Chapter 1
From Ancient Times to 1492 INTRODUCTION
T
%*.
he prehistory of the Americas ( Americas (North North,, South South,, and Central America, America, and the Caribbean Caribbean)) begins with people migrating to these areas from Asia during the height of an Ice Age. Age. These groups are generally belieed to hae been isolated from peoples of the ! "ld #orld! #orld! until the coming of $uropeans $uropeans in the %&th century from Norway Norway and with the 'oyages of Christopher Columbus in
The ancestors of today+s American today+s American Indigenous peoples were the aleo-Indians aleo-Indians they were huntergatherers who migrated into North America. The most popular theory asserts that migrants came to the gatherers who Americas Americas ia the /ering 0and /ridge, /ridge, /eringia /eringia,, the land land mass now now coered by the cold ocean waters in the /ering Strait. Strait. Small lithic stage peoples stage peoples followed megafauna megafauna li1e li1e bison, mammoth (now e2tinct), and caribou, thus gaining the modern nic1name !big-game hunters.! 3roups of people may also hae traeled into North America on shelf or sheet ice along the northern acific coast. Cultural traits brought by the first immigrants later eoled and spawned such cultures as Iro4uois on North America and irah5 of South America. These cultures later deeloped into ciili6ations ciili6ations.. In many cases, these cultures e2panded at a later date than the their "ld #o #orld counte counterparts. Cultures Cultures that may be considered considered adanced adanced or ciili6e ciili6ed d include7 include7 Norte Chico, Chico, Caho1ia Caho1ia,, 8apotec 8apotec,, Toltec Toltec,, "lmec "lmec,, 9aya 9aya,, A6tec A6tec,, urepecha,, Chimor , 9i2tec urepecha 9i2tec,, 9oche 9oche,, 9ississippian 9ississippian,, uebloan uebloan,, Totonac Totonac,, Teotihuacan Teotihuacan,, :uastec people, people, ur;pecha,, I6apa ur;pecha I6apa,, 9a6atec 9a6atec,, 9uisca 9uisca,, and the Inca Inca.. After the oyages of Christopher Columbus Columbus in %*, %*, Spanish Spanish,, ortuguese and later $nglish $nglish,,
nited States, States , nited States , as well as the North acific coast and most of Canada Canada.. nited >nited States. States. The Netherland Netherlands s settled settled some Caribbean Caribbean islands and parts of Northern South America. $uropean coloni6ation of the Americas led to the rise of new cultures, ciili6ations and eentually states states,, which which result resulted ed from from the fusion fusion of Nati Natie e Ameri American can and $urope $uropean an tradit tradition ions, s, people peoples s and institut institutions. ions. The transformat transformation ion of American American cultures cultures through through coloni6at coloni6ation ion is eident eident in architect architecture, ure, religion, gastronomy, the arts and particularly languages, the most widespread being Spanish Spanish (@B (@B million spea1ers), $nglish $nglish (@ (@ million) and ortuguese ortuguese (*&% (*&% million). The colonial period lasted appro2imately three centuries, centuries, from the early %Bth to the early %th centuries, centuries, when /ra6il and the large largerr :ispanic American nations American nations declared independence. The >nited States obtained independence from $ngland much earlier, in %B, while Canada formed a federal dominion in % B. "thers "thers remained attached remained attached to their $uropean parent state until the end of the %th century, such as Cuba and uerto Dico which were lin1ed to Spain until %. Smaller Smaller territories territories such as 3uyana 3uyana obtained obtained independence in the mid-*&th century, while certain Caribbean islands remain part of a $uropean power to this day.
Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492
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Pre-coloniztion !i"rtion into t#e continents The specifics of aleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the e2act dates and routes traeled, are subEect to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moed into the /eringia land bridge between bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day present -day Alas1a around &,&&& &,&&& F %,&&& years ago, when sea leels were significantly significantly lowered lowered due to the ?uaternary glaciation.. These people are belieed to hae followed herds of now-e2tinct pleistocene megafauna along glaciation ice-free ice-free corridors corridors that stretched stretched between the 0aurentide 0aurentide an and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitie boats, boats, they migrated down the acific Northwest coast Northwest coast to South America. $idence of the latter would since hae been coered by a sea leel rise of rise of a hundred meters following the last ice age. Archaeologists contend that the aleo-Indian migration out of /eringia ( eastern Alas1a), Alas1a), ranges from &,&&& to around %B,G&& years ago. This time range is a hot source of debate. The few agreements achieed achieed to date are the origin from Central Asia, Asia, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the last glacial period, period, or more specifical specifically ly what is 1nown as the late glacial ma2imum, ma2imum, around %B,&&& F %@,&&& years before present. The American The American Hournal of :uman 3enetics released 3enetics released an article in *&& stating !:ere we show, by usin using g B comp comple lete te mitochondrial genomes genomes,, that that all all Indi Indige geno nous us Ameri merica can n haplogroups haplogroups,, including :aplogroup (mt=NA) (mt=NA),, were part of a single founding population.! Amerindian groups in the /ering Strait region e2hibit perhaps the strongest =NA or mitochondrial =NA relations to Siberian peoples. peoples. The genetic diersity of Amerindian indigenous groups increase with distance from the assumed entry point into the Americas. Certain genetic diersity diersity patterns from #est to $ast suggest, suggest, particularly in South America, America, that migration proceeded first down the west coast, and then proceeded eastward. 3eneticists hae ariously estimated that peoples of Asia and the Americas were part of the same population from *,&&& to *%,&&& years ago. New studies shed light on the founding population of indigenous Americans, suggesting that their ancestry traced to both east Asian and western $urasians who migrated to North America directly from Siberia. A *&%@ study in the Eournal Nature Nature reported reported that =NA found in the *,&&&-year-old remains of a young /oy in 9alJta Siberia suggest that up to one-third of the indigenous Americans may hae ancestry that can be traced bac1 to western $urasians, who may hae !had a more north-easterly distribution *,&&& years ago than commonly thought! rofessor Kelly 3raf said that !"ur findings are significant at two leels. pper aleolithic Siberians came from a cosmopolitan population of early modern humans that spread out of Africa to $urope and Central and South Asia. Second, aleoindian s1eletons with phenotypic traits atypical of modern-day Natie Americans can be e2plained as haing a direct historical connection to >pper aleolithic Siberia.! A route through /eringia is seen as more li1ely than the Solutrean hypothesis. hypothesis. "n "ctober @, *&%, the "regon cae, cae, where the oldest =NA eidence of eidence of human habitation in North America was found, was added to the National Degister of :istoric laces . The =NA, radiocarbon dated to %,@&& years ago, was found in fossili6 fossili6ed ed human coprolites coprolites uncoered uncoered in the aisley
$it#ic st"e %&e'ore ())) *C+, The 0ithic stage or aleo-Indian period, period, is the earliest classification term referring to the first stage of human habitation in the Americas, coering the 0ate leistocene epoch. leistocene epoch. The time period deries its name from the appearance of ! 0ithic fla1ed! fla1ed! stone tools. Stone tools, tools, particularly proEectile points and points and scrapers,, are the primary scrapers primary eiden eidence ce of the earliest earliest well 1nown human human actii actiity ty in the Americas Americas.. 0ithic reduction stone reduction stone tools are used by archaeologists archaeologists and and anthropologists anthropologists to to classify cultural periods.
