridge
m GENEMLCLASS is a software program
lzl CHAMCTERISTICS that convertsdocumenm from one word-processing program to another without losing formatting specifications.
5. Studentsare next divided into small groups of three or four students,with each group receivingone advertisementfor a computer software or hardware item. Using the pattern provided,each group of studentsworks for roughly four or five minutesto constructa sentencedefinitionof the product [lll.3.c.].Atthe end of this time period, rhe groups passtheir ads to another group,with each group receivinga new ad.This Processcontinuesuntil all groups haveseen all ads and studentsin eachgrouPhavehad a chanceto write appropriatesentenceswith definitions for each product. : With the help of the teacheristudentsnow pool their answers.They decidefor themselvesthe most usefulinformation,toinclude[Vl.];the teacherthen writes the agreed-upondefinition on the board under the headingsindicatedabove.Errors in spelling,sentencestructure,erc.,can be dealt with at this stageby elicitingpeer :: correction.
7. on a subsequentday,the teacher can recyclethe materialin a more game-like atmosphereilV.2.d.],either by giving srudentsnames of fictional products and havingthem compete to write the "best" definition of the product or by having studentsplaya "sorr and unscramble"gamein which they are giv"n ri""a-,lp i;;;: from categoriesX,t andZ on separatestrips of paper and .rk"d ao pur the items together to form sentencedefinitions.
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Sample Lesson 3: Over-the-counter,.prugSll:,, '"'
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Audience:
" "' Beginning-or intermediate-leveladult/communityeducationstudents.
Teaching Objective:
use,and potential misuseof To developan awarenessof the availability, over-the-counterpreparations;to increasereadingfor specificinformation skills;to expandtopic-relatedvocabulary.
Media:
of over-the-counter drug preparations (".g., Packages/containers cold medications); informationgrid (seeFigure3). headacheremedies,
Skills:
Reading,vocabulary,arrdspeaking.
Time:
2 classper'iods(l hour each).
Procedures: l . Teacherintroducesconcept of over-the-counter(OTC) drugs;elicits from students information on the types of OTC products they typicallyuse []. alleigy,cold sores,constipation) 2. Common complaints(e.g.,headache, p.l.]. reviewed are 3 . Teacherintroducesinformationgrid and demonstratesthe procedure studentsare to follow via the example(Sudafed)fl1.l.].Termsin the grid are explained[.l.]. 4. Studentsare dividedinto smallgroups of four or five and OTC products are distributedto eachgroup. 5 . Studentswork in groupsto transfer informationinto the grid pl.3.b.]. 6. Once all student groups have completed the task, they share their resultswith the classat large. 7. Studentsdiscusspreviousexperiencesthey havehad with OTC drugs (side effectsexperienced,etc.) [V5.] 8. As a follow-up,each student is assigneda symptom (e.g.,warts, fever blisters,heartburn) and told to go to the drug store and finrj three products intended to remedy this condition.They are to compare these products usingthe grid format ancireport back on their findingsto the classon the following day flV.3.].
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Sampie Lesson 4: Postcard Description Activity (photographic postcards from various countries) l2 Audience:
Recentlyarriveciinternationalstudentslivingin the ESLconrext (anylevel).
Teaching Objective:
To increaseawareness of culturalstereotyping; to serveas a discussionstimulusfor impressionsformed of the United States,its people,and its culture.
Media: Picturepostcardsdepictingstereotypicalimagesof countries(one for each pair of students);a barrier (u.9.,a notebook,manilafolder) to separatestudents. Skills: Speaking, cuituralawareness, writing. Time:
I classperiod(l hour) plusfollow-up(10*15minures).
Procedures: l.
Teacherintroducesthe activityby discussing postcardsin generaland the kinds of postcardsthat peoplesendto their friendswhen they are on vacation[1.].A model postcard(e.g.,one depictinga Durch girl wearingwooden shoeswith a windmill and tulips in the background)may be shown to promore discussion. 2. Studentsare askedwhat kindsof postcardsthey havesent home sincearriving in the United States,who they ha,resent theseto, and wirar kindc nf mase'ooc they havewritten on them fl.4].
