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PROJE PRO JECT CT ON LAW OF OF TORTS T ORTS
TORTIOUS LIAB L IABILIT ILITY Y IN PROPHE PR OPHECIES CIES AND PRED PR EDIC ICTI TION ONS S
SUBMITTED BY:
SUBMITTED TO:
Parik ariksshit hit Shuk ukla la
Ms. GUNJ GUNJA AN CHAW HAWLA
II SEMESTE !"#$"%
!&ACULTY O& LAW%
NATIONAL LAW UNI'ESITY( JODHPU JODH PU WINTE SEMESTE
ACKNOLEDGEMENT
On the completio completion n of this this project project,, I take take the opportun opportunity ity of thanki thanking ng the people who contributed in the completion of it, without whose aid, contribution and help this project wouldn’t have seen practicability. pract icability. First I extend my heartfelt gratitude to, my mentor and teacher, s !unjan "hawla, Faculty of #aw of $orts whose continuous guidance and support provided me with the much%needed impetus and gave me a better insight into the topic. I am grateful to the I$ &taff for providing all necessary facilities for carrying out this work. I thank all members of the #ibrary &taff for providing me the assistance anytime needed. I also thank my friends and batch mates for providing me the much needed aid whenever needed. ost importantly, I would like to thank my parents for providing me the much% needed force for accomplishing this project.
#)'age
TABLE OF CONTENT
(cknoledgement........................................................................................................................) $able of content..........................................................................................................................* O+-"$I-&............................................................................................................................ / 0-&-(0"1 -$1O2O#O!3.............................................................................................../ I4$0O25"$IO4......................................................................................................................6 +0-("1 OF "O4$0("$ (42 +0-("1 OF 25$3 FO0 !II4! I4"O00-"$ '0-2I"$IO4& (42 '0O'1-"I-&.......................................................................................7 "O'(0I&IO4
$o examine the scope of tortious liabilities for predictions and prophecies in India i.e. whether a wrong prediction will amount to a breach of duty or a breach of contract or
• •
both. $o examine the legal status of predictions and prophecies in India. $o compare the legal status of predictions and prophecies in 5& and 59 with India.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
$he research methodology of this paper is mainly doctrinal. $he research methodology is descriptive while also analysing the topic. &ubstantial reliance has been placed on secondary sources because of the scant amount of primary resources available. $he mode of citation followed in this research is O&"O#( /th -dition.
+)'age
INTRODUCTION
9nowing about what is going to happen in the future has been a constant endeavour of human beings. (strology, palmistry, Vastu Shastra, tarot cards etc. are the various ways in which man tries to predict the future. (strology in India is regarded as an unexplored science :. In other countries for e.g. 5&(, fortune telling is a form of livelihood and it is given proper recognition by the government). India is also famous for the prophecies of its famous !odmen*. !odmen reportedly claim to have special powers to heal people, power to foresee the future and influence it, power to read minds of others /. !odman actually is a very vast term and has a wide array of meanings depending on the context. ( common form of claim by the !odmen is that they can heal people by magic. In some states like aharashtra claiming to heal by magic remedies is illegal.6 $aking payments for treating someone magically and not being able to do so institutes into a crime <=>.
: P.N Bhargava and Ors. Vs UGC and Anr (I0 )??/ &" * />7.
