THEORY
OF
MUSIC WITH
INTRODUCTIONS BY
W.
L.
EMIL
HUBBARD LIEBLING AND
W.
J.
HENDERSON
ARTHUR
FOOTE EDITOR
SQUIRE
IRVING Toledo New
York
Chicago
Copyright
1908
by
SQUIRE
IRVING
Entered
Stationers'
LONDON
Hall
CONTENTS
Introduction
1
Development
of
History
of
Pianoforte
Vocal
7
Technique
Music
15
Tonality
25
Harmony
53 .
91
Counterpoint .
133
Fugue Subject
152
Answer
155 157
Counter-subject ...
159
Episode Exposition
160 .
Stretto
163
Coda
164
171
Form Sonata
Pathetique
Sonata
quasi
198 .
una
.
.
,
Fantasie
202 206
Sonata
Waldstein Sonata
214
Appasionata
229
Appreciation .
The
Chamber
267 277
Music
280
The
Piano
The
Violin
,
The
.
.
Orchestra
,
"89 ,
.
-
.
.
.
A|5
Organ
'
The Chorus
298
Opera and
Choral
Music ,
g
ji
308 ,
.
,
.
.
.
r
Solo Th"
319
Singing Practical
Value
of
325
Music ...,.,
351
LIST
Theatre
Court
OF
ILLUSTRATIONS
Weimar
Frontispiece.
Bizet
Georges
17
Brahams
Johannes
49
.......
Feliz
Bartholdy
Mendelssohn
.81 .
Amadeus
Wolfgang
.
.
.
.
Mozart
145 .
.
.
.
.
.
Puccini
Giacoma
209 .
JRichard
.
.
Strauss
.
.
.
.
*
241 ........
Carl
Von
Marie
Weber
373 .
Fanny
Bloomfield
Zeisler
305 ......
INTRODUCTION
L.
W.
of
Encyclopedia needs
the
of
and
within
here
If
right
felt
that
first
gentleman
is or
lover
time
no
Wishing,
he
found
although and
when
consulted
in
by
hoped contain
will
their
for
ment state-
and
and
being of
amount
no
them
nary prelimi-
favor
and
and
it
is
desire
of
a
themselves
the
discoverable
and
history, books
as
a
search -the
rule
couched
little
themselves.
penings hap-
certain
musical
of and
hand, was
He,
country,
devote
facts at
were
after
volumes"
rare
were
as
this
art
concerning certain
only
to
the
information
instances very
able
and
learn
to
historical
been
has
points. of
women
science
the
the
musical
and
but
day
such
several
sometimes
of
certain
men
music,
from
sprang on
the
of
one
musical
that
work
the
study
however,
he
public
win
stand
must
believed
is
for
then, will
extended
no
the
to
not,
himself
of
the
to
in
theory,
of
idea
majority
sincere
a
do
They
inform
to
large
a
It
making.
wine
will
they
The
like
live*
to
needs
and
Good
necessary,
book
excusing
and
explaining-
scarcely
justification
they
History "
presented
ample
issuance.
the
its
American
the
good
a
for
themselves
their
is so
reason
volumes
the
that
Music
bush/*
no
of
prefacing
lengthy
A
HUBBAtUX
while
obtainable "
through theoretical in
varied
parts
language
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
2
In to him. virtuallyunintelligible department he addressed a letter to the music his perplexity that It
technical
so
Chicago Tribune, statinghis dilemma,
of the advice as
a
to
as
and
asking my in English such to My inability
rise to the firstconcept of the
gave
Music.
Encyclopediaof
History and
The
need
would which serve creatinga work instant and satisfactory reference, in which at would be immediately and conveniently of
realized of
means
was
could understand."
work,
a
"
theory that
on
person
to such
American
information
in which
and
book
some
non-musical
refer him
was
was
in
the
that
language
Englishbut
understands
has
not
the time
to
a
the hand
be
would
to the intelligible
was
who
obtained
when
information
as
pressed ex-
who
man
master
the
technical phraseologyof music. pressed exDespitethe incredulity, or implied,of certain learned authorities,it was
Englishlanguage.isample enough, accurate clear enough to make possiblethe statingof
believed that the
enough,
and
musical
facts in terms
technical,and
not
that
if musicians
in concerningtheir art and sufficiently command of the Englishlanguage to write simply and clearly could be found, the making of the of what they knew Encyclopedia would be possible.These, the endeavor was
well
enough
made
to
from
some
informed
discover,and half-dozen
writers such
and whom
began. time
citiesand
then This
a
corps
The
of researchers
securingof
to
men
of material could be collecting and the preparationof the work
the
followed was
possibleto assemble
was
towns
needed.
were
directingof
the
entrusted
as
graduallyit
than
more
two
years
ago
and
since that
six to twenty persons have been steadily engaged in gatheringthe facts and preparingthe material for the from
Encyclopedia. As was
soon
reached
as
the
to
make
the
range
of national
While the whole be covered
the
purely American to
plan began
the decision shape itself, American* representatively
to
work
music
Encyclopedia itself was labor,
prefaceeach volume
The were
and
to
be
historywas to the product of
introductory essays that to
be written
by
men
who
were
had
INTRODUCTION
3
results in the field of American music accomplished practical and who were recognizedas identified with the progress that is being made along all musical lines in this country. With with this end in view, arrangements for articles were made
Frederick
Professor
knowledge of
whose
peoplesis wide of Boston, who of significant with
Starr
the
and
the music
stands
development
Frederick
A.
him
Universityof
of barbaric and
as
one
of
the
Chicago,
semi-civilized
foremost
Chadwick and
most
and whose familiarity composers, of creative music in the United States native composers; with Theopositionas leader of the dore
write
to
of
Stock, whose Orchestra
Thomas
the
with George W. authoritative;
American
fits peculiarly
of
of
our
Chicago and whose of the positiveness
qualifyhim to speak with orchestra; with growth of the modern
compositions formation
and
Krehbiel, music York Tribune, and whose editor for many years of the New criticisms, annotations,prefatory essays, and books, while stances incoveringthe whole range of music, have been in many devoted solelyto consideration of opera and music is peculiarly and who drama suited,therefore,to write of and its development; with Dn of Frank Damrosch opera New York, whose extended and in certain respects pioneer work
in connection
E.
with the
him
schools warrants
H.
in
teachingof music in the public that subject; on writingauthoritatively
music York editor, J. Henderson, the New author, and pedagogue, whose long research into the history him especially of vocal art qualifies to discuss that line of musical art and its history;and with Emil Liebling of Chicago, lecturer and littera-* whose position as teacher,pianist, relative teur lends weight and positiveness to his statements to the evolution of piano techniqueand its application.
with
W.
editors of certain supervising volumes, Arthur Foote of Boston, whose compositionsand valuable as book on whose harmony make htm especially editor of the volume which has been preparedon musical of theory and harmony; Professor George W. Andrews Oberlin Conservatory, who wa$ chosen because of his thorTo
these
were
added,
as
of instruments
ough knowledge of the volume also
Dickinson
upon
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
4
that
to
superintendthe
and subject;
historyand developmentof collectingof material for
church
music
writings on
fit him
volume
the
Edward
Professor
Oberlin, Ohio, whose
of
tion prepara-
on
the
direct the
to
Oratorios
and
Masses.
gatheringof material the aim has been not so to bring together as to produce that which is original lished estabwhich is complete, comprehensiveand sufficiently desire has authoritative, The as to be recognized the
In much that
been
to
first of all
make
work
with
of reference
that systematized
arranged and
so
a
and
any
thing every-
all facts
instantlyobtainable,to bring into one set of books an covering of the whole range of music and encyclopedic its history,and to present all this in language so clear,so and so exact that every reader who free from technicality
will be
comprehensionof Englishwill be able to definite and reasonablycompleteinformation reliable,
has
fair
a
point he branch
and
render
of music
the
one
stood under-
and
all essential and
facts
fundamental
order and present them systematize,
to
informative
on
the books
bring into so
course
any
the scope of the field but the aim has been this out of the question,
the limits of the volumes
covered
on
of any
exhaustive treatment
is of subjecthas been impossible,
or "
to
desire. That
may
secure
that all the
that the
laytnanor the average student requirewill be at their disposal.The volume
matter
may
Foreign Music will be found to contain sketches of development and history of music in all the principal
countries,civilized and semi-barbaric, of the world, many the sketches and
having been prepared by presentingfacts and data
other works
on
the endeavor
the
has
musical striking
subject In
natives not
the two
of
of those countries,
contained in any volumes
on
Opera
been to outline the story, note
the most numbers, and give the date and placeof first
production of all the operaticworks now included in the present day repertory. A greater number of operas are thus described than
are
to
be found
in other volumes
of similar
INTRODUCTION and
nature,
of
several
given placein
been Masses and
the list
is carried out it is added
to
those
the
on
5
most
The
have
Oratorios
and
volume lines
same
consideration
a
and anthems principalmasses now before attempted. The volume not describes
recentlyproduced
six hundred
as
on
and
in
those
Opera, descriptionof the
are
use
undertaking
an
"
on
Instruments
on
lists and
musical
instruments,their origin, their use their appearance. and In the volumes of Biographies, the live facts have been retained,the aim having been to prepare a work that would cerning consupply information left their impress and women who not only the men over
music
upon
in the
active in the
inquiry were contained
work
the
today. to
sent
volume
on
American
supply a complete outline music
in the United
obtained
music
In
the
much
of
to be
Much
material
the
autobiographical
been
it has
of the unfoldment
States,
letters of
authoritative.
and
are
wish
the
In to
and
progress of of the material has been
papers, only after long and difficultresearch through newsmagazines and scattered volumes on the subject. It
is believed that of
and
accurate
Music
thousand
one
will be found
therefore
who
concerningthose
Over
musicians
in the volumes
in character, and
also
past but
so
comprehensiveand
accurate
in this country has not before been Terms and volumes Musical on on
outlining accomplished. Theory an an
To translate into undertakingwholly unique has been made. simple,clear English the many technical words and phrases employed in music and to perform a similar service for the various
rules that go compositionis a task which
musical
theory and
forms
and
to no
make
up
writer
musical
or
group heretofore the It has of writers has had courage to attempt. been undertaken in the present instance,and has involved the
solvingof many intricate and vexatious problems. It has been pioneerwork in the field, and while there are recognized shortcomingsin the resultant volumes, the task in the main has been performed even than the promore successfully moters of the work had dated to hope*
will
Music faults
is
itself,
but
been
be
the to
dignified keener, editors
It
produce it
a
result
appreciation
truer
be
well
content.
in
lies
work
the
is
that
a
of
music
of
nature
every
reliable,
wider
in
spots
that
given
be
can
weak
certain
possess
assurance
if
and
will
to
unexpected.
not
made
found
Encyclopedia
and
History
American
the
That
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
6
its
and
even
the
work
effort
has
intelligible
understanding then
of
promoters
and
and
a
and
DEVELOPMENT
OF
PIANOFORTE
TECHNIQUE LIBELING.
EHIL
The
practical I
playing,
e.,
the
execution
the
Bach, it
growth
in
and
the
of
1710
which
in
Stein
and
made
and
of at
quality
tone
of
universal
built
perfection. and
States.
has
Paris
which and Since found
could
then
its
problem building,
at
demonstrated*
the
piano
highest
pianos modern
our
end
the and
of
the
Strassburg, of
the
art.
Broadwood
builder, a
creased in-
the
produced
Century Viennese
depended
which
examples
permitted
brought
the
piano
be
Freiberg
excellent
the
gradual
necessarily
and
Nineteenth and
of
the
Johann
the
represented
of
of
of
art
construction
the
realize
SchrSter
and
Silbermanns
improvements
poetic
skill
which for
era
through
purposes
Augsburg
firard
London,
United
of
beginning
the
state
form
the
century
same
and
the
ages
digital
Cristofori
intents
all
to
instruments
At
1729
and
the
medium
the
for
instrument
possibilities In
successive
of
executants
the
in
piano
difficulties
solution
the
connect
of
compositions
fully
to
evolution
all
with
begins
order
to
necessary
corresponding
the
upon
is
exacting
most
technique
of
mastery
properly
entails,
Sebastian
for
the
of
instrument
with
successful
the
of
development
more
Streicher,
musical
mechanism
building
of
to
has
development
and a
high
become m
the
Previous thumb
performer used straight edge of the keyboard; the
very
considered
useless; it
rarely;it remained importance of the thumb
utilized very
or
realize the
and
short
too
was
omitted
the
played at
MUSIC
the
Bach's advent
to
fingersand
OF
THEORY
THE
8
enormous
either
was
Bach
for as
to
pivotal
a
this most
give point of of fingersadequateemployment; by passing the indispensable under the the thumb fingersover the thumb and vice versa and to all pianistic possibilities
to
of piano playing as originator know it,and graduallyour present hand positionwhich we of the thumb and constant was involves curved fingers use all major and minor keys in the introduced,and by utilizing epoch in Well-Tempered Clavichord Bach created a new Of his contemporariesthe the historyof piano technique.-
Bach fingers,
thus
became
Couperins,
Rameau
and
to
cultivate
of
his
Handel's
distant work
did
rhythmical styleof
much
ance, perform-
the
the
be termed Scarlatti may the invented difficultiesfor the pleasureof
he
instead of
usingthem
of artistic achievement;thus
purposes
France
Domenico
suites,and
masteringthem,
of
German severityof compositionsdevelopedvelocityin many to
contrast
first virtuoso, as
works
Marchand
gracefuland
a
quite in School.
the
as
a
for
means
higher
find in Scarlatti's
we
jumps, quicklyRepeatingnotes, swift trills, and
double thirds. Neither
Haydn nor Mozart extended the scope of technique Beethoven only perceptibly; in the works commencing with the Sonata Op. 53; the had changed to one of lyrical styleof the precedingmasters dramatic nteaningand the different requirementswere met by greater contrasts of dynamics and tone production. staccato
Muzio
Clementi
laid the
foundation
for
our
brilliant
styleof pianoplayingin his collectionof studies,the Gradtts ad Parnassum, in which every speciesof technical work f$ fullyelucidated, and his great pupils, Cramer, Berger
modern
fPtagd, followed
in his footettte,
John Field of
iefloolcultivated the poeticv$k and t of
series b"
Chopin'sstyle. Carl Ms"fe Von noble compositions5ftwW"h the
became Weber resources
the wrote
the prea
of the
PIANOFORTE
TECHNIQUE
9
performer find much expansion in the way of brilliant scale and arpeggio work, successive and exacting staccato glissandiand sonorous melody propassages, octave duction. Carl Czerny, Thalberg and Kullak also developed element the purely mechanical to a high degree, the latter in his school of octaves, and Alexander especially Dreyschock Bohemian amazed musical of able Europe by the remarkorigin In Frankfort virtuosityof his left hand. Aloys Schmitt piano
and
the
exercises publishedfive-finger
adjunct
of
which
study, and
have
become
a
necessary
Moscheles
forms a piano connecting the purely classical styleand the modern tic roman-
link between
period* By originatingin in continuous
chromatic
entire series of in the
the
Gracjus
modulation
exercise five-finger
a
Clementi
suggested the modern minating etudes, cultransposing five-finger Tausig daily exercises,and this feature of
pianisticevolution
has
revolutionized
the
entire
field
of
technique. Mendelssohn's
piano playing. He a supplewrist, requiresperfectscale and arpeggiotechnique, cantabile touch and mastery of the polyphonicstyle;some art
did
much
of extended effects in the way melody parts between the two
new
of
Henselt;
and
his master,
Hummel,
for
chords
thumbs also
and were
the division
added
illustrated
by
purely
in his Concertos,Sonatas practically
most digital possibilities and the Fantasie Opus 18. The in romantic individuality style,demanding more in finds leading exponents technique and interpretation, The fetudesof the first master Chopin and Schumann. give a
clew to his work up
undreamt-of
and
resources
compositionsthe and
effectivechord Franz
in novel combinations, ing openIn Schumann's of the instrument*
abound art of
playingare
Liszt is the master
phrasing,solid passage
work
cultivated.
who
combined the excellencies
brought them to a dazzlingculmination. of the wrist and forearm, He introduced an elevated position used the of fingering, bold innovations in the mode made of all schools and
fingerafter the thumb and divided fpur fingers, three or
fifth
the
sixths between
effects. He
new
their
of
material
have
a
the
the
him
followed
which
even
veloped de-
stein Tausig, Rubin-
but littleto the actual technical
purely mechanical
proved abortive. Logier introduced
hand
appearance. An
and
pedals with surprising chapter which Clementi
improve technique by
to
in 1814; later
England
in
thirds
pianism.
Efforts means
added
Biilow
double
the
used
giftswonderfully,but
own
Von
and
closed
played trillswith
versa
trills in
great virtuosos
The
commenced.
vice
and
hands
two
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
10
of
own
our
time
attempt to rearrange was
made
the
ance contriv-
Montreal
guide,and Brotherhood's Technicon In
keyboard
Bohrer
on
a
Virgilsystem
made
its
finds followers.
the present arrangement
by Paul de Janko, but
vented in-
met
of
with
indifferent success. The to
the
of one impossibilities kindergartenof the next, and
periodare
technical
we
find in
relegated the piano
of
rhythms and difficult the works of positionswhich even Liszt did not anticipate; the new Russian School,of Balakirew, Liapounow, etc,,carry the requirements of execution to transcendent heightsand the arrangements of Chopin's fitudes by Leopold Godowsky The represent the ne plus ultra of seeming impossibilities* is one which requiresthe swiftest present state of technique in double thirds and fingerdevelopment,perfect facility scores
of
Brahms
combinations
sixths,a wrist of steel,intuitivemastery of abstruse polyphonic all softened and broughtinto one ous harmoniproblems, of purpose and reverent entityby artistictaste, sincerity devotion for the true
meaning of the composer. Having traced the gradualdevelopmentof the technique of piano playingit will be interesting and instructive to discuss the pianists and artists who were its practical exponents. instruments "whtch preceded the modern The pJano of great feats of execution p"A"ted the possibility the or 4e force" of later ages, hence, the old Englishmastongs Tatlls, Bird, Dr. Bull Orlando
Gibbons
and
PIANOFORTE
Henry a
Purcell, contented chords
few
and
and
Mattheson school and
Daquin
and
Buxtehude
cultivated
a
foreshadowed
German
themselves
arpeggios;the
Couperin, Marchand Bach
TECHNIQUE
of
same
of
with
light scales and limitations apply to France and Pachelbel,
Germany. and
severe
11
The
solid
Handel
and
style'of performance of the subsequent
the characteristics
period.
dementi
Mozart
and
brilliant execution
delightedtheir
audiences
and
by their Hummel,
rapid running work, and Moscheles and Field followed in their vein,combining sound musicianshipwith dazzlingeffects. My old master, Heinrich of his at the head of the pianists Dorn, placedMendelssohn to Liszt day and preferredhim even By a singularirony of the greatest performershave been denied the them Kullak,Henselt,Chopin to play in public, ability among
of fate
and
some
Nicholas
Rubinstein.
Thalberg'sdaring virtuosityseemed audiences and
that the
in order
benches
performer
to
to
Parisians
convince
playing and
was
confederate
incredulous
assist behind
so
climbed
themselves
suspectedhim the
fabulous on
that
of
to
his
chairs
only
one
employing
a
stage*
Chopin'sperformance,though wonderfullysmooth and essential to which is imperatively poetic,lacked the virility to such Some an pianistshave specialized publicsuccess* that we extent posers; identifythem instantlywith certain comthus
we
look upon
Carl Reinecke
as
the
Mozart
the ideal player par excellence and consider De Pachmann Chopin interpreter* confined their repertory Formerly the great pianists almost compositions,but with the entirelyto their own of the piano advent of Liszt's marvelous art the possibilities artist is supposed became unlimited and the modern concert Bach to Debussy with to produce the entire literature from the analytical Bach, consummate mastery. He must .present Schumann, lyric Mozart, dramatic Beethoven, romantic poetic Field, profound Brahms, sentimental Chopin and brilliantLiszt with equalauthority.
THE
12
OF
THEORY
MUSIC
of note. Arabella England has producedbut few pianists of the and only of late years some Goddard enjoyed renown, artists like Katherine Goodson, Gertrude Peppercorn younger and
Frederick
Lamond
have
come
to the
fore, the last named
Beethoven player. Spain has remained terra a as especially of de la Motta; ; Portugal boasts incognita pianistically France has always excelled in the niceties and finish of piano playing;that most versatile of musicians, Saint-Saens, plays that his listeners scale of such rapidityand smoothness a of the jeu masters are despair; Raoul Pugno and Diemer Risler gives authoritative readings of the perle, Edward and Francis Plante and Beethoven Sonatas in their entirety, Ritter Theodore ravishingtechnique presentedthe most imaginable. Norway, the land of fjordsand mountains, was reflected in the
art
of
Madam
Backer-Grondahl
and
Erika
pianists.Italyis ably representedby Sgambati and Martucci,but stilldepends upon her vocal masters for musical pre-eminence. It is interesting the that at the Imperial Conservatory at Tokio to note and works of European masters are findingready recognition figurelargelyin the curriculum. Piano received a powerful impetus playing in America by Rubinstein's visit in 1872. He was a colossal but uneven player,the victim of moods, unapproachablewhen at his best His musical Von Hans antithesis, Biilow, followed him shores and his deliberate and analyticalperto our formances His subjectivity proved high educational terbalanced counthe great Russian's objectiveness.Joseffy's impeccableart then came as a great revelation to us and restored piano playingto true and sane proportions.Essipoff was a charming artist,Carreno has dominated the concert decades,Fanny Bloomfield-Zeisler occupies a stage for many unique eminence both here and abroad, and Ad"le Aus der Ohe is an artist of sterling qualities, I frequently Hungary gave us Franz Liszt,whom heard in 1876, whie at Weimar As he originated the entire structure Lie
concert Nissen, both distinguished
of
modem
technics every
detail was,
of course,
at
his
PIANOFORTE
TECHNIQUE
13
ends; a simpleBeethoven Sonata,a Chopin Prelude fingers' finished performance as the huge Don was given the same Juan Fantasie. The fire of youth never became quenched in his veins and to his last days he remained the absolute master.
Carl
Tausig,born
Poland, died
His technical outfit
of his art.
Max
in
Prinner
of
New
York,
was
at the very
unlimited.
threshold His
pupil,
also
promised well, but was taken away by relentlessfate at an earlyage. Paderewski, of striking another great Pole, is stillwith us; a man personality and tremendous technical strong magnetism ties. capabiliRosenthal is the giantof the keyboard and has long since reached the climax. At the age of thirteen Hanslick, said of him, that he had nothing the great Viennese critic, is the happy lot of many to learn." This earlyprecocity more the furore which Joseph and we all remember great pianists Hofmann, also of Polish parentage,created at the age of eight.He has noblykept the promiseof his youth. in pianistic The superlative art has been attained by and one is temptedto consider the achieveRussian artists, the of Lhevinne and Godowsky as the closing ments chapter, "
"
last word.
The
ble cool bravura of the former and the incredi-
counterpuntalcombinations of the latter approach wizardry. and convincing A noble art is that of Busoni's, puissant ; a nd in execution, musicianship, proportion magnificent spective perwho deserve mention Among the notable pianists Rudolf Ganz, Hambourg*,Gabrilowitsch and Bauer, all are modern in their attainments. of them gifted and thoroughly is D' Albert,a master Equallygreat as musician and pianist in art,and whose profound who has alwaysstood for dignity are fully by a greattechnique. interpretations supported The possibilities and limitationsof the instrument seem intimate its most to have been fathomed; it has yielded secrets; all problemshave been solved and it remains for future ages to create
new
boundaries of the art.
HISTORY
OF
W.
Artistic
singing of
method
the
worship
psalms,
second
were
(as
canticles,
described
rhapsodizings, tongues,"
the
adaptation
of
the
of
honor
Greek
cadences
"Undulating* sometimes
florid
the
entered
in
now
even
artistic
single
on
vowel
the
of
made
an
sounds
long,
of
such of
these
gift
vowel
on
phrases which
element,
**
consisted
tones,
final
the
improvised
certainly
caroling
of
called
In
as
carolings
These
gods.
the
part
and
almost of
custom
Paul,
since
and
apostle
Christians
early the
forming
not
themselves.
the
by
the
ritual,
Hannah)
Christians
the
among
by
rhapsodizings
were
Of St.
Hebrew
and of
in
used
religion.
new
ancient
Bible
Christian
early
mentioned
songs the
the
third
the
made
Thus
from
the
best
the
materials
the
of
thanksgiving
the
and
songs
in
from
texts
were
psalter
the
spiritual
taken
the
in
from
followers
after
search
used
chants
and
the
in
developed first
the
hymns first
the
the
chants of
MUSIC
HENDERSON.
J.
originated
delivering These
church.
VOCAL
as
one
chants.
chtirch
afterward
hears
to
rose
such
height. Out
general
of
system
the
Roman
the
foundation
elements
these was
of
singing*
a
schools
the
unification
(306-337).
Constatitme in
Rome
No
liturgy.
chanted till
however,
possible, under
Church
up
grew
by
Then
Pope
of
carne
Sylvester,
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
16
singing entirelyto the choirs by the in 367, and other important steps. Council of Laodicea The building up of the vast and splendid treasury of church music occupied centuries, and its historymust Roman tine But through the labors of the Benedicbe sought elsewhere. able to arrive at a knowledge are fathers of Solesrnes we singers of vocal culture which the early church of the amount possessed. As the chant gained in breadth, dignity and fluency and as it added to its sustained cantilena a richly mental the singersacquireda solid body of fundaflorid element technique.
the
entrustingof
church
find, then, that before
We
Century
in
smooth, flowing music
long, beautiful
tones
Sixteenth
been
had
The
taught. systematically
were
the
of
vocal art
all the basic essentials of
and
middle
the
abilityto sing (legato),the
tone, and importance of breath control in sustaining notes in symmetricalphrases,the value of pure vowel the
of
necessityof distinct enunciation
tained ascer-
joining sounds, and
consonants
the
skill to
elegance and
were
deliver the florid passages with assiduously studied, and many
singers excelled
these
matters.
about
Several the
these contained in the modern
treatises
beginning of of the
many
the
and
Seventeenth
These
singing appeared Century and
treatisesdealt with the
voice, registers(head and
of
in
afterward incorporated principles
Italian method
different kinds
voice
on
agility
chest
were
of tone, hygieneand deportment.They for each voice on all the intervals.
recognized),emission contained vocalizes When Sixteenth
were
the Italian opera Century its music
was
invented at the end
differed in
no
of the
essential of technical
requirement from that of the church, and hence singers cally musiprepared to deliver it. The first recitatives were other than secular chants. With the advent of nothing
Claudio
Monteverde
(1567-1643)the element
of
dramatic
expression forged to the front and the chant began to ;apprdach true recitative. Rhythm and accentuation, previously of small
now while moment, beg"a to be significant, "e. melodic phrase appeared and became th" bridgebetween recitative and air.
GEORGKS
CESAR
(ALEXANDER
1838-1875
BIZKT,
Born
Paris.
In
LEOPOLD)
Ills
title
chief
fame
to
as
is
Carmen,"
"
his
did
"which,
after
until
death;
his-
the
in
at
the was
**
of
reception
death.
his
"with
met
*e
by
"
Carmen
afterward
time
short
A
appointment dis-
and
overwork
fact,
poser com-
with
meet
not
opera
success
a
cause
"
Carmen
London,
in
prodrtced
meeting*
was
tmqualiHed
and
has
since
with
produced
been
all
success,
the
'world
and
over
dramatic
of
all
is
the
considered
the
in operas
the
most
modern
popular
and
Jprenc'h ertory. rep-
HISTORY
The
Cavalli
of
music
finallyand form
chant
MUSIC
(1599-1676) fullysuperseded
had
defined
the
The
rested.
17
little later
a
in it the melodic
and
became
now
VOCAL
aria, however, arrived
true
works
the
OF
basis literary
dramatic
the
basis of which
on
character
its technic entered
and
in
of
singing period
a upon essentials
development embracing not only all the manded deby the old church compositions but the added excellences of great flexibility of tone, skill in nuance, taste in a phrasing and larger agility than had previously been
of
Monteverde
known. of
those
the
had
utilized florid cadences
chant, and
ornate
his
successors
of such perceive the pleasingpossibilities they assiduouslycultivated. In 1637 the first public opera house, in Venice, was Cassiano and opened opera
that
of the
to
general audience.
popular
became
consideration
exclusive
the
a
of opera
The
taste.
field for the to
a
result
operas of the those of especially The
writing,which
the
were
San
transferred
was
in
skill.
short
a
This
time
it
reduction
High only low
voices
well
as
as
forms
of
recitative, all possiblevocal requirements
cantilena
to
the
most
brilliant
almost
used, basses exclusively Tenors were employed sparingly. female, reigned,while contraltos
were
ones.
various
their consorts. In
the
and
sustained
and
being the Sopranos, male
Teatro
matic deprived singingof its draequipped it with a remarkable technique. the Seventeenth Century, closingyears of Alessandro Scarlatti (1659-1725) showed
perfect demarcation of clearlydefined aria forms colorature.
the
nobilityto requiredto appeal
now
vocal
slow
cultured
a
that
was
displayof
a
broad
was
to
artistic level
low
but sincerity
from
It
of
not
were
to
from
similar
now
schools
1700
we
find
fullyequipped singingschools teaching
completelycodified Italian method. of
Fedi
at
These
Pistocchi Rome, Antonio Francesco Redi Modena,
at
were
the
Bologna,
at Florence, Joseph Brevio at those of Porpora, Leo and Rome and at Joseph Amadori ters taughtby these masEgizzio at Naples. Some of the pupils Farinelli, Tesi, Cuzzoni and Caffarelli, the famous were heard were These singersand their contemporaries BordonL
frequentlyin the best
of
works
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
18
Handel, the greatest master
of
with
the
of
the
period,whose recitatives and arias provide us understanding of the character of the music
time.
dignityof
dramatic
and
breadth
The
while surpassed, singer perfect qualityof tone,
have
arias
his
been
never
his
recitatives
demand
of
the
intonation, great and of brilliant floridity, breath support, command great the beauty of stylein sustained cantilena. They summarize of the preceding century without best traits of the music flawless
preservingits extravagances, and for this reason admirable schoolingfor singers. of great singers, however, The domination in the
Italian opera and succeedingthat of Handel it became of
decline
for vocal
the
acceptedin the time to
was
lieu of
at
hand
when
but these countries France
a
rapid
period immediately mere
the element
itself felt in opera, the Italian opera had ruled for
In
led to
parade ground
and breath sustaining were agility and beautiful style expression.However,
make
singing. Germany, own.
now
was
the most
of
Feats
show.
a
are
the
were
labors
of
of nationalism
great field of artistic a
time
in France
and
developingschools of their Lully (1633-1687) and
(1683-1764) had established a national school in which broad, elegant,finished recitative and a classically and dignified suave delivery,known ,as the "grand style/' This stylewas the imperativedemands. were preservedin the operas of Gluck (1714-1787). The florid element found littlefavor with the French and by centering masters attention Rameau
upon
the
grandiosecharacter
of
their music
and
the
styleof its deliverythey preservedFrench opera pompous from becoming merely a field for the exploitation of vocal
agility.The nature
of the
Parisian
Bernard
singing teachers and as far back as 1668 we find Bacilly(Remarques sur r Art de Bien Chanter) explaining1 the final E
in feminine
rhymes should be pronounced of skg*" ""$ givingdirectionsfor other peculiarities itiU" nativetongue. The au^ve and elegant charactt^ d? how
wg
problems thrust into vocal techniqueby the French language earlyattracted the attention of
HISTORY
French
the older
vocal
works
such
of
OF
VOCAL
music
survives "
Gounod's
as
MUSIC
19
in the
ures gracefulmeas-
Faust/' while
the
most
accomplished Gallic singersof their melodic
phrasingand result
is the
which
the present possess a polish in their pronunciation of the words
of
precepts laid down
by Lully
and
Ranieau. of singing Germany, as in France, Italian conceptions but in the course of time the temperament at first prevailed, the exigenciesof the national language of the people and combined Teutonic. The to produce a styleessentially taste for musical plays was of the Germans largelydeveloped and in which alternated with formed singspiel," by the song comic operas and in Beethoven's spoken dialogue,as in modern In
"
"
"
Fidelio,"
the German
"
spiel
demanded
which
forward hear
musical
The
result
was
of the text in order
word
every
conceptionof the
of the story. This But of clear enunciation.
development
sounds
and
that he
the concomitant
play
recitative
stillexpected to
might follow led to
the character a
singgoing
was
that when
publicdemand
tongue easilybetrayed singersinto vowel
what
placeof spoken dialoguehe
to take the
began
the
gained of perfectunderstanding
stage.
"
with long familiarity a
a
the
on
From
"
a
the
vation culti-
of the German
sacrifice of beautiful
beauty of
vocal
tone
to
This trait of German deliveryof the consonant. singingwas emphasizedby the popularseriousness toward all forcible
of drama,
forms
for the sake other
hand
of
forbade
which
of the consonants
into the cantilena and
from
various
The nearly harmonized any
manner
beautyto truth opposed. The exaggerated
worked
its way
from
recitative
of thus all lightness
in prevalent
the German
to be
seemed
treatment
was
the
on
rather called for the sacrificeof the two
as
ihterpretation
merely external polish,and indeed
whenever
such
all sacrificeof
the
styleand elegance, florid school of song, disappeared
of
singing.
elements of vocal art conflicting
in the works
of Mozart
were
more
than in those
of
In his operas we find all kinds of recitative, other composer* and airiestconversational type to the from the lightest
of his arias Mozart
flowingpassages
and
broadest, smoothest
singerswere
of
manner
the florid
styleof
in the
them
from
exacted
musical
most
preservedin certain parts
He
His
while of delivery, great elasticity
have
requiredto
thus
MUSIC
stateliestdramatic utterance.
and
broadest
OF
THEORY
THE
20
the
singing.
the
earlier
"
"
Queen of the Night Italian operas (as in the music of the matic drain The Magic Flute ") and he utilized also the more styleof florid song, as in the great airs of Donna Anna "
using the so latter he broadened and deepenedits dramatic significance to impose new as requirements upon the singersof his works. Elvira in '"Don
Donna
and
therefore,Beethoven
When,
of
In
Mozart. "
"Abscheulicher monster"
in
prepared for "
such
and
in such numbers
as
operas
"Ocean, thou
"Oberon," they refashioned them
they had in
which
episodesof their
"Fidelio"
in
in
Weber, the firstmasters to write their operas,
the foundations
they built chiefly upon works
and
School, came
German
of the modern
But
Giovanni/'
the
"
all the Don
as
the the
mighty elements
Ottavio,son
They employed the broad and the stylehalf way between powerfully accented recitative, aria (calledarioso),the sustained melodic recitative and phraseologyand the big, dramatic kind of florid passage "
morta
of
Don
Giovanni."
work, best described abounds
in
runs
as
and
dramatic bravura*
This kind of song other difficulties, but these are treated
view to their
character and with no regard expressive for their availability mediums for the displayof vocal as mere skill. Just as Weber used the most brilliant flashingof violins through the range of the scale in his overtures so he with
a
used
the voice in But
some
of his dramatic
scenes,
this
of the German practise composers, developedin the publicdemand order, to meet for sincerity of expression, did not affect vocal stylein Italy. Although the operas of the Rossinian period showed advance over an .theirpredecessors, in some detailsof dramatic expression, they preserved
of the characteristicsof the older school,and singing continued to be a displayof technical skill in the delivery of .tones witibqmt much regard for the pronunciation of the text most
HISTORY
or
the
OF
of significance of
introduction
VOCAL
the
scene.
the custom
of
At
MUSIC
21
this time, however, the
writing operas with the recitatives accompanied throughout by the orchestra, whereas the harpsichordhad been previouslyused for much of this work, led to the
the need
in the cantilena,in order
volume not
of recognition
become
apparentlythe
more
for
that the
Grisi
and
singing reigned,of which
of
greater
recitatives should
important parts of the thirtyor forty years
It was, therefore, in the first Nineteenth Century that the school dramatic
biggertone
combined
works. of
the
florid and
Malibran, Pasta and and Rubini, Lablanche
representativewomen, and Mario representative The singersof this school premen. served of the vocal techniqueof the Handelian much period, but and the
were
superimposed upon largenessof
a
elegantfinish At
the time
tone
of
when
it
an
which
vigor of accentuation of naturallyobliterated some
energy,
a
its details. the
theories revolutionary
of Richard
Wagner worked such radical changes in the character of the lyricdrama, singingwas hovering between the German style, which placedforce and enunciation before beauty of tone, and the Italian manner, which strove to conserve purely superficial dramatic Each beauty and yet introduce appearance. school continued to use those set forms of aria which invited
singerto offer an exhibition of either ing to the audience, techniqueor expression Wagner, by abandonthe set forms and endeavoringto fashion his operas as playsin continuous dialogue,threw out of his entire scheme either florid or the necessityfor set exhibitions of singing, dramatic. His works became long sequences of recitatives, heavilyorchestrated,and here and there broken by purely lyricpassages, conceived rather in the arioso than the aria At this same character. periodMeyerbeer,the most potent world up to the time of Wagner's influence in the operatic liant final triumph,was composingoperas with powerfuland brilarioso passages throughout orchestration and many ments popular eleMeyerbeer, however, strove to retain the more and the set vocal piece. of floridity both
composer
and
The
result
the
facile
and
music
essential to
Wagner of
a
the
of
text.
of the music At
of the Handelian
Bayrcuth, the home
of
the
family,it is taught that the proper way to sing the and to Wagner is to lean heavilyon all consonants
short, the contemporaneous
School
German
of
tone
In
singingis the
development of the literaryidea in vocal idea which lay at the basis of the earlychant, but speedilysupersededby the musical conceptionof
extremest
music, the which
after
Florid
study vowel sounds not as producersof beautiful vocal but with regard only for their conversational character. last and
tone
prolongedstudy of vocalizes,such
command
abandoned.
been
has
music
forcible declamation
and
tone
neglectedand
is
was
era,
compositionof music the conditions existing
the
steadilytoward In Germany the study of beautiful execution has been superseded by a search
of
volume
as
singingand
plays moved present day.
for vocal at
that
was
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
22
was
the art.
Italy the elegantand has yielded to German
In Rossini
styleof
fluent
the
influence and
school
in the
of
search
the young Italian school of expression produced large quantitiesof music which
after truthful dramatic
composers demands
has
skill in
execution, but
merely powerfultone, long and heavy phrases,and vigor in declamatoryemphasis. The radical difference between the contemporaneous Italian style and that of Germany is that the former is founded upon a musical The Italian seeks rather for purely conception. abundance
of
singer no
of rich and
splendorand The
the
mass
French
to ability
of tone
than
sustain
for finish in treatment
the School,following
of the
trend
given to it by ment Lullyand Rameau, continues to cultivate eleganceand refineof diction together with suave and fluent deliveryof text.
tone,
A
modern
development of singingis found
in the field
of the song, which form of compositionassumed importance the of Franz Schubert genius through (1797-1828),His
works
combined
melodic
of the moods
grace and of his texts,
with poetic emfluency bodiment The
vocal technie and
HISTORY
of
style
Weber
the
by
show
songs
able
are
than
singers
opera
obliged
sacrifice
to
It
is
changed
and
they
as
the
were
wholly
the
formation,
the
of
strive
to
of
popularity declamation
of
the
the
violent
has
of
the
they
his
brated cele-
of has
are
the
discouraged heavily
schools.
not
teachers
great
of
the
same
and
physiology
cultivation been
tone
the
and
time
by
has
of
knowledge
present
singing,
contemporaneous
theory
this
are
singing
Malibran
taught the
latter
remain
The
of
volume.
Porpora
practise
the
but schools
and of
but
beauty
the
that
voice
of
dramatic
singers,
pure
mere
style
Farinelli.
principles
those
of
and
time
of
Pistocchi,
loud
the
recent
of
Song
The
Pasta
of
of
the
sake
verbal
most
that
years.
known,
better
lines
to
of
of
teachers
test
impart
refinements
the
and
correctness
and
Bernacchi
for
the
the
reason
features
in
as
is
The
1700.
the
days
Caffarelli
organs
disproved
the
then
same
for
conception in
were
in
the
attention
hundred
past the
pupils, vocal
much
so
almost in
are,
that
and
operas.
more
the
became
song
extent
tone,
German
for
years
an
follow
to
devote
sufficed
later
such
of
in
to
in
to
attempt
fashioned
as
however,
the
idea
23
than
But
beauty
decided
a
recitative
now
literary
MUSIC
more
songs.
overbalanced
emphasis
tone
these
the
VOCAL
period
of
interpretation affected
OF
those
who
schools the
of
higher by ated accentu-
the
TONALITY
All
by
the
of
of
vibrations No
sounds
possible
and
greatly
and
waterfall
pitch,
of
it
is
does
gathered
in
As
of
The
more
will
it
have
finely
per
number
the
be
of
ability
this
result
a
some
as
very
music,
not
it
bear
inheritance,
by
developed
by name
well is
of
sense
recognition series
of
of tq"es
from the
analogy and
the
definite
This Latin
existing ascending
pitch,
form
word
in
progress
is
called
scala,
between
steps
are
selected
are
tones
series
the
to
which
tones
musical
the falls
and
relation
The
individual
the
rises no
as
of
roaring
determined
any
degrees.
the
has
such
nature,
sound
tone
it.
whose
defined
in
the
each
constitute
of
or
although for
series
derived
trees
succeeding
to
noises
previously
a
or
definite
all
the
but
waves,
together a
in
through
preceding
pitch
a
contained
are
or
neither
The
education
blowing
wind
from
just
36,500
to
capable
pitch.
sound
smell.
or
tones
in
or
clearly
extremes.
more
cords,
membranes,
made
two
the
ear
individuals
in
Sounds
in
these
differences
environment
the
between the
be
can
occasioned
vocal
16
from
of
rate
a
the
perceive
can
ear
air
air,
of
statement
trained
distinguishing varies
at
produced
educated
taste
normal
the
as
columns
The
in
substance
some
occurring
second.
vibrations
of
instruments,
bodies.
sonorous
result
the
vibrations
strings
of
is
sound
a
the of
a
scale.
staircase, ing progress-
stairs.
The
THE
26
THEORY
MUSIC
OF
further express the comparison by using the name Tonleiter,a ladder of musical sounds, and the French employ the one word, echelle,to designateboth scale and ladder. Germans
arranging of musical always been done by all races This
tones
into
a
definite series
possessingmusic. Helmsimilar to the reason holz attributes it to a psychological natural feelingwhich has led to the rhythmicaldivision in poetry. In other words, it is due to that inherent quality lies beyond man's explanationbut of rhythm whose reason has
of is present in everything. It is within the realm factor in the problem of this science aesthetics. A constant which
of the beautiful is to discover what
it is in
thingsthat
makes
tion ugly,sublime or ludicrous. The explanauniversal laws of aesthetics is ever receding and incomplete, be established, for beyond a certain point training cannot becomes each man and loses its power an authorityunto different tastes. individuals having vastly himself, The degreesof progression in the scale are not the same the various races, but have differed with the epoch, among the tastes and the natural surroundings of the civilization, the people. There in existence scales so different are now that much from our and familiarity own are sary necestraining before the beauties of their intervals can be appreciated them
beautiful
by
alien
an
or
ear.
embryo is the sustained sound of a voice at different pitches. This constitutes the music of savage whose scales may be limited but who delight in repeatraces ing a few tones, thus producing a speciesof chant. The of a primitive true chant can only be appreciated qualities when heard as the savage produced it,for when translated which constitute our into the tones scale it necessarily is changed owing to the difference in the number and magnitude Music
in
of the intervals.
There
are
three
pointsin which all scales
Jn the octave, the fourth and iyilizations and localities may
agree.
They
the fifth. Scales of
contain any number of i^enip^Kate tones, but all agree Jn havingestablished the
TONALITY natural
by
relationshipbetween
the
interval
the Latin
from
derived
in this connection
refer
word
the
octo,
the
which
tones as
octave,
an
meaning
interval has
degreesof
separated
are
a
name
eight and been
the scale.
used
divided
The
by
intervals
the other
intermediate steps may be of various magnitudes, the octave, fourth and fifth are always nized. recogfor this is founded reason the most on simple
but The laws
the we
because
termed
eight tones, between
which
to
27
of
acoustics.
When
a
stringvibrates
the lowest
tone
of which
will
occur
twice
the
first.
in its entire
length it produces
it is
capable,called its fundamental If the stringbe lightly tone. guage, touched, or in technical lanstoppedt in the middle of its length and caused to vibrate, it will do so in two equal lengthsand, as these are each half of the entire length of the string,the vibrations
vibrated
instance, if
For
128
fast, producing a
as
a
tone
string
in
an
its entire
times
per second, the same vibrate 256 times, just twice
lengths would string be stopped
point one-third of smaller portionof it will produce a tone with at
a
above
octave
length
string in 128.
two
If the
its
length,the
384
vibrations.
Again, by stopping the stringat a point one-fourth from the end, the smaller portion will produce 5f2 vibrations. The tone resultingfrom the 128 vibrations has been designated as
C
in the bass clef
containing256
as
middle
and be explainedlater), '(to
C, the eighthtone
above
that
the first.
384 vibrations is G occupyingthe fifth containing 512 vibrations from positionabove middle C" and that resulting is C occupyinga fourth degreeabove G and two octaves above the lowest tone produced by the string. be This series of partial tones, as they are called,can for, in theory,a stringcan be divided carried on infinitely, end. without Taking the partialtones in their numerical sections of the order, which correspondsto the vibrating strings,the intervals between decrease,for the ascending and nearer become together.The ratio* of the nearer partials is octave vibrations of sounds having the relations of an The
tone
1
as
half
256
of
is
for 256
2:3
as
other
each
2 does
as
is three
384
and
they produce
the sounds
hence, they and to
128
is twice
3, and
to
relation
in the
2, the ratio representingsounds
to
in
1
as
is
fifths
of
128? tion rela-
same
similar
a
one-
times
the
bear
is
128 be
would
sounds
ratio of the two
the
example, as
the above
2, for borrowing from
:
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
28
manner
of fourths is as 3:4. the relationship representing two interval existing between The magnitude of an is determined tones by counting the interveningtones and several Note includingboth the lower and the higher tones. tones two instances: The interval between having the any of tones between two relation of a third,in other words the higher is the third above the lower, such as the which first and third, the second and fourth, the third and fifth, tones having etc., is a third. The interval between any two the ratio
the
relation
of
and
second
fifth,such
two
any
sixth,etc., is
having the fifth,the second
third and tones
seventh,is a fifth. having the relation of
sixth, the second a
sixth.
The
relation of and
a
same.
be
magnitude The
Music
a
as
are
a
the
one
sixth,the
and
two
any
first and
the
of a
seventh,the second extremes
upper
octaves
more
or
name
first and
sounded
The
seventh.
removed
and
as
a
eighth,etc., is tones having the
two
any
the first and
smallest interval is
interval between
like tones
between
seventh,such
eighth,etc., is
sixth, such
a
of
relation
interval between
The
The
fourth.
seventh, the third and
interval
intervals may the
and
a
tones
the first and
as
fourth, the
first and
the
as
fifth,the third and
between
interval
fourth, such
a
the
it is termed
but
interval remains
second, for there a
the
away
can
of itself, but duplicate
the
of
the
be
no
if two
unison.
in its most
from primitiveform probably arose the very natural tendency to sustain the voice on tone one in shoutingor chanting. This is monotonous and the easiest of obtainingvarietywas by changing the pitch of the way sustained tone.
It is not
continue this form tone
can
natural that
of music.
A
man's
be imitated by another
one
individual should
voice
man's
singinga
voice
tain cer-
givingthe
TONALITY tone; but if a woman will find the pitch too
same
she
higherthan
octave
have
ratio of
a
it is
Thus
establish the
that
seen
the formation
all
of
of the
been
already
agree in
fourth and
there
are
octave.
a
imitate the sound
will
produce that tone allow,which will be an the
is the most
The
man.
tones
been
simple laws in mathematics have fourth, which always nations, and have served as rest of the scale,althoughthe
to
the
mentioned
and
man
instinct for the beautiful
that
the
scales
all
of
having established the intervals of an octave, but beyond these points of resemblance fifth,
great differences in the intervals which divide the feel that our We present musical system is the most
has been subjectto the perfectand it certainly influences. There are, however, nations
contain
two
simple ratio possible.
established at the will of
their present character possessedby musicians.
nations a
produced by
scales
intervals have
It has
organs
fifth and
octave,
guides in other
and
to
that the most
in the
as
low
1:2, which
appeared
owe
endeavors
like it that her vocal
nearest
29
much
smaller intervals than
are
ing improvscales
whose
in ours, hearing,for we found
of acute a more sense indicating the slightdifferences unable to appreciate
fact
most
between
this are
of
some
the tones.
China, however, employs fewer tones than we do. Their ognizes system dates from nearly 3000 years before Christ and recthe
octave, which
equal parts. This resemblance to our striking
twelve
scale of
thirteen tones
into
bears
a
tones. scale,as it is divided into semi-
only five tones
which
correspond those represented by the black keys of the piano. scale. In fact,their sysThe Arabs have a complicated tem There
to
in
divide they theoretically
possesses
are
a
use
great interest because
of its extraordinary
in the two most It agrees with ours important peculiarities. but the resemblance ends the octave and the fifth, intervals,
of which there with the introduction of the smaller intervals, to different authorities. sixteen or seventeen, according are The
musical system o" the Persians holds
an
unusual
30 interest for of
our
in it
because
us
twenty-four intervals,each
half
being equal to
one
tor ances-
an
divided the octave
have
suggests that
resemblance
This
semitones.
faintlydiscern
can
we
They
system.
own
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
of
into one
of
our
us
Persians, and the suggestion that the fact historytells is further substantiated by that the Persians,at a very earlyday, migrated to Greece, be derived
may
where
The the
in time
the
of
received
new
names.
began its final development in music is Greeks, the history of whose the Sixth until about Century before
scale which
hands
tem sys-
that of the
from
settled and
they
our
greatly obscured
use
we
cian records concerninga musiChrist, although in the meager and poet named Olympus livingabout 1400 B.C., there is evidence of a regularsystem. The chief elements of the Greek
been reduced
scale had
to four
tones, which
are
sounded
the tetrachord. as stringsof the lyre known Without strings doubt, the interval between the two extreme remained the chief element through all was a fourth, which the subsequent changes of the Greek scale. The tuning of the intermediate strings is very uncertain and doubtless four
the
upon
several methods *
Terpander, of Father
name
which
he
tuning with
one
from
its
Greek B.C.
tone
received
the
by adding three strings,
double tetrachord a they formed the junction. The common tone
importantof
entire
the
seven
and
was
called Mese
the middle.
system
was
crystallized by Pythagoras,the
philosopher and
mathematician, who lived about 600 other thingshe instituted a societyat Crotona,
precepts
beliefs and
are
most
practisesare
members
world
at
B.C., has
because of the improvement
Music
that
so
positionin
Among
whose
the
seven
670
in the tetrachord
common
The
use.
lived about
of Greek
the most
was
who
wrought
the
in
were
subsisted
interesting althoughmany shrouded
invested themselves.
by
in the secrecy
They
of their
with which
believed that
the
the
rhythmicalorder of its elements. The distances existing between the heavenly bodies and the earth were
considered
to
have
been
determined
accordingto
the
TONALITY laws
relations of musical
and
motion
31
and
harmony
each
body
in its
acter supposed to create a certain tone whose chardepended upon the distance and the velocityof the tones body. The produced by the various bodies taken musical scale and the harmonious a music together formed either unheard produced was by the inhabitants of earth owing to the great distance of the heavenly bodies,or always to hearing it they did not perceive having been accustomed the sound with stillness. it,never having been able to compare was
Another for
their
Music
was possibility
that
capacity of hearing.
of the and
Spheres which
the sound
Herein
has
ever
is the since
too
great
theory
of the
was
figuredin
ture litera-
song,
Pythagoreans attached considerable importanceto music of the society and gymnasticsin their dailylife, each member being compelled to possess a knowledge of the lyre,and none allowed to retire at night without was indulgingin some It was form of music. for exciting used greatlyas a means and appeasingthe emotions. Pythagoras had a predilection for -mathematical study and this led him to trace all things to
He
number.
placed a numerical
all the elements
three, upon
ciatingthis idea with assisted him
music
His
in his
have
It has and
the
been
led
to
or
as^B-
even
his for
two
numerical the
art
of
study of its science.
perceived natural laws
which
which
as
man,
great fondness
Pythagoras is well called He
and
of nature
music,
of intervals.
treatment
value, such
the Father
and
Science.
of Musical
established
acoustical
facts
the test of the many succeedingcenturies. impossibleto discover a flaw in his reasoning
stood
only changes
that
have
occurred
have
been
added
all intervals by him. Previously, accordingto the dictates of instinct, of this guide. and Pythagoras fullyrealized the uncertainty established the intervals and exTherefore, he scientifically pressed the tones, marking them of numbers corn by means to
the great foundation had been created
respondingwith the tones.
He
built
of vibrations which the number studied the phenomena of sound
produce^ vibrations
by
of the monochord,
means
wooden long, narrow, single string. Movable which the portion of a
limited
at
will.
which
upon
bridges were the string to
by
a
of
means
vibrated
be
was
stretched
was
used
instrument
body
whose
instrument
an
box
similar
A
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
32
could
be
is still employed
in
studying sound vibrations. He perceived that by dividingthe string into shorter produced. The most lengths,tones of higher pitch were into two equal parts, giving a tone an simple division was that produced by the vibrations of the entire above octave into string. The next simplestdivision of the stringwas thirds,producing a tone which marks an interval called the fifth and convenientlydividingthe octave. By dividing the stringinto four equal parts, a tone situated at an interval of the last tone was fourth from markable a produced. There is a resymmetry
in
the
fourth
and
the
fifth,which
at
presented itself to Pythagoras. After the fourth and fifth had been established they presenteda means by which a smaller interval could be determined much by computing the called a tone. difference between By the them, which was of the tones use as plete a unit of division it was possibleto comthe subdivision of the octave. Pythagoras in doing this once
turned
his attention
the tetrachord.
to
Terpander had changed the four stringedlyre into one having seven stringsby combining two lyres and giving them still another common a string. Pythagoras added string,in fact, combining two tetrachords with an interval of a tone between them, thus completingthe octave. Using *
the interval of
between
ence tone, which he had found to be the differthe intervals of a fourth and a fifth, the as a
unit of division,Pythagoras discovered a
fourth contained
a
littleless than half
and
which
here
does
we
not
now
two
tones a
tone
and
a
that
fraction which
received the
call semitone.
indicate the sound
interval of
the
The
name
word
it
as
was
of hemitone tone
from resulting
as
used
vibrations
it ordinarily does, but refers to the interval or step between two tones when the word is used to signify The sound. as
TONALITY
division to be
of the
tetrachord,as the interval of the fourth
called,into the lesser intervals of two The
of
of
Greek
the
the
two
and
differed
from
the Greek the
a
the
popular
tone semi-
that
(marking
the
semitone.
The
different
the
it is believed
the
traditions
Dorian
The entire
was
interval
of
sidered con-
of
according to
the that
the lowest
upward the tone, tone, semitone, tone
tetrachords), tone, tone,
two
from
an first,
separatedeight sounds, only others,the eighth being octave higher in pitch. These the
dividingthe interval
of
methods
and
intervals
differed the
with
lesser intervals
in this order:
seven
of repetition
the arrangement of fixed and not there
names
them.
and
separationof
which
of
ment establish-
"
is,counting from
occurred
intervals
was
corresponded
into
divided
arrangement,
after the
even
bearinglike
orthodox
as
Dorian,Phrygian and Lydian derived were point. The names
the
"
belongingto
most
was
semitone
nations
scales
the
scale
regards this
as
arrangements
the ancient
the
the
three varieties
which
seven
musical
by Pythagoras, but
octave
tones
appeared
octave
and
tones
the diatonic system. retained its prominence
tetrachord
division
that
came
designatedas
was
the
33
of
an
octave
are
called modes. After
be
the
been
established the
scale could
and after a time it was greater ease octaves by adding a tetrachord both above
with
extended
enlarged to
had
octave
two
A record of this enlargedscale originaltwo. of diatonic scale derived the name of Pythagoras, which from the diatonic system of arranging the intervals,exists in a description left by the Greek mathematician Euclid,who
and
below
the
lived about
300
B.C.
He
terms
it the "Division
of
the
lengthsof string gives the proportionate capable of producingthe various sounds in the scale. Monochord" At names.
and
first the sounds Each
sound
of the Greek
scale
were
included in the entire octaves
denoted and
by
those
the two extremes were given a separate name, designating Later the names there being in use fifteen different names. of arbitrary discarded in favor of an equal number were
scale
carded they diswith
invested the sounds
and
characters
the Greek
the
adopted
Romans
the
When
characters.
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
34
the
alphabet from A to P inclusive. During the latter part of the Fourth Century, A.D., Ambrose, duced (340-397), one of the Fathers of the Latin church, introdiatonic into the church, adopting the Greek music due to scale. Many of the later developments in music were of churchmen the work attempting to perfectthat employed in the church. tions adaptaMany of the hymns and chants were in no of popular melodies sense worthy of the use to which they were put. Although several authorities deny the claim, Pope Gregory the Great (540-604) is popularly of the letters of their
names
with
credited
a
that
manner
they
schools refuse
knowledge of
his
of
works
nomenclature to
the
was
united
and of
education
did
choristers not
Perhaps in
manner
of the sounds
apart and scale
by
For
tones
them
denoted the
the first
E, F, G, for
He
of the
situated
at
lished estabwould
sufficient
a
important
as
which
he
scale.
He
cipal prin-
and
possess
which recognize clearlythe relationship
established between
all the
in such
them
easilypreserved.
more
music.
church
gathered together
year
priestwho
a
improvement
the
in the service for all of the
were
the
for
ordain
to
have
the church
of
seasons
to
used
melodies
and
hymns
is said
He
music.
of
toward
much
done
having
as
any the simplified
first
the
was
Pythagoras
the distance of
an
had
octave
of the they occurred in the course Latin letter, same only varying its character* he used the capitalletters A, B, C, D, octave the second he used the small letters, and for as
the third the small letters doubled, Guido
Tenth with
and
the
Eleventh
the invention
lines which used
d'Arezzo,
are
Italian
an
Centuries,has been
of the staff
so
Benedictine
monk
of
the
falselyaccredited
the series of five horizontal
or
arranged that
when
ihe
signs ,or
notes
tween represent the musical tones are placedupon or bethe lines,the pitchof the tones mil be indicated by
to
positionof
etymologyof
the
notes
the word
in
respect
refers to
to
the
its ftmctibn
lines* as
a
The
.staff or
TONALITY
assistant in
35
first the characters
determiningpitch. At
represent the
tones
were
very
crude.
The
to
they are
as
neumes,
used
called,were
doubtless derived irregularin outline and were from the hieroglyphics cating used by the old Jewish rabbis in indipitch in their chants. They possessedvarious shapes, resembling periods,commas, lines,and straightand curved united to of were single tones but groups represent not rise and tones. to a They indicated where melody was showed the comparative rather fall,and their arrangement than the actual pitch of any The character. neumes were to be sung, but it was placed immediatelyabove the syllables impossible for them to enable a singer to read a new piece of music Doubtless at sight. employed to assist they were the singer'smemory when attemptingmusic which he had before. heard They were exceedinglyinadequateand are to present-daymusicians. unintelligible '
About
the year pitch of one
actual
900
a
tone.
red line
added
was
line
This
indicate the
to
assumed
was
to
be
F,
naturallyfollowed that the pitch of G and of E was because of the positionof the likewise actuallydetermined characters representingthese tones immediately above and the red line. Later below a yellow line signifyingC was added and the pitchof B and of D became actuallydesignated because of their contiguityto C. Finally the colors were and
it
written at the dispensedwith and the letters F and G were lines. They acted as keys to beginningof their respective the notation and thus acquiredthe name of claves or clefs from the Latin word clavis, meaning key. During the
Eleventh above
Century two yellow line
the
black lines and
abandoned
were
square in use
in use,
the characters
or
notes
and
a
staff was
although for
a
was
added
produced very long time the
neumes
became
lozengeshaped,the development into continuing gradually. fifth line of the staff
the red and
Gradually the
A,
or
The
Guido
and
and
situated
one
situated between
one
E yellow lines and designating
added,
were
those
either now
about the time
similar to the number
one
of
now
of lines which
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
36
Century a staff and the syllables in use of lines was having a large number the lines at the proper between pitch. written to be sung were denoted to proceed was the voice was interval at which The by the letters T and S placed at the beginning of the staff. the Latin and Semitonum, words, They designated Tonus meaning tone and semitone. five lines could not absolutelyreprethe mere sent However, clefs have been the keys or and the pitch of a sound are now in use. Three employed. retained principalones staff and their the of placed at the beginning They are it contained
varied.
position
the
on
the
pitch of spaces
above
is not
used
G,
in
the
by the
piano
One
music
nor
to
notes
middle
C and
voices.
vocal
These
G
in
is found
in music
and and
F clefs
are
C
the
and
music, and clef indicates
piano
which
and
ten writ-
are
in music
sung
third
clef indicates F,
piano
and
staff in which
the
tenor
The
in
middle
Another persons. in C and is found
alto voices*
beginning of the played by the left hand at
in
the
and
soprano
relativelythe
clef indicates much
and
name
lines and
the
on
beginning of the staff in played by the right hand and
at
fifth below
many
middle
fifth above
a
notes
it.
below
familiar
music
organ
a
and
is not
hence
all the
pitches of
and
names
line and
that
standing on
notes
the
staff indicates
the
lines of
early Tenth
the
During
music organ written the notes
are
by the bass and sung also used in all instrumental
music. The or
ordinary staff
added
when
which
lines when
the
or
between
only the length of a note and can the staff indefinitely, although when tends
to
notes
are
be too
be sounded
great for
written
and
an
a
can
These necessary. used extends notes
of range be placed on
can
of five lines
octave
be increased lines
are
beyond
the
the five lines.
be added
by leger employed They
above
the number
number
of added
lines
in
the writing or interpreting lower than they are intended to
ease
dotted line dsawn
the invention
below
or
above them
and
8va, (fenottagthat the Before
are
pit$i "hould be an octave of the leger lines,the C clef
marked
higher, was
used
TONALITY
37
almost
exclusivelyand its positionon the staff was changed whenever the change of notes used overstepped its limits. The in use are positionsof the clefs now changed at times of leger lines. As has to avoid adding a very large number been
the diatonic
seen
scale consists of
a
series of groups of be the extent of the
what sounds, for no matter may scale it is merely made of of repetitions up seven
of
the distance and
the other
octave
an
six
relations which
of
it
made
are
of the
One
apart.
subservient
seven
sounds
seven
is selected
it
to
at
tain regardingcer-
importance in the structure music. modern This important tone is called the keynote tonic and the system of relations that hangs upon or is called tonality. In the days of the Greeks the keynote was the mese or
middle
Aristotle attributes to the middle
tone.
lyre an influence very frequent use
placein
what writer
of much
are
ascribes
tuning of the other compositions.It is a question as to the mese occupiedand althoughone
the
over
in all
the octave
stringof the stringsand a
positionof
fourth
above
the
lowest,the more generalbelief is that it was the lowest,which naturally would be the more one extremity important as it designates of the octave. It is also believed that every composition in it. The tonalityof the Greeks eventuallybecame ended difficultiesto the very complicated and has presentedmany the
tury EighteenthCenfacts which there presentedany were sidered might be conauthentic. The eightstringedlyre or double tetrachord, an instrument which has previouslybeen discussed, in nearly all instances used in accompanying vocal was
investigator.Not
music.
