phenomenology
Understanding phenomenology Anne Flood looks at the theory and methods involved in phenomenological phenomenolo gical research Abstract
Phenomenology is a philosophic attitude and research approach. Its primary position is that the most basic human truths are accessible only through inner subjectivity, and that the person is integral to the environment. This paper discusses the theoretica theoreticall perspectives related to phenomenology, phenomenology, and includes a discussion of the methods adopted in phenomenological research. ▲
s phenomenology ▲ d r epistemological assumptions o ▲ w▲ research methodology y research method e ▲ k nursing research The primary position of phenomenology is that the most basic human truths are accessible only through inner subjectivity (Thorne 1991) and that the person is integral to the environment (Burns and Grove 1999). It is a research approach approa ch in the interpretivist tradition (Parahoo 1997). Koch (1995) postulates that one has to contextualise phenomenological research to the philosophical tradition that informs its methods, such as those of Heidegger (1962), Husserl (1960), Merleau-Ponty (1962) or Wimpenny and Gass (2000). Epistemological assumptions
The epistemology of phenomenology focuses on revealing meaning rather than on arguing a point or developing abstract theory. theory. Discovery of knowledge cannot be attained by the empirical-analytical sciences (van Manen 1997), only by sharing common meaning of mutual history, culture and language
phenomenology
the non-cognitive meanings of the text, such as the evocative, the expressive, the transcendent and the poetic elements, the resulting phenomenological information enriches our understanding of everyday life (van Manen 1997). This mutual recognition of the meaningful aspects of the text may be experienced as an epiphany or transformative effect, where one experiences an intuitive grasp of what is written (van Manen 1997). Phenomenological knowledge reforms understanding and leads to more thoughtful action through constructionism: ‘...all knowledge, and therefore all meaningful reality as such, is contingent upon human practices being constructed in and out of interaction between human beings and their world, and developed and transmitted within an essentially social context’ (Crotty 1998). Meanings are constructed by people as they engage with the world they are interpreting. The researcher’s task is to analyse the intentional experiences of consciousness to perceive how a phenomenon is given meaning and to arrive at its essence (Sadala and Adorno Rde 2002). Social constructionism involves the creation of meaning in a community. The notion of intentionality brings to the fore interaction between object and subject and therefore rejects objectivism and subjectivism. As Crotty (1998) states: ‘Research in the constructivist vein… requires that we may not remain straight-jacketed by the conventional meanings we have been taught to associate with the object. Instead… approach the object in a radical spirit of openness to its potential for new or richer meaning. It is an invitation to reinterpretation.’ Theoretical perspectives
A theoretical perspective supports the philosophical stance underpinning a methodology, and provides a context for the process involved and a basis for its logic and its criteria. There are two main phenomenological approaches: descriptive (eidetic) and interpretive (hermeneutic) (Cohen and Omery 1994). They differ in how findings are generated and used to augment professional knowledge (Lopez and Willis 2004).
should be important to scientists seeking to understand human motivation because human actions are influenced by what they perceive to be real. Thus, to bring out the essential components of the lived experiences specific to a group of people, a scientific approach is needed. This requires researchers shed all prior personal knowledge (bracketing) to prevent their biases and preconceptions influencing the study (Drew 1999), and to ensure scientific rigour (LeVasseur 2003). Two further assumptions of Husserlian phenomenology are: n
Universal essences or eidetic structures which are common to all persons who have a lived experience – there is one correct interpretation of experiences.
n
Radical autonomy: the impact of culture, society and politics on the individual’s freedom to choose are not central (Lopez and Willis 2004).