Arc#ic st"e %())) *C+ 1))) *C+, Seeral thousand years after the first migrations, the first comple2 ciili6ations arose as huntergatherers settled into semi-agricultural communities. Identifiable sedentary settlements began to emerge in the so-cal so-called led 9iddle 9iddle Archaic period around around B&&& B&&& /C$. /C$. artic articula ularr archaeological cultures can be identified and easily classified easily classified throughout the Archaic period. In the late Archaic, on the north-central coastal region of eru, a comple2 ciili6ation arose which
Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 ♦ [12] has been termed the Norte Chico ciili6ation, also 1nown as Caral-Supe. It is the oldest 1nown ciili6ation in the Americas and one of the si2 sites where ciili6ation originated independently and indigenously in the ancient world, flourishing between the @&th and %th centuries /C. It pre-dated the 9esoamerican "lmec ciili6ation by nearly two millennia. It was contemporaneous with the $gypt following the unification of its 1ingdom under 9enes and the emergence of the first $gyptian hieroglyphics. 9onumental architecture, including earthwor1 platform mounds and sun1en pla6as hae been identified as part of the ciili6ation. Archaeological eidence points to the use of te2tile technology and the worship of common god symbols. 3oernment, possibly in the form of theocracy, is assumed to hae been re4uired to manage the region. :oweer, numerous 4uestions remain about its organi6ation. In archaeological nomenclature, the culture was pre-ceramic culture of the pre-Columbian 0ate Archaic period. It appears to hae lac1ed ceramics and art. "ngoing scholarly debate persists oer the e2tent to which the flourishing of Norte Chico resulted from its abundant maritime food resources, and the relationship that these resources would suggest between coastal and inland sites. The role of seafood in the Norte Chico diet has been a subEect of scholarly debate. In %@, e2amining the Aspero region of Norte Chico, 9ichael $. 9oseley contended that a maritime subsistence (seafood) economy had been the basis of society and its early flourishing. This theory, later termed !maritime foundation of Andean Ciili6ation! was at odds with the general scholarly consensus that ciili6ation arose as a result of intensie grain-based agriculture, as had been the case in the emergence of ciili6ations in northeast Africa ($gypt) and southwest Asia (9esopotamia). #hile earlier research pointed to edible domestic plants such as s4uash, beans, lucuma, guaa, pacay, and camote at Caral, publications by :aas and colleagues hae added aocado, achira, and corn (8ea 9ays) to the list of foods consumed in the region. In *&%@, :aas and colleagues reported that mai6e was a primary component of the diet throughout the period of @&&& to %&& /C. Cotton was another widespread crop in Norte Chico, essential to the production of fishing nets and te2tiles. Honathan :aas noted a mutual dependency, whereby !The prehistoric residents of the Norte Chico needed the fish resources for their protein and the fishermen needed the cotton to ma1e the nets to catch the fish.! In the *&&G boo1 %%7 New Deelations of the Americas /efore Columbus, Eournalist Honathan 9ann sureyed the literature at the time, reporting a date !sometime before @*&& /C, and possibly before @G&& /C! as the beginning date for the formation of Norte Chico. :e notes that the earliest date securely associated with a city is @G&& /C, at :uaricanga in the (inland)
!esomeric. t#e /oo0ln0 Perio0. n0 !ississiin Cltre %2))) *C+ 3)) C+, After the decline of the Norte Chico ciili6ation, seeral large, centrali6ed ciili6ations deeloped in the #estern :emisphere7 Chain, Na6ca, 9oche, :uari, ?uitus, CaLaris, Chimu, achacamac, Tiahuanaco, Aymara and Inca in the Central Andes ($cuador, eru and /oliia) 9uisca in Colombia TaMnos in =ominican Depublic (:ispaniola, $spaLola) and part of Caribbean and the "lmecs, 9aya, Toltecs, 9i2tecs, 8apotecs, A6tecs and urepecha in southern North America (9e2ico, 3uatemala). The "lmec ciili6ation was the first 9esoamerican ciili6ation, beginning around %B&&-%&& /C and ending around && /C. 9esoamerica is considered one of the si2 sites around the globe in which ciili6ation deeloped independently and indigenously. This ciili6ation is considered the mother culture of the 9esoamerican ciili6ations. The 9esoamerican calendar, numeral system, writing, and much of the 9esoamerican pantheon seem to hae begun with the "lmec. Some elements of agriculture seem to hae been practiced in 9esoamerica 4uite early. The domestication of mai6e is thought to hae begun around ,G&& to %*,&&& years ago. The earliest record of lowland mai6e cultiation dates to around G%&& /C. Agriculture continued to be mi2ed with a huntinggathering-fishing lifestyle until 4uite late compared to other regions, but by *&& /C, 9esoamericans were relying on mai6e, and liing mostly in illages. Temple mounds and classes started to appear. /y %@&&
[1] ♦ Advanced History of USA %*&& /C, small centres coalesced into the "lmec ciili6ation, which seems to hae been a set of citystates, united in religious and commercial concerns. The "lmec cities had ceremonial comple2es with earthclay pyramids, palaces, stone monuments, a4ueducts and walled pla6as. The first of these centers was at San 0oren6o (until && bc). 0a 'enta was the last great "lmec centre. "lmec artisans sculpted Eade and clay figurines of Haguars and humans. Their iconic giant heads - belieed to be of "lmec rulers - stood in eery maEor city. The "lmec ciili6ation ended in && /C, with the defacing and destruction of San 0oren6o and 0a 'enta, two of the maEor cities. It neertheless spawned many other states, most notably the 9ayan ciili6ation, whose first cities began appearing around && B&& /C. "lmec influences continued to appear in many later 9esoamerican ciili6ations. Cities of the A6tecs, 9ayas, and Incas were as lar ge and organi6ed as the largest in the "ld #orld, with an estimated population of *&&,&&& to @G&,&&& in Tenochtitlan, the capital of the A6tec empire. The mar1et established in the city was said to hae been the largest eer seen by the con4uistadors when they arried. The capital of the Caho1ians, Caho1ia - located near modern $ast St. 0ouis, Illinois may hae reached a population of oer *&,&&&. At its pea1, between the %*th and %@th centuries, Caho1ia may hae been the most populous city in North America. 9on1+s 9ound, the maEor ceremonial center of Caho1ia, remains the largest earthen construction of the prehistoric New # orld. These ciili6ations deeloped agriculture as well, breeding mai6e (corn) from haing ears *FG cm in length to perhaps %&F%G cm in length. otatoes, tomatoes, pump1ins, beans, aocados, and chocolate are now the most popular of the pre-Columbian agricultural products. The ciili6ations did not deelop e2tensie liestoc1 as there were few suitable species, although alpacas and llamas were domesticated for use as beasts of burden and sources of wool and meat in the Andes. /y the %Gth century, mai6e was being farmed in the 9ississippi Dier 'alley after introduction from 9e2ico. The course of further agricultural deelopment was greatly altered by the arrial of $uropeans.
Clssic st"e %()) C+ 13 C+, Osismeric Pe&lo eole The ueblo people of what is now the Southwestern >nited States and northern 9e2ico, liing conditions were that of large stone apartment li1e adobe structures. They lie in Ari6ona, New 9e2ico, >tah, Colorado, and possibly surrounding areas.
C#ic#imec Chichimeca was the name that the 9e2ica (A6tecs) generically applied to a wide range of seminomadic peoples who inhabited the north of modern-day 9e2ico, and carried the same sense as the $uropean term !barbarian!. The name was adopted with a peEoratie tone by the Spaniards when referring especially to the semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples of northern 9e2ico.
5otec The 8apotec emerged around %G&& years /C$. Their writing system influenced the later "lmec. They left behind the great city 9onte Alban.
Olmec The "lmec ciili6ation emerged around %*&& /C$ in 9esoamerica and ended around && /C$. "lmec art and concepts influenced surrounding cultures after their downfall. This ciili6ation was thought to be the first in America to deelop a writing system. After the "lmecs abandoned their cities for un1nown reasons, the 9aya, 8apotec and Teotihuacan arose.
Preec# The urepecha ciili6ation emerged around %&&& C$ in 9esoamerica . They flourished from %%&&
Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 ♦ [14] C$ to %G@& C$. They continue to lie on in the state of 9ichoacOn.
!6 9aya history spans @,&&& years. The Classic 9aya may hae collapsed due to changing climate in the end of the %&th century.
Toltec The Toltec were a nomadic people, dating from the %&th - %*th century, whose language was also spo1en by the A6tecs.
Teoti#cn Teotihuacan (th century /C$ - th century C$) was both a city, and an empire of the same name, which, at its 6enith between %G& and the Gth century, coered most of 9esoamerica.
Aztec The A6tec haing started to build their empire around %th century found their ciili6ation abruptly ended by the Spanish con4uistadors. They lied in 9esoamerica, and surrounding lands. Their capital city Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities of all time.
7ot# Americ Norte Chico The oldest 1nown ciili6ation of the Americas was established in the Norte Chico region of modern eru. Comple2 society emerged in the group of coastal alleys, between @&&& and %&& /C$. The ?uipu, a distinctie recording deice among Andean ciili6ations, apparently dates from the era of Norte Chico+s prominence.
C#8n The ChaMn established a trade networ1 and deeloped agriculture by as early as (or late compared to the "ld #orld) && /C$ according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called ChaMn in modern eru at an eleation of @,% meters. ChaMn ciili6ation spanned from && /C$ to @&& /C$.