It
between
the
was
until the middle
tuned
so
highestand
that
interval of
an
lowest
an
strings.The
had
decided that this interval of
into
seven
an
octave
octave
existed
diatonic system
should be divided
tones. five of them tones, and two semilesser intervals, intervals there were Given these seven seven possible of
methods
semitone known
of the
in as
arrangingthem, each arrangement placingthe new positions.The various arrangements are
the Greek
modes.
The
individual characteristics
of each
rested
mode As
semitones.
time
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
38
entirelyupon the positionsit gave wrought in progressedchanges were
the the
Each addition that increased modes, and their number was was gathered tended to make the Greek musical system more Furthermore, only complex and less easy to understand. ditions and unsatisfyingrecords have been left us of the convague existing during the years preceding the rise of in Christianity.Therefore, at this juncturea break occurs of music. the historyof the structure there was dent With a the coming of Christianity very evithe expression Music as change in musical structure. of sentiments
belief in the Christ
and
productiveof
was
new
lievers sought expression. Furthermore, the beof admonished to sound their praises by means
sensations which were
music, but as
serve
only natural
was
that
the
old music
for the new, which grew the ritual of the Jews, and from
foundation
a
borrowed and
it
from
secular music
should
from
ideas
the
temple
of the Greeks.
the Century,greatlysimplified until only four were retained. The tones of each mode were comprised within the interval of an octave countingupward from the keynote. The four of Ambrose modes are designatedas the authentic modes
Ambrose, in the Fourth modes by rearrangingthem
and
served
as
a
foundation
four
to
new
ones
which
were
called by Gregory two centuries later. These were plagalor leaningmodes, because of the relation which they added
bore modes
authentic modes.
the
to
only
was
the tones
were
an
octave, as
The was
of the plagal compass that of the authentic,but
limited to those between
the fourth below
the
keynote and the fifth above the keynote* As an instance let the notes D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D, represent the firstauthentic From
mode. the notes
this the firstplagal mode
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, Al
was
formed
In both cases'D
by using was
the
keynote. The compass of the mode had been increased downward by the interval of a fourth,but as it ascended had been decreased in the same degree. When a melody was written in any
authentic
or
plagalmode
the
varietyof
notes
which
TONALITY be
might interval
of
between
eight found within the as stated, either having positions
and
octave
an
the
to
between the fourth or keynote and the octave the keynote and the fifth note above it. At times of the authentic and was used, in plagal modes the compass of both modes was employed and
mixture
which the
limited
was
the
below
note a
used
39
case
of
range
notes
between
was
fourth
the
below
note
the
keynote (as in the original plagalmode) to the octave above the keynote (as in the original authentic mode). Again as the time musical became more progressed cated. complisystem In order is always demanded to produce variety,which made by progress, several changes were permissible the simplicity instituted by Ambrose which and been had lost as had been the originalsimplicityof the Greek was centuries
modes
Tiring of
before.
reformation
Another
was
necessary. of plagalmodes
confusingauthentic and Ambrose and Gregory, Glareanus,a writer of the Sixteenth ored Century and poet laureate to Emperor Maximilian, endeavorder. He made to create a diligentresearch among the
Greek
old
authentic He
the
modes
modes
and
attempted to give
confused
determined
of six the use upon formed six plagal modes them. upon but became them the old Greek names, and
did not bestow
and
ancient
the correct
names
upon
the
modes. Nevertheless,his work was correspondingnew ignored to a great extent and the church modes remained in in church music use although two of those established by Glareanus, correspondingto our major and minor modes, used
were
When church
in secular music.
harmony began
modes
were
leavingthe secular
music.
One and
called the modus the our
one
most
modern
growth
it
not
suited to its use
two
of Glareanus
of these
pure-rnindedchurchmen Troubadours
its
other
found
and
they
which
of
wanton
its incessant
adaptableto harmony major mode, which has
mode.
use
It
was
However,
and
has
had
such
carded, dis-
were
survived
had
frivolous musicians.
lascivus,or
that the
abhorred especially
was
because
was
by by
in the the
even
it
was
developedinto a
generaluse
been
that it has
all employed in practically
the music
older
The
centuries.
last two
during the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
40
modes
written
are
times some-
employed, and a decidedlypowerfulqualitycan be added when to music varietyis obtained by the use of the church modes, the Dorian, the Phrygian,the Lydian, the Mixolydhis appreshows ciation ian, the Ionian and the ^Eolian. Handel of this fact in the oratorio, Israel in Egypt," where Egypt was glad/' he employed the Phrygian in the chorus, I will exalt Him." in the chorus, "And and the Dorian "
"
intervals
The
by tonalityand
decided
number
proper to
theory as
on
Sounds
harmony.
togetherin the manner found to produce an effect which is the basis of As harmony has become
was
a
the
have
may
be perfectaccording may the acoustical laws of Pythagoras,but
sounded
when
been
and
of vibrations
based
diatonic scale have
modern
the
of
condition which
could
of harmony not considered
musical system this
our
to exist.
be allowed
not
they are pleasant. It is
alreadyexisted in for the same melody where tones are sounded successively, relations are mutual in melody as in harmony. necessary With the laws govthe introduction of harmony in reality erning into greater importance until these relations grew they formed the basis for fixingthe exact positionsof the in the scale. Notwithstandingthe importanceof harmony tones in solvingthis problem it must not overstep the bounds true
that
harmony
of its power,
a
sense
meager
but at all times the
be considered
keynote
in
when
and
reference
had
importanceof the tonic must be made to the continually
must
other
determining the
of
tones
seven
an
octave.
The the of
intervals established by the Greeks
of harmony and application musicians the magnitude of
changed.
The
intervals of
between G
and
A
were
a
to
allow
satisfythe aesthetic sense of
some
between
tone
intervals
the
D
was
E
and
and
and the intervals lessened,or flattened,
of a: semitone between
E and
F
and between
Thus the scale as it increased intervals in a "rg$ degreeto laws made were
did not
now
by
exists man*
B
and
owes
C
its
TONALITY
diatonic
The
by
white
the
represent the
notes
scale with
keys of which,
chromatic
the
diatonic
piano
when
added
the two
They
desire of musicians
natural
A
of tones. natural
as
a
or
to
Chromatic
to
scale.
C
the
scale.
semitones, similar
41
which
mark
intervals
of
always existed added owing to
in
have
been
increase
to
succession
continuous
represented The black keys organ. this diatonic scale,form
notes
have
is
keynote
available
the
number
is also
of semitones
the
a
very
semitones
the two
suggestedby already like have the mutual semitones, tones, must with the keynote. They are generally considered as of the diatonic scale changed by having been raised
arrangement,
established. relations the tones
The
of the diatonic by having been lowered half a tone, the name tone being retained. Nevertheless,this is by no means the case, the chromatic semitones being entirelyindependent in this respect and being worthy of independent of the tones
or
if the
names
from
detracted
semitone
The when
of the simplicity by so doing.
the
of
theory is
distance it
given tone,
say
notation
would
be
exactlyhalf of a tone and a represents is counted upward from
A, and
is counted
then
downward
above
flat. This
then
not
will tones A, which is B, the new A sharp, will be a littlebelow but the first, tone
not
difference is called
from
a
be
identical, the second, B
not
and is Pythagorean comma of such minute magnitude that it is hardly distinguishable important by the average ear and, though playinga somewhat a
part in the mathematical considerationof the scale,is practically of no importance musically.The difference of opinion musicians
of
and physicists subject has led
to
as
to
rightand
and
reciprocalconcessions
so point has been established,
that
now
wrong
the
two
a
on
this
half-way tones
are
This
system of dividingthe scale into almost equal intervals is termed equal temperament
considered and
its
as
sounding alike.
general use
dates from
the
eenth earlypart of the Eight-
Century, ",_*-/ According to the tnore complicatedand theo1raEical chromatic tones between eabh two correct system having two -
OF
THEORY
THE
42
MUSIC
scale except when scale would chromatic
the interval is
of the diatonic
notes
semitone, the
consist
of
only a
seventeen
They would be C, C sharp,D flat,D, D sharp, E flat,E, F, F sharp, G flat, It is true that G, G sharp,A flat,A, A sharp,B flat, B. it was notes in order to simplify the scale into the twelve instead
tones
of twelve
as
it
does.
now
of the intervals out of tune, the to put many necessary interval of the octave remainingin its theoretical perfection. distributes
equal temperament inaccuracies in tuning among that although no such a way
one
the deviations do not offend the
ear.
However,
the
these
twelve
unavoidable
chromatic
of them
is
in
tones
perfectlypure
appreciatedthe great practicability of equal temperament and in 1722 there appeared his contained famous Wohltemperirte Clavier which twentyfour preludes and fugues,each one having been written in chromatic of the major and minor keys of the twelve one Johann Sebastian
It
scales. of the
was
manner
a
Bach
wonderful
in which had
and
the scales could
applied to opened opportunitiesfor variety
temperament
valuable
most
been
them.
demonstration
be used
The
after equal new
tuning
in
composition that had hitherto been closed,for in the old theoretically correct tuning the music could only be written in the few keys in which a limited number of chromatic notes were employed. It has so far been found impracticable to furnish keyboard instruments If it
with
seventeen
keys in
the interval of
an
keyboard would be so extensive that the fingersof the performer could not cover a range Thus of notes nearlyas great as is now is that it possible. for these instruments equal temperament has made it possible to become This tuning are. as generallyuseful as they now is as has been as perfectas our musical system requires, proved by the thorough test which it has undergone for the octave.
past
two
were
done
the
centuries.
trained ear tween can Only an exceptionally distinguishbecorrect equal tuning and theoretically tuning. The tones can be produced only by the voice or with
TONALITY
a
flexible
instrument
vocalist and
The
such
43
violin
the
as
the
or
trombone.
the
performer upon these instruments have the power the pitchof each note which to determine is given, while the pitch of other instruments is previouslydetermined The violinist decries equal temperament as by the tuner. cordant. improper, and objectsto the piano, declaringthat it is disNevertheless, as far as the piano and a host of instruments other is a are concerned, equal temperament evil and the violin,the voice, or the trombone, necessary follow the newer must strumen tuning when used with the other inThe
divisions
because
and
of
dictates
the
Century, when
Sixteenth
tones
Greeks^
diatonic
scale In
tones.
left to
was
the
singers until the scale in its entirety
chromatic
the
the
of the
the taste
to
or
by
chromatic
called
of the chromatic
use
tradition
noted
were
the embellishing
in
coloring,and
to
music
church
tones
of their value
likened
were
of half
adopted.
was
Chromatic
notes
changing the key
be
can
or
used
to
embellish
be introduced
can
melody
in the
out with-
production
diatonic
In the latter case scales by modulation. variety is secured by adoptingvarious notes of the diatonic that in the diatonic scale scale as keynotes. It has been seen
of
new
succession
as
tone, semitone. occur
between
intervals of tones and
sequence,
is
semitones
and
keyboards of
the
of
ing arranged in ascendfollows: Tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, When C is the keynote and in the arrangement
of tones
the intervals
and
E
the
and
F
are
piano and organ, between
and
changed it has
and
The
C.
always follow the
semitones must
in order
B
tones semi-
the
be so when the this may been found necessary to add
that
same
note keymore
be done only by introducing the scale,which can If G is determined upon for the keynote, chromatic tones. to
notes
it will be
key
of
found
C, is
out
highermust scale
so
that F, of
it appears
as
placeand
be found
to
that the intervals may
a
new
act
as
have
as
tone a
a
in the
fourth
situated
seventh
the correct
a
in the
tone seminew
magnitude.
The
the
For proper order. in a similar manner.
the
of C
key
lower
act
to
the
have
intervals
may
tone
will be B
a semitone flat,
its substitution
chromatic
which
tones
scale in order
diatonic
intervals,varies
be
may
from
a
seventh
below
B
a
new
scale
magnitude. and by means
so
The of
occur
maintain to
one
in
semitone
be substituted for those
must to
correct
note key-
in their proper order. of keynote. As the number
the intervals will
semitone
Every
the
in the
fourth
a
as
flattened
for the
situated
tone
a
the
that new
place and
of
is out
as
and
in their
be
upon
it appears
as
F
occur
must
tones
is determined
that B
be found
must
above
semitone
a
reason
same
If F
found
it will be
sharp,
substituted the intervals will
been
it has
when
F
will be
tone
new
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
44
succession
the' proper
seven,
that the array of chromatic signsin a To often be bewildering to the reader.
of the of
it is
easilyperceived pieceof music would obviate the otherwise
of the chromatic signs,a key signature repetition Just after the clef in the beginning of the staff the number of chromatic signs,sharps or flats, are placed
necessary is used. proper
the chromatic
spaces where
the lines and
upon
notes
should
until a new serted or signatureis induring the entire piece, denotinga change of key. The signswhich indicate chromatic tones came into existence which marks the flat is of at various periods,That
occur
ancient
most
about
use
and
is found
in the books
of
chant
from
the year 927. Near the close of the Thirteenth Century there appeared the sign of the sharp in a slightly different
form
from
that
destroysthe effect was
now
used.
The
natural
sign which
in
used
cancelingthe flat about the middle of the Seventeenth Century and has been employed in canceling the sharp since the EighteenthCentury. As
has
been
discussed heretofore,the arrangement of the intervals forminga scale has been in accordance with the
major
mode.
In the minor
wherein differs,
mode.
The
mode
lies the
minor original btit it is now Gtereatit(s, not
the
vals arrangement of inter-
features distinguishing
mode used
was
of the
the JEolian mode
of
The succession exclusively*
TONALITY
of intervals in this mode
45
4 S^jS 7 8, which 2^3 be compared to the followingsuccession as found in the may 2 1 5 6 major mode: 3_4 7^8. (The intervals of tone and those of the semitone are a signified by by^.) "
is 1
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
It is the minor
mode
and
mode,
names.
tone
and
the
major Major.
interval of
is less than
The
the
mode
third, from
a
interval of the major
same
third of the minor Lesser
consists of two
of the
smaller
the greater third. It is also to be
mode
was
third, and
the
at
major
eighth of the major mode is a semitone. ear requiresthat the seventh degree be what leading tone, that is;it should possess such a it is sounded to the eighth that when we it to go to or lead up to the keynote. Hence, tone
a
created
1
"
interval
an
and
sixth
2^3
changed
was
of
"
of the interval of
the
voice
interval
has
as
a
natural
no
tone
and
(6
half.
a
degrees.) This
modern
is termed marked
a
tion rela-
shall expect interval
the
between
the thus:
was
tendency
to
and This
and
7 should
succession
filled
Harmonic, but
is termed
and
this difficultinterval.
The
the posiplus sign signifies tion
semitone
a
of
mode
the seventh
succession
the
and
tone
a
requirementsof music
all the
the
called
change, however,
semitone
a
that
The
than other
be separatedmore
and
tone
a
which
semitone
5^6+7^8.
4
"
to a
degrees so
seventh
time
one
and
of
a
Minor, while that of tones, hence, Greater
or
that the interval between
seen
derive
consists of but
mode
whole
In fact,the minor
3, in
1 to
these intervals that the modes
semitone,hence,
a
mode
the
the
it is from
their
or
that
seen
observe it became
such
large
a
advisable
to
done
by increasing the interval of a semitone between the fifth and sixth degrees The change brought about a new sion succesto that of a tone. overcome
of intervals
it
the scale descended
thus: used reason
8
"
7
1"2^3
follows:
as
"
in music
also found
was
6^5
"
for
4
"
"
4 "
5
"
well to
3^2"1.
melodic
it has received the name
was
6"7^8, change the
This
cession suc-
scale is generally
construction for
Melodic.
As
which
46
is in music.
which
is the idea of motion
Rhythm
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
Any
long and short tones contains a rhythm in that to itself. In listening it possesses a completemotion peculiar it is easy to observe the end-pointof rhythmical to music felt that a divisions for at these points it is instinctively motion must and that a new begin. Very occur pause must of
succession
similar
instinctive realization that
is the
rhetorical
pauses
placesin a literarycomposition. of music, is generally accepted as an Metre, the measure essential feature of musical composition. It probably dates other voices back almost to the beginningof music, when essary joined that of the leader in the primitivechant. It was necthat all would that they be guided in some so manner should
at certain
occur
attempt the
guide
tone
same
the duration
was
duration
had
been
The
time,
same
and
of the tones
determined
upon
when the
evident
most
the
length of
smallest
In poetry the
selected
had been
in music
measure
at the
measured
definite
syllables form
of arranged according to a of varying lengthsbeing several syllables description,
of
words
some
are
contained
in each
combined
was
division
with
the
of
poetry
divisions in the music.
metrical
elaborate system of
which
metre
of their poetry. When duration of the tones
When
measure.
poetry
the metrical division which
music
feature distinguishing
of
music
made The
is the
similar
necessary
Greeks
used
most
a
corresponded closelyto
and
poetry
were
combined
that
the
corresponded with the lengthof the syllables.Short syllables were sung to short tones and long to long tones, This system of unequallengthof the syllables also appliedto the music when tones was unaccompanied by poetry. The
writers
^
maintained it is
a
a
matter
music
of the
early Christian era silence in regard to measure bewildering of doubt as to its existence, but F"is
History of Music
on
shows
the existence 01
have and in his
signsof measure of the Seventh Century. The method of regularuniform measure which rams throughoutis of comparatively modern adoption and dates from the beginning in church
music
TONALITY
of the
of the
use
47
present system of notation.
to placingthe syllables
place angular periods or
the
in of
of
instead
of
them.
Greek
letters
by
of the
staff. method
This of various
values
Long,
were
the
being equal
The as
Semibreve
is
and
to
as
However, for
no
known
length and
When
of
the
the
the
Large,
the
Semiminim
or
smaller
lesser
value, each denomination.
note, the Minim the quarter, the Lesser
Semifusa had
duration
the sixteenth.
as
been
determined
together the breves
two
of
the absence
an
They
of
of
againstone
exact
measure
notation
of duration. extend
may
have
originatedin
the staff
across
similar lines of
certain lengths which extended across The at an early date indicated rests. which incorrectlyapplied to the measure,
between
into measures, all of were
were
several
system
lines of the
bars
tionate propor-
compositionsinto parts possessingequal of the indicatingthe periodicaloccurrence
and
lengths and
the
musical
dividingthe
staff found
notes
Semibreve,
Lesser
as
necessary the present notation and exact measure Bars are the vertical lines which
accent
in which
line
the whole
sung breve or
to
were
of each
proved inadequate and improvement gradually brought into existence
duration
duration
observed
one
use
the staff
they merely represented for independent melodies
were
this system
the
be
were
next
be
arranged to balancing two against one long was adopted* Owing or
by
even
Semiminim
exact
notes
the as
eighth,and
duration* voices
of
two
now
'
to
staff
the
by
beginning
the of
some
the
the
of
any
the
followed
Semiminim,
lines of the
the lines of
on
of
system
followed
intervals
placed at was
the
employed. They Long, the Breve,
the half, the Greater
Semiminim
The
in turn
Minim, the Greater Fusa, the Semifusa note
points placed
between
denoted
Double
the
be sung between older neumes was
The
the bars.
there being one
length.
been
is that part of the first music was not divided
necessityfor
Later
has
they
were
it
as
the
given
notes
various
for it to be measured, but necessary employed, the value of the notes determining
it became not
no
At
bar
name
varying
staff and
the
changeable,depending
were
short
the long and
in which
order
the
upon
the values
However,
metre.
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
48
followed
notes
deficiencythe use of a mark called in Latin punctum divisionis,meaning point of division, it resembled a In appearance period, but introduced. was it followed, only the value of the note effect upon had no marking the rhythmic periods. its appearance The bar began to make graduallyand was each
other.
used
at
times
independent melodies arranged to be sung together. the notes
aid the musicians
complete in
is
a
colon
is the
is to be
does not need to
occur
preceded,succeeded, or
bar
double
The
itself. and
the metre
were
of constant
measurement
music
contain
must
The
number
may
have
need
a
through to
bar marks of it which ing with mark-
when
theme
any
reason.
any
brought about
introduction of bars thus
The
parts
a,tthe end of a bar. be both, by it may
is used
and sign of repetition
repeated for
These
double
compositionor of any part This signhas nothing to do
entire
an
several
placed in order
keeping together. A
in
first
was
for
the bars extended
each other and
the several staffs in which
the close of
It
verse.
in which
under
written
were
of each
the end
mark
to
been
had
voices
this
overcome
music
in
used
To
known
of beats
certain number the
remain
Each
metre.
as
or
the system of measure time
units.
throughout an entire at piece of music, but must continue through two measures, is apparent. Each beat or time unit least,until its regularity need not be representedby an individual note, but one note notes
the
not
the value of two
the value
of
positionsotherwise
time
values
in the
merely establishes unite may
indicated
occur
by
Medieval and to
same
beats and
Furthermore,
by
notes
manner
,as
and
various
placedabove
writers
three semibreves.
was
The
may
more
or
occupy
possess various
This, however, the beats
are
or
time
approximately
the staff.
describe two
imperfect.Perfect
may
and
speeds,which
two
rests
do notes.
symmetricalorder
a
at
words
held
more
or
beat,
one
same
kinds of time, perfect that in which a breve was equal derived from the fact name was
A
1833-1897
BRAHMS.
JOHANNES
of
native
he
Hamburg-;
of
last
the
the
great
was
German
of
of
masters
in
and
first
the
by
tioned unques-
His
opment devel-
success.
line
the
folk-song's
which
writing1
last
at
financial
along-
music
art,
choral
one
was
was
the
life
early
crowned
struggle,
and
poverty
recognition,
of
J3rahms*
music.
development
the
of
dances,
and
brought
Is
polyphony
the
then
its
to
in
highest
form
musical
and.
lastly
the
Rrahms
structure.
of
majesty
culminating"
of
author
the
no
was
but
dramas,
operas,
and
epics
scenes,
tales
in
lie
music
the was
and
comedies,
dramatic
Joachim.
he
life-long
without
forth
poured
friend
of
Schumann,
number.
Liszt
TONALITY
that the term
perfectwas
always appliedto
of its association
because
49
with
the Ever
the number
Blessed
three
Trinity. In
imperfect time a breve was equal to two semibreves. At the beginning of every piece of music, immediatelyafter the key signature,if there is one, there is placed a figurewhich indicates is
the metre
and
which
generallya fraction,the the
value
the
result two
the
metre
indicates the the denominator
and
measure
notes
number
beats
of
is divisible by two
measure
a
signature. It
representingeach beat, although be expressed in notes of other values. There may general divisions of metre, duple and triple. In
the values
duple
of
in
time
a
pf which
numerator
of beats to be found
number
is called
and
in
which
are
contained
in
the number
triplemetre
a
is
divisible by three. About
the Thirteenth
appearance. perfectof the
metre
the most as signifyperfectmetre the circle, As the signatureof imperfect used was figures, semicircle was fection employed, by token of its imper-
figure when
a
sign has been
retained
time."
common
their
To
as
"
made Century time signatures
resemblance that
compared is used
and
Its form to
C
a
with
the
to indicate what
changed until
has
has
which
led to the
it referred to the word
common,
This
circle.
is called
it bears
a
ing strik-
too-hastysupposition although the
by nationalities who have no such word in their language. A horizontal bar through the sign denotes that sign is
each
used
contains half
measure
There but
explanationof
generalidea of metre
many
their
beats.
of metrical
methods
innumerable
are an
as
a
few
ment, measure-
signatureswill give
The significance.
a
for duple following
:
The
semicircle with the horizontal bar through it,or
fraction 2-2 each
one
denotes
that each
representedby
a
contains two
measure
half note
or
its value
the
beats,
in other
notes,
4-2 denotes that each one
by represented
a
measure
half note
or
contains four beats,each its value in other notes.
semicircle
The contains or
four
beats, each
one
by represented
that each
by represented
measure
quarter
a
note
notes,
that each
6-8 denotes one
fraction 4-4 denotes
or
in other
its value
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
50
a
contains
measure
dotted
quarter
note
beats, each
two
three
or
eighth
notes.
contains four beats,each 12-8 denotes that each measure representedby a dotted quarter note or its equivalent,
one
eighthnotes.
three
12-16 each
one
each
that
denotes
by represented
a
eighthnote
dotted
four
contains
measure
its
or
beats, lent, equiva-
three sixteenth notes.
The
followingare
3-2 denotes one
that each
by represented 3-4 denotes
a
half note
a
contains three beats, each
measure
its value in other notes.
or
contains three beats,each quarter note or its value in other
that each
by represented
one
metres: triple
measure
notes.
9-8 denotes that each one
each
represented by
a
9-16 denotes
that
one
quarter each
by represented
contains three beats,each
measure
a
note
or
its value in other notes.
dotted
three beats,
contains
measure
eighthnote
or
three sixteenth
notes.
have
such metres attemptedirregular 5-4 and 7-4, 5-4 denotingthat there are five beats in as each beat represented each measure, by a quarter note, and 7-4 denotingthat there are seven beats in each measure, each beat represented by a quarter note. A notable instance of the employment of 5-4 metre is by Arensky in his Basso Ostiing accordnato," and Debussy has measured his "Nocturne" Modern
composers
"
the 7-4 metre.
to
A
system of metre
but the
is not
pleasureis increased changes. The rate at
and monotony avoided by occasional which the music is to be preted inter-
be
quickenedor retarded and any such changes indicated by the Italian-words, accelerando or rallenmay
are
followed without deviation,
At times
a
pause is demanded
when1 the motion
is
TONALITY
first
the
of
note
this
note,
the
of
which
which
have
the
of
with
changing of
founded
no
buu
rules.,
those
of
aesthetic
and so
to
since
the
that
have
rhythm
and
metre,
upon to
took
the
place.
any
dictates
scientific
and
in
none
of
but
discovery musicians
of
the
This
possess
period
many
has
We of
the and
been ing accord-
occurred in
the
laws.
notation
changes
have
and
with
history
tonality,
these
man's
training,
its
and
authentic
period,
upon
of
change
likely
music
mental funda-
most
beautiful.
training
of
well-developed
basis
the
will
occurring
but
of
of
now
founded
are
changing of
ployed em-
peoples
the
system
idea
history
been
use
many
methods
of
environment
Grecian
early
changes
based
his
possess
the
Except
generations
varied
our
the
the
methods
coming
that
of
ning begin-
determining
primitive
most
the
with
the
We
been
very
of
of
history.
upon
changes
sense
additions
have,
but
properly,
environment years,
of
governing
nature more
or
arc
dawn
the
found
growth has
the
means
observations
by
traces
the
gradual
originated.
upon
before
laws
fancy,
music
constitutes
doubtless since
no
with
work.
very
races
have
we
music-making
in
existence,
systems
for first
the
how
the
and
manner
success
completed
which
eral sev-
cating indi-
by
emphasis
the
system
a
ages
world,
conjectures
in
the
the
or
music,
his
of traced
for
same
The
and
accent
hastily
the
speaking.
success
now
of
system
when
the
the
after
upon other
some
about
brought
music
in
varies
degree
great We
the
occurs
composer
a
a
m
parts
emphasis
is
change of
for
continuing
syncopation,
Another
fall
always
not
indicated
be
may
termed
emphasis
does
accent
but
bar,
system,
measures.
in
The
altogether.
stopped
51
which
they
HARMONY
which
Melody, basis
of to
which
is
be
capable
they
as
performed
different
more
musical
heard*
without
In
only
the
and
years
of
nations to
our
to
still
the
East
have
and them.
there
interpreted, among
still
are
The
the
musical
signs but
researchers
used
or
are
that
grown
duced pro-
is
melody
melody for
of
to
many
tuneful
not
the
to
the
was
thousands
known
and
belong
two
unaccompanied
perhaps
scales
ancient
most
aesthetic
music
fulfils
existence to
a
concerning
all
the
use,
we
belonging
tones
are
differences notes
know
we
which
one
melodies
few
the some
the
to
represent
notwithstanding
whom
people
similar
scale in
pitches
form are
they
is
which
melody.
the
are
sole
the
to
that
existence
melodies
whom
to
of
a
the
as
in
Nevertheless
in
Their
people*
Greeks used
not
exists
has
exist*
according
but
requirements .The
impression
composition
it
the
of
sense
the
of
ears,
the
pure
written
generally
compositions
and
it.
instruments,
being
different
melody
is
solo
harmony,
at
and
does
form
in
sounds
fact,
harmony
the
from
time
alone,
the
instrument
an
a
these
heard
written
by at
of
any
instruments,
simultaneously, little
or
is
sounds, distinct
or
tone
one
rarely
usually
are
occur
voice
but
are
single
essentially
one
voice
other
by
accompanied they
the
called,
are
by
of is
it
giving
of
As
melody.
a
succession
a
although
harmony,
Music
as
is
it
not
of is
to
easily opinion
possible
to
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
54
of these ancient melodies. give a fairlyaccurate reproduction the tones were placedimmediately above The signs indicating those who and to accompany which they,were the syllables into
melodies
the
translated
have
notation
our
have
been
guided as to the difference in the duration of the tones by the tions varying shapes and sizes of the Greek signs. The composiby are
was
the melodies in
used
Grecian
days preservedin a
and more
a
heard
standard, less crude
our
There
definite notation than
more
the
consequence completeform. a
melodies
in the
have
been
In nearly every Roman heard in accordis now ance
Gregorianmusic wishes expressed by Pope Pius X, in 1903.
the renovations
spiteof
when
purpose
earlyChristian Church.
the
Catholic church with the
as
the
by
at that time
use
musical
and, according to
modern
More
without
and
appear crude modern ears.
music
church
which
has
In
undergone
into each time there has gradually periods, grown lacked the simple,purely religious music which entirely use by that which it is claimed was established qualities possessed Gregorian by the early church fathers. Even the strictly tion music had been completelychanged in character by the addimodern of harmonies agreeingwith more tonalityto melodies which the original had been arranged accordingto the ancient church modes. Strippedof the modern changes to the best ability of the researchers and arranged in accordance
at various
with
the old church
different appearance, is there evidence of in the modern less without
Here church
few
sense reason
let
has
us
done
and
the music
is
deficient in metre.
even
presents a totally Neither
there being no scale systematic tonality, of the word, although the intervalsare
than those in the music pause and attempt a for music. In the
fragments of pagan
remodeled
modes
and
of the Greeks. the
realization of what
beginningthere
Hebrew
music
were
which
a
were
built upon littleby little, Pope Gregory in the Sixth Century is said to have collected and systematized and
the hymns
and
chants which
and beginnings
had
had
them
resulted from
eopWi
into
these a
mentary frag-
complete
'
HARMONY book as
called his be
to
is said
antiphonywhich
have
formed
The manifested
fastened
was
available for reference.
ever
to
55
foundation
a
unchangeable law
itself in music
as
well
as
This
their
developed.
As
their sacred were
modes now
music
have
labored
better methods
learned
how
offertories and
other
that notation
was
day by day in copying suggested themselves and
the Troubadours
confining church
modes
and
that later became
known
as
employed.
musicians cast
inmates
the
striking examples
more
in the monasteries
was
the greatest
employed. We
more
It
so
collection in turn
in all else and
of all ages have left no abilitythan in their masses,
forms.
sacred
the altar
for many marked provemen imof life is progress which
composers
of
to
These
modes
had
major
afforded
had rejectedthe made and
in their gay
the
composers It is churchmen.
minor
of and
two are
variety for the have also learned,
more
songs, which, as we and singers into sad
use
repute among
the
natural,that having used the same modes, of these worldly singersbear a strong ,resemthe melodies blance to the melodies of today. Each year brought to musicians a realization of the value realization of the better which lay in a systematictonality, a results to be gained by having an acceptedplan to follow in also growing constructingtheir compositions. Metre was essential part of music until there into its position as an which melody, in order that it appeared the three qualities be true melody, must possess : may The
tones
which
compose scale.
it must
be
selected
from
a
properly authorized Throughout they must be subservient to a key-note,and fulfilthe laws of tonality. They must be so evidentlymetrical in their construction that qualityshall be easilyapparent to the hearer.
Beyond these three essentials there are no rules governing the qualityof melody. What tones are to be used and within the pleasure how they are to be arranged lie entirely of the composer. Melody may be pleasingor distasteful
without
which
The
be
a
reference
a
melody
variouslyby individual hearers, and and fancy which the composer himself
something
at
the
to
.'esthetic
determined
are
of imaginaflights tion
any
allow may hearers at least.
performer
or
with
find favor
likelyto
are
arrived
have
we
explainedby of good qualities
only
can
sense.
Again
reason.
a
MUSIC
OK
THEORY
THE
56
a
few
melody is a succession of tones, harmony is the sounds heard simultaneously. effect producedby two or more Whereas
is that
melody
in
Inherent
of
in
idea
musical
A
rest
while
is the idea of motion,
in
melody
can
harmony only be
moving succession of tones, while a group of is called a chord, tones, sound"l simultaneouslyin what though it may stand still a complete idea, even expresses Progressions or a series of chords having different pitches do changes of in harmony as but related musicallyoccur pitchin melody, but a chord may express an idea so beautiful expressedby
The
Not reasons
which
ever
its rules and
us
it is
To
him
only
not
their
the
as
these rules
the
They
origincan
are
are
be traced
we
student
the
in
manner
will consider who
the grammar
in which
manner
that is of interest and
and
beautiful
govern
It is in this theoretical fashion that music.
harmony
into existence harmony have come est appealedto scientistsas possessinggreat interbeen made the subjectof innumerable treatises*
and have and
of
considered
are
discordant
considered
are
the rules which has
the succession
those
a
only is harmony why certain combinations
others
and
in
forming a story. important,but the artistically
resemble
more
he likened
may
sentence, while the succession of sentences make
which
words
the attention of the hearer.
hold
singlyit will be able to of melody progressions
that
of
a
in to
they
desires to of
write
music, but
to
into existence
came
nearly every none
harmony
case
artificial
of the fundamental
laws of nature. There
is
a
The poets refer
strikinganalogybetween music and language. to
music
as
the
languageof
the soul and
t|$iptottgh it alone can souls communicate, In resembles languagein its growth and in the manner
say
fact music
Jn which
HARMONY
57
it differs in its
appreciation by nations and individuals. Both laws which are are governed by man-made equally without scientific explanation. Just as different nations have guages lanentire unintelligible nations to the people of other until an ence acquaintancehas been formed, so there is in existbe appreciated music which cannot ,by any but the people it belongs. The to whom English without suitable training neither understand the music the language of the can nor Chinese.
Language Words
notes.
is constructed
be
can
be
told,but even combining of notes. can
Man's
that he
form
to
of
We our
ever
a
turn
to
music, for Of
their
There
are
to
a
music
wonderful
of tales
be told
can
perpetualdesire the
beauties, and
new
be obtained
which
simultaneously,was "
creates
for
succession.
a
tales
wonderful
sense
"
sounds
and
by
the
*
perceivedcould
of musical
words
joined togetherthat
so more
aesthetic
is beautiful
which
of
from
for that
first
beauty
the unbounded
mass
in combining them was possible, Harmony, or the sounding of notes much later development. are
the Greeks them
when
seekingthe beginning
and
knowledge
foundation
the
owe
we
of
our
have melody we substantial evidence in a few hymns to the gods which have been preserved through the ages. It is positively proved that mony. they understood the relations which are recognized in har-
system.
consonance
others
which
is the combination
togetherhas itselfand
intervals which
certain
and
consonances,
not
effect upon
an
of
use
termed
are
of sounds the hearer
needinganything to
of
a
completion. On
the other
hand
when
a
when
as
A
sounded
being complete in as an ending. It is
of
follow
It alone
statement.
to
dissonances.
which
similar to that inflection of the voice which with the end of
referred
are
is
givesus
only associated the impression
dissonance
is the
bination com-
occurringtogetherproduce an impression of incompleteness.It is felt that something is needed, just as when more a speakeris interruptedhis is to follow. The voice is at a pitchwhich tells that more of the Greeks possessed a realization of the consonance of sounds
which
of
intervals
octave,
an
a
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
58
fifth and
expression concerning them which things so that they are blended and in which they are is the same way is
there Greeks.
although there was in its etymology a
is
by
no
is
first reference of
worthy
writer
named He
Christ.
in
serious
to
by the it
and
carries
taneously, simul-
sounded
system of
voices
of
singing apart. This primitivepractise
octave
an
harmony
means
The
the
two
ever, How-
mentioned
have
an
This
compound.
reference to different tones
of
of
considered.
now
more
the distance
a
mixing
word, symphony, which
a
use
form
likelyappliedto unison, that is,givingthe it
singing in
in
a
means
used
practiseof harmony
writers
their
of
None
of the
record
no
fourth, and
a
our
same
tones,
or
of the word.
sense
anythingresemblingharmony
consideration
made
was
Colonius, livingabout
by
that
Roman
a
third century after defined the intervals capableof producing symphony the
diatesseron,meaning fourth; diapente, meaning fifth; and the diapason,containingthe two other intervals and as
the
thus identical with the
Ages. Isidore,who 600,
was
rather
an
The
next
importantrecord of
intervals is in the church
of harmonious
use
octave.
our
was
Bishop
Seville about
of
extensive writer
of the Middle
on
the
miscellaneous
as
year
well
subjects. He was a friend of Pope Gregory and his writings were worth during the considered of much medieval taneous period. He refers to the combinations of simulsounds and speaks of the intervals of an octave, a fifth and a fourth, as consonant intervals which easilylent as
ecclesiastical
themselves to
practise.
in Flanders about the Hucbald, a Benedictine monk Tenth Century, wrote extensively of thingsmusical and with details showed
melody could be accompanied in a of w.ays which were number termed Diaphony or organizing. According to this system the melody was accompanied by
many
that
itselftakingcertain intervals above tones name
of
which
were
below, the
two
taneous simul-
-usuallyemployed giving it the
diaphony,althoughit
of three tones at times.
or
was
to make permissible
In other words, the
use
accompaniment
HARMONY
59
of tones the composed of the same as was sequence interval from the melody, each tone at a distance of the same correspondingone of the melody. The intervals which were considered above or below, fifths above, octaves proper were fourths above, fifths above or fourths below, or fourths above fifths below. and panied Formerly melody had only been accomwas
in the
and
octave
practicaluse
for
variety. However, modern
this
even
familiar
ears
be remembered
must
the acceptance of these new vals interafforded for new possibilities many
with
system appears
new
elaborate
more
that this
crude
harmony,
but
to
it
the first attempt at sounding
was
and although these intervals fail to simultaneously, themselves recommend the harmony of. today, without to beautiful to medieval doubt they sounded If such had ears. been the case not they would surely not have enjoyed such The system of diaphony has been greatlycriticized generaluse. been referred to as and has even brutal,"but it is not well to lose sight of the fact that we have no way by which condition utterly to judge it for the -condition of affairs a is beyond our comprehension without harmony in any sense tones
"
"
"
after the many
centuries of its
Hucbald, did
being
for
much
establish the system of diaphony, development of harmony by also
did much
who
instrumental
in
the
use.
to
the establishing
of the intervals of
use
figured extensively in the developmentof counterpoint.Throughout the historyof harmony it has been a very difficultmatter to keep the two distinct,harmony being the outgrowth of counterpoint
forms and
having
even
in
the
in counterpoint
romantic forsook
familyand
study
care
it is
his
vows
in
of
was
born
left his home
married. and
centuries,but
usuallydiscussed However,
forms.
to impossible
history. He and
is
musical
the discussion of
de la Hale, who character
many
intricate and
more
with the utmost Adam
but
much
harmony to
a
subsidiaryto it for
been
counterpointis after
likewise
He
thirds.
and
seconds
obviate all reference
harmony.
about 1240 in Arras, is for a time a monk, was Later
he
forsook
his
after various travels reached
he died after
Italy,where
deformity. performed
at
in the
was
to
called the Hunchback
may and
be
specimen of comic opera He court of Naples in 1285.
of cliscant,Ihe
use
without
"
first the
been
have
Marion
"
His
the
as
I Le
lime.
although he seems Jeu de Robin el de
Arras,
of
a
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
60
name
given
at
a
sidered con-
was
first
later
prominent period
was
the to accompanying part which had been added importance and at an melody. The system began to assume early date in the Fourteenth Century it acquiredrules all its
to
the
"wn.
become
musicians
As
counterpointappeared. The in the and
in
venturesome
more
Troubadours
were
discant
mental largelyinstru-
joyed development, They rather enheld by the churchmen, disreputein which they were of in an effort to further irritate formed a custom
creatingthis
new
often combining a hymn or chant with some song merry sadly lackingin purity. The melodies of each, changed a trifle to
fit them
the other in form
a
rude
for their form
of
nothing more together. It was, certain qualities in
was
sounded possess
conflict in too great
a
sense,
new
use,
were
placed one
above
for this new musical counterpoint, than two independent melodies of course, that they necessary common
so
that
they
would
not
althoughwithout doubt they did
completely. This marks the opening of a long era in music termed the polyphonicfrom the system of combining independent of combining two parts. Following the custom parts the next the combination of three parts. Compositions step was of this character appear in a crude and nebulous state early in the Twelfth Century, but had acquired a comparative perfectionby the middle of the Thirteenth Century. Progress brought about the addition of new parts to be sounded together,and with each addition the increased multiplicity of sounds delicate handlingand presented required more themselves more monic forciblyfor attention regardingtheir harnot
agree
thus layiijg the foundation for independent relations,
harmony.
HARMONY
Harmony as we know Century. Composers the
writing and
61
it did
not
devoted
until the
appear
teenth Six-
their entire attention to
arrangingof independent parts.
Each
was
distinct melody and all were fitted togetherin a a separate and that reminds of a child fitting his blocks to form manner us
design. Each melody was first carefullycomposed, and the most tellingefforts were expended in producing individual perfection. When they had been combined they were very but there at sad related, frequentlyhappjly were points many dissonances. became evident that these However, it soon not only could be tolerated but by being subjectedto certain could be made conditions to add beauty to the composition. This is one respect in which counterpointand harmony are a
related, for it is
on
intervals
of dissonant
of this extensive
account
by
writers
and
necessary
counterpointthat they play such an important part in harmony. Dissonances in strictness be employed only when may that their so they are followed by the proper consonances How them acceptable to make incompletenessis not evident. and beautiful to the ear occupiedmuch of the attention of the for, as we have seen, dissonances to them were contrapuntists, afforded full play in arrangevil. Ingenuitywas a necessary ing them when counterpointbecame properly,and, naturally, superseded by harmony, this opportunity for ornamentation of the intricacies thrown not aside; but the secret of many was in and beauties of harmony lies in the cunning-manner use
these intervals
which
During octave,
and
handled.
early half of
the
scale
chromatic
are
the
increased
Sixteenth
the
appeared complete
with
of
with
number
twelve of
Century notes
notes
the
to
an
opened
a
from for more dissonances,and, as a consequence possibility arranging the dissonant chords, greater varietyin composing. life. Greater Music ingenuity immediately acquired more the music of the church lost its into play and even came reserved dignityand the Gloria,the Kyrie, the Credo and the
Agnus
frolicsome
were
for
ballad and
dance
propriety.Musicians
lost
sung
to
music
far
sight of
too
good
to
and
of
At
"
tunes
their secular
instance; the mass
absurd
most
lent
even
artistic combining of
the
The
considerations to be subservient
all other
allowed
entirelyand
taste
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
62
of
mass
last the music
became
in
sacred
Armor"
"
More
put that it was
and
a
was
precipitated.
along this
as
well
as
sonances dis-
masses
use,
for
and
the
in existence.
were
unfitted for the
so
in the
use
to allow the abuse impossible
was
reformation
and
Faces
Two
With
the
to
Man
"The
used
were
names
and
consonances
many
to
which
to
continue
other
it
lines
Palestrina
(1524his birthplace, from trina, Pales1594) who was given his name Palestrina's musical ability Rome. gained recognear nition 1550 and 1555 Pope JuliusIII. appointed and between him as one of the twenty-four collegiate singersin the Pope's greatlyin violation of privatechapel,althoughthe act was the rules governing this selection, Pakstrina was trebly the of for father he a a layman, was was family, ineligible The bad voice. had not and a particularly positionwas The
foremost
musician
of the time
was
Pope died and the Pope succeedingPope only lived twenty-three days, when permanent, Paul to
for
in about
IV, ascended
adhere
to
the
jealousclergywho him
to
the
years
the
Papal chair.
Prompted by
rules of his office and were
because of his
displacedhim
two
a
desire
influenced by the
Palestrina's associates but who
liked dis-
the Pope superiormusical qualities,
his
left to and Palestrina was position face most severe poverty and hardship for a brief time. However, his greatesttriumph was before him. The Council of Trent when consideringthe abuses so prevalent in the church music were at a loss to discover a remedy and even contemplated discardingmusic entirelyfrom the service. Fearingthis to be a too extreme measure they modified it by which should orderingPalestrina to compose three masses of trulyreligious music. In 1565 the possess the qualities from
submitted to the Council and the firsttwo were received with great joy,for they indeed seemed fitted for the tise fot whkfa they were designed THha third possessed even
tnasses
were
HARMONY wonderful
more
been
IV.
Pius
Pope
the
and qualities
completelyentranced "
that
of such
the hearers.
nature
a
have
must
song heard by John the apostlein the heavenly It was dedicated to Pope Marcellus II. Pales-
new
Jerusalem." trina had
declared
63
established
now
for ecclesiastical music
standard
a
is still followed, in
which
matic which, however, the use of chroforbidden. whose notes was Palestrina, upon strictly is the inscription Prince of Music," left nearly one tomb and hundred and masses hymns, besides about sixty motets "
compositions.He
other combine
the
The
example
chromatic
notes
for
drawback
a
to
which
first to
the
the
did
cut
shown
of
mony, har-
music, the
secular branch
The
off.
brief
the all too
alid possibilities
scale had
with
away
development of
church, the greatest branch
stillheld out
chromatic
of the
by Palestrina
affordingvarietywas
of the art
been
have
to
the science of music.
set
was
in the
of
means
with
art
is said
use
might
be
great desire
to
what
composers
done.
This
was
epoch-making period.
an
emulate
the
example
have
had
the most
to
their
little store
until
they
have
been.
to
was use
a
most
many
but
as
the
imitate
failed to
music
and
Grecian
the
might dissonances,
music
had
greatest of musical of the composer combinations of notes.
created
forms.
to
music
new
what
has
Monteverde
periodand He
resort
difficultthe
more
they felt their
they instead
increase
to
suppositions
many
bearable composers
audacious
unusual
musicians
intensified the
ingeniousmethods,
strivingto
then considered
were
facts with
idea of what
like the ancient
more
lived
since
no
them
make
to
of
In
be.
historical
of
and They multiplied
all manner
task the
Greeks, who perfectmusic, led
littleor
had
for in order to
of the
A
created
dared
to
readily, t
polishand
the
specimensof
his
compositions'
duced written. However, he introincorrectly could music chords without which and progressions is now have attained the dramatic grandeur which never possible. In 1600 he and a few associates produced what of the Grecian style,but they hoped was an exact duplicate which
remain
are
instead
which
the
was
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
64
first opera
Eurydice." long periodwas occupiedwhile harmony
"
A
name
and
Orpheus
was
Its
written.
ever
As
counterpoint
separatedfrom consisted of
been
has
founded
several melodies
ing becom-
was
point counter-
seen,
simultaneously
of
sounded groups together,although these groups did not occupy the interest of composers as groups, but only in a dissected condition, and of the others of the group each note being independent made
consequentlyis
and
up
of
notes
only bearing the proper relations of tonalityto the other of its respective notes melody. By thus combining melodies the effect of harmony was gained. Gradually the groups, or chords, as they are called, foothold
gained a into
existence
to the
interest of musicians of
realization
a
and
beauties
the
there
that
came
could
of chords, although musicians gained by progressions
be
were
occurring. Church change that was music had been arranged as counterpoint, accompanied by the sound The tones can simultaneously organ many organ. not
conscious
and
it
was
the
have
of
very easy in the absence of any fillin the vacancies to instrument
In order
effect music
written
was
The
bass
chord
alone
the these
continuo It
and
and
enable the
what
written
was
fulfilthe contrapuntal
out
organistto do this the is known as a figuredbass. the other
and
notes
of the
by figures placedabove the notes, representing intervals,counting from the bass upwards, at
notes
should stand.
This
bass
was
called basso
(continuousbass),
have been firstemployed by Peri, Monteverde others about 1600, in the accompaniments of their recitatives seems
and e.
with
to
of the voices to
indicated
were
which
the
to
songs.
g,, it is to be
later.
Its found
use
survived
in the
for
a
long time, for,
of Bach
scores
and
Handel,
It is
no practically longer employed in this .way. Until this pointit has been difficultto not encroach when describing the rise of harmony, but upon counterpoint this difficulty now is past and harmony beginsto assume the even
it -importance
now
holds.
First it
was
an
accidental effect
HARMONY
65
later produced by part-writing,
it insinuated
its
importance counterpoint,of which
the attention of the writers of upon it remained a dependent part, until at last it attained
importance and into grow musical. The
alone
stood
its
and
independent in rightfulposition in the scheme
its true
readiness of
to
things
Frenchman,
the first Jean Philippe Rameau, was well-known writer who treated independent harmony theoretically and attempted to explain the reasons for it and the rules governing it. Rameau indeed a musical was genius. His gifts early manifested themselves and as he was of a musical for their cultivation. He family his trainingwas
exceedinglyversatile
was
theorist,organ
and
and
excellent
was
clavichord
virtuoso
and
belongs the honor of having first observed true philosophyof harmony. The
thorough study
progressionsof manner
the
as
language
desires
of the
chords
good
create
forms
which
reason
differs from
the
last two
and
a
lies not
sought on
the
the art
for
the
makes
music
a
in composers chords what and
effects in much
the
same
the
of his grammar the classics of literature for
discover
good
creates
in the
beyond
other
that which
is best is
qualities. Music
productions themselves
in that
which
hand, possesses
itself must
These and
grasped
as
paintingand sculpturein these reasons. genius merely copies beauties alreadyin for the beauty of the productionof reason
art
arts
and
and
proper the
of
studies
and
pleasingstyle. Still more to interesting
composer, teacher; to him
standard
combinations
aspiringauthor
for correct
write
to
"
production of
learn what
effort to
an
who
student
as
be found
has
been
the
have
In ence, existthese
must
be
copied. Music,
beauties newly created
and
in
explanation.
have littlebasis explanations
theoretical writers
but
an
created
on
any
natural laws,
hypotheses,many
of
incorrect,until a study of the theories or systems of without of them are harmony tend to confuse, and many have proved themSuch men as to students. use practical them
selves
truly capableof handling this subjecthave
artificial
They of the
the
are
the two
between
born
been
have
degree
same
to
arts
as
the
are
again
Mere
how
harmony.
foundations is
a
striking
music.
of literature and of the
use
a
shown
systems of
the
governing grammar.
rules
analogy
foundations of
artificialin the
are
who
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
66
English language
We read
the unnatural and at unconsciouslywonder flowing awkward phraseology. We consider how much more in the is the language used and easy of comprehension us Twentieth Century until our better judgment reminds that it is entirely beyond our power to decide what is correct beautiful in anything that is so absolutelygoverned by or the musical composiIn the same manner tions arbitrarylaws. plicity to us childish in simof the Elizabethan period appear Chaucer
and
Even the appallingin awkwardness. simple melodies and harmonies that occupied the attention of amateurs duringthe first half of the Nineteenth Century of the amateurs ridiculed by the more sophisticated are and
times
at
have
present who
tasted of
posers. knowledge of the classical com-
a
the
complete change which undergo. the
There
two
are
hearing which and
One
of
an
the
example of public may
in
determining that of is the physicalsense
act
in truth established certain
has
fundamental
unchangeablerules,to be explainedlater* The
the aesthetic sense
which
differs in individuals
of certain tones, combinations
they establish Hence
it must
in the future The
most
a
only be
and
exceptionsto
and
to make tfendfag
of
rightand
and wrong.
will
change
in the past.
apply in all cases orthography,there are likelyto
rules than
its dictates*
to
environment
expectedthat this standard
rules that do exist failto
in grammar
and
artificialstandard
it has done
as
is
by the physicaleffect both senses progressions,
change with education
to
prone
as
other
laid down
the few laws
Beyond are
tastes
which
senses
is beautiful in music:
which
witnessed
past sixtyyears have
The
there
and, be
as
more
rules themselves, thus the study of the philosophy of music comare
HARMONY
plicatedand
confusing.
As
67
been
has
harmony is the sounded or more tones together. These groups chords may each carry a sense of completion as each word or in a literary productionmay express an idea. However, the must not only aspire for beauty and perfectionin composer chords but he must consider with equal care the progressions formed by combining chords, and both subjectsare included in the study of harmony. The most simple form by which the effect of harmony is tions produced is in two sounds taken together. These combinaare comprised possess a great importance,for in them of all harmony the elementary germs the more as complex combinations found be and these to rely upon can analyzed these combinations which some are Among please germs. and which less agreeable. They others the ear are are known and dissonances,respectively. as consonances A scientific explanationof this phenomenon involves the All tones are explanation of the formation of singletones. and a compound affairs. They consist of a fundamental number of harmonies or partials.An absolutely pure tone is dation founor only found in theory,for it is only the fundamental of the tone that is regarded and which gives a name seen,
effect of two
to
the
casual
does
ear
a
strongest part of the
realize that what
not
is a
simple tone and
It is the
tone.
group
be
to
appears
and
tone
a
the pure,
of the
one mass composed strong fundamental harmonies. of weaker, less noticeable, There is
consequently no
fulfilsthe
which
tone
requirements of
an
of the accompanying harmonies for some ideal consonance, harmonies Those do not blend well with the fundamental. which There
are seem
are
to
even
to
the
blend
fundamental
best
harmonies which always present some relation to the fundamental, and it is in evidence
much
too
of and
nearest
are
be an
that
homogeneous
whole
insufficient tone
less
complete tones,
disagreeablenoise.
hear
we
but
a
tone
bear
to
a
when
which
appears
with
does be
it.
agreeable dis-
they not posed com-
itself accompanied by weaker entire group producing a makers employ their cwi-
the
Instrument
and in making silencingthe unpleasant harmonies of although some sound as pure as possible, fundamental to the tone. harmonies are retained as they add a charm
ning the the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
68
in
Just
as
those
harmonies
situated
the
to
nearest
mental funda-
with it than do those farther consonance possess more of octaves, fifths and combinations the simultaneous
away,
fourths
greater
possess
for
consonance,
these
the
are
monies har-
possessingthe simplestratios with the fundamental, in the chapter on tonality.They are not has been shown as but their consonance means the smallest intervals by any of their ratiosthe simplicity rests upon interval is
ratio of the ideal consonant is a unison and 1 which, of course, The
it is
1 is to
as
only logicalthat
bearing the next simplestrelations would possess have established Musicians the next greatest consonance* and dissonance of arbitrarydecisions as to the consonance certain intervals and in the discussion of harmony it is necessary to recognizethe distinction thus determined upon. ratios are intervals whose of Those the expressedby any all others except figuresfrom one to six are consonances, those that are merely a former interval doubled as 2:6, 1 :12, 4:8, 6:12, etc., are dissonances* The tables of consonances
those tones
read thus
dissonances
and
:
CONSONANCES _
f
Perfect.,
Ratio
fOctave ..J
1:2
,..,...,..,..
Fifth
2:3 3:4
Fourth te "
Major third
Imperfect,J
Minor
I Major Minor
third
4:5 5:6 3:5
,
sixth sixth
S;8
DISSONANCES,
Major
second
Minor
second
Major
seventh. seventh
Minor
"
,
,
,
IMssonant Intervals produce the effect of a
which quality
8:9
*,...,.
,....,.,.,..,,.
*
.
.
,
,.15:16 8:15 9:16 .
being rough
or
is due to reinforcements of the inten-
tit tfafcsottti4occurringat
intervals. We regtflar
have
HARMONY that difference
learned
in the number
to
air ab6ut
the
water
is made
will
the irregularities,
water
longitudinal.The
of
them.
cause
transmits which
waves
If
the water.
difference
to
its motion
travel
is thrown
stone
a
just as
immediatelyappear seeming
motion
the
However,
which
vibrate
to
through
there
pool
a
is due
tones
second
per
it in the form
travel
waves
into
pitch in
of vibrations
string which
A
of
69
in the
to
is not
water
of
entrance
the surface upon rise and fall in waves.
the
horizontal into
stone
but
the
is
water
the adjoining atoms, the compression causingthe compresses In surface of the water to rise,forming the crest of a wave.
and
become
to
the
force
Just
water. or
of waves, motion reaches
which
Each air
the
other waves
allow
to
will,in two
an
vibrations
do
a
men
hour.
an
occur
a
less until
the air in the
to
the water
until the
waves
of 256
per second sounded are
second, more rapidlymust
vibrations
pass each walk around
other.
to
a
hour, and The
a
one circle,
the other
by the
together the
gain on
similar at
at the rate
manner
the of
The
rate
of
forty-six
rapid rate
of
during the hour. the sound waves through the
air
going
man
In
in
and
during a second.
sense,
at
the
more
ten times
of
will be instants when is in
rate
per
of ten
speed will pass the other During the passage there
tinues, con-
disappears from the string,a column of air,
transmitted
as
the
of 246
the amount
times fifty-six times
of motion
the
rate
whose
one
of
are
travel
occurringat the
at
relax
auditory nerve, and becomes sound. vibration of a stringproduces a distinct wave It is easilyseen that if two caused tones, one
vibrations other
to
wave
less and
growing
so, the vibrations
form
of the
all disturbance
and
out
adjoining
next
transmission
contact
vibratingsubstances
any
the
of the
the
to
the crest
The
trough.
a
all effect dies
been
had
causingwhat
atoms
is transmitted
compression
the
turn
what
representsthe
crest
of
one
analogousto the trough of the other position instant they would counteract each other and at which wave, their power will be destroyed,producinginstantaneous silence. wave
a
Naturally these instants
of silence which
constitute what
are
70 called
beats,will
causing them
to
of beats per
number
The
dissonant.
as
regularintervals,breaking the
pulsationsand
into
tones
at
occur
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
be
tinuous con-
nized recogwill be
second
equal to the difference in the vibration numbers of two tones. beats occur, but as In a unison, the ideal of consonance, no tones diverge in ratios the number of beats per second grows affirms, where more rapid up to the point,so Helmholz sounded gether. toC and D flat are when as thirty-three occur, in Beyond this point the beats lose their intensity until their inverse order as they gain in speed per second In treble C and E in the disagreeableeffect passes away. second
above
octave
128 beats occur, but there is the beats are so short and have
middle
C
dissonance,as perceptible reinforcements such meager that there are no appreciable intensity united tones The of strength in the sound. appear of the pulsacontinuous,there seeming to be an entire absence tions. no
The the loudness In the
the
names
must
which
of the notes
In
have
tonalitywe
a
been spoken of
the
as
proportionto
to understand necessary the scale are known to
learned
certain relation to the
in
them.
cause
study of harmony it is by which the degreesof
musicians. bear
the beats increases
of intensity
that all other
which first,
has
degrees
heretofore
key-note. TechnicallyJt is known
as
derived from an abbreviated form of the Tonic, a name Latin word, Tonica, meaning tone and signifying that this is the
the chief tone
The tonic
which Next
next
and
to
Dominant, rule
Importancecomes
preserve
the fourth
Mediant,
is situated the above
because
dominant. lower
called
it appears
in
importantdegree is the fifth above
most
is
which to
of the scale.
The
mediant.
that of the
a
over
because
the other
the
fifth below
sixth
It derives its
or
lower
in
nant, domi-
inverted
degrees it becomes degree is called the tonic and
the
Submediant
or
the
is called the name
in
manner
the tonic. When
midway between degree
the
degreesof the scale,
Subdommant,
succession of upper the tonic. The third it is
of
the
a
manner
mediant, since it is situated half way
similar to between
HARMONY the tonic and
subdominant.
Supertonic,as degree receives rise
lead
or
it is the the
The
second
just above
one
degree
the tonic,which
In their successive
from
the the
order
is called the
the tonic. The
Leading Tone
name
to
up
71
the
seventh
tendency to
demands
ear
that it
of the
degrees Tonic, Supertonic, Mediant, Subdominant, Dominant,
possess. are
Submediant
and
point we have only. These, however,
tones
the
acceptance of the
true
effect of
French a
of
a
constitute
not
In
term.
order
to
of two
harmony produce
in the
it is necessary to combine three or more is called a Chord, a name derived from the
When
third
between.
notes
it is termed
the root
as
other
second
triad.
chord
member
is
chord
can
it is from be
is at
of
composed
lowest
The
and
the third member
and
the root
a
the
of the chord of the
notes
The
thirds. from
do
combinations
word, accord, meaning sounded together. The notes chord are placed one above the other with an interval
three
the
dealt with
harmony
into what
notes
of
Leading Tone.
this
Until
names
is
note
but
nated desig-
this note
that
built up in interval of a third
spelledor
the
at the interval of
a
fifth.
bearing a relation to the root which fulfils these If the triad comprises requirementsis termed a chord tone. fifth it is called a major triad,but a major third and a perfect if it comprisesa minor third and a perfectfifth it receives If the third is a major one of minor. the qualifying name and the fifth augmented the triad is an augmented triad. If, Any
tone
the
on
interval is is
hand, the fifth is less than
other a
diminished
diminished
a
When
Their
all the
a
page
chords
are
of music
contains
it
third.
it is indeed hard
merely superposed
to
"
thirds.
is due to the inversion of certain appearance Each triad is subjectto the first and of the chord.
second
inversions.
of
triad takes
chord,
the triad which
the
changed
members
the
perfectfifth
triad,the third in it being a minor
glancingover
realize that
fifth and
a
or
lowest tone
By the first inversion the a positionas the lowest
a
member
member of
the
musicians,-is in the bass. The chord is said to be in the bass, the next iti
in the words of
second
of
72
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
alto,and the fourth in the soprano. of the Sixth, for the is called the Chord
the tenor, the third in the
The
first inversion
member
second
interval of triad
the
member
Chord
of
root
which
sixth with
a
is at the bottom
adoption of with
may
chord
a
the
tones
best
generally the
seeking
satisfactory, recognizedin the
most
fact is
every
find
doubled
are
octaves, the doubled is
an
piece of music shall close root occupiesthis position. the at this pointthat in harmony
that
the custom
of
and
When
member.