3 . Teacherexplains/models the paired activity:Studentsare to form pairs,with stucient A receiving a postcard from a given country. They erect a barrier betweenthem so StudentB cannot see studentA's postcard.lt is studentA's task to describethis postcardto ptudent B,without mentioningrhe nameof the country illl. | .]. StudentB then attemptsto discoverthe identityof the country [V.2.c.]. 4. once all studentshavecompletedthe task,studentssharetheir postcardsand the culturalstereotypedepictedwith the rest of the class. 5 . Follow-updiscussionensueson the generaltopic of culturalstereotyping,with the teacher elicitinga definition of cultural stereotypingfrom the students
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6. Teacherelicits cultural stereotypesof Americansand organizesthese on the blackboardunder the headings "Posirive"and"Negative"111.4.1. Studentsdiscuss the possibleharm of cultural stereotypingand share some srereotypesheld about their own cultures[V.1.]. 7. As a follow-upassignment, studentsare askedto bring in postcardsfrom their country (alternately:postcardsfrom the United States)and sharefurther information ilv.s.].Dependingon classleveland focus,rhey may be askedas well to write a brief paragraphdefiningcultural stereotypes[1V.4]. B. Teachervideotapesthe srudent activity [v. | .] for subsequentplayback.He or she hasstudentsview the tape [v.2.];in groups,they discussthe performances and give each other feedback[V.4.].
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Sample Lesson 5: Radio Psychiatrist (phone-in broadcast taped off-air) I I Audience:
High-intermediate to advancedinternationalstudentsenrolled in an intensivelanguageinstituteor other visa program;advancedEFLstudentsin the secondaryor postsecondary context.
Teaching Objective:
To exposestudentsto authenticEnglish;tohelp rhem gain insightsinto issues which concern Americans;to provide them with a forum for problem solving activities.
Media: Advicecolumn (DearAbby,AnnLanders)on topic of audiotape(mountedon index cards);Pre-PrePared audiotapeof phone-inradio psychiarristshow (possiblyslightlYedited).t+
Skills: Reading, listening, speaking. Time: 2-3 classperiods(l hour each). Procedures: l. Teacherintroducesthe lessonuy .rt ing studentshow peoplewho are experiencingpersonalproblemscan get advice[1.4].what forums are available(e.g., advicecolumns,counseiors,psychoiogistslpsychiatrists)l Studentsare askedto namespecificsituaticnsin which peoplemightseekthe adviceof a psychiatrist. 2.' The first halfof the advicecolumn is distributedto students,and topicalvocabularyis discussed fl. l.l. 3. In groups,studentsdiscussthe problem[lll.3.c.]and write rheir "answer"to the then sharethis with the classand compare Personrequestingadvice[1V.4.].They it with the actualanswerwritten by the advicecolumnisttlv.l.]. 4. In the subsequentclassperiod,the teacher introducesthe topic of radio talk showsand asksstudentswhat kindsof talk showsthey are familiarwith [1.4.]. 5. After a brief introductionto the topic of the tapedphone-incall,srudentslisten to the first half of the call-i.e., the caller'sexplanationof the problem.As necessary, difficultvocabularyis discussed[ll.l.]. Dependingon classlevel,the students may listen to this segmentof the tape more than once and may also :', work on answeringpreparedquestionsin groups[lll.3.c.]. 6. As in step 3 above,students are then askedto formulate their own answer to the predicamentand to predictrhe answerthat the expert will give [1v.2.b.]. 7. Studentslisten to the expert's advice (again,more than once if necessar:y) and subsequently discusswhether they feei ihis advicewill be of assistancerto tlre caller.Theycomparetheir own advicewith that of the expert tlv. i.]. 8. optionally,on a third day,studentscan participatein a problem solvingtlv.2.b.] or role-playilv.2. l.] activity,with situationspreparedby the reacher.For each role play,one student playsthe role of the advice seeker,and one or more studentscan playthe role of the advicegrver.
The Use of Mediain Lansuage Teaching
471
Sampie Lesson6:"People'sCourt" . (off:air videotape)ts Audience:
or advancedyoungadult or adult ESLstudents. High-intermediate
Teaching Objective:
To increaselisteningcomprehensionin authenticsituationsand to introduce specializedvocabularyitems;to provide a format for problem solving;to familiarize studentswith one aspectof the Americanjudicialsystem.