Inc :olding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca ciili6ation dominated the Andes region from %@ to %G@@. Known as Tahuantinsuyu, or !the land of the four regions!, in ?uechua, the Inca culture was highly distinct and deeloped. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonewor1, constructed oer many leels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is eidence of e2cellent metalwor1 and een successful trepanation of the s1ull in Inca ciili6ation.
+roen coloniztion Amerigo 'espucci awa1ens !America! in a Stradanus+s engraing (circa %B@) Non-Natie American nations+ claims oer North America, %G&F*&&. olitical eolution of Central America and the Caribbean since %&&. $uropean nationsJ control oer South America, %&& to present Around %&&&, the 'i1ings established a short-lied settlement in Newfoundland, now 1nown as
[13] ♦ Advanced History of USA 0+Anse au2 9eadows. Speculations e2ist about other "ld #orld discoeries of the New #orld, but none of these are generally or completely accepted by most scholars. Spain sponsored a maEor e2ploration led by Christopher Columbus in %* it 4uic1ly led to e2tensie $uropean coloni6ation of the Americas. The $uropeans brought "ld #orld diseases which are thought to hae caused catastrophic epidemics and a huge decrease of the natie population. Columbus came at a time in which many technical deelopments in sailing techni4ues and communication made it possible to report his oyages easily and to spread word of them throughout western $urope. It was also a time of growing religious, imperial and economic rialries that led to a competition for the establishment of colonies.
Colonil erio0 %Gth to %th century colonies in the New #orld7 •
Spanish coloni6ation of the Americas (%*)
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'iceroyalty of New Spain (%G@G to %*%)
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'iceroyalty of eru (%G*F%*)
•
Spanish 9ain
•
Spanish #est Indies
•
Captaincy 3eneral of 3uatemala
•
/ritish North America Thirteen Colonies (%%G%B& to %B*&th century)
•
=anish #est Indies
•
New Netherland
•
New
•
Captaincy 3eneral of 'ene6uela
•
ortuguese coloni6ation of the Americas (% to %**)
•
Colonial /ra6il (%G&& to %%G)
Decoloniztion The formation of soereign states in the New #orld begins with the >nited States =eclaration of Independence of %B. The American Deolutionary #ar lasted until %@. The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first 4uarter of the %th century, in the Spanish American wars of independence. SimPn /olMar and Hos; de San 9artMn, among others, led their independence struggle. Although /oliar attempted to 1eep the Spanish-spea1ing parts of the continent politically allied, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and seeral further wars were fought, such as the araguayan #ar and the #ar of the acific. (See 0atin American integration.) In the ortuguese colony =om edro I (also edro I' of ortugal), son of the ortuguese 1ing =om Ho5o 'I, proclaimed the country+s independence in %** and became /ra6il+s first $mperor . This was peacefully accepted by the crown in ortugal, upon compensation.
+''ects o' sl8er6 nited States Slaery has had a significant role in the economic deelopment the New #orld after the coloni6ation of the Americas by the $uropeans. The cotton, tobacco, and sugar cane harested by slaes became important e2ports for the >nited States and the Caribbean countries.
Nti8e Americn 7ociet6 on t#e +8e o' *ritis# Coloniztion In Denaissance times, $uropeans were not the only ones accomplishing great things. No one can deny the beauty of 9ichelangeloJs brushwor1 or the brilliance of Sha1espeare Qs erse. /ut societies
Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 ♦ [1:] elsewhere also flourished. As the modern world turned %B&&, it seems as though each corner of the globe had its own Rrenaissance. The Natie American societies of North America were no different. They had dierse cultures and languages, much li1e $urope.
The Anasa6i pottery seen here has been dated between %&&& and %@&& C.$.
#hen the /ritish sta1ed their claim to the east coast of the modern >nited States, they could not hae dreamed of the comple2ity of the peoples they were soon to encounter. There are between %& and %B& differentA!+RICAN INDIAN TRI*+7. There is no single Natie American language. It would be as difficult for the 9ohaw1 Indians of the $ast to conerse with 8uni Indians of the #est as it would be for 3ermans to conerse with Tur1s.
*e'ore +roens rri8e0 in Nort# Americ. Nti8e eoles in#&ite0 e8er6 re"ion; T#is m s#o
The buffalo played an important role in the surial of Natie American tribes. In addition to proiding food, the buffalo proided clothing and more.
In short, there is no simple way to tell the tale of a continent that had been peopled by dierse communities for thousands of years. Their tales are as comple2 as any others, their cultures as rich, their 1nowledge as deep. /ritish contact did not mar1 the replacement of established cultures by a better way of life, but rather the beginning of a new ciili6ation based on a blend of dierse fol1ways. An e2amination of three groups Anszi, Iro>ois, and Al"on=in seres as a beginning to learning about the American world that once was.
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1%,; Di8ersit6 o' Nti8e Americn @ros The structures Natie Americans called home were e2tremely aried and often e2clusie to tribe or region. These Rapartment style dwellings were the wor1 of Naties of the Southwest.
Since %*, $uropean e2plorers and settlers hae tended to ignore the ast diersity of the people who had preiously lied here. It soon became common to lump all such groups under the term RIndian. In the modern American world, we still do. There are certain e2periences common to the suriors of these tribes. They all hae had their lands compromised in some way and suffered the horrors of reseration life.
$n""e $essons Stereotyping Indians in this way denies the ast cultural differences between tribes. nited States used the uni4ueness of the NaaEo language to its adantage in #orld #ar II. Dather than encrypting radio messages, it proed simpler to use NaaEos to spea1 to each other in their eeryday language to coney high-security messages. It wor1ed.
The Natche6 chief, 1nown as R3reat Sun, was a powerful Indian leader. >nli1e some Indian leaders, R3reat Sun ruled as an absolute monarch.
N8o Co0e Tl=ers /etween %* and %G, about && NaaEos sered as code tal1ers for the >.S. 9arines. They could encode, transmit, and decode a message in a fraction of the time it too1 a machine to do the same. And unli1e with machine codes, the Hapanese were neer able to brea1 the NaaEo code.
Excerpts from the Navajo Code Talkers’Dictionary MEANIN
NA!A"# $%#N&NCIATI#N
'ITE%A' T%AN('ATI#N
ALASKA
BEH-HGA
WITH WINTER
AMERICA
NE-HE-MAH
OUR MOTHER
BOMBER PLANE
JAY-SHO
BUZZARD
BOMB
A-YE-SH
EGGS
BOOBY TRAP
DINEH-BA-WHOA-BLEHI
MAN TRAP
GERMANY
BESH-BE-CHA-HE
IRON HAT
PLATOON
HAS-CLISH-NIH
MUD
FIGHTER PLANE
DA-HE-TIH-HI
HUMMING BIRD
MINUTE
AH-KHAY-EL-KIT-YAZZIE
LITTLE HOUR
Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492
PROBLEM
NA-NISH-TSOH
BIG JOB
PYROTECHNIC
COH-NA-CHANH
FANCY FIRE
ROUTE
GAH-BIH-TKEEN
RABBIT TRAIL
SPAIN
DEBA-DE-NIH
SHEEP PAIN
CHAY-DA-GAHI-NAIL-TSAIDI
TORTOISE KILLER
TANK DESTROYER
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F e2cerpted from the NaaEo Code Tal1ersQ =ictionary (reised as of Hune %G, %G), =epartment of the Nay
Di''erent 7tro=es 'or Di''erent Fol=s 0ifestyles aried greatly. 9ost tribes were domestic, but the $ABOTA followed the buffalo as nomads. 9ost engaged in war, but the Apache were particularly feared, while the :opis were pacifistic. 9ost societies were ruled by men, but the Iro4uois women chose the leaders. Natie Americans lied in /I@/A!7,O@AN7, I@$OO7, T+P++7, and longhouses. Some relied chiefly on hunting and fishing, while others DO!+7TICAT+D crops. The Algon1ian chiefs tried to achiee consensus, but the Natche6 RSun was an absolute monarch. The TOT+! PO$+ was not a uniersal Indian symbol. It was used by tribes such as the Chinoo1 in the acific Northwest to ward off eil spirits and represent family history. RIn the beginning, this place was only dar1ness and water until the time when a woman fell from the s1y world. Thus starts the "neida creation story. $ery Natie American tribe has their own history, culture, and art.