This
It is worthy of note interval of an octave does not the tones
a
it is
and
the root
with
the practise,
in
of the chord-
chord in which
a
of
Fourth, for the third
fourth
the second
and, position,
natural
is in the bass
and
a
inversion
an
from it is necessary to find that tone be spelled Therefore, its up in thirds.
chord
a
the others
most
Sixth
the
the interval of
forms
interval of
of
is
chord
the
second
The
the root.
its third member
when
occurs
called
the
sixth from
a
of
bass
the
occurring as
place,but
that
when
any of of their
the introduction
by
considered
are
tone
a
one.
The
root
doubled, although,
be
can
as
a necessary in order to bring about gression proof the other tones may sounds be well, one
it is found
when
that doubled. The
1"2"
thus: is
intervals of the 5"6"
3^4"
designatedby It will be
major diatonic
7_8.
; that of a
"
that if each
The
scale
are
arranged
interval of
semitone
by
a
tone
^.
of the first seven
degrees be taken as a root a triad may be formed, although not all of them will contain intervals of like magnitude. Beginning with the first degree as a root, the triad will contain the degrees 1, and
root
between
3
seen
and
5.
the second the root
one
interval of
The
is
member
a
third between
the
major third and the fifth and the third member is a perfectfifth, the a
chord
beingcalled a major triad. Using the second degree as a the degrees2, 4 and 6. The
and
the second
member
is
a
minor
root
the triad would
interval between
third instead of
tain con-
the root a
major
HARMONY
third,but the interval between remains
73
the root
and
the third member
perfectfifth. Hence, this chord is a minor triad. Using the third degree as a root, a triad will contain the degrees 3, 5 and 7. The fact that the intervals of this triad are of the same magnitude as those of the preceding a
triad makes
it self-evident that this also is
a
minor
triad.
Using the fourth degree as the root, a triad will contain the degrees 4, 6 and 8. intervals of this triad The to be of the same magnitude as those of the triad on prove the first degree, and the chord is a major triad. Using the fifth degree as the root, a triad will contain the degrees 5, 7 and 2, and the triad will be major. Using the sixth degree as the root, a triad will contain the degrees 6, 8 and 3, and upon inspection the chord proves to
be
a
minor
triad.
Using the seventh degree as the degrees7, 2 and 4. This a
to on
Hitherto
chord.
new
change, the
and
the third had
the fifth has
seventh
the root, a triad will contain combination brings about
degree,the
been
remained third
the
only interval perfect. In the triad
is minor
and
fifth is
the
triad. a diminished diminished; hence, the chord is known as By this method we find that the triads formed on the on first,fourth and fifth degrees are major, those formed sixth degrees are the second, third and minor, and that In the key of formed the seventh degree is diminished. on
C the tones First
degree as
Second Third Fourth Fifth
comprisingthe triads would root
degree as degree as
root root
degree as degree
as
be named
root
root
Sixth
degree as root Seventh degree as root
We
learned
in the
precedingchapter that
preserve the sequence of intervals proper the key of G requiresthe omission of F
for the as
follows
as
C
E
G
D
F
A
E
G
B
F
A
C
G
B
D
A
C
E
B
D
F
in order
major
it is found
:
to
mode in the
'
key
of
sharp, the tone Consequentlyin the key of G
G.
between
F
and
forming
the triads would
degree as root Second degree as root Third degree as root Fourth degree as root Fifth degree as root Sixth degree as root Seventh degree as root matter
mere
to strikingsimilarity
it will be
of
those found
that in the
seen
names
most
in the
key of C,
D
the
way tones
followingmanner
in the
be named
First
In the
half
the introduction of F
and
C,
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
74
G
B
D
A
C
E
B
I) V
C
E
G
D
F
sharp A
E
C
B
F
sharp
sharp
A
C
of these triads bear
key of C, occurs
:
a
Ilowevcr, the second
on
degree and the triad formed with it as a root is a minor the fifth decree and on triad,while in the key of G it occurs by the introduction of F sharp the triad becomes major. In the fourth degree and the triad the key of C, F occurs on it
with
formed
as
a
is
root
F sharp,occurs substitute, triad of
which
it is the
major, but on
root
in the
the seventh
key of G its degree and the
is diminished
In
a
similar
be noticed other differences in the triads may also be noticed the numerous and there may and
there
manner
here named
pronounced differences broughtabout by using as
more
even
tonics tones
which
introduction
necessitate the
of
several
the proper sequence of intervals. The great varietyof combinations that may thus be brought about is also apparent. chromatic
A
tones
in order
to
preserve
of triads may be formed on the degrees form of which the interscale in the harmonic vals
like number
of the minor
in the followingorder: 1 2^J5 4 the interval of a tone and a half being indicated occur
"
Following the of the
built
major
mode
"
"
5^6+^8, by +"
of procedure as in the case it will be found that major triads can be
same
the fifth and
method
sixth degrees,minor triads on the first and fourth degrees, diminished triads on the second and seventh degrees, and because of the interval of a tone and a on
HARMONY
between
semitone
is built
triad
If
the
the sixth the
on
tonic
third
in
similar a appear did in the major
key
each
triad
number
is
of
number scale.
seventh
root
effect
in
the
chord.
chord
of
the
seventh
which
has
as
root
a
it received
in both
its
major
third
the
on
triads
is
a
there
triads and
a
large to
prove
triad the
is the
in
since
very
analyzation top of
will
as
diatonic
there
tone
new
there
combined,
upon
The
chord
interval
of
a
and
dissonant a consequently creates Although it is possible to build up a on degree of the scale, that one every the fifth degree or is the the dominant
frequently.
most
Dominant
minor
and
modes
which
of
name
in the
inversions
two
is used
and
important
most
augmented
an
changed
fourteen
are
major
and
is formed. the
is
mode
There
combinations
from
degrees
differences
of
subject to
seventh
the
seventh
minor
belong to this class. By placing another of
and
degree.
the
in the minor
each
75
modes.
From
Seventh
and
In
modes
both
its root
is the
same
the
chord
supertonic is second in importance and of the seventh the leading tone the chord is third. The on the leading tone in the minor on mode, however, is more one it important "that that in the major. In the major mode seventh
of the
contains chord
minor
is much
seventh;
used
in the
being secured half-stepby the
chord
a
seventh
the
When
or
stated.
be
are
why
to
of
such
a
of
the
raising the
or
of
seventh other
the
chords
to
seventh
suppose
of
because
that
they recommended
seventh were
as
invented
were
seeking
for
not can-
their selves themof
means
dissonance
lution, requiringresoIn the early history that is, a following consonance. it was music considered imperative that, by way of preparation,
the
the
The
form
used.
of the
composers obtaining variety. The chord of
interval.
same
It is safe
interval
dissonant
diminished
major, the proper by lowering the
less often
chords
the
but
interval
root
of
a
the
on
which
of the chords
case
of
tones
a
chord
created
was
the
a
dissonance, the seventh
of the seventh, should
appear
as
a
in
ber mem-
immediately preceding the dissonance, but
as
close of
early as the found using This
pointsto
and
world
in its
the
of
cars
the
allow
to
of the seventh
other chords
centuries later,when
until two
manner
use
the
have
must
to acquire composers to disregard the positiverule of
still longer time
a
time
enough familiar to
become
it to
enough assurance preparation. The in this
any
dissonances
new
allow
elapsed to
attempt at preparation. duction of the chords, for after the intro-
earlyuse
an
the
of
of the
without
sevenths
diminished
Century Montevercle is dominant, leadingtone, and
Sixteenth
the
the chords
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
76
not
were
used
introduced
Bach
custom.
So
far
words, only chords whose whose
intervals conform
major
or
minor
and
roots
can
to those of the diatonic scale in the
built up systematically for it is possible after the test of analysis,
They
mode.
stand
can
been discussed,in other discovered and be readily
diatonic chords have
only
have
been
any inversion to discover the root, the third, and in which There are, however, certain combinations tones
have
have
proved
been so
altered, which chromatically effective and
and individuality
acquiredan
that
useful
the the
fifth. tonic dia-
tions combina-
they have
used
as
generallyas
are
alteration of which
we
speak must
not
are
the diatonic chords*
This
chromatic
be confused certain
the chromatic
with
key-notes,such
F
as
that
tones
sharp in
the
necessitated
are
key of G.
by
There
F
sharp is as essential a part of the diatonic scale of G as is F natural of the diatonic scale of O However, if in the key of G
the
triad D
lowered tone
to
would
F
sharp A
F, F would be
formed
were
and
F
sharp
were
be
foreignto
altered and the new chromatically the key of G. In like manner if in
formed and F were key of C the triad D F A were raised to F sharp,F would be chromatically altered,the new tone beingforeignto the key of C. When a chromatic chord the
has
been
used tones
the a
tendency is
semitone
above
to or
progress
below
to
a
chord
those which
taining con-
have
been altered,the progression voice. continuingin the same 6f This" interval of a an course, presupposes that there was
HARMONY between
the
and
the tone
established
altered
tone
classifywhen
altered chromatically to
which
chords
reasons
times
puzzles the
in
theorist.
tone
tion), (beforeits altera-
the progression is made. instances
some
undergoingthe brought about
which
process
their
They
are
The
difficult to
are
of
analysisand peculiar alterations
most
used
in the
the at
cented unac-
and are often preceded by the real part of a measure, of the chord, allowing the hearer to perceivein advance the chord would be in its normal condition. less, Neverthe-
tone
what
some
very chord
a a
77
chord
may
raised and
strikingeffects
are
ducing produced by directlyintro-
in its altered form.
be altered
the
same
More way,
than
and
one
some
tone
of
may
be
lowered.
some
Harmony, which to the uninitiated has the appearance of being composed of notes built upon each other in any manner which satisfythe capriceof the composer, consists,in may fact,of a series of .chords which have been built up according established system, a system based entirely trary arbito an upon These laws. specifiedand systematicallyarranged unless integersare not permissible they can be intellectually be possible that the verified. By analyzationit must to show chords have been built up from a root in the approved manner, or they are debarred from being classified as proper harmony. that a composer is always suppliedwith It will be seen He is furnished with a prearranged material for his work. of chords
assortment
which
best, his observation what
of
one
link togetheras he conhe may siders of the work of others telling him
will be acceptable. He chord to another and
successions
and
should
should
an
and
musician
a
in chords
think
chord
ordinary reader and
at
means
by
as
certain
instead of in words,
of notes.
To
is a as intelligible glancehe can determine
is a
the relations
the effects produced
recordinghis impressionsby informed
understand
the word
well to
its root
formation. First
the
then musicians
established, buildingchords was by experimentsfound that certain chords were system
of
certain others, following1
effective when
more
began to progressionsfrom
take
which progressions
were
the
on
chord
to
character
their
use
their discoveries
governing naturallythose
pleasingand
most
established.
became
based
progressionsare
and
rules
of
chord, for very
considered
repeateduntil
were
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
78
mutual
upon
fying satis-
damentall Fun-
relations
unity is existingbetween the chords, and, as a consequence, preservedby grouping the chords accordingto keys. simile the ever-ready supply of By introducinga new be likened to the pigments which the artist has chords may limited by are upon his palette.Both artists and composers certain customs, how
to
the artist
which
but each
combine
In all the arts
possess
his material
and the composer
sees
this facultythat
upon
must
a
facultyof
the
to
as
so
depictbeauties
mentallyhears.
geniusrests. is made use practical
of the
of the beautiful is increased when appreciation brought into contact with that which is not beautiful
as
it is It is
insures the acceptance of dissonances that there are certain dissonances which
phenomenon which
in music. are
It is
fact that
the
this
standing under-
It is true
integralparts of
the chords
those in the chords
of the
with which
seventh, and
they appear, such which
deemed
are
harmony, but there are still other dissonances duced wholly artificialand foreignto the harmony which are introfor no other purpose than to create a feelingof the by that means necessityof consonances, making the latter more even pleasingwhen heard. This method of ornamentation adds grace and spirit to music which might otherwise essential to
be grave and monotonous. If throughouta pieceof music
all the members
of every
chord
to the followingchord there progressedsimultaneously would prevaila sameness of motion and a striking absence
of expressionin the musical sentences, the words of which interest is created by are representedby the chords. A new method of bindingtogetheror conan irregular introducing necting the chords. This irregular connection will naturally arise if all the members
of
a
chord
do not
progress
simul-
HARMONY
taneously,allowing while
the others
delayed members
By
this
chords
dissonance
a
parts of
component
forming a
linger in
to
more
or
become
the
means
one
79
link between
the
places chord,
next
the two
because
is created
their
chords.
parts of two
together. This chaining is technically known as together of harmonies suspension. The sounding of the tone to be suspended as a member of a chord is termed the preparation, the holding of that tone the chord of which it forms over no part is the suspension, the progression of the delayed member and its proper to chord is the resolution. position in the new Throughout the process the delayed tone or tones must the same occupy be merely held over tied until the or part. They either may be repeated with chord is sounded it. or new they may tied the fact is signified When by connectingthe two notes with
momentarily
are
curved
a
sounded
line.
Suspensions usually occur
the
on
accented
beat
of
a
only limited by the composer's is permissibleand idea of what of a by the possibilities intense the and satisfactoryresolution. The more proper dissonance of the suspension,if there follow a thoroughly Their
measure.
harshness
is
resolution,the satisfactory
suspension
resolve
inserted
the
may between
Suspension
unessential
down
and
to
the
notes
The
may
be
the resolution.
first method
dissonances.
effect.
discovered
for
Formerly only those been accepted. Of
ducing introwhich
harmony had course, such as chords of the seventh, the so-called essential discords, had been the outgrowth of man's ingenuityin the same degree as were suspensions,but all thingsthrough extensive
are
natural
or
up
suspensionand the
was
agreeableis the
more
to be grow excite interest.
use
considered Such
was
natural and true
of
lose their
so-called
to power essential cords dis-
unnatural and consequently was something new sought,the search leadingto the introduction of suspension. With his Monteverde did much to develop this device. daring and ingenuityhe used much harsher suspensionsthan Their first steps his predecessors had deemed permissible. and
departurehad
in the
pleasingeffects in which that is
to
foreign to
the
motion
be
distance
between
They
The
melody
but
be may harmonic
the chord
it sounds
which
with
and
by the interval of a tone or continuingin one direction. The left
which
passing tones
more.
and a realization of the faltering, obtained were only reached gradually.
been
now
approachedand
of
MUSIC
OF
proceedto other varieties or ornamentation dissonances are employed. A passing tone is one
will
We
be
THEORY
THE
80
harmony
two
notes
and
be the consequence may be of an in this case may
accompaniedby
tone, semi-
number
only limited by the
is
occur
may
a
must
of
be one or may melodic motion.
elaborate character,
extremelysimple harmony,
an
slower intervals of progression being much the the harmony may than those of the melody. For instance, be written in whole notes and the melody in quarter or The necessary changes in pitch due to the eighth notes. of the melody bring into use tones more rapid progression which are dissonant with the harmony, but their dissonance and is immediatelyremedied by a following is only momentary The use of passingtones dates from the consonance. Sixteenth Century. is what is variously Similar to the passing termed tone tone, and broderie. It differs auxiliary returningdissonance, polated passingtone in that the dissonance is not interduring the passage from one tone to another, but
from
the
returns
occupy
the
to a
the
consonance
stronger or
harmony
note
a
from
weaker
to which
beat in the
it
the two may be a tone or An Appoggiatura, by some
which
it
than does
measure
belongsand a
It may
came.
tween the distance be-
semitone above
or
below*
wrongly termed an unprepared is dissonant tone a suspension, entirely foreignto the chord with which it sounds,but which by resolution passes into the proper member of the chord whose placefor the time it had usurped;it differsfrom a suspension in that it is not It is usuallyon the chord* prolonged from the preceding accented beat of a measure. When instead an appoggiatura, of passingto its resolution, the on skipsto an appoggiatura
MENDELSSOHN
BARTHOLDY
1809-1847*
The JtJorn
in
soliil
Mendels-
world
iriamDurg*.
doubly
to
owes
debt
gratitude,
o.f
composing
besides
for,
a
of
the
finest
w^ritteii
music
founding-
and
^ver
some
musical
great
Sebastian.
John
of
works
a
Leipsic,
at
conservatory
Rach
and
the
revised
'he
taught
to us
ciate appre-
then.lv ?,
-
"
:
'
Iix
lie
Mendfelssohni
18?9
most was
hifrhlv
first
anoreclated.
ipvent
tfo
England,
where
HARMONY
side of
other
Appoggiaturas
it is
of resolution
note
a
81
be
may
used
double
a
in two
taneously. parts simul-
more
or
Anticipation (the opposite of suspension),is made by unaccented more or tones, usuallyshorter in value than to the appropriatetone or following ones, which move
one
the
in the next
tones
Pedal
chord
tones
fact that
the
from
and
scores,
called
also
are
Pedal
tones
They such
are
the
assists
points by one
in the bass, although this need is
tone
more
or
these
of
a
in
more
this
conclusion.
voices
through
tonic
or
part of
a
of
some
generallyfound
is
The always be the case. dominant, the latter being
appearingmore
often
near
movement.
indeed
is
not
the tonic
and
common
the end
It
usuallythe
name
appear
forming a consonant It but entirelyforeignto the rest.
pedal
their
derived
succession of harmonies them
introducing
extensivelyin organ pedals. -The fact that they
notes
organ sustained
of
method
probably
played upon
are
of the other voices.
in advance still another
are
artificial dissonances.
the
appoggiatura.
to striking
of man's served
ingenuityat
have
rules
from entirely resulting
as
a
in
by
but
are
rules the
comparativelyrecent
a
nucleus
They
hedged
themselves
effects which
oramental
how
note
which
around
what
musicians
growth out-
date.
gathered
have have
are
considered
beautiful. Not
alone
does
sounding from
chord
be committed
to
of
chord
if any
in
tones are
chord
to
chord
deal with but
the
of any
key
composer must
follow
a
taneous simul-
the
progressions
vitallyimportant. No
foreignto it. However, the describingan emotion and he in such
have
harmony
wrong
chord
will
entirely
is.te41ing a story
arrange
the
or
progressions
order that he may logically carry out his purpose. of combination Hence, to produce valuable music, each new bear some relation to the combination which tones must cedes preof
an
it. In this respectthe rule is not akin to the multitude purely arbitraryrules which govern music, but has a
uphold
to
reason
and
custom
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
82
it. Nevertheless, the
upon
shall be
idea of the beautiful, as
man's
upon
itself rests
reason
seen
later. In mind
order
in the
act
must
thoroughly appreciateand
to
music
when
it docs
as
manner
same
enjoy
the
listening
Unless
hook.
break a reading a of a which is recognizedas intentional and significant occurs change of thought no abrupt transition is countenanced. of ideas along a similar vein be a continuance There must another until a new family of subjectis introduced, when thoughts may be ushered in. of harmony have gleaned through observation Students of music which has been accepted and is still deemed proper
to
oration
an
when
or
relations have
rules
governing them
have
and satisfactory,
most
and
repeated time
been
these
found
been
that certain relations have
rules
into the
grown
until the
again
governing
harmony. There exist
may
That
form
which
the tones
which
the chords
is that
the
various
are
the passage ear
as
realize
from
having one There
or
relation to notes
more
are
device
also
and
are
them.
When
its natural
harmonics
it
octave
to both
was
the
upon
sonant dis-
not
arc
appeals
to
the
is made
car
chords
is by
chords.
which
considered
allowed
are
discussingthe fundamental learned
that
the
octave
simplestrelation
to
but it has also been
learned that the
interval of
the next fifth from
considered in
harmony. The
simplestrelation is that which the
fundamental
and
to
relations
proper
bears the
is not
the
possessinga
as
exist between
physicalreasons
exist between
the first harmonic
chords
of
key
same
formed
by which
common
figurein determiningwhat to
if these
ous obvi-
most
tonality,that
to another group and to the mind
one
Another
proper
a
and
the
to
be
can
relationships
chord
belong
Chords
being entirelyproper
logicalsequence. to
should
them
degrees of the scale,ami
various
which
simple appears most should have the same
diatonic scale,
same
in
ways
harmonic
is the
the next
the
as
mental, fundaan
bearing
interval of
a
simplestrelation
HARMONY exists between
the third harmonic
the
separatedby the place of dominant
the
fourth
are
that
of
in existence
been
that 'the
harmonics
interval of
a
among
the
fourth.
subdominant.
the chords
the fundamental
and
The
degrees of As long as
the dominant
on
fifth the
which assumes
scale and
harmony and
has
nant subdomi-
been
have the chord
83
recognized as bearing the closest relation to the tonic,but it was on not until Rameau, in 1722, explanationof this custom involvingthe relation of to their fundamental advanced. It is peculiar was
that
these
the
scale.
three
chords
contain
Throughout
between
them
composition they
every
of
note
every
used
are
in preserving frequentlythan any others and thus serve unity and in firmly impressingthe key upon the mind of the
more
hearer. A
at the
found
is the
cadence
close of
ending of a phrase in music is composed of a composition
and
that
the chord
tonic, which is always at the end of a composition, ordinarilypreceded by the chord on the dominant or that on That the subdominant. nant containing the chord on the domiof
the
is termed
the authentic
cadence
frequentlythan that containingthe called the plagalcadence. The chords
importance
shows
in what
of
the
is used
and
chord
laws
degree the
more
the subdominant
on
dominant
much
subdominant
and
of acoustics affect the
progressionsof chords although these progressionswere recognizedby musicians before the study of acoustics became a
that the In
available* second a
Musicians
part of the study of music.
major
fifth.
chords
major of each
member
third and
In order must
to
bear
chords
three
scales
under
they
discussion all
are
forming with the
the third member
produce these
manded deinstinctively
an
should
major triads,the root
an
interval of
interval of
a
perfect
the desired effect the tones
relations, and
be
it
was
found
of the that
all the authentic and plagalchurch modes or the among and employed ancient Greek modes as arranged by Glareanus by secular musicians only one of the latter group, the Ionian,
possessedintervals which allowed the degreesof
the scale to
be
arranged
in the proper
seekinga
when
the intervals of
with
the
obtainingvarietythat
of
minor
and
descended
has
as
in the
could be arranged
important chords
thus perfectfifth,
a
strikingcontrast to those preservinga strong degree
mode
^Eolian
doubtless discovered
was
of
most
still
and
a
It
manner.
means
these three
uiEolian mode
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
84
of
one
major scale,
the
of
ing form-
similarity.The modern
our
minor
scales. These
relations which
must
considered
been
have
chords
them
exist between
all dissonances
word
cannot
a
a
old
preparedand resolved
grew
by
This
dissonance*
be inserted
in
the
a
way
the very
appearing with
The
into existence
follow
must
intervals.
dissonant be
must
brought
custom
a
of
introduction
in
are
of harmony fundamental, the complications the
and
consonant
rule
that
of
out
a
nance feelingthat a consois perfectly for logical,
sentence
where
it has
no
robbing the sentence of all logicalvalue; dissonant chord is generallyprecededby something a related to it and is always followed by something specially Students of harmony else bearinga close relationship.
meaning thus very
without
learn this
as
one
of the rules to be observed
in
writingmusic,
and broader a broader composers have assumed of the rule until they overlook it in so far as interpretation
but modern the
preparationis concerned
and
discord upon a precipitate the ear of the hearer without havingestablished any previous also often disregarding natural relation, the old custom of followingdissonances by consonances. Even an untrained ear can observe the incomplete effect of a dissonant chord,and unconsciously expects the following but it is seldom that the reason tion consonance, why the resoluof a dissonance has become customary is investigated. that the reason is purely comes Immediately the answer for the phenomena of as are sesthetical, nearlyall the reasons music. The physical reason why certain combinations of two tones
are
consonant
and
others
are
dissonant in
no
sense
for the progression of chords containing these intervals. The mind derives real pleasure only from constitutes
a
reason
HARMONY
dwelling upon
agreeableimpressions,although it temporarily which are disagreeablebecause it is the latter
tolerates those which
85
produce excitement and tend to impressions. We speak of a novel when
it embodies
more
or
less
or
the able agreedrama esting interas
accentuate a
exciting situations,
'involvinganxiety to we are prone which does not disparage one carry these situations to a settled close, in other words, to a proper happy or more resolution. Our aesthetic sense in nearlyall cases requiresan events.' In like manner the mind agrees agreeablesequence of and
to
dwell
how
momentarily
dissonant intervals, but the unsettled upon which thus arises must last but must not
condition
give place are
distress,but
the
to
introduced of the
for the
story
unconscious
or
demand
Dissonances
soothing consonance.
more
reasons
same
of
as
tions situa-
the tense
are
the
drama, that is,to satisfythe for excitement or change which is ever
present.
The
writer
of music
be followed
must
manner particular Counterpoint was
the
this branch
of the
must
by
not
realize that
but he must
consonance
in which
only
nance disso-
understand
the
progressiontakes place. the birthplace of dissonances. Strictly with and deals it art voice, was necessary
that the passage from the discord to the concord should which in the easiest way made was by means possible,
single diatonic steps. It effort
required for
was
a
considered
was
voice
to
forming a discord with another appeared, for it preparationnow from
tone new
one,
and
the
to
preceding concord than to attack an creatinga discord,so the voice which was
the discordant chord.
It
tone
of
retain
a
entirely to
duce intro-
it in the ceding prelaborious likewise considered especially
tone
was
a
custom
far easier to
a
of
especial
an
properlypass
voice was
that
be
was
allowed
to
have
discord,and the singlestep at once fact The the most simple method. affected by discant than by generally
for the voice to leave the recommended
itself as
that resolution is
more
explainedby the impressionof increased effort given by heightenedpitch. It requiresan exertion to reach ascent
is
THE
86
higher ones.
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
in tones, which is not the case the voice may In the latter case
descending to lower be
allowed
relax
to
somewhat. chord
Beyond the two generalprinciplesthat a relationshipwith possess an easilyrecognizable it,and
places
in
the
that dissonant next
philosophycannot
the
should one
ceding pre-
pass to their proper easiest method possible,
should
notes
by the assist in determining chord
the
progression of
be must plished accomchords, but the resolution of dissonances There are by applyingthe most expedient means. be applied in all cases, and it is the various rules that may composer's right to select that one best fitted to his purpose. when There only one was a time in the historyof harmony for each considered resolution was discord, but now proper allow his own the composer fancy to dictate the method may is being trained to accept the he will employ and the world unusual resolutions as satisfactory. most Modulation, the passing from one key to another, is one of the most important departments of music and to be handled well requiresthorough musical education on the part
of the composer. If a musical but one key there would result material
a
written
in
effect,for the
monotonous
the disposalof the composer
at
afford
compositionwere would
be too
limited
than one refreshingvariety. Therefore, more than a key is used in compositionshaving a length of more few measures and the methods of passing from key to key and eventually returningto the first key in order that the music may end with the original tonic,comprisesmuch that is intricate and much that requiresboth art and technique, Certain keys are more closelyrelated than are others. Hence, it is most natural to pass from one key to a nearly related one. Related major keys are those whose tonics are the closer the consonant; the more perfectthe consonance relationship. Any major key is most closelyrelated to its to
dominant
a
and
subdominant
and
these three keys. Any minor its dominant
and
these three keys*
subdominant
to
the
key is most and
relative minors
of
closelyrelated to the relative majors of
HARMONY There
three methods
are
the diatonic,the chromatic modulation
only
keys concerned chords situated called
chords
of modulation and
the
which
are
employed.
are
87
common
enharmonic.
use
It has
been
:
In diatonic
entirelydiatonic
in the
noticed that
tain cer-
in tAvo
occur keys although they will be may different degrees of the scale. Such chords are
on
chords
common
and
employed
are
key of C has been in use dominant, G B D, is employed, it will If the
this
in
chord
in diatonic modulation.
and
the triad
be
at
seen
the tonic of the
key
on
once
the
that
of
C, hence, although only chords in the key of C have been used previous to this chord, after its introduction chords of either the key of C or the key of G may follow,and in the case chords in has taken place. It is only the key of G are used modulation to establish the new key,which is done by observing necessary its tonalitythrough a progressionof several chords. Passage well as to related keys may be made by common to remote as chords, although the process is less simple. It is done by same
of
means
occurs
transition be
on
intermediate
or
reached
modulations.
by passing through
The
new
other
keys which more are closelyrelated to each other. The keys through do not need to be stronglymarked, which transition is made of reaching for they are of no importanceexcept as a means the new key. key
must
modulation
Chromatic does
as
does
chords requirecommon to the key of C it diatonic,but by again referring not
the superwill be perceivedthat the triads D F A occur on tonic and by studying the triads of the key of G it will be that the combination
found
of the
the dominant from
C
to
sharpingF it
were
G
new
the chord
the chord
similar is D
most
key. D
of
of the
desirable to pass to
F
sharp A
on
Were
it desired to modulate
F
could be used
A
and
by
key would appear. In case sharps or key employingmore
new a
of the triad might be than one member flats,more changed. In fact,the alteration of triads may be made in several
any
manner.
tempered scale
It is evident that a
key
in which
owing
to
the
use
certain degrees are
of
the
sharps
equivalentof
the
be
may
flats,because For used in both cases. flat
chromatic
same
other
tones
grees debe
must
instance, the keys of C sharp and D equivalentsand if it should be desirable
enharmonic
are
certain
key in which
a
the
are
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
88
the
only change necessary be to change the or would sharps as the case be to their enharmonic equivalents,sharps if they be may is very serviceable flats or flats if they be sharps. A chord which from
to modulate
the other
to
one
originalflats
seventh, which
dominant
is the
modulation
in
capable of irregularresolution. Consequently it as a medium through which passage may be made key to any other key. Pivot
also
notes
modulation the
of
chord
the
possess
but
note,
smooth
a
a
originalkey note
one
and
modulation
the to
common
may
from
In
originalkey in
However,
claord.
common
the
that
serve
may
in modulation.
ease
it is necessary
have
key
new
afford
of
chord
each, and
the
is
any
tonic diaand the
case
key pivot
new
termed
a
be effected.
of a Modulation, well developed,enchances the charm all the beauties piece of music without limit* By its means while if of every key are at the disposalof a composer,
restricted to to but
one
key throughouta piecehe would
one-thirtieth of them.
A
have
should
composer
but
not
access
change
as key to key without any reason, departments of music he must be governed by as clear logic into as though he were writing a treatise. Modulation related keys is expressive of candid and simple feelings, but the passage is to remote when keys the effect is slightly and should occur this abrupt and surprising, only when
from
in all other
effect is desired. At times
a
composer
wishes to remain
unusually long period,but fearingto monotony
he
occupiesthe mind
with
distinct key thus refreshingit with thoughtbefore resuming the firstkey. draw
a
strong
contrast
between
two
in
create a
one an
key for
unpleasant
modulation an
Or
entire
an
to
some
change of
he may
keys which
desire to he
will
modulation alternately employ for long periods. Ordinarily at occurs frequentintervals duringany pieceof music.
HARMONY
Its
through until
is
use
many
Sixteenth
the
conceptions would
been
have
recognized. of
However,
of
modes,
notes
which
until the extent
call
we
accidental
by
an
to
use
another
older
the from
artistic
of
use
establish
musical
acute
another
use
to
was
of
closely related chords which
chords the
there
the
remains
an
of
tribution the dis-
be
to
did
realized.
musicians
appear the the
until
been
to
and
measure
handling
was
him
and
to
have
by
the
so
notes
heed
no
and
wandered
another.
composers
was
tion, modula-
aimlessly
Nevertheless, this
of modulation. led them
to
The for
search
last there
appeared groups of the present day tonality. By *
fine
very
decide
tonic.
foundation
at
introduced
likelyto
very
next
to
tial essen-
in chords,
Nevertheless, there
was
He
very
perceptionof keys
corresponds to
accidentals
of
use
scale, were
accidentals
after it had
key
a
key.
composers
sense
the
Century
of
the composer accidental in the
accidentals
the systematic
or
method
modulation.
closely related key
one
the
harmony
modulation, but it became
no
trained
ears
which
his
the
merely as to their individual worth paid to their relations to a common To
introduced
key began
and
introduce
doing
of
used
were
such method a possibilities comprehension of single keys there
the
to
attempt
no
modes
of
tones
Seventeenth
grasp a
be
the
importance
is in fact chromatic
which was
the
course
church
impossible. First modes,
understand
to
without
Without
presented. could
Greek
Then
great
any
Glareanus
the
intervals between
not
development extending
Only Century when
the
of
successions
of
outgrowth
centuries.
of
to
the
89
effects
were
produced,
when impressionof irregularity
but
judged by
moderns. In came
the
into
a
and one was was
use.
most
early part thorough for
some
of the
Eighteenth Century composers sisted, pure tonalitycon-
realization of what time
remained
content
to
continue
in
long spaces using modulation sparingly. This It least in evidence. modulation was the period when the turning pointfrom its unsystematicto its systematic it was When employed passage was made only to the No closely related keys, sttch as to the dominant
key
for
90
THE
designseemed
to
unclerlythe use of keys, but and forth, fearingto go too
back
wavered
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
This
originalkey. with the bold
is very
method
in which
manner
evident
modern
the composers far from the
when
compared strike out
composers
one key to another without regard to their pass from be made if the passage smoothly may degree of relationship and gracefully. They are upheld by a perfectconfidence in
and
in safety. go where they will and to return of the EighteenthCentury say that all the composers is too in their employment of modulation faltering
abilityto
their
To were
for comprehensive, of
his time,
there
was
far that his
so
the wonderful
who
one
was
far in advance
contemporariescould
devices which
he
not
prehend com-
introduced
The
so prehension beyond the comJohann Sebastian Bach were of the periodthat other musicians failed to grasp in their he extended them, but continued the suggestions of a puerilefashion,allowingit to remain for the composers
of
methods
hundred others
had
years later to learn from little by littleadvanced who at last
attained and
distributionwas
worked
a
After
him. to
definite and
the
Bach
came
height which
he
clear system of
key
out,
Haydn and Mozart employed simplesuccessions of keys. established each key which played an portant imThey distinctly
and left no doubt whatever as composition to their intention, followingout a logicalorder of changes. Modulation may be considered as the openingof a comprehensive key system of which the key systems restingupon troduce singletonics are integral harmony was first inparts, When there began an irregular succession of discoveries followed one to chords which The another. as effectively tion varietywas limited to the scope of one key, but by modulakeys may be made to follow each other in a similar
part in
as
manner
every more
a
did chords* is
This
is
a
branch
of the art
which
beingdevelopedand which promises to be even fruitful in the future than in the past in delightful
day
effects.
COUNTERPOINT
It
is
the
vocal.
originally allowed
was
Later
the
relation
its
fourth,
probable
of
two
tones
of
Greeks
could
voices were
established allowed made
to
sing
of and
prominence explained themselves
music
more
not
and
whose
voices
apart.
entirely
giving the
only
the
first
step
point. counter-
or
idea
fourths
regard which had
consonance
that which
tones
even
the
was
the
simultaneously
and than
of
parts
entertained
fifths
fifth, more
hand
many
did
rests
octave
constitutes
They
consonances
great and
time
the
an
other
in
no
different
related into
at
its
combination
and
is, music
allowed
be
obviously
closely
Greeks
tonality
combination
the
This
which
which
custom
of
the
on
tone.
that
polyphony,
interval
time.
on
octave,
the
pitches
others
upon
as
of
and
contrast,
the
chapter
considered
similar
one
by
be
the
at
very
but
the
its
to
introduction
the
of
recognized
The
which
are
effect
any
toward
came
for
tone
may
simultaneously
impression one
law
this
and
by
law
voice
one
present
joined In
was
various
the
at
physiological
the
fundamental
a
reason
singing
lacks
of
made
people
tone.
same
of
tones
doubtless
music
beginning-
very
succession
was
the
on
the
uncivilized
voice it
is
mention
in
of
one
accompanied
The
sustain
manner
the
in
all
that
supposition
Probably
to
the
after
well-founded
the later been
by
Pythagoras,
The
Greeks,
ever, how-
to
be
by
arbitrary
laws
of
a
hampered science
than
an
art
and
dis-
any innovations. They of music as recognizedthe possibility
do not
that
their
erectlyrefrained to
have
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
92
from
It is true
expressionof emotions. chanted long tales of love the
and
a
appear vehicle for
tales whose
war,
singers beauties
but the music, owing to its monotonous could not be excelled, form, in no wise tended to draw the attention. It merely
overlymelodious succession of tones, the which lengthof each conformingto the lengthof the syllable the meaning of the it accompanied. The idea of emphasizing
consisted of
a
not
music did not suggest them to appropriate by setting in realityof secondary itself and the accompaniment was
words
consideration, whereas,
it is not
has been used
music exquisite
where
now
difficultto find instances to
accompany
mediocre
words.
Christianity broughtwith
it
a
new
impetus. Believers of their expression
of song for the adaptability exhorted praises,and furthermore they were to employ it However, the conditions were to improvement.
realized the
The to
abstract the
in the art
likewise but was spirit, theory which was encouragedby toward
directed
music
not
Bible
conducive
be
attributed
the
outgrowth
tirely en-
of
the attention that in
arranging the
ritual.
The
church
exerted
a
cal musiinfluenceover striking after the death of beginning, the converts possessed consisted
most
development. In the Christ,all the music which of fragments borrowed from music.
cannot
Christian
churchmen
church
made
advance
in the
Christ
the older Greek
and
Hebrew
had chanted a hymn of disciples praiseat the Last Supper and the apostleshad repeatedly the chantingof certain psalms,but the music recommended was undoubtedlyHebraic, and it is from this scanty seed and
his
that the present system has grown,
Christ
associated with music, having even closely been represented as Orpheus playing and it was upon a lyre, in very natural that the art was regardedas indispensable God. praising was
COUNTERPOINT simultaneous
The
93
chantingof
the entire
congregationis been superseded by antiphonal or said to have responsive about 350. A more chanting legendary explanationof its adoptionrelates to St. Ignatius,who is supposed to have lived during the period from 49 to 107, and who died at Rome as a martyr after having spent his life as a discipleto the apostle,St. John. The story goes that St. Ignatiushad a vision in which the heavens were opened to him and within the celestial choirs praisingthe Holy Trinity in he heard The vision so impressed him that he introalternate chants. duced this method of chanting into the church at Antioch. it was In reality, undoubtedly the resurrection of an Hebraic custom.
Many they
died
are
the
continued
stories of to
the
Christian
martyrs
their
sing praises to
who
God, the
as
domitab in-
spiritthus exhibited winning many converts to the St. Augustine is recorded faith. confession to by his own have been converted to Christianity by the effect of beautiful There
music. records
also
are
of the custom
what
be
may
observed
considered
authentic
specialfeast days by the rise early Christian followers whereby they gathered before sunindicates the prominent and sang their praises,which part music played in their worship. During the Second Century the universal acceptance of belief in the
the
necessityof
a
Christ
on
brought
catholic church
about
and
a
realization of
a
common
service.
the All
efforts to
futile until during the bring this about were auspiciousreign of Constantine (306-337), Althought not he ever favored the church, a Christian duringhis active life, tions. convicfor political effect than from religious perhaps more In a vision justbefore an importantbattle he is said to
have
seen
a
cross
and to have
received
an
intimation
that
symbol at the head of his forces victory would he adopted it as his insignia be gained* As a consequence and always retained it. He was extremelyjust ruler,and an shortlybefore his death declared his intention of becoming and Christian and was a baptized. During his reign new with
this
94
magnificentchurches formal
more
Hitherto
edifices. but
the
be in
keeping
chantinghad
choirs of trained
now
by
although hymns
the
only such
reached
that
sing in
Christian the
as
had
a
the
been
entirelycongregational
more
splendid
instituted and
singers were not
immediately
the decision
of Laodocea, been
on
with
congregationwere
at the Council
excluded, in 367
About
to
aspect
the service took
and
erected
were
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
was
properlyappointedshould
churches.
beginning of
Century, during the
the Fourth
period of church freedom under Constantino, a school founded in Rome for the trainingof church singerswas by Pope Sylvesterand soon after there ensued the introduction into the church service of hymns which were strictly original the past. founded in that they were upon no traditions from
new
They
from
the first breakingaway
mark
constitute the first effort to
and
of the Greeks
the mother
music the
overcome
ished bindingtheory of the Greeks. A periodof productionflouruntil the beginningof the next century, when originality threatened with suppression claring was by a part of the clergydemusic into the against the introduction of new their opinionwas ritual,but fortunately
church
overruled,
During the Fourth Century the church passed through an exceedinglydark period,caused by the strong reaction the land. against the belief which swept over Emperor the 361 who from to 363, strongly Julian Apostate, reigned advocated
a
the pagan forms of worship and his the pure religious music that had been
return
to
influence threatened the
outgrowth
of
When Christianity,
instructed in the articles of with was
all of which of
and studious philosophic
nature
hesitation. and
But
later as
he
he became the
between
he
surrounded
Homer
complied without
familiar with contrast was
a
he
youth, Julianwas faith and practisethen prevalent, a
and
the great writers of ancient Hellas the grovelingsuperstition with which
and
other
the admiration
he
felt for the works
and poets,the veneration for antiquity
of the
vested, poeticatmosphere with which the Olympic writers stood inhe became
a
believer in the
theologyof Homer
and
COUNTERFOIL
Hesiod.
With
beautiful
ys
another
of his time he failed to find the of the Christian religionand confounded simplicity many
intricate
the
it with
T
prevailed for
a
metaphysics and
time
in the church.
his
According to
which abjectsuperstition he
account
own
Christian
was
until his
year, though he did not openly proclaim himself a of the ancient gods until he was Emperor, when he
twentieth
votary
known
become
Julian the Apostate. He to open their temples and offer victims pagans and though very tolerant,even returningto Catholic
the
prelatesand
clergy whom
banished, he attempted
tius had
directed
as
the
Christian
the
development of
Of
Church.
church
the
introduce
to
this meant
course,
music.
The
as
the
heretofore,
their churches
Arian pagan
Constanritual into
retardingof Greek philosophyof a
not the charming poeticcreed of the early and day was best days of Hellas,but in it had crept tasteless, unsubstantial had quite absorbed the vagaries,mysticism and superstition
his
So
elements.
purer
reign was of
pagan
of
the
brief
a
them
would
much
that
for
allowed
eventuallythe lost its control
church
that
his
degrading songs
supersede the chants religionwhich engendered the people. As it was over to
in strictly religious
not
the
that the wanton,
not
were
or
have was
well
was
and
one
worship
church
it
character
crept into
ritual,and St. Ambrose (339-397) found ready the task of selectingsuch music as was worthy of the use to which form it had of been a common put and of establishing worship, the
In assumed
374 the
task
Bishop of Milan and at defending the church againstthe became
Ambrose of
once
posed pro-
worship by Empress Justina. and theological He lived during a time of political unrest, for while the barbarians pressedin upon the Roman Empire, even the itself and threateningtemporal power, sacking Rome With threatened by heresy and by schism. daunted unchurch was in the face of many opposing forces, he courage, introduction
of
Arian
He broughtback to the faith and foughthis fightand won. to publicpenance the Emperor Theodosius, assuringtemporal
OF
THEORY
THE
96
MUSIC
support for the church, firmlyreinstated the Christian form of
worship and established hundred
for two
There
of St.
are
Augustine when
the Ambrosian He
years. in existence
system, but
Ambrosian
a
chant
affirms that he
we
he
standard
melodies
no
may
the
speaks of
which
based
quote from
exclaimed, "O
upon
impressionmade When
God!
my
lasted the
the Confessions
it in the church
he heard
as
of music
at
by
Milan,
the sweet
congregationbroke upon my ears how 1 wept over Thy hymns of praise. The sound poured into mine heart. Then and glowed Thy truth entered my ears, the spirit within me of devotion,tears poured forth and I rejoiced." in truth through the influence of Ambrose It was that Augustine was brought back to the faith and was made Bishop of Hippo, North Africa. He had been swayed by of the times and hacl rejectedthe the general incredulity convinced him, partly orthodox Christian teachings.Ambrose through the power of music, that he had strayedfrom the and then from a sense of duty he threw himself true religion, into the conflict and against unbelievers with waged war His influence was very great,and in carrying voice and pen. he carried the form of the teachings of the Catholic religion voice
of the
worshipas pure
established
by
Ambrose
and
as
a
part of it the
music. religious The
progress
of music between the time of Ambrose
and
of the retarded because of misinterpretation Gregory was meaning of Greek treatiseson musical construction. Boetitts, and not a musician,had about the year 500 a statesman attempted to compilea work on the theoryof music as set forth by the Greeks, but treated it simply in the lightof mathematical
science and
not
as
an
art.
Students
seem
to
tative acceptedhis work, De Institutione Musica, as authoriand blindlyfollowed it for years, and their music consequently in beauty formal, unreal and failed entirely was and when Gregorybecame Pope from the aestheticstandpoint,
have
in 590 he found the church service in
a
deterioratedcondition.
COUNTERPOINT Few
pontiffshave
equaled and
97
hardly one
surpassed him as of the concerns of the vast Papal charge. He student of life and realized the ment necessityfor advance-
administrator a
was
of culture in the church He
knew
the
awaken
is indebted
publicservice
visible
highestand
for the
and
and
details of
systematizationof
desire for music
order
in the service he
which
was
that
was
in
He
saw
anywhere in unseemly or worthless. and
arranged
copiedinto
the
church
the music
discard any
and
This he did with
which
ing grow-
crept into use songs which that to again bringabout
gather togetherall
must
the chants
the church
satisfied the entirely
not
use
caused
zeal and
him
consistent
there had
place.
To
man.
organizationof its its ritual,and for the regulation its sacred chants. The severely
had
and
of
entirelyout
were
best in
complete and
chants of Ambrose
formal
of
society. symbols of the spiritual teachings Catholic religion, be must such as to appealto
that the
of the Roman and
the demands
to meet
he had
untiring
decided upon
compact form
to
the
that this form Rome, thus signifying worship should remain unchanged during all time.
of
a
and
chained
be
to
altar of St. Peter's in
In the chant of Ambrose and hi that
it
was
the
abolished
had
greatlyresembled recited than
more more
the upon accompanied,and the new
melodies was
the
termed
chant,
been
the ancient
regarded largelydisGreek
form
Gregory,however,
sung,
style in which the value of the which length of the syllables they chant consisted of
value of whose
notes
planus,
cantus
the
The
being used.
now
had
ancient
rested
notes
the music
but
varied literal
a
slightly.It
translation,plain
referred
name
of
succession
to
the
even
melody. Gregory decreed that the chant should in a large degree be sung by the appointed chorus,althoughthe congregationassisted to a limited extent. laws firmlygoverned it in which the church The manner of cantus firmus (fixedchant). brought it the name measured
movement
of the
Gregory, in order established
a
school
to
propagate his
of music
and imposing proportions
at
became
Rome. very
system of song,
new
The
school
was
popular, its
of fame
98
all lands.
spreadingto conducted
classes in
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
Gregory personally
that
It is said
singingand always kept
hand
at
a
lash
Singers who had been negligentscholars. sent to England in Gregorian chant were grounded 604, and when, during the reign of Gregory's successor, the Pope was generallyacknowledged as head of the church the extensively. The temporal rulers of system spread stillmore various lands sent requests to the Pope that instructors be music their people, to the approved church to teach sent and father of them Pepin, King of the Franks among Charlemagne. He was so impressed by Gregory's form of to
be used
upon in the
service that he remodeled that of the church
at
the Gallic service to conform
Rome,
in 757
and
him Emperor Constantine,requesting
France, which
he
sent
to
placed in the Church
send
thus his music
similar to
schools
numerous
spreadin France
Beginningwith the
and
an
more
system of music. Previous to this there had
to
or^an
St
those
of
Gregory;
Germany.
latter part of the Ninth
musical historian is enabled to of
in
deputationto
Corneille at enthusiastic and
of
Compiegne. Charlemagne also became established
a
with
Century the
closelytrace the development
a
been
no
the subjectand for our concerning largelydependentupon the historyof
theoretical information
writings we
are
church, but this period ushers in one of the three learned writers, Hucbald, Guido of Arezzo, and Franco, who have given us a knowledge of the conditions of music during-the Middle Ages, Hucbald
was
born in 840 in Flanders,
the
Only
one
of his works
De Harmonica Institut tone, in which he preserved, describes under the name form of part Symphonia the primitive writing.Of this Symphonia he mentions three kinds,Diatessaron, Diapente and Diapason Symphonia, in other words, So it is Harmony in the fourth,the fifth and the octave. has been
evident at
this
that time
introduction
the
intervals of
the
fourth
and
fifth were
recognizedin part of
tones
singing and with less closely related than
the unison of the octave, the voices which
before had
the were
not
COUNTERPOINT
enjoyed amount
any independence, had and music had assumed a
Instrumental
develop
begun
crude
so
that it
improvement
vocal
music
had
the organ
than
in church
used
was
assist it.
hundred
two
to
of the instruments
services
It
is known 666
earlyas
as
during Pope Vitalian's reign,and indications used
begun
impossiblethat they did
seems
rather
certain
intricateform.
more
as
displaya
to
this time, althoughthe construction
at
was
retard
well
as
99
not
that A.
D.,
that it
are
was
earlier in Spain.
years
The
ment undoubtedlyselected as the church instruorgan was because of the volume of sound to be obtained from it.
Size,bigness,in anythingcreates of the
with
spectator and
When
began by
man
the
of created
which
admiration
and
feelingof
unknown
the wonder indeed
wonder
and
makes
evolution
The
of the first organ for a tone seemed that in
a
it
way
seldom
of
of
men
and
himself
and
of music
be about
to a
of more compass several inches in breadth and was
alone
have
him
he
held
the
always
the
with
comes
the
and
construction
volume
and
of sound
accomplished,so
was
to the art of music.
than
a
ings question-
confronted
importance is small worships.
all that
detriment
the
own
slow
was
reverence.
all ages, and of mysticism
extremely crude
was
was
size
feel his
man
and
express
which
their
by
power
he humbles
and
life
of
to
in the mind
awe
wonder
comes
architecture
meaning
structures
it
feelingof
a
an
There
octave, the keys
were
long in proportion.They were gloves compelledto wear so heavy that the performer was well termed and to strike the keys with his fists. He was (smiter of the organ). Rapid playing pulsatororganorum and the and because of the compass out of the question, was knowledge of accompaniment only played
absence
of the
harmony such
notes
the
organist for
as
the
choir
an
sang.
be could discovered that certain tones Gradually it was tions and such combinasounded togetherwith a pleasanteffect, were employed at the conclusion of musical sentences. tones Later the singersbegan to imitate the simultaneous
and
it
was
very
natural
for
the
name
of the instrument
THE
100
THEORY
OF
the custom
to
which
had
introduced
music
thus
developed and which
intervals
The
diaphony
it
as
be at
could
one
The
time
method
of
its
beautiful
it
as
appears effects
the
all his harmonies
or
fifth and
recognized the
from equidistant these
of
the
from
intervals
the or
and principal,
unspeakablyharsh, but at considered produced were
for music possible
was
of
interval.
now
use
either
acceptedinterval
one
at another
the other
of
organum,
octave,
were
be either
could
the extent
to
the
voices
the form
organum.
recognized by
were
also called, were
was
accompanying voices
principalvoice
appliedto
be
the term
rose
If, for instance, three
fourth. two
so
MUSIC
on
Hucbald
to be,
these intervals and
commends
the as
based
the system
"
If two He says : or more only proper one, sing accordingto my system, the blending persons fervently of the voices will be most agreeable/'Although modern opinionsdo not coincide with Hucbald '$,his words give us a most comprehensiveidea of the contrast between the element the
as
in music years
satisfied the aesthetic
which and
ago
of six hundred
that of today. Furthermore, musicians were to displayartistic sense, for the opportunity
not
afforded
law
of the church
an
sense
severelybound
within the limits of
them
established rules. Hucbald
was
in the church. to the rule which
fifth and
a
use
of organizing
Ecclesiasticalmusicians strictly adhered allowed only the use of the intervals of a
fourth,but in secular music there had appeared
changes. The been
of the first to favor the
one
extended
limits governing the until the intervals of
sacred a
had organum third and a second
termed recognized. However, the latter system was artisticin effect, profaneby the churchmen and though more was severelydecried. were
Not
until another
the second writer who to
musical
growth of
century has elapseddo has left us
this time,
we
come
to
anythingdefinitein regard Guido
of Arezzo, an Italian the first half of the
Benedictine monk lived during who Eleventh Century,considered consecutive fifthstoo harsh for
COUNTERPOINT
beauty and greatlyfavored the of the first to look than him
in
the
way
be
He
in originality
of
in the
lightof
upon the subsequentadvance
large degree.
a
of fourths.
use
music
science and
a
101
has
been
methods
one
was
rather
art
an
doubtless is due
credited
of
He
with
to
in
much
teachingwhich
cannot
justlyclaimed for him. It is difficult to ascertain musical
to
language,
and
his
and
rapidly was
years which
partlybecause
of his
world
he
at
after
lived most
large his
had
to his contributions
ambiguous
of his life in
a
little knowledge of
death
his
almost
fame
discoveryduring every To the form attributed to him. of
Hucbald
phonia or
the
However,
work.
regard
partly because
and
monastery
science
the truth in
spread next fifty part writing
the
called
Symphonia
he
the
gave
of dia-
name
organum. Benedict
VIII, hearingthat he had invented a new method of teaching,invited him to Rome in order to question him concerningit,and later when to Pope John XIX. came Pope
the
bring the
he induced
Papal throne with
him
system
new
Guido
Antiphonarium
an
of
So
although
inventor of
the
been
time
we
credited
to
he is
and
to
with
insisted upon Guido learned to sing from it
him,
now
had know
Guido
now
could
we
have
not
terpoint coun-
nor
lined stave, all of which was at one that he influenced largely do know
through his association with the Papal church time, and
Rome
in accordance
diaphonia,discant,organum
of the four
nor
written
to
part writing and
remaining until he, Pope John, himself.
to return
credited
with
the music
the invention
of his
of the
of the stave is based the construction which upon of the F and C clef but not of the stave itself.
ciple prinand
diaphony for or chantingorganum ing that is,both ascendin parallel directions, the voices to move the ease with which both descending,therebyincreasing or During the Twelfth all the musicians could keep in tune. Century a change occurred and a systenj termed discantus It
began
was
the custom
in
in France prominently appear most extreme other The began to be
to
and
lands. the Nether-
sought
and
the
of the
notes
highestpart
The voice the
church
had
the
firmus
cantus
"
the Latin
from
this
in
sometimes
turbulent
and
in spirits
which
the
tenore," laws
their songs.
to
second hold.
to
which in
were
free
were
more
voice
pave
established canonical
manner
ments. orna-
of the entire structure.
but secular musicians disregarded,
be
hampered we
of
of tenor
name
The not
carrying
many much
lower
or
firmus, the foundation
carried the cantus
with
acquireda
it carried
that of the second
than
rapid movement
embellished
were
melody which
The
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
102
could wise
no
their
express it is to
So
them
studyof the artisticgrowth of music. Folk-music had been constantlyimproving. There
turn
for
a
legends,stories been
had
of
serenades
whose
music
thought of science but only with dictates of the people, Secular instrumental
arranged with
regard to
the
music
also advanced
had
ballads and
war,
were
the progress the lute and the
no
and
of vocal had flute,
served
effort. no
as
a
for increasing
means
instruments, such
The
connection
with the church
as
but
superiorto the heavy organ in attainingspecial effects* The portability and generalcharacter of these instruments brought them into generaluse and this insured for them improvements suggestedto the performersas they far
were
handled
On
them.
the other hand
understood, and
the organ
helpfulimprovements
was
rested
not
erally gen-
entirely
with the makers. The
knowledge of music
was
very
largelytransmitted
orallybecause of the crude and laborious method This
was
notes
and
of
a
as
very
manner precarious
the words
a
consequence between the Sixth "nd period
in which of many
of notation, to
preserve secular songs
Fourteenth Centuries are extant, but the music has been lost The oldest specimens of such music which are worthy of beingconsidered authentic a
those contained
in the
Locicheimer song-book,a
collection of Volkslieder which dates from a period not later than the Fifteenth Century. The preceding unrecorded period is great, but an estimate of the lengthof time consumed by are
COUNTERPOINT
103
the
development,of which these melodies are the culmination, be reached by their comparison with the original may cantus planus. The propagationof these songs is romantic and interesting. carried from placeto placeby the hordes of They were strollingmusicians who traversed the country in the north and in the south. To gain success it was necessary that they be proficient in many thingsand extremelyversatile. They task were compelled to sing and play many selections, a which, was easier by the fact that there were not made no musical scores to which they might refer. They must stand underhow to play upon various instruments which they carried with
them.
They
be able to compose which verses petent subject,and they must be com-
must
suit any occasion or leaders in any merry-mgking. They either traveled often the master alone, in small groups, of whom was one
would
and
the
others his assistants, or children
and
women
singersor
dancers.
castle to castle and either social
or
took
companies containing
part in the performancesas
people traveled from strolling to town, governedby no law, town acquiredthe wild and questionable
These from
and civil,
bred
customs
who
in
by such the assisting
a
life.
Nevertheless, they accomplished '
They carried that edge of one a generalknowlcountry into another,so establishing of the art composed and, as a matter They continually beauties and the credit of nearlyall of course, discovered new the artistic developmentbelongsto them. Although they had at firstbeen outcasts from the church and had been severelyfrowned upon, throughtheir assistance selves of the sacred playsthey established themin the production in the good graces of the church. During the first part of the Twelfth Century these Easter or Passion Plays conducted variouslytermed were or Mysteriesas they were by the clergyalone and were givensolelyin the Latin tongue. to a largedegree meaningless As a consequence they were much
in
Century
and
of music.
people. In the latter part of the Twelfth during the Thirteenth the language of the
of the
to the mass
progress
OF
THEORY
THE
104
MUSIC
peoplesupersededthe Latin, and others beside the clergywere capable of assistingin the performance. This offered an allowed to take for the minstrels and they were opening in the art of making them proficient parts, their versatility portrayingthe characters in the plays. Their great native the fact that for
wit and
all influence which them
over
did not
long they had been
so
the
societyor
have
off from exerted
with
them
imbue
might
church
cut
reverence any too much allusions which, humorous
they began to introduce although they detracted from the original religious purpose of the plays,greatlyenhanced their interest for the people. a Not only did the lowly strollers make professionof music but gentlemen of the courts adopted it* The Troubadours and
Minnesingersin Germany and the nobles and knightsclaiming England who were
in the south
Minstrels
in
and the
for art's sake alone, employed the sing and compose musicians as accompanists and assistants who did strolling did not care to "lofor anything which their masters imposed to
increase their
To
them.
upon
means
these assistants became
instructors in the art, givinglessons at the placeswhich they visited,thus engaging in an untold degree in disseminating a
knowledge of it and
masters
in
They were performingthe
often infused touches which
giftedthan their music composed by the latter
made
often
more
it much
more
the music
of
the people and gave it The popularelement thus
leadingthe The
as
masses
to
which qualities appealed to them. gained was largelyinstrumental in adopt the art and thus perpetuate it,
nobles disdained to demand
pay for their services it beneath their station and a entertainers, considering
practiseonly worthy of their lowly assistants. However, they were nothingloath to accept giftsfrom the princes and ladies before whom noble
they performed
traditions and
dignitywhich
would
gave
have
the music a refinement and been entirely lackinghad their
to
the jongleurs, absorbed It as assistants, art*
Three
forces
The
severe,
were
at
They clung to their
work
in the
a
profession.
developmentof
unprogressive system of
the
the church, the
COUNTERPOINT refinement
and
and
delicacyof
the
people. They were perfectdevelopment.
'would
have
been
the
lost.
The
church
The
The
touches
Crusaders
had
a
East.
the
carried
were
from
brought
new
country
until
as
marked
very
returning Crusaders
from
beautiful music
they traveled many-sided beauty.
intricate and
an
times
singers, Minne-
equallynecessary for either an essential quality preservedits pure, dignified
Without
new country, receiving
assumed
at
and
three forces
music, but the secular songs to
Troubadours
uncouth, wild, yet
of the its
105
influence upon musical
they
music.
knowledge
The
of surge these movements added
which religiousenthusiasm effect as did the a refining prompted improved morality of the times, and secular music assumed it is seen that the folka song greater artistic perfection. Thus birth to artistic music, but during the Middle gave
music
Ages church
assumed
the character
of
whose
art
an
continued progress noticed that this was
be freely and uninterruptedly.It may in all the a period of increased activity developed form at the same Paintingacquired a more
arts.
time
reached into
polyphony
that
a
western
the
point where
sudden
Europe
acquiredthe come
and
arts
into existence.
came
preparationof
the
The
centuries
development. The astonishing had of
become
civilized and
for civilization,
world
culture is
merged
nations
of the
Fifteenth.
purely national
school
Here
the Twelfth was
of music
gradually always last to
Century to
the foundation and
was
of
had
into evidence in the progress of a people. Paris is to be regardedas the seat of great musical
during the periodfrom
had
ing learn-
the middle
of
followed by
the first ous numer-
the German, and others,the Netherlands,the Neapolitan, the
English. About
this time
there
appeared among
the
musicians, that is,those who composed and taught and of who not were treatises on theoretical music, men wrote ushered in a more "he church ; and with them was interesting period in musical history. toward advanced As discant and organum perfectionit to regulatethe lengthof notes employed became necessary active
THIS
106
and
thus
arose
Thirteenth
subject
of music
form
new
MUSIC called
chant.
measured
Cologne, a most noteworthy theorist of the early writer on the earliest known this Century, was
of
Franco
a
OF
THRORY
In
his treatise, Ars
C'antus
Mensnmhilis,
double
long
he
tions men-
large, the Of the large,l"m";, breve and the breve and semibreve. long-, two semibrcvc kinds, the perfect so named there were by and the Blessed Ever in honor of the Franco Trinity, fect. imperthree of the next notes Every perfectnote was equal to iM'om this lesser denomination; every imperfect to but two, called perfect and the rhythmic forms arrangement sprang modern Perfect time corresponds with our imperfect time. to the common or tripletime, while the imperfect answers music. duple or quadrupletime of modern dealt with ligatures and The other chaptersof his work his system in instituting of Franco succeeded and rests the observance of which occupiedmusicians for measurement, aid in It was an a by no means comparativelyshort time. the production of beauty, but rules which were complicated kinds
four
in the bears
extreme no
of
are
relation to
notes,
found the
the
in all treatises of advance
of
nr
the
time,
counterpoint,but
to
It a
large extent occupies the attention of the musical historians during the firsthalf of the Thirteenth Century, The discantus had been used to designatethe ornaterm mental variation main the the of of it was subject song; really a counterpoint above the plain-song,but until the middle of the Thirteenth Century the term contrapunctus had characters used in the notation of music not appeared. The had in the early stages of musical historybeen called points afid the new which name supplanted that of discant was derived from the expressionpunctus contra (point punctum two -against point),and signified parts progressing by means of notes of equal value. The of one note part sounded with the correspondingnote of the other part, simultaneously the effect of one being set againstthe effect of the other. About this time there appeared a reaction against the Franconitn
system of
measurement
Several
new
musical
COUNTERPOINT theorists
into existence
came
An
107 effected
and
complete
a
lution. revo-
(new art) sprang up in contradistinction to the ars antiqua (antiqueart) of Franco. Innovations had been recognized in regard to the measured discant which did not add to its development but rather covered it with a cloak of intricacies which completely hid its reallygood qualities. had been Musicians strivingafter perfection,but in their experimentshad been led through devious paths which only led
ars
farther
them
radical
change
The
which
nova
was
writers
from
away
composing
bring about
to
necessary of measured
difficultand
were
their desire.
discant
advance.
an
employed
in the extreme.
unusual
firmus
originalcantus
an
had
Consequentlya
and
Instead of
upper of
into the custom discant, they had grown already existingsongs, using one for the cantus one
or
adopted
for
others
more
upper generallywritten in
were
rhythms, stronglymarked the triple measure was then
the
the
and
methods
part
or
combining
firmus
and
parts. The
songs totallydissimilar
so
but
istic characteronly common all music was practically
in which
written. One
of
of significant
changes
reaction
the
which
measure
first
the
had
to
was
be
the
introduced return
graduallyceased
to
to
be
which
was
of
use
duple
employed, triple
being favored because of its fancied relation to the became antly unpleasHoly Trinity. However, the one measure
measure
and
monotonous
brought
about
important innovation
Another
time.
thus
was
a
revival of the
duple
introduction
of smaller time value tones signs representing been in use previously.The semibreve,equal to
than
of
our
whole
divided into smallest,but this was of minim. In smaller notes which were given the name the crotchet was equal to introduced,two of which were been
note, had
The
minim. movement more
and notes
notes even
the
smaller notes
made
parts and one than the others,in some
of
nine
of other
the
semibreves values
were
had
two turn one
accelerated possiblemore part might contain many
instances four,six,seven
againstone
set
being used in
a
similar
breve, the
manner.