Interpretive Heideggarian phenomenology (hermeneutics)
Heidegger suggested that rather than focus on people or phenomena, the exploration of the lived experience or ‘dasein’ (‘the situated meaning of a human in the world’) should be the focus (Thompson 1990). Hermeneutics goes beyond description of core concepts and essences to look for meanings embedded in common practices (Lopez and Willis 2004) – what people experience rather than what they consciously know. Heidegger used the term ‘lifeworld’ to express the idea that individuals’ realities are invariably influenced by the world in which they live. This represents a move from an epistemological to an ontological project, focusing on how interpretation is intrinsic to human existence – it is not simply that someone merely has, but what he/she is (Heidegger 1962, Todres and Wheeler 2001). Heidegger (1962) asserted that humans are embedded in their world to such an extent that subjective experiences are inextricably linked with social, cultural and political contexts (Leonard 1999). While individuals are free to make choices, their freedom is not absolute – it is circumscribed by the specific
phenomenology
Another philosophical assumption is that presuppositions or expert knowledge on the part of the researcher are valuable guides to enquiry. Heidegger (1962) emphasised that it is impossible to rid the mind of the background of understandings that has led the researcher to consider a topic worthy of research in the first place (Koch 1995); thus personal knowledge is useful and necessary to phenomenological research (Geanellos 2000). Finally, the concept of co-constitutionality is proposed, in which the meanings arrived at in interpretive research comprise a blend of those articulated by participants and researcher. Gadamer (1976) describes this as ‘fusion of horizons’. The horizon is the background of various assumptions, ideas, meanings and experiences, which are fluid and open to change. Understanding and getting to know others is based on a personal horizon of experiences and meanings; thus the art of interpretation is always bounded by the separate, intersecting horizons of researchers and participants (Geanellos 2000). Hermeneutic phenomenology investigates and describes a phenomenon as experienced in life through phenomenological reflection and writing, developing a description of the phenomenon that leads to an understanding of the meaning of the experience (Osborne 1994). Phenomenological research
Phenomenological research is inductive and descriptive. The researcher aims to understand the cognitive subjective perspective of the person who has the experience and the effect that perspective has on the lived experience (Omery 1983). As Merleau-Ponty (1962) states, ‘We can only really understand phenomenology by doing it’ – there is a difference between comprehending phenomenology intellectually and understanding it from the inside (van Manen 1984). Phenomenological methodology can be structured (a sequence of steps) or more fluid, following the direction the experience indicates – a discovery orien tated approach (Spiegelberg 1960, van Kaam 1966, Giorgi 1970, van der Zalm
ment they may have so they can be open to the description. The phenomenon is placed in epoché (bracketed), searching for its essence (Sadala and Adorno Rde 2002). The researcher’s task is to analyse the intentional experiences of consciousness to perceive how the meaning of a phenomenon is given meaning and to arrive at its essence. Data collection – phenomenological interviewing
From a phenomenological perspective, meaning must be a result of co-creation between the researcher and the researched rather than just the interpreta tion of the researcher who may have different contextual factors or agendas influencing the descriptions (Wimpenny and Gass 2000). In phenomenological research, the interview is reflective (Munhall and Oiler Boyd 1993) rather than observational as seen in quantitative research. The interview is the main method of data collection: participants’ descriptions can be explored, illuminated and probed (Kvale 1996) using reflection, clarification, requests for examples and descriptions, and listening techniques (Jasper 1994). While the researcher may start with only a general plan about the direction the conversation will take, Seidman (1991) suggests that it will pass through three structured stages: n
Establishing the context of the interviewee’s experience.
n
The construction of the experience.
n
Reflection on the meaning it holds.
Analysis of phenomenological data
An analysis of the structure of a phenomenon in context is one of the outcomes of phenomenological research. To achieve this, the researcher has to select a method for data analysis congruent with the philosophical underpinnings of the study, although there is a dearth of guidance on this in the literature (Whiting 2001, Turner 2003). In addition, the lack of structure in the phenomenological approach can lead to a lack of study vigour. Accordingly, a range of frameworks were formulated by psychologists (van Kaam 1966, Giorgi 1970,
phenomenology
Hermeneutic interpretation
Hermeneutics is the study of the interpretation of texts to obtain a valid and common understanding of their meaning (Kvale 1996). This is assisted by entering the ‘hermeneutic circle’. Ricoeur’s (1971) interpretation theory allowed entry into the circle through three steps (Lindseth and Norberg 2004): n
Naive reading: The text is read several times to grasp its meanings. Here, researchers are ‘open’ so the text can talk to them (naive understanding).
n
Structural analysis: Themes which penetrate texts conveying essential meaning of the lived experience are identified and presented in ‘meaning units’, which are then condensed into sub themes and main themes. These are reflected on in relation to the initial naive understanding.
n
Comprehensive understanding or interpreted whole: All themes are summarised and reflected on in relation to the research question and the context of the study. The whole text is re-read with the naive associations and relevant literature to help revise, widen and deepen the understanding of the text (Lindseth and Norberg 2004). Results are presented in everyday language as close to the lived experience as possible.