It is important that students of history e2plore tribal nuances. #ithin eery continent, there is tremendous diersity. The tribal differences that caused the Apache and NaaEo peoples to fight each other are not so different from the reasons 3ermans fought the
1%&,; T#e Anszi In the centuries that led to the year %&&&, $urope was emerging from chaos. Tribes roamed the countryside eo1ing fear from luc1less peasants. The grandeur that was Dome had long passed. Across the Atlantic, the North American continent was also inhabited by tribes. The ANA7A5I managed to build glorious cities in the cliffs of the modern Southwest. Their rise and fall mar1 one of the greatest stories of pre-Columbian American history.
According to Anasa6i legend, Ko1opelli was a little man who traeled from illage to illage with a flute and a sac1 of corn. At night he would play his flute among the fields, and the people would awa1e to find the crops taller than eer before.
In the centuries that led to the year %&&&, $urope was emerging from chaos. Tribes roamed the countryside eo1ing fear from luc1less peasants. The grandeur that was Dome had long passed. Across the Atlantic, the North American continent was also inhabited by tribes. The ANA7A5I managed to build glorious cities in the cliffs of the modern Southwest. Their rise and fall mar1 one of the greatest stories of pre-Columbian American history.
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The Anasa6i built their dwellings under oerhanging cliffs to protect them from the elements. >sing bloc1s of sandstone and a mud mortar, the tribe crafted some of the world Qs longest standing structures.
Anasazi means Rancient outsiders. 0i1e many peoples during the agricultural era, the Anasa6i employed a wide ariety of means to grow high-yield crops in areas of low rainfall. Their bas1ets and pottery are highly admired by collectors and are still produced by their descendants for trade. It is their cliff dwellings, howeer, that captiate the modern archeologist, historian, and tourist.
Cli''s. Cn6ons. n0 Bi8s
"ne component of the Anasa6i community were the 1ias. These structures were used for religious celebrations. This 1ia is from the Sand Canyon ueblo, Crow Canyon, in the 9esa 'erde region and dates bac1 to the %@th century.
The famed C$IFF D/+$$IN@7were built into the mountainsides with but one e2it for the sa1e of defense. #ith the e2ception of hunting and growing food, all aspects of liing could be performed within the dwelling. =eep pits were periodically dug within the liing 4uarters. These pits, called BIA7, sered as religious temples for the ancient Anasa6i. Sleeping areas were built into the sides of the cliffs. $en water could be gathered between the porous crac1s in the walls all by cleer design, of course. :istorians can only theori6e why the Anasa6i ciili6ation declined. "ne e2planation is attac1 by hostile tribes. "thers beliee the resources of the area were becoming e2hausted. The durability of their structures has proen remar1able. Thin1 of how our contemporary structures fall into utter disrepair without constant maintenance. The cliff dwellings hae endured oer eight hundred years of e2posure to the elements and still stand proud. 9odern day isitors can marel at Anasa6i accomplishments at !+7A +RD+ NATIONA$ PARB or CANEON D+ C+$$E NATIONA$ PARB, to name a few.
1%c,; T#e Al"on=in Tri&es
9assasoit, sachem of the #ampanoag tribe and father of 9etacomet, meets with settlers. The #ampanoag helped the settlers surie their first winter by proiding them with much needed supplies. /ut as more and more colonists arried in New $ngland, their relationship began to deteriorate.
#hen the /ritish set foot on the North American continent at Hamestown, they encountered the owhatan Indians. The e4uots and Narragansetts lied in New $ngland as the ilgrims and uritans established a new home. #illiam enn encountered the 0eni 0enape naties while settling Renn Qs #oods.
Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 ♦ [2)] Although these tribes hae great differences, they are lin1ed linguistically. All of these tribes (or nations) spea1 an Algon4uin language. These Algon1ian (or Algon4uian) groups were the first the $nglish would encounter as these early settlements began to flourish. Al"on=in or Al"on>in #hich word is correctU #hen anthropologists classified Natie American languages, they too1 all of the languages of the same language family as the Al"on=in tri&e %lso clle0 t#e Al"on>in tri&e, n0 clle0 it t#e Al"on>in or Al"on=inln""e 'mil6; A$@ONUIAN and A$@ONBIAN both refer to the Algon4uin language or to the group of tribes that spea1 related dialects. Therefore, the Algon4uian tribes (including the D+$A/AR+, the NARRA@AN7+TT7, the P+UOT, and the #ampanoag) are so called because they all spea1 the Algon1in or Algon4uin language.
The group of Natie Americans that lied in ennsylania and the surrounding area before $uropean settlement referred to themseles as 0enni-0enape. It was the $uropeans who called them =elaware.
The Algon1ians relied as much on hunting and fishing for food as wor1ing the land. These tribes used canoes to trael the inland waterways. The *O/ AND ARRO/ brought small and large game, and the 7P+AR generated ample supplies of fish for the Algon1ian peoples. Corn and 7UA7 were a few of the CROP7 that were cultiated all along the eastern seaboard.
!isn0erstn0in"s As the first group to encounter the $nglish, the Algon1ians became the first to illustrate the deep cultural misunderstandings between /ritish settlers and Natie Americans. /ritish Americans thought Algon4uian women were oppressed because of their wor1 in the fields. Algon1ian men laughed at the /ritish men who farmed traditionally wor1 resered for females. :unting was a sport in $ngland, so /ritish settlers thought the Algon1ian hunters to be unproductie.
This painting, by Tall "a1 of the Narragansett tribe, depicts a scene from King hilipJs #ar which pitted 9etacomet against the /ritish settlers.
The greatest misunderstanding was that of land ownership. In the minds of the Algon1ians selling land was li1e selling air. $entually this confusion would lead to armed conflict.
T#e Po<#tn Con'e0erc6 The PO/ATAN organi6ed a confederacy. 'irginians were met with strong resistance as they plunged westward. In New $ngland, /A!PANOA@7 under the leadership of !+TACO!+T fought with uritan farmers oer the encroachment west onto Indian land. The pacifist ?ua1ers were notable e2ceptions. ennsylania refused to raise a militia against the Indians for as long as ?ua1ers dominated the goernment.
The 9assachusetts 9ohaw1 Trail began as a Natie American footpath used for trade, hunting, and social calling by fie tribes, including the ocumtuc1 and the 9ohaw1. >nfortunately, the good times between the groups were few. The marriage of POCAONTA7 to GON RO$F+ and the first TANB7@IIN@ with the uritans did little to preent the fighting. In most cases, each side regarded the other with fear and suspicion.
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Advanced History of USA
1%0,; T#e Iro>ois Tri&es The Iro4uois people hae inhabited the areas of "ntario and upstate New Vor1 for well oer ,&&& years. Technically spea1ing, RIro4uois refers to a language rather than a particular tribe. In fact, the IROUOI7 consisted of fie tribes prior to $uropean coloni6ation. Their society seres as an outstanding e2ample of political and military organi6ation, comple2 lifestyle, and an eleated role of women.
9ohaw1 Indian chief Hoseph /rant sered as a spo1esman for his people, a Christian missionary of the Anglican church, and a /ritish military officer during the Deolutionary #ar.
@o8ernnce n0 /r >ntil the %G&&s, the fie tribes of the Iro4uois deoted much energy toward fighting and 1illing each other. According to ORA$ TRADITION, it was about this time that they came to their senses and united into a po werful confederation. The fie tribes designed 4uite an elaborate political system. This included a bicameral (twohouse) legislature, much li1e the /ritish arliament and modern >.S. Congress. The representaties, or 7AC+!7, from the 7+N+CA and !OA/B tribes met in one house and those of the ON+IDA and CAEU@A met in the other. The ONONDA@A sachems bro1e ties and had the power to eto decisions made by the others. There was an unwritten constitution that described these proceedings at least as early as %G&. Such a comple2 political arrangement was un1nown in $urope at that time.