This
THE
accommodated
the combination
would
which
employing
have
not notes
of
been
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
108
of different
of songs
with possible but
equal length and
lengths
the old custom one
of
syllableto
a
note.
especialnote
of
composer
musical
and
mathematical
lived
during the first not Century was only a but also a superiorphilosopher, who
Jean de Muris of Normandy seventy years of the Fourteenth
theorist, has
by
his
historical
into writinggiven a clear and valuable insight He has called conditions existing during his time.
and theoretical the
attention
to
several
attempted tasks
instances in which
of extreme
the
have
composers
in combining songs difficulty
of
firmus consisted the cantus very dissimilar lengths. In one of eighteenbreves, the discantus accompanied nine syllables of text
and
a
the discantus
third voice just above
was
nished fur-
of text, the melody allowing syllables thirty-eight The manipsemibreves for eleven of the syllables, ulation thirty-two
with
necessary
allot the
to
write
melodies and
the two
to the syllables
notes
resembles the
to
fully success-
solvingof
problem in mathematics rather than the expressionof an of procedure the most absurd art Through this method and Muris variations appeared De in a inappropriate of vexation addresses his contemporaries thus: moment "You throw tones by chance like boys throwing stones, a
scarcelyone in a hundred givingpleasure you cause gross barbarism I" to revelers who, *'
the mark, and hitting anger
and
ill-humor*
instead of
Oh, what
John Cotton pointedlycompared them tell how cannot or reachinghome safely,
by what way theycame/' The changes here recorded led departure, Completeornate
tant extremelyimporof various portions settings to one
of the
Ordinary of the Mass were composed for the first time, The Antiphonaland the Gradual had been treated in this manner, but the Ordinary appears to have retained its form of organum until this periodat the close of the original Thirteenth Century,when the music of the cHurch had entered
a
new
era, one
which led to the Introductionof forms
COUNTERPOINT that
were
been
put aside
frivolous in the and
new
ones
rhythm, measure for a period in
musical
greatest advances
in
comprises. where
The
musical noted
were
assumed of
and
The
extreme.
accustomingthemselves
were
109
methods
were
to
of
being raised. Composers radical changes in notation, writingand were preparing
historywhich deals with theory and practicethat any
changes activity seemed which
had
been to
and
in the
the
earliest
actual
to
of the
one
period France, Paris,
occurringin around
center
appealedto
use
the
newer
exhibit
an
inclination
is evident
duple measure
Italian composers early mastered rhythms, and syncopation. They were
The
free of movement
was
syncopationwas
employed this
method
their laborious and
more
such
to
the French
effective
the
hear.
the
music Their
French
that combined
extent
of
use
able to create
sparing than an
the Italians
triplemeasure.
pleasantto
and
return
strongly schools during
while
older
the
clingto
to
now
them
specimensof music from the two Fourteenth Century the tendencyof
toward
of
one
apparent interest by the Italians who importantpart in the development. The
imperfectmeasure
use
ideals had
with
an
which
older
who with
rhythms it caused their music to assume an Frequent changes of' irregularappearance. rhythm are indeed acceptableto the ear, but nothingis gained other by too often removing the accent from the firstto some beat of
a
The
monotonous
measure.
Italians
instrumental
were
important device,the but
without
the
The
canon.
which
success
in
developing a very French had employed it,
school
newer
written in only was Italycanon nearly all compositions.Three parts were
In
parts
were
indeed
rare.
however, and four
the
the efforts of
attended
The
two
knowledge
both the French
and
not
of
parts, as usual and canon
was
were
four versal, uni-
English wrote
parts during the first of the Fourteenth
Century.
in In
melody and each successive voice point after melody, beginningat some was given the same relation throughthe same the precedingvoice and retaining canon
one
voice led out in
a
out
composition. All of
the
OF
MUSIC
the
parts
THEORY
THE
110
written,but the melody for the first voice would full and the second
voice
that
received
canon
be used
would
cross
a
to
was
to
take it up. The
its name.
be notated
in
indicate the It
point where during this period
was
firstreferred to the
term
governing its performancebut graduallycame
rules
always
not
were
to
mean
itself.
the device
this time
About
there
were
of intervals which five species
recognizedas consonant by musicians. They were three which were perfect the octave, the fifth and the unison; which and two were imperfect the major sixth and the were
"
"
considered were progressions perfectto imperfectintervals and vice versa.
third,the from
The
natural
most
of the church had been affected to
music
changes which
the
degree by
had
been
an
introduced
to
be
extreme
in
posing. com-
of Gregory had lost favor in plain-song comparison with the freer stylein which the various voices strict
The
furnished with
were
equallycharacteristic
movements.
This
the church's
traditions very naturally to the ecclesiastics. The was newer extremely unsatisfactory of compositionhad at first only been employed for method
drawing
away
from
music of this stylehad come secular music, but eventually into use at gatheringsheld on the feast days of the church
placein the church service. The introduction had been so very gradual that the officials of the church did not fullyrealize what was occurringand with which was entirely open eyes allowed the entrance of much in which the oppositeto the simple and flowingorganum voices remained the same interval apart throughout a composition. and
graduallyit found
a
Furthermore, the choristers were their parts, and althoughthe music service remained was
The
in appearance when sung the effect totallydifferent from that designedby the composer* of practiseof extempore discant allowed all*manner same
variations to be introduced.
unusual
music
the
provise allowed to imin the books of
to
a
The
character of the
large degree depended upon the mood of the were happy his music would contain more
singer.If he
COUNTERPOINT and
would
sing with more spiritthan if he depressed. The practisealso requireda musical knowledge of the choristers possessed and those greater than many not were were sonances properlyqualified likelyto introduce diswhere they should not be and to exaggerate in Writers favor possiblemanner. began to express their disof the methods employed in the service and in time
ornaments were
who
every
attention
the
he
111
which
of
the
authorities
being perpetrated. One
were
the songs of Sirens and service of religion.Another
chants
the
to
remark
a
strikingresemblance
choristers and
of the
drawn
was
writer
declared became
between
the
to
likened
that music so
abuses the
defiled
sarcastic
as
to
the facial contortions
the
agonies of a dying man. Jean de cated Muris, who has been quoted before, declared that the unedusingers performed "their leaps and other vocal antics at inopportune moments. They bark and bay in the manner of dogs, and like lunatics delightin disorderlyand aimless hurryings to and fro." With music This
in
the
more
general had
qualitywas
music
and
was
service
may
choir,
Gregory had
as
this rule
for the
was
assumed
an
considered
for the
should
use
found
of
in the decreed
be allowed adhered
to to
of smaller
value
Another
in the extreme.
wanton
introduction
of notes
effect of greater rapidity. entirelyunsuited for sacred
regarded as
reason
be
extensive
music inappropriate
admittance that
none
sing in abuses
of
laymen
but
those
the church
were
not
and
into the into the
duly appointed as long
liable to occur, lifetime and the
positionwas retained throughouta singerswere always under the surveillance of the church. The church officials attempted to bring about a change and admonitions, of remonstrances better by means isters but their efforts proved futile. The composers and the chor-
for the
ignored their requests and it requireddrastic measures 1322, to accomplish their object. Therefore, in the year Pope John XXII. issued an edict in which he forbade the use of discant,even of the most elementary kind, in the church to the pointand it required services. The edict was strictly
that
again should
never
with
that
discants, nor voices
upper music
the
He
celebration of the mass, and observe strict plain-song
fourth, which
any
office for
forego the
to
intervals
consonant
case
in the solemn
on
such
its
new
in
during
from
feast claysor it would be correct
as eightdays. Occasionally,
the
thai
diseant
suspended
culpritbe
the
depraved
described
demanded
intoxicatingto the ear found was guiltyof singing in service
be
counterpointbe stuffed in
secular songs.
with
MUSIC
of the church
the music
and
as
any one church
OF
THEORY
THE
112
the
as
Pope acknowledged as heighteningthe beauty of melody. Voices might sing at in such a way these intervals above the plainchant, but never eighth,fifth
as
and
divert the attention from
to
the
the cantus
firmus itself.
It is also interesting to note that at this time the church of authorities with great freedom expressedtheir disapproval the
Ionian mode
mode
and
whose
corresponds with the modem of production
tended to the
use
strikingresemblance
more
a
which
this mode fact,they stigmati2ed
to as
major ing bear-
music
present ideal. Tn lascivious together with our
and the use of the intervals of thirds counterpoint in the course of five centuand sixths, all of which practises ries became absolute necessities to the writingof music which would meet with approval, The desires of the Pope were heeded and the strictly the freer
florid diseant
was
silenced in the church.
edict did not
disappearduring the entirely
The
effects of the
Fourteenth
tury. Cen-
However, the forbidden fruit had been tasted was
in
no
wise
an
easy matter
to
and
it
eradicate the desire for
freer music.
Gradually there grew into use a method by which it was to obey Pope John's edict in the letter possible if not in the spirit.The device originated in France and termed faux bourdon false tenon was It was or designed to be sung by three voices,and when written consisted of a strictorganum voice
in two
parts a fifth apart with half-way between, making thirds with
Accordingto doubled
one
the
Pope'sedict
an
additional the
others.
the third voice should
of the other voices in its octave
or
have
else sung
in
COUNTERPOINT unison
with
of them
one
irregularin
was
singers to
three
whom
the upper two parts the lowest part, the
highest voice as
its
positionas a third to each However, the singerscomplicated
the extreme.
in their
matters
and
as
113
of interpretation
the notes.
firmus
cantus
of the three
of
that
effect
The
thirds.
was
composed
was
flowingand
carried left
was
reading the
singthem transposed to an singingvoices did not follow the organum
the
tenor, possessedthe
or
instead
and
written he would
Consequently the but parallelfifths,
Of
the parts were allotted,two written,but a third to whom
much
notes
above.
octave
the
prescribed
of sixths and
artisticthan
more
produced by
the strict organum, and, although this was element which the church been authorities had
the
very desirous of
that
meager
with
do
exterminating,their they did not realize
the written notes
musical that
in such
knowledge was so the singerswere juggling manner
a
to
as
pletely com-
required interval of a fifth and to of the church. disregard most audaciouslythe canons ing Nevertheless,the faux bourdon adapted itself to chantthe with exceeding grace and in time openly assumed instituted
the
the falsity of signified
which
name
with
away
proper
as
device is stillused
music
in the
for
its
use
became
renderingand in
church, under
the the
The
services. of
name
falso-
of chantingthe psalms bordone, in the polyphonicmethod have it in used The and greatest composers responses. thirds obtaining certain effects. For example, progressive chorus sixths are and employed by Mozart in the priests' in his grand Mass in his Magic Flute and by Beethoven
inC.
English adopted the method givingit name. fa-burden, thus anglicizingthe French The
it to
a
and
common
is of
voices
were
of
name
They
sorbed ab-
greater degree than had the French fluence their music of the period displaysits in-
much
originatorsand A
the
English
enough
method
interest to
of typical
this
was
warrant
discant supra
librum
attention.
Three
our
form, the tenor, the
contratenor
114
THE
and
the supranus. before a book sounded
the tenor
with
the
beat
the
the tone
plain-song.The time
while
plain-song.The
of the
the first note
By this
the octave.
from
varied, gathered singers,whose number containingthe requiredcantiis linnus and The
repliedwith
tratenor
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
a
and
fifth above
the supranus established his distance
each
means
tenor
eon-
the
led with
plain-songand accompanied him, note
the contratonor
againstnote, with perfectconcords, almost entirelyin contrary motion, however, and keeping within his from
a
supranus
fourth above
he
was
and
end
accompany
watch
it note
the
which
plain-songbut
for note.
On
which
to
he would
have
sung
had
The not
was
the other
bring in such notes only requirementbeing that each measure
with the note
was
his initial note.
fifth below
all freedom
allowed
desired*the
a
supposedto
was
requiredto
to
range,
hand, as
he
begin not
he
The followingthe rules of the ancient plainorganum. also see to it that all the principal of notes must supranus This styleof each measure concordant with the tenor. were is hard to appreciateat this age. Any extempore music been
allowed in each of the parts, and singerswere the rules which althoughthey might thoroughlyunderstand that each one would they were to follow,it is hardlypossible notes throughout the ornamental attempt exactlythe same supranus and the effect must surelyhave been curious when number
such
was
of
the
case*
Thomas
Merely, who is said to have been intimately connected with Shakespearein literary work, in 1597 said that it caused him to marvel "how men acquaintedwith music can delight to hear such confusion as of force must be extempore/* And indeed such is amongst so many singing the
case.
An
account
of discant supra
Tunstide in his treatiseas the Fourteenth
librurn
given by Simon
measurable
Century pointsto
a
music at the close of influence very perceptible
exerted upon it by faux bourdon* Theorists had previously thoughtit necessary for the suprantts, or voice carryingthe ornamental variation,to introduce concordant tones, but
COUNTERPOINT Tunstide thirds as
insisted upon
and
the
sixths,and
115
of
use
advised
such imperfectintervals,
the
possibleall perfect concords.
three
voices
that two
allowed
were
of them
discant
allotted the
were
this time
By
in the
avoid
to
supranus
of
duty
far
as
than
more
it is
and
as
probable
mental ornaintroducing
parts while the other voices carried the strict organum.
Therefore, it would
freelymoving sixths
with
bourdon.
singing
have
voices to
the
was
avoid
to
observe
all in
However,
extremely easy for the only intervals of thirds
firmus
cantus
indeed
been
in accordance
all, this method
dangerous, of
some
with
the
for it
of
two
and
the
faux
extempore
practically impossible
was
things which
deemed
were
as
strictlycontrary to good counterpoint,such as consecutive perfect intervals. For a chorus to sing successfullytheir be mapped out for them by the composer work must and the members
of
that
may That
each
they
groups.
group
produce
of voices the
desired of
member
every
sing in unison,
must
effect with
some
groups
the
could
regard for his associates is extemporize without beyond comprehension and their united efforts must resulted in a hodge-podge of sound overwhelming to Century ears. various
The were
The
innovations
steadily increasingthe
originalintervals of
longeroccupiedthe
have
limits
of
octave, a of musicians
an
minds
consideration.
claimed
which
Thirds
had
been
so
other
freely almost have tieth Twen-
remarked
good counterpoint.
fifth and
fourth
a
but thirds and attained
no
sixths
prominence that a device called gymel had appeared,although it of attained any great importance. This was a method never writing for two parts so that they remained an interval of a had
obtained
third apart. Variety was each other by which cross assume
a
the relation of
form omitted.
of
faux
positionbelow third.
a
it became
rather
by allowingthe parts
the upper the
Gymel
bourdon, with
Its effect was
parent, and
means
such
voice would
to
porarily tem-
ing lower, although retain-
was
the
meager the ambition of
doubtless
an
ated abbrevi-
highest or third part as compared with its to remedy composers
116
the
defect.
faux
This
bourdon
tenor, but
or
by adding
new
thirds.
in fifths and
tenor
thirds
sixths
and
the
older
above
the
by introducingsomething entirely bassus, descendingbelow
contratenor
a
by returning to
not
conservative
of
firmus
cantus
they did,
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
of the Fourteenth
at the end
Thus
the
firm foundation
upon which to build their art. They had invented a system of polyphony which recognized a varietyof intervals. They had broken
Century
musicians
from
away
the
had
created
a
with
of the church
canons
such
of
assurance
that the severingwas permanent and the pursuance purpose such an of the art of music for art's sake alone had become established
fact that it refused
rules established
Gregory Seventh
by
had
those who
done he
Century
to
untold
again
ever
without
were
things for
established
schools
be
musical
music for
governed by
the
when
edge. knowlin the
trainingof
but the active value of these schools in regard choristers, music
in
Fifteenth
general had worn Century. The the
methods, and musicians
out
world's
by
the
beginning of
progress
demanded
to
the new
institution of
of chapels or organizations adjuncts to the principalcourts of
as
necessary the Europe necessary effect. These institutions formed to which a part of the household they belonged,be it king's, of the lesser nobility. The members ient subservor were prince's, had
the
only to their employers and it was their duty to pleasein highestdegreeeither with compositionor with tion interpretaof music.
Not
only
was
of honor
but
On
the
and
were
to it
Secular music
a
wonderful
impetus.
positionof singerin a chapel royal one there were liberal compensationsappertaining other hand the choristers were underpaid generally the
under
beingrequiredto between caused
received
the most
strict church
instances rules,in many be ecclesiastics. Naturallythe strong comparison
the
old and
the
new
institutions of music
and gifted musicians to seek admittance energetic into the chapels,and here they competed with one another to produce original and artistic compositions.Special obtain to knowledge or inclinations were necessary
COUNTERPOINT and
admittance to insure
117
great effort toward
perfectionwas
required
position. The composition was past and the age of extempore had rules which governed that rather haphazard method serious composition, transferred to the more which was were which notated had throughout. Successive faux bourdon previouslybeen so very popular found littlefavor under the the outgrowth of a childish conditions. It was more ^new beginningthan a proper implement with which to advance an At first the church modes adhered art. were strictly to, thereby greatly limitingthe range of available notes, and, although during the first part of the Fifteenth Century,there remarkable in the beauty and flow of melody, advance a was the
permanent
a
had
composers
yet rid themselves
not
rules arbitrary
and
gracefulmusic
all progress
retarded
aimless discords
so
that
instead of
which
by
all the
of
fining con-
in writing assisting
led composers combiningthe melodies their and
into
good
were sadly weakened. qualities During the first half of the Fifteenth Century England who served greatlyin advancing the possesseda contrapuntist This was art. John of Dunstable, who died in 1453. He life and vigor to the science of counterpointand gave cords possessedenough geniusto sever the bonds of arbitrarydis-
similar unnatural
and
stable's music
may
secular, which
or
be are
judged by
and
scored.
The
features. Dununnecessary several compositions, sacred
However,
extant.
of Dunstable's
few
and
have compositions obscurityof his
personalcharacteristics which allowed the world only a meager
only as
a
comparatively ciphered yet been de-
notation
and
the
many
he allowed
it
knowledge of him for beauty and in sweetness
some
time.
His
music
excelled
purityof sound, but at no to the sentiment adaptability and
He
understood
in
to
creep
into
time did it possess any decided of the words which it accompanied.
the art of
followingan
effective
plan
using contrivances which enabled him to introduce tion. varietyand yet bring his musical plan to a desirable compleinnovation as compared This was most a acceptable and
of
with
proceedingsof
Duncomposers. reflected in the compositions of
aimless
hitherto
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
118
were good qualities that there grew his contemporaries and followers so up a placed disstyleof counterpointin which the older plain-songwas neously occurring simultaby a system of different metres and inexpressive by which the otherwise monotonous duced, introand canon material was was effectively presentedmore extensivelyin the lighted although it figured more the alone in inaugurating music. Dunstable was not entirely lands and the Nethermethods which he did, but both in France there existed contemporaneouslythose who displayed ideas, thus indicatingthat the time had equally advanced
stable's
indeed was
allotted to
typicalcomposers
Dunstable
is dear
He
of music. of the
a
as
from
English historian
of the
obscure
an
boy, distinctly
the country mourned not He received good, true man.
for whom
man
but composer false honor at the hands
only
the heart
to
raised himself
people,to
that the power to progress of distinct countries.
and
for advancement
come
a
as
a
Lustig,a Dutch historian,who discovered in him a saint,although it is certain that Lustig with St. Dustin, an English have confused the musician must ecclesiast livingduring the Tenth Century. tion Despitethe strides which Dunstable made in the realizaof artistic propriety and improved construction there cords clung tenaciouslyto musical minds the idea of arbitrarydiswithout any consideration as to their value in increasing the beauty of the compositionor in introducing and making more
have
acceptablecertain that
even
who
composers
With
the
successors,
as were
late
as
not
passingof
the musical
a
its first appearance. noticeable and fulness and usual
firm
So
the Sixteenth
a
Century
hold
qualityof music;
did
it
there
existed
less
worthy
rid of it. Dunstable
and
a
and
to
the Low
few
The
old
and
Countries.
change in the methods perceptible
made
a
concords.
glory of England declined
is directed to France
1435
of
of
harshness
impressivenessof
tone
tion atten-
About
composition became grew
less to
be
COUNTERPOINT the French
Among
progress and worthy lived from 1400 who age he became included which It
time.
the
Venice
and
were
in
remained
his
to
the notable
with to
so
to show
soon
choir
learn
the
denote
from
of the
of the School
each
other
the
While
themselves.
his
of the
composers of France and
the musicians
enabled
characteristics which was
twenty-eightyears of Pope's choir,an organization
that the musicians
Papal
the
When
of the
mingled
were
ideals which
1474.
to
majority of
there
was
which stands for a name composers achievement is that of Guillaume Dufay,
member
a
Countries
Low
119
of
the
new
Dufay
compositions possess powers
of
few
writer.
It
until after his
appointment as Canon of Cambrai that not pose specialstyledeveloped. He was only able to comin such a way them as flowing melodies but combined their best qualitiesand beautiful accentuate to erect a not
whole.
He
his best efforts to the Mass
devoted
differed
and
his
English contemporariesin making extensive He in this connection. also developed canon
from canon
employed it freelyand of the leading device.
use
of and
brought it into the prominence He was cunning in combining this for instance,introducinga with the unequal measures, as in the two upper voices accordingto the perfectmeastheme ure and later repeating it in the tenor fect according to imperHe
measure.
as
purpose
Dufay
even
sweet
use
hands
it was,
employing the
ornamented
point counter-
choosing a definite compositionsand the music, did not
grasp the mind
and
thought. came
and
canon
and
in
fell short in
for his
though
insistently express some Following Dufay in whose
bourdon
faux
framework
a
flowingand
equallysuccessful
was
originallysimple However,
even
a
transitional school of musicians
imitation
received
effective treatment
Although the ancient writers called the device then in with the present idea of what it hardly conforms canon
the term should
Now
means.
it
the repeat entirely
after another. be termed
The
older
for imitation,
requiresthat one progressionof the device
to modern
would
now
or
more
voices
first voice, one more
it was conceptions
properly nothing
120
THEORY
THE
MUSIC
OF
tation prolonged imitation. Musicians had treated imiOnly casually did they seize ineffectively. very voice a progression of repeatingin one opportunities upon The theme with which had previouslyappeared in another. three times during its imitation would or appear only two Often be abandoned. several then the composition and There now themes were treated in this manner. appeared in the last of the Fifteenth Century a growing realization of the possiblebeauties which could be derived from methodical than
more
of imitation.
treatment
Imitation
and
canon
to belongingstrictly
devices
are
counterpointand, during this period when the musical minds were entirelyoccupied with that branch of music, it seems value. Imitation that musicians at last grasped their true voices as before, but appeared in limited to two not was every part. Formerly the voices had taken up the theme to be repeatedonly in the unison or at the interval of an octave, but now the fifth began to be considered a proper interval to be used. As the Fifteenth Century was ending composition improved noticeably.The gropingsof musicians were being rewarded, and they were approaching the highestdevelopment of counterpoint. Their efforts to find a proper outlet their musical
for
methods
which
but valuable in
to
expend
Dufay
was
his time and
furnished of
devices,some
and
progress
ideas had
worthless
having served
efforts which
considered
well fillsthe
them
with
them
as
a
positionof
in
aiding
foundation
in truth led to
the most
various
upon valuable discoveries
prominent composer leader of what
of
is known
After his death, Johannes Gallo-BelgicSchool. ship Okeghem, a native of East Flanders,succeeded to the leaderand from this dates the beginningsof the Netherlands School. Okeghem was between fortyand fiftyyears of age of his life in the chapelof at this time and had spent much as
the
the
King
of
France,
to
the head
It Is
that rather, surprising
in
country foEiefgn
a
and
a
who
man
of which who
he had
attained.
had lived for
held the state
so
long
positionwhich
COUNTERPOINT he did should the
have
musicians
doubt,
of them
many
such
his mother
of
attention
their
exerted
a
remarkable
his associates
were
him
to
influence upon
However,
country.
drawn
was
121
without
in the
because
of
a
chapel and
the
bond
of
brotherhood.
Okeghem, great
his music
styleand
He superfluities. imitation
encumbered
continued
of the device
possessed a
was,
was
it descended
as
use
he
as
the
him
somewhat
demic aca-
with
tic inartis-
many development of
canonic
from
quent freDufay and made metres simultaneouslyintroducing
to
of
proportions. It may be said that he attained the He highestpoint of subtle ingenuityin handling the canon. contrivances then in the possession brought the mechanical of various
of musicians
condition
a
fundamental
the
and
to
remained
be deemed may conception which he had of
unchanged
he
of
monument
a
as
which
inartistic touches
which
his
unfortunatelyadded
classical canon
has
ability.The were readily
and it may be asserted that even dropped by his successors stands for perfectionin Johann Sebastian Bach, whose name counterpoint,merely employed Okeghem's style of canon. Furthermore, his shortcomingsas to artistic developmentare than overshadowed in other more by his achievements
respects. His he
proper
had
the scientific bent
overcame
for his work
Okeghem, a
more
in
and
regard to
that it is to
value
very
step most
easily
that Glareanus,renowned
modes, was a contemporary of indebted his writingsthat we are
the
of the composer. whose use Okeghem
devices the many augmentation and diminution.
canon
a
was
complete knowledge
Among in
one
of their master.
of interest to note
It is indeed
were
the
advanced
failed,they discovered that music vehicle for the expressionof emotions and
which
for
imitators
and
successors
By
ipeans
mastered
of diminution
the passage repeatedwas written in notes of smaller it appeared originally and consethan those in which quently
rapid pace. Since the repetition and because of after the original, began only a few measures its leader and soon it gained upon its greater agility, they moved
at
a
more
122
THE
THEORY
MUSIC
OF
simultaneouslyand further repetition the opposite would be impossible.Augmentation was of diminution and by its use the notes of the repetition were those of the original and the of greater time value than were tendency of the first part was to so far outdistance the voices
would
sound
the
note
same
the imitation occurred
in which
the
imitation
take away
to
having time
of the device,the hearer before
as
occurred.
to
forgetthe original
written
The
all the effect
notes
not
were
changed to indicate the change in value but the lengthening crescit or decrescit indicated by the words or shorteningwas desired. the composer in duplo,triplo, whatever or device
Another
one
was
termed
inversion
In
canon.
originalappeared inverted in the that a passage which had been ascendingbecame so repetition also popular. was descending. A retrogradeform of canon firmus was In this the cantus repeatedinterval for interval, but instead of the repetition beginningwith the initial note of the cantus and firmus it began with the last note was could backward. who The employ the composer sung less important largestnumber of these devices and numerous in a single compositionwas considered most ones worthy. praiseOkeghem was extremely cunning in this respect, but he "alsowas devices. capableof creatingnew It is more how these purely than easy to understand mechanical devices were capableof occupying the minds of but for all this musicians to the exclusion of real beauties, The Okeghem's compositionsshow the work of a master. melodies,in spiteof the rules which they observe,are flowing intervals of
this the
and
the work
mars
of
and
sweet
canon
which
the
his music
is without
that awkwardness
of many of his contemporaries. The forms have been mentioned have proved themselves
importancewith which they were their originators in that they remained in use to There were, however, a higher plane by Bach.
worthy
which
One with
of the
soon
assumed
demanded the second
which
the
the
character
of
musical
viewed
by
be raised to
other forms curiosities.
of the cantus firmus beginning repetition of the melody and ending with what note
COUNTERPOINT had
the initial note.
been
firmus
in the cantus the shortest
In another omitted.
were
of
notes
the
in
of but
riddle
which
manner
a
The
canons.
all the rests
the
has since
various
not
Middle
parts
escape
Ages;
the
spirit were
the
name
written
not
were
the
canons
for them
won
all
ignored in
were
did
music
contained
in still another
And
firmus
cantus
repetition. During Okeghem's time of mystery which permeated written
123
out,
the entire
composition consisted of a formula containing only a few notes superscribedwith a Latin phrase whose limited to the initiated few and which was interpretation indicated
the
is the
that
specialdevice considerable
in which
manner
point be
to
was
where
size could be notated in
of
mannerisms the
be
to
were
the
worthless
usual
the
canon
from
master
his
Conde, Hennegau, about in
1521.
Music"
His and
upon He
as was
was
written
one
unnecessary but were into
use
Depres
apparent, 1450
and
music
died
at
him
the
in
was
touches born
his native the
"
greatly honored
them. among in the manner shown
in
place
Prince
acknowledged genius is somewhat which Germany, France and Italyfor years contended the honor of being his birthplace. Depres took a most course
part
pre-eminentis that the most giftedof
whose
contemporariestermed he
"
una
ex
in relation to the
specialwork
is looked
most
are
the
seemingly Century composers that always comes
Josquin Depres, or Despres. Okeghem's pupilsand the one in the
Plures
These
of
of
"
movement.
and
which
name
that
material
Okeghem
After
an
marked
Fifteenth
tate; imi-
to
were
began and the Thus a composition of ordinaryline of music.
was
evolved.
the development of any
parts
imitation
the
observed.
Generally the riddle canon (many from one), meaning several
the other
of His in for
prehensive com-
of instruction in order to fithimself for the
It was positionof singer in the Papal chapel at Rome. during this course that he studied under Okeghem. In Rome, and the people became Depres displayedhis superiorqualities he and genius* Later enthusiastic over his learnfegf most
124
OF
THEORY
THE
MUSIC
royal chapelof Louis XII. of France. The king at one time desired that a popular French melody be arranged in such a way that he should have a specialpart. with a task, for the king had indeed confronted Depres was almost no musical knowledge and an extremely feeble voice. was However, the composer equal to the occasion and arranged the chanson for two boys* voices,adding a special part consistingof a singlenote running throughout the piece. This he reserved for the king and sang the bass and principal became
the head
of the
part himself. himself
Depres devoted the Ordinary of
for
deemed
was
the
of
use
the
as
did
for fitting
various
devices.
the words
While
it
the
This
Mass.
very
perceptiblestrain of It attempted to music.
largely to
displayingskill
in
the
Nevertheless, there is a very real beauty running throughout his express
somewhat
the
same
sentiment
accompanied.
Netherlands, the
the several other
in
use
was
arranging settings a subject which
French, the Germans
schools
of composers on with creatingand
and
the Continent
were
working out difficult contentingthemselves in problems involvingthe use of intricate canonic repetitions, England there was forming a reactionary school. The attention of the Englishmusicians reverted to the older plain form
of
counterpointand they
felt convinced
perhaps an occasional use of imitation as supply the necessary and proper interest of However, the activitythat draws the
that this with
adornment a
could
composition.
attention
of
the
England received a setback at a very early from church the Rome at period. The breaking away entire change in church created a necessityfor an music. Composers were requiredto handle new subjectmaterial and historian
they
were
the work the
new
to
confronted which church
with
the
unpleasant realization
they had previouslydone
"was
that all
worthless
for
forms.
Tye and Tallis were perhapsthe most noteworthy members of the English School. Tye was the elder by nearlyten about 1500. Both members were years, having been born
COUNTERPOINT
125
of the
royal chapel,Tallis ending
Queen
Elizabeth
in 1585.
He
plain counterpoint without values
of imitations.
his life in the
was
service of
strict in his
very
simultaneous
notes
of
of
use
various
He
tion displayedhis skill in this direcin his settingof the new Litany of the English church directions that absolutely in 1544, done according to explicit be observed. Tye did not observe as strict plain treatment rules in his counterpointas did Tallis,but the sternness was relieved by its dissolution toward the close of every composition or
running
into
left
Tallis has in
motet
a
ornamental
effects.
of his abilities in
strikingmonument
most
a
It consists of
eightindividual trebles, eight contratenors, eight tenors and
forty parts.
eight mezzosopranos, eight basses. Each
various
and
notes
of the
forty parts was treated carefully and the whole ture strucdisplaysindividual characteristics, fulfils all the demands of good counterpoint.
and
The
attention
of the church
English church
at
Rome
well
as
as
that of
again being turned to the qualityof in use in the service. The music meaning of the words had almost extinct because of the running notes and overbecome lapping of phrases. The service was made repetitions up of intricate music and the sentiments it was supposed to express had entirelydisappeared.Some so rapid that passages were it was impossible for the singers to properly enunciate the distinct syllables and in others the words were dragged out the
to
such
an
that all
extent
the
was
of
attention
was
sense
lost
church
the
during the
bore
pauses. fruit in many appeared. The
However, examples of plainercompositionswhich now collection psalms received an entirelynew treatment, one "The Psalmes of David in English bearingthe inscription, Meter, with Notes of four parts set unto them by Gulielmo Damon, for John Bull, to the use of the godly Christians fore recreating themselves lades." instede of fond and unseemly balIn born
1520
at
Orlandus
Netherlands
the
town
Lassus
School
in
assumed
Mons
of
whose a
in
hands
Holland, there the
work
of
higher importance than
was
the that
by
attained
had
this
change
life. His
and
Delattre
Roland
of
when
father
incident
the
which
he
brought
had a great influence upon his of name had been apprehended in counterfeiting
the made and was to walk three times around money into a collar made scaffold with the spuriousmoney The
his neck.
about
as
the age of eight,at which early time he He is known also by the serious study of his art.
began a about
in Mons
reached
only
name
admitted
was
St. Nicholas
of
Church
in the
chorister
Lassus
English School.
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
126
young his name
son
was
mortified
so
public worn
that
he
from Delattre to Lassus, and immediatelychanged which later influenced him this unpleasantoccurrence it was sixteen. Lassus has received unstinted to go to Italywhen pressiv impraise for his ecclesiastical compositions. They are and exhibit the breadth of the composer's musical his counterpointis made The melodies of which powers. handled so as to produce beauty and artistic perfection up were of them from the and he was equallycapable regarding harmonic standpoint. Formerly composers either could only view their polyphoniccompositionsfrom the melodic standpoint or only from the harmonic, but Lassus combined the of both. He and his versatility was qualities very prolific He received many honors during his life and extreme. was was
intimate
an
after the
remorse
feverish
to
King
talent
for
his associates and
purpose
made
a
did not
even
it
wide
did
about
at
in
directed Lassus
for possible which no
knowledge of From
he
him
music
to
found
creation
time
same
he served
His
successors.
littleor
sttfficehim.
the
unusual and
more
the materials he
and
eve
realized all the promisesof the
who
His
judgment
severe
for the Penitential Psalms.
composer
was
his emotion
overcome
Palestrina,born
was
seized with
was
Paris.
stayingin
of St. Bartholomew's
massacre
effort to
write music
The
had
Charles IX. while
story is told that the king
The
a
of
Lassus.
as as
period
a
model
superiortaste use
to
ready of
the very for him.
and best though Al-
devices,Palestrina
that of his countrymen the specimenswhich he studied and
COUNTERPOINT he
127
loath to gather way utilized in his best efforts. in
was
found
no
Palestrina
parallelmovement changing the value intervals
of
a
of
contrary
close and been
closes had We
have
purity of
to be
are
old
plain counterpointand the parts. He derived varietyby and by introducing notes short
of all the
expressiveand toward
the
favored
suggestionswhich
a
very
learned
the
His
movement.
he discovered
more
were
cially espe-
pleasingapproach
successful close itself. Heretofore
more
awkward in the
Palestrina
a
melodies
was
affairs.
precedingchapterhow instrumental
in
the artistic
saving
church
threatened extinction,a fate with which it was form it had assumed. because of the non-religious Palestrina discovered the secret of writing music which was both simple construction and and to as expressive of religious pure and Gregory and later in thought In the days of Ambrose the Fourteenth Century, at the time of the edict of Pope hands John XXIL, when the church held matters in its own iron-clad its music with surrounded and rules, it was by a conviction that the church should have prompted more absolute sway over everything connected with it than by any knowledge of the artistic fitness of that which it enforced. Palestrina,however, established a standard which has since music of church cause been observed not only beby composers the church approved of it but because it perfectly fulfilledall requirementsby being strictly religious. music
from
Bach
stands
at the
head
of
No contrapuntists.
one
has
appeared who can supersede him and consequentlythe He history of contrapuntaldevelopment ends with him. if any made few innovations, but employed the material with an artistic touch. which he found already in use in his youth encountered Bach a was poor boy who of the proverbial hardshipsall geniusesmust overcome. many to easilysupply a Not only was he without sufficientmeans extent to some dependent thorough education but he was the assistance of an elder brother, Johann Christopher, upon who gifted developed an unpleasantjealousy of the more since
128
THEORY
THE
OF
MUSIC
Johann Sebastian, Both brothers were musical, and although both were in organ proficient especially playing the story goes had the
that
tion Johann Christopherhad in his possessiona collecof organ which he himself compositionsby the masters copied. Prompted by his jealousy he refused to allow them. brother to However, Johann younger copy
secured Sebastian, nothing daunted, surreptitiously and, it is said,copied them by moonlight. Bach musical
of
was
sixth
the
instincts had
first
them,
generation of a familywhose found expression in the zither
the Johann Sebastian was originalBach. culmination, and succeedinghim the glory of the family
playing of
declined.
the
He
exhibited
evinced
any
of
need
elementary teachings of His powers he
often
himself The
allowed
unusual
musical
rapidlyin his classical studies.
but advanced never
only
not
an
his
of concentration
instructor
In
capacities music
he
supplementthe brother, Johann Christopher. marked
were
to
in the extreme
and
night in order to satisfy line of knowledge. in some of any great importancewhich he held first position worked
him
the
all
through
the
munificent remuneration
of
dollars fifty-seven
of the artists of the one per year, but althoughhe was time and had only reached the indiscreet age of eighteen, this so amply provided for his wants that after only a few years
he
was
able to afford
an
extended
journey and
tary mone-
indigentcousin. Bach's artistic ability was trulypeculiarto himself. He delightedin allowing himself to be entirelyinfluenced by the spiritof the words which he was accompanying and to sensations produced. He attempt to carry out the particular beautiful effects when was reproducing capableof especially assistance to
ideas of
an
visions,and
a* choral, From "
Heaven
came
the
angelhost," is typicalof his skill The cantus firmus moves in a simplestyleadaptable to congregaon uninterruptedly tional but the accompanying parts are so artistically singing, interwoven,one ascetklmgand another descending,that the
COUNTERPOINT
impressionof is clear to
One
the hearer. of
The
his work
vocal almost
freer
stylewas
Bach's
genius so that his careful study of Italian which this exerted imparted
clearness of purpose and German School had never
delicate finish which
a
accomplished.
Bach's
compositionswhich were designedfor choir work totallyignored during his lifetime and remained
the
time
some
"
Passion
Matthew realization
marked
at
last discovered for
vainly groping "
it is called.
as
acter char-
considered
be
seventy-five
beginning of
"
his
the
accustomed a
and
The
he
what
his
St.
world's
opened
predecessorshad
to the new sea
new
bearings. They
and
it was
new
in this
of composers
first work
They
necessary
for them an
not
were
conditions.
enthusiastic with
were
"
of
era
an
noteworthy, for they particularly
not
in
gotten for-
of their excellence.
had
field was
the
were
unusual
composer's death, the production of
after the
He
Their
of performance must difficulty for this neglect, but in 1829, over
reason
years
after his death.
their
and
music
unlocked
a
for
been
which
keys
broadeninginfluence
the heavier
as
the
accomplished a
music. to
the
to the shepherds on angels coming down first Christmas morning and then soaring upward again,
the
he
129
as
were
to
tirely en-
gators navi-
get their
enthusiasm
which
rebuffs due to unjust criticism of their work because it did not conform of right and to established conceptions
knew
no
wrong. methods
by
realize,but they
They did
not
and
which
forms
which
began Century was this branch
future
in time
were
creatingnew
to become
were
compositionswould
be
the standard
judged.
mony Har-
their attention and the Seventeenth occupy devoted almost entirelyto the development of
to
of the art
the beginningof the EighteenthCentury came His effect opening of the era of Johann Sebastian Bach. left He polyphonicmusic was great in the extreme. upon it changed in every particular from the condition in which into life during he found it. The music which came new freer character. Contrapuntists of a much this period was
With
the
OF
THEORY
THE
130
MUSIC
previousto him were prone to regard their music only as to of its melodies,that is,they regarded it from the progressions his successors Bach and the horizontal garded repoint of view. vertical
the simultaneous
but gracefully,
and
had
the
become
the melodies
only must
Not
intricate.
more
melodic
or
standpoint.Counterpoint
harmonic
or
horizontal
the
from
it both
flow purely and of the several melodies
tones
be subservient to the rules of
must
The
growth
of
harmony as well. counterpointhas proved itself to have
been reached when it slow, but the pointhas now studied and written. is possibleto consider it as it is now Counterpointis the art of adding to one melody which
been
very
serves
as
such
a
a
that
manner
when be
shall
harmony
correct
for other melodies
foundation
the composer must their relations to
they
above
it in
sounded
are
In
produced.
simultaneously writing harmony
the construction
deal with
below
or
of chords
and
although the melody of each part is considered to a slightdegree when determining from chord the manner in which the progressions to chord be made, it is subordinate in importance to the harmonic construction
harmonic
simple
On
the chords.
of
the
other
hand, although is by no means ficient. suf-
purityis absolutelynecessary it Each part of melody must progress
the others
We
another, and
one
and
possess
of
under
melody which the counterpointis termed
double.
and
of its
distinctive features
treated counterpoint
find
foundation
must
independentof
The
generalheads,
two
constitute the
is to the
own.
subject. If
one
that it melody is added to the subjectin such a manner be used only in its original above or below, it is can position, called a simple counterpoint. If instead it is constructed so that the two parts or melodies can be inverted with regard to other
one
another
it is called double
the word counterpoint,
having the meaning invertible. The inversion the interval, next
the
most
be at any beingthat of the octave and the
common
those of the tenth and interval of
a
fifth
inversion it becomes
a
double
twelfth.
may
In double
counterpoint
requiresspecialtreatment, fourth,an
for
upon
interval which is.forbidden
COUNTERPOINT
in
131
counterpointunless approached
left
and
by
a
step. The
for double
counterpointappears rather obscure to the but its need will be explainedin the treatment of uninitiated, fugue in the next chapter. Triple counterpointis that in which three melodies are written in such a way to be capable of inversion between as be either the highest, can themselves, that is,that each one When four the middle, or the lowest part of the harmony. in this manner have treated melodies are we quadruple much varieties than rarer are are counterpoint. These ber singleor double. Counterpointmay be written in any numreason
any
be of of parts from two and may up to twelve or more, of five speciesaccording to the number and arrangement
pared accompanying melody or melodies as comwith those of the given subject. The first speciesrequiresnote .againstnote, that is,one of the accompanying melodies is caused to sound with a note of similar value in the subjector principal note melody. In the second specieseach note of the subjectmust be accompanied by two notes of equal value in each of the
of the notes
other
of the
melodies. In
the
third
accompanied by of the other
The
specieseach than
more
note
two
of
notes
the
subject must equal value in
of
be each
melodies.
fourth
accompanied by two syncopations. This unaccented b^at of beat of the flext
of each
speciesconsists means measure
a
of
notes
more
or
that
the
note
is tied
of the
subject equal length with occurring on an
note
over
to
the
accented
measure.
In the first four
speciesthe accompanying notes of each be equal,but in the fifth species, florid counmust measure or terpoint be accomit is sometimes called,the subject panied as may by notes of various lengths. various ornamental devices which There are are strictly Canon contrapuntaland which have been noticed historically. may
be differentiated
as
strict and
free.
When
strict the first
part is exactlyrepeatedin the succeedingparts, each
repeti-
132
tion
beginning
and
the in
progression
repeated the
or
which first
can
be
worthy of
is
ancient
writers,
full
is
Counterpoint
the
theory
advanced
in
of
itself
information, and
even
affected
his
is
humorous,
counterpoint
does
that
growth
appeal there
and
the
great
or
have
been
a
the
at to
is
much
interests affected
ough thor-
more
student
when
well
advise
the
time.
same
seeker
the
ments embellish-
the
subject
the
the
rules.
theorists
some
of
its
and
this
counterpoint will
its
requiring
with
in
scandalize
arbitrary
harmony
although
and
in
write,
to
grapples
course,
little but
than
music
of
harmony
there
difficult
to
allowed
sense
all
many
is
which
upon
indeed
which rules
laxity
underneath
observes
education
musical
would
play
edge knowl-
that
or
artistic
the
most
as
A
study.
built
modern
which
nevertheless,
but
counterpoint
good
in
that
or
allowed
from
stringent
be
The
devices.
parts
progression
itself
less
may
The
the
counterpoint
structure
should
interval
any
of
or
though
notes.
purpose
more
mately approxi-
Even
part.
only
the
strict
of
proper
counterpoint
composer
the
to
ornamental
the
for
least
parts
recommends
counterpoint
repeated noticeable
other
at
that
necessarily
not
subservient a
be
evident
is
at
first
the
may
be
voices. the
of
occurs
peculiarities
that
that
to
it
be
repeated
not
useful
most
entirely
study
is
plain
the
necessary
of
other
and
repeated
and
free
in
hence,
part;
Perfectly
place
imitated
repetition
the
the
is
melody,
one
imitation,
need
especially
some
should
the
the
termed
is
idea
which
similar
effect
an
it
free
musical
a
after
measures
possesses
progression
exact
produce in
part
the
is
of
MUSIC
two
canon
beginning
the when
except
the
When
only
than
later
not
preceding.
OF
THEORY
THE
after is
that
of
the
by
it.
In
general romantic
ages
have
FUGUE
is
Fugue
in
of
art
centuries,
musical
among
For
this
only and
delve
of
deeply
so
judges
in
subject
What
a
minds
The
much
hold
listener
who
to
holding
rule
fails music
to
enjoy
really is
to
a
readers the
present
larger
a
any
chapter our
to
measure
creative
great
intelligent
the
only share
his
be
rather
plan
of
fragmentary
of
of
such
a
greatest
comprehension, difficulty
of
the
with the
throughout
mind
previous the
grasp
difficult
education,
or
in
Without
to
not
the
nature
essentials
composition.
the
is
presents
by
gifted, the
and
fugue heard
as
it
and
us,
is
to
fugue.
as
fugue those
of
allotted
purpose
our
this
gain
may of
appropriate
Theoretically, but
each
is
of
desire
masterworks
for
can
composition
they
that
way
appreciation.
of
do
we
not
make
to
standing under-
than
make
to
as
nor
composer,
young
such
intricacies
is
or
of
space
devices it
place
art.
difficulty
larger
a
fugal
and
of
the
However,
its
critics.
or
of
puntal contra-
historically
product
many,
music.
into
the
for
text
the
fugue
of
form
one
finished
a
the
important
most
considered
because
to
presents
treatment
other
of
all
of
a
whether
reason,
it the
to
culmination holds
and
forms,
standpoint
the
from
the
sense
a
study, construction, or
except
course
and
disjointed
the
of
listener
the
of
power
as
often and
feels
even
a
134
THEORY
THE
lackingin melody. highest example the
of
of
will
we
The
contrapuntal composition,so
classes of
clear the
make
again explainthem themselves
terms
polyphonic,many
sense,
a
polyphonicmusic, and
general
two
monophonic, will work
is
Fugue
MUSIC
its chief characteristic is that of melody.
know
we
OF
ing understand-
an
as
It is the
forms, polyphonic and
later
development of
this
briefly. their
convey
in
use
a
general
voiced; monophonic, singlevoiced.
Polyphonic music is a combining of two or more parts of melodic The individuality. monophonic system, whose equal within the simplestform is the song, makes its repetitions limits of a single voiced melody having an accompaniment is
which
to ancillary
found chords
in the
it.
This and
song
accompaniment is consists
otherwise. or figuration
in
of
a
that
monly com-
succession of
In the polyphonic form,
the parts support one another and hence through repetition, other accompaniment is necessary. no With an understanding of the nature of the polyphonic dies stylewe are prepared to look for an interweavingof melocarried by several parts, and subjectto rules of musical melody in a contrapuntalcomposicomposition. The same tion the different is not necessarily repeated by parts, two melodies be heard at once. more When, however, or may the
canonic
form
In the
repeatedby the various parts we have a of which the fugue is the highestdevelopment. the laws for the entry of the parts are rigidly
melody
same
canon
is
the second part follows the first If, for instance, the third part conforms and lapse of one measure
laid down. after enters
a
exactlyone
They
after the second.
measure
must
also
if the second part preserve the first difference of intervals; follow out takes up the melody a fifth above the firstit must the
melody
in that interval.
in which
the
Another
fugue differs
from
a
pointsof
canon
struction con-
is in the
principal part is imitated in a fugue, by all the other parts throughoutthe composition; of the or more while the subjectis imitated,and often one to the various imitations of the accompanying counterpoints matter
of imitation.
In
canon
the
of the
FUGUE
subject are
themselves
and imitated, the continuous part by another throughout the whole
of one repetition is rarely found. As we proceed certain
features
only
a
to
In
135
in
with
the
study
with
common
of
the
fugue
canon
work
shall find
we
but
exact
worked
out
brief extent. few
will now paragraphs as possiblewe try to give a conception of the meaning of fugue as applied to musical composition,with a general idea of its construction. Fugue is a French word derived from the Latin, fugare, and that from the Greek, fugere,meaning to to put to flight, flee. The of the title becomes clear to us as we significance of a fugal composition. follow the construction It is a flightof melodies, one part entering,a second takingup the theme, another and another followinguntil all have entered. Through the skilful handling of the subject
by
as
the
composer
you
hold
in mind
the central theme.
You
through this chase of melody, with its many seeming of the composition is becoming divergencies,that the wholeness stronger by the devices used, and you are finally prepared feel all
for the climax.
Any follow
or
subjectto treatment
voice pursue
part may one
begin a fugue
another
the rules of imitation upon
the
character
certain
at
and of
are
the
and
the
other
parts
distances;they are dependent for their subject or principal
theme. The
subjectis a definite theme, consisting generallyof a short melody given in the principal key by the part beginning the composition. Throughout the fugue the subjectis reproduced the the After each of four or more by two, three, parts. the second voice repeats it,usuallya fifth subjectis announced above or a fourth below, and this constitutes the answer. While .
the second
part is givingthe
answer
the
original
becomes which subjectproceedswith a counterpoint the the counter-subject, does every successive part upon as The third part follows with completion of the fugue theme. the subjectagain in the principal key but an octave higher or
part
or
THEORY
THE
136
lower
the firstpart.
than
called
The
MUSIC
of the
announcement
subject,
the entry of all the parts is fugue and the first section or
or counter-subject,
and
answer
OF
expositionof
the
the
completed. After the exposition, the development of all the which be very short, comes may of melodic tion musical in the way ideas,free imitapossibilities and double counterpoint according to the ingenuity of in order to give varietyand still preserve the the composer, unity of the fugue.
development
One
is said to be
of
method An
episodes.
varying
episode
consists
the
work
is in
generallyof
a
the
use
number
of of
part previouslyheard, and is usually developed from parts of the subject or counter-subject It is often of modulatory style,thus preventingthe weariness
measures,
which
in form
a
of the principal theme repetition might No rigidrules place any limit upon the
incessant
the
otherwise
like
cause.
construction
of
his art
these
episodes and
in
them
the
composer
One individuality.
follow episode may the use of short episodesmay be employed another, and even between the different parts of the fugue as well as between the developed sections,so there is every opportunity in a fugal work for originalemployment of the several musical devices and for the making of an otherwise position pedantic comtake its place as a into one of beauty,that it may truly artistic creation. shows
and
Following the episodeor episodeswe have the entry of another are exposition. The subject and answer again different order from that of the brought forward but follow a first
takes up section;the part which gave the subjectnow the answer, the subjectbeing given to the part which before of course and the counter-subject is formed gave the answer continued and in some as before explained. All the parts are the original counterpointappears either simply or inverted, the subject and answer forming the predominating idea
lowed throughoutthe whole fugue. This expositionis again folby an episode. The greater the number of parts the and episodes. greater will be the number of expositions
FUGUE
137
An
analysisof a short two-voice fugue (No. 10 in the make the fugal structure Well-tempered Clavichord),may In measures 1-4 we clearer. have the expositionof subject and answer 5-10 beginningin the tonic minor; in measures an of subject and episode; in 11-14, a second statement this time in the relative major; in 15-16,another answer, extended episode; from 20 to the end, the third and more this time in the minor statement, again, broken by various episodes. the
Finally comes
unifying of parts,
the
gether bringingto-
the
This originalthemes for the grand climax. is accomplishedby a stretto,a hurryingtogetherof the subject and answer of a shortened distance between them. by means Usually at least one stretto is found and there may be several in the course of a fugue. This interruption strettos lapping overor of
of parts heightens the interest and the listener feels the has graduallyincreased in power work through the successive flightsand he is now ready for the point of greatest interest, the
culmination,or climax.
Often
a
is added
coda
The
and
finish we find the very double pedal point. A cadence The
is cleared for the close.
strengthenthe tonalityat employment of a pedal or either perfector plagalcompletes
to
the
the
way
fugue. and
name
fame
of
Johann Sebastian
Bach
are
so
closelyassociated with the form of compositionwe are now without the to write of one considering,that it is impossible the greatest of all contrapuntalcomThat Bach was other. posers, shall soon read in the precedingchapter,and we we its present perfection. that to him fugue owes However, see no
art
reaches
such
a
climax
without
showing
traces
of all
foreshadowing all that is to be. We have followed the development of this great art from the earliest crude beginnings, from simplestrhythmic motion mony. through the stages of growth of melody, tonalityand harthat
before
came
as
well
as
knowledge of ever-increasing of the various the basic principles, through the application devices,has brought polyphonic compositionto the point We
have
seen
how
the
138
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
genius was needed to give to perfectedform, capableof appealingto
where
us, not
a
Bach
that
was
genius; but
shall
we
the
new
but
a
highest intellect.
trace
now
a
a
little more
minutely than has been done the history of composition as it bears directlyupon the development of fugue. For a thorough understanding of each step in the look to the growth of polyphonic must development one 1100 the year and the death time nothing has been added
interval between
in the
forms
1750, since which musical forms at to the laws of fugue. Of all instrumental present in use fugue ranks as the oldest,though vocal fugues must yieldthe rightof seniorityto the chant, which at least of Bach
in its
in
Gregorian guise is
It
is
the
merely
a
is
Guillaume
fugue as we find Sixteenth Century we form
call canon,
today
we
form
contrasted
fugue accordingto To
that the
canon
During the fuga for the
it grew. the term truth
from
was
the older.
much
of
"
fuga
per
now
the
know use
of
which
in
canonem,"
a
rule.
Dufay,
usually given
Belgian of
a
the
the Fourteenth
credit for the
invention
tury, Cenof
the
canon.
The
canon
as
it
was
then
written
was
the strictest kind
of musical
composition,the counterpointbeing very formal time it and as has been pointed out, for some and severe, the aim of the old contrapuntists seemed to produce works as as incomprehensible possible.There is a lack of beauty of the early composers in the canons fail them that makes of aim as works of art; but they do evince great labor and and we stand undercan composition, what placethey fulfilledin the developmentof instrumental It was music. in fact by the correct ordering of of comintervals and through the experiments in the matter binations
study of
the technical side of
of melodies
known, and
upon
that the relations of tones
which
knowledge
more
modern
were
made
composers
built their works. Under
Joannes Okeghem, a pupilof Dufay's,imitative counterpointreached its zenith. He may be considered the
FUGUE
139
master
of the
teacher
occupiesan unique place in
be
must to
the
art was
It
that
the
received
had
Okeghem,
whose Between
Papal
second
or
Netherlands the
School, and historyof music.
as
a
He
regarded as the founder of all schools from his own through his pupilsthat the present time, for it was transplantedinto all countries. was by Josquin Depres, or Despres as he is sometimes
known, He
new
court
of
new
Netherlands
instruction successor
and
art
carried to
was
inspirationfrom
the
Italy. great
he became
the years 1471 Sixtus IV., and
in the school he sented. repreand 1484, he was at the
was
then
called the
most
world musician, the greatest composer, the modern had the title given was yet produced. Prince of Music him by his contemporariesand for a period of sixtyyears he could claim this title undisputed. Then came a period with and tastes understood. not new stylesand his works were still jealouslypreserved in the Sistine are Depres' masses chapel. the first of the contrapuntists Depres was accordingto brilliant
Luther
become
to
master
of notes
instead
of
being mastered
of by them, as had been his predecessorsand as were many realized that mere his contemporaries.He technique is not that "music," quoting his own art and words, "has a speech and a capacityfor the expression of the pain and pleasure of the human
heart."
Depres had earlier served as chapelmasterto Louis XII. of France, and when first admitted to this service had gotten been promised a benefice. The promise,however, was forand Depres, being inconvenienced by the shortness of took the libertyof remindinghim of his the king's memory, commanded When to compose : promise in the followingmanner for the royal chapel,he chose part of the 119th a motet think upon Psalm as for his subject: "Oh! thy servant concerningthy word I" This he set in so exquisiteand supplicating
king took the words to heart the promised preferment. For this act bestowed soon composed, as a generosityDepres with equal felicity, a
and of
manner
that
the
140
OF
THEORY
THE
MUSIC
O psalm : gratitude,another part of the same Lord thou hast dealt graciouslywith thy servant." made an sary, appeal necesAgain when royal procrastination friend his at court to use influence Depres appliedto a but never friend was The in his behalf. seemed to willing, find a favorable opportunity, quently. though Depres urged him freBeing annoyed by Depres' persistencyhe finally "
replied At took
"
of
hymn
business,let me alone." length Depres, tired of this vain, fruitless pledge, words of his friend, laissez moi iaire oft-repeated I shall take
of this
care
"
the
by
which (lais-se-fai-re-moi) the
he
did
We
the That
know
to
and
from
we
the
so
made
may
is indeed Bach
for
a
an
he
master.
been
was
to
as
his musical purpose his finest.
he
his
the
he
their
was
fills in the
of
works
came beset
that
prove
inspiration. but
we
could teach
Okeghem
apparent from
study of
conclude
place
of the Netherlands had
Rome a
mi, and
re,
accomplishedhis
among learned all
had
went
Palestrina
Like
for
compositionranks Depres
before he
music
upon that he
admirable
so
was
words
depend
not
do not
know
result
The
to music.
them
slightfacetious alteration
a
scale,la, sol, fa,
the
syllablesto
"
do
him
positions, early com-
Lassus
and
immediate
growth
of
predecessor, polyphonic
importantone. the way lived in a periodwhen had been Dufay had already carried the learning School to Rome written*
In
where
masses
with
terpoint coun-
truth, in 1380, Dufay
had
Papal church that Depres held hundred one simple years later. Though Dufay's work was it was of sufficient contrapuntal importanceto be quoted as authoritative by theorists of much Between later date. to no Dufay and Okeghem there were practically composers be classed with Depres. Their genius was expended on the invention of counterpointrather than its application a as to a higherend. means Dufay had opened the way, the many technical composers the possibilities had shown of counterpoint, Okeghem had put the stamp of his art upon it and inspiredhis pupilsto seek for somethinghigherthan mere held the
same
positionin
the
FUGUE
skill,and
mechanical them He
and
used
into
the devices
wove
to be classed among
deserves
the
knowledge stored by
reallyartistic compositions. the greatest musical geniuses
period.
of any We
in the
read
previous chapter how the Netherlands velopmen brought contrapuntaltechnics to a high state of deWillaert introduced antiphonalwriting and some
School
of
Depres
141
his
sacred
grand
works
for
were
choruses
two
four
of
answering the other. In the historyof musical development in Venice we find of during the middle of the Sixteenth Century the names Gabrieli. They realized that the organ Giovanni and Andrea had a larger function than that of occasionally aiding the voices and through their experiments with independentperformances the mastered and secrets of medieval counterpoint, devised by the school of Venice. of its specialapplications as parts each,
To
chorus
one
Willaert's chorus
Gabrieli
choir
alternate
added
singing with
combinations
In truth
of all parts in Giovanni Gabrieli ranks
founders
of modern
and
a
instrumental
third choir
a
the
massing
freer and
and
voices
of
grander
manner.
of the
the foremost
among
ployed em-
art.
Frescobaldi,a contemporary and fellow countryman of Gabrieli's,and organistof St. Peter's,evolved the canzona, which
the
taken
was
style,and in
written in which or
more
more
a
voices.
and
because
for
a
of
time
poem from
the stricter
to
vocal
set to music
were
name
Italian were
works for
one
the
sponded folk-songand correit held possibilities Because
polyphonicmusic
of its time,
was appeal to the emotions, the canzona popular style of composition. In the vocal
a
the that
and imitation,
It sprang Lied. the German than
the
of its
stanzas
the
the melodies
short.
of such
the words
for freer work
order
less strict
or
with
canzonas
direct
forerunner
fugue. The from a particular varietyof lyricpoetry in applied to instrumental compositionswhich
was
music
were
of short lines and
usually consisted should
to
answer
sharplydefined
and
rhyme positions developedperiods
the
the
in
142
THEORY
THE In
the Venetian
present form
our
the
growth
then
School
fugue, but
of
its further
owes
OF
of
name
Orlandus
find the
we
In
beginningsof
Netherlands
the
to
development.