) unicipal "ode of the "ity of #os (ngeles, &tate of "alifornia, 5&( :;*) ss /*.*?, /*.*:
6 aharashtra 'revention and -radication of 1uman &acrifice and other Inhuman, -vil and (ghori 'ractices and +lack agic (ct )?:*
< Sr Bhag$an S.S.V.V.V. %ahara& v. State o! Andhra Pradesh (I0 :;;; ) **) ,)'age
0egarding astrology different views exist in India. (mong men with a scientific temperD astrology is thought of as a pseudo%science. 78hile +ombay 1" in a recent judgement has established that astrology is a /??? year old science. . (strology indeed has existed in India for very long. -ven though it Euite contrasts with the findings of western scienceD it is considered to be a science because it is associated with the observation of heavenly bodies and drawing inferences from it ;. &imilar is the case with palmistry and other such methods to foresee the future. $his is where the Euestion arises that whether a person can be held liable for making wrong predictions. (re the astrologers and others under any form of contract :? with us If yes then under which law will the offender :: be held liable and will it be a violation of right n persona# '(
> Indian 'enal "ode :7
7 'aul 0. $hagard, G8hy (strology is a 'seudoscienceG H :;>7 '&( )
;2 'arthasarathy and 0. 0obinson, J&cience, (strology, and 2emocratic &ociety’ )??: -K'8 *:7<
:? Indian "ontracts (ct :7>) s)BhC
:: "ode of "riminal 'rocedure :;?7 s*6>
:) 0atanlal and 2hirajlal, )a$ o! Torts B)
'rophets are defined as men who speak the voice of !od and can see the future. $hroughout history man has been a witness to many prophets including oses, esus "hrist, uhammad:* among others. $he words they spoke were considered to be the voice of !od :/ and were so written in their respective religious books. +ut times have changed and man likes to Euestion everything. en who now pose as agents of !od and give their prophecies are Euestioned. $he biggest Euestion which comes into picture isD what is then the legal standing of the prophecies of such men. 2o they owe a duty of care
:6
towards their client for their
services "an they be held liable:< for the delivering a wrong prophecy If so, then how will a person decide whether a prophecy is correct or not. 5nder what ambit of law will they be held liable 8ill the damaged be awarded:>
$here exists another form of prediction based on Euantitative analysis of past and present data. +est examples of Euantitative predictions include weather forecasts and stock market trading. +oth are predictions made by cumbersome calculations. +ut it does not mean that
:* 8heeler, +rannon ., Prophets n the *uran+ an ntroducton to the *uran and %usl# e,egess. Co#paratve Isla#c studes B"ontinuum International 'ublishing !roup )??)C
:/ 'eters, F.-., $he -ords and -ll o! God B'rinceton 5niversity 'ressC :)L:*.
:> "harles &weet, A dctonary o! Englsh )a$ >; )'age
they cannot be wrong. ( person may suffer a personal injury :7 due to a wrong forecast :;=)?. +ut will making a wrong forecast constitute to a tortious liability ): $his project will try to answer to all these Euestions. In India, the law of tort is not developed to its full extent therefore there have been negligible amount of cases of this concern. 4evertheless, there will be a comparative study between the laws in India and other countries regarding the subject.
:7 I'" :7
:; Ingha# v. U.S . F2 :;<> 5&&" ))>
)? Brandt v. The -eather channel F2 :;;; 5&&" /**
): 8infield and olowicM, )a$ on Tort B:7th -ditionC :%/ $)'age
BREACH OF CONTRACT AND BREACH OF DUTY FOR GIVING INCORRECT PREDICTIONS AND PROPHECIES
( contract has a few essential points which need to be fulfilled before it is considered to be a legal contract. $here are three major necessities in a contract which areA acceptance communication and revocation. $he first essential condition is regarding the communication of the contract.
N$he communication of a proposal is complete when it becomes to the knowledge of the person to whom it is made. $he communication of an acceptance is complete as against the proposer, when it is put in a course of transmission to him so at to be out of the power of the acceptorD as against the acceptor, when it comes to the knowledge of the proposer. $he communication of a revocation is complete as against the person who makes it, when it is put into a course of transmission to the person to whom it is made, so as to be out of the power of the person who makes itD as against the person to whom it is made, when it comes to his knowledge)).
In this current area of discussion we have to determine whether the act of prediction and prophecy has a proper communication i.e. whether the communication is expressed or implied by the offeror. In an ideal case of astrology Bthe most common form of predictionC a man comes to the astrologer to listen about his future. $he astrologer makes an offer and the
)) Indian "ontract (ct :7>)BI"( :7>)C, s / /)'age
customer may accept the offer or further negotiate. Finally the offer is accepted and we can move on the next essential prereEuisite for a contract.