Media: Videotapeof "Peoplet Court," a broadcastof actualsmallclaimscourt proceedings, recorded off-air. vocabulary, culture. Skills: Listening, speaking, Time:
2 classperiods( | hour each).
Procedures:
L The lesson is introduced by the teacher,*tro giu", a brief introduction to the U.S.judicialsystem[.] and explainsthe role of smallclaimscourt within this system$.5.1. 2. The program"People'sCourt" is explained,and .relevantvocabulary(e.g.,judge, plaintiff,defendant) is presented fl. l.]. Studentsare asked if they have ever watched this program;those who havesharetheir impressionsof it [V.5.]. Studentsview a selectedcase(broadcasts of "People'sCourt" typicallyconsist of two cases)up to the point where the judgeretiresto makea decision.Class members considerthe basicpoints of the case,judge the argumentsof the plaintiffand defendant, and preciictwhat the iudgewill decide ilv.2.b.l.
4. Studentsthen view the remainderof the tapeand comparetheir decisionswith that of the judge. They may wish at this point to suggest how the litigantscould haveimprovedtheir arguments, or discussthe testimonyof the witnesses[V.l.].
5 . On a subsequentday,the teachermay presentstudentswith varioussituations which might be heard in small claimscourt (e.9.,a dry cleaner who damaged someone'sexpensivedress,or a florist who deliveredthe wrong flowers to a wedding)and preparethe studentsfor a role-playsituationin which students take various roles (witnesses,plaintiff,defendant,bailiff,judge).Studentsare giventime to practicethe role playprior to performingit IV.2.a.].
6. Studentsperform the role play,which is videotapedby the teacher [V.l.] and then placedin a viewingfacilityso that studentscan reviewtheir performances [V.3.]outsideof class.
7. A follow-upto the video role playcanincludean actualsite visit [V.6.] to a small claimscourc.(Thesevisitsshouldbe scheduledin advanceby the teacher;the courts are usuallygladto accommodate.)
8. Followingthe field visit,a debriefingsessionis held,and studentssharetheir irnpiessionstlv. |.1.
472
Unit V Skillsfor Teachers
CONCLUSION As outlined above, instructional media come in an almost infinite variety of forms and can play equally varied roles. The following are factors that should be considered when incorporating instmctional media into our language teaching goals: r I
I I
Type of skill/concept to be presented Student preference: the age, interests,experiences, and learning styles of the students concerned Teacher prefbrence: facility rvith equipment, familiarity,/adroitnessu'ith the given medium, teaching style Availabiliq' of software and hardrvare Physical circumstances of the classroom,/ lab
However, as Wright (1976, p. 65) notes, u/e should also keep in mind that "language teaching is a collective title for a variery of activitiesundertaken by different people in ver] different circumstances.There is consequently no single medium 'ideal for language teaching' as is so ofren claimed." Ultimately, availability and teacher cre Liiry/adaptabiliry will play major roles in deterrnining to rvhat extent media l'ill be used and u'hich media will be selected. In closing, I encourage you to think creatively about waysto incorporate media inro your language teaching and I reiterare the follorving useful guidelines: Use media materials rvhen variety is called for, when they help you ro reinforce the points you n'ish to make or set1,eas contextualization, when they expedite y,our teaching task and serve as a source of input, and/or when they help you to individualize instruction and appeal to the varieq' of cognitive stylesin your classroom.But above all, use rnedia to involve students more integraliy in the learning process and to facilitate language learning by making it a more authentic, meaningful process.
DrscusstoN QUESTTONS l.