MUSIC
the
Lassus
School
historyof rather
it
musical
overshadows
that of his lesser contemporary, Jan Pieters Sweelinck,born in 1562; but in the record of the development in Amsterdam of the
which
form
holds
now
will doubtless always
keep
attention
our
for him
Sweelinck's work
place in
a
the
mind
of
the student. We
find
can
early education of Zarlino
though
influenced
his
music
A
there
proud Dutch
of
of organ of his time and
world
have
wonderful
known,
"When
him.
of
wrote
of
concourse
seen,
instrumental
compositionshardlybear interest.
He
piece in which
but
school
a
he
every
heard
played the
day;
was a
out
music,
the man,"
Vondel,
real part
was
known
thusiasts enwas
but
this claim
the firstone
one
every
poet, called him the Phoenix of Music and made have even the claim for Sweelinck that he
founder
the
a
was
to
pupil only
felt especially through Germany.
was
contemporary
organ
probablyis
organistat Amsterdam,
was
as
his influence
a
a
organistand as a founder spread throughout the musical
his fame
the
This
was
his statement; it was rather than their instruction which
He
own.
concerning his
has it that he
verifysuch
not
study of their works
close
was
tradition
record
of Gabrieli in Venice.
and
tradition,for dates do so
authoritative
no
though his organ they are of historical
to
compose
an
organ intrusted to the pedal,and it
given the glory of having written generally the first completely developedorgan fugue. vocal While most of his publishedworks were entirely is true
it is music
to
on
him
is
his manuscript collection of organ We know that his fame he rests.
works
of sacred
hailed
was
as
a
the geniusduring his life,the musical world and especially students of polyphonic compositionrecognizedthe fact that of a styleof music for the perfection he had brought nearer which of
so
many
had striven.
He
stood
peer among
fugue not only during his lifebut until
we
come
composers to
Bach,
FUGUE His
pupilscarried
musical
143
his methods another
and
and
his
learningfrom
one
in the
generationwhich succeeded him nearly all of the leadingorganistswere either his influenced by a study of his works. pupilsor were Scheidemann a was pupil of Sweelinck's and handed down
center
to
learningof
the
Reinicke, who
was
one
his master
to
of the chief
of representatives
the
great Reinken
playing in northern Germany. Bach organ from Liineburg to Hamburg to hear Reinicke's
of
After
no
the art
often
went
organ
formances per-
exhaustive
it is believed
composers
or
really lastingway
analysisof the works of these that the fugue of Sweelinck was in further developed until it found its
in Bach.
consummation
of
Another
Sweelinck's
Samuel
pupils was
Scheidt, a
the first to treat the working out of the German, who was choral artistically and in true organ style;he has also left us name so
some
very
from
excellent
The
toccata
derives
its
the Italian word
a touch signifies
toccare, meaning to touch, and piece. It is reallya compositionintended
performer and in in 1620, this is much like the preludeor fantasia. Prsetorius, free prelude or introduction, in fact defines the toccata a as this was oldest and doubtless the originalmeaning. The examples are found in the works of Gabrieli and Merulo, and in them full harmonies, but the toccata begins with some to
exhibit
toccatas.
the
touch
and
execution
graduallyrunning passage work and
interspersedwith
small
of the
is more
passages
and
more
of imitation.
introduced ally Occasion-
throughout; this is not a decided is and the feeling subject which is made such by repetition, of a showy improvisation than of a carefullyplanned more composition. One of its characteristics lies in the flowing of notes of equal lengthand like character. movement that about the toccata There a lack of individuality was kept it from taking its place as a definite form, but Bach of his raised it beyond all previous writers and a number fugues are precededby toccatas in which he has employed short movements of markedly different styles. but
one
part is found
Coming
and.
chaconnes very
helm
chorales
MUSIC
of Bach
the time
to
now
OF
THEORY
THE
144
Johann
of
we
find the toccatas,
Pachelbel
approaching (Wil-
closelythose of the great master, and in his son's Hieronymus Pachelbel)fugue for clavier another
stride
perfectedform. read of In each biography of Johann Sebastian Bach we to Liibeck, a distance foot from Arnstadt his pilgrimage on he forgot to of fiftymiles, to hear Buxtehude, and of how of the leave of absence at the end return granted him. Dietrich Buxtehude celebrated as a native of Denmark, was for the inspiration and an organistand today remembered the
toward
In 1673 Buxtehude to Bach. established gave the Abendmusiken, a series of grand sacred concerts
insighthe in Liibeck
following the
His
Christmas.
before
afternoon
of
'excellent organ
the
and
his
fame
and
attracted
the
five
Sundays compositionsfor
splendidperformance of
these concerts abroad
services
them
attention and
him
won
admiration
of
contrapuntalcomposition. strength of his work lay chieflyin his free organ chorals as had not founded on compositions. These were but were been most of those of his predecessors, remarkable students
of
The
the earliest assertion of the
of pure instrumental principle music later so fully developed by Bach. which His was famous Abendmusiken, for 1678-1687, is included in the volumes of his organ works edited by Spitta. two At Weimar who Bach had met Kuhnau, acquired for his compositions of fugue and double fugue,and celebrity as
cioubtless the
with which
success
these works
them
influenced Bach, who
artist to
glean
from
best and
to
study
of
the
was
experienceof
had
met
and
great enough others
all that
a an
was
they had made. Johann Josef Fux, 1660-1741, made his fame by his Gradus ad Parnassum. Latin treatise, It is a work ing embodyavoid
the mistakes
all the rules for the treatment in
of the ancient modes
and
generalof the whole subjectof counterpoint.Its value as a practical explanationand manual of compositionlasted line. It special many years and today equalsany In its own
AMADEUS
WOLFGANG
^JS of
or
and
struggle did
very
four
not
death.
Of
and
''The
Magic his
of
are
he
buried
was
is
unknown.
was
lived
he
masses,
His
unfinished
left
was
the
that
fifteen
"Don
"Figaro,"
operas,
He
compositions.
vocal
sacred
Flute"
which
time
one
ciation appre-
death.
them
"Requiem/'
his
death
short
was
thorough
his
among-
the
his
location
the
in
other
and
mass,
At
after
compositions,
litanies
greatest
the
come
life
for
until
and
many
Mozart's
disappointment,
industrious
\vrote
Austria.
Salzburg*,
at
11*
1756-1791
MOZART.
at
Giovanni"
important.
most
in
a
pattper*s
grave,
FUGUE
appeared In
it
in
1725
and
145
translated into German
was
polyphoniccompositionwas
placed on
in 1742.
its present basis, it as set forth in
Bach took though in a very simple form. 1 this book, applie to it the new key system of tempered and unlimited possibilities of modulation, and us gave highest development of this form of music. We
the
how
see
Handel, for fugues are among and
Handel's
for the masters, Bach be forgottenthat Handel's vocal
not
the greatest in existence. oratorios are in their style as
today as they were 1uringhis own brought the oratorio to a state failed to has
Bach
exert
done. but
the
influence
He
founded
as
a
vocal
the
made
was
way
it must
scale
time. of
no
and
to
seems
perfection,but
the
over
He
unapproached
school above
have
he
has
composers did his great
as
modern as
all
a
choral
temporary, con-
writer
he
early instruction in compositionunder in the form Zachau, organistof the cathedral at Halle,was of canon, counterpointand fugue, and we find fugue used in some of his grandest conceptions,includinghis greatest known and del Hanmost oratorio,the Messiah. universally of his fugal themes for his choruses from borrowed many other masters but made them his own, as he further developed them. Bach, however, invented a great majority of his subjects. His fertilityin this line seemed inexhaustible. traced ideas to their source He was and an idealist, a thinker sake. and Quite as worshiped abstract truth for its own complex, so complete are his works as Handel's,but far more the popular applause that Handel he never enjoyed. won rich and Handel's are fugues show breadth of understanding in their flow of melody and picturesqueness. musiIn the development of fugue and of instrumental the organ is of particular importance. Organ music reached than any other branch a high plane of development sooner of instrumental music, doubtless because organistsfound so stands
supreme.
His
for opportunities many services. For this reason
and
composers
experimentin
of organ
we
have
solo
work
considered the
in church
organists
piecesin this chapter, It
was
146
their imitation
through known
fugue
as
We
find
in
method
of choral
the
definite than
more weave
works
that the elastic form
choral
of
fugue.
adopted for instrumental
was
MUSIC
where movements, one the real source at different pitches,
construction
of
OF
into existence.
came
after another
enters
to
THEORY
THE
music
in the
together tlie parts
of the entire work.
so
When
the
same
voice of the process
the
came principaltheme bechoral, and composers began that
this theme
became
the
Further
experiment showed them the advantage gained by varying the pitch of the principal it with contrasting, theme and then by associating subordinate the processes of modulation,and phrases. Next came the parts were in new presentedas it were garb and more intricate it became. and more Every device was appliedthat and explain the central theme, and could elaborate,extend with completenessby then the whole movement rounded was back to the original of the progressions bringingthe course the first phrases prominently. The key and recapitulating the law of greater unity in fullydevelopedfugue exemplifies greater variety. There is such large opportunityfor artificialwork, for curious variations of parts and for displayof ingenuitythat failed to get beyond the mechanism have composers many for tryingtheir of fugue. They have found the opportunities that they seem to have forgottenthat the technical skillso inviting text
side of a
means
the
nothing except as it is compositionmeans ever, howof expressingsomethinghigher. Fortunately, of fugal work attracted almost unlimited capabilities a
of the greatestcomposers and, as we have were adapted for toccatas, movements passages many
and choruses
even
before the
noted,fugal
fullydeveloped fugue
of
sonatas
came
into
existence.
distinctive for theorists to sufficiently analyze,and they attemptedto devise a set of rules for its composition. As we stated in the beginningof the chapter, fugue is easy to comprehend, but the truth is theoretically, The
tbat
form
one scarcely
became
in accor4anc# of ths finestfuguesis strictly
FUGUE
147
with the directions of the writers almost
other
any intellect of
both
this
on
form
of music
composer
and
does
subject.More than fugue appeal to the
audience
these
and
theorists
they thought,a form which could be regulatedby rules. numberless They tried to evolve an artistic scheme as by mere speculationuntil it seemed though fugue was found, as
invented failed to reduce
enable
pedants to exhibit their ingenuity.They consider the existingfacts of art in their effort to least one form to scientifictreatment. Fortunately
to
at
for the world
of art the great masters saved the fugue with all its wonderful from a mere dead formality. possibilities Music
Rules
art.
the of
nameless
And
which
a
methods
and
remained
resembles
Are
graces,
which
master's
hand
there
for Bach
to
in each
poetry:
alone
can
without
were
make
method
no
them
teach reach.
number,
but
it
subservient to the soul of
of a freer handling of largerpossibilities laws of compositionin polyphonicstyle, and his mastery his wonderful and apparentlyunto bounded technique added for him imagination for melody and harmony won He
saw
title of
the
world
a
very
Pedantic
the
"Father
of
definite musical
had
Venetian
passages
with
with
to
gave
had
masters
form
it
to
the
fugue.
beauty
endeavored
scale passages,
to bring out brilliancy,
instrument.
in
gave
justlyappliedto the earlier works
been
in this form, but Bach The
Music," and
Modern
contrast
the
and
expressiveness.
by contrast of chord of dignityand majesty
power
and
variety of
the
producing variety while definite subjectand working gradually a developinglogically He emphasizedthe character of the musical up to a climax. Bach
succeeded
in
harmonies, modulations, entry and re-entries of the imitative passages not are only wonderful in point of technical skill but they support and explainthe principal To put all in a few words, Bach was theme. the possessor mqod.
of
an
law of
His
intellectwhich and unity,
was
of the
capableof understandingthe great to reatfi\ into his artt ability
148
THE There
is
THEORY
perhaps no
OF
man
one
MUSIC who
has left
so
deep a
of music as Johann Sebastian Bach. His history influence upon the subsequentdevelopment of the art has been far-reaching and in this Bach's work differs widely from Handel's,whose influence in comparison was and slight confined mostly to England. For a number of years after studied but littleby great composers, Bach's death he was his works being for the most and hard to part unpublished mark
in the
obtain,but since the time of Beethoven musicians serious
who
study.
have
not
In them
there
are
few notable
made
his compositionsobjectsof is found the germ of almost everything
great that has been done in music since his day. It
in the freer
the polyphonicforms and especially itselfmost confugue that Bach's technical mastery displays vincingly. musical form the most Fugue representsas a which highlyorganizeddevelopmentof the generalprinciples and it was in the fugue underlie all of Bach's compositions, that they found their highest expression.For these reasons and a study of fugue is considered characteristicof his style, than any other of his compositions his fugues more givesus and as artist and an insightinto the nature of the man was
musician. His collectionof
and fuguesknown in England preludes the Forty-eight Pianoforte Fugues, and in Germany as as Das wohltemperirte Clavier,has enriched the musical world for all time. The two volumes of this work contain fugues which belong to various periodsof Bach's life and illustrate and of mind as can be expressedin such states of feeling terest, musical language. They are then not only of technical inbut whether sad, pathetic, reposeful, merry, confident and of the most perin pure instrumental style or serene, are fect and finished art. and fugueshave for the greaterpart of preludes berless century been under the most exactingcriticisms of numThese
a
musicians,and men
$nd
know
them
the
inspiration,
stood more
the test
theyturn
so
well that the better
to them
for
knowledge
FUGUE Bach
in his time
not
was
He popular composer. highest creative powers and to
rarest
satisfaction
is he
nor
reverenced of
and
man
the
masses
but
of his
own
refined
classed
today
his art,
his innermost
manner
appeal to
149
true
was
expressed in
emotions.
voiced
his
a
the
to
the choicest
He
did
not
try
feelingsto
own
the
cal keenlycritical musi-
and
taste
as
sensibilities. works
His
give and
make
great demand
of intelligent interpretation
an
in the minds
create
to
of the
his
for
time
some
and
reputationwent Modern
are
fugues
of Bach
in their
Bach
and
working
seemed and
he
so
some
the
he used
his
but rather and
catered
of
school
Only a Fugue,
was
few
not
with
the
of
than
genius
forceful.
his natural
greatest of freedom.
pliablethat
so
formal
convincing and
as
it was polyphonically,
it could
be
guage lanHe
molded
followed, and it is true they have
to the taste
conventional
him
and
given
was fugal compositions. His son sincerest composer of the generationafter Bach, in working up the details father's artistic manner
formulas
superficial.However, after
popularity
masterful
very
perhaps
seemed
Bach
lack the freedom
They are
material who
and
resources
Handel's
constrained
more
created
the composers
underlying
in hand.
and
think
to
their
technical
figurewhile
Handel. out
musical
rendered
us
isolated
an
To
difficult works
explanationof why
one
hand
those
by
is
performer.
more
audience
requiresunlimited
spiritualmeaning artistic ability. This
the
upon
which
Bach's
composers
of the time and
who
his work
made
influence came
included
upon a
empty
somewhat
trian the great Aus-
generation or
two
this son, PhilippEmanueL Art of at that time obtainable,The
directlythrough
works
were
and Fugues and a few Forty-eight Preludes and carefullystudied, works were fairlywell known organ in the but until Mendelssohn's not were day his works possession of the musical world at large, Haydn, Mozart it is true, stronglyinfluenced by Bach's and Beethoven were, of this Beethoven's work. work traces especiallyshows influence. He had a largeropportunityto study Bach's comthe
150
THE
positionsthan
his to
great composer the master's
works
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
contemporariesand was delve deep enough into to
be able to draw
from
in truth the them
the
first
meaning of something
import than their technical side. While in some feelingso nobly greatest works we find religious expressed,in Beethoven's compositionsthere is pure human which appeals to us with the language of joy and sorrow of greater of Bach's
passion. Near
the end
but often works
those best
fugue
a
few
completefugues,
fugal passages to introduce his earlier his contrapuntaleffects are happy ones. Among for his the known are strings, great quartet fugue
he had
and
of his life he wrote
in the
used
finale of the Eroica
Symphony, the finales
Rasoumowsky Quartet,the Cello Sonata, and formed in B flat,which originally movement enormous termination to the great stringquartet. In Beethoven the third
to
the the we
since Bach. greatest instrumental composer In one of Mozart's fugues with a fantasia as a prelude find the Bach we styleand in fact in all of his best piano for his polyphonic fugues. He had laid the foundation and by his writingby the study of Fux's Gradus Parnassum then he was led to Bach whose early practisein technique, works in Leipsic It is,of course, treasure. a new-found were honor
the
Mozart's
sonatas
his other
forms
which his fame chiefly rests, but in upon he shows mastery of techniqueand creative
geniusand his fuguesare of value and interest. In ItalyCherubini had acquired the old Italian and the Netherlands contrapuntal in styleand gained that proficiency polyphonicwritingin which scarcelyany composer since his He thoroughlymastered time has equaled him. the styleof Palestrina and adapted it perfectly ideas. His to his own Credo for eight voices is a remarkable instance of his thorough and his fugues though rather mastery of counterpoint dry and formal are of great technical interest, These after the
three composers were death of Bach, and
Mendelssohn, to whom
we
all born within twenty years
closelyfollowingthem came must give the glory of having
FUGUE the real Bach.
revived
he
had
that
works
brought
out
before
He
first edited
been
accessible
Bach's Passion
since Bach's
the first time
151
some
only
accordingto
death.
of Bach's organ to the few; and St. Matthew
for
This performance showed
thoroughness of Mendelssohn's musical training.It took 11, 1829, in the Singakademie,Leipsic,and place March the initial impulse to the successful Bach gave propaganda in which Mendelssohn was a leadingfigure. the
This
understandingof
of Mendelssohn's his
hearers
classical composers greatness and his works
own
they
as
did
half
presented to Goethe
when
today
century ago.
a
asked to
evidence
was
play a
enchant
Mendelssohn Bach
fugue. He failed him. Without the slightest complied but memory hesitation,however, he extemporized the forgottendevelopment and his audience was delightedwith his performance. he thought in counterpointand his quick wit and Like Bach thorough understanding of musical terms made him famous for his extemporizing. His study of and devotion to Bach influenced his works and like most tive great musicians he found the fugue an attracand has left us some excellent preludesand fugues form them for piano; of interest are his fugues for strings, among well-known
one
in
one
was
E
flat, and
a
number
of
organ
fugues.
Among
recent
first.
stands
His
worthy of
great fugal writers
Rheinberger perhaps
his organ
fugal work-in
sonatas
is especially
mention.
of merit who is scarcelyan instrumental composer shall but we tried his skill in fugal compositions, has not it would be carry the historyof fugue no farther,for in fact There
but of
a
the
modern
narrative
greater world
of the masters
has
successes we
evolved
and have
failures of the followers
already considered.
nothing farther
in the
way
The of
given us over a century and a quarter fugue than was in the kind details and especially though in minor ago, of themes used, the artists of today show their individual the
taste.
152
OF
THEORY
THE
MUSIC
very generalidea of fugalcompositionand of its historical and chronological development we conie now to
With
a
into specifically
inquiremore We
its construction.
shall infer that the reader
foregoing chapters and terminology which we
has
a
has
made
a
knowledge
of
perforce use
must
in
study of the the
the
musical
following
explanations.
SUBJECT the essential parts of the fugue considering separately shall begin with the all important subjector theme. On we this the entire composition ing depends;it is the central or leadIn
subservient to it.
idea and all other parts are The subjectis announced
part
a
Except in the
it.
enunciate clearly
by
or
of
by parts
which
accompanied than one the subject is fugue, or fugue with more subject, entirelyunaccompanied though the melody is capable of case
an
and the harmony is implied. In the being harmonized is heard simultaneously accompaniedfugue the announcement with a full harmonic accompaniment. The but that does not subjectis announced by itself, that but one voice or part only is heard mean necessarily during the opening measures, for fugue is written in from two
to
and
eight parts
where
two, three the subjector the
there
are
four
or
answer beginseither with and the subjectis often then described as double, triple or authorities refuse to consider quadruple. However, most
parts, each
these of
more
one
terms
the
as
than
one
one, two
to better preserve
Owing fugue forms
to
of
a
fugue
does
permit
not
such
theme, and Cherubini calls principal
fugues,fugues with seems
nature
very
the
use
lacked
or
which three counter-subjects,
the idea of of
the old churdh
clearness
in the
modes
subjectand
the
early
left
one
belonged. In its is clear, it complies perfectedform, however, the tonality with the laws of musical phrasingand the impliedharmony rather in doubt
as
to
the
unity.
key
in which
it
FUGUE
is at
felt.
The
153
harmonic
progressionsthroughout the of the composition elaborate,explain,and never course allow the listener to lose the distinct feelingof the key of the from the subject subject. Though there are modulations key the relation to it is close; when, for instance,we find the subject in a minor key the modulation is to the dominant minor not to the major key. The subjectgenerallyremains in the originalkey but it may begin in the tonic,modulate and
once
in the
end
in the
key
tonic.
to
of
Aside
in the
the tonic. in the
the
dominant
from
these
rare
A
tonic
ends
of
fugue
key of
in the
cited
key
others where
the dominant
in E
beginning
minor
of are
a
and
the not
subject returns
begins the
ject sub-
in the
subdominant, and Prout which the entire subjectis in
in
the subdominant.
explanation is
the
definite rule
the
imagination and in the
above
the
study
can
nature
purpose of his
technical but
of the character
be laid down
No
shown
be
to
greater interest than
Of
ending
can
of Bach
and
find it
we
modulations
two
cases
fugue
often
and
tonic,modulates
examples
gives us
Less
the
though
common,
begins
dominant
sary neces-
of the theme.
for this construction
of
the
and
clearly subject. Generallyspeaking,a a complete musical phrase,that composer
are
good fugue subjectcontains with distinct idea and finishing is,a passage containingsome a ness cadence, so giving that feelingof wholeness or completein itself. this
It is not
phrase though
one
necessary that a full cadence finish is often employed, but the final notes
capable of being harmonized. text-books The student of composition will find in most be moderate that the subjectmust fugue the statement upon have of the greatest fugal works in length, and yet, some subjectsof considerable length and again others contain a It is not difficult, however, to understand very few notes. why the subjectof moderate lengthis considered best. It is must
be
recognizesuch be a long drawn in its entirety.On
easier to would hold
an
one
out
one
when
which
the other
hand
it reappears than it the mind might not the very
short
one,
154
THEORY
THE
unless
of
would
not
OF
peculiarlydistinct
a
the attention
hold
is necessary
MUSIC remarkable
and make
nor
and appreciation
for the
character,
impression that enjoyment of a fugal the
composition. In
least
at
obvious
of
needs
further
no
considered
course,
either
cover
complete member
a
and
is,of
text
subjectis designed to
the or
subjectsthe
vocal
the
entire
sentence,
a
the
and
sentence
is
reason
comment.
important factor in a good fugue subjectis that of the compass employed. As we proceed with the further study of the parts the reader will readily see why a range Another
of
than
more
work
It
keys.
where
not
liable to pass or less clear. Bach to
necessary
finest
numbers
Fugues,
numbers
subjectdoes For
not
the
subjectswe are
make
the
has
exceed
shown
such
that
us
large compass
a
perfectfugue,
a
for in two
is
of his
well-known
the
Forty-eightPiano and thirty-three, the compass of the a
who and
will here
appliedto
each
cross
among four
reader
is that the parts compass other and make the composition
using a great
produce
andarnentos
terms
fugue would
it is carried into through modulation is true there are fugues,and good fugues, is used. of even The difficulty in a tenth
a compass instrumental fugue in
are
vocal
difficultwhen
too
other
for
octave
an
fourth. time
some
may
chance
soggettos in connection
explaintheir
as subjects
are
upon
with
the
fugue
Andamentos significance.
in themselves
complete and
rhythmicalmelodies,which hold the interest throughout intrinsic beauty. While a fugue by their own subject hold the interest and in a sense be complete it is not in must itself necessarily beautiful, though it becomes so when supported
very the
and
developedin
the
subjectsusually consist of characteristic interval,and soggettos.
a
a
short to
them
with
perhaps a applied the term
passage is
Such
the essentials and relation of the considering in mind justwhat we let us have clearly to look are good subjectof a good fugue. First,we will listen
Before answer, for in
of the movement.
course
FUGUE
155
for the
melody, and hope to find it simple and yet striking, moderate We shall expect length and moderate compass. feel the possibility of harmonies, the clearness of tonality
of to
distinctness
and
various
of
form, and
as
follow
it
through the beauty as a whole
we
be
impressed with its the foregoingare essential parts. of which We shall hear the subject once absolutelyalone and of the fugue, many times with again, through the course counterpoint,so it should be a reasonablyeasy task to fix it and recognizeit whenever it recurs. in mind movements
ANSWER.
all other
As
subject we reply or answer. the
that the dominant. the
elaboration
an
We
have
the
answer;
in
its treatment
to
or
outgrowth of consideringthe
alreadymade the broad statement is the subjecttransferred to the degree of the answer of this transposition Upon the nature depends
which
of
When
there
of
the
subject,but real
a
are
look
must
character
have
parts
two
pure
which
classic types
and
determines
in turn a
fugue belongs.
a mere transposition, copy of given a fifth higher or a fourth lower, then is a and the fugue in which it occurs answer
is
an
to
exact
the we
real
fugue. If the does
and
subjectbegins and modulate
not
possible. Again skips to any note
the
when other
the dominant,
to
to
or
ends
the
in the
dominant
key
the real
subjectbegins on
than when
the dominant it
of the
the
without
skipsthrough
tonic is
answer
tonic and tion modula-
the second
or
is possiblebut tonic to dominant, the real answer the It is usually real when be used. answer may
sixth from a
tonal
subjectbegins on There
be
must
By impliedmodulation we mean the leadingnote of the key is not reallypresent, show its last notes of the melody and especially
requirea that though to
the
form
no
any note other than the tonic or dominant. actual or impliedmodulation in the subject
real
answer.
156
THE
with greater
OF
THEORY
less distinctness that they
or
belongingto the key of of being in that key. exact
notes
are
transpositionof
the
altered in order
to
tonic and
dominant
and
within the confines of When it
a
in
of
tonal
a
answer.
modulate from
both
as
the
to
the due
preserve
keep
so
both
or
more
relation of the
subject and
answer
scale.
back
to
and
tonic
point,usuallyat
same
subjectand We
rather than
subject;that is, one
Themes
possiblein the answer. dominant requirean answer
dominant
the
at
modified
a
the effect
produce
subjectbegins or ends in the dominant, when the tonic and skips directlyor through the the reply is third,or when modulation occurs, The of the subject is premelodic form served
far
as
made
a
is
as
the
begins
medium
answer
looked upon
are
dominant, and
the
In the tonal fugue the an
MUSIC
which
which
lates modu-
modulation
the
is
of the theme, in
the end
answer.
find occasionally
a
subjectanswered semitone, though as a rule the
semitone
in the
by a tone, or a tone by a transpositionto a fourth or fifth is inversion is employed it is not always the tonic and dominant respond to one
Again
exact.
when
strict inversion
a
another
and
so
but serve pre-
of the tonal answer. underlyingprinciple diminution The devices of inversion,augmentation or characteristic not are occasionallyemployed in the answer the
of
fugue
a
and
at the
seldom
beginningof
Everywhere rules the
as
reader
answer.
in
here
answers answer
an
but the fundamental exceptions, acceptedby authorities and will give
are
understandingof the essentials of a fugal that the answer, to hold in mind are principles
character
the tonal
subject, that
tonic dominant, that
tonic and determines
is like the
the nature
is a real,while transposition In
the
forming the stretto,but composition.
will find
one
stated
The
melodic
oftenest used in
are
fugue
then
we
of the an
the
dominant
fugue,and that
altered
find that
one
of the
nature
is a tonal
an
exact
answer.
its chief characteristic
FUGUE lies in
the
altered
self, as
journeyingsback at
answer
a
157
and
forth
distance of
of a
subject and fifth from
its each
other.
COUNTER-SUBJECT. In
consideringthe episodes in
the
early part
of
this
chapter we said that they depended for their material upon the subject or counter-subject.As the range of variety throughout the fugue is largelydetermined by the development of the episodes,one can readilyunderstand why the seeks for individuality of and contrast between the composer able subject and counter-subject.We shall expect then considerin the construction of this part of the fugue, as freedom find in it the first real suggestionof the later possibilities we in the way of intricate interweaving of melodies. The counter-subjectis a counterpointat the the
accompanying answer, fugue as an accompaniment
and
beginning
is
employed throughout the quent subseto the second, third and of the principaltheme, whether given as appearance in rhythmic and melodic While ment treatsubject or answer. different as it is as possiblefrom the subject,the thought of unity is everywhere preservedin the composition is always thoroughlyconsistent and and the counter-subject is suited in character to the subject. Double counterpoint is employed in its construction, usually in the octave, occasionallyin the tenth or twelfth. The necessityfor this is evident from the fact that the counter-subject somewhat acts an as accompaniment to two slightlydifferent phrases and also because it is during the various
developmentsnecessary
to
use
it above
or
below
the
subject. One and between
ject effectingthe variance between the subis in the employment of an episode counter-subject does not enter with that the counter-subject them so
method
the first note to
but
of
of the a
answer
part of
it.
and
hence
acts
as
an
ment accompani-
Diflfer^ce in the duration of notes
158
THEORY
THE
in the
OF
is phrases sometimes slightest degree divergingfrom the Again the ear is sometimes key*of the counter-subject, though two
MUSIC effective
without
real character
as
it must
know
the
of the subject.
left in doubt we
in
to
the
be
the
it is not always clearlydefined that of the answer, in the subject and until nearly the close. Rests may occur be found in the counter-subject. none same
as
In
studying the
modulation
occurred
tonal in the
answer
found
that
subject,a modification
it into the tonal
to make
we
answer
when
was
a
sary neces-
; this modification
in the
is frequentlymade because of the counter-subject unnecessary of its entry, that is,it does freedom employed in the matter not necessarilyhave to enter until after the modulation has
place,thus preventingtoo
taken
great
a
complexityat
the
start.
In
the
of
greater number
fugues we
find the counter-
subject appears during the first exposition in the manner for it to enter later. In such a case, stated,but it is possible and perhaps accompanies the answer although a counterpoint The another regular counterpart, it is not again used. it does enter subject when accompanies every succeeding of the subjectuntil the coda is reached. appearance
Again
find that
we
a
troduce be incounter-subject may togetherwith the subjectin
second
they then work triplecounterpoint;or, the first counter-subjectmay appear and subjectonly during an as accompaniment to the answer and its placebe taken on the next entry of the the exposition subjectby the new counter-subject.This employment of one and
and
then
another
Bach
even
to
the
rare.
that
regular counterpointis
a
not
appliedthe various musical of subject itself and employed a number
fugues,for
essential to all
devices
is very shows us
he has
strettos.
We the term to
have
been concerned
but counter-subject,
describe the two
subjectsin
with the must a
at the Almost together
more
common
remember
double
fugue
of beginning
use
of
it is also used where the
they are
exposition.
FUGUE
Equal importance is given to of the double fugue, which
159
the
subjectand
we
will consider
counter-subject later in this
chapter. EPISODE.
The
purpose
of the
episode,or
previouslystated, is
called,as
the
relief to
essential
digressionas
for the
parts of
sake
it is often
of contrast
and
fugue. It is frequently of a fugue are made. through its use that the modulations The the subject and the answer, or episode between the re-entry of the subject,is by some and termed answer the codetta, and a close study often reveals it to be the later It is very short, seldom real episode in embryo. exceeding but than the two more by retarding measures, reappearance of the subjectand the entry of the counter-subject causes an to the part interestingdigression,gives greater individuality retarded, and leaves the part it follows clearlydefined. real episode follows the expositionand in it neithei The In this way it makes the subjectnor need be found. answer a complete diversion,and yet an episode usuallyoriginates from a previousmotive found in some part of the exposition, The return of the principalparts makes a greater impression because of their absence during this digressioa motive The suggested,all the composer'sart is brought vals, to play upon it,he employs canonic imitation in strict interor freelyimitates it in any interval,he prolongs it by
repeatingit in and
sequence, treats it in any
then
it appears of course,
augments
a
diminishes
or
it,or
until to the uninitiated of these ways entirelyforeign to the theme of the fugue. This,
of the laws of art is contrary to one kinshipof parts is felt by the student or musician. It
is
possibleto
material, but
Occasionallyin from
a
inverts
motive
It is ^ometim^
it is one
form
always suited
fugue some
alreadyused
to
of the
while
others
ma"le consistentby
the
from
entirelynew all that preceded it are developed episodes
episode
an
and
are
of
new
into weaviiig'
material. it the
160
cipaltheme
with
OF
THEORY
THE
the
MUSIC
idea, but without
new
contrapuntaldevice. Freedom is also employed in episodes;usually they are short, of or
that
tion fugal imita-
any
any
the
mind
basic theme, and
extend
length
two
carried too
be
not
may
the
of
three
or
far
away
the
real
measures, from the
fourteen again they great lengths, and even more according to the composer's feeling measures, of proportionand balance.- While fugues without even one of merely episode are possiblethey are, in consequence, to
any but the student fail entirelyin emotional character.
technical
interest and
We
have
their entrances another
and
at
a
second
in the
entries at other as
distance of
a
distances
of modulation
means
the distances
which
fourth
a
confine the work
so
keys, except
subject and
the
how
seen
lack charm
to
to
continue
answer or
fifth from
the tonic and
exposition of
and
one
dominant
the
fugue, where made. The use of an episode are prevents the necessityof varying
would
cause
a
change
in the
form
of the
subject itself. EXPOSITION. After
study of the various parts the expositionas a whole. to deal with us, just what entry of parts first concerns
the first accompaniesit with
counterpointand
three-partfugue
highestor the alto other
announces
we
or
now
order may been
ready of the
expect in
counter-subject the exposition is completed. In the part may begin with the subject.If the begins,the alto generallytakes up the
tenor
last. The
a
subjectin its second entry. subjectit is immaterial which
the
the
proceeds with
two
soprano enters
any
soprano and the tenor
answer
The
are
of the parts we have ing. considertwo-part fugue this is a simplematter, either part with the subject and the other follow with the
while
answer, or
a
lead
may
we
of sequence
the matter
In
our
the
leads and
answer*
In
rare
When of the
instances the
the other follows, while the alto
part which
enters
first givesthe counter-
FUGUE
subjectwhile when
then
the second
161
enteringpart
the third enters
with
is
givingthe
answer,
the
subjectthe second which has completed the answer takes up the counter-subject, which is fourth now transposed a or fifth and possibly modified,and adds a secaccompanies the subject. The leading part now ond a nd the three written in are counter-subject triplecounterpoint. make
To
this
order, which is in a general way carried out in fugues with more than, as well as, three parts, we will here give the followingtable,the numerals standingfor the I subject;II parts accordingto their entries: answer; I III of counter-subjectto II; subject; II re-entry second counter-subjectto III; I counter-subjectto III. This practically completes the first expositionof a three-part an as fugue, but in order to show the counter-subject upper in this first expositionthere may and lower counterpoint be additional entry of subjector answer an by the first entering part while the last suppliesthe counter-subject.Without this,in case the highestor lowest part leads,the counterthemes subject will always be above or below the principal and keep this relative position. This extra entry is not the middle needed when part leads, for the counter-subject "
"
"
"
"
"
the first
positionbelow
the
will occupy
above
or
the
third
part. of alreadyspoken of the episodeas the means of the subject and the individuality counterestablishing -ve again mention it subject,and as a part of the exposition
We
here
have
explainits
and
further
use.
subjectand answer entry of the subject. If
first entry of the second tonic the
the first beat
on
will
answer
and
It may between come the answer between or
as
come
the
of the below
fourth
does
and
subjectbeginsin the and ends in the tonic,
the
measure
in order not
the
to
begin on with
harmonize
the dominant, the tonic
separation is necessary to defer the entry of the answer until the fallowing measure, epihence, the employment of sode. a
Again, if near
the
the close of the
subjectbegins on measure
and
aids
an
on
unaccented an
note
accented note
162
at
the
OF
THEORY
THE
beginning of the feelingof
measure
a
an
unfinished
an
MUSIC
episode is melody.
used
and
vents pre-
subject begins with the tonic and ends on the fifth of the tonic,the episode is generallynecessary,
If the third as
or
the last note
of the
of which
dominant, against both Other
been
have
of
instances
will be the third
answer
the
tonic
is
be
cited
might
like nature
stated to show
the
uses
or a
fifth of the
dissonance. but
enough episode. parts is,of course, possible
of the
varietyin the entry of in a four-part fugue. On the entry of the fourth part be added free parts must to subjectand counter-subject two instead of one as in a three-part fugue. There is no absolute Greater
rule
for
these
others
the When
one
When
entries.
in
usually appear of
middle
the
highestor ascending or
parts
announces
lowest
parts lead
descending order. the subject it is
commonly followed by the one next above or below it and will so it and that by the part nearest close with either highest or lowest part. Letting I and IV represent highest and lowest, the following are examples of entries : I-II-III-IV IIIII-II-MV; III-II-IV-I; IMII-MV; orlV-IIUM; Others III-IV-L are possiblethough these are generally considered
best.
Examples
of
fugue
be
found
the parts do
where
in the first exposition;three may all appear enter there later by augmentation, and even the fourth be added a
not
and
fifth before twice
enter
A
the
close of the
In succession
counter
or
dominant
keys
in the second
be used
or
fugue. Again,
before
second
first expositioneither at and
can
the
answer
the is
expositionsometimes
once
or
after
an
subjectmay
given, follows
episode* The
the tonic
keys found in the first will but the part which gave the exposition, whatever
and answer lead or subject gives the answer, may follow subject,or answer follow answer, there is not so of the order of replynor of necessarily any rigidobservance tween the relationof subjectand answer. Another difference be-
subjectnow
is that as a rule in followingexpositions the leadingpart is at once accompanied exposition
the first and the second
by
free
counterpoint.
FUGUE
as
The
use
of
it is
not
an
for
in the matter
of modification
of
entries and
there
is
room
of the first entries
of inversion, by means it affords varietyand is frequentlyemployed. This formulation of the expositionis in accordance with older authorities on theory. The modern ever, tendency,howis to take great liberties with this part of the fugue. use
the
So
exposition rests with the composer essential of fugue, but because it allows counter
a
greater freedom
163
much
in fact that
so
of the
some
authorities,
recent
more
particularlyin in the
America, do not consider that the exposition fugue is reallysubjectto analysis.
newer
STRETTO.
find the term
We in the
close,and is to
in
fugue each
heighten
listener.
and
is derived
follow
answer
find
of
sense
word
The
in many increasingthe time or
the
Stretto
forms
stretto
from it
the
a
Italian verb
the part signifies
other
at
shortened
is not
hurrying of parts. to draw stringere, which subjectand
the
Its purpose attention of the
in
universal
fugue but as a and in an elaborate compositionat least two one is possible. a larger number The
intends
who
composer
to
used
intervals.
hold
interest and
in
of music
use
stretto
rule
we
strettos,
for prepares theme which
writing his subject,that is,he uses a intervals and several will permit of combinations at various distances other than those first employed. Any interval may of parts. The be used and any number general order and of of imitation usually characterize the relationship method section of a fugue, but occasionally the repliesin the same in the stretto it is impossiblefor the enteringparts to continue after another part has entered. the subjector answer of strettos through A subjectis often capableof a variety it when
the
various
in the imitation. the closest and the
of
devices
interest may
augmentation,diminution
When most
several
elaborate
increase
and
strettos
are
is reserved the
used
inversion
or
in
a
fugue
for the close that
highestpitch be
reached
164 in the final one. in this
tempered Clavichord. find
material
the
subjectas well originaltheme
for
as
may
MUSIC
excellent example of the
An
in
As the
from
fugue episode,we
the
drawn
stretto
be found
and
in the
Well-
occasionally
from
subject;again,but
the
of strettos
use
first
in Bach's
is found
manner
OF
THEORY
THE
the a
counter-
part of the
the continuation
be of
new
material. A
to
close
stretto,or
a
maestrale, as
stretto
it is
times some-
called,is one in which each part continues the subject the end, making a strict imitation. A slight modification
is here
and permissible When, as we find
the entries
necessarily regular. it in rare instances,the firstexposition is in stretto the answer enteringbefore the completion of the subject and often immediatelyafter it begins,and the third and fourth entering parts followingthe firstand second with subjectand answer distance and usuallyat the same interval of time, the fugue is called a close fugue. It is not here possible in which to cite the many ways their ingenuity use composers upon this part of fugue, but in generalwe may expect the followingin a stretto: a gathering togetheror hurrying togetherof principal parts with either tory satisfacmost subject or answer leading;all parts entering, when interval of fourth or fifth,though any at an interval may be used; replies made tion by augmentation,diminuif necessary a slightalteration or contrary movement; in the subjectand a pedalor double pedal point employed are
not
for the close.
CODA, Often climax
for
independent passage the purpose of givinga
an
close. -
sometimes
It sometimes
also
on
contains
the tonic.
or
coda is added
more
determined
after the or
orate elab-
pedalon the dominant, Occasionallythe entire coda a
the last part of it is harmonic in structure rather than ends his fugues with an contrapuntal. Bach frequently or
elaborate cadenza.
FUGUE We tonal
real
and the
that these
reader
study of the answer, fugues, and again mention have clearlyin mind may
referred to
our
them the
others
meaning
of
fugue is of older originthan the tonal fugue, of the Sixteenth perfectedby the polyphonic composers Century was of two kinds, limited and unlimited. The
as
limited
real
the form
was
concerns
with
we
The
here.
us
It started
a
call
now
unlimited
very
short
and
canon
was
for
note
a
subject which,
became
short
distance and
free.
No
so
always
The necessarilyadapted to the verbal text. began before the end of the subjectwhich was for
with
the
terms.
The and
in
have
165
then
the
further
no
vocal
a
of
fugue.
course,
was
always repeatednote part giving the answer
was counter-subject used, so a new musical phrase, which verbal text required a new used was second a as subject. Unlike our present form the opening subject did not always reappear during a later development which the school of Palestrina perfected. the form This was
answer
When church The and
modes
answer as
soon
transformed with
the
modern
there had as
came
scale
the first
substituted
be
fugue.
As
answer
before
for
departurefrom
adapted to conform this* took place then the to
and the modified
it the tonal
was
came
to
old
this form.
the
whole
the
new
fugue
into existence
stated,the tonal
answer
law, was
and is
subject under a new aspect, and its effect corresponds with that produced by the subjectitself. The ricercare or ricercata,a fugue with research, was tion strict fugue in which the various devices of canonic imitaa We also find this name used. appliedto fugues were without episodes. The term implies,is a fugue in fughetta,as the name ing it is complete but there is a curtailAs to form miniature. of parts that prevents it from being a regularly developed fugue. It contains an expositionbut the middle section is in which case an episode very short or is omitted entirely, follows the expositionand leads to the final entry of the there is not even subjectin the tonic key. In some fughettas the
166
episode and
one
final entries. even
The
followed
expositionis
the
term
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
regularlydeveloped fugues
some
by
once
the
vaguely applied and
rather
been
has
at
been
have
called
fughettas. In Bach's organ arrangement of chorals are many examples of fughettasand number twenty-fourof Beethoven's variations is written in this form. thirty-three fugued movement Fugato is appliedto an irregularly the same in which subject is a movement By this we mean introduced in the different parts but the entries successively or answer at the regularinterval of subjectand are not are ployed employed so incidentally.Fugato passages are often emin orchestral music has
are
in the firstand
them
used
and
very
effective.
last movements
Beethoven
of the Eroica
in his Italian Symphony, Haydn in Symphony, Mendelssohn his in his Creation," and Mozart Requiem." struction Up to this point we have been concerned with the con"
"
of the
subject,but or
shall
double
The
subjects. In writers
the
double and
applying the
used
the
counterpointis It is wiser
to
in which
the
announced in the
two
subject has two
are
As do
brieflydescribe
now
fugue,that with
one
founded
two
those
on
rule
find them
the melodic
terms
to
name
the
term
counter-subjecteven
used
throughout to
restrict the
name
We
fugues themselves. where
the
the accompany double fugue to the
same
subject. fugues
subjectsappear at once, not necessarily exactlytogether but after the second does come proceed in unison; or, the fugue in which each a separate and complete expositionbefore the
heard a
contains two indicates, the chapter we spoke of the subjectsand we find some triple
fugue, as its early part of
of the terms
have
of
subjects.
more
use
kind
common
more
two
in combination. a
double
fugue
with but three. and
contains There
four parts, though
is usuallya contrast
we
in
of the two rhythmic treatment subjectsso their individuality is recognizedwhenever The they appear. entry of the subjects,the second as accompaniment to the the form of expositiondifferent from first,makes that in
FUGUE the
simplefugue.
pairs,two the
give
answers,
their relative This where
is of
one
and
answer
necessitates
a
When
there
167 are
four
parts they work
in
the
subjectsand the other two follow with which are frequently inverted though often positionsare retained. the simpler arrangement, but we find others the parts givingthe subjectproceeds with an new
part
enters
for the
other
answer.
This
elaborate
expositionand it is complete only when each part has appeared as subjectand answer. As heard a rule, both subjects are together in each of the middle entries. The development of one of the group subjectswithout the other frequentlytakes the place of the strettos are episode as used in the simple fugue. When ployed emwe rarely find both subjects,and this development be found in place of a regularepisode. may When, as in the other rare varieties of double fugue, the ent expositionsthere is a differseparate subjectshave their own in general is quitethe The treatment followed. course of the in the other, except that the combination as same themes
a
more
is reserved
for
the
climax.
We
sometimes
find
a
for the first subjectand regular exposition
only a partialone and the two for the second separatedby an episode. Or, there may after the expositionof the first subjectand answer with entries in reverse follow order, a counter-exposition at once and this followed by the expositionof the second subject and answer. of expositions,counter-expositions, The use episodes, strettos and isolated entries depends upon the taste and design find examples of double fugue in -as of the composer, we so much subject. However great a varietyas in fugue in one be developed the general rule of the separate subjectsmay treatingfirst one then the other and the combining of both is carried
out
in all.
triplefugue is founded upon three different themes which together as a threefold subject Curing some appear nounced portion of the composition.After the three parts have anthe three subjects,either togetheror singly,the The
168
fourth other
or
free part. and when
a
answers
the
answer
to
answer
of the
two the first subject,
two
while
answers,
the
fourth
different parts take the has given the themes as
Then each
The
is complete. exposition in succession in the
twice
heard
not
the
parts giving the other add
may and
with
enters
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
subjects subject subject is
same
part.
same
quadruple and quintuplefugues, or those based plex four or five subjects, They are so comare on very rare. effectiveness that their study and of so little practical be of interest only to the student of technique. would The
The
fugue
other
on
Of
two
choral
a
of this form
variants and
the first there
of music
the
are
accompanied fugue.
the
kinds.
One
where
the
fugue in during while the choral is woven its usual course pursues its development as a kind of cantus firmus,or as an episode. An independentsubjectis used, in no way suggested by the itself and
choral this
as
strict.
The
two
the lines of the
cantus
a
are
number
firmus.
The
choral order
of modulations
are
of
introduced entries
is somewhat
with
is seldom
limited
as
of the
phrases of the cantus firmus can be transposed into other keys, though between the different lines of the choral there are little digressionswhich afford opportunity none
for variations. The
speciesis that in which each of the choral melodies is treated as a subject. Usually there is a separate expositionfor each subjector each line of the choral and as
other
in the other
of entries.
there is much
In the
freedom
allowed
in the matter
find the we counter-expositions frequently first voice enteringalone,but it may be accompanied as in the double fugue. In the longer compositions there will be of the different lines greater variety because the harmonies be varied, and in fact the manner of development of the may of modulation of the choral fugue depends upon the course itself. There is comparatively littlemodulation in the simple chorals and that only to nearly related keys. We have an besides the accompanied fugue when regular ftigalexpositionsand developmentsthere are inde-
FUGUE
pendent parts form
for
other
voices
is that in which
169 instruments.
or
The
most
the
regular fugue is sung by choir of voices while an orchestra plays a partlyindependa ent the of accompaniment. Again, exposition a fugue riiay be by one choir and accompanied with full harmony by sung common
the
other.
We
frequentlyfind parts of
variations of the voice parts and and
new
the
orchestra
givingfree
the
harmony being filled by tra independentfiguresof accompaniment or the orchessupply a counterpointwhich is quite independent of
may the voice parts. It has been
"
said of Bach's
fugues they have no end ; when through you have not played you have played them out." The them same might be said of the study of this of polyphonic music: there can be most important form exhaustive of fugue,a form so definite and yet no description so so indefinite, completeand yet so incomplete. Definite in and scheme of development; generaloutline,in progressions of developments; complete indefinite in variety and number in that each
part is
finished from
so
an
artisticand
technical
standpoint and yet never quite complete,for it leads on to clearer the theme another development which makes explains, be sustained,still varied, still preserved on that can and on It is the
end.
without the theme
lies all the
unfoldingof a musical germ, for in latent possibilities, and the first phrase
prophesies and contains all the steps that follow, while the for the beginning,it presuplast development is the reason poses, all before. that went Every comprehends and justifies is of which it variation belongs to the whole a part, not simply followingin succession one after another as separate parts but as a process of development, one growing out of "To element know another. one explore another and the second
appears
in the first"
Fugue perhaps music it
lends
itself to
exemplifiesthe
than any perfectly comparison with other
more
laws
of
other 'arts.
growth, of development,as
it in nature, art, historyor
philosophy.
form In we
of
truth find
170 We
have
MUSIC
THE
THEORY
traced
the evolution of
OF
fugue
have
the scheme
of
growth.
at the time
reached
passed after
years
shows
crudest
the
how
seen
us
efforts of
this form Bach's
that he
a
was
his music
before
death
was
was
appreciated beyond his
far advanced
man
to
the fact that
perfectedand
was
crisis
musical
a
and
belong
musicians
that
know
We
early
works
in Bach's
stage of part writingto its culmination
the
from
age.
Today the trend of publicopinion is away from things purely artistic and, as musical history shows us, composers This fields wherein to develop their ideas. have sought new find the utilitarian comis quiteas true of other arts and we bined find paintingand drawing devoted with the artistic; we largely to illustration of a definite kind; and literature to illustrative stories full of human crete interest,varied and conin treatment a
sake
and
characterization.
feelingthat the adoration
is sometimes
sapped by
art
unwholesome
rather than
of and
nourished
mere
There
beauty
that human
by
seems
to
for its
vail preown
energiesare
it
delight in tendency to lead away from mere design and abstract beauty of form we are apt for a time to lose sightof much that is trulygreat in art. Popular opinion form, of interest only Jong classed fugue as an unintelligible of technique. As we this have earlier shown to a student of the polyphonicmusic duringthose necestrue of much was sary stages of growth before Bach's time, but though a fugal compositionrequiresstudy on the part of the listener as well as have performer, fugue as Bach and his successors given it to us contains not only beauty of designbut holds as great interest as any of the more a human popular forms of music ; With
and
long
they
have
this
after others led to
have
ceased
something more
to
be
of value
except
as
perfect,the splendidfugal will hold their place; in them the writingsof the masters of is found and though seeminglyintricate art very essence and complex compositionsthey are complex only as we fail lack imaginationto think t^ grasp the plan of the whole or m
t"e
language of the musician.
FORM As
increase
to
of any branch of human tends endeavor interest and underpleasure in life, so an standing
knowledge
a
our
music
aid
the
the
subject, to
larger simply hear
pleasures,how
of
the
is
To
more
will
proportion to chapter; and
but
come
for
such
give
such
is
a
no
the
of
of
returns
wide
in any way, the music-lover,
in
which
distinction
to
he
is
study
is there
of than
any
profit,in
outlined
insight into music longer and except by much
of
greatest
whose
range
keener
of
the pleasure
nor
that
will
enjoyment
pleasure and
it, as a
to
music
form,
in
the
be
is added
sense
study
to
of the
one
must
branch
spent upon
is
composition
of the
stimulates
study
develops
the
great
time
the
music
intense
pleasure There
more
good
more
fascinatingthan
which
to
the
intellect.
the
and
understands
who
one
listening. of
much
composition technical knowledge thorough enjoyment
is without
a
of
musical
principlesof
lover, who
If to
music.
basic
the
of
in this tion observais
likely deeper study ;
the
student
or
gain an understanding of music With the understanding comparable to the abilityto analyze fofm. of the composer's intentions of form a comes grasp this general and other that be gained in any cannot way, be gained by the careful reader can understanding of form teacher, there
without
unusual
is
no
way
mental
to
effort.
is
All art a
subjectto
genius arises
and
we
closer
is
he
say
so
grounded
certain
upon
governed by
laws that
the
laws
into the
reach
to
the
of
Goethe
art-forms
write
a
all laws
himself,but
unto
product of his principles.While
composer compositionwithout a
his
own
future, he is
Speaking of the "genius,natural talent,
would
A
intellect is
past.
says, it is is the first to understand them, and of
readiest obedience." to
the
basic
force him
individuality may ever
that
law
a
then
and
apparentlybeyond
are
great that he is
scrutiny shows
Now
of the past.
laws
works
whose
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
172
plan or
them
that pays
undertake
more
no
the
design to
which
he
proposed to conform, than would an architect undertake to definite plan. Neither he build a building without can a build great structures work or piece-work. He by random details and add many would very probably change many embellishments during the construction of his building,but these would he of necessity, conform to his general plan or would be startingfrom nowhere and could expect to arrive definite artistic conclusion. This plan or at no design, in conformity to which a pieceof music is written,is called its form. Music mixed.
is either The
restraint than he is in
composer
the
purely instrumental, purely vocal, of instrumental
composer*
music
of either vocal
wise
forms
no
of instrumental
is freer from mixed
music,
the limitations of the voice
hampered by or by the necessityof adapting the music to In this chapter we treat largelyof sung. as
or
or
music.
The
the words the
to be
monophonic phonic poly-
difference between
and
monophonic forms has alreadybeen explainedin the chapteron fugue. The word monophonic is derived from the Greek mono, meaning one, phonic, sound or tone, the entire word signifyingthe importance of one sound or series of tones. In fugue, or the polyphonic form, melodies are introduced in
for the different voices
harmony,
the
same
or
instruments
melody actingas
accompaniment
even three, four and sometimes wfa3e in monophonic compositionsone melody
itselfin two,
to carry
more
on
to
parts,
is introduced
FORM
at
173
time, its accompaniment being harmonious
a
come
forms
The
melody.
a
any of
agreeing on
nearer
music
critics and
than
analystsof
but
not
music
the divisions and
sarily neces-
have
not
of the
names
other subjectsconnected with many the art, except that there is a very general agreement the on definitions of polyphonic and monophonic music. titles and on
the latter form
Under
writers have
ent pointedout many differdivisions such the as classical,romantic, operatic, dance, popular and sacred forms, but it can be shown that the first three of these can be reasonablyand logically said include all forms of to monophonic music, and as a consequence shall here consider the first three only. While we all monophonic yet in all of them these forms short are be contrapuntal, polyphonicor fugal in style, passages may these
but
are
predominant, or
not
of
sufficient
length to
their
make
form
ture conspicuous,in proportionto the strucof the entire composition. We will first consider the then the romantic and operaticforms, giving definitions classical, and explanationsas we take them up. in music in a general way Form stands for clearness, attractiveness or order, order being as necessary and ever present in good music as in good architecture. In fact,order ing of good music, as every thinkform is the prime requisite or by disorder. The being is attracted by order and repelled unsubstantial and transient, in music are a tones singletone the pleasantsounds chord cannot or give a lastingimpression, appeal only to the sense, but adherence to a definite form gives stability.Truly artistic music appeals,because of its and through the intellect to the emotions. form, to the intellect, even
it is for this very reason and be able to understand
that every
And
should
analyze form, as it intellectual appeal. present necessityof
gain are
extent
some
form
of
by
In
keeping constantlyin
form
in
music
the
the idea that it leads to monotony,
at
mind
reader
least to
makes
music
is
means
music-lover
the
should
its ever
not
for the first requirements
of good form are unityand variety,both of which when evenly balnecessary to insure interest and which
174
anced
together,the
details,in the
the
of the
oneness
MUSIC
is apparent in the holding entire composition; variety,in
Unity
form.
good
assure
OF
THEORY
THE
differences
various
in
and
key, tempo
The necessary presence of unity of the passages. kind is emphasized varietyin every art work of whatever
structure
and
all critics in
by
branch
every
of
art.
In
painting
varietyin drawing, texture, color and form, or be must interest would be lacking,but all these qualities of completeunited by the artist in order to produce a sense ness entire satisfaction. This is so generallyunderstood or and accepted and is set out at such length in every treatise there must
on
be
aesthetics that it is not necessary to enter into it here. in music the presence of form The evidences are
rhythm
beats, measures,
visible to
are
and
the
melody.
music
reader
The and
beats and
of
ures meas-
performer,the
learning of their presence because of the accent, music is properlyperformed which is always noticeable when instrument, greater stress or accent being usually on any than on any other placed upon the first beat in each measure listener
The
beat. in
used
same
system of grouping beats into
gatheringmeasures
will be
and
by
control
and
the
is
cession regularsuc-
tone-impulsesdetermines the rhythm, explainedlater. The fourth evidence of form
of accents which
into groups
measures
or
far the most
importantone,
in fact it may be said to From the melody the form
the form, is the
melody. is defined and recognized. The notes of the principal melody are usuallyplaced above the other notes and rendered by the instruments voices of the highest pitch, as these notes or with strike the ear the greatest emphasis. The melody is God-given. While, as has already been stated in a previous certain rules governing the writingof chapter,there are the composer's heart. from The rules for melody it comes harmony and form may be learned and followed absolutely; the
be inspired than will compositionwill no more of the English grammar-school boy, which verses
resultant
the Latin
conform
to
all the
real poetry. The
rules of Latin
poet and
and prosody^ be grammar the musician must both be born
FORM the
with
heart; then having learned the rules of put his inspirationinto permanent, lasting will make its appeal to his fellows, and the more the stronger and more form lastingwill be the
which
form
in his
song he can
his art
that
correct
175
appeal. motive
The or
musical
be
not
confounded
with
motive, and
translated
often
musical
from thought,and ultimately of the composition. The use
structure
should
is the smallest
the
which
unit; it is the idea it developsthe entire of the
German is
word
motive
"motif,"
word
appliedto
passages
of
varying length made to represent or signifyvarious persons, The objects or emotions. Wagner in his operas, composer especiallyin those of the Ring, brought these passages into very great prominence. The motive he used varied in length from
few
a
thematic
the
the
lyricmusic theme
melody
musical
or
several
to
notes
Here
measures.
we
music
in
distinction from
flows
on,
while
expressionis
used
are
lyric.In
in thematic
again
music
composition. The motive we are is usuallyshort,but in order to render the metre of it is necessary that to the ear thought intelligible a so section,with constituting beyond one measure, of two
extent
We our
are
the
ready
now
consider
to
process, the idea to musical
and
complete as
and
to
The
extra
the hearer
is
reallyan
sion exten-
cover
sense.
all the
phrase
in
veying language, con-
the distinct consciousness a
of the
ning begin-
musical
a
musician
which
the
form
despitethe
classical music
measures
intact.
the
a
thought, but not necessarily Although phrases are frequentlymodified is never form lost, originalmathematical of
course
precisionmay remain
usual
an
generallyfour measures, sections,making it a fragment of
length,the analyzationby upon in
it extend
definite part of
more
a
phrase,which
usually containing two melody. It corresponds with to
musical
a
measures.
buildingup of
one
again in the considering
and
of the
course
sidering con-
they
are
not
to
and be
be
ceived per-
modifications.
deprive the phrase of
frequentlybe omitted
However,
can
its mathematical the
melody
regarded as
THEORY
THE
176
OF
MUSIC
phrases in literature to idea of the writer require words the taining conexact express other letters or syllablesthan plete equally commore musical phrases to exactly express the phrases,so some than contain other more notes composer's thought must composition. In like manner phrases which appear in the same they may be smaller than required by the particularform To in use. distinguishthe length of phrases the terms simple and composite are frequentlyemployed. The simple posite rhythm, while the comphrase is one consistingof but one of the two or more rhythms. None phrase covers has held himself absolutelybound by rules great masters This is exemplifiedfor instance in one sohn's of Mendelsof form. compositionswhere is to be found a phrase twenty-two the other hand in length. On measures general acceptance be given to the statement, that the compositions which may been the most which have lastingand 'the ones today are embellishments, but
looked
as
upon
the
just
as
some
greatest,are
those
which
have
made
been
closelyto the established rules of form. The phrase may begin either on an accented or unaccented beat of a full measure and it usuallyterminates with It is necessary to emphasize the importance of a cadence. the phrase, for from it all musical forms are built,and in all or productions of music, whether instrumental vocal, the proper accenting and phrasing is as vital as in the speaking and reading of a language. That the phrase may guished be distinby the listener it is necessary that an apparent change in the made be rhythm; this is brought about by the conform
to
usual
most
introduction
of the
cadence, which
is the
end
of
the
the
point of temporary repose between two phrases. cadence The beat and its accented an generallyoccurs upon made known by the lengtheningof the presence is commonly chord which at that point;when is sounded this chord is built is said to be a up from the key-note of the phrase the pause
phrase or
ioB a
cadence
; when
the
cord
cadence. fejfo$ imperfect e
is that The
of
the
fifth it indicates
of significance
will be apparent later in tMs
same
the full and
chapter.