4ow when the acceptance has been given so that it is unconditional and absolute we can move to the legality of the contract.
N(ll agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of parties competent to contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object, and are not hereby expressly declared to be void. 4othing herein contained shall affect any law in force in India, and not hereby expressly repealed, by which any contract is reEuired to be made in writing or in the presence of witnesses, or any law relating to the registration of documents.)* $he biggest consideration here is whether practising astrology is legal in India. It was held by the &upreme "ourt in the famous case of P.%. Bhargava and Ors. Vs Unversty Grants Co##sson and Anr had decided that astrology is a science and it can be allowed as a subject of study in the university)/. In another case of S#t. Aart Vs State o! Pun&a through Prncpal Secretary and others it was decided that astrology as a science is well established and it cannot be challenged even though people who pretend to be astrologers can be held liable. In many other cases also astrology has been recogniMed as a profession. )6=)< $herefore the Euestion whether astrology is a legal profession or not gets handled. )* I"( :7>), s :?
)/ +hargava Bn :C
)6 /. Sadasva# and another Vs B. "ar0rshnan # )??: 1" ) *?? "0 ) ' a g e
+ut even after giving the consent by a reasonable man few conditions still need to be checked in a contract. &ection :/ defines free consent asA N"onsent is said to be free when it is not caused by L B:C "oercion, as defined in section :6, or B)C 5ndue influence, as defined in section :<, or B*C Fraud, as defined in section :>, or B/C isrepresentation, as defined in section :7, or B6C istake, subject to the provisions of section )?, ):, and )). "onsent is said to be so caused when it would not have been given but for the existence of such coercion, undue influence, fraud, misrepresentation, or mistake)>. $he point which we must consider here is part * of the section i.e. regarding fraud. Fraud has been defined in the act asA N@Fraud@ means and includes any of the following acts committed by a party to a contract, or with his connivance, or by his agents, with intent to deceive another party thereto his agent, or to induce him to enter into the contractD B:C the suggestion as a fact, of that which is not true, by one who does not believe it to be trueD
)< Indra Sa$hney Vs Unon o! Inda 1UOI2 and Ors. &"" :;;) &" * /:*
)> I"( :7>), s :/ "" ) ' a g e
B)C the active concealment of a fact by one having knowledge or belief of the factD B*C a promise made without any intention of performing itD B/C any other act fitted to deceiveD B6C any such act or omission as the law specially declares to be fraudulent )7. $herefore a contract cannot be held valid if the astrologer understands that he is deceiving the customer by inducing him to hear his future when he knows that he is unable to tell the future. $he astrologer is also liable if he knows that he will not be able to fulfill his promise.
+ut after considering all of the above if the astrologer and the customer have in good faith come to an agreement out of free consent and mutual understanding then astrology can be thought of as form of contract between the astrologer and the customer. $herefore the astrologer should be held liable for the breach of contract on non compliance on his part of the deal. +ut what exactly would be considered a breach of contract on the part of the predictor. $he predictor had undertaken to predict the future of his client. In other word he had undertaken to advise his client. In other professions where the defendant is involved in advising the plaintiff the plaintiff is held liable for giving a wrong advice. In Caparo Industres Plc. Vs 3c0#an );#ord +ridge had said about giving professional advices that the defendant must use all his skill to give advice and the defendant can be held liable if due to a direct conseEuence of the defendant’s prediction the plaintiff suffers any loss. In other
)7 I"( :7>), s :>
); Caparo Industres Plc. Vs 3c0#an (ll -0 :;;? : 6<7 "# ) ' a g e
professions having the need to give advices like doctors *?, solicitors*:, architects*) and auditors** are held liable for breach of contract as well as the breach of duty on giving faulty advice. #ord !off had observed in "enderson vs %erett Syndcate )td 45. that other professions apart from the medical profession should be held liable for breach of contract and breach of duty for giving faulty advice.