Excerpts from the Iro)*ois Constit*tion Roots hav s!"a# o$t %"o& th T" o% th G"at Pa'( o) to th )o"th( o) to th ast( o) to th so$th a)# o) to th *st+ Th )a& o% ths "oots ,s Th G"at Wh,t Roots a)# th," )at$" ,s Pa' a)# St")th+++ Th so,. o% th a"th %"o& o) )# o% th .a)# to th oth" ,s th !"o!"t/ o% th !o!. *ho ,)ha0,t ,t+ B/ 0,"th",ht th O)*ho)*h 1o",,)a. 0,)s2 a" th o*)"s o% th so,. *h,'h th/ o*) a)# o''$!/ a)# )o) oth" &a/ ho.# ,t+ Th sa& .a* has 0) h.# %"o& th o.#st t,&s+ Th G"at C"ato" has &a# $s o% th o) 0.oo# a)# o% th sa& so,. h &a# $s a)# as o)./ #,3")t to)$s 'o)st,t$t #,3")t )at,o)s h sta0.,sh# #,3")t h$)t,) "o$)#s a)# t"",to",s a)# &a# 0o$)#a"/ .,)s 0t*) th&+++ Wh)v" a %o",) )at,o) ,s 'o)4$"# o" has 0/ th," o*) *,.. a''!t# th G"at Pa' th," o*) s/st& o% ,)t")a. ov")&)t &a/ 'o)t,)$( 0$t th/ &$st 'as a.. *a"%a" aa,)st oth" )at,o)s+++ Th *o&) o% v"/ '.a) o% th F,v Nat,o)s sha.. hav a Co$)',. F," v" 0$"),) ,) "a#,)ss %o" a 'o$)',. o% th '.a)+ Wh) ,) th," o!,),o) ,t s&s
Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 )'ssa"/ %o" th ,)t"st o% th !o!. th/ sha.. ho.# a 'o$)',. a)# th," #',s,o)s a)# "'o&&)#at,o)s sha.. 0 ,)t"o#$'# 0%o" th Co$)',. o% th Lo"#s 0/ th Wa" Ch,% %o" ,ts 'o)s,#"at,o)+
♦
[22]
Although the tribes began to wor1 together, they surely did not renounce war. They fought and captured other natie tribes as well as wae after wae of $uropean immigrants who presented themseles. They fought the early
Iro>ois 7ociet6 The $ON@OU7+ was the center of Iro4uois life. Archaeologists hae unearthed longhouse remains that e2tend more than the length of a football field. Agriculture was the main source of food. In Iro4uois society, women held a special role. /elieed to be lin1ed to the earth Qs power to create life, women determined how the food would be distributed a considerable power in a farming society. #omen were also responsible for selecting the sachems for the Confederacy. Iro4uois society was !ATRI$IN+A$ when a marriage transpired, the family moed into the longhouse of the mother, and FA!I$E $IN+A@+ was traced from her.
The Iro4uoi Tribes, also 1nown as the :audenosuanee, are 1nown for many things. /ut they are best 1nown for their longhouses. $ach longhouse was home to many members of a :audenosuanee family.
The Iro4uois society proed to be the most persistent military threat the $uropean settlers would face. Although con4uest and treaty forced them to cede much of their land, their legacy lingers. Some historians een attribute some aspects of the structure of our own Constitution to Iro4uois ideas. In fact, one of America Qs greatest admirers of the Iro4uois was none other than /enEamin
Contents % $arly Inhabitants of the Americas
[2] ♦ Advanced History of USA * $arly $mpires of 9esoamerica @ $arly $mpires of the Southwest $arly $mpires of the 9ississippi G Contact with $uropean Culture
+rl6 In#&itnts o' t#e Americs American history does not begin with Columbus Qs %* arrial. The Americas were settled long before the first $uropean arried. Ciili6ation began during the last ice age, some %G to & thousand years ago. :uge ice sheets coered the north, so sea leels were much lower, creating a land bridge between Asia and North America. This was the /ering land bridge, a gap in two large ice sheets creating a connection from lands near present day Alas1a, through Alberta, and into the continental >nited States. Nomadic Asians following herds of wild game traeled into the continental >nited States. A characteristic arrow point was found and first described near the present day town of Clois, N9. Speciali6ed tools and common burial practices are seen in many archaeological sites through North America and into South America.
The Clois people are one of North America Qs earliest ciili6ations. It is not clear if the finds represent one unified tribe, or many tribes with a common technology and belief. Their tre1 across *&&& rugged miles is one of the great feats of pre-history. Their culture disappears dramatically from the archaeological record %*,&& years ago, with widespread speculation about what caused their disappearance. Theories range from the e2tinction of the mammoth, to sudden enironmental changes caused by a comet hitting the earth, to flooding caused by the brea1 of a massie freshwater la1e, 0a1e Agassi6. There is controersy about re-Clois settlement of North and South America. Comparisons of culture and linguistics offer eidence of the influence of early America by seeral different contemporary cultures. Some genetic and time-dating studies point to the possibility that ancient Americans came from other places and arried earlier than at the Clois sites in North America. erhaps some ancient settlers to the hemisphere traeled by boat along the seashore, or arried by boats from the olynesian islands. As time went on, many of these first settlers settled down into agricultural societies, complete with domesticated animals. 3roups of people formed stable tribes and deeloped distinct languages of their own, to the point that more distant relaties could no longer understand them. Comparatie linguistics -- the study of languages of different tribes -- shows fascinating diersity, with similarities between tribes hundreds of miles apart, yet startling differences with neighboring groups. At times, tribes would gain regional importance and dominate large areas of America. $mpires rose across the Americas that rialed the greatest ones in $urope.
+rl6 +mires o' !esomeric 9eso-American ciili6ations are among some of the most powerful and adanced ciili6ations of the ancient world. Deading and writing were widespread throughout 9eso-America, and these ciili6ations achieed impressie political, artistic, scientific, agricultural, and architectural accomplishments. 9any of these ciili6ations gathered the political and technological resources to build some of the largest, most ornate, and highly populated cities in the ancient world. The aboriginal Americans settled in the Vucatan peninsulas of present-day 9e2ico around %&,&&& /C$. /y *&&& /C$, the 9ayan culture had eoled into a comple2 ciili6ation. The 9ayans deeloped a strong political, artistic and religious identity among the highly populated Vucatan lowlands. The classic period (*G&-&& C$) witnessed a rapid growth of the 9ayan culture and it gained dominance within the region and influence throughout present-day 9e2ico. 0arge, independent city-states were
Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 founded and became the political, religious, and cultural centers for the 9ayan people.
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9ayan society was unified not by politics, but by their comple2 and highly-deeloped religion. 9ayan religion was astrologically based, and supported by careful obserations of the s1y. The 9ayans had a strong grasp of astronomy that rialed, and, in many ways, e2ceeded that of concurrent $uropean societies. They deeloped a ery sophisticated system for measuring time, and had a great awareness of the moements in the nighttime s1y. articular significance was attached to the planet 'enus, which was particularly bright and appeared in both the late eening and early morning s1y. #orld.
9ayan art is also considered one of the most sophisticated and beautiful of the ancient New
The 9ayan culture saw a decline during the th and th century. Although its causes are still the subEect of intense scientific speculation, archaeologists see a definite cessation of inscriptions and architectural construction. The 9ayan culture continued as a regional power until its discoery by Spanish con4uistadores. In fact, an independent, non-centrali6ed goernment allowed the 9ayans to strongly resist the Spanish con4uest of present-day 9e2ico. 9ayan culture is presered today throughout the Vucatan, although many of the inscriptions hae been lost. The A6tec culture began with the migration of the 9e2ica people to present-day central 9e2ico. The leaders of this group of people created an alliance with the dominant tribes forming the A6tec triple alliance, and created an empire that influenced much of present-day 9e2ico. The A6tec confederacy began a campaign of con4uest and assimilation. "utlying lands were inducted into the empire and became part of the comple2 A6tec society. 0ocal leaders could gain prestige by adopting and adding to the culture of the A6tec ciili6ation. The A6tecs, in turn, adopted cultural, artistic, and astronomical innoations from its con4uered people. The heart of A6tec power was economic unity. Con4uered lands paid tribute to the capital city Tenochtitlan, the present-day site of 9e2ico City. Dich in tribute, this capital grew in influence, si6e, and population. #hen the Spanish arried in %G*%, it was the fourth largest city in the world (including the once independent city Tlatelco, which was by then a residential suburb) with an estimated population of *%*,G&& people. It contained the massie Temple de 9ayo (a twin-towered pyramid % feet tall), G public buildings, a palace, two 6oos, a botanical garden, and many houses. Surrounding the city and floating on the shallow flats of 0a1e Te2coco were enormous chinampas -- floating garden beds that fed the many thousands of residents of Tenochtitlan. #hile many 9eso-American ciili6ations practiced human sacrifice, none performed it to the scale of the A6tecs. To the A6tecs, human sacrifice was a necessary appeasement to the gods. According to their own records, one of the largest slaughters eer performed happened when the great pyramid of Tenochtitlan was reconsecrated in %. The A6tecs reported that they had sacrificed ,&& prisoners oer the course of four days. #ith their arrial at Tenochtitlan, the Spanish would be the downfall of A6tec culture. Although shoc1ed and impressed by the scale of Tenochtitlan, the display of massie human sacrifice offended $uropean sensitiity, and the abundant displays of gold and siler inflamed their greed. The Spanish 1illed the reigning ruler, 9onte6uma in Hune %G*& and lay siege to the city, destroying it in %G*%, aided by their alliance with a competing tribe, the Tla2cala. #ith the ascension of 9anco Capac to emperor of a tribe in the Cu6co area of what is modernday eru around %*&& /C$, the Incan ciili6ation emerged as the largest re-Columbian empire in the Americas. Deligion was significant in Inca life. The royal family were belieed to be descendants of the Inca Sun 3od. Thus, the emperor had absolute authority, chec1ed only by tradition. >nder the emperors, a comple2 political structure was apparent. The Incan emperor, regional and illage leaders, and others were part of an enormous bureaucracy.