The
FORM is
cadence to
commonly knowledge of
the of
the
177
very apparent, and rightfully so, as next the melody, the findingof the true tion locais the most important task in properly
cadence
music ; yet in many analyzing or interpreting the cadence cases is partiallyconcealed by various technical devices which it is to mention here as we are strivingto gain only unnecessary of a generalunderstanding our subject; and in a few instances, though rarely,the cadence is entirelyomitted by elision,one with the next and the separating phrase being combined cadence being entirelyabsent. As the phrases in language are combined to make tences sentoo, the
so,
what which used
the
known
are
those who
music
here
combined
are as
sentences,
it is the
as
to
periods,
or
modern
more
make
and
perhaps the best authorities. The of great lack of unanimity in phraseology is one rists. by musical theogreatest difficultiesyet to be overcome by
are
nomenclature with
connected
growth
uneven
musical
of
students These
in
authorities
musical
to
will be used
term
Musical
and
phrases
have
men
not
like the scale,notation
the art and
been
has
evolution.
form
have
used
entire
their works
in
subjectto
and
irregular
an
The
greatest and
the
past been
unanimity in translated
thing every-
deepest
Germans.
their nomenclature into
English by their English speaking followers,there resulted an annoying lack of uniformity in terminology, different translators using different meanings, and to convey the same English words different words for the same if possible, worse things. still, and
Some own
when
writers
and The
words.
words
or
gone so far as to coin their titles used here are those which even
where into general acceptance and grown difference in terminology it is indicated;but not
have
gradually
there
is
a
critics have
were
until musical
authorities of all nations
agree
upon
some
fixed
misunderstandings. The simple period is the outgrowth of the phrase, and is made by the addition of what is called a subsequentphrase antecedent the first or to phrase, the two being separated progression usuallyby a half-cadence which always signifies nomenclature
can
we
hope
to avoid
the
and
entire
OF
THEORY
THE
178
MUSIC
period generallyterminating
in
perfect
a
keys. As a rule tonic, dominant, or mediant both in the subsequent phrase is related to the antecedent melody and in key, the melody in the subsequentphrase being and intervals, much like that of the antecedent in movement its key being one and easilyderived from the key of the in
cadence
antecedent
simpleperiod may be enlarged or amplifiedin many be repeated;three phrases both phrases may One or ways. be used in placeof two; or a double or compound phrase may of four phrases,the second contrastingwith be formed may the fourth the first,the third agreeing with the first and again contrastingwith the third and agreeingwith the second in melody and key. All these modifications agree with the full cadence simple period in that they contain only one which terminates the period,all the phrases are separated by an imperfect or half-cadence and all periods consist of The
alternate
divisions of
and
accented of
full measures,
unaccented
musical no
form
in what
matter
they begin; therefore, if beat the unaccented
must
a
always
be
made
part of the first
period begins with
beat must
ent differ-
The
measures.
be omitted
an
up ure meascented unac-
the last
from
measure.
previouslymade in this chapter treat of the elements, or parts and their connectinglinks,which when properlyjoined togethergo to make up the musical sentence or period as it is called in music. All larger compositions are simply a series of periodsgatheredtogetherin accordance with certain fixed standards or rules which have been gradually developedby the great masters. The
The
statements
two-part form
seems
to
have
been
the natural
cal musi-
and refrain being used expressionof man, the statement by solo and chorus, or by male and female voices,as is so This form was clearlyshown in the Psalms of David. early in both and polyphonic monophonic music. apparent It is the simplestof all musical forms and being a repe-
of. periods or
rather
a
wioji of them
SQ
that
one
con-
FORM stitutes the theme
and
with
synonymous them. use
the other
and is almost counter-theme, melody and tune as we commonly
the terms
German
The
179
a
Volkslieder
written
were
in
this form;
theorists
Lied-form but we give it the name the use embraces so many song-form. It now English translation, different kinds of musical composition, both vocal and instrumental, that the name primary form is considered more priate. appro-
some
If the reader form in
synonymous,
and
presentingof
one
are
the
which
second
in the tonic
key, and
by
as
found
musical
the
then but
in various
that
and
song
underlyingprinciple rests musical thought followed by a it and
closes with
a
half-cadence
to the
for a conoriginal clusion, little difficulty in distinguishing the a
return
compositions,nor it is later
terminologyas
described in this chapter. To
forms
primary
that the
with
contrasts
he will have forms
will remember
the
will be confused
appliedto special primary
form
the
tinction binary is frequentlyapplied to make a readier disThe binaryform more from the ternary form. fully exemplifiesthe idea of progressivegrowth than anything previouslyconsidered,as the second part serves as a balance and complement to the first The firstpart consists of a musical period and usually closes with a perfectcadence. name
The
second
part contains,
that
forms
a
one.
There
contrast
is usuallya
and
least at
at
affords
slightchange
the
the
start, material balance to part
in the
in part extended than
melody
elaborate and frequentlyis more the first period and closes with a half-cadence in the tonic the return to part one. Simple compositions key; then comes written in the small two-part primary forms and are in the first period,four find eight measures in them you of four material and a repetition of contrasting measures and
two
it
'
while of the first,
measures
under of
the
more
elaborate works
come
ber large two-part primary form in which the numlowed doubled,sixteen for the first period,folare measures and a return to eigbtpf the firstpart by eight,
the
OF
THEORY
THE
180
MUSIC
primary form is superiorto the two-part three-part which is a repetition of the in that a third period is added whole. rounded The difference between first, making a more the two and three-part primary forms lies in the length of the repetition. In the simple the subsequent phrase and primary form, as before pointedout, the second contrasting and the third periodis never but half the length of the first, while in the three-part never repeats the first in its entirety, The
there
form
the
are
the
final
coda.
or
is
This
by a
combination
expositionof
or
or
of
of the
introduction, principalidea or
the
period is a distinct departurefrom the subsequentphrase leadingup to the third of the first and is followed by a repetition three-partprimary form is subject to enlargement
the
of repetition
of the
second
the
first part
or
by adding
third parts which gives a authorities going so far as to and
five parts, some this a separate division,callingit
total of make
in each
measures
second
period,which the
of
first period,preceded by the
three parts. The is the statement
melody; the first,
number
same
a
form five-part
of parts, but this is an analysisas the enlargement is
a
group
three-partform, in it each form.
of
First
parts followed
and
is
the three comes
by
a a
on
a
refinement unnecessary directlybased upon the larger and broader scale,as
parts consists of
principalsong
second
form
a
distinct primary in two
or
three
subordinate
in some song form key of the subdominant,
key, perhapsin a relative minor the subdominant, or the key a major third lower than the first is derived from part ; this is usuallycalled a trio,which name a piece played with three instruments. Following the trio the repetition form of the first song in the original comes key. To this repetitionis sometimes given the name da capo, meaning "the head/' signifying to the return a that the older composers did not beginning,for the reason of the last go to the trouble of writing out the score but used the words "da capo" to indicate to the njQfvement should be repeated. The performer that the first movement form is the most "fctee^ commonlyused fcnp a" in it are other
FORM dances
written
many of most
and
the
such
old
polonaise,gavotte,
as
dances.
modifications
or
181
All
later
either
of
forms
binary
or
minuet are
tensions ex-
ternary
forms.
be too
It cannot that
of the rules
none
above
were
rules
The
all arts
hope
who
for future
could look
we
development in
be dead.
would
the great minds of the that there will be great farther modifications. If
will make
for this belief
not
were
stronglyemphasized compositionare inflexible appeared composers who for form in composition. too
general usage of logicalto suppose
in the future
ones
it
the
it is but
past, and
of
the past have beyond all rules
and are
forms
or
or
In
unbreakable.
or
often stated
With
an
music
the past and well as in other
only to as
of understanding
are ready to consider ternary forms we forms and will begin with dance music.
and
the
primary specialclassical
The
historyof dancing and dances enters prominently into musical development and many of the classical, forms of the music of today found their originin dance music. The littlemore than pantomimic action which earliest dancingwas told the story of adventure, or combat, by means of more or A rude less rhythmicalgestures. times accompaniment was someused which did littlebut mark the time for the dancers, and when read of the dances in the Scriptures find the we we clapping of hands, rhythmic beating of the tambourine, or clatter of the timbrel to guide the dancers and singers. Not until we to the dances of the Middle come Ages do we find them and the modern forms of music. any connection between and Minnesingers there were In the music of the Troubadours
"Tanzweisen," and in them we find the contrasted periodsof our present primary,or song form. slow walkingdances, The dances of the nobles,dignified, forded and the merry, wild, hilarious dances of the peasantry afcians the contrast necessary to good musical form, and musidance-songs
soon
symmetry
"
or
began
to
combine
the two.
they not only interwove
but concluded
by
a
return
to
Then
the two
to preserve
the
dances contrasting
the firstmovement,
and gave
rise
OF
THEORY
THE
182
MUSIC
classical largelyused by modern and Spanish dances lent their French, German composers. find Italian composers influence and in the Sixteenth Century we combining three or four different dances and making means simplya set or a compositionin the cycleform, which in turn called the partita,which succession of movements ten writprogressedto the suite. The dance music is of course and to correspond to the regular steps of the dancer hence the rhythm ns very regular,making this perhaps the Much of the simplestand clearest of all musical forms. to
form tripartite
the
form, however, is
in dance
written
music
so
intended
not
as
an
regular accompaniment to dancing and in it we commonly find irand can employ rhythms,for the composer is not restricted, when variations impossible obligedto consider the steps of
the
As
dancer.
idealized
Mozart,
a
result of this freedom
forms, such
dance
importance in which
we
find
in
have
the
the
works
of
Haydn, Schubert, Beethoven, Chopin
shall first consider
We
as
we
of
many
i
that our
they
were
modern
Four
movements
suite
of
dances
those
which
are
parts of the
old
instrumental
were
Weber.
and of
special
suite, from
forms
usuallyconsidered
were
veloped. de-
necessary
regular form, the allemande, courante, and gigue, all written in the same saraband key, though often introduced usuallybetween other dance forms were the saraband and the gigue. The allemande, a dance of German origin,immediately find follows a prelude. Occasionally this a suite without we opening dance form, but generallyspeaking it is considered At the time it was a adopted for the necessary movement suite it had long been forgottenas a dance and consequently its construction is not as regular in rhythmic treatment as the three followingmovements. It is written in 4-4 time, tempo moderately rapid, and commences usuallywith one short ipte, a quaver at the end of the measor semi-quaver, tfrfl TRe monophonfc rather t|$p the polyphonicstyleprein
every
-
,
and
but
the upper
without
part "r
is of iiefody
uniform
stronglyflanked rhythms, ^nd
regular occa-
FORM
183
sionallyrather fantastic in treatment, while the accompaniment is comparativelysimple. The parts usuallycontain and less frequently eight, twelve or sixteen measures ten In measures. Magny's Chorigraphie, Pecour, a celebrated of
the opera under Louis of the allemande in 6-8 time, which
dancing music been
master
dance fairlylively
a
allemande
German
suite it is It is
the
name
Italian courante, or meaning of the
staccato
rather the
while
the
as
music
last bar
it underwent
it ceased a
one
form
a
first movement
to
change, and
original
of the oldest French
a
courir,to
run,
to the
more
and
logical etymo-
chieflyof running is characterized by
is written in 3-2 time with
with
part you
the
it consists
form
was
it to have
time.
answers
dance
movement
there
of each
signature. As
as
is the
the
somber, and in the
more
the French
name
us
duringthe Sixteenth Century.
corrente,
French
rapid running measure
from
French
The
notes.
the old dance the
and
fashionable
derived
was
passages,
of
slower
was
shows
days, though
always written in common followed by the courante,
figuredances, very The
in those
XIV., left
marked find 6-4
short note
at the end
of the
suite.
In
in that peculiarity time in spiteof th
lose its connection
with the dance
in the suite the two
rliythmsare
frequentlymixed, and often,though the signatureis 3-2, the the polyphonicstyle 6-4 time predominates throughout and these features. Italian The is used to clearlybring out time also,but is usuallyin 3-8 or 3-4 time is in triple corrente and
There is a strong confaster. the tempo is somewhat trast the allemande, with its the first movement, between
heavy character and the lighter, simple tune and somewhat form gives an which in the French more complex courante while the running pasimpression of energy and "Vivacity, sages of the Italian form suggest not quiteso energetica dance as a light, playfulone. merry, lous At its close,the listener is brought back to a less frivoThis seffotissaraband state of mind by the stately, dance France
was
of
Moorish
and England
as
origin,but was quiteas popular in dancer origiin Spain.1 Only one v
it
Later
saraband, and
the
nally performed
OF
THEORY
THE
184
into
transformed
was
voice
a a
participated. Its time signature 3-2 or 3-4, and usually consists
MUSIC
accompanied
dance
is the
which
in
same
him.
several
the courante,
as
eight or twelve measure for its strongly accentuated It is remarkable divisions. rhythm, which is simple and yet majestic, making it far more than the two preceding movements. regular in construction unwritten It seems law been of cycle music to have an the
in
merry the
a
should
final movement
that
mood
of
be such
leave
to
as
nothing could better serve doubtless hearty dance, which
and
the the
listener purpose
gigue, a originated it in and known in no one no one was people country as lands the same in slightlyvarying forms time. It at many ture. was a rollicking,rapid dance, very regular in rhythmic structime signaturesare Various used, as 3-8, 6-8, 3-4, 6-4 and 12-8, and in the more even pretentious suites the gigue assumes great complexity, owing to the rapid, continuous Bach movement. occasionallytreated the gigue in free fugal style. than
with
The
It of
Gap,
where
France,
rustic
dance
introduced
of
in the
It
is
after
in
form.
Often
first,and
the
tlte first.
There
a
when
in
of
the
and
second
it
in the
gavottes,
first contained
at
in
like
a
of
many
difficult steps
of
city
a
were
minuet
are
livelier nature.
the
minuet
is
in
immediately performer repeated
gavotte followed
played
was
always
was
was two, if one the tonic major
the
and
figures used
time
duple
like
was,
ments. move-
in the
called
It
name.
romp all kinds
the
dance
gavotte, though the latter is of
written
ternary
many
last two
were
good-natured
a
later
found
women
its
only simple steps, but and
the
mountaineer's
the
received
dances,
between
used
originallya
was
the
whence the
is often
gavotte
a
the
in character
contrast
between
minor
follow key the other would relative major key. This or combining two a really makes con-ternary form, though each separately is a binary foim
'Other at
dances
often
branje,
the
introduced
into
passepfed and
the the
suite minuet.
are
the The
FORM bourree
185
branle, the
The passepied and the minuet. nated in Auvergne, though some authorities call it a Spanish dance of Biscay,where it is stillsaid to be performed. It is binary in form, livelytempo, in duple time, is similar in or
character
to the
used
when
as
begins on the begins with the
the gavotte, the bourree
there
is
of repetition
a
usuallyfollows
the
first, making
a
It differs from
form.
ternary
with
as
part of the suite;a second
a
then
the first and
with
gavotte, and
the gavotte in that it always crotchet of the measure while the gavotte
fourth the
third.
The
rigadoon
in musical
bourree
form
is almost
identical
is characterized
but
by
a
time. or common peculiarjumping step. The passepiedwhich, according to tradition,originated in Brittanyis an old round dance which was famous in France introduced into during the time of Louis XIV., when it was the ballet. This dance was used not only between the last two of the suite but by some movements was placed composers It is written in 3-4 or 3-8 time,begins before the saraband. It is in 2-4
on
of the
the third note
usually ternary Of
has in
suite but
is of
lively nature,
a
and
in form.
found
large
earlier mentioned
forms
It sprang
important.
and
name
and
measure
the idealized dance
is the most
in
from
a
instrumental
of the
dance
permanent place not
a
the minuet
only
classical works.
same
in the old
Its
origin
been settled upon, though it is said to have come never ancient dance, though the Doubtless it was Poitou. from an
has
or
3-8
In
XIV.
for Louis
3-8
signature,as
the
old
minuet In
tempo
the
first
gives
more
makes
it
on
outgrowth
a
the
Handel
and
With
their works.
third beat delicate less
minuets
of the
became
touch
are
measure
|o
instead
of
less the of the
the composition and
older heavy,tl^tfce
minttet is the
the
Haydn
quitemerry; innovation introduced by Haydn
modern
the
the whole of
by
1662
in 3-4
is written
of its stateliness and
some
fact,many
is faster and
composed by Lully in
was
it is ternary and preferred the former
is shown
lost
beginning on
*
form
Bach
time.
solemn.
music
minuet
earliest known
the ^ffefeo,
form.
name
An
derived
OF
THEORY
THE
186
MUSIC
scherzare,to joke. In form it is like the denotes merely the character of the minuet, so the name the minuet is always in 3-4 time the scherzo While music. be in duple or tripletime, and in its more developed may forms. to belong to the dance form almost ceases the Italian
from
historic
The
that unlike
ancient
other
but stillholds
importanceof
its placeas
first introduced
Haydn
dances
the
lies in the
minuet
it has
not
become
obsolete
part of large instrumental
a
it into the
symphony
and
fact
works.
Beethoven
scherzo, since which time a large have used the latter lightertreatment majority of composers in preferenceto the old minuet, as the quicker of the form varied rhythm are time and not as more likelyto prove transformed
monotonous.
it into
Mendelssohn
Symphony and flat Symphony, minuet
ended
the
Schumann but
used
the older form
in the second
in his Italian of the
movement
generally speaking the
historyof
E the
with Beethoven.
bolero, a characteristic dance of Spain, is usually written in 3-4 time, though there is a frequent change of time The dancer accompanied the steps during the movement. and the rhythm of these instruments with castanets gradually It generally consists of two became a part of the music. principalparts, each repeated and, a trio, making it of frequently the castanet rhythm is heard ternary form; before the melody begins. or more measures through one The bolero is used in many operas in its dance form complete idealized it by usingirregular and composers rhythms though retainingits chief characteristics. The
2
Another
dance
form
in
favor
with
both
is the Polish
instrumental
polonaise. Bach, Handel, and Wagner, Chopin, Beethoven, Mozart, Schubert, Weber Polish composers and many of less note than Chopin, have used it in large and small works. There are two theories in regard to the originof the polonaise. One is Gristingvocal composers
it was tfa?at?
evolved
from
ancient Christmas
-
carols
such
as
aajb^eclay sting in Poland, and it is true there is a likeness f the dance music and, in the lines of the
FORM old was
187
also that at one carols; and it is known time the dance accompanied by singing,though the only polonaisemusic
now
is purely instrumental.
in existence
The
accepted theory is that it sprang from an old promenade. To celebrate his election to the III. of
Henry
Anjou
more
court
generally dance
or
Polish throne
1574, a grand receptionat The Cracow. in statelyprocessionpast the guests marched the sound throne to of solemn music. This promenade became a and it is thought that the part of court ceremonies used to polonaisegradually developed from this and was open
Polish
many
Today,
in
festivities. dance
a
as
gave,
the
polonaise is of little interest; procession,in which old and young take
it still consists
of
part, moving
^everal times
a
the
around
room
in
solemn
particularstep. In Germany court balls are opened with this dance, and in some places it has been modified, robbed of its dignity,and used for the close of an evening of dancing and called Der Auskehr, the turn-out. themselves The with household entire company arm ments, implemarch through the house singing in chorus "When takes the Grandmother," a rollicking old the Grandfather Although as a dance the polonaisedates back several song. centuries it was not until the early Eighteenth Century that examples of it in its present musical form began to appear. order
Since
with
no
it has been
then
composers
and
parts of
Italian
is of march
has
a
even
operas.
favorite form
with
many
been
used
It is
usually written
by
tempo,, generallybegins on
vocal
instrumental
composers in 3-4
the first beat
in
time, of the
consists,as a rule, of two parts and a trio. almost martial, and Its rhythm is very marked, sometimes choly again it is so treated as to create a dreamy, rather melantrue composition. These characteristics are especially he depictsthe struggles, of Chopin's polonaisesin which the court splendor,the triumphs of his country. In truth, Chopin gives life and spiritto the old polonaiseform. dances, the saltarello Italy has given two well-known The first is of Roman originand the name and tarantella. measure
and
OF
THEORY
THE
188
MUSIC
of the dance (saltare,to something of the nature jump). It was danced by one or two persons, with a quick hopping step, time increasingas the dance proceeded. The music is written in 3-4 or 6-8 time, is generallyin a minor key, notes are staccato, and the hopping step is apparent in the rhythm. In an idealized form the saltarello is found in symphoniesand other instrumental classical works. in his Italian Symphony used in the finale Mendelssohn tells
the
both
The
tarantella.
the
saltarello and
tarantella
is
graduallyincreases in speed as the dancers and continue, and the music corresponds with the hilarity tambourines mirth of the performers. Song, castanets or are it and you will find the melody even in used to accompany in 6-8 time
and
the extended
rhythm, as modern
derived bite
was
a
bit of
a
cityof
and
marked
elaborate
by use
from
form
well defined and
the instruments,a characteristic.
composers There works. its
dance
this dance is
a
very tradition
Many
in instrumental effectively that
the
tarantella
the tarantula,the
huge spider whose supposed to be cured by dancing. However, this is fiction. The name from Taranto, undoubtedly came where the dance may have originated. southern Italy, name
that the dance was It is true, nevertheless, used that it cured a nervous disorder known
of
the
tarantism
which
was
in the sition suppothe name by
in prevalent for many years epidemic was at its worst during of strolling musicians went from
the Italy. When the Sixteenth Century bands the dance music for those afflicted, town to town furnishing If forgettingone's illsand tiringone is efficacious physically in the treatment of hystericalsubjects,the tarantella as at the present time danced by the Italians even certainly should prove a cure. Although it begins mildlyand gently dancers seem enough, in a few minutes the two, four or more with the music, and to be entirelycarried away heads, and used in the wild gestures, the body are legs afi", stai33|)ijig, dappii^,bodilycontortions, hoppingand, runmng, eaches its height,even the voices of the io the gaiety. Different forms of taranftsslst southern
FORM tism
required different
cure, and
music
189
different steps for their
and
different tarantellas. sprang up several slightly Among the modern societydances the waltz is one of the most important. The originsof many of the dances are rather
so
obscure, but
that
difficult of all modern least is German
from
of
the
dances
waltz
is
perhaps the
determine.
to
The
most at
name
waltzen,to
have turn, and the Germans claimed it of their productions. They trace one as generally it back to the old Drehtanz or turning dance which was danced
by couples standing face another by one hand only,much the old English country dances. The evolved
been
from
and
Provence
the
introduced
that in the Sixteenth the
then
name
old
volta
into Paris
Century it was
changed
to
to
face
or
as
was
same
French which
done
claim
it to
have in
Louis
VIL, and Germany and
carried to Then
in the
invented
was
under
Walzer.
holding one
when
they,the
again revived it they used the German* title with French spellingand called it valse. This sounds rather questionablein that the old volta was probably an Italian would think from the Italian title. so dance, at least one The generally from theacceptedbelief is that it came directly in different places, by different names peasant dance known and the one usuallygiven as its ancestor is the Austrian and it is Tyrolese lander. Under this name, or that of Schleifer, French,
stilldanced
rhythms
slow
festivals village
at
in Austria
Mozart, Beethoven
which
and
Bavaria
and
Schubert
to
the
used
in their waltzes.
1675
About
to
which
it has
the modern
waltz
been
have
must
an
outgrowth
with the song. is the modern not
with
date
which
,ofthe spite
There
usually given
dance.
become
familiar "Ach
now
and
into existence
came
tune
the
It reached
popularenough it met
an
is
no
older dance
proof of
the first
was
danced,and
was
of
said this
Augustin"
therefore to
be
this and
it
temporary con-
1780
of the first appearance England in 1797, though it did
for
to
the
call forth the
severe
criticism
early Nineteenth Century. In upon thi$ "fien4of German birth/'
until the
Attacksmade
been
du lieber
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
190
propriety/'and of Lord called' of the subjectin his poem Byron'ssavage treatment all dancing The Waltz, it continued to gain in favor and soon waltz. England became devotees to the wiles of the fascinating other the waltz is entirelydifferent from In musical form dances and is not as capableof high development, but works have been written in waltz form. of lastingcharm the works of Mozart and In its early form and among of simple binary form, and seldom the waltz was Beethoven it was if so modulation occurred or always into a any nearly related key. Schubert enlarged this form, and the delicacyand
"destitute of grace,
waltzes
modern
more
often
are
3-4 time, with but
always in be
in
drawn
There
of waltzes. which
four
are
sixteen
the third is
follow
the
or
measure,
material
five short
numbered
measure
the first.
as
waltzes rule
a
These
sisting con-
which
three,in
short waltzes
another, and while the bass and middle
one
is
waltz
the set, each of sentences or
of repetition
a
a
whose
frequentlyrepeatedin
are
of two case
from
in
note
introduction
It
form.
and not proper time, leadingdirectlyto the waltz or set
no
way in waltz necessarily
may
accented
one
first;there is usuallyan
the
in
ternary
voices
tain sus-
the dance
rhythm, the melody is unrestrained and affords closes with an orate elabgreat varietyto the compositionwhich coda or finale in waltz tempo, repeatingin part some theme. a new subjects alreadyheard and often introducing Weber waltz
form
bring
and
waltzes
will be found Viennese
the
first composers it into the list of
in his "Invitation
forms, as is shown the
of
one
was
which
followed
in the works
tecribed;
absolute
to the Dance."
Among the
best
of
we
short
now
have
the
members
Gungl
became
the
fixed
"
of
the
form
of
that
several waltzes introduction, of the be?t repeating parts?
a
the
musical
in this idealized form
dancing. It was titles to waltzes under and specific Strauss family and Tabitzky and for
music
idealize
The Chopin and Rubinstein. excelled in the writing of waltz music the elder Johann Strauss who first gave
composers
etenee waltz
to
is the follow-
FORM Other
modern
step with
measure
phrase with
written
number
even
This
largelybased
are
of
the
galop, of
but
one
has
beat
two
a
in
measures
each
is necessary to conform Among them are the polka, form
same
the
to
the
and
on
number
even
steps of the dancer. in two-part primary form, each
time:
which
an
period.
or
the
2-4
dances
191
part repeated and
but
of
quicker tempo
whereas
measure,
in
the
polka three-part three-part
galop may composed in a primary form: and the polka mazurka, usuallyin from the waltz in primary form in quick 3-4 time, differing beats of the measure that the weak are usuallyaccentuated. The polka, in spiteof its lack of real beauty, became has
two,
it
popular wherever of
much
later be
be
date the
supposed
to
A
countryman
fellow and
music
Prague
of
invention
an
modern
waltz
and
is
girl of Bohemia. Neruda composed the
peasant
a
of
the nimra, which
as
it
a
descriptionof the
was
of
was
danced.
polka which
It is
name
in
was
supposed
Czech
pulka, meaning half, and used by the dancer. given because of the short or half-steps A regimentalband carried the polka from Bohemia to Vienna Paris had adopted it and five years in 1859, the next year to
be
creation
It
the
even
by the name known originally
was
from
than
song to which that it received the name
taken
was
it
introduced.
was
it reached
later
dance
so
a
London,
and
for many
years
in every included. was
of many countries, otir own program forms As the dance were developed from
the march
forms
from
grew
the
dances
steps. The original regularsteps and so was
march
designed to accompany always written in duple or quadruple time, the rhythm constructed on 'the simple binary strongly marked, and was repeated. form, divided into two parts, each of which was march
was
When, followed
as
in
the
case
of
the march, the form
the
minuet,
became
or
one
ternary
or
more
rondo.
trios The
simplestform of march, written in common A more time and is two-part primary or binaryin form. pretentiousfprm is the festival march, an extension of the militaryis
the
ternary,havinga second
trio addecj i# 4-4 time.
It consists
OF
THEORY
THE
192
MUSIC
subjectswith usuallyno transitions between, the to the first subcharacteristicbeing a regular return ject. marked first subject,second subject The order is introduction, first trio,first subject,third subject or second trio,first or The second and third subjectshave trio subjectand coda. the first subjectusually being in the same relationship, key related The in time a closely key. throughout or very entire the continues the same composition. The best during Mendelssohn's are known examples of the festival march Night's Dream," "Wedding March," from the "Midsummer The of and Wagner's "Tannhauser." tempo of marches of the composition; the the nature depends upon course and Chopin are of Handel, Beethoven funeral marches very while the so-called and others are quicksteps rapid, slow, very slow are moderately rapid or accordingto the use to which they are put, but in form they vary but little and in the majorityof cases can be classed as simplebinaryor ternary. Following the ternary form in importance is the rondo, old form, both the name and form being derived from a very rondeau the old French or round, meaning a returning,a coming around, the word signifyingthe general structure of class of Sixteenth Century French a songs, so arranged that of
a
opening and closingtwo
the H.
series of
C. Bunner's
verses
lines
the
were
same.
One
of
perfectlyillustratesthe form:
pitcherof mignonette tenement's highest casement; a Queer sort of flower-pot yet That pitcher of mignonette Is a garden in heaven set, A
In
"
To The In
The
:
i
an
['
littlesick child in the basement
pitcherof
mignonette highest
the tenement's
musical
form, and while they form one from
the
rondo
"
casement.
closely follows this literary the parts are distinct and easilyrecognizable continuous, concrete whole, to quote a line
old French
Wrottgfctas
very
rondeau a
it should be
ringwith
no
:
break In its
FORM all the movements
Here
theme principal
key
that
elaboration
determines will
we
will
there
parts
always returningto
of which and
or
are
subservient to
called the first subject, found
of the rondo, and
193
be
the
of
at
the
beginning
this first subject, the
the character
one
of the entire
style position, com-
always rightfully expect in this form return to the first subject and in
a
form
reiteration of
a
it
throughoutthe
composition. first rondo
The
form
is
the simplestand naturally
sists con-
of the first
only subjectand the repetition of the first subject in the same ferent key separatedby a passage in a difknown key, technically as a transition, an digression, episode or intermezzo, an Italian word derived from the Latin intermedius,meaning coming between, the same word being used for selections played between the acts in early Italian tragedies;it is also at the present time given to independe that compositionof the same generalcharacter, so the word transition, signifyingbeing in transit, givesperhaps unmistakable the clearest,most meaning. second rondo form The consists of a first subject,a and a return transition,a second subject,another transition, to the first subject. third rondo consists of the first subject,a The form the first subject, transition,the second subject,a transition, the third subject, and a return to the a transition, a transition, first subject.In this long form the intermediate subjectsand transitions the
condensed
are
bounds
length.
of the entire
Some
episode instead
of
contains
more
rondo
reason
form and
or
of
those
than
one
in order
writers a
who
to
not
compositionbeyond
transition make
used
a
tend ex-
able reason-
the
term
that is,a distinction,
and episode,
the
name
mezzo inter-
to find any is applied to the passages, but it is impossible there is no difference in the for this distinction, as
of the many
the subjects different connecting links between the words writers use episodeor intermezzo
interchangeablyin connection word
shortened
transition
seems
to
with
the
be the most
rondo
so
'distinctand
that
the
definite.
THE
194
OF
THEORY
MUSIC
of the first rondo forms the longer and many introduction and terminated opened by an composition was by a coda, both of which may vary in length.
In
all of the
"sound"
is derived
word
The
sonata.
and
from
in
first used
was
classical form
the
of
culmination
The
pieceof execution merely. By name appliedto the best form time
and
the
used
now
as
compositioncomprisingtwo there
are
old suite and
upon
came
to
meaning toccata, a
all composers it has been the of instrumental music of the stands
for
a
definite musical Most
movements.
more
monly com-
into
existence,though not in its present perfectionof the violin by the Italian The violin places so few restrictions
the
makers. musician
the
the
of these parts, often five and occasionally The is a direct outgrowth of the sonata
classic form, with instrument
word
in the
three
more.
even
Latin
distinction
name or
a
is found
there
as
is
so
little mechanism
between
made it was so perfect player and instrument, that when of the musician, he began to to respond to every mood as experiment and to overcome, by skill in stoppingand bowing, the mechanical difficulties which had before prevented him from and obtaining the finest,purest tone fluency of motion.
The
violin is
devices which were composers made to find a
the
correct
not more
solo
had
been
instrument
occupying
fitted to this instrument suitable
handling
simple harmonies,
a
of
rather
form
melodic
than
which
the
and the
and
puntal contra-
attention an
effort
of was
would
passages interwoven
depend upon accompanied by melodies
which
accompaniment. As we have had already been grouped and tunes seen, the purely dance into one composition, musicians felt the several woven but now unified form, something that would need of a more admit of melodic expression,give an impression of definite tonality and retain the rhythmic vitality necessary to all instrumental of form adopted in the dance tipa$ie. They used the method of the suites,but improved ttpon it by making the divisions, the subjectsused, by elaborating key and making the parts balance each other depend
upon
themselves
for
FORM The
form
sonata
in
its present developedstate consists For the first theme has no name
been
principalparts. agreed upon, the name
best
It determines
three
of
one.
is indeed
and is
it
specialname
such the the
whom
to
man
following diversityof
their
passage.
one
is
As
reallyconveys development the
free
every and
novel and
or
the
of
German instances
another, and
as
term
clear idea of
of
here
what
of
working out, because in of the expositionare themes the
in were
first introduced.
the
upon
the
themes
are
call
free
next
by
here
a
it the
fantazie;
is the
workingconflictingterms,
each
of
the
terms
the division stands
and
drama
which
sonata
position com-
is conferred
this
for:
portionof
the
usually the basis the third division; exercise
possibleway in displayingtechnical passion. Like the development of
placed
the
as
theorists
toward works composer fantazie,because here he is free to
which
from
in
a
American
in other
correct
as
there
the
English brothers, the
translation
out
being
as
unless
Some
terms.
development;
sonata
recognized
sonata,
form grand division of the sonata are exposition we again confronted
the
the
the
naming
of the first movement
the
title to
while
character
the
conveying an idea of its poeticalmeaning, or of Moonlight; occasionallythe name it is dedicated distinguishes it. In giving
Pastoral
as
in
first movement,
key a
expositionbeing perhaps
the whole
used
commonly
the
of
195
treated
his
genius skill,imagination the as
plot
in
a
characters
all
and relationships possiblenew ments entanglethe in no wise suspectedwhen subjectswere The
composer
here
uses
his utmost
fancy
becoming fantastic,and in this part in his power, find the work of the contrivance and suggestionwe grasp, As always where master. great opportunityis given there will be discovered of failure,a weakness is the possibility third part is a The here sonata. if anywhere in the and unifying of the repetitionof part one, a recapitulation without
whole. The before
exposition is
explained,each
being somewhat
modified
development
a
of
the
from
of
parts of
the the
binary
form
sonata
form
tfeose of the three-partsong
MUSIC
to the first period is in the part corresponding
The
form.
OF
THEORY
THE
196
known as a rule as the subject.This first subject exposition comprisessome phraseformation and often closes with a halfcadence, being very much like the antecedent phrase of a period. A second subjectfollows the first after a short transition which, in major keys, leads to and modulates erally geninto the dominant key, the usual key of the second which is variable in lengthand has no definite form. subject, in styleand is therefore This second theme is frequently lyrical often called the song group; dominant key and is followed by
a
to
comes
codetta
a
close in the
varying in length
There is often composer. 'double bar with repetition marks at the end of the codetta
accordingto a
it
the
design of is
and
all of
the
development or
part
the first and
one
the
again repeated. Now
part two,
comes
The
working-outpassage.
motives
of
subjectsare used and developedin this canonically by inversion or other devices,according fugally, and it leads up to to the genius and taste of the composer, the return of part one, which is entirely repeated;but now the second subject, instead of appearingas in part one, is given in the tonic,the entire movement closingin that key. This practically completesthe sonata form, and no matter how the
second
movements
many
compositionmay found
always The
sonata
as description
where
there
the added
of
more
the sonata
ihdfcate the
as
or
simple
here noted
are
three
has been
movements
typicaland
most
movements
added
chosen
form, and
common
they are
form, and by many
for
all subservient
of the best critics
which regarded as interpolations the symmetry of the composition. The forms usuallyhave Italian,titlesgiven them, which tenspo with which they are to be played,and
movements
detract foom
be, the characteristics
it is the are
elaborate
the basis of all sonatas.
this type
to
m
as
added, how
are
are
somethingof their clmsracfcer.Iq ;t"eplayingof between usuallyreto 4 *few m^""t$ .performer ,
these into
t
fc^tikff i0tei^|iij^ t^tidency a
the;tt;tte'Somta
is
a
FORM
disjointedcollection correct, and this
we
have
be
written
noted,
a
chamber
music
music the
for
with
away
is not
the
tirely en-
danger
is demanded
limited
the
the
of
is
of each
was
movements
form
composition. In
instrument
the
secular
in
which,
as
old
sonata one
or
more
in
somewhat
choral
written
as
these
three
the
solo
rivalrywith
forms
all music
of
a
the modern
group sonata
described
not
now
works
were
other
but
of
in the
suite.
this stage, and for wind at
which
really
was
In it
symphony.
the violin in
with
of instruments. was
dance
a
merely as by playing
importance had depended upon
but were
in connection
sonata
four
chamber
constituted
the concerto
polyphonicmusic,
for the
which
to
or
fugato or
prominence other bowed,
contrastingparts,
ber (cham-
three
into for
de
serious in character
seen,
accompanying
or
"sonata
music; while the simply a grouping
have
we
were
appeared
in
perfectly
camera"
there
the precursor other instruments
now
them
developments
the
da
da camera, of the stringquartet and the
accompaniment
the
composer
be
earliest
the "sonata
brought
being
instruments, such
unison,
the
and
either
as
styleand
was
The
known
were
from
also
was
and
the parts for equallyinto prominence without
to
violin
the
While
in this form
that every detail must it is extremely difficultto balance
derived
sonata
composition other pieces of
in material
sonata
paniment accom-
authorities considered
many of musical
(church sonata), or sonata). In the church movements quick and slow, contrapuntalstyle,which were
music
by
the
may
this
trios,quartets and
chiesa"
and
If
orchestra
bring each subordinatingthe others.
one
instrument,but
of the classical period are
instruments
any
the
solo
a
instruments.
for
intellectual form
much
for
more
or
string quartets
most
so
two
concerto;
adjusted,and
of
sections,which
do
to
evolved
written
becomes
the
in order
was
for be
is
of unrelated
have misunderstanding, later composers indicated that be played without sonata interruption.The sonata, as
the
so
197
a
bass in
now
From
evolved.
Except previouschapters, words
produced in
this
standing, for undernew
form
adapted to incomplete,well balanced, perfectly
THEORY
THE
198
MUSIC
OF
performance and capableof appealingto the through the intellect as less perfectforms had
strumental
tions emonever
done. In all
cycleforms,
that
combined
to
movements
are
in which
is,works form
a
two
or
more
whole, the
homogeneous
The composer the same. distribution of parts is very much realizes that in order to convey his meaning to you he must make feel aspects, he must you present his subjectin many the
it
make
by making clear he must appeal to
of his work
wholeness
ring true
and
to
and
in other intellectual sensibilities,
the
laws
balanced and
words, it
must
abide
by
make
in every respect a perfectly composition. First there must be somethingto call and
all art
of
hold
for
a
the attention and
moment
for what
measure
its many parts, both emotional
is
follow; and
to
then
in a prepare you while the mind is
made either by ready-the appeal to the intellect is at once an elaborate,even heavy movement, or a slow, patheticone, but is immediatelyfollowed by somethingpiquant,at least a appealingto the emotions ; and lighterand livelier movement
then, that
there
be may frivolous vein, there comes
serious part in the finale
We
overabundance
no as
a
contrast
of
and
a
the
more
rest, a slow,
with, in the classic form, a final rounding out of part one in the originalkey. by a repetition
follow
this
rather
brief
descriptionof the all form hoven's important sonata by word picturesof four of Beetwell-known sonatas hoping they will aid the reader not fullyappreciatethese splendidworks, but only to more through an understandingof them we trust he will have a definite idea of what is meant clearer;more by form or design in music.
SONATA
PATHETIQUE,
This sonata
is in
cfcfflberatemovement,
a
minor of
ten
OP.
13
(BEETHOVEN).
key (C minor) measures,
with ,
a
"Grave,"
describes it. Its emotional feelingis of the k
kind, almost
remindingone
in its
very as
slow, Beet-
deep,sorrhythm of some
FORM funeral
march;
from
199
this the sonata
presumably derived its title. Its form of course is only introductory to the first of the sonata movement which begins after the proper, introduction half to comes a close;and after pausing on the of its key, with the last tone dominant suspended,as it were, withholding the expectant blow, the wild, tumultuous onslaught of the first movement begins,a "Molto Allegroe con brio," very rapid,and with fire. As before stated,this is a very rapid movement in C in double time (Alia breve in sonata minor form). Its first theme begins with a staccato upward flightof four measures downward
and
of
movement
then
in full chords of the
number
same
repeated,but closingwith downward the same moving arpeggios, after which principaltheme in two is used in modulatory ways measure to repetitions lead without Its accompaniepisodeto its second theme. ment is throughout, with the exception of four measures measures,
all
in the
middle, made in that is, the octave or
of its bass part in vibrato up the left hand is repeatedlike a
notes, shake
trill.
theme, in the major key of the third step of
Its second the
scale, or
E
flat
major,
is divided
into three
parts
or
divisions ; the first part a short theme of four notes, repeated octave an higher,its last note held the second time like a call,
repeated. This four measure phrase is repeated Then the fourth tone of this key or its dominant. on using builds up a sprightly, short phrase the composer this same he moves after which measures, flowery part of thirty-eight into the second part of this theme of twelve measures, a long then sudden a of nearly two note measures upward repeated, the basis of the scale, with an of the melody on movement orchestral chord vibrato as accompaniment, the bass moving and in contrary motion, producinga very effective downward This is repeated,thereby coming to its third, or climax. closing part, consistingof a running figure. After this as of the first closingcoda or codetta are added four measures with modulatory chords to the working-outpart. theme which
also is
200
THEORY
THE
OF
MUSIC
uses development Beethoven four measures of the first mood, plaintive, pathetic, harking back, then again its double time, but this time in an unusual key, E minor, the major third step of the scale. The same accompaniment is used as in its principaltheme; the theme occurring in its upper part, then in the bass with the same accompaniment on top, then dropping to the lower regions of the instrument, with the vibrato accompaniment on an section,with a fraction point,a weird four measure organ both separated,closing of first theme of also four measures, with a running downward figure. This part, without even a to a close, and at the same suggested ritardando, comes The time begins the return of the first theme. movement second theme, this time, is not, as usual,in the originalkey, but in that of the fourth step, F minor, but its second part back to its right key, C minor, otherwise following comes its exact but at the end suddenly swerving aside with course, two crashingdiminished chords, with a long wait on the last chord, again producing that firstmentioned effect of impending built on this of the introduction crisis,then four measures diminished same chord-harmony, after which the coda, of twelve crashes, as it were, therebybringing this measures,
Before
stormy The
plunging
movement
second
to
a
into this
full close.
part is
adagio cantabile, very slow and in the major key of the third below, or A flat major, in the twofour-four time, in singingstyle,a movement A deeply felt and tender melody of part binary form. with a eight measures simple accompaniment is its first theme. This is repeated with double accompaniment an octave called higher, after which enters what is sometimes its second theme, and is often defined as the second part or continuation of the first theme. However, it is so distinctly like a free fantasia-like figureon a violin, more contrasting, that it may its second be termed subject,although not theme now referredto again. The first eightmeasure occurs in the original A flat but the next two key, major, short theme .in -fee same briiaga new key in minor, an
FORM
A
201
with minor, which now tripletsadded, is used
flat
staccato
fourteen
of
theme
latory changes
new
as
a
with
measures
and
a
great
accompaniment in of working-out sort
moduvery sudden leading back to its first
some
climax,
with
but
changed accompaniment of eight measures coda is a sort The moving downward, coming to a very serene theme,
The in
third movement
allegro, of
breve,
double
or
regular
third
minor. in double
and
rapid tempo
Its theme
in
key
same
as
Although time, its
as
of
a
triplets.
recedingfigure
and
quietclose.
well defined rondo
C
minor, also alia
the
first movement, in being, first theme, second
arrangement themes
is
of
and
third
theme, after which repeated in the originalkey
are
this is indicated character
the first movement,
does and
as
not
fast movement, demand any such a
amateurs
often make
stroying taking this at a too rapid pace, thereby deits simplebeauty. is so closelyconnected first theme with the second
mistake
the
time, the The
form.
first and
of C
tempo,
recurring first theme
theme, the
fast
of the sonata
in broken
of
that to the uninitiated
it appears
as
a
continuation
of
in another key, the major first,but its being distinctly key of the third step, E flat major, decides it as the first part the
of
the
second
second
theme, like
theme, then measures
to
of
a
more,
in the
treatment
of
the
of this sonata, divides
of divisions, eight measures this part of theme, eight sort of variation on with added variation and closingmodulations
the first theme. short
first movement
the
into three
this theme
Beethoven
theme.
running
parts
The up
or
first part of this theme and
down
is made
up variation of
figures,the of simple chords, with
the while the second part is triplets, variation again returning. triplet After the now recurringfirst theme in C minor, comes in the major key of the sixth step of its its third theme withal simple originalkey, or A flat major, a quiet,stately, in the working-outstyleof the first theme, written somewhat sion treatingit in contrapuntalstyle,both by invermovement, of the theme and its part% and by adding a contrapuntal
in
more
older writers.
Its close is rather
fifth step or G chord which on
any
it
to
other
of the
long
pause. for the third time
comes
a
It follows the
C major.
except the last eightmeasures, in
but triplets,
modulation
back
time in its
After
the
without
first
episode
the second reappears of the first step of this
the
to
and entirety,
divisions
same
before
which
were
as
a
before,
variation
of
lingering, languid first theme, recurringfor the fourth
this time
of the second
variation
last movement,
suggestionof change,
theme, but this time in the major key movement,
styleof
stormy, in the key of the
the dominant
recurringnow
movement, or
major,
the strict
stylethan
free
part, although
a
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
202
to
are
a
sort
its second
half is added
theme, coming
to
a
the
triplet
false close in A
the only eight measures, first four measures of which an are entirelynew thought. it closes with the rapid downward scale run, by which Then theme closes the first time, modulating to its the second firsttheme, but this time ending in its own key, C minor. flat
major, adding
"SONATA
short coda
a
QUASI
UNA
of
FANTASIE,"
OP.
NO.
2
(BEETHOVEN). This
form,
as
movement
omitted
is sometimes
called the
Moonlight
Sonata.
Its
its title suggests, is free, like a fantasie. The first of the regularsonata form, the openingallegro,is
entirely. Instead
it
begins with a slow, dreamy, sharp minor, four-four time, from
in C song-likemovement, which, imaginativeminds have
deduced
its false title, Moonlight
Sonata. Beethoven of
this
without
e"
in the
superscription suggests the character "With movement, great sonority,delicacy,and of damper pedal." (This superscriptionis use in later editions.) This of course is not to with our too literally very sensitive and sonorous
but it is to be modified accordingto the con'piaaos, f$ieinstrument used for reproduction.The effect
FORM intended on
harp
a
the
was
The
has
same
of
means
no
as
203
when
accompaniment played
an
damping
its tone
of this firstmovement
form
prolongation.
is the
binary, two-part
openingtheme, on theme, the fifth step, recurringopening theme, and on the same second The theme, with closingcoda. movement begins with four measures of harp-like broken chords modulatory or introductoryin character,after which the principal songlike first theme begins with its harp-likecharacter of the accompaniment continued through this entire movement. form;
song
This two
the
the first step, second
an
which
at
measures,
key
it is sometimes
as
song,
of the fifth
in the nature
of
a
step, or
short
first in upper
point G
is carried called, a
second
division
sharp minor.
twenty-
on
begins
This
is rather
phrase of three-quarter notes,
part then
in
literally repeated one
duced introoctave
Then
are again both measures, repeatedin imitation, four steps higher,leadingto a passage of broken arpeggioin upward movement, like chords continuingduring four then with following downward, two measures, measures, distinct melodic underground, and closing modulation,of four
lower.
more
and
measures,
it returns
theme to its firstrecurring
in the
Now, Beethoven, instead of repeatingthe verbatim, as in the previously analyzed adagio,
originalkey. entire theme
also in the op. 13, writes the closing thirteen measures key of the first step, but this time in C sharp major, not as of
major key of the seventh step, B major. After this follows a short coda, of eightmeasures, usingthe first three rhythmic notes of the first theme in the bass,over of the opening accompaniwhich are ment, placed two measures followed by the up and downward moving chord figures in
expositionin
of the second The
more
as
of
movement
this sonata
is
in character,a time, sprightly
like the minuet
character Not
theme.
second
in three-four
the
than
large as
the
of the older movement
in the
sonatas
from
sort
and
which
previousop. 27,
an
No.
allegretto, of scherzo,
stilldeeper in it
developed.
1, distinct in
THEORY
THE
204
MUSIC
OF
in thematic
Its
division.
tion key relais not regular,but only changed enharto first movement in the major monicallyfrom C sharp minor to D flat,but now key. Its relation of parts is irregularand with the exception of the second section all parts are in key of the first step. Its Its form is classed under the ternary or three-part song form. in the key measures first theme continues through sixteen the continuation second or flat major, after which of D theme follows in the minor key of the sixth step of its scale, returns to its first B flat minor, but after eight measures theme, closingwith full close in D flat major. The third theme, or division,is also in the key of its first step, D flat after which follows eight major, continuingeight measures, of modulation to the key of the fourth step, G flat measures of closingin the firstkey. major, and eightmeasures Beethoven, as will have been observed, still being in down the fantastic mood does not hold himself strictly to form
sharplyoutlined
and
laws, established by himself.
the former
The sonata, four
third
and
this
of
last movement
presto agitato (very free and
a
time, is in the
freely written
agitated),in
four-
form, the form used for the first i. e., first theme, second theme, working-out part, movement, and Its recurring of first and second theme, with coda. character, as its heading suggested,is agitatedand stormy. It is described also
others
as
a
sonata
great emotional
describe
it
as
a
outbreak
thunderstorm.
of the composer, Either tion descrip-
fits this
wonderfully developed movement, and as the imaginationof the listener is quickenedby its sweeping arpeggios, and their closingchord crash, he thinks of one the or other. Its first theme begins with sweeping upward arpeggios, through three octaves, with a staccato accompaniment in bass ending with a twice repeatedchord, producing the abovecrash.
mentioned This with
six
part and part all
two
measures
is
theme
measure more
of
a
repeated four times,closing broken
figurein
the
upper the lower accompanyingparallel part, not broken,in
QO
the organ
point,of
the fifth step, G
sharp major.
FORM After
three
more
205
of repetitions
the two
phrase,
measure
this
of twenty exposition of the first theme measures, without in the episode, immediatelybegins any key of G the fifth of the first key. Its melody is sharp minor, step song-like character, although the accompaniment reminds of the turbulent undercurrent one of feeling. The theme consists of two
proper
making
measure, octaves
a
measures
four
and
two
imitations of the last
phrase, which
measure
repeated,adding four measures in melody, then a strong chord and eight measures, upper part, continued are
notes
in the
half of the second
second
theme
in the
in doubled
of
slow
half
running figure
leadingto
the
key. This is a one measure short, staccato-like, phrase,repeated five tones higher. This two measure phrase is literally repeated,and added. This six measure two closing measures phrase is doubled, above
now
in
octaves
and
same
full chords, with
bass
reversed by breaking corresponding, the closing measures, its figureup instead of downward, and doubling its number. After
these
six
measures
of
the
second
half
of
the
theme, the opening phrase of the first half of theme is used form to to the a modulatory episode,to return beginning of its first part, and, as was the custom, to repeat all this part alreadydescribed. The begins in the key of first working-out part now second
sharp minor, consistingof the two measure phrase in the beginning*of the exposition, used repeated three of the second times, after which, the four opening measures in the key of the fourth theme are brought into use, but now This part is treated contrapuntally, step, or F sharp minor. bringing the theme first above, then invertingthis,bringing the theme below, and accompaniment above. After fourteen short imitative figure in the of this treatment a measures part, with a vibrato bass accompaniment of fifteen upper recedingand modulatory, with two long sustained measures, brings this part to a close. chords, the last one pianissimo, section,the second After the non-recurring exposition or first, of the first step or theme is repeated, but this time in therffcey step, C
but
section is reproduced in
entire second
The
sharp minor. regular order, C
end
the
at
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
206
added
are
two
phrase
measure and then, twice,the two expositiontheme, closing with two diminshed
chords
vibrato
through the making what more
is termed four
the
uses
treatingit
in the
below, with
the
a
with
phrase
measure
Beethoven
kind
now
second
theme
once
theme,
above, then
accompaniment, working
of
sweeping
the
of
first,the
manner,
same
a
of the
chords, swept on long pause either,
false close.
a
same
of wide
climax
keyboard
entire
of
measures
chords
broken
and
up
into
down
the
culminatingin keyboard, in the upper part of eightmeasures, an upward chromatic scale run with a long trill on top and a cadenza, closingwith two long sustained receding downward slow for these two bass notes, the tempo being marked very critics consider this already as the coda, but some measures; it
short
The
imitative
chords to
a
continuation of the former eleven
coda, of
of second
fragment of
like
more
seems
theme
made
measures, and
of six measures,
brings this
beautiful sonata
listeners,suggests
a
just as their imaginationor
lover's story
temperaments
up
three
chord, figuresof first theme, with
added
some
parts. of
a
measures
two
short
to
its close,which,
or
a
are
thunderstorm, attuned
at
the
time.
WALDSTEIN Known Count form
under
three
of
this title because
Waldstein.
von
53
OR
SONATA,
A
movements,
of its
noble sonata the
(BEETHOVEN).
in
second
being dedicated to C major in a large
of
these
movements
be
it being shorter than the exceptedas to largeness, other two, an intermezzo, but of the same depth and dignity. Its first movement, brio (rapid and with Allegro con time life), four-four, opens with a distinct,characteristic
only
to
theme chord
of
four the
measures.
The
first and
second
measure
is
first step or C major, repeated staccato in and the in last fcigt"s, only quarter does this move upward one 3tep, leadingin the third measure to the end of this first
a
on
FORM
thought, reallya theme of ending of three notes like The
fourth
207
but the
three
actual
ending
of
with
tones
reversed
a
an
turn.
of refrain
enlargesthese last three notes to five an octave higher, a short and pointed little grace note before a quarter, then in regularsuccession four Then rapid notes downward. a repetitionof these four measures whole one step lower, in B flat major, after which these five notes downward, spoken of before, are then without ruption interrepeated twice in successive measures, are repeated up and down, almost like a five-finger downward of one exercise,and with a closing run octave, in short C, continuing from this note downward stop on in the chord of C minor, the expositionor staccato notes presentingof the opening theme, closingon a long note with of its key or the fifth tone G. on Now, as far as pause number of measures go, there are just thirteen of these,but the rhythmical balance is in no wise disturbed by this apparently measure
number
uneven
The
the
of
first nine
repeated; but of
as
is
measures.
of
measures
instead
orchestra
sort
a
of
a
staccato
used
now
the
and
or
exposition are vibrato
now
the imitation
in the hands
of
a
skilful
performer is very beautiful. The continuingeight measures are an enlargement of the five notes spoken of and the last downward run repeated,up and down, with broken chord accompaniment, modulating to its third step, the key of E theme, episode like, major, but before entering its new of broken imitative octave introducingan upward movement the staccato notes, diminishing in force and rapidityfrom former rapid sixteenths to eighths, leadingto Its second theme in the third step of the scale in E major. This theme on in melody on sustained chords, half and eighthnotes, song-like the composer and very connected sweet as requests, is only duration. of four measures By reducing its notes to the ably, larger value the tempo appears to have slowed up considerbut
this is
the listener is almost four
measures
apparent than
more
of
a
slow
long, the second
real
The
effect
chorale,the real theme part
a
of repetition
on
is but
the first
THE
208
four
one
measures
octave
MUSIC
OF
THEORY lower
but with
the fourth
measure
and leading to the variation of already beginning in triplets the theme the same being in lower part and eight measures, continues the the triplet variation being in upper part. Then At the first hearing this is half of the second theme. second chords that only of broken usually so hidden in the triplets there is no the printed page will find it, as on students of melody, indication of the intent of these chords ; the sense however, will guide the musical student or listener to find it very
soon.
the figure is again quickened eight measures sixteenths,and after quite a bit of this rapid figurework After
to
comes
key and
a
climax
on
a
trill of
major, but the momentum, afterthought,taken or based
of E an
two
in first theme
in
measures as on
the
it were, is too the five notes
with
to
it
same
great, tioned men-
closing is added. This is repeated literally an figure in last measure octave lower, after which this new closingfigureis woven into a of returning modulatory episode,leading sort out the back to repetitionof all this first part of the first This movement. repetitionconsisted of again customary as described,but as this so lengthened playing both themes the time of a performance it is beginning to be omitted as reallybeing superfluous. The working-out part begins on the fourth tone of its of the first key or F major, using the first four measures think would theme, but here Beethoven drops what most a the most last two measures. promising theme, discarding The already mentioned, five apparently unimportant closing notes of the opening theme are again introduced and from this material sixteen section
of four
of the first part of
measures
formed.
measures,
The
a
a
new
brilliant middle
formed are thirtymeasures from tli4 second half of the second theme, making use of only its first feprmeasures, buildingup this section in these triplets of broken' "fcords, treatingit first in contrapuntal style,then oti tinderl' *t"ut outwardly, broken ""jnpeI0"lic lines, triplet of many All of this chords, the*|di|*a"y "young pianists. section i$ in kej$ y$ ""except the firstfour measures. .are
next
GIACOMA
Born
Italian
living" and
Lucca,
at
writer.
La
"
Tosca **
is
by
In
his
the
far
power
he
of
and
Ivric
stvle
great
all
"
33oheme
"
his
but
success
greatest
the
over
dame Ma-
world
popular. the
Italian
him
and
old
with,
opera
coloringmakes
La
ing" lead-
the
the
''
presented
combines
orchestral
is
probably
Lescaut,"
been
most
music
characteristics
lip-lit
has
Puccini
and
Manon
with
met
1858,
in
today
of "
Butterfly and
Italy,
composer
opera "
PLJCCINi
and
verv
truly
dramatic
modern
his
popular
national
mastery today.
of
the
FORM
209
reaching this point the modulations come to a the organ and the section return G, of fourteen point, is built up, using a small fragmentary theme,
After
stop
on
measures
to
the
from
inverted
third
of
the
first theme, accompanied by a continuous rollingfigure in the bass, working up large climax and without stop dropping back to its
a
opening
first and
.measure
theme
and
Instead
section.
of
repeating
%
first theme
this
surprise by broken
of
staccato
first
the
as
G,
on
the
a
same
and
introduces a before, Beethoven modulation; instead of following its
part
false chord
as
downward
time, he
makes
to
false close
a
then
repeats this same false close on B flat. this
After
its logical conclusion, on*
chord, in
digression,unusual
at
D
A
flat instead
flat major, with
this stage, and
most
a
glaring but nevertheless beautiful innovation, the remainder of the first theme is given in its regular order and key; but the last half is placed in a minor key leading through the in imitative upward scale movement, broken staccato octaves theme the sixth step of the scale, to its recurringsecond on A of the chord-like major. Only the eight measures and its variation in the same of measures, number theme, are half being in the key of the in this key, the second now carried out in exactlythe same sonata, C major, which is now as
manner
After
before.
trill,it recedes mentioned before, not
with
double
C
its
logicalkey,
of
the
exposition in D
forces
set
same
at
thematic
new
flat major, continuing with
modulating
in motion
the
its climax
as
short grace closingmeasure, sort of harkening back to a and
reaches
expected,returningto what the major, but now introducing
be
measures,
it
cannot
figure in syncopated
notes
figure would theme
the
before five downward
note
the
sanis
notes,
the working-outJP"*"In back as
of
yet
to come
its to
origp^JtetV
The
a
two '
accompaniment of the first theme of | part has the last two measures*
the on
lower
top is
treated, always running figure,then the IPS* gajeMfflfe! one %"re I" Jboth tipper st% feigher, finally stotp^ until its and 1o"ier;|fiucte a
THEORY
THE
210
receding part
cadenza-like choral
second
is
theme
its last chords,
by
once
three
and
MUSIC
two
long
touched
more
times
OF
held
repeating them,
the last one, Beethoven and with into his first theme
the last time
the
on lingering
upon,
slower, and pausingon for
chords, slower
and
finally plunges showy
a
run
brilliant movement to a motion, bringsthis most close. and dashing in key of F major, the fourth step Its second movement of first key, can hardly be classed under any of the different without its orderlyprocedure. A forms, yet it is not entirely in six-eight time headed "Introduction," very slow movement meaning an introduction to the coming rondo. (Introduzione) In character dreamy, modulatory, its main theme being made and closing chords. of a small fragment with its repetition Then This, repeated,makes the first eight measures. begins of this the second half If it theme, eight measures more. in a new were key it would be classed as its second theme, but, beginning tonallylike the first and in the same key, it It proceeds,unlike be hardly classifiedas second theme. can the first theme, as it adds a new figure,through eight measures, first thought or theme of eight measafter the recurring ures, in contrary very decided
the
and
musicallynot
number
same
finished
or
modulatory measures,
of closed
on
its dominant:
halting,
like
a
ductor con-
with raised
baton,surveyinghis orchestra,before giving The last long held note his final signal to commence. is, also without interruptionor cessation,the beginning of the last movement.
The
key of C in a moderately fast tempo ing moderate), two-four time, its first theme consist(Allegretto of a simple melody of quarter notes, in a four measure followed by its imitation in the phrase,repeatedidentically, the dominant, producinga sixteen measure same on manner section with two measures added, by repetitionof the end but prolonging the last tone through four more The accompaniment consists of rollby repetition. rondo
in
,
00
rwbtcfa at the end
of these
twenty-two measures aii" apparently take the lead, Ttie effect is tipwaitt. '
FORM
one
of suspense
211
and
waiting,as these eightmeasures, of interwoven figurework, only fillin the pause preparatory to repeating this
theme
in
The theme larger manner. in octaves, the accompaniment is the same for sixteen then the above-mentioned of the last measures, repetition is changed to a trill, note, through four measures, but the same
a
is doubled
trill this time and
imposed
is continued
downward,
this trill is the
over a
through
scale run,
two
seven
more
theme.
same
octaves
upward
measures,
As and
an
companimen ac-
return
is
added, twice, completingthe treatment of this short four measure into an expositionof out phrase worked But this does not quitecomplete this sixty-two measures. voluminous section as an On paper afterthoughtis added. it appears as heavy broken chords, to the listener the same, but if correctlyinterpreted by a good performer it is a melody continued for eight measures in half notes Here more. this simple yet remarkablybuilt up exposition ends on a short,
song-liketheme. Its second
theme, in a minor key of the sixth step of the scale,A minor, begins in unison, upper and lower parts into octave triplets.Again, as in the alike, but broken theme four measure is made a use of, repeated exposition, tinue conoctave an higher. After this broken octave the triplets lower
in the upper part and a continuation of the theme or These last four measures part follows for four measures.
repeatedin"a variation form in lower part,then a two measure phrase, in the character of the beginning of These of figurework. the theme, followed by two measures peated, reare identically four, apparently fragmentary measures, after which this last two measure phrase is prolonged, are
now
repeated four
measures
after these
Added
more.