It is known to us that the same wrongful act can amount to a breach of contract as well as a breach of duty *6. Other professionals who are under a contract can also be held for the breach of duty like in the case of solicitors, doctors and other such people who are under a contract to skillfully discharge their duty undertaken in regards to the customer *<. In our case a predictor is also liable to give skillful recommendations to the customer. +ut what can be held to be skillful recommendations 8ill making a wrong prediction amount to a legal wrong i.e. a breach of duty *? Fish Bn :;C
*< 0atanlal and 2hirajlal, )a$ o! Torts B)
It is of importance to note here that an inn keeper *>, doctor *7 is held liable for unskillfully doing their job. -arlier newer jobs of solicitor *; and architects/? were kept out of ambit of the breach of duty. +ut after the advancement of the area of torts this discrepancy has since been removed/:. 8hen professionals like solicitors and auditors can be held liable for giving a wrong advice then there is no reason why a man who says he can predict the future of his client be not held liable for the breach of duty in giving a wrong prediction or prophecy. !iving a wrong prediction may cause harm to the plaintiff. $herefore a person giving a wrong prediction and a prophecy should be held liable for both the breach of contract as well as the breach of duty.
/: Fleming, )a$ o! Torts B
COMPARISION BETWEEN THE LEGAL STATUS OF PREDICTIONS AND PROPHECIES IN US AND UK WITH INDIA.
#iability in the area of prediction, prophecies or forecast is still not defined clearly in India. &ame goes with many other countries in the world. $here hasn’t been any substantial case regarding this anywhere in the world. In India we have !odmen, astrologers, yogs etc. who make predictions and try to provide solutions to people which are illogical and still people are convinced that they have the remedy. +ut, when they go wrong no law dictates what the legal scenario should be.
-ven in the 5& there is no law which dictates tortious liability for a wrong prediction. +ut, there is a law which can fix the liability in certain cases. For government employees, liability for any Nmisrepresentation even in weather forecasting is prohibited under F$"( /). In general, there is no liability for providing information in the 5&. $o hold anyone liable in 5& for a wrong prediction it needs to be proved that negligence has been a part of making that prediction. $he burden of proof lies on the plaintiff in such cases as well. In Barte v. US 54 where the plaintiff lost his wife and five children washed away in the tornado pleaded for a fair compensation for the negligence of weather forecast which eventually proved out to be wrong but he didn’t get any compensation because he could not prove negligence on their part. Further testimony by an expert provided that the weather forecast was more or less
/) $he Federal $orts "laims (ct :;/<.
/* Barte v. Unted States 8.2. :;<* #( . ", ) ' a g e
reasonable at the point of time. It was also noted that if the harm is done it cannot be decisively said that a tort has been committed. &imilarly, a ship sank during a storm near the $exas coast in the early morning //. -ven in this case the weather forecast company was not held liable for a wrong weather forecast on the grounds that it was a reasonable prediction on the defendant’s part. (lso the defendant Euestioned the authenticity of the testimony that the sailors were exclusively dependant on weather forecast and listened to their particular forecast.
$here are many other cases relating to wrong weather forecast where the defendant was not held liable. ajor part other than that of negligence which is hard to prove is whether the plaintiff listened to the forecast or not.
(viation cases are an open and shut case in some matters as government employees are protected under the statute/6. +ut luckily, there have been a few cases where damages were awarded/<. In this case a single%engine aircraft was crashed on a busy airport due to a cryptic and wrongly predicted message given by the controller. $he trial court held that it was the pilot’s negligence but when the matter went on appeal it was held that the controller had the duty to estimate correct time for take%off to direct the pilot accordingly. (lso, that the controller had a legal duty to warn the pilot of the possible dangers. Other cases were also
// Chanon v. Unted States &.2. :;>) $-P.