Elsewhere in this volume, a number of language teaching methods and approaches (both traditional and innovative) have been discussed.At home, review these sectionsof
The Use of Mediain Language Teaching
the text and come prepared to discuss the role that media play in these methods. In which methods/approaches do you feel that media play a central role (i.e., are part of the underlying philosophy)? In which methods/ -approachesdo media play a more peripheral role? 9 Exainine the rationale given in this chapter for the use of media in language teachir-rg. Which reasolts clo you feel are most convincing? Can you think of any others? Select three items from rhe list of technical media and threc iterrrs fi:om those listeci under non-technicalmedia that you are likely to Llsein the langr-rageclassroom. Drarv up a list of the advantages ancl disadvantages of each. Can you think of specific teaching applicatior-rsfor these for-rnsof media? 4. Is there a feasibilityfactor involved ir-rthe use of audiovisual media? In other n,ords, are ccrtain teachersol' teaching situations limitecl to the q,pesof media thel' cal select?\Arhyor n'hy not?
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES l . Collect packaged food items that you harre around ),our household and design a suruival level grid actir.iq'similar to the one described in this article for over-the-countermed.ication. Keep in mind that the purpose of the grid is to pro'uide stndenLs rvith guidance in selecting food items and to train them in reading package labelsfor specific information. I Select a picture or series of pictures from a magazineand appl;' the framework for designir-rgmedia lessons discussed in this chapter. Bring this material ro classand share with othersyour ideason how you would use it. Be prepared as well to discussyour selection criteria. J. Observe an ESL class.What was the obiective of the lesson?What aids did the teachir use? Think of additional aids that would have improrred the lesson. Drau'ing on the suggestions given in Byrd's chapter in tl'risvolume, develop a list of criteria for selecting and evaluating media materials.
F U R T H E RR E A D I N G The following sourcescontain a u'ealth of inforrration for classroom teachers on the use of instructional media for language teaching purposes: LarimeE R. E., and L. Schleicher, eds. 1999. Ne.ulAqy5 in Using Autlrcntic Alaterials in lh.e Classroont. Alexandria, VA: TESOI-. Murphei', T. 1992. Il[usic anci Sorzg.Oxford: Oxforcl University Press. Penfield, J. 1987. The tr/[edia: Calnlyst.s fo, Connnu,nicatiae L angu age L t:u r n i?'L g. Read i n g, ir4A: Addison-Weslel'. Stempleski,S., and B. Tomalin. 1990. Irideoin Action: fucilteslor Using Vidcoin Langua.gehnclrirzg Nen' York: Prentice Hall. Ur, P. 1984. Teaching l-istening Comprehensiott. Carnbridge: Cambridge Universitv Press. Wright, A. 1989. Pictures for i,Lnxgu.ag?Lenming. Carnbridge: Cambridge Universiq' p1"s55.
ENDNOTES This chapter is a revision of the one that I u'rote for the 2nd edition of this text (Celce-l{urcia , ed., 1991, pp. 454-472). That chapter replaced hvo in the lst edition-"An Audiovisual lr4ethod for ESL" by James Heaton and "Language Teaching Aids" by Marianne Celce-Murcia (Celce-N4urcia,I\4.,and L. Mclntosh, ed., 1979, pp. 38-48; 307-315). I aur grateful to both autllors for their ideas, frorr.r which I have borrowed liberalltr I am also grateful to Marianne Celce-Murcia for her suggestionscoll-, cerning revisions to this chapter, and to Chrisrine Holten, Janet Goodwin, Linarvati Sidarto, Mike Silverman, and Susan Ryan for tl-reir additional input. I refer here to the distinction made bi' Richards and Rodgers (1987) in their use of the rerrns apltroach.,d,esign,and proced,ure,in rvhich o,llnoach, designates the underlying theories of language learning in a given methodology, desigrzrefers to the form and function of the materials and activities used in the classroom, and fn'oced,ure refers to the specifictechniques emploi'ed.