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Advanced History of USA This mountain retreat was built high in the Andes and is sometimes called the R0ost City of the Incas. It was intended as a mountain retreat for the leaders of the Incan empire and demonstrates great artistry -- the abundant dry stone walls were entirely built without mortar, and the bloc1s were cut so carefully that one can Qt insert a 1nife-blade between them. The Spanish discoered the Inca during a ciil war of succession and enEoyed great military superiority oer the slow siege warfare that the Incan empire had employed against its enemies.
+rl6 +mires o' t#e 7ot#
+rl6 +mires o' t#e !ississii
5=etail about Anasa6i has already been discussed earlier in current
chapter.
Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 ♦ [2:] Natie Americans in the $astern Continental >nited States deeloped mound-building cultures early in North American :istory. 3roups of natie Americans became more stratified as time went on and deeloped into tribes. These tribes participated in long networ1s of trade and cultural e2changes. The importance of trade routes deeloped urban cities of great influence. The mound-building people were one of the earliest ciili6ation to emerge in North America. /eginning around %&&& /C$ cultures deeloped that used mounds for religious and burial purposes. These mound-building people are categori6ed by a series of cultures that describe distinctie artwor1 and artifacts found in large areas throughout the present-day eastern >nited States. The burial mound was the principle characteristic of all of these societies. These large structures were built by piling bas1ets of carefully selected earth into a mound. 9ounds were pyramid shaped with truncated tops. Sometimes small buildings were built on top of them. Some of these mounds were 4uite large. The 3rae Cree1 9ound, in the panhandle of present day #est 'irginia, is nearly & feet tall and @&& feet in diameter. "ther mounds hae een been shown to be oriented in a way that allows for astronomical alignments such as solstices and e4uino2es. 9ound building cultures spread out in si6e and importance. The first culture, the Adena, lied in present-day Southern "hio and the surrounding areas. The succeeding cultures united to create an impressie trade system that allowed each culture to influence the other. The :opewell e2change included groups of people throughout the continental $astern >nited States. There began to be considerable social stratification within these people. This organi6ation predates the emergence of the tribe as a socio-political group of people that would dominate later eastern and western natie American ciili6ation. The clima2 of this ciili6ation was the 9ississippian culture. The mound-building cultures had progressed to social comple2ity comparable to ost-Doman, re-Consolidation Tribal $ngland. 9ounds became numerous and some settlements had large comple2es of them. Structures were fre4uently built on top of the mounds. Institutional social ine4ualities e2isted, such as slaery and human sacrifice. Caho1ia, near the important trade routes of the 9ississippi and 9issouri riers, became an influential and highly deeloped community. $2tensie trade networ1s e2tended from the 3reat 0a1es to the 3ulf of 9e2ico. Caho1ia was one of the great centers of 9ississippian culture and its largest settlement of 9ississippi. The focal point of the settlement was the ceremonial mound called 9on1 Qs 9ound. 9on1 Qs 9ound was the largest mound eer constructed by mound-building people and was nearly %&& feet tall and && feet long. $2caation on the top of 9on1 Qs 9ound has reealed eidence of a large building perhaps a temple - that could be seen throughout the city. The city was spread out on a large plain south of 9on1s mound. The city proper contained %*& mounds at a arying distances from the city center. The mounds were diided into seeral different types, each of which may hae had its own meaning and function. A circle of posts immediate to 9on1Js 9ound mar1ed a great ariety of astronomical alignments. The city was surrounded by a series of watchtowers and occupied a diamond shape pattern that was nearly G miles across. At its best, the city may hae contained as many as &,&&& people ma1ing it the largest in North America. It is li1ely the 9ississippian culture was dispersed by the onslaught of iral diseases, such as smallpo2, which were brought by $uropean e2plorers. >rban areas were particularly ulnerable to these diseases, and Caho1ia was abandoned in the %G&&Js. The dispersal of tribes made it impractical to build or maintain mounds and many were found abandoned by $uropean e2plorers.
Contct rban areas were particularly ulnerable and Natie American culture adapted by becoming more isolated, less unified, and with a renewed round of inter-tribal warfare as tribes sei6ed the opportunity to gain resources once owned by rials. "n the other hand, $uropeans brought inasie plants and animals. The horse was reintroduced to America (as original paleo-American populations of wild horses from the /ering land bridge were e2tinct) and 4uic1ly adapted to free range on the sprawling great plains. Tribes of nomadic Natie Americans were 4uic1 to see the horseJs alue as an increase in their mobility allowing them to better adapt to changing conditions and as a aluable asset in inter-tribal warfare. Along with $uropeans bringing plants and animals, the $uropeans were able to ta1e seeral plants such as corn bac1 to their natie countries.