/6 F$"( :;/<
/< "art7 v. Unted States :;<7. "- ) ' a g e
found which has a similar result />=/7. From these cases it is evident that even a wrong prediction can lead to a person’s death so this area of tort should be developed in India as well.
(nother interesting area of tortious liability for wrong predictions can be that of stock brokers. &tock brokers are agents who suggest people to buy shares on their business acumen but if they go wrong liability will arise. $here is certain standard by which a broker has to work and such standards have been imposed on a stockbroker by bodies such as the (ssociation of "hartered Institute of &tockbrokers, the Investment 2ealers (ssociation and the "anadian &ecurity Institute etc. +roker found in violation of these standards can be held liable. +rokerage firms for that matter can also be held vcarously lale./;
(ccording to the (merican tort law, NUnless he represents that he has greater or less s0ll or 0no$ledge8 one $ho underta0es to render servces n the practce o! a pro!esson or trade s re9ured to e,ercse the s0ll and 0no$ledge nor#ally possessed y #e#ers o! that pro!esson or trade n good standng n s#lar crcu#stances:;.
/> 6uru#7o v. Unted States :;<6.
/7 *.
/; Northey=Taylor v. Casey (.. )??> Q+. )6< .
6? 0estatement BsecondC of $orts :;<6 ));( " ) ' a g e
In other words a stockbroker needs to have reasonable skills which are reEuired for the trade. (nd if it is found that the broker didn’t function is a way he was supposed to, he can be held liable. +ut if the prediction so made is not negligent and made in honest faith, the liability will not arise. (lso, it is the duty of a broker to make Nsuitable recommendations. $he duty dictates that, N In reco##endng to a custo#er the purchase the sale or e,change o! any securty8 a #e#er shall have reasonale grounds !or elevng that the reco##endaton s sutale !or such custo#er upon the ass o! !acts8 ! any8 dsclosed y such custo#er to hs other securty holdngs and as to hs !nancal stuaton and needs :'. -ven in India stockbrokers can be held liable for the same. (t least in the matter of trade Indian laws are developed well enough.
India does not have laws for wrongful prophecies or predictions but it does have for the wrongful gain out of superstitious acts. #ike in aharashtra 6) there is a legislation against superstitious acts which includes making financial profits by displaying so called miracles. In 9arnataka 6*a bill had been drafted following the footsteps of aharashtra 6/.
6:
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httpA==www.investopedia.com=terms=r=rulesoffairpractice.asp Bviewed on :6=?)=)?:6C.
6) $he aharashtra 'revention and -radication of 1uman &acrifice and other Inhuman, -vil and (ghori 'ractices and +lack agic (ct )?:*.
6* 9arnataka 'revention of &uperstitious 'ractices +ill )?:*.
6/ (nti%&uperstition #aws in India L i'leaders Bviewed on :6=?)=)?:6C. "$ ) ' a g e
httpA==blog.ipleaders.in=antisuperstition=
"/ ) ' a g e
CONCLUSION
It has been established in the project that there are damages that arise out of faulty=negligent predictions and prophecies, and these damages may range in any number as has been shown by various cases cited in the project. I would like to conclude the project by saying that there is an imperative need to develop all the laws related to the issue of negligent prediction and prophecies in India. It has been shown by comparison with various torts law of other countries that there are better ways to deal with this issue, and that way is amendments to the tort laws related to this issue and a better interpretation of them which should be done in a stricter way. $here props up a bigger need to come up with amendments to torts law dealing with this issue in our country because of the peculiar situation of our country where we regularly deal with damages that arose out of superstitious prediction and prophecies, wherein it is a big, blooming industry with absolutely no liability attached to it. 8e have had various instances of superstition blooming and adversely affecting our country like in the case of J4irmal +aba’ wherein his prophecies led to a to widespread promotion of superstition and ultimately led to severe damages to certain individuals, the sad thing is that this industry blooms on the damages caused to individuals. 1ence it can be concluded by saying that there is an urgent need of better laws on this particular issue, the researcher would also like to show that there have been steps to deal with this issue like in the instances of &uperstition laws which were drafted in )?:* by 9arnataka and implemented by aharashtra in )?:* and an ordinance passed by the aharashtra !overnment on the same issue, these steps could go a long way, but there is still a need of better laws. &o, it can be conclusively said that tortious liabilities being an uncharted territory needs to be discovered step by step by the lawmakers.