474
I strongly suggest that teachers share sucl-rrnaterials, institute a materials library, and even collaborate in audiovisual materials preparatiolt, since this can further- ease the materials development burden and furtl-rer increase the above-mentioned payoff. SeerEclelhoff(1981) Brinron, Snon', and \{esche (i989), Pally (2000), and Murphy and Stoller (folthcoming) for a disctrssion of sr.rchmtrltiskills thematic unils. For samples of thematic turits that successfulll,integr-atemedia in a thematic col-ltext, see Brinton er al. (1997a) and Brinron et al. ( 1 9 9 7 b) . Far fr-our exhar,rsrive,this list is sirnply inrended to sive an idea of thc rzurgco[ media that al-enpically cncouutered in the secor.tdiangtrageclassr-oor:r. () I trse tlre terrn au.llnttlir hele in its br-oadsellse, to refer to llaterials that rverc nol produced for language teaching ptrrposes per se. Both tvpes of materials (i.e., authenric and peclagogical)have ,1.t.'i''t.gitinrate use in the language classroom. This framcn'ork is looseh,adapted fr.onr a franrertork for using magazine pictrrresin the larrguage classroomdeveloped b1,McAlpin (1980). 8 These stagesare adapted fi"our Edelhoff (1981). I I have chosen to highliglrt tcacher?roduced nredia lessonsratl'ler th:rn comnrer.cialn-raterials since the latter are ustralll, accornDanied rvith teacherguidelines. l0 This idea u'as provided by Doug Beckrvith and is used rr'ith his pern"rission. I I This icleaancl il',. u..ornpun1,ir-rggrid wer-eprovided br'.JeanTurner and are used rvith her permission. 12 This idea rvas provideC by Karer-rO'Neal and is rusedrvith her perrnission. l3 This idea u'asprovided by \A/endySaul and Atsuko Kato and is used with their permission. l4 According to rhe guiclelinei established for oFair recording b1' nonprofit educational institutions, a broadcast program ma1, 5. recorded oFair and rctained by the educational institution for a period of trp to 45 calendar dayaafter the date of recording. Upon conclusion of this period, the ofil-air recording rrrtrstbe erasedor destro),ed (Penfield 1987). 15 Used rvith the permission of Paula Van Gelder.
Unit V SkillsforTeachers
APPENDIX A The materials listed below are useful teacher reference texts that contain additional suggestions for using instructional media to teach second languages. Allan, M. t 985. Tba&ingEngtishuith Vd.eo.London: Longman. Anderson, A., and T. Lynch. lgBB. Listening. Cxford: Oxford Universitv press. Bassano,S., and M. A. Chr.istison.19g7.Drauing Out. Hayward, CA: Alemanv press. Cooper, R., M. Lavery,,ar-rdM. i.jnvolucri. 1991. Video.Oxford: Oxford Unir.ersitypress. Crznmer, D., and C. Laroy lgg2. tr,IusiiatOpmings: Using Musir in tlu Language Clasnoori. EssJx, UK: Addison \AlesleyLongman. Duncan, J. 1987. 'fechnolog; As.sisted Tbactring Tbcltniques.Brattleboro, \T: pro Lingui " Associates. Elyt P. 1984. Bring tlrc Lab Bcttk to Life. Oxford: Pergamonpress. Geddes,M., and G. Sturtr-idee,serieseds. PracticalLanguage'fearIzi ng. \"b1r.,,-,.,I -g. Lo n don : ", George Allen and Ur-rrrin,/Heinemann. l. Planning arid Usittg tlrc Bleckboard.19g0. Mugglestone,p. 2. UsingtheMagutboarcl.1980.B1,rne,D. 3. The Magazine picture Library. lgg0. McAtpin,J. 4. Using BlachborndDrauing.l9B0. Shaw, p., and T. de \/er. S. l!9tog'at)hic Slidesin Language Tbaching. Ayron, A., and [4. Ivforgan. _ 19Bl 6. Video in the Language Clasiroom. lgg2. Geddes,M., and G. Sturtridse. 7 . Using tlrc Ouerlrca tl projector. I bB2.Jones,J. R. H. Gerngross, G., and H. puchta. 19g2.prcturesin Action.New York: prentice Hall. Griffee, D. T. 1992. Songsin Action. New york: Prentice Hall. Grundy, P. 1993. Natspapers. Oxford: Oxford University press. Hill, D. A. 1990. VisualIntpact: AeatiueLanguage Learning Through pictur.es. Harlow, UK: Longman. Lonergan, J. 1984. Video in LarzguageTbaching. Cambridge: Cambridge Universirypress. The Use of Media in Language Teaching
Mejia, E., M. Kennedy Xiao, and J. Kennedy. 1994. 102 Vay TbachabkFitms. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: prentice Hall. Shapiro, N., and C. Genser. 1g93. Chalk Thtks. Berkeley, CA: Command performance Language Institute. Steinberg,J. lgg2. Wntcha Gonna Learn From the Comics? How to (Jse Comics to Tbaclt Lorguages.Iv{arkham, Ontario: pippir-r. _Wright, A. 1974. 100(t pictures for Tbachsrsto Copt. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 1976. Visual Materials yoi ne Language Tbacher. London: Longman.