Giorgi’s method of analysis
Giorgi’s (1975) phenomenological method emphasises quality of data rather than quantity. Since the participant is someone of equal status from whom cooperation is sought, the phenomenon can only be known through its manifestations as revealed through others. The aim of the study is therefore to arrive at meanings; explication is used to reveal the phenomena under question; and the focus of the study is not to determine reactions to situations or experiments but to meet the intention of the research (intentionality). Husserl (1960) requires the researcher to draw on his or her imagination to visualise phenomena from varied dimensions; Giorgi (1970) suggested that rather than seeking variations of the phenomena solely in the imagination of the researcher, consideration should be given to the same phenomena as it
the ‘outer world’ to avoid making judgements or having any preconceived ideas (Husserl 1960). n
Analysis to determine the natural ‘meaning units’ as expressed by the respondent. This is achieved by reading and rereading the transcripts and then identifying areas of the interview that highlight the participant’s experiences in relation to the phenomenon under investigation. These units are separate entities which together form the whole of the experience. There must be maximum openness at this stage to allow the researcher to identify the theme that dominates each meaning unit.
n
The researcher ‘interrogates’ the natural units and the central themes which emerged during the second stage. Questions which are central to the research should be ‘put to the data’ in an ordered and systematic manner. Final themes are generated from this questioning. Whiting (2001) refers to them as revelatory themes.
n
Once the themes have been enumerated, a descriptive statement of the essential, non-redundant themes is generated by describing them in rela tion to the specifics of the research situation. The description must then be considered further.
Conclusion
Phenomenology is an interpretive, qualitative form of research that seeks to study phenomena that are perceived or experienced. It offers a means by which to identify the essences of the experience. Phenomenology has gained respect as a valid approach to the study of nursing as a science of caring and offers a means by which human phenomena or the lived experiences of nurses and patients can be studied and understood. Furthermore phenomenology contributes knowledge that is practically relevant to nursing practice. This review has focused on the theoretical concepts underpinning phenomenological research and the issues which phenomenological researchers may need to address in the design of their research
n
phenomenology references Benner P (1985) Quality of life: a phenomenological perspective on explanation, prediction, and understanding in nursing science. Advances in Nursing Science. 8, 1, 1-14. Burns N, Grove SK (1999) Understanding Nursing Research. Second Edition. WB Saunders, London. Cohen MZ, Omery A (1994) Schools of phenomenology: implications for research. In: Morse JM (Ed) Critical Issues in Qualitative Research. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks CA, 136-156. Colaizzi PF (1978) Psychological research as the phenomenologist views it. In: Vale RS, King M (Eds) Existential Phenomenological Alternatives for Psychology . Oxford University Press, New York NY, 48-71. Crotty M (1998) The Foundations of Social Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process. Sage Publications, London. Drew N (1999) A return to Husserl and researcher self awareness. In: Polifroni EC, Welch M (Eds) Perspectives on Philosophy of Science in Nursing: An Historical and Contemporary Anthology . Lippincott, Philadelphia PA, 263-272. Gadamer HG (1976) Philosophical Hermeneutics. University of California Press, Berkley CA. Geanellos R (2000) Exploring Ricoeur’s hermeneutic theory of interpretation as a method of analysing research texts. Nursing Inquiry . 7, 2, 112-119. Giorgi A (1970) Psychology as a Human Science: A Phenomenologically Based Approach. Harper and Row, New York NY. Giorgi A (1975) An application of phenomenological method in psychology. In: Giorgi A, Fischer C, Murray E (Eds)