#0 ) ' a g e
INDEPENDENT ANALYSIS
#aws in India are unrealistically underdeveloped when it comes to the realm of predictions and prophecies. $here is a need to make amendments in the current tort laws that govern the realm of prediction and prophecies in India. 8hen comparing to the laws in 5& it was found that liabilities there are fixed according to respective statutes and similar cases can be found where compensation was awarded. +ut, in India, sadly no such instances and cases have been found when the reality is that India has ten times more instances of people being adversely affected by such superstitious practices than the 5nited &tates, or any other country for that matter. Our backwardness on the issue of &uperstition and laws related to it can be shown in by the &uperstition laws which were drafted in )?:* by 9arnataka and implemented by aharashtra in )?:* have similar provisions that were available in $he 8itchcraft (ct :6/) enacted by 9ing 1enry III. $his shows that lot of development regarding laws is imperatively needed. $o gain a better legal scenario laws should be made inspiring from the existing laws in other countries. It has been established in project that there are damages that arise out of the negligent practice of prediction and prophecies, and in our country, there are instances where these damages are astronomical in nature, therefore, the researcher as a law student has tried to give a few recommendation regarding the development of laws in the area of predictions and prophecies, which are L
•
#aws for the regulation of (strology, Fortune telling and similar businesses should be
•
made and liabilities thus arising should be discussed. 4egligent weather forecast should be a punishable offence irrespective of the private
#" ) ' a g e
•
or a government authority. Fraudulent acts of predicting future in order to make financial gain should be made a
•
criminal offence. (strology and similar businesses should also be conducted as per the laws of contract. 'ublic awareness schemes should be introduced by the government regarding this. 'rofessions which do not comply with reasonable standards of conduct should be held
•
as illegal. ( detailed study regarding the condition of laws regarding predictions and prophecies
• •
in other common law countries should be conducted to draw inspiration from them.
$heses recommendation can go a long way in solving the problem related to negligent prediction and prophecies. $hese act come under the ambit of a bigger problem we are facing in India i.e &uperstition, which is something that is eating our nation’s roots, a small step to eradicate it one by one would go a long way to eradicate it completely out our nation. 8e would be able to live the dream of rationalist like 4arendra 2habholkar who was mercilessly murdered on the street of umbai, four days before the ordinance on (nti L &uperstition and +lack magic was passes in the state. I, while making the project realiMed that this is not just a problem that begins and end under the ambit of the $ort law, this is national problem of greater importance and hence treading on the lines of martyrs like r. 2abolkar, we need to fight this problem in our own capacity, I consider this project that highlights the shortcomings in the law of $orts dealing with this subject and recommend ways to deal with these problems, as a small step toward eradicating the vicious problem of superstition in our country.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cases Bagot vs Stevens Scanlar and Co. (ll -0 :;>.:) Barte v. Unted States 8.2. :;<* #( .....................................................................................:/ Brandt v. The -eather channel F2 :;;; 5&&" /**................................................................. > Caparo Industres Plc. Vs 3c0#an (ll -0 :;;? : 6<7..........................................................:: Chanon v. Unted States &.2. :;>) $-P.................................................................................:6 Constantne vs I#peral "otel Servce (ll -0 :;// ) :>:......................................................:) Coupland vs Araan Gul! Co. )td . (ll -0 :;7< "( * ))<.................................................... :) 6sh vs /apur (ll -0 :;/7 ) :><............................................................................................:) 6uru#7o v. Unted States :;<6.............................................................................................. .:6 Groo# vs Croc0er (ll -0 :;*7 ) *7/.....................................................................................:) "art7 v. Unted States :;<7......................................................................................................:6 "enderson vs %erett Syndcate )td (ll -0 :;;/ * 6?