'
twenty-
simplecontinuation of five notes, again in *i. e., three octaves unison, first only in octaves, then trebled, for broad, but not broken, statelyand quiet,leading now its recurrii^first theme, in its back to the first time eight measures
is
a
a total of forty-four originalkey, forming a second section,
measures,
"
,
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
212
out repeatedin its entiretyand withsecond's hesitation plunges into its third theme, in the a minor. This, like the minor key of its first step, C second theme, is introduced in unison,double staccato, broken then these eight measures continued octaves eight measures, the theme with point treated contrapuntally above, counterare below, counterpoint below, then inverted, the theme is continued, coming to a close on its This treatment above. keynote C in octaves in unison repeated four times, making measures. a section of forty-four class as a conNow tinuation, theme, which some appears a new differs that it can but it so radically hardly be so it as new, Its key, while near considered. related,marks of the key the third theme is being the third step downward its character,broad, rich, written in, or A flat major, and mellow chords,classes it as opposite. The
first theme
But
whether
a
built of
four
or
as
flow
of
first movement, established order,
in the
all form
break
to
Beethoven's
new,
bounds, and
no
and
This
theme, as all others before, is continuing in this wise for groups,
order.
new
now
continuation
thought stops at while appearing creates
is
measure
Then is to the ear what lot of a forty measures. appears, broken chord, figurework, but the underlyingthought is the chord ground work, only elaborated in the upper part, same and usuallymistaken for a useless prolongation. After thirtyof this variation, four measures and while this stillcontinues, a hint, as it were, is given of the recurringfirst theme by three singlenotes repeatedfour times,in two measure groups ; then
instead
long
and
of three notes
short
then
these
are
reduced
to
two
notes,
a
singlenote, one in each measure, four times repeated,closingand adding a hint of the two rhythmicalopening notes of the now impending first theme; aiidafter wavering between one and two note repetitions this one,
a
second half of the third theme
by modulating ita fk$t key m IP its
the
back
to
of C
major.
of
one
hundred
first theme
This
closes
measures
of the
rondo, again
for the third time
entirety, addingthe eightmeasures
is
peated re-
of after-
FORM
before,but this
thought mentioned this eight measure of
213
theme
wave-like
and
time
builds
character
Beethoven
on
colossal part
new
a
enlarges
of
thirty-five measures. with Then in force chords,graduallydiminishing and to the softest pianissimo,with duration, down a long the last its coda. for chord, prepares pause on Now follows in its originalkey, C major, a remarkable Its tempo is marked "Prestissimo" coda. (the most rapid stormy,
a
large,broad
The
possible)
time
mark
double
time, alia breve.
.
theme
values,
of
two
rondo
the
is used into
measures
a
contracted
four
one,
thereby producingin tonal effect After
but
ing open-
in its time into
measures
theme
new
The
of two
two,
measure
repetitionsand a variation of these four measures ures prolonged by its last rapidfigure,twelve measis a slightepisodalthought of eight measures more, inserted,after which again the first theme and variation two in all a part of thirtymeasure phrases,fourteen measures, take prominence, leading to what reminds eight measures, of the second half of the third theme, the part in A one The thematic contents flat major. in the lower accomare paniment, while the upper part is in broken chords, in triplets, but three notes to the (half measure) beat, producing the duration.
two
groups of three in the measure. double octave close with the famous eightmeasure
effect of six-four time It
comes
to
a
glissando,first in the
then
in the
lower
two
or
upper
part,
two
part,
downward, upward, both repeated
two
octaves
octaves
from ending of a run in contrary motion the middle outward, continuing with a trill in upper part back the lower part continuing this run eight measures, first to of the piano preparatory to return the middle to
twice, with
its
theme.
Now,
certainlymust
Beethoven
the
have
had
other
ments instru-
ure followingthirtymeasdistinct parts, or yokes. The trill section into three the middle all through this part as continues mentioned or on voice, the first,short contracted theme is used over in top of this;the lower part playsa chord figurein triplets,
in his
mind,
as
he
divides
six-four to the
rhythm, an
make
From more
now
measures,
three parts, with their counter beautiful,if difficult part, closingwith
most
effective double
MUSIC
These
measure. a
OF
THEORY
THE
214
trill.
built
end, the closing section of thirty two measure phrases,on the organ
the
to
on
on
point on first step, C, carries this brilliant and unusual or freelyformed rondo and sonata to a charming close. modes of Beethoven's genius,ever on the search for new all former transcended limits. expression,in this sonata While his thematic material,as always, is the most simple, yet in the
elaboration
overthrown
all former
By comparing stein Sonata, with
this material
of
in this work
he
has
rules.
the first movement, the
Sonata
op.
53, of
Pathetique,the
the
utter
Wald-
freedom
placing of his first and second themes in keys heretofore unheard of, and making a false closing in exposition themes, in adding a modulation coda, the and dimensions magnitude of a complete part will be seen. In the rondo, the innovation of repeatingthe expositionon ducing an enlarged or doubled scale after the third theme, introsection with a distinct theme, which by courtesy a new is described by critics as a continuation of the third theme but feels like a fourth theme, the enlargingof the eight of second theme at the recurringpart to a dosing measures and last a coda of such magninew tude, part of large dimensions in three distinct, hundred and large*sections,of one creates a forty-eightmeasures, feelingof almost reverence Beethoven and awe. makes of this almost fragmentary material a beautiful,bold, masterly written sonata of such large portance proportionsthat it approaches a symphony in size and imof
modulation, and
SONATA
:
APPASIONATA,
;A, sonata
in three
OR
movements.
tyr ;very rapid;the second
57
(BEETHOVEN). The
Andante
first one, con
moto,
Assai
slowly
FORM
motion; third
with
but
troppo, fast but
on
beats
four
first downward
half with
a
followed
so.
key of F minor, twelve-eight begins with a theme built measure,
the fifth of this triad it moves, its keynote, then and reverses moves
to
closingin
octaves,
two
non
Beginningwith
the triad.
upward
Allegroma
in the
the
to
last movement,
much
too
first movement
The
time,
not
and
215
trill, and, as it were, by another ending
constitute
the third measure, its regulardownward from
above.
its first theme.
They
on
second
ending
These
four
repeated, in the fourth step of scale,or B flat minor, double unison on with trill and peculiarending is This time its last measure repeated,followed by four singlenotes in the lower bass,like measures
imitation
the
these one
and
last
of
the
measures
kettledrums
in
repeated,two
are
the
are
orchestra.
steps higher,prolonged
of this refrain by repetition rhythmicallyimitated in the higher notes, much more
measure
with
then
a
chord
broken
downward
close with
Both
for
of
drums, retarded,
two
measures,
chords, the last one on fifth step of its key. the dominant or sixteen measures, This, the first half of this exposition, is now repeated,but in full sonorous chords, after eight the lower part repeats one singlenote persistently measures, for four through all the twelve eights of the measure, then this repetition is broken into groups of three measures, is a by adding the chord beginning at each beat. Above in long notes in receding moduof the theme continuation lations be its second theme, in the key of would to what third step or A flat major. A new accompaniment is added, a full chord broken in triplets.Rhythmicallythis accompaniment is a figureof twoThe eights producinga cross rhythm of two againstthree. in inversion of the first theme, so critics are theme is an it as second, or still as part to classify doubt as to whether to
comes
abrupt
an
of the firsttheme. trills each run
of
one
four
measure
measures
This
ends
two
after ten
measures,
long, followed by ajbsdnow in triplets,
a
with
downward
enters
three
scale
a positively
theme,
second
new
four
the third
on
step
It is
duration.
measures
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
216
or
A
exactly repeated,one
of this theme
higher; the last two notes for the prolonging of this
flat minor, of
used
are
just
octave
as
basis
a
eight measure phrase two follows the remaining afterthought, Then more. measures ing closingwith the triad theme moving downward, and diminishA to a pianissimo. Here changing the key enharmonically, is G to "flat minor sharp minor, the opening first theme and trill are used, given in its entirety. Its closingmeasure lead the to to In a sort of episodalway, working-out part, which now begins on the seventh step of its scale, in E of
added
the
tion innova-
repetitionof the entire first half cipal proceedingimmediately to developthe prin-
marking
not
and
in this movement
has
Beethoven
minor.
four
of the sonata, but
any
part.
Using only the in the
and
bass
produced by
as
the
the
of the first theme
measures
accompaniment above,
an
stringson
Then
measures.
opening
two
a
vibrato
orchestra,but only
the
inversion
of
parts takes
for
place,
as
two
but
accompaniment is a figureof five notes to each beat of this uneven During ten measures rhythm three-eighttime. continues, closing with the repetitionof the last note, in of tensity sense producing in character the same triplets, This part of at close of the first theme. already mentioned the
first theme
the
is
for the
first described the
with eleven
now
broken
heavy
worked
chords on
in the Then
measures.
all built
measures,
out
as a
same
manner
fourteen
before
are
diminished
as
measures
added, with
seventh
chord.
This, the climax the
three
same
of this part, graduallyrecedes in power, with closingnotes of the first theme used again in the
manner
upper
part
tripletin measures
it were,
as
as
the
kettledrums
by
flutes.
bass
in the
Continued
orchestra,answered three-four
measures
in thq this
half tone. Two suddenly drops one of this singletone repetitionfollow, preparing as of the firsttheme, which now for the re-entrance in its feeyof F minor is reproduced exactly,but this time the fifth tone of the scale,or on C, leading to "a
FORM the not
remaining ten as
before
The
second
for
three
with
begins with
major, ending
measures,
its second
minor, but
major.
theme
now
of this section in F
measures
in the
217
half
in the
its and in
same
the
its
heavy tripletchord
key of the first step one long trills, measure
closingdownward
run,
paniment accomor
in F
each, leading
its minor
for key. Thenceforward this part is carried out as before,but before twenty measures more closing the second theme once enters, but in a higher region of tone, making, what appeared before like a heavy chord accompaniment, now an airy and lightsection of eight Then follows measures. a closing section of the same the closing part at the end of the working-out nature as section, intended as an intense passionateclimax, terminating with but not full close, with four measures of this same of the opening theme, retarding part as the closingmeasure slow and diminishing to a adagio, repeating these very to
first described
three
in
notes
a
chord
slowlythree very coda based on twenty-
The times,then three crashingchords. four measures begins on the first theme with tripletchord accompaniment in the first half,beginning softlyand leading the last half, all in full syncopated chords with great to passion. In the last four measures by giving the full opening theme with the string vibrating accompaniment, dying difficultboth this passionatemovement, to a pianissimo, away its almost to to as interpretationand execution, comes
whispered
close.
Its second
movement,
an
Andante
con
moto
(slow, but
major key of the third step D flat major, two-four time, Beethoven or downward, now, variations. the theme and of the song instead form, uses is of a serene, theme The lofty and deep felt beauty, rich in tone quality, and sonorous presentedin two eightmeasure of the day, is the custom phrases. Each phrase, as was marked pianistsof today are to be repeated,but concert beginning to omit these time prolonging repeats. with
some
motion),
in
the
first variation is
The
part being the
syncopated. the
with
same,
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
bass
theme
The
in upper half beat
followinga
In the second variation the upper part is varied by these breaking the former chords into sixteenths over behind.
sevenths,the harmonic feelingis also complete but is retained,and by binding the third melody sense
fourteen the
melody, partly syncopated and accompaniment is doubled in time, sixteenths from to making it the most thirty-seconds, beautiful of the three variations with its limpid,flowingand running accompaniment. This is also inverted,the theme being laid into the lower part and this varied accompaniment placed in the upper part, in eight measure groups, closing begins this partly repeated. The variation
the variation with
same
scale
downward,
and
repeatingthe in its originalsetting, first theme, once more modifying only of the closing the pitchposition Its last measures. slightly instead
chord
the instruction
and
run
being a full close is a diminished chord, beingthat it be playedvery softlyand brokenly
sustained chord
a
of
to
twice
its time
value.
The
same
ished dimin-
higher, held the same length,but struck fortissimo (very loud), and without any more warning than this pausing on these two chords, the next
is
movement
This
minor,
an
in two-four
repeated,one
octave
is attacked.
third movement
Allegro,ma time,in
of the first step, or F but not too fast), tropo (rapid, first movement, as form, the same
in the non
sonata
key
diminished chord,but this time uttered beginswith the same in a trumpet-like This is manner. through four measures followed by a downward running figure,taken partlyfrom the first theme, firstin two measure phrases,then connected, then doubled by adding the lower part in unison. After
fifteen
firsttheme
of the
of this
section the introductory expositionbegins,made up of two meas-
measures
After eightmeasures ypt |"hjrases.
$ffc"bttt almost
like
a
these
second theme
reidentically another thought is are
'
ti:3j1ii$ ;rwttmer
of
working
with
two
continuallyjrotn "QW
on
themes to the
at
end.
the
FORM
219
After
this second thoughtis used as the thirtymeasures thought with accompanying figureof similar character
main as
in
first theme the
treatment
below.
first two
After
fourteen of
measures
of
measures
the thematic
this
figureare
again used, modulating to its secondary subjecton the fifth The separationis so indefinite, step of its key or C minor. the connection with previous part so close,that it appears nearly as a continuation,but its key defines it as the second theme. Again, it is made up of short two measure phrases, with running figure, repeated,then enlarged to six measures containingabove it another thought,all of this main thought while the upper lower being repeated two octaves part is varied twice by broken and a running figurein two octaves measure phrases. The remaining six measures pleted being comclosed with broken full in C minor, a octaves only, in the first half sort of coda-like section is added, consisting of an imitation of the firsttheme, in the last of two measures of chords in the upper part and the run This is built up into a section in lower part. is continued of sixteen measures, closingon a diminished seventh chord, half of two
measures
first struck
then given forcibly,
the entire sweep
of the
board, key-
down
six measures, leadingto the working-out part, in the key of the fourth step, or B flat minor. the next only the first theme twenty-four measures
first up
During is used, with
then
rather
simpleaccompaniment. introduces an entirelynew At this juncture Beethoven four measure phrase in the same key, B flat minor, doubling in octaves in the upper part. All this in its first repetition are identically repeatedin C major, dosing eight measures Again, the first fullyin the key of the first step or F minor. into command, treated in imitative fashion;after theme comes theme follows leadingto a beginning in upper part the same climax
of
a
syncopatedoctaves.
theme, a find of receding to a false modulatory part being interposed. Having come close, with a sweep of upward broken chords, a grotip of Beethoven
these
measures
at
leaves this
once
and
one
measure
rest, all of which
is
re-
OF
THEORY
THE
220
MUSIC
figureis brought forward in two measure a steadilydecreasingtempo, until only one which to two is used, then one note to each measure measures, a long continued bass is followed by four slow chords on section. The measure curring renow note ending this thirty-six Its expositionis treated exactly as the first time. this time is placedin the major key of the sixth second theme to the step, or D flat major, but at its close again returns minor preparatory to repeatingall this working-out part. have been an sight, overThis, as other writers have said, must both pianistand hearer to have this it overtaxes as difficultpart rehearsed again,as it were. most The coda now begins,presto (very rapid),with a new in chords,the first time in the key phrase of eightmeasures of the first step, F minor, then repeated in the key of the After this the first two third step, A flat major. measure is in used buildinga section of phrase of the main theme bringing this difficult and passionate thirty-eight measures, sonata to a very brilliant ending. peated,the same phrases,but in
When
the sonata
is written
for the entire orchestra
symphony. This word "sinfonia,"meaning "a consonance
called
is derived
a
in another
from
the
sounds."
of
part' of this chapter the
it is
Italian As
plained ex-
sinfonia
name
given during the earlySeventeenth Century to the short instrumental preludewhich precededan opera, and as we can the the trace back sinfonia the overto ture symphony directly is its predecessor. It was of the not until the middle Eighteenth Century that composers began to write separate sinfonia exclusively for concert purposes, and Haydn added to the old three movement overture a fourth,the minuet, and the firsttime the form ; in fact,he was sonata the adapted for first to adapt the sonata form for orchestration. Beethoven elaborated and extended the symphony and used the scherzo
was
m
placeof
the minuet.
The
introduced by then out
by
symphony
slow
a a a
consists of
movement,
scherzo and finale
brilliant
a
followed
its trio and
by
the
usuallyin allegroand
an
com-
was
FORM
first real movement.
the
however,
can
The
stated
instruments
of
order
with
the
of
movements,
the ideas of the
orchestra
have
posers. com-
given
broader
opportunitiesfor producing new than they could possiblycommand
effects
instrument.
The
the
of
instruments
various
orchestra
divisions used
were
and in
and on
a
individual the
varying
in alternate
rhythm,
less handling of the melody and in numberthat the compositionfor the orchestra has so time the greatest opportunityand at the same
other
ways, to be the
come
No
given as they vary
varied
composers elaborate
single
be
221
test of the modern
supreme The
It
masters.
composer. that preferredby the great classic was cal produced "in the golden age of pure musi-
form
sonata was
beauty," their
marked
the
change from the profound, almost mathematical, learning of the fugal or polyphonic of the churchmen. school from this the Breaking away classicists sought for greater simplicity, ing gradually establishand
metes
new
era
bounds
until the
of
present acceptance
technical
tinct meaning of the term classical music is a disand of logicalarrangement of parts and a symmetry form, which most nearly approaches correspondencewith the acceptedrules derived from the work of the great masters. from and Aside this narrow somewhat exacting use of the word and the classic,as appliedto music by composers majority of the critics,is another which has no regard for consideration and which is appliedto all works, without form the
of their form, which
have
stood
the test of time
peculiar and lastingappeal: with have fugal,symphonic, romantic may
of
because
their
this
understanding
we
and
operaticforms
which
are
classical because
illusive and live.
ancient and
there
are
times somequalities
impossibleof analysiswhich
have
also is the acceptance of the term in of the word- is borrowed literature,and this use
them to
in them
This
Rome,
another
where
one
man
was
man
regard from
rated in the third class
in the fourth, the division
but the worldly possessions,
made
of tie
being based
upon
his
higheststandingwas
spoken From
of and
the
The
as
a classical,
adoption of
romantic
term
a
of the best authors
this the works
hence classics, ,-
ranked
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
the
man
came
criticism. from
borrowed
way
same
a
in musical
name
is in the
class apart. to be known as
in
Ages poets told their mythical of tales,Christian legends,stories of fairies,of adventures the crusaders and other heroes of chivalryin the old Romance had been forgotten and neglected language. These poems even by scholars and it was not until toward the close of the EighteenthCentury that^theywere again brought into notice and French by a group of German poets. They revived the spiritof medieval poetry by embodying it in their own works and as a group School, to be called the Romantic came literature.
which
During
served
clung to the term
to
the Middle
the rules and romantic
from
distinguishthem models
was
writers
the
who
of classic
appliedto
antiquity.Very soon music, and it characterized
in and the manner subjectsof certain compositions is especially which treated. they were Today the term them since Beethoven, among Weber, applied to composers Schubert, Schumann, They accepted Chopin and Liszt. the suggestionsfound for a largerfield work in Beethoven's of musical originalresources expression and by their own attained rich results. Musicians had been tending toward and formal and we of music exact treatment are grateful both
the
to the Romantic
with
rules and
School
for
savingit when
restrictions that would
have
it
was
made
threatened it
a
dead
formality. They of
some
it greater freedom of form, revived gave the finest works of the early composers, developed
the
capabilityand technique of various instruments and by their own genius added many splendidmasterpiecesto the of music. treasures Carl Maria Weber is perhaps the greatest of this school of music, and to him, the Romantic master its origin and highest Opera, one of Germany's prides, owes for these operas derived development. The themes were from German, French, Norse, Spanish and Oriental tales and
contain
modern
scenes
and
characters
legendsand folklore.
found
in
medieval
and
FORM
As
be
can
readily understood, the strife between the classical tendencies began just as soon as laws were established,although the application
and
romantic
musical
any
of
223
these
terms
made
not
was
until
later.
This
is
strikinglyexemplifiedby the rise of the Troubadours in the Middle ment, Ages. To a considerable extent a social movein the absolute breaking away it was from crystallized church The had been for all previous conditions in music. very
the
centuries
graduallyassumed
protector of music
and
conservator
which
had
that
form
permitted it to express no those of religionand worship. The dours Troubaemotions save and adventure, and went developed songs of love,war that they even far in their effort to express themselves so devised musical modes to their times and new entirelynew for their accompaniments. At the same time instruments in the the Troubadours were working these innovations countries
Latin
a
in were Meistersingers doing the same they gained such prominence and power
the
Germany, and there that they eventually commanded
which regulations,
their rules and broken musical of
down
in the
same
things is admirably set in music.
innovator
every
yearningfor music.
his
some
out
productionsagree
in
to
came
new
This
lished estab-
on
be the
condition
" tersingers Meisopera, the conditions confronting
Wagner's
visual
The
romanticist way
is
to express
ever
the innovator,
his emotions
in
the rules of the past, and the classicistwho is striving to make
refuses to be bound
He
into conflict with
comes
precedingthem.
is made
in which
in time
that they had trampled
way
of those
conventions
situation and
the
by
with those rules.
Under
these conditions
off secbnd majorityof cases comes best, as the critics who have gained their knowledge and position by a mastery and understandingof productions with those already in existence do not as a rule deal lightly the innovator
who
past.
have Nor
in the vast
the termerityto depart from does
the
musical
the traditions of the
public,whose standards are seems immovably set, readily
already firmly,sometimes it From this it will be accept the new.
seen
that the
meaning
224
of both
as
to
become
form
to
today aside
necessityvague and fixed, for the tendency is
emotion
be
emotion
subservient
improvement warring between
classical forms
can
nothing yet produced having the
these
tendencies that the
two
music,
ing entirelyeliminat-
in
succeeded
repeat what
earlier forms, and, to
of
It is because
the art.
in all so-called romantic
be traced
of
first
the
tomorrow,
of
the
constant
for the romantic
setting that and the latter insisting to form, and both working
classic of
express
must
together for the
the
possiblybe
cannot
is of
terms
considered
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
said
was
at
the
kind is an beginning of this chapter,form or plan of some absolute requirement of all art. considered the most The is by many symphonic poem it is a direct and logicaloutgrowth of the symphony and form commonly used in orchestral compositions.There are three pointsof agreement in all symphonic poems, they are always programmatic, that is,the clew to the meaning which intended to convey is given in a title or literary the composer phrase which accompanies it; in this point they will be seen to
resemble
titles
by
of the sonatas
some
the mental
hinting at
its
performance.
It
attitude
supposed
reduced
was
the
which
to
in
writers to
form
gave induced
be to
a
single
and in this again there is a connection with some movement, of the sonatas whose instructed that they be played composers without
and interruption,
in the
of the sonata
movements
rhythm and tempo. The the principalsubjectmust moods, slow
movements
climaxes
being followed foundation principleof
in the romantic seen
from
gradual
forms
this short
was
the
symphonic
traceable in
are
changes
new
and
in
key,
of this form is that requisite admit of presentationin various with rapid passages and alternating In short, the by points of repose. unity and varietyis just as necessary third
is the classical.
as
analysisof
change
from
the
the
It
unusual
way
can
symphonic
readilybe poem
purely classic form,
mturally Enough, when we keep in mind the "3i3$gewas brought about by the Idnging of
fbr Swie
ent the differ-
poem
for him
to
fact that
how and the
the individual
express
his
own
FORM
emotions;
225
the first change from
the
purely classic form was in whose made by Beethoven compositionstheorists find the culmination of the classic and the beginning of the romantic, but all of whose find a welcome productionsnow placeamong classical programs. Following the from
the in
overture
symphonic
true
sonata
form
sonata
in order
poem is the
consists
of least
ture depar-
classical overture. of
two
or
The
three
themes
tion differingin character, preceded by a short, slow introducafter a development section of pathetic nature, and of the principal there is a repetition subjects.It differs from form in that here is no repetition of the entire the true sonata less strictly in or exposition. This form is adhered to more and in the majority of operaticoverthe concert overtures tures based
not
the
from
themes
on
the opera
from
ouverture, appliedto an instrumental originally The
played
the
the
"
the
opening
and
toccata
Seventeenth
Century
faint indications of the modern be
in
movement
dance
an
"
it
one
or
usuallypassed not were
until the there
more
oratorio.
or
opera
was
under
time
more
of
than
overture; in truth Lully may
it in its present form. His usuallyconsisted of the slow introduction,a quicker
considered
overtures
of
piece of
introductions
and
sinfonia
names
Lully
at
instrumental
early
name,
signifies "opening,"and
French
movements
itself. The
forms
of
inventor
the
fugal style,and then
in
use.
We
frequentlyone hear
much
of
the
of the French
many and
though the difference between them were very marked, while in truth it lies only in the the French beginning with the serious opening movement, Italian with the As and a quick, light introduction. further developed the name the overture to be apcame plied the Italian
to use
touch
operaticoverture
as
cert compositions intended merely for conis today most this way used. A frequently
orchestral and
of the
in
romantic
feear titlesthat convey
sometimes at once
enters
into them
and
they
the intention of the composer
illustratesome poeticallegendary subject,and again they for their appeal. depend upon their own artisticIfcauty to
OF
THEORY
THE
226
MUSIC
professed to actually give by snatches of the opera to follow, is
overture, which the listener to the drama, to
The
styleof
old
introduce
general outline a clue to introduction is instrumental an rarely found today. When has an independent used it is really a lengthenedprelude which is but seldom value and importance,though this name motives
used
and
with operas, oratorios
The
cantatas.
or
classical
ture over-
complete,well-rounded musical compositionand not melodies in an merely a gathering togetherof the principal which is much more pourri. properly called a medley or potopera is
a
There least
the
attempt few
are
which
through
whose
titles
explain in part
at
composition and we shall not here complete list but shall speak brieflyof a the
of
nature to
forms
many
give
a
have
some
marked
characteristics and
have
lived
changes. ment Immediatelypreceding the sonata in matter of developthe fantasia,which of the first titles one was was given to a composition intended expressly for instruments to have been an alone, which in turn, seems outgrowth of the madrigal, described in another chapter. As the name gests, sugit is a free creation abidingby no strict laws of composition, many
and
time
hence
find
we
having no
many
musical
definite form.
At
effusions called
the present fantasias,and
compositions for orchestra,which are not long enough to claim the titleof symphonic poem, or which lack the dignity Not only do we find the composer of an overture. using any of license in his fantasias but he seems amount today to have littleregard for the title and appliesthe name to medleys of operaticor folk-songsof the potpourri type, to grotesque also
and
movements no
other
in fact whenever
his fantastic work
as
indefinite is the
title ballad.
song accompanied by dancingand the Italian word Ballo, meaning a dance. is
a
quite
claim
name.
Almost meant
can
as
aiKt
indefinite
place and
as
is its
and poetical,
was
It
originally
derived
Its musical has
varied
from form with
though the generally accepted meaning
FORM is
narrative
a
accompaniment,
orchestra
purelyinstrumental
and
with
piano or employed for
is also
name
today
have
we
orchestral
and
clasical
Among
since
favorite form set
music,
the
voice
one
solo ballads.
instrumental
has been piano pieces the nocturne Chopin'stime,and though adheringto
it is like the
form
for
composed
poem
227
and
true
other
its name, It is written
to
cycle
forms
of
several
a no
ments move-
"night piece,"is always
of
a
only for solo instruments Not so long but for open-airbands and stringedorchestras. of its name have the serenade, we adhering to the significance form in no which has developed into a decided nected conway with the original meaning. written largelyfor wind instruments, serenade was The suitable for open-airmusic, but as it became a as they were halls the compositionsfor stringed favorite form for concert instruments gained ascendency. The serenade contains more than are usuallyfound in the sonata movements or symphony and as a consequence not so they are fullydeveloped and Even are some lighter and less rigid in construction. dreamy
nature.
modern
serenades
originallyused
piece as
the
derived was expressionthroughout. The name Italian Sera (eveningsong),and though now criminately indis-
the
used
combined search
for
methods
new
few
intended to
the song was instrument which could air and
open an
are one
of
expression.Conditions at
never
form
rest
ends
nor
and
fixed and another
of we
any can
begins,but,
while architecture varies with earlier illustration,
with conditions, some
art
where
scarcelysay our
was
and operaticforms have all been sonata, romantic of the others in and each has been used with one
living,growing use
of music,
or
The
to
for different kinds
playedat night in the could be accompanied by carried by the serenades
be sung such as be
in part to the true nature of and are and simple,melodious
in
sensuous
from
conform
do
not
countries
types of
centuries and
and
structure
it is to them
with that
individual taste have
stood
the
there test
the architect consciously or
are
of un-
228
consciously of
musical
and
seeking'
for
as
the
whole,
and
though
always
find
they
could
be
no
his
artistic
in
variety
unity.
of
intimate
composition title
a
typical
and creation
parts
student
may
relation,
ing accord-
parts
many
lead, mis-
forms.
analyze
we
the
the
may
classifications
general
unite
the
so
how
matter
no
which
some
work;
developed
every
artistic
every
the
his
of
developed
elements
have
in
own
perfectly
more
musical
base
forth,
set
make
can
the
to
every
here
as
find,
will
form
principles
the
for
turns
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
seem
otherwise
endless
In it
by
into
a
we
there
APPRECIATION beginnings of all things are full of interest as is evident of inquiry now made devoted to the by the 'amount institutions and ideas, and of all the various origin of human of life. And forms surely most interestingof all, because embracing all, are the beginnings of the human mind, the first dim stages in the development of man's God-like reason. affair of the psychologist or The scientist is to explain the of the simple,to trace back the seemingly complex in terms first dim stages in the development of man's God-like reason. makes He a careful study of the earlyphases of mental life, in so doing has found it possibleto connect the individand ual The
life with of
the
on
some
If
one
the
life of
the
race;
and
careful
observation
first years much of the child have thrown light of the gravest questionsrelatingto man's nature.
believes
in
the
doctrine
of
evolution
he
views
the
intelligence today as conditioned and unfolding of a human experience. The civilized prepared by long ages of human condensed record of individual is,in a sense, a memento, or work of organizing or buildingup living,conscious Nature's and the psychology The psychology of the race structures. have obvious points of contact; the first of the infant mind
to the earliest known stages years of the child indeed answer of human ginnings history. It is probablethat inquiriesinto the be-
of human
culture,the originof, language, of primi-
close
scrutinyof
Because
the events
we
enabled
are
to
through
and by observation,by introspection,
study mind
the medium The
research. anthropological
ethnologicaland
help from
of childhood.
is universal
mind
much
derived
institutions have
tive ideas,arts and a
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
230
of
historian's
give us as some true symbolic a pictureof an such as poetry, decoration,painting,sculpture, representation, the music, or romance. History fails to show the essentials, typicalfacts,as for instance do Shakespeare'shistorical plays of the development and in which he gives us an account dependency of growth of the English nation from a mere France and Rome to a mighty nation with a national church novel may In the same and government. a give us the way the motives of the true pictureof a period by seizing upon The student in search of knowledge finds in the actors. than their chronologicalsuccession of history more events account,
a
record
mere
does of facts,in itself, historic epoch as does
not
back of the or causes relation,he seeks for the cause stand great crises recorded, and then,above all,in order to underthe stage of mental and spiritual development of the and
race
or
and
to
looks to their games, to their amusements, their records of self in products of art. When
people,he
people has over
left
us
creation
any
intellect
or
wherein
will,we
know
a
feelinghas predominated they were, however
rudely,making manifest an unrest and dissatisfaction with life as they found it and striving toward perfection; we see in the crudest productionsthe awakening of the God-like in As with the child, whose man. means are so limited,so with the earlyraces of men, there is an effort to express the ideas in mind. Through the soul flitshadowy suggesvague tions of the identityof all life by play, through gesture, and later through language, he strives, in some simpleway and by the means his at command, to recreate the littleworld "
which
g^t
a
lies within him; it survey
of his
Ire ""te to
seems
as
experiencesas
understand
though he a
whole
its nature
essential from
and
were
tryingto
in order that he
discriminate its
its accidental and
vanishing
APPRECIATION
is,in fact,a
It
elements. to
separate the real from
to
find himself
by
search
for
the unreal
truth,and
in which
puttingself into outward
little stride toward
one
231
the tie which
in the effort
it is
form,
immeshed, he is making
will bind
him,
the
The one created life is the God, the creator. in all things. Dimly at first man realized there was same a than his and he attempted to portray the own higher power The very foundation of all art lay in infinite in finite form. dissatisfaction with the material man's and imperfect. the memorials which survive it would Through the help of that primitiveman had a real althoughdim and rudimentary seem As soon appreciationof the beautiful. as he, unconsciously the essential from the superperhaps,separated ficial, the qualityof objects was soon as as perceived as the quantityor bulk, the aesthetic side was distinct from noted. Primitive is the infant,was as concerned so man, that he had efforts of bodily maintenance with no great but of he had to in a as soon as variety feelings express, himself of sustenance assured he was and protection, measure creature,
with
*
with
concerned dawn
the to
enter
intellect and
of
into life
our
and
is but
an
faculties came
so
outward
the
early man impulse.
expressionof
the inner
man;
the
of the creator.
emotions That
the
first products were
true, but
they
understand
the
far from
beingbeautiful
important rievertheless in helping us times in which created,and they were
are
possiblethe higher forms of art which we graduallydeveloped with the experienceof the races. making
it is
reflects the civilizationin which of
desire
in
arose
the art
a
With
crudest,simplestrelics in stone, metal and wood in the loftiest ideals expressed in sculptureor on canvas present time, we have but a reflection of the thoughts
from to
universal,and
existence.
mere
emotional
with it evolved
play impulse and All art
than
something more
savagery
barbaric
art.
civilizedand
or
barbarism A
high
high art.
could state
The
produced. A
give
forth
is to
in
know
low
only savage
Art state or
civilization will produce a child is at firstsatisfiedwith the of
crudest
imitation
experience and something nearer
OF
THEORY
THE
232
MUSIC
in of any familiar object,but as he grows observes accuratelyhe will demand more perfection.He passes out of the state of
finallyreaches life as a whole, truth he wants the point where, as a man, in some form, to speak to him from a product of art; he and returns understandinglyto his seeks unity in diversity, the art of seeing things in their entirety;and first power been it not has quite the same? history of the race that believe the art earliest to be expressed was Whether we of music, includingdance and song, or decoration,drawing such in imitation,or what, it is true the beginnings were of the the mind to satisfytoday for a very brief time as infant Then the child in its many as stages of development ideas to something more of these vague out definite, grows he beginsto find likenesses in seeminglyunlike objects,so as the in each the race succeeding generationbuilded upon mental and spiritual outlook, knowledge gained,increased its own and larger felt more, to express and hence had more wherewith to do it means Nothing can so truly record the of the people or a country'scivilization as its art, for nature Ruskin be triumphant The acts of a nation may as says : by its good fortune; and its words mighty by the genius of few of its children; but its art only by the general gifts a and common sympathies of the race." The most art is probably originalform of representative not independent drawing or sculpture,but ornamentation, and undoubtedly bodily decoration was its earliest application. Not satisfied, with however, bodilyornamentation,the earliest tribes decorated their implementsand weapons, and followed then the primitive works of free painting and had sculpture,which an independentsignificance, serving
wholeness
or
as
oneness
he
finds details and
"
"
other purposes than That there was
that of decoration.
littlereal artisticcharacter in the lowest conceded stage of ornamentation is generally to Be true, but
as was
syirhols,property marks and ;,iaiqt sKgfat,
emblems
their historic value their influence ttttist ttave been felt on or
APPRECIATION
social life of the times.
233
The
or pictorial representative tribes were arts of primitive quite naturally,with a few exceptions, a picturingof subjectstaken from the usual round of experiencesof the aborigines figures of men, animals, and in savage life. They had scenes not birds, weapons formed ing merely strivingfor an understandany ideals,were about them of the things they saw and recordingtheir The for various reasons. observations ings carvings and drawof these early tribes are works usuallyclassed among there is of art, but some question as to their claim surely self-evident that the picmeans to this title,for it is by no torial works can trace their originto an aesthetic need. There have decided that they have had their rise students who are but although they may of religion, have had the servant as has been able to discover the no one significance some religious mysterious meanings of many of the earliest drawings. As long as all symbolic meaning remains hidden we have no right to suppose the figuresare intended for anything else than that which they appear to be. Undoubtedly skill in was carving,drawing and sculpturing practisedpurely from for representing things. As we have before said, a fondness until feelingwas aroused there could be nothingto express,
the
"
so
it sounds
rather
unreasonable
to
state
that
the
earliest
symbolic; rather, is it not reasonable that the play spiritwas the forerunner of the to suppose in the first lines art impulse,and as the child finds pleasure direct simply because he feels his power in so doing, he can the child race so discoveringits power rejoicedin it,and, what it saw with no deep meaning back of it,pictured about the doing of the deed itself merely for the love of it. Then within it other desires and longings,opened the awakened it feel a higher,greater power eyes to the world about,made the greatest made it a thinkingbeing,and soon than its own, With questionsof life with which we today contend arose. cation the use of the symbol,which is an indithese longingscame works pictorial
were
of civilization.
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
234
practicaland useful the question, of reason comes the dawn with then sense, is sought. In seizingfact, everything why, and the cause is large a part of its entire compass depends upon how fact is only a partialtruth, a reached. As usually observed it is a symbolic object of little glimpse of the true reality, a it is seen knowledge. Such a fact becomes truth only when of which the whole see we in its scientific principle.Then with more We see the fact is only a partialmanifestation. first,fact is
At
than
the animal
remains
the
law
of
the
fact, which
The
all circumstances.
under
same
its
find the
and
senses
in
only
seen
fact
itself
nothing to people in general,the law or principle but the symbol appeals to and uninteresting, unintelligible between fact and and intellect. It is midway the emotions principleand is a typicalfact, so complete that it illustrates all the phases of the law or almost principle.Each bare fore, fact gives some phases of the law but not all,and is, theredefective,but the typicalfact should contain all phases. do not for a moment that the early tribes of We suppose of symbols any the use set about to out .men reason more may
mean
than
we
ascribe
conscious
action
to
the
experienceof enabled
study of the ages, and deduce certain facts concerning the
to
intellect.
of the
divine within were
all the
infant,but from human mind, we
Man
simply sought
him, and
the wonderful
symbolic; he only theoretical
and
used
the
moral
phenomena he
means
truths.
Is
are
development
to
means
a
the
express about
had
there
the him
to
represent then not
truth in the
language of art, in poetic symbolism, than in bald statements of fact? The man who cries againstthe ideal in literature, in music, sculpture, or land painting,the fairy-
more
of child
fails to see life in its wholeness, grown-up, life universal,and is far from his own realizing greatness as man,
a
or
creature
made
It is reasonable ic arts i
in the likeness of God.
suppose that,before these plasticand have been some developed, there must bodily
such
have
as
no
to
is found records
in
primitivedances, though of
except
a$
they
are
pictured, and
APPRECIATION this does
tell
the
235
order
the
of
development. The is of social importance in the history of civilization, dance for it meant a gathering togetherof people for either religious, festival warlike or occasions,and, as in the lower stage not
us
of civilization the dance
is
always associated
with
song, we it to are poetry. It is difficult today to realize the social power which the the most dance once possessed. It was perfectand most led from
expressionof the primitiveaesthetic feeling. We all the pleasuregiven both the performer and spectator by know gymnastic and mimetic performances; there is, perhaps, no efficient
We
which
artistic act
other
excites
all
men
as
long before the child can can by bodily motion, not
that
know
language
he
does
the
express
dance.
himself
in
yet developed
even
evident his state of feelings. We into gesture, make know well pleased over he is particularly when anything he will
give expressionto his joy in the use of arms, legsand body. Most primitivedances gave vent outwardlyto inner pleasure occasioned and that excited the were by any occurrence mobile feelings of the people. The mere exercise of muscle, the needs of expressionof joy, not answer however, would and of
the aestheticcharacter of the dance the
Its most
movements.
of the
of the
music, so
dancers we
in the order
important property,
rhythm, is one of the essentials of perfect time people maintain motions
is found
all art. in their
The
most
that
of
tive primi-
dances, and
the
coincide
find the
exactlywith the intonation firstdances are regularly repeated
steps, and the first decorations are regularlyrepeated units, ments the firstpoetry is metrical chants,and the firstmusical instruare
those
which
mark
off
measure
or
sound.
What
sound, proportionor visible rhythm is to architecture,sculptureand painting. first to' of the This is of universal one impulse rhythm child. Man is a rhythmic being, born awaken in a race or be strange indeed if into a rhythmic universe, and it would he gave always no early signs of this impulse. Motion rhythm
is to the arts, to ornament,
attracts,and
in time
bringsabout
and
the
questionof
power,
the
which
in nature
invisible power
beats
Nature
rounds
And Whether
she
Or
hides
which
music, and
rhythm
We
might
productof culture
life
and itself,
"The is
Creator, for action is necessary
all culture,
There
is
father
of poetry
and
rhythm,
insert another
Orphic
an
the father and
phrase
is of
say,
the father of life the Great
is life,and
rhythm
the
this element.
of music
the father
the father of
then
follows:
as
is God."
sea,
alchemy."
her
is not
rune,
every
or
in the emotional
contain
runs
her
underground
alone, but is inherent all art, must
perfecttune, in land
works
planets,
rhythmic swing.
in
move
rhyme
rhythmic element
This
saying
in
with
the trees, the
causes
the waters, the entire universe to "For
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
236
life,rest, absolute,means
to
in its broadest sense then, degeneracy or even death. Viewed of all art, it is rhythm is the greatest underlying principle It hardly seems the life of all art as it is of nature. an ural exaggeration to say that the rhythmical is always the natform
of
Every stronger emotional in rhythmical movement because
music
tends
excitement of
the
Is
body."
others,just as
of all the arts?
when
all the wonders
speak
we
It
it not
deep to
seems
sky, and
largely
of motion, of
of the universe, we
of the heavens, of
itself
to express
best
it is the soul
said:
Spencer has
as
exemplifiesthis great law in harmony, that we feel in a very
movements sense
and
movements,
our
"
and
true
include all think
earth,and
of sea,
of
color, of line,of form, blendingin one great harmony, held by one law. Music not only the father of seems great and architecture. We poetry but of painting,sculpturing borrow
We
arts. as
musical
frozen
speak music.
been slower than
in
terms
of
a
trying to
define
scale of color and
The
very fact that that of other arts seems
phases of
define architecture its
development has
to
verifythe
riient that it is the soul of all arts, for its latent are
them
so
great aEL
it must
take
ages
to
other
developor
even
state-
possibilities
recognize
APPRECIATION In and
hand
art, this
as
Until
art?
that
products of classify
to
attempt
an
questionarises: in
can
satisfaction of the
the
we
that
we
of art
in
nor
innate
our
in connection
used to
questions have
while
art
in
it with
another
to
the
many with
synonymous
synonymous,
to
all art of
mind
one
it is but
does of
may
one
But
exist
truth
and
it is not
meaning
of the terms
It is that
art, the
names
fail
we
of
abstract
all the attributes of
Goodness
beauty, while all from no
and
the essentials
element, and
elements.
is
or
consider
manner
truth seems
the next narrow
a a
covers
to
one
to
course dis-
moral
ness. part of good-
the thoughtof the symbol representing would seem logicalto say, that truth is the
contain
not
as
bare fact which, as before stated,
all the
back phases of the law or principle the mere act, but truth which bringswith it mental recognition of the principle. It is impossible to formulate a theorythat will explain not
one basis,for art is what its age upon it. We make make a set of laws cannot
all art
and each and
art,
theory.
one
other
Truth
of art.
of
to our
return
typicalfact,it aim
we
contains
the subject.views upon aspect and declares beauty is in To
or
of
their solution.
what
language
qualities.Beauty
sole aim
idea of the
with
the
upon
agree
is the aim
interested theorists lor ages,
today but littlecloser disagreeso much in
are
the
beauty
beauty and truth independentlyof the other ? These
What
mind
be answered, at least to there can be no definite individual,
Are
truth?
the human
measure
a
Is
classification made.
237
try all
arts
product must
be
or
by age
them of
judged by
except in
a
very
and nor
ment environstandards
general way,
for
productsis separate and individual its
own
methods
and ideas back
of
its conception.
objectof the artist should be to tell us in music, in the paintedpicture, form, or in literature, or sculptured of life which the truths of life and the beauty and sublimity do not ask that we, with lack of genius,fail to grasp* We The
are
about
the
sensuous
ask that he
we
us,
if it had
his were,
not capabilities
true
its beginning,
had
art
would
than
more
stillbe in the
dimly long before he realizes even through imitation he finds himself,as it
imitates
child
but power, and in time knows
own
we
with
see
which
scenes
state of culture.
primitive, savage The
to
it is
continued
so
represent
help us
imitation
In
eye.
but
imitation
in exact
and faithfully
he
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
238
he
is
a
separate individual So
another.
depending upon passed to reason.
through
with tion imita-
The
for
symbol appeared and then began to rid himself of bare facts, of the reality life,which in picturedlanguages possesses little interest We do not read a book to hear of the dailyroutine us.
of
our
the
man
of
race
beauties
and
this of
an
the
unlike this
and
beyond
to
of
show
that the
Nature
is necessary it is to the scientist,
not
the
that
the greatness of his conception rather nature. Taking this view many a theorist
us
to
objectof
art
Taine
is to contribute in his
science,beauty the aim
of
"art must
accept truth sin against it,but art must
to one
science who
nor
has
with art is
tions crea-
artist,but
to
our
pleasure,
Philosophyof Art
of a pictureis not to tell the truth, purpose gratifythe aesthetic sense." These theorists consider
aim
felt.
his aim, for he
"The
the
and
never
that his
us
laws
to inculcate truth.
not
above
have
we
Facts
than truthfulness claims
which
us
truths
interest and
knowledge
try to
must
genius is
the
found
artist has
as
make never pleasurefor us. the skeleton of art, they merely form of the work, edge framework we commonly call technique. The knowl-
hold work
man
realities about
in the
It is because
a
the
lives unless
of art; and
condition and
says : but to truth
further
sayT
offensively not be made to play the lackey be distorted from its proper purpose." No agree given the subjectany serious thought, will dis-
the above
in
generallyconceded.
as
a
not
substance; that realism alone is A
not
subjecttreated solelyfrom the of the scientist with all the disagreeableand even details portrayed because they are facts and make true to life as seen o$ty with the physicaleye,
APPRECIATION
239
and even attract fascinate,but this is the worst may far from of realism and being art; but when we say of art,
aim
is the
truth
mean
we
of fact
which
is
phase truth
reallyopposed
to
the great majorityof men. that a production may We know be technically perfectand and yet if it ignore the spiritual correct element it literally the
doctrine
fails
us
by
seen
as
art.
The
genius departs from the actual feed our imagination but because
and
symbol represents take the fact and us
as
the
to
it to
of the
anatomy
the
to
please
typicalfact
something higher.
us
tear
alone
not
He
does
the purpose of structure, but rather he adds
piecesfor
or
not
showing fact to
fact, selects the real from the unreal, the eternal from the transient,calls out the very seed of the truth,and, because records for us what he with his deeper,more he is an artist, When of his work look spiritual insightsees. we, by means through his eyes, we see not merely detail,not just the line, the form, the color, the subject,not only bare fact, all is changed, we look below the surface to the soul of things. He
imaginationand that underlies spirit
stimulates
till we
our
the
see
arouses
sympathies
our
the act, and the picture embodiment of man's impulses,
an sculpture becomes nearly the artist is in thoughts and deeds, and the more criminat touch with the human pulse the more capableis he of disthe truth and that which between presses merely ex-
or
a
mood. fleeting is
"Truth fact.'*
If
accept this
we
truth
is the
facts
of
emotional
an
aim
nature
of
the
imaginative realization of then surelywe definition, may say, or
artist.
subservient
to
He
makes
his will and
nature to
and
the
his artistic
point that theorists differ. The one of ideas. of facts,art the statement says truth is a statement True, and art then includes truth, but they argue that truth to the thought does not include art, and for proof return of imitation and realism. They agree that art is bound by certain laws, laws of society, of nature, of morality,and an of these artistic law, and that it must one not ignore any
conception.
It is at this
the
to
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
240
of misstatement, but
extent
morality is its primary object,as pleasing. Beauty in aesthetically
neither
that
of these
neither
is the
them
truth
nor
objectsis
element
the
artist seeks.
in accept this theory then art exists, whether tual for the promotion of intellecor painting, music, literature, If
we
a hardly seems satisfactory explanationunless we understand by pleasure, happiness, of the beautiful leads to harmony in life. unless appreciation
and
pleasure. This
moral
so, then
If this is not
of life to interpretation which
in
arouses
his fellow
to
clearer when
declare
fact and
truth is the main
not
we
are
The
man? man
art
a
to
be
the
the song,
poem,
conviction of his proper
nature, to God, through its harmonies, to
man,
say, that devoted to the we
ture, piction rela-
contains
truth,
beauty. tions Beauty is a qualityor attribute,it appealsto the emothrough the intellect and is perceivedby the senses. here into the old-time We shall not enter question of whether beauty exists only in the mind or in the external with it as an in both as we world are or only concerned The recognition element of art. of the beautiful is a matter of education and culture;the child for instance is pleasedby a but fails picturesimply because it is pretty or agreeable, to see any .real beauty in it; is not capable of recognizing and through the intellect beauty,that is a matter of intellect, the emotions are touched, and upon how deeply and truly This power is peculiar depends one's power of appreciation. to man and raises him above the beast that has the physical
universal
truth, an4
.
eye
and
ear
to
scenes objects,
feear
as
can
beautymakes cmr 1
and man,
and
to
hear
sounds, which but
he
all about
while he
lacks the
can
that there could be
him
are
sensuouslysee
and
intellect through which
its appealto the emotions.
statement
awakened
see
no
This carries art
us
back
until the emotions
through the intellectaridthe
desire to express We aroused. see beautyand truth only in proporter intelligence. The poet, the artist, the musician,
fffe^iwe cannot, although ftBe$ afeotrtus ffff
as
it has
STRAUSS
RICHARD
Born
prominent the
Munich,
In
figure
greatest
Strauss
of
marvels
-what
fifty
11,
1864. -world
musical
ago
today.
of
which He
generation.
is
who
compositions
years
Strauss
orchestration
of
written his
the
in
master
has
June
"Wagner
is
has
are
doing' did
for
lor
the
most He
ever
the the
lived. musical
tra orches-
is
APPRECIATION
241
peoples for centuries,but our have sensitive to it,perhaps because we all
about
as
the
open
usual
That
that
who
man
make
even
has
within
beauty,
of
long accepted it
effort to
has
or
or
merely
with
see
in art, whether
the
beautiful, he creates
to enjoy them; power he views the gloriesof
pleasurein the songs of lungs involuntarilyexpand to inhale the life birds, whose into his face, who that blow takes force in the fresh winds keen joy in the distant snow lofty mountain cap of some has within him divine a peak beyond his home, that man Others then must spark which makes him akin to his Maker. of the human heart which the emotions reveal to us they in beautiful and and can discovered have symbolic express language,giving us not only what is reallyfact according "The the materialist but their poetic conception of it to soul ever does in this world is to greatest thing a human heart
the
sunset, whose
see
something and
kin). he not as
has
And
in
with
it
tell what
in
sees
to his.abilityto interpret
revealed lies his claim to the
admire
thing but by the man
the
conceived
back
the creator In
beats
love for the
a
pulsequickenswhen
whose
man
the
him
he beholds this in nature
whether
things
not
so
not
heart.
and
mind
do
and
intellects are
the
a
plainway"
the world
name
of artist;we
idea,the portrayalof
who
created
the
the
(Rusbeauty
the
we picture,
do
truth, seek
of the created.
the technical
part of any
compositionwe
find the
in
language, in color,in line,form, proportion, rhythm, variety. There may be beauty in each detail,but back of all and embracing all there must of be a conception
beautiful
truth, else and
not
we
admire
because it is
highestand best and
embraces
in
us.
it for the mechanical a
skill it exhibits
livingcreation which appealsto the truth is life, Beauty is an attribute,
beauty* We
are,
of course, considering the these higherand nobler conceptions,
superlative purpose of art, from the prodto which only the greatest artists attain, ucts, classed under art, descend to lower standards generally dependingupon the ideas or thoughts expressedin them.
Before
that
clearlyunderstood that
art
do
we
wish
always
be art must
to
not
in art, let it be
truth
subjectof
this
leave
we
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
242
give
to
tell
the
The
story.
a
sion impresidea
tell a tale of
joy, passion,and of struggle,of hope, of despair,of any but again there tell it in a literalbut artistic manner, it may ideas not so tangible. There are thoughts and emotions are which the artist describes by picturing the scene which It is true that his exact thought may aroused them in him. makes
which
create
man
any
a
productmay
human
be called forth in any in any two quitethe same
one
not
the
work
the
of
us
spectators,but
of the creator, and
power
aroused
the emotion
nor
feel in
we
it awakens
viewing sense
a
impossiblefor the majority of to put in language the impressionmade us upon us by some if we But artist. of the grandest conceptionsof the possess second only to him are to enjoy his conceptionwe the power them for us. who creates Abilityto understand is one thing to express is quite another; the artist lays claim and ability the divine
of
in
It is
man.
artist is greatestwho best reach of life and who can the principles That
to both.
Schiller tells
him
given
was
or
in his
Song
that he
creatingby
he is
what
us
poet
the soul of
of the Bell that man's
might
his
best understands
own
feeHn
man.
intelligence
his "innermost
heart"
hand.
widely from one another in our use of terms and essentials of the fine arts and to describe the qualities in our reasonings as to the artisticappeal. No less do we differ in our view, in our judgment, of the beautiful and true. ards, However, there is somethingfixed in regard to standthere are of judgment and some sentiment principles differ
We
to
common
their
on
else
all men,
reason
and
no
sufficient hold
passionsto
maintain
could
the
be
made
respondence ordinarycor-
of life. It is difficult to define a
term
as
taste, which
is
with judgment, but there two
"$ the
words
clearlyand concisely so figurative used synonymously quitefrequently surelyis a distinction between the
themselves
prove there should be.
The
APPRECIATION the
between
relation
243
emotional
physicaland
is
close,and
has
recognizedthe dependency of the the external, through the medium of inner or spiritual upon has borrowed direct physical with words the senses, and As with meaning and given them metaphoricalsignificance. word, that of taste is not absolutely accurate. a figurative many it is not a simple and The by thing we understand in determinate idea, and is therefore liable to be confused by
man
his
of
minds
the
language
probably
more
derived from of
most
If
men.
significanceof its physical meaning, we consider nearly
exact
receivingpleasure;an
preferment
of
one
obviouslycall
not
Can
there
the
cause
the taste
term a
as
faculty
intuitive choice
or
act
into
It is the
then
thing to another, which" play the facultyof reason.
does
discrimination. be
great difference in the principleof taste, the and
instinctive and
and
narrower
material
of immediate
power
accept the
we
tastes manner
of affection
taste, is there any of different individuals? The
good
any
are
or
bad
in which the
same
men
in and
are
affected,
for different
individuals,but the difference lies in the degreeof the appeal sensitive to the external beauty Some men are naturallymore in and are than others, through education or inheritance, quickerto perceive truth or beauty in a work consequence of nature, in its
in a singlequality. or entirety, object or class of Again, the close study of a particular objectsis the cause of various degreesof taste,but the principle the same. still remains which Any object suggests pleasurableconceptionsto the mind is pleasing,pretty or and just so far as he alone is beautiful to that individual, concerned his taste is correct. If he calls a thing beautiful and means simply that it givesto him pleasureby suggesting to him some some emotion, by revealing truth,then to him it is beautiful just as all other conceptions pleasethose to whom they appear beautiful. When, however, he tries to set a standard by his own he insists because of a taste, when for consideringthe peculiarqualitywhich to him is cause of
art
work
or
or
scene
that it should awake beautiful,
in others the
same or
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
244
defect
emotion, and, if it fails,that it is due to some prejudicein them, he has attempted to do what
individual Tastes
shall constitute true
do, dictate what
can
equallyjust and
are
of his
in
correct
individual
feels to be beautiful is beautiful to him
others
then, we
would
this
do not
we
In
decide.
may
own
to
answer
our
own
each
as
what
emotions, and
speaks only
one
art.
far
so
individual
of what
no
an
regardless question
but from say there is no good and bad taste, infer that all tastes are equallydesirable. The
facultyof taste is to afford delight,is to help us in choosing tinguish to disthe harmful the helpful from by aiding us at once the good from the bad without the necessityof long study or close and continual observation,and in this way assists in the cultivation of the finer,intellectual and spiritual of being. While we cannot say a man's taste in the matter the beautiful is bad as his view concerns only himself, we need
and
allow
not
trulygreatestand
what
is
bad
let
us
use
in taste. aroused
uncultivated
an
else has
or
man
been
to
hinder
and
us
Rather
best in art. much
the terms
The
taste
little to
in declaring
good
than
describe degrees
whose
imaginationhas never improperlynourished, whose
been vations obser-
been
tive unorganized,and, hence, who is not sensiabout him, can and alive to the world discern beauty with difficulty, and often we regard his taste a peculiarone, as accordingto our standards his conceptionsof beauty are peculiar. have
The
the
imaginationand
the
judgment are the of man natural powers with knowledge of the concerned The external world. of perceiving external objects manner is quite the same in all men in so far as they are physically normal, so that objectspresent similar images to all mankind. We that what be to agree lightto one eye appears We
as light to appears touch is rough or
smooth, what
sotjr^what
ear
ag^edto ,,
senses,
no
to
the
another. is
agree to
harmony
upon
the or
taste
the
to
is sweet
discord.
ascribe certain qualities to certain about sugar being sweet, or
;i(^gctte.
what We
things;
vmegar
or
have
there
sour,
is or
APPRECIATION
quinine bitter,and we concur and bitterness unpleasant. So our
sentiments, and
apply or
We
emotions.
a
do
in
callingsweetness
far there is
understand
we
in
these terms
245
no
another
one
metaphoricalsense know, however,
pleasant, disagreementin
to
that
when
we
objects,persons a
natural
taste
pervertedor cultivated until the sour or bitter may agreeableto the individual,but this in no way interferes with our speaking definitely taste, for though concerning' be
may be
fact that the
particularfood is bitter or sour, them agreeableto the palate. So it is habit which has made that no one know what pleasureor pain can positively see we individual may find from the taste of some a particular ticular parbut the which we thing, concerning things argue may to this sense. or disagreeable are naturallypleasing Wherein, then, lies the degree of taste, why does one select the finest creations,as agreed upon at once man by the lesser ones, why does he see beauty when from critics, sensible to
fails to
another mental
the
creative
see
Is it not
it?
The
power?
primarilythe
the
senses
him
they represent images
at once
are
combines
in
a
since it is the
he possesses
greater
he receives through with all men, but to
sensations same
as
in proper new
Imaginationis the
order. and
them
because
order
or
or relation,
he
ent accordingto a differfacultycapableof doing this, manner
of representation
the senses,
and
can
be
with the objectsas imaged,and just in pleasedor displeased with the material proportionas sense is pleased or displeased ing thing,so do the imaginationsof men agree or differ accordto
their
senses.
Without
going
into the fine distinctions and
stoppingat
discuss
holds true just how far our statement in general say, that art is in a way with all arts, we may imitation,(not literal imitation, for,as we have stated before, realism is not art,)and that a pleasureis perceivedby the imagination from the resemblance which the imitation has to the original Judgment deals with differences, but imagination
this
point to
with m
likenesses.
Pleasure is derived in
a
gree far greater de-
because differences, tracing likenesses than in finding
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
246
we are are uniting qualities, by making resemblances we images, enlargingour store of mental food, we making new are creating,whereas the task of making distinctions does
so
such
afford
not
play to pleasurewe
that what So
nature.
far, men
perceptionand differ in their
this difference When
are
of resemblances
in
the
knowledge
first view
we
equal in the
about
work
a
more
it is of
from
derive
do
knowledge of
is
imaginationand
the
matter
severe
indirect
an
of
sense
pleasingthe imagination,but and from things represented, difference in taste
the of art
one
or
so
arises.
called,if it is conception or
to us, that is, a new new something entirely its resemblance at once of presentation, see we manner a new do know, but fail to find its defects in mat* to something we ter
of imitation unless
the uneducated
manner
same
they
are
glaring.In quite the
very sees
man
a
resemblance
ever how-
faultyand is pleased;if,however, he later sees a finer come of the same subject,the defects of the first berepresentation evident and cannot again make the same appealto him. in He is still admiring the likeness to truth but has grown knowledge, and only the finer conceptionof it pleaseshim. Our
mistakes
of art, from about
in
judgment
come
from
failure to avail ourselves
a
lack of knowledge
of the
privileges
of and from want a masterpieces, Our knowledge of nature and of man. theory is then, that critical taste does not depend upon the superiorprinciple in but upon their largerknowledge of life. Taste, natural men of a faculty to all,but taste in the sense taste, is common that embraces both imagination and judgment is a quality with which human is sparinglygifted. It means nature a perfectblendingof imaginationand judgment, and but few all have the possess this talent in any great degree. We seed of taste in our vated mind, and as imaginationcan be cultiand knowledge gained, there is every reason why we should strive toward its highestconsummation and though we never hope to reach it,we will in the effort acquire may at
us
least
term.
to
some
study
the
degree of
Perhaps,the
taste
as
we
best rule that
are can
now
be
the considering given one is to
APPRECIATION avoid all that is
good;
not
247
if you feel your own judgment whose taste or judgment is acknowledged
faulty accept that of men good, and give your time to the study of the reallygreat creations rather than waste it in an attempt to the have select the worthy from unworthy. When you learned to find the true and beautiful,you will recognizeit in all things where it exists and you will then waste time no is good, for a cultivated taste tells in your selection of what This is,of course, contrary to the thought of you at once. who would have you first decide that every detail the realists, the finer taste ignoresthe detail except whereas was perfect, it is perfectfor the sake of the perfectionof the whole, as the perfectionnecessary to the beautiful. If than if
we
accept the theory that
we
that of
giving pleasurethrough
believe it should
bringing him men,
for
into closer and
its mission
then
art's sake
semi-artistic
a
false
creations
is
a
one
That
one.
and
do
not
the have
there
doubt.
We
by
man
his fellow
theoryof
art
been
are
the
for
produced purely
satisfaction of the artist we
beautiful,
of the
means
relation with
truer
social
mission
another
understandingof
the
further
has
art
and
relief and found
it in
and we find it today drawings and carvingsof aborigines in the work of the child whose representation though not finished is always full of expressionand is usually recognizable. The things,the details of things which impress the
often ignoringthe, to him, he pictures,
characteristics. He that his art
forms
us
chief
grown-ups,
is
simply obeying genuine impulses,so reallyspringout of the deep grounds of
his emotion.
Every strong impressionman senses
from
the external
world
receives
by
excites in him
call emotion ^mental processes which we form to be liberated in one ^which demand
or or
means
of the
physicaland passion, and another.
The
the child may or primitiveman give vent to his joy,sorrow, his emoand is satisfied, or tion anger by physicalexpression, and itself has spent he again becomes physically and
mentally
normal.
The
man
sensitive to
his external
sur-
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
248
roundings, the emotional and intellectual man, feels all more violent and his acutely,the passionaroused in him is more emotions deeper and more sessed, lasting. His whole being is poshe has put forth in and will only be satisfied when outward
some
part of all
a
received; and
has
he
find
they;will
of the higher order
be
his emotions in
form
outlet
an
artistic creation, which, therefore,is the solution
some
if
of
have art produced In this case we overpoweringemotion. mission,art which aims at no other a subjective merely fulfilling goal than to relieve a mind of a compellingidea, but as the an
child
the
or
conscious
ideas manifest
in
than
convincingways
more
the
into
meaning
of
make
his
greater abilityto
his
of
things and
external
insight
keener
of
artist becomes
civilization the
with
advances
race
the
can
age aver-
man.
does
is, it is true, seeking self-satisfaction quite as
Hfe
primitiveman; in theoryat least he is still inspired by impulse,but he has in mind the public,the vast audience he is to speak through his creation. Uncontrollable to whom is not his guide, though it may led at first have inspiration him into the paths of artistic creation. The man who by his work appeals to the emotions through the intellect of his deep impressions, spectators, is the intellectual artist; strong emotions are his, inspirationand impulse, but if he would make an appeal to the people he must also have a knowledge the
more
not
alone
Viewing sense
Nature
all
of
oneness
best
of
and
life; he
by
of man,
works
not
for
himself
utilitarian.