Hallett C (1995) Understanding the phenomenological approach to research. Nurse Researcher . 3, 2, 55-65. Heidegger M (1962) Being and Time. HarperOne, New York NY. Hilton BA (1988) The phenomenon of uncertainty in women with breast cancer. Issues in Mental Health Nursing. 9, 3, 217-238. Husserl E (1960) Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Phenomenology . Martinus Nijhoff Publications, The Hague. Husserl E (1970) The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology. Northwestern University Press, Evanston IL. Jasper MA (1994) Issues in phenomenology for researchers of nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 19, 2, 309-314. Koch GA (1993) Towards Fourth Generation Evaluation: Listening To The Voices Of Older Patients: A Hermeneutic Enquiry. Unpublished PhD thesis. University Of Manchester, Manchester. Koch T (1995) Interpretive approaches in nursing research: the influence of Husserl and Heidegger. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 21, 5, 827-836. Kvale S (1996) InterViews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks CA. Leonard VW (1999) A Heideggarian phenomenological perception on the concept of the person. In: Polifroni EC, Welch M (Eds) Perspectives on Philosophy of Science in Nursing: An Historical and Contemporary Anthology . Lippincott, Philadelphia PA, 263-272. LeVasseur JJ (2003) The problem of bracketing in phenomenology. Qualitative Health Research. 13, 3, 408-420. Lindseth A, Norberg A (2004) A phenomenological hermeneutical method for
Merleau-Ponty M (1962) Phenomenology of Perception. Routledge and Keegan-Paul, London. Morse JM, Solberg SM, Neander WL et al (1990) Concepts of caring and caring as a concept. Advances In Nursing Science. 13, 1, 1-14. Munhall PL, Oiler Boyd C (1993) Nursing Research: A Qualitative Perspective. Second edition. Appleton Century Crofts, Norwalk. Omery A (1983) Phenomenology: a method for nursing research. Advances In Nursing Science. 5, 2, 49-63. Osborne JW (1994) Some similarities and differences among phenomenological and other methods of psychological qualitative research. Canadian Psychology . 35, 2, 167-189. Parahoo K (1997) Nursing Research: Principles, Process and Issues. MacMillan Press, Hampshire. Ricoeur P (1971) The model of the text: meaningful action considered as text. Social Research. 38, 3, 529-562. Sadala ML, Adorno Rde C (2002) Phenomenology as a method to investigate the experience lived: a perspective from Husserl and Merleau Ponty’s thoughts. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 37, 3, 282-293. Seidman IE (1991) Interviewing as Qualitative Research. Teachers’ College Press, New York NY. Spiegelberg H (1960) The Phenomenological Movement. Volume II. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague. Thompson JL (1990) Hermeneutic inquiry. In: Moody LE (Ed) Advancing Nursing Science Through Research. Sage Publications, Newbury Park CA, 223-280. Thorne SE (1991) Methodological orthodoxy in qualitative nursing research: analysis of the issues.
Turner d S (2003) Horizons revealed: from methodology to method. International Journal of Qualitative Methods. 2, 1, Article 1. www.ualberta.ca/~iiqm/backissues/2_1/html/ turner.html (Last accessed: December 1 2009.) van der Zalm JE, Bergum V (2000) Hermeneutic-phenomenology: providing living knowledge for nursing practice. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 31, 1, 211-218. van Kaam A (1966) Existential Foundations of Psychology. Duquesne University Press, Pittsburgh PA. van Manen M (1984) Practicing phenomenological writing. Phenomenology and Pedagogy. 2, 1, 36-69. van Manen M (1997) Researching the Lived Experience: Human Science for an Action Sensitive Pedagogy. Second Edition. Althouse Press, Ontario, Canada. Whiting L (2001) Analysis of phenomenological data: personal reflections on Giorgi’s method. Nurse Researcher. 9, 2, 60-74. Wimpenny P, Gass J (2000) Interviewing in phenomenology and grounded theory: is there a difference? Journal of Advanced Nursing. 31, 6, 1485-1492.
Copyright of Nurse Researcher is the property of RCN Publishing Company and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.