AD+NT OF T+ +UROP+AN7 TO *RITI7 7UP+R!ACE
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Advanced History of USA
T#e Trim# o' C#risto#er Colm&s /y the %Gth Century $uropean trade for lu2uries such as spices and sil1 had inspired $uropean e2plorers to see1 new routes to Asia. The fall of Constantinople to the "ttoman $mpire in %G@ had closed a crucial trade corridor. Trade throughout the "ttoman $mpire was difficult and unreliable. ortugal was in the lead in e2ploration, slowly e2ploring the shores of the African Continent in search of a better route to the spices and lu2uries of the "rient. Then the Italian Christopher Columbus submitted plans for a oyage to Asia by sailing around the world. /y the late %Gth century most educated $uropeans 1new the world was round. The 3ree1 mathematician $ratosthenes had accurately deduced that the world was appro2imately *G,&&& miles in diameter. 9any of the e2perts studying Columbus Qs plans on behalf of the $uropean monarchies he approached for funding reali6ed that this was too far for any contemporary sailing ship to go. Columbus contested the measurements, claiming that the world was much smaller than was widely belieed. After approaching the monarchies of seeral Italian city-states, and repeated appeals to the $nglish and ortuguese monarchies, the Spanish King
Frenc# +mire in Nort# Americ Christopher ColumbusJs oyages inspired other $uropean powers to see1 out the new world as well. Hac4ues Cartier, a respected mariner in his natie
7nis# +mire in Nort# Americ The Spanish con4uistador once de 0eon was an early isitor to the Americas, traeling to the new world on ColumbusJs second oyage. :e became the first goernor of the present-day area of uerto Dico in %G&. :oweer, upon the death of Christopher Columbus, the Spanish did not allow Christopher Qs son to succeed. 0i1e his father, he had committed atrocities against the Natie Americans of the Caribbean. The two goernors were released and replaced with successors from Spain. once =e 0eon, freed of his goernorship, decided to e2plore areas to the north, where there was rumored to be a fountain of youth that restored the youth of anyone drin1ing from it. once de 0eon found a peninsula on the coast of North America, called the new land Q
Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 ♦ [2(] South American continents. Natie American cultures had collected large troes of gold and aluables and gien them to leaders of these prosperous empires. The con4uistadors, belieing they held considerable military and technological superiority oer these cultures, attac1ed and destroyed the A6tecs in %G*% and the Incas in %G@*. The wealth sei6ed by the Spanish would lead to piracy and a new wae of settlements as the other colonial powers became increasingly hostile towards Spain. 9any areas that had been coloni6ed by Spain were inundated with nited States. The first Christian worship serice was a Catholic mass held in modern day ensacola
*ritis# +mire in Nort# Americ $ngland funded an initial e2ploratory trip shortly after Christopher Columbus Qs first oyage. =eparting $ngland in %G&%, Hohn Cabot e2plored the North American continent. :e correctly supposed that the spherical shape of the earth made the North, where the longitudes are much shorter, a 4uic1er route to the New #orld than a trip to the South islands Columbus was e2ploring. $ncouraged, he as1ed the $nglish monarchy for a more substantial e2pedition to further e2plore and settle the lands which he had found. The ships departed and were neer seen again. $ngland remained preoccupied with political affairs for much of the %Bth century. This was despite the insistence of the author Dichard :a1lyt, who translated some of the accounts of e2ploration into $nglish. :e wrote that $ngland ought to see1 colonies in America, specifically in 'irginia. /y the beginning of the %th century, $ngland, Scotland, and other $nglish possessions had formed the nation of 3reat /ritain and was becoming a formidable foe on the world Qs stage. The 4uic1ly e2panding /ritish nay was preparing for a massie stri1e upon the Spanish armada. Sir #alter Daleigh, who had gained considerable faor from ?ueen $li6abeth I by suppressing rebellions in Ireland, sought to establish an empire in the new world. :is Doano1e colony would be relatiely isolated from e2isting settlements in North America. :e funded the colony with his own money, unli1e the preious e2plorers funded and sponsored by monarchies. It is assumed that the colony was destroyed during a three year period in which $nglish was at war with Spain and did serious damage to the Spanish nay. The war left the /ritish monarchy so drained of money and resources that the monarchy sold a charter containing lands between present-day South Carolina and the >S-Canada border to two competing groups of inestors, the lymouth Company and the 0ondon Company. The two companies were gien the North and South portions of this area, respectiely. There was an oerlapping aria of deelopment in the middle of the two Companies, a place both could e2ploit proided one Company Qs settlement wasn Qt within a hundred miles of the other Qs settlement. The Northern lymouth settlement in 9aine failed and was abandoned, but the 0ondon company established a Hamestown settlement in %B&B.
ir"ini n0 Gmesto
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Advanced History of USA In %B%, 'irginia set up the :ouse of /urgesses, the first elected legislatie assembly in America. It mar1ed the beginnings of self-goernment, replacing the martial law that was preiously imposed on the colonists. :oweer, at the same time 'irginia was declared a Rcrown colony. Its charter was transferred from the 'irginia Company to the Crown of $ngland, which meant that Hamestown was now a colony run by the $nglish monarchy. #hile the :ouse of /urgesses was still allowed to run the goernment, the 1ing also appointed a royal goernor to settle disputes and enforce certain /ritish policies.
A08ent o' +roens %13 t# 1: t# Cent;, Intro0ctionJ In modern times India was inaded by the $uropeans. The ortuguese, The =utch, The $nglish and The
Port"eseJ #hen 'asco-da-3ama landed at Calicut on *%st may %, the sea route to India was discoered. Thus came the ortuguese to India. 'asco-da-3ama was well-receied by the 8amorin of Calicut 9ana 'i1ramma. #hen 'asco-da-3ama went bac1 he carried with him products of the $ast. :e returned to India two more times. The 3oernment of ortugal established the ortuguese Trading Company to regulate trade and commerce. The company was to function under a 'iceroy.
Al'onzo-De-Al&>er>e %13)9-133),J Alfon6o-=e-Albu4uer4ue the greatest ortuguese 'iceroy in India. The ortuguese trading centres which were confined to Calicut X Cochin, were now e2tended to other places under Albu4uer4ue. :e con4uered 3oa in %G%& from the Sultan of /iEapur. #est Asia in the ersian 3ulf and 9alaysia in the $ast were also con4uered =iu X =aman also became ortuguese trading centres. In /engal, :ooghly X /alasore became the ortuguese trading centres. 3oa became the :ead4uarters of the ortuguese in India. Albu4uer4ue thus made the ortuguese strong in India. :e was an efficient administer, he integrated the locals into the administration. :e encouraged the propagation of Christianity X inter-marriage with the naties. The 'iceroys who came after Albu4uer4ue were wea1 X inefficient. As a result the ortuguese began to decline in India. They finally left India in the mid % th Century A.=. /ut three of their settlement, namely 3oa, =iu X =aman remained in their hands till %B%.
Cses 'or Decline o' Port"eseJ %.
After Albu4uer4ue the ortuguese administration in India became inefficient because his successor were wea1 X inefficient.
*.
The ortuguese officials were neglected by the home goernment. Their salaries were low. Thus they indulged in corruption and malpractice.
@.
The ortuguese adopted forced inter-marriage X conersion to the Christian faith which made the naties hostile.
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In %G& ortugal was merged with Spain which neglected the ortuguese interest in India.
G.
The ortuguese has to face the stiff competition of the =utch in India.
B.
ortuguese discoered /ra6il which dierted their attention from India.
T#e Imct o' Port"eseJ %.
The ortuguese began to spread Christianity in the 9alabar X the Kon1an coast. 9issionaries li1e St.
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The 9issionaries started schools X colleges along the west coast, where education was imparted in the natie language.
@.
The missionaries undertoo1 research on Indian history and culture.
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The ortuguese brought the printing press to India. The /ible came to be printed in the Kannada X 9alayalam language.
G.
Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 ♦ [)] The ortuguese brought some crops to India li1e Tobacco, some fruits X egetables were also introduced by him potatoes, ladyJs finger, chilly, pineapple, sapota, groundnuts, etc.
T#e Dtc# The ortuguese were followed by the =utch. The $ast India Company of Netherlands was formed in %G* to trade with $ast Indies. Cornelius :outman is the first =utch to come to India. The =utch established trading centres at Nagapatnam in Tamil Nadu, 9achalipatnam in Andhra radesh, Chinsora in /engal X at 9ahe on the 9alabar Coast. The head4uarters of the =utch in India was Nagapatnam. The =utch could not withstand the stiff competition of the ortuguese and the $nglish and thus left India. The complete monopoly of the =utch oer trade and commerce of Indonesia another reason as to why they left India.
T#e +n"lis# The ortuguese and the =utch were followed by the $nglish. The charter of ?ueen $li6abeth issued in %B&& authorised the 0ondon company to carry on trade X commerce with the east and other countries. 0ater King Hames of $ngland e2tended the charter for an indefinite period. The first $nglishman to come to India for the purpose of trade X commerce is Captain #illiams :aw1ins. :e isited the court of 9oghul $mperor Hehangir X receied permission to trade at Surat. 0ater Captain best who came to India receied permission to start a factory at Surat Capt. /est defeated the ortuguese in the /attle of Swalley near Surat. In %B%G, Sir Thomas Doe isited the court of Hehangir and obtained trade concessions. The $nglish in the course of time established trading centres at different places in India. 9adras became their trading centre whish was fortified by constructing ttar radesh also became their trading centres. The $nglish ac4uired three illages in /engal which later deeloped to become Calcutta. The later 9oghul $mperor nited Company of the 9erchants of $ngland trading to $ast Indies. It was this Company which carried on trade X commerce with India till %G.
T#e Frenc# The last $uropeans to come to India is the
T#e +st&lis#ment o' *ritis# 7remc6 in In0i $er since the /ritish came to India they hae to face the contention of the $uropeans powers li1e the =utch, the ortuguese X the
Crntic /rs First Crntic /r %1?4:-1?4(,J The cause of the first Carnatic war is the 4uestion of succession to the Austrian throne. The differences between the $nglish X the
[1] ♦ Advanced History of USA against the
7econ0 Crntic /r %1?4(-1?3:,J The main cause of the second Carnatic war is the 4uestion of succession to the throne of :yderabad. "n the death of the Ni6am of :yderabad, his son Nasir Hang and his grandson 9u6afar Hang contended for the throne of :yderbad. 9usaffar Hang sought that help of Chanda Sahib, who wanted to become the 1ing of Arcot. Chanda Saheb sought the help of the
T#ir0 Crntic /rJ The cause of the third Carnatic war is the seen years war that bro1e out in $urope between the $nglish X the
An "ngoing 'oyage7 #hat /ecame of RAmerica /y %* people had lied in the #estern :emisphere for tens of thousands of years.
Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492
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[2]
T#e Cri&&enKIsln0 7ociet6 The largest group of people liing in the islands of the Caribbean were the TaMnos. Their illages were goerned by chieftains, or caci4ues, who enEoyed some distinctions of ran1 but receied tribute in times of crisis only. Delated families lied together in large houses built of poles, mats, and thatch. The TaMnos were 1nown for their fine wood caring and hammoc1s woen from cotton. Not a particularly warli1e people, they played ceremonial ball games, possibly as a substitute for warfare and as an outlet for competition between illages and chiefdoms. The other maEor group liing in the Caribbean were the more mobile and aggressie Caribs, who too1 to the sea in huge dugout canoes. /y the late %Gth century, the Caribs had e2panded into the smaller islands of the eastern Caribbean from the mainland, displacing or intermingling with the TaMnos. "iedo came to America in %G%, where for oer thirty years he compiled detailed ethnographic descriptions of the goods, products, peoples and customs of the Caribbean and Central America. :e introduced $urope to a wide ariety of preiously unheard of New #orld Re2otica such as the pineapple, the canoe, the smo1ing of tobacco, and the hammoc1. The Indians sleep in a bed they call an +hamaca+ which loo1s li1e a piece of cloth with both an open and tight weae, li1e a net ... made of cotton ... about *.G or @ yards long, with many hene4uen twine strings at either end which can be hung at any height. They are good beds, and clean ... and since the weather is warm they re4uire no coers at all ... and they are portable so a child can carry it oer the arm. The hammoc1 was perfected in the Caribbean and /ra6il and was first introduced to $uropeans during Columbus+ first oyage of %*. :ammoc1 in
!i00le Atlntic Cltres /efore %*, modern-day 9e2ico, most of Central America, and the southwestern >nited States comprised an area now 1nown as 9eso or 9iddle America. 9eso American peoples shared many elements of culture7 pictographic and hieroglyphic forms of writing monumental architecture a diet primarily of corn, beans, s4uash and chiles the weaing of cotton cloth and e2tensie trade networ1s. #hile most people lied by wor1ing the land, many societies also included nobles and priests, warriors, craftsmen, and merchants. The 9e2ica (A6tec) had formed a powerful state in the central alley of 9e2ico and con4uered many neighboring states by the late %Gth century. The bustling island capital, Tenochtitlan, with a population of perhaps *&&,&&&, was located in the middle of 0a1e Te2coco. 3roups li1e the Tarascans in the west and 8apotecs to the south, howeer, remained relatiely independent. $en states that had been absorbed by the 9e2ica retained their rulers as well as their religion, language, and lands. This highly accurate calendar was deeloped by the people of 9e2ico prior to %*. The tonalpohualli, or sacred calendar, ruled the life of each 9e2ica and was consulted on all important occasions. It was made up of *B& days, or *& months of %@ days. The Tarascans inhabited 9ichoacOn, an area west of TenochtitlOn (present-day 9e2ico City) and south of 3uadalaEara. This illustration depicts schematically arious occupational groups e2isting before the coming of the Spanish. 3roups of figures sit, each with an obEect or symbol such as a net, a loom, a bow and arrow, a writing instrument, feathers, etc., that identifies the occupation of a specific group. A couple of figures in the upper part of the illustration sit alone and are identified as being the Ca6onci and su gobernador (their goernor). This well-illustrated manuscript from 9e2ico chronicles the history and customs of the Tarascan people before as well as during the Con4uest in the area of 9ichoacOn. Although written by a
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Advanced History of USA The "6toticpac (9e2ico) 0ands 9ap is a central 9e2ican pictorial document with Spanish and Nahuatl writing showing litigation surrounding the "6toticpac estate within the city of Te2coco, ca. %G&. Its glyph, a symbolic figure, corresponds to the name Raboe the caes ( o6totl,cae icpac, aboe), a hill styli6ed in the shape of a woman. The document on pre-$uropean amatl paper inoles the land and property ownership of the ruler of Te2coco who was e2ecuted during the early days of the Spanish Con4uest in the Central 'alley of 9e2ico. The e2ecution left in its wa1e litigation inoling ownership of properties claimed by arious sons of Ne6ahualpilli, the lords of Te2coco. 9ost of the drawings on the map are plans of fields with indigenous measurements and place glyphs. Near the upper left is the plan of seeral houses within a precinct. "n the upper right is a map showing about .
T#e An0esK$i'e in t#e i"#ln0s "rgani6ed states and adanced cultures had long flourished in the Andean mountain region. The semi-arid highlands were the center of the far-flung Inca empire, Tahuantinsuyu, that e2tended from today+s Chile to Colombia. Cu6co, the capital, was located at %&,&&& feet aboe sea leel. Impressie adaptations to this uni4ue enironment allowed ciili6ations to thrie at higher altitudes than anywhere else in the world. The Andean peoples had learned to free6e-dry foods by ta1ing adantage of the daily e2tremes of temperature at high altitudes. They 1ept herds of llamas and alpacas in the altiplano, weaing te2tiles from the wool. >sing irrigation and terracing, they deeloped arieties of potatoes at high altitudes grew corn and coca at lower leels and raised cotton in the lowlands. They were 1nowledgeable miners, fine metalwor1ers, and great builders. A rotating system of labor for public wor1s that was traditional among Andean peoples was used to construct thousands of miles of roads. These roads greatly facilitated the moement of troops, peoples, and goods. The huge fortifications surrounding the Incan capital of Cu6co, built to protect and to solidify Incan control, are outstanding e2amples of the adanced engineering techni4ues of Andean peoples. Stones of seeral tons in weight were precisely cut and placed in Eigsaw-li1e fashion, without the aid of mortar, to form massie walls. These stone structures hae withstood numerous earth4ua1es during the interening centuries. This magnificent center of Incan culture, high in the Andes, is testimony to the e2traordinary construction capability of Andean peoples (i.e., intricate stone construction without the aid of mortar) before the arrial of the Spanish in the early %Bth century.
7ot# Atlntic Peoles The coastal areas of eastern South America and the interior of the Ama6on basin were home to seeral million people at the end of the %Gth century. This enormous area, bordering the Andes mountains on the west and the Atlantic "cean on the east, e2tends from present-day Argentina to the 3uianas. Socio-political structures were usually not highly deeloped in this area. The TupM-spea1ing groups lied in illages in which related families resided together in large houses. They practiced slashand-burn agriculture, and hunted and fished using blow guns and poison-tipped arrows. 9anioc, a tuber, was their staple crop. They engaged in warfare and some groups practiced ritual cannibalism. TupM groups eentually oercame the Tapuyas, mobile hunters and gatherers.
Nort# AmericKDi8erse 7ocieties In the %Bth century, North Americaoccupied today by Canada and most of the >nited States was home to hundreds of groups spea1ing a stri1ing ariety of languages and dialects. They lied in dierse settings, from the Algon4uian of the eastern woodlands, to the Caddo and #ichita of the grassy 9idwestern plains, and the Taos of the arid southwest. Some North American tribes, li1e the Iro4uois, were organi6ed into large political confederations. $2tensie trade networ1s - sometimes operating oer long distances - allowed for the e2change of
Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 ♦ [4] products such as animal s1ins, copper, shells, pigments, pottery, and foodstuffs. :ousing styles aried from coered wood to multileel dwellings constructed of stone and mud, and transportable shelters made of poles and animal hides. 9any tribes played games such as lacrosse and stic1ball. Deligion was an integral part of daily life, tying them to the land, to other liing things, and to the spirits that animated their world and proided order to social relations. The people of Secotan lied in permanent illages near today+s North Carolina "uter /an1s. 0i1e the northern Algon4uians, they farmed collectiely in the growing season and dispersed into family units to hunt during the colder months. The engraing, based on a drawing made by Hohn #hite in the %G&s, shows careful management and use of the land. Crops include tobacco and pump1ins, corn in three stages of growth, and sunflowers, while domesticated deer gra6e in the adEoining woods. The buildings include family units and storehouses for the surplus corn. The Secotan traded with other groups li1e the powerful 9andoag of the iedmont area of North Carolina, who acted as middlemen in the copper trade.
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