APPENDIXB The materials listed below are useful audiovisual packagesthat are comrnercially available for the teaching of English as a Second Language. This list is not intended to be an exhausti-veone, but rather to give an idea of the range of materials available. Ashkenas,J. 1985. Cotnicsand Conuersation:[Jsing Humot' to Elicit Conuasation and, DneloO Vocebulary. Studio Ciry, CA:Jag publicationsl 1991. More Comicsand Conuersation:(Jsing Humor to Elicit Conaersation and, Dnelo.lt VocaI ul"ory.Studio Ci ry, C.A: publ icatio ns. Jag -, ed. 2000. Nau Comicsand Conuersation: Using Hum,or to Elicit Conuersation and Deaelop Vocabulary. Studio City, CA: Jag Publications. Ballard, M. 1985. The Magnetic Way into Language.Amhersq Ny: Creative Edge. Clark, R. C., ed. lg82. Index Card Gamesfor ESL. Brattleboro, VT: pro Lingua Associites. -, ed. 1993. Morc Index Card Gamesand Actiuities for Engtish. Brattleboro, VT: pro Lingua Associates. Educational Solutions. Sitent Woy Materials (Cuisenairerods, sound-color.hurtr, fidels. pictures, etc.). New york: Educational Solutions. Frauman-Prickel, M. lg8b. ActionEngtishpictures. Halnvard, CA: Alemany press. Fuchs,M.S.,J.Critchley, and T. $de. 1986.Famiku: 10 Card Games -fo, Language Learners. Brattleboro, \{l: pro Linzua Asociates. 47q
Hadfield,J. 1984.Harrap's CommunicationGames:A Collection of Games and Actiaities fo, Elementary Students of Engli^sh. Walton-onThames, UIL Nelson Harrap. 1990. IntermediateCommunicationGames:A Collection of Gamzs and Actiaitizs for Low to Mid-Internt ediate Studcnts of Engli,sh. Waltonon-Thames, UIt Nelson Harrap. Hancock, M. 1995. Pronunciation Gam,es.New Yor'k: Cambridge University Press. Henry, L. 1999) . Pronunciation Card Games. Brattleboro, VT: Pro Lingua Associates. Jacot, Y. 1981. See h-Say It. Reading, MA: Addison-\4/esley. Ligon, F., and E. Thnnenbaum. 1990. Picture Stories:Language and, Literacy Actiuities for Beginners.White Plains, NY: Longman. Ligon, F., E. Tinnenbaum, anC C. R. Rodgers. 1992. More Picture Storics: Language and Problzm-PosingActiuities for Beginzers.White Plains, NY: Longman.
475
Maley, A., and A. Duff. 1975. Sounds Interesting. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1979. Sounds Intrigdng. Cambridge: Cambridge University Pr css. Maley,A., A. Duff, and F. Grellet. 1980. T:hzMind's Eye.Cambridge: Cambricige University Press. Markstein, L., and D. Grunbaum. 1981. What's the Story:SequentialPhotographsfor Language Practice. Volumes I-[V. New York: Longman. Morari, P. R. 1984. Lexicarry: An lllustrated Vocnbulary Builder for Seccnd Language. Brattleboro, VT: Pro Lingua Associates. Nelson, G., and T. Winters. 1993. Operationsin English: 55 Natura,I and Logical Sequences for Lan.guageAcquisition. Brattleboro, \/T: Pro Lingua Associates. Silr,erson,S. K., M. Landa, and J. Smith. ig83. 'l-itrouglt Video Minrc Speak Easy: English London : Longman. Sketches. Yedlin, J. l99l. Double Aclion Picture Cards. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Unit V SkillsforTeachers