<..........................................................:: Indra Sa$hney Vs Unon o! Inda 1UOI2 and Ors. &"" :;;) &" * /:*...................................; Ingha# v. U.S . F2 :;<> 5&&" ))>...........................................................................................> /. Sadasva# and another Vs B. "ar0rshnan # )??: 1" ) *??....................................; Northey=Taylor v. Casey (.. )??> Q+. )6< ........................................................................... :< P.N Bhargava and Ors. Vs UGC and Anr (I0 )??/ &" * />7.................................................6 P.N Bhargava and Ors. Vs UGC and Anr (I0 )??/ &" * />7.................................................6 '.4 +hargava and Ors. s 5!" and (nr (45=&"=?/6/=)??/.............................................6 &ri +hagwan &.&.... aharaj v. &tate of (ndhra 'radesh (I0 :;;; ) **).........................6 &ri +hagwan &.&.... aharaj v. &tate of (ndhra 'radesh, (45=&"=?/?)=:;;;.............6 #* ) ' a g e
Statutes "ode of "riminal 'rocedure :;?7 s*6>..................................................................................... < I"( :7>), s :?............................................................................................................................; I"( :7>), s :/..........................................................................................................................:? I"( :7>), s :>..........................................................................................................................:: Indian "ontract (ct :7>)BI"( :7>)C, s /..................................................................................7 Indian "ontracts (ct :7>) s)BhC................................................................................................< Indian 'enal "ode :7 9arnataka 'revention of &uperstitious 'ractices +ill )?:*.....................................................:> aharashtra 'revention and -radication of 1uman &acrifice and other Inhuman, -vil and (ghori 'ractices and +lack agic (ct )?:*........................................................................ 6 aharashtra 'revention and -radication of 1uman &acrifice and other Inhuman, -vil and (ghori 'ractices and +lack agic (ct, )?:*........................................................................ 6 unicipal "ode of the "ity of #os (ngeles, &tate of "alifornia, 5&( :;*) ss /*.*?, /*.*:. .6 0estatement BsecondC of $orts :;<6 ));(...............................................................................:< &ection )BhC, Indian "ontracts (ct B:7>)C.................................................................................< &ection *6> of the "ode of "riminal 'rocedure........................................................................< &ection /:6 and /)?, I'"...........................................................................................................6 &ection // I'"............................................................................................................................> $he Federal $orts "laims (ct :;/<..........................................................................................:/
Othe Auth!"t"es
#+ ) ' a g e
&ection /*.*? and /*.*:, "hapter /, (rticle *, unicipal "ode of the "ity of #os (ngeles, &tate of "alifornia, 5&( B:;*)C.............................................................................................6
B!!#s ( dictionary of -nglish #aw by "harles &weet p.>;.................................................................> "harles &weet, A dctonary o! Englsh )a$ >;.........................................................................> Fleming, )a$ o! Torts B
7%?%7)*;%*:>;%7........................................................6, > ames !. #ochtefeld ,The Illustrated Encyclopaeda o! "ndus# B)??)C )6*........................6 'eters, F.-. B)??*C. $he 8ords and 8ill of !od. 'rinceton 5niversity 'ress. pp. :)L:*.........< 'eters, F.-., $he -ords and -ll o! God B'rinceton 5niversity 'ressC :)L:*...........................< 0atanlal and 2hirajlal #aw of $orts by ustice !. ' &ingh, p.6.................................................< 0atanlal and 2hirajlal, )a$ o! Torts B) 8infield and olowicM, )a$ on Tort B:7th -ditionC :%/............................................................>