By
word
to
of
means
of
in this way aesthetic means
leads it
as
only
riteminghis music, tft"t
but
of art
Haydn spoke not urged by Mozart one
laws
mission
the
need, but furthermore all mankind,
;not
her
us
to the
speaks
away English, he was
it he
a
it fills an
the
society. in the
aesthetic
viting great truths of life,in-
universal
an
from
replied that
speak
men
to
language.
all artists
London
language all could
but
of
becomes
art
for himself but for
remain
and
the
as
his
when,
he
knew
language,
understood
and
people of
any
APPRECIATION then
Here
find
we
The
artistic creations.
test of
our
249 art, of the greatest,highest individual
lack
imagination, perfectedor ment judgmay faulty and his knowledge of things,of emotions, of him we laws, scant, to him we will not turn for criticism, will not ask for an opinion. Rather let us turn to the greatest who have been least bound of all ages, the men men by and habits of thought, who the artificial customs have cast who aside or ignored the trivial, have, in spiteof and with the help o$ the material, risen to a higher intellectual and plane. There is art which belongs only to certain spiritual peoples or certain ages, which had its mission in helpingto clear away and as a means to somesome thing hazy impressions, greater belongs in the category of art, for it possessed element lesser truth which of truth, some into some merges and becomes a as man begins to see part of a greater one the likeness in all things. There are products,lyricpoems, charming statuettes, dainty bits of music, pleasingpictures, will always hold interest for their grace of movement, which their elegance of form, their charm of color,and they may but they are of a singleindividual, tell the joys or sorrows creations prompted by not to be compared with the splendid whose universal belief or emotion some national, religious, grandeur lives throughages. his taste
We have time some
truth
it may emotion
rouse common
joy, some
some
wrong, it cannot
a
hope
to
live
great, its author
poets.
It is he
by
self-environed creates
for
us
his even
that
life in highest art;
a
poem
may
one
triumph which is an through centuries,and
however
trammeled
or
country and at one particular nation to action,but unless it portrays to all mankind, unless it pictures some
strong appeal to
a
may
his uncultivated,
be
then
seek
average
will
never
become
one
universal
one,
its merit, of our world
on
the man unlife, as nearly as possible though it may be for the time only, who which,because of its truth,will live forever.
with
the
largestview environment, who is
of
History shows us how art has been bound down kept from reaching its great mission by religionand
and
by
obliged to create for his king or art suggested to the people all that
artist was
The
monarchy.
ruler,his church, and his favorable
was
people do
until
class used
the
subjectsof
as
to
come
we
nor traditional,
find art other than
we
of the humbler
sorrows
Not
its dictators.
to
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
250
a
joys
free and
When
art.
the splendorof court life,it kings dictated,art represented preached the fear of God, submission to the king and state, the mass of people could and respect for nobles and officials; find themselves
not
of
a
people,it joys,common
free
the low, gross
but this satisfied;
were
of greater As we
far from
swung
passionsof the
was
in this
art.
Netherlands, the
in the
however, it obeyed, as
When,
emotions
their human
nor
court
and
scenes,
the humbler
mands de-
classes
turningpoint,the beginning
things. have
of civilization and
said, the age
before
art
and general revolution has its spiritual the productionsof its time, and the influence on economical circle of art critics widens. Today the artist must pleasenot few people, not a singleruler,or even a government, not a a in hand,
hand
go
church
the
or
leaders of
societyat large the
of art.
name
a
to
a
church, but his work
branded
be
the artist is
As
worthy
as
today
or
before
passes
unworthy
freer to work
out
of his
conceptions,so the critics have greater opportunitiesfor in their purely aesthetic appreciation; they are not narrowed views by any mechanism of state or church, nor intimidated by artificialgrandeur or magnificence;they are not looking for any direct personal advantageor for their own tion glorificaas
patrons and criticsof old.
were
societydemands
Thfe artist is freer to
give more,
and
in art and
but asks that it be ennobled, a likeness,
that
one,
it may
an respect itself,
raised
be art
in its
wide
ki"nd,"a
enough people to
gift of the everybody can understand, and ap"it of every life and ' "
;
:
!p$tery
a
It asks to find itself
more.
sight and
own
to admit
the
every
a
the whole
people, a one
beautiful
taught of
thing
surround
to
man-
which
with love,
hindrance to none."
the story pf music, and of the mythicallore which surround^ the birth of this
has
told
us
APPRECIATION
251
Philosophersand scientists have attempted to solve the elusive mystery surrounding it,and in all the older theories find a suggestionof divinity.It was and traditions we garded reas a gift from some great god who not only created its guardian,and in the literature of all countries it but was are poetic fancies concerningmusic and its origin. Man has always felt it to be a part of himself and hence its origin art
divine
his
as
and
voice
Based
own.
the
on
of
the modulations human
of the human
muscles
by the and emotional sensations,the needs and hopes spiritual many with human of humanity, it has grown growth and developed into civilization. Having no actual model in nature, being neither a repetition of an experiencenor imitation of a an real object,it stands unique and supreme the arts, among it speaks directly without the medium of to the souls of men any tangiblematerial. The is of sound tendency to express feelings by means The wolf or to all livingcreatures. universal; it is common dog that givesvent to short sharp barks or prolongedhowls is actuated by an impulse similar to that of the child who by We know the its cooing or crying expresses its emotions. sound has to excite human beings,how a mob may power be
orator
audienc^ an
are
emotional
of its leader
tones
word
a
to make
But
the man,
a
appealto sympathetic
the fulness of whose
use necessarily unmistakablyintelligible.
utterance, must
Music
own
an
how
an
handling intelligent
emotions
pels com-
forms of expression
of tones, that is its crude of its being molded within it lies the possibility
consists of
material and into
the
by
caused
of all he says is understood,and depends largelyfor his effect upon his skillIn not
his voice.
that
violent acts
led to
though
movement
As
form.
exist without
stated
some
a
great
in
kind of
a
mass
previouschapter,music design;there must be a and only vague, fleeting
cannot
definite-
useless phrase or find only impressionsare produced* In early music we well defined though there rhythmic sounds, but they were no was varietyafforded by a change of pitch,or, there were ness
about
each
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
252
varying in pitchbut lackingregular marking of time. had reached Other arts were fairlywell developed and man before the many attempts at a high degree of intellectuality nated making a well-balanced succession of sounds finallyculmiscales. From modern in our development of rhythm them a and pitch,as the early musician knew finallycame combiningof the two and the melody was produced. The systematicand scientific study of the origin and in mission of music has been of rather recent date,and even writers who the past century there were attempted to prove that it was purely an invention,and drew its material from
sounds
the voices of the creatures, beasts and went
even
furnished for
far
so
birds,from
the
life
a
was
when
he
great scheme
it
which
creation
a
us, but
has
of the universe
always
its foundations
because
the
from
song view
sighingtrees. His and the primitiveman was ascribed it to a special god ; it is
part of the whole was
taken
were
and
ripplingwaters superficial one,
the truth
nearer
theorist
one
prove that the duck had and clarinet,the rooster
to
for "the oboe
model
the
attempt
to
trumpet, that melodies
the
of
as
birds,and
are
been
of man,
with us,
and
part of
a
deeply rooted
so
a
in the
because there has been so much soul of man, else more other means of expressingthe divine in him easier tangible, very
to
formulate
understand,its progress has been a slow So many lie within the bounds of music possibilities it has taken man ages to develop them, and without
one.
that
doubt
and
future ages will find its power better its relation to
wider
we
the art, man have yet done
develops,as
stand greater, will under-
will infinite,
understandingof
than express more of expression. It and
the
even
we
and
with
a
nature, be able
through it,as have
greater,
said,with
a
to
medium the
race
the individual,as the
limited,so the modulation
notes
of
vocabularyof primitive peoplesare their music, and they use gesture and
of voice to
supplement them. As the mind and become capable of deeper emotions, as man becomes more complex, he requiresbetter means of exas
He has grown
out
of the superstitious beliefs
APPRECIATION with
connected
the power of the art
understanding through its beauty of
the
thing of
a
truthful
and
law
possiblean
and
order
expressionappeals to
With
man.
average
freedom
music, he has made
of as
253
freedom
the
which
the intellect
of
thought
tion expressionof the present day, with civilizathe earth,music should exert spread so widely over a influence than other art. one Sculptureand paintgreater any ing appeal to a comparativelysmall number, for only so far their works accessible can are as individually they wield an When influence. copied,though of value, they lose much of Literature their original power. standing depends upon an underof the language in which it is written,and it like a element in a translation. statue or picture often loses some classic qualityof music the other hand The is not hurt on by repetition.The same symphony, opera, sonata, the same in the same lands at the same fugue, may be heard many and
of
quality. The in
a
The
but
his
of
be
each seen only serve only as valuable
can
casts
travel
must
the world
his fellow
with
or
spontaneous
or
of sculpture or painting,
home,
own
statues
and
museum
individual
greatest works in
originalpower
of
Greek
famous
art particular
references. the
loss
without
moment
of
to
over
see
architecture, in
townsmen
a
the influence of the great under hall,he may come masters: Beethoven, Mozart, Haydn, Bach Wagner, or in America. whether he live in England, Germany, France or be claimed for It has possibilities of influence which cannot in so far as it may be considered architecture, paintingor sculpture concert
ideal
an
in human
nature.
the
of
mass
expressionof that which is best and truest Because music most universally appealsto
people
even
before there
training,it is the
educational
most
has been
special
any
universallyrefiningof
all art. We and
know
ballads
important Some themes
of
that the music and
dances,
have
factors in culture our
drawn
of the
and
people,the folk-songs always been recognizedas are
of
greatest compositions have from
reallyclassic been
based
these simplesources, the Scotch
value. upon
ballads,
Lied
German
the
OF
THEORY
THE
254
and
MUSIC
Hungarian dances,
which placein operas and symphonies, for good and power the universality
have
found
their
fact goes far in proving influence of the art of
music. is music
There
which
simply pleasesthe
pleasethe eye, and hours and have no
picturemay
like books
ear
which
as
a
pretty
entertain
higher purpose, no ennobling aday such creations have their place in a workresults,however world, and of such we shall speak in another chapter. the noblest There is music of lofty purpose ; by portraying life,or by showing its sordidness, gloom and passionsof human stirs the heart and givesrise to the desire for a freer, sorrow, of better life. It arouses a truer sympathy of mankind, a feeling closer kinship. Its mission,then, like that of all other arts, is a social one, the unitingof mankind. Again we repeat that the rightappeal to the emotions, the appeal which can hope for any good result,is made and in so far as all men are equal,that through the intellect, there is every is, that all men faculties, possess like mental
us
for
reason
few
a
to say
effort have
that all
an
by proper trainingand understandingof the masterpiecesof men
can
mental musical
be unintelligible to them. compositionwhich may now They now appeal to certain emotions,the list may have some may understanding of the composer's thought without any vague real knowledge of the design of the various movements or of why certain harmonies, certain tones, produce different effects.
If he
can
with
a
little effort and
observation
crease in-
knowledge and thereby increase his mental and spiritual understanding,and can live for the time in a world of harmony, can more completelythan perhaps in any other be lifted from the material physicalworld to that of way soul or spiritby thinking in the language of the musician, such thoughts as the greatest minds of ages have thought, then surely no mental time put upon the study energy, no of raisic,can ever be called wasted. When is going to journey in a foreign land he one his
t
wants
irst to know
of "w$athe something
may
expect
APPRECIATION will
find, he
to
weeks
spend
land, he will discover
255
in
reading
the
historyof
the
in
print many chief pointsof interest, have some knowledge of the people and if possibletheir language. Not that he does not in a general way know human life,but this particular phase of it,this expression of in sympathy with that he may to come realize it, he wants the benefit of such
its fullest extent
to
of us make many truths of life as given How
the
Either
conceit is
our
a
visit.
equal effort
an
to
understand
the greatest of mankind? because music is so universal
by
us
large and
feel we are capable of understandingthe language, we language of the genius,or we are indolent and do not realize the benefit to be derived, or we are ignorantof the fact that a
it is
the
possiblefor
us
greatest the earth
Pleasure, that
improve
to
and
our
the mind
of
leads
want
we
have
man
pleasure,which
is real
until
taste
to
only
offer
us.
happiness,
to
be sought; the art must everything else worth attaining, of no longer a nation but a whole world belongs to each of us, and as we have shown, the greatest and and every one will but try to understand it,and if we best in music is ours It is attained,no power on earth can take it from us. once for it helpshim in of the greatest possessionsof man, one is making to become the effort all mankind free being by a making the physicaland material the servant of mind and like
of this present chapteris to help the untaught purpose lover of the art to a higher and fuller conceptionof
The
soul.
expression.
musical For treated or
past, poetry and paintinghave always been distinct marks of great minds; the creator, poet
ages as
artist,has always been recognizedas
in the has
community
presumed know
himself the could eye
This
not
for same
to
one
of honor
criticisethe works
either
through
difference between
by lookingat the
and
moment reverence
a
only and
a
innate
a
genius,his position
often envy; and no one of either, who did not taste
or
ballad and
a
tion through educa-
sonnet,
picturetellwhether or
would
stand
respect have
not
it
or
who
pleasedhis
the test
of time.
always been
ac~
THEORY
THE
256
OF
MUSIC
.
corded
to
attained
music come
we
to
know
much
comparativelyrecent placein the fine arts, and
within
her proper
time we
has have
mentary moexpressionof some regard her, not as a mere mood or fantasyintended only to pleasethe ear, but
now,
an
Only
music.
and
masters
expressionof
have man's
that music
long known, soul and
of
is
as
universal
and holds a place as great and lastingas 'does Iliad. tine Madonna, or Homer's
truth, Raphael's Sis-
Simple melodies, easilycaught by the ear and held by have always been popular and eagerly seized the memory, But only after study and a child could enjoy them. upon, sonata does the complexityof a Mozart present tone pictures in a fugue mean to to the mind, or do the varying answers than a medley of intricate musical the untaught anything more an expressionof pent-up phrases. Music is as much tunately, human passionsas are any of the other fine arts, but, forof education sort nearly all good music requiressome it. This is of course true to a good to understand true of music, understanding of all the arts, but is especially is not since the language of music unless expressed in tunes And in reaching up to understand, man easilyunderstood. gains in breadth of intelligence. Fortunately for the betterment of mankind people are craving to interpretthe works of masters, and there are teachers ready and willing The road to help us understand. to appreciationis not a difficultone to travel,since every brings an added pleasure,and as the sounds step onward become familiar to the ear, progress "more along the way means enjoyment. Learning to appreciatemusic may be likened to being ,
lost in vastness
a
forest. of the
The
first thingyou
woods
around
you;
are
you
conscious are
of is the
surrounded
by
the know trees, familiar enough sightsto you, you may even but their number Steelsby name, confuses you, you feel helpin which direction you turn, you'll " :$$re that no matter But if, as yw out wander way along, you of
a
foot-path,or
ya;ur;eyerests
on
the
APPRECIATION familiar
of
contour
detects the faint within
well-known
a
rippleof
for you
you,
know
where
trees, their shade
is
you;
you
stoop
to
perhaps lie down and while with expanded and
your heart leaps and you are no
now
heart
and
and
vast
the
enjoy
you
but
longera gloomy shadow the glaring sunlight; you
pick
ear listening
friend,a feelingof kinshipwith
the animal
see
your
no
protectionfrom tall forms, you
or
are, you the forest,so
arises in your
surroundings
your
old
an
tree,
the forest stream,
longer groping blindly. And unsociable,becomes
257
a
admire
the
ful gratetheir
life busy and
happy all around flowers,lingerby the stream,
limbs on the soft grass, weary chest you take in big lungfuls of air in gratefultones, This is beautiful ! The rest your
"
"
exclaim
talks to you in languageyou understand, language satisfied. You are simple and direct that all your senses and no alone, the sightsand sounds longer confused
forest so are
now
around
are
you Let the
but the
untaught
images and
listen to
will be those will fail to
He
taught
to
understand the
look
any for the
of your own soul. pression opera, his first im-
in the
confusion
in it at
of
mass
all
But
as significance
of the music
he
becomes
able to
he
is
and
to
read
in
passion,expectancy,
joy, sorrow,
opera surrounded
sound.
as
motives, to distinguish them,
doubt, the plotof the
or
Wagner
a
meaning
see
their
character
of
echoes
unfolds itself before him, and
by a forest of unintelligible sounds, but as the music proceedshe finds himself wandering to well-known voices,and, through familiar paths, listening willingto lingerif he dared, he is carried along athrill with sympathy. Some people are fortunate enough to be born with a capacityfor enjoyinggood music, but most of us have he
to
is
longer
no
be educated Before
the must
the
up
imaginationor
nature spiritual
be
an
to it.
of
a
fancy
can
be
awakened
and
there appreciated, great composition
intelligent hearingthe
firsttime.
It is not
sary neces-
that the listener be conversant with all the technicalities of the material side of music but he must know something of the generaldesignand the essential musical elements. We
first
recognizewith
and
relation of of
material
little or
tones
memory,
intellectual effort the
no
which,
as
composition.Then
and
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
258
said, form
have
we
with
a
tones
the
little exercise
raw
of
aginatio im-
of concentration added to power design of music as set forth in the and
knowledge of the sons previouschapter,the listener will be ready to make comparimusic is made. and recognizethe elements out of which effort to recognize musical tones as lated remake One an must other in regard to time and pitch,and some to each of all recognize the three chief elements men intuitively music rhythm, melody and harmony. of understandingof In the order of development and felt by almost these elements first comes rhythm, recognized, all men, a grouping of tonal time units so accented as to of the music, it is an make feel the swing or movement one to the sensuous element, appealingat once unifying,life-giving
a
"
as
well
as
of these tones
blend
ordering of rests
or
harmonize
these tones
value
the
elements with
each
we
have
ing blend-
of the universe to truth a
other, and
series of tones
a
and
to
flow of tones in the correct
successively of the melody which forms the larger unit design of a compositiondepends. Melodies
which the upon of course contain from
two
be
must
else all is discord ; the law it is an essential to life and
requiresharmony, beauty,and with these which
There
intellectual emotions.
their
or
smaller
units which
rhythmical and
time
heard
derive
their individuality
value
characteristics, and the ear becomes accustomed as gent to a melody the intellilistener will be able to distinguish these smaller parts which termed are phrases,periodsor motives. Melodies all simple nor not are the whole on easily followed. In the songs of the people one usuallyrecognizes the melody at once by the rhythm which is well defined and which
characterizes or
rhythm
he
the
song.
will find
If
by
a
one
will mark
littleexercise
the
ment move-
of memory
thst he can follow a theme or musical subjectthroughlarger kstrtmiental work where its repetition, though varied,forms t"e C""M" idea of the composition, until the listener is able
APPRECIATION follow
259
the
composer's thought and to find it even when to be lost,crowded it appears out by a great varietyof device material. Until he can and seemingly new hold the theme in it when and know in new mind attire,he cannot appreciate understand the design a compositionas a whole, he cannot of its author nor reallyunderstand any part, for a truly to
so
in music
work
masterful
is like
a
wonderful
picture,where whole, and in
detail is necessary to the beauty of the the spectator does not which appreciatethe detail until he has grasped the idea as a whole, and so sees what part it fulfils every
in the
form, or
Gain
larger scheme. you
so
fugue, you
Many
then
may
know
want
to understand.
make
what
the mistake
to
first a
expect,
which
has
fairlygood a
sonata,
idea
an
of
opera,
to them
through given us of be a pictureof some kind or a story in every piece of music, and that if they fail it all as such, or fail in their pictureto agree to understand made with another, they are to feel that perhaps they are lacking in imagination and hence in musical appreciation. One is not imitatingeven must not forget that the composer that the sculptoris, his ideas are in the sense mainly and He conceives a definite primarily of a purely musical nature. come
fanciful
picturespoets and romancers certain musical works, that there must the
beautiful every
melody
a
seeminglyaims
phenomenon
concrete
leads to
and
wide
have
suggests its own
conceptionor largerclass
at
no
class
more; or
in which
kind
but or
it is but
element, and in this way for instance a melodious adagio softly dying away suggests the idea of gentlenessand of concord, an abstract idea. We by an imaginativefaculty the conceptionsof art and our establish relations between
one
sentiments lower our
or
and
we
loftier sense
to ability
see
construe
different strains of
accordingto
our
music
in
habit of thought and
great truths in small things.
Though all arts have the power to act on the feelings, in which it displays in the manner its power. music is peculiar It works emotional facultywith greater intenseness in our and rapidity than the productof any other art. A few chords
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
260
could feelingswhich a picture or poem by long contemplation.The action of sound is only arouse so sudden, so powerfuland so direct,it takes us by surprise. But undue prominence has been given to the action of music to think that seem and there are those who our on feelings, the
in
arouse
may
beauty.
musical the
The
created
artistic forms
the mind
to
music
works.
there
is of
affectpossesses of ing ascribed to the much
music
be
cannot
evidence
more
which
power
system
nervous
the
action
the
violent
more
which
us
so
the mind
and of the composer pealing apwith of the listener as to the material
by
listen to music
Many
with
the
physical
and allow only; they are in a state of passivereceptivity servant, only the elemental in music to affect them; they are not obthey exercise no power of will but are rather in a of sound. state of waking dreaminess, lost in the harmony do not understand the and they are numerous, Such listeners, in its artistic specialfeature of a piecenor the individuality number of compositionsof like general a interpretation, character,say solemn and somber, will all impress alike. Instead of closelyfollowingthe movement of music they ear
allow
their
to
senses
be satisfied, their faculties to
be lulled
by the flow of sound, now increasing,now diminishingin strength,now risingto jubilantstrains,now softlydying in It them series of sensations a produces away. vague which they may even imagine to be the result of intellectual action.
It is such
If
allow
they
elemental
themselves
in music
time, lessen the
enjoy and
with
a
listeners who
so
as
glory of
keenly
be
to to
lower
dignityof music. by the purely away
carried
lose mental art
the
well
as
observant
mind
control,they, for
the
of
To
as
that
is the
most
man.
dignified
beneficial mode to
music.
but by no means the easiest one of listening Without mental aesthetic enjoyno activity ment
is possible. The habit mentioned
revelingin those who
sensations have
and
*
of
passively to music, listening
of
emotions,is invariably limited
to
the preparatory of the beauty of music. mot
knowledge for aesthetic which play so Feelings,
APPRECIATION
important
part with
a
the
261
uneducated
are listener,
the intellectualenjoyment of the true
by
music; the first will usuallyask whether the
latter wants
should
listen to
while
One
it is
what
is used
music as
musical
as
a
to
means
must
appreciateda pieceof than a something more a
be
to
confound
not
If
an
matter
no
in
has
one
ties proper-
reallyheard
he
vague
purely
a
its elemental
lastingimpressionof
real listener to be such must
and
with
him
he feelings, the particular
know
what
to
for it in any music. The distinct recognition of the melody is the first step musical appreciation. The careless audience is liable toward look
to
how
art
will carry away after-effect of his
music
definite and
composition.The
bad.
or
it may have; the moment induce certain states of mind
it ceases
its artistic worth.
will have
sake
sad,
or
good
of
construction
We
sense.
with
its own
lover
is gay
it is
whether
compositionfor
ornamental
or
accessory
a
what
or
to know
music
shadowed over-
for and
its immediate
consider
the emotions
over
power
to look
the ear effect upon its dramatic or of more taining importance than its con-
in itselfthe germs of a well-developed and symmetrically rounded composition. Many melodies appeal strongly to
but may
emotions
the
"developedfor an charming
contain
material
no
orderly composition;they and
and interesting
which may
be
can
be
selves them-
inspiringbits
even
of
music, while another apparentlyhomely phrase contains the of a whole splendidmusical movement potency and power or
The
several movements.
melody
caught by the ear it may be recognized
once
that be firmlyfixed in the mind in part or with other it appears
must
when
will find that this task is not it
that
and
after this and
one
a
requiresclose attention
which
relation borne which
it learned
is made*
an
and
upon
The
taught un-
at first easy one observation. And
the mental
faculties,
affords keenest
by
reallymeans
of its structure. when
tax
severer
material.
one an
The to
enjoyment,that of findingthe part of the compositionto another, of the organiccharacter understanding works with largerunits than mind now
melodies. recognize
In
making
an
effort
first
gain
to
between
relation
of the
of perception
clear
a
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
262
unit and
the melodic
larger and
then
larger musical
units, of purely
undoubtedly loses a certain amount oughly he will not as thoremotional pleasure,and for that reason and completely enjoy the first performance or first his mind few performances as he will later when grasps the plan of the whole without great effort and can give more This power, artistic whole. attention to its beauty as an however, must be gone through with if the pleasurewe derive gratification. from music is higher than vaguely emotional of absolute pitch, or attainment The pitch memory, listener
the
should every
musician, and
tunes
or
who
many
more compositions a
of
music
as
well
as
difficult to learn than
more
composition. All people who play by play by note, learn and memorize many less difficult by hearing them repeated or
without
times
few
lover
musical
any
ear, and
of every should be no
ambition
the
be
ever
having seen
the notes*
Why
should
time fix the pitch fully in mind and they not at the same selects always play them in the originalkey? The composer that certain a certain key for his compositionfor the reason desired effects cannot be secured in any other key* A composition written in sharps should not be played in flats, and the transposingof the compositioneven one-half tone higher lower changes its character. A good musician can or rize memo-
the
the
without is such
a
difficult
most
score
alone
ory instrument,and therefore pitch memfor qualification the accomplishment of
feat.
It has been that
the
of the
use
essential
an
compositionfrom
because
International
urged that absolute pitchmay
of
the
and
three
Concert
different
be
pitchesin
a use
detriment, French, "
is
likelyto be confused. of a hair,and it may This, however, is but the splitting as well be contended that a highly trained ear is a detriment, in that to the average person slightly out-of-ttme instruments m
an
orchestra
-
will pass
"
one
unnoticed
and
the
performance be enjoyed,while to the highlytrained ear they will be a distinct shock, and its possessor will be ex-
APPRECIATION We ceedingly uncomfortable. study of art on the ground multitude
to
the
of
drawing,
while
bad
in
to
263
might as well discouragethe that a picturemay be pleasing
the trained
perspective, poor
eye
in
of
artist it is out
an
monious inhar-
composition,or
in color. Pitch
is not
memory
as
difficult as
it seems,
and
be
may
to some much acquired by practise,although it comes more of people are in the naturallythan to others. If a company habit of singing together without accompaniment one person will always be asked to start the songs because he has a good the tenor and too runs never pitch memory high nor the dozen singers,at least basses too low, and usuallyamong a will be found has absolute pitch,or, at least,very who one it. Every one knows the range of his own near voice, his lowest and highestnote, and by a littleeffort can fix these in
Let
his mind. he
tone
latter
hears
in his
fix
and
mind,
trials of
"practisemakes
student
the
as
then
this
any
kind
will
perfect,"and
note
tone
with
the pitch of nearly as possible verify the pitch on the piano.
he may hear and compositionhe hears is written. name
his lowest
compare
he
soon
will
know
convince be
soon
the
key
him enabled
in which
a
the peated Rethat to
any
understandingof the difference between the major the minor keys helpsone greatlyto appreciatethe mood chooses the key A composer compositionis to convey. An
and the
which
best
expresses The key of
the A
emotional
character
of his sition. compoto the example, seems
major, for while the key of A minor, the trained ear very brilliant, The key simplestof all the minor keys, is dull and somber. rich and brilliant, but B minor exof B major is sensuous, presses and simplicity sincerity.The key of C major is while that of C minor noble, frank and open in expression, that of pathos. The key of D major is brilliant, expresses is sad. The key of E flat is grand but also pathetic, D minor while the key of E major is sparklingand vivacious. The and that of F minor key of F major is mixed in expression, is most patheticof all. The key of G major is used to
express the C
emotions
warlike
the
major, while
it is not
though key of G
is
minor
lofty a key as only a littleless
so
It will be
that of F minor.
than pathetic
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
264
from
seen
this that
parison has a wide range to choose from, and a comthe composer keys reveals of the major and their relative minor liant the fact that the major keys usuallyexpress outspoken, bril-
moods, while the minor are used to convey the idea of pathos,tenderness and artlessness. A study of the major and minor scales,and of the major and
chords
minor
simply,and since most compositiontake place through
be summed
can
up
changes of the key in a a change in chords, called modulation, it is well to know something of the two kinds of scales and of the formation difference between The a of chords. major and a minor the first and third in the interval between key lies principally steps of each key. The interval formed between the firstand third steps in major keys produces a large third; the interval the first and third steps of minor between keys produces a of the
If to each
third.
small
step of the called
a
scale
triad.
a
minor
major the
minor
one
the
triad.
effect of
and
fourth
triad.
steps
the fifth
are
one
minor
small
triads
The
on
the third
augmentationis formed
half tone,
making both
is
notes
the
ones
a
third is
joyous;
plaintive.The
the
principal
the first step,
on
on
major scale
the seventh
step,which
scale the triads
triads,but the
one
step is a major triad. These constitute the of the minor scale. The triad on the second ; the one
three
minor
or
triads of the
In the minor are
of
the primary step, constituting
All other the
chord
the fifth
large or major third is
major
major key
step and
a
the
triads is soft and
triads,except
diminished
with
effect of
triads of the key. minor
formed
with the
one
The
triads in the
fourth
have
we
The
major triad,and
of these intervals is added
step becomes
by
an
on on
are
is
a
the first the
fifth
primary triads ished step is dimin-
augmented triad.
its fifth tone
being raised
a
intervals major thirds. The triad on the sixth step in the minor key is a major triad,and the the seventh step is a diminished triad. All the chords one on
APPRECIATION mentioned
heretofore
first
had
have
in their intervals in the
large
a
and
then
having a small and then having both thirds minor.
chords chord the
different
the
difference and
265
possiblechords in harmonies,
major third; the
small
a
large third
a
One
; the
minor
diminished
by comparing
see
can
chords
in the
major and minor scale^ the possibilities in modulation
and
effects.
tone
minor
originallyformed by beginningon the third tone below given major key, using the same any intervals of the major key through one octave, and it was diatonic minor scale. This, however, called the parallel or was unsatisfactorybecause reallyit was only the scale of C beginning on A; and while the interval from the first to the the required minor third step formed third,nevertheless the of the scale,the seventh mark tone, which distinguishing The
be
should seventh and
a
key
half
was
before
tone
in the minor
note
scale
newly formed
this
Its form-name
scale.
the octave, was absent. The scale was then raised a half tone
the harmonic
was
to being stillunsatisfactory
and
half
a
change
is
what
scale, which The
work. three
is
before
student
can
which
There
is
which
we
one
must
used
see
words, a
more,
seventh most
to
as
from
of minor
because
it left
on a
This a
step
tone, another
half step; this minor scale. The
tone
a
the
harmonic
minor
basis for all harmony
this that
a
composer from and
scales to work
has
the
three-fold greater than is restricted in the major keys.
compositionsare
the composer besides the other cause
look
for what
Besides the triads and
scale.
seventh
based
were
commonly
different kinds
to
and
relative minor
minor
th'e melodic
termed
in minor possibilities those
sixth
the
now
indicated
chords
minds
some
by raisingthe sixth
added
was
formed
between
called the
was
modulation the former
there
some so are
mentioned
difference in call harshness
commonly seventh
used
keys in
to
positions. com-
zation in harmoni-
chords; in other
triad is added
one
interval
third,which forms the intervalof the seventh. The chord, formed on the fifth tone of the scale,is the
pleasingone
of all the
seventh chords
formed
within
of
the
chords
the seventh
All
seventh.
the
dominant
formed
the
termed
is therefore
scale, and
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
266
on
or
ruling
other
steps
on secondary sevenths, and the one step is the diminished seventh, both its fifth and
scale
are
the seventh
called
makes Any composition which being diminished. will appear chords to of these secondary seventh much use ears people like dissonances, and some harsh, but as some when to like them some they are used right,this source grow of of pleasure. The cause of unpleasantnesschanges to one apparent difference in the feeling of different keys, which people experienceat present, is mostly due to faulty tuning seventh
or
Of
respect. raised
course,
half
one
or
in
of their instruments
condition
the bad
to
pitchof
if the whole
other
some
composition is suddenly
a
temporarily tone, it will appear effect wise, takes place; othercontrary
brighter,if lowered the considering all from
the
standpointof
a
strumen perfectin-
keys will hardly be noticed. Much A good instrument in depends upon a piano being in tune. will produce mellow, soft,beautiful tones and the same tune will sound instrument, if out of tune, even harsh, slightly, hard and unpleasant. effect of keys in compositionsand their choice is The of the composer and the entirelydetermined by the mood the difference in
mood
in
which
If it is to
be
he
intends
to
the
have
compositionappear.
brilliant and
strikingmarch, he will choose in a major key. Tannhauser Example, Wagner's March at the entrance to the Wartburg. If the composer wishes to death he chooses the minor scene express a key. Splendid a
"
examples "
Funeral
Chopin's "Funeral
are
"
March
Sonata
March"
weird.
One
to sad
music.
the
Poles
as
minor
must
not
Some
tones
use
it even
mazurkas, many
keys. This would
rather
mean
Beethoven's are
soft,singing,
patheticand
think that the minor
nations
in their
and
Opus 26, their
expressive, sorrowful, sometimes
"
key
often
is restricted
in their dance
music,
of
in the
which
are
that the Poles
pot forgottentheir sadness,
Of
even
course
in the
APPRECIATION Strauss
as
waltzes
267
always in the joyous major keys, expressing with undercurrent of sadness, an never only gaiety, are
in the Polish mazurkas.
preceding chapters of
the
As
this
volume
have
given composition we in general but
knowledge of the elements of will no longer dwell upon musical structure hints which may preting attempt to give some prove of value in intermusic as performed on various instruments or by We differ in our the human voice. opinions of what may and in a particularinterpretationof a comis good music position the but when technical to we come qualitiesof a performance differences of judgment should not exist. A good or bad execution of a symphony is not a question of opinion but of fact,and the musical critic, cognizant of the technics of the art, can judgment upon the perpronounce formance with absolute certainty. the
reader
a
THE
the modern
Because
ORCHESTRA
orchestra
is
the greatest of all instruments it is intended to perform the most
and
perhaps the
we
maintained
complex
music
it must
of timbre range solid sonority a
finest
pianissimo to the If it is not possible heaviest forte. for you to distinguish ing by ear the various wood, brass and stringinstruments durthe performance, it would musician be well to have some identifythem for you, as they can be learned only by hearing them
be
can
from
potent
consider it first. As
necessarilycontain a great compass, wide and tone or color, the greatest flexibility, which
most
the
often. The
orchestra
consists
of
four
of instruments, groups first includes the viols,
choirs, as they are called. The doublebasses ; the that is violins,violas, violoncellos and nets second, the wind instruments of woo^: flutes, oboes, clariand bassoons ; the third,the wind instruments of brass : trumpets, horns, trombones and bass tuba ; and the last group or
of
orchestra, though
an
they
as
this effect
by
hence
are
given
the
horns
will be
drums
distribution
but or
the
others
other
wind
development
the
by
a
part and
bass
The
and
ments instru-
are
the double-
bassoons flutes,oboes,clarinets, violins
trombones
front
ments. instru-
do
the
composition as
the
of
of
choir, singleoboe, flute,
composer a
of
This
cornets.
of the various
the volume
may
and
cellos violon-
and
just in
and
by the instruments,for
instrument
of
in each
the left
to
treated
solo
as
and
center, with
found
stringsare
ground fore-
the
of the orchestra
at the side of them
is indicated
The
ductor con-
are percussiveinstruments hearers, usuallyoccupyingthe center
the
front, and
in the
in
are
the
other
and
of the stage, and back of them The bass stringinstruments. and
of
usually in
are
massing of voices placesof advantage.
the
from
placed farthest
a
a
drums
the
taste
generalrule for concert
the real foundation
are
make
and
as
the
with
cellos
violins,violas and
the
work
varies
instruments
of these
of
instruments
other
and
chimes
cymbals, triangle,bell, percussion. The arrangement
kettledrums, big drums,
of
consists
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
268
same
whole
as
a
work
body
in of
a
first
violins. The
number
somewhat
upon which an
use
to
or
dramatic.
dramatic
the
music
orchestra
A
number
orchestra,such
tuba concert
instruments
and
depends to be special is to be put, whether symphonic of instruments required in a group performed or the
brass trumpet, tenor
bass tuba, contra-
contrabass
work, and
instruments.
as
each
About of
so
trombone, are seldom called for in have no place in the regular list of
three-fourths
ninetyor
of
a
well-balanced
tra, orches-
hundred
instruments,consists of strings, which choir is usuallyspoken of as the string Its chief instrument is of course the violin,the quartet which leads the entire orchestra, one for its clear, practically penetratingtones make it the richest of all the voices,and the brilliancy of a compositionis portrayed by the mass of say
violins
one
playingin
one
the upper or middle register.Instrumentmakers, performers and composers have combined their skill
APPRECIATION and
made
genius and whose
modern
our
of
range
269
orchestra
expression is
into
almost
ment instru-
an
infinite.
Its
and varied that there are no shades so many color it cannot of tone touch, and its compass reaches from the lowest tone on a piano, given by the bass tuba, to the voices
are
so
in the voice
highest found
piccoloflute.
The
lowest
deep as any in which the ear can detect pitchand the highestas acute as it can recognize. viols are The only solo instruments,except the harp, which can play harmony as well as melody; their range extensive and are capableof more is the most manipulation by the performers than any other instruments and answer more quickly and eloquentlyto the feelingsof the player. instruments The wind of course are dependent upon the breath of the playersand so are somewhat limited in their abilityto sustain tones, and in this respect the viols have the other choirs. For these reasons a great advantage over the stringed choir is depended upon to sustain the life of note
is about
of the
as
orchestral music. violin part of an orchestral score is two be many voiced, first and second violin,but there may which subdivisions smaller produce entrancing effects. the
Usually
Between
the first and
in the music
written
that the middle out. an
The
violin the
second
for them
; it is a
division made
parts of the harmony may
firstviolins
are
orchestra;the second
only difference be
in order
properlyfilled
the sopranos the altos;the violas
frequentlycalled violins
are
lies
of are
barytones ; and the doublethe basses. This is not exactlya true division, basses are for the viola and cello are capableof a soprano register, all are but when playing togetherthe order is correct, and the tenors
as
the viola then
all violins The
; the violoncellos are
an
qualityof tone; somber, while
pathetic.
lie too
far below have
played together,we importantinstrument
were
viola is
would
the
in its lower
in
its upper
tones tones
the violin part if the second violin.
owing
to
its beautiful
it is rather gloomy and tender and it becomes
In size it is next
tuned
stringsare
four intervals
violoncello,whose
the
violoncello possesses
The
lower.
octave
an
is tuned
violin and
to the
with beautifully
blends
It
lower.
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
270
capacityfor expression,next to that of the violin,and it can speak the language of tender passion more The than any other of the stringedinstruments. effectively structure for the harmonic doublebass providesthe foundation ment. Solos are of the orchestra. only seldom given this instrua
marvelous
It sounds
is called therefore
for it and The
full
which
each of groups, The entire choir
the
harmony can
with
brass, or
or
divided
be
may
and
produce melody
can
written
capableof playing
is
group
with all the
be combined
instruments
into
small
harmony.
stringsor
parts of either of these groups.
distinguishthese
difficult to
music
the
than
transposinginstrument.
a
instrument
wood-wind
itself in
by
lower
octave
an
It is not
they
as
all
so
are
instrument has a frequentlyused in solos. Each wood-wind strongly characteristic voice adapted to certain styles of other or with music and it is only by combinations among of expresthat they possess any great range other groups sion. The flute is an Flutes and oboes are purely soprano. instrument
of
marvelous
great effectiveness with
other
sentiment superficial
and as
a
soft
are
instrument,for
and
complaining,its with
The
is
oboe
a
the
oboe
can
be
blended
with
instruments,though brilliancy
about
solo
compared is
agilityand
all that
are
requiredof
its voice is sweet, at
while low
tones
are
not
it
times
rich, and,
clarinet,it is expressionless. melody instrument of a pastoralnature and
frequentlyused
in the
or
orchestra
in
imitative music.
It
well
of joy,griefand tenderness, and express feelings Beethoven has used it to give the melody of the funeral can
march and same
of his Heroic
Symphony.
While
the oboe
is
a
grave
rather timid grave
instrument,the bassoon, while using the voice, becomes almost humorous because of its
deeply solemn utterance.
The
Nighf 9 Dream"
voice combined clowns are
in
introduced
with
its great flexibility of Mendelssohn's "Midsummer
by music fat
two
bassoons.
APPRECIATION The
clarinets,both
the widest of
the
expressive of
most
and
soprano
wood-wind three
over range is rich and clarinet
the
271
"
contralto, are instruments,
and
a
mellow
perhaps the they have
as
half octaves.
and
The
voice
fuller than
much
the
its
rather shrill and high tones are even for its lies in its middle These tones. beauty screaming, instruments wood-wind are usuallyemployed in pairs,though is added, and frequently a third flute,clarinet or bassoon
oboe, though
The
occasionally a fourth. all
are
The the
and
lipson the variety of
size
shape,
produced by
and
brass
vibration
modifications
wood-wind
ments instru-
of reeds.
instruments
take the
of
place of reeds, the quality depend upon
of
the
and
tone
in these
tones
bell and
the
piece mouth-
of the brasses. The
have
brasses
been
greatly improved in the past fiftyyears, and today can give all the semitones within their which the old brasses has been improvement over compass, of valves which control the accomplished by the means tube, and bring it within the mastery length of the sonorous of three the and horns, two player. Four trumpets trombones with perhaps an addition of a bass tuba usually comprise this brass choir. The horns are used either for solo in support of other instruto sustain long chords ments. or purposes The
Ages
French
adapted
is the old
horn for
orchestral
hunting It is
use.
horn a
of the Middle
valuable
member
the brass instruments the most among expressive. Its range is very wide and it is employed when is required, or it may sound unite in heavy, thunderous of
the
softest
and
orchestra
of
powerful
chords and
with
strings or
yet mellow
and
clarinets,for its voice
sweet.
Two
familiar
is
horn
show the tone of the clearlyand distinctly the hunting calls which precede the entrance I of of the Landgrave in Act Tannhauser," and the trio Eroica in the scherzo of the symphony. The place of trumpets we usuallyfind filled by the more the highest voiced of the brass familiar cornets, which are
which passages instrument are
"
"
"
THEORY
THE
272
They
instruments.
give
seldom
they are occasionallyhappens, leads of
choir
the
Their
in chords.
used and
which
as
the head
the
melody except plays alone,
member
orchestra, but
the
brass band
a
as
or,
ofteuest
are
often
when
combatant,
familiar to all.
are
and
trombones, alto, tenor
three
The
MUSIC
is brilliant and
tone
lead of
or
a
OF
bass,
are
known
and dignifiedtones; they are majestic,serene other instrument and no can equal wonderfully expressive, when elevatingeffect is them a nobly solemn and spiritually required. Though chieflyused to sustain harmonies, they their
for
are
passages, and orchestra, proclaimingthe entrance found
often
the
in melodic
act
of
heralds
as some
for
musical
idea. the
of the brass
band, sounds though of great
tuba, the doublebass
The
size harmonies, and of a compobe made it can to respond to the gentlermoods sition. sound While think of volume of a we usually great in connection with the brass choir,a little observation shows when that it is capable of vague, far away us tones, and played softly,as in the prayer in Lohengrin, it is quite as lowest
note
effective
as
of
when
its
used
for volume
of tone
in
a
combination
with the entire orchestra.
Except to to
the kettledrums
or
certain tones, the instruments accentuate
rhythms.
Many
which
tympano, of of
can
percussionare these, such as
be tuned used
only
steel bass
used for rather fantastic bells,and tambourines are and by some work considered unnecessary for are composers performances of the best compositions. The kettledrums are usually used in pairs,and because they possess pitch are really musical and therefore of greater value. They gongs,
are
tuned 'in various
ways,
allowingfor
a
frequentchange
of
keys and so that they can be used as harmony instruments. The positionof drummer is not, as many to think, an seem h e to fill; have a perfectsense must of tune and easy one rhythm and also of pitch,as he must at times change the pdtehof one or both of his drums in a very few seconds, and the orchestra is playing.
Founder to
composer
with
away all
any
German
romantic
German
create
Italian
and
that
has
him
given
is
His
this
his
in
clo
work
quality
place
first
and
liberty
Germany, It
The
opera.
musical in.
opera
German,
thoroughly other
the
o"
1786-1826
WEBER.
VON
MARIE
was
than
more
the
musical
world,
H/B.
K^fcfel^l
guys*
W^a^tiw
i*
atot
"ti
^feistlc
legacy
fro^i
Carl
by Marie 4
'
-
von
In
only
*"""f"yed
idt^r^^^li^l'
**"*!** Richa^i
"T^-ttfttrm
'
*
APPRECIATION In so
orchestra present-clay
our
handled
the kettledrums
are
as
give effective
to
as
effectivelywith
used
is
entire orchestra "
in
tutti
One
of
of
the
or
be
ulated manip-
pitch,but
no
is
drum
it is
smaller
ones
compositionswhere
in the
the
cian, the musi-
languageof
first time
listens, say
he
large orchestra,to hear and recognizean once
a
to
a
all the voices instrument
by The derives from an pleasure one abilityto instruments various and to discover just what fillsin the interpretation of a composition is one effort and close attention it requires. oft-repeated wishes to gain much who from good music should
the
place each worth
heavy parts
passages. hope the
played by
its voice. follow
It cannot
because it has
employed or,
instruments
the
results.
big bass
"
cannot
symphony
the
even
large stick
one
in
of the kettledrum
273
the
Every one acquirethe habit fair knowledge
at
analysis.One should have at least a of the form or design of a composition For instance, if it before he hears it playedby an orchestra. first by its name that it is a is a symphony he knows of sounding together,an employment of all the resources instrumental modulation dominant
sonata
ear
further
sound, and
through three or feelingor musical
relation between concert.
of
The
of the
most
study of
form
reallylies
form
at
that it expresses a four different moods is
There
idea.
the bottom
at
a
the reader
has shown
of
of
usuallya
heard compositions
one
close
classical that the
symphonies,symphonic
for solo instruments
overtures, concertos poems, orchestra as well as smaller forms, such
of
kind
and
trios, quartets and compositionthen follow, not
quintets for strings. If a exactlybut in its generalstructure, a in the sonata or
form
movements,
and
it is
symphony, concerto, instrument, we written for
an
have
is
one
such
scheme
composed
of
a
as
number
accordingto the
treatment
of
If
written
for
or
the
sonata.
sonata,
if the
orchestra,a concerto,
is for orchestra then
as
we
have
the
and
is found of parts
parts a
a
solo
accompaniment is if the entire
symphony.
score
In we
the
first of
recognize
the
OF
THEORY
THE
274
the
usual
sonata
four in
form
MUSIC
parts of which
a
are
symphony found
the
subject for later ments. developin order to Invariably a symphony begins simply If it open with a burst of chords they will its scope. show usuallybe followed by a quiet,even legend-liketheme, which Either the heavy opening chords. float from to seems wood-winds or strings and occasionallybrasses will carry this theme, and after a few bars of simple,possiblysolemn, chanting of the subject,you will feel a stir of motion among second a choir, while the theme still continues, and then to gather impetus, and the other instruments seem they are either echoing a response to the wood-wind choir, which soon is now carrying the melody, or are giving the rhythmic in harmonies, or taking an swing, by their chords, filling active vocal part and Then, giving color to the whole. stated and the has been after the theme restated,comes find period of discussion,or the development, in which we it is the free the composer's learningfind fancy exploited; excitement for the symphony fantasia,and it is a delightful lover to follow the fancy of a composer through these parts. You usuallyfind the highestcontropuntal discussion between the voices. In the string quartet the violins each seem to be exploitingtheir ideas of the subject now successively, now later, by alternate interruptionor in dual agreement; possiblythe oboe, and then all the wood-winds, voice their drums opinions,and then perhaps the brass and even join in the discussion,often with seemingly irresponsible ment. merriThere is perfectfreedom of utterance in this development. After this development we find a return to the first with modifications and the addition of a division, repetition melodies
a
which
to
are
the
form
close. The
first movements
dramatic
fire and
is to be
worked
contain,as out
hopes, despair,in merrimtet
in the
are
a
we
full of usually rapid and have said,the theme which
in all other second
scherzo; and
slow
jiarts,its
sorrows,
movement;
its
its triumphant or
griefs, gaiety or tragicending
APPRECIATION
275
which is a movement of largedimensions and finale, of great importance. After the playful, mood of the merry scherzo, where perhaps the stringsand flutes may but whisper in the
the
the basses
carry
brought
are
we
loud
the
to
answer
other
whole
comic, mocking rhythm
a
on
strains of
back
to
the
melody, eration statelyconsidviolins perhaps start often strictly repeat
The
simplebut emphasizedmelody and know it quite as though to make sure we a
up
unadorned, and rounds
this theme
as
form
and
occurs
of
been other
choirs,or by
a
sonata
in
passage
triumphant
the
the wood-winds
which
the
acclaim
and
the
cadence, whereupon
a
of the
snatches
whole the
melody,
deep design of
felt it before,
a
a
rondo
form, and continues
charm
of mystery
lull in volume and
orchestra
furious
the their
not
work
of the
wood-winds sixteen
are
second
gentlytoss
brief time and
a
close,which
loud into
little about
usually feel
a
another,as
most
well
One a
a
then
novel after
passage for full in various of the theme
may
whole.
lends
comes
of
the instruments,
expression,and
part of
an
orchestra
good result depends
upon
and
of instruments proportioning More conductor. stringsthan
upon brass and
least sixteen
first and
necessary
and
violins,twelve
at
.
emphatic voices. a interpret sition compo-
considers first carefully
as
follows the
vehement
a
hurrying
orchestra
an
overpower the arrangement and the
for
in loudest and
composer
his work
often
comes
fugalpassage
volume, register, flexibility, range
balances must
that
by strings with
this part you
serious
rhythm, with
rhythmic guisesand In order
In
the very
at
and a
have
the composer even though you have not feelingof completenessand usually of
profound dignity. Often
a
themes
of
after this little respitethe
then
again enters.
orchestra
the
instead
orchestra
instruments
and
it stands
joins with to drop exhausted seems stringswith possibly a
the wood-wind
from
assistance
as
in constant
alone, there
whole then
it
form
beginning.After played,perhaps only by strings,or
the
even
recurs
this finale is in rondo
discover
we
or
serious and
more
for the close.
of the theme
choirs, and
violas,ten cellos,and
eight
THEORY
THE
276 doublebasses
well
may
more
have due
right partly to a
who
one
or
needed
are
balance, while proper Solidityis another element we
to
expect in
to
the
the
secure
added.
be
a
is hollow, thin,
parts by the composer composition for orchestra, and a appreciates
ear
any
and
at
detects
once
full one
Occasionally th? acoustic though the poor that even
nasal.
or
is
of
partly to good playing. Almost substantial resonant body of tone that
this
and
good orchestra,
a
arrangement
arranges
MUSIC
OF
propertiesof a concert hall are so qualityo'f tone of each instrument and of the various choirs voices of the be rich,smooth and full,and the many may feels conscious of a orchestra work perfectlytogether,one and finds upon lack of solidity, inquirythat the orchestra was
in
no
Again, attack
a
voice, and instrument
at fault.
way one
can
detect
soon
phrase properly; the every at
should
tone
exactlythe
same
a
failure of
orchestra be
begun
instruments
should and
act
ended
instant,otherwise
as
by the
to one
every
theme
unorganized phrase lacks definiteness, you feel the careless, handling of instruments,and it detracts materiallyfrom one's instrument little so one enjoyment. When drags ever behind the another the not rhythms are perfect,and smoothness and the unity of the performance are ruined. We brilliant passages partlybecause we admire realize what precisionand unity they require.Unstinted applauseshould be given a conductor and his orchestra for a perfect ance. performArduous and frequentrehearsals, constant practiseby the various instruments,continued working togetherof the of separate choirs and the entire orchestra,a subordinating self and instrument for the perfectionof the orchestra as a whole, a common sympathy and understanding between or
conductor
and
Many
of
his men, all necessary. are fail to recognizethe power us
of analyzinga composition which is reqttired He know the symphony, the concerto must
know thorpjdgWy, to
t"" manner
it
so
in which
of
the conductor.
that he has formed his it should be
properly
or own
overture, ideas as
performed, and then he
APPRECIATION
277
the possess is He orchestra.
abilityof imparting his ideas to the of a responsiblefor the interpretation composition just as is a pianistfor a piano solo, and while to hypnotize his men, he may seem depend upon it,his is no such easy method. By the sympathy which exists between all who feel and speak in one all artists or can language, his his to able it but he is to convey men ideas, means work, arduous and work, both for him and for them to become one as great, powerful voice. Go to a concert the prepared to understand intelligently has to give you, knowing what a great composer message and of you have a rightto expect in the way of interpretation execution, and do not be afraid to show your appreciation the men and their instruments of the good work are doing for your enjoyment, nor be timid about withholding praise must
where
is due.
none
CHAMBER
Chamber limited
for
in small
of
only.
rooms
music
when
includes
music groups
was
MUSIC
used
compositionswhich
instruments It as
suitable for
originatedduring the a
performance Middle Ages
of entertainment
means
written
are
to
add
to
the further
As realized to
pleasureof banqueters. the demand for such performances grew, musicians there should suitable be a specialkind of music
the size and
nature
of the instrumental
not, however, until the violin instrumental
compositionsthat
was
made
chamber
definite form.
It
collection.
It
prominent
so
music
as
we
was
in all
know
it
Germany that these smaller instrumental forms developed. To-day under the head of chamber music we place trios,quartets, quintets, according to the number sextets, septets and octets, named of instruments employed. The trio is usually written for hear combinations piano, violin and cello,though frequentlywe such as piano, violin and horn, or piano,violin and began
to
assume
a
was
in
quartet, if the
The
flute.
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
278
is
word
alone, usually
used
stringed instruments: first and second violin, in which the viola and cello; while a piano quartet is one violins,two piano suppliesthe place of second violin. Two violas and a cello is the usual grouping for a stringquintet, viola with cellos are used and but one two but occasionally four signifies
second
the first and
violin.
Either
the
piano
gives its place to
cello
brass instruments
and
in fact
and
groups, be can
fixed
As
number
form
a
as
upon
endless
almost
no
a
second
or
piano quintet. Wood for the
introduced
larger
of instruments definite arrangement for an have written music composers of different combinations.
music, such
of
in
sometimes
are
viola
the second
as
is known
the
to
modern
chamber music began with Haydn's firstquartet, program, written about the middle of the EighteenthCentury,when
concert
the
sonata
form
had
assumed
that
the
sonata
discovered
definite shape. Musicians form
was
the
best
had
adapted
to
music. For good chamber time some the string a quartet too light of instruments to portray much a feelingor to give group them chance because to displaytheir genius,but this was a thematic
the
they the
ideas
to necessary musicians considered
failed to understand
the wonderful
power
instruments, especiallyof the violin.
mastery
of
this wonderful
instrument, as
and
With we
scope a
have
of
greater
already
design of music, the sonata form was and such masters as Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven perfected, created quartets with such fluent and simple melodies,so well in
seen
balanced
place in as
have
every
both
our
and
study
of
symmetrical in form
concert
rooms
that
they
still hold
today. They found
by experiment, stringquartet offers
that the composers, opportunityfor the development of instrumental more
recent
their
music
expressionand technical construction* It requires clear,logicalcomposition in order to preserve the balance ,of,theinstruments,and as each instrument is capable of greatest varietyof melodic structure the composer must skillin, distributionof parts. as
to
APPRECIATION In
the
find
often
trios and
piano
by bringingone
others of the group. We look then of chamber While for
we
cannot
possiblewith may
look
for
composers
we
for
about
the
skill in the
performance that we do in orchestral performances. massive of tone, expect the same solidity or eight instruments can give this as is same
music
four, five
no
quartets of modern
piano part so brilliant and heavy as to strings,ruining the idea of the trio quartet instrument into greater prominence than the
the
overpower
279
several
the the
large groups
excellence
same
of
orchestra,we
an
in balance
of
parts and
in
qualityof tone. In producing an exact agreement of tone as regards the string quartet far surpasses the quality and power, if properly performed, for this quality depends orchestra largelyupon the skill of the musicians. who listen to concert performances of It is because many music
chamber
do
not
to
seem
know
that its excellence
lies
each and largely in the subordinatingof each instrument performance to the balance of the group that they encourage the bringing into prominence a special instrument,usually the piano. The pianistin a quartet should subordinate himself and his instrument paniment quiteas much as he who playsa piano accomin the music to a vocal solo, only of chamber case the three,four, there is or should be no solo part. When five or more instruments so work together,so blend as to give the effect of a great voice with various registersand wonderful
compass expression,tfien we have
builded
and
and know
and marvelous range the composer and the
unified
the
parts
and
power
of
performers instruments
beauty of the whole and we are listeningto an artistic compostion artistically interpreted. This perfect balance is possiblein a quartet as it cannot be in a great depends body of instruments and performers,for so much the common understanding,common sympathy of a upon band of musicians who must become but parts of one great for
the
sympathy may by orchestra, inspiredand matured This
instrument. but
it is
Their same
often
more
close and works
make
found
long it
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
280
in
for possible
wonderful
of the
some
association
a
and
them
in
found
be
to
conductor,
famous
earnest
large
a
quartets.
study of
play with
a
the
fineness
expression and with a unanimity such as calls forth the appreciationof the most intellectual music-lovers. Because of a string quartet and of the instruments of the flexibility the capabilityof expression of the strings the chambermusic can be carried to a nicer,finer finish than almost any is not possible other instrumental performance; massiveness desirable but rather exquisite depends nor polish. It never grand, startlingeffects,such as are produced by an upon that reaches beyond the of sound orchestra, by a volume confines of a theatre or hall,but rather by its innate beauty, its purity,and appeals through the intellectual faculties to the higher emotions.
of
THE
PIANO.
technique includes not only skill and rapidity in strikingthe correct key but includes with this the manner of tone production. The playermay play the most intricate false notes, playingwith no a flaw, striking passages without time and perfectrhythm, but if in touchingthe keys he exact fails to produce a warmth of tone his performance leaves of execution,marvelous Brilliancy you cold and untouched. rapidity, bewilderingimages of tone dazzle many an audience Piano
and
call forth
enthusiastic
composition has composer than any Music
wrote
other
flows from
not
been
and yet applause,
the
soul of the
revealed
And
surely the music, more
at
all.
his heart in his work, for art, is the expression of man's
with
the soul of the
inner
life.
musician,it is an expression of his emotions and his moods, and since ho two people think just alike nor feel just the same the same feelings, composition in the hands of different performers must be as different as the personalityof the players.
APPRECIATION It
the
is
duty of the composition thoroughly, that it
before
written
was
We
pick
cannot
them
he
piano player he
catches
attempts
the
up
would
the
give
to
sheets
score
book; not conception of them.
we
as
281
until
a
it to
of
audience.
an
music
hear the
we
And
study the spiritin which to
and
read do
tones
we
the
in this composer, respect, suffers a great disadvantagewhen compared with the novelist. The the sculptoror carved image, the printed
get
any
more
are
page
with
sheet
score
remains
unsolved
an
little black
understand
to all intelligible
its hundreds
carelessness
seeming those
less
or
stand
notes
can
but the
see,
little dots, scattered
of
singly or enigma, and
who
with
in
its pages over groups until the tones not which
for
produced
are
can
we
what
the composer has to tell guess at The us. piano with its wide range of pitch,with its modern for sustainingand blending the tones by means contrivances even
or
of different kinds
of
pedals,is
Formerly, when they used the
production,but This the
goes estimation
how
of music
piano.
modern
the
utterlydevoid
worked
composers violin as
The
creators.
the
Their
their sitions compomedium of tone for
such
instrument
old
purposes. holds in
harpsichordswere
blendingmasses
tones
of the rich tone
ment. perfectinstru-
out
their
piano is used high a place this
utterly incapableof producing of
almost
an
the
now
show
to
now
thin
were
coloringof the
of
and
tone
fleeting,
piano. That
player who best tells the story, or, who by his touch adds caprice,pathos or tenderness to a melody, who satisfies the the emotions, that player is an intellect and arouses artist and we are gratefulto him for the pleasurehis music has given us. just as a the eye. the
Music
beautiful
the
reach
heart the
through
the
ear
through Its effects should be ennobling,it should not satisfy
sensual
bit of
should
side of
landscape rouses your
nature
emotions
by pleasingthe
ear
as
a
fruit pleasesthe palate,but should lift your higher things. Not until the music does this,
luscious
thoughts to by strikingan hearer, can
answering chord
it be called great
or
within
good, nor
the
breast
will it live.
of
the
One
of the
OF
THEORY
THE
282
MUSIC
greatest livingpianistsis Ignace Jan Pade-
ings Polish birth,he expresses in his music the sufferNot in vain have turbulent emotions of his nation.
Of
rewski.
and
passionsof his life. His music as it pours from the piano is alive with human experience,at of fire and violence,again as tender, delicate and
been
as
the
cry
of
most
a
sensitive soul.
Paderewski
to
out
the
times
is
us
full
pleading master
a
piano; he speaks to us through his instrument. The true aim of pianotechniqueis the productionof tones flow from the piano as rich in timbre or color, and which smoothly and as naturally as do the notes of a singer, that is being played difficult the passage how matter no how nor rapidly the tones follow each other. This is not of a piano are be imagined, since the tones as easy as may againstthe strings, produced by the percussionof the hammer the and a gliding, rippling effect depends wholly upon of using the pedals. When player'stouch and his manner the singing and a perfect control of the tone-shading have achieved his control of the been the pianistdemonstrates when time instrument. There a was playing a rapid ered running passage with ease, accuracy and agilitywas considmusical to satisfythe most critical hearer, sufficiently but now that the tones slip into good playing demands each other so seemingly effortless that they produce the smooth bed. a liquideffect of a stream flowing over The fingeringof the keys, the positionof the hand and the forearm be carefully studied to produce the correct must of
the
effect. not
As
to
the
all musicians
manner
of
agree.
Some
holdingthe contend
back
of the
that the back
hand
should
be
elevated, others insist that by depressingit you produce the best tones. that the pedals of an Everybody knows play an important part, but the pedalingof the piano organ is just as important,for, by the skilful use of the pedals,a of diminution good pianistproduces blending,volume or tones such be utterlyimpossiblewithout would as them. And musician depends upon his use of the pedals every almost
as
much
as
color tie wishes to
upon
his touch
produce.
for the
varietyof
tone-
APPRECIATION Aside
from
tone-color
well defined
be
the
283
rhythm
of
composition must equally well sustained. This is done by
and
a
to bring out the accenting certain parts of each measure consideration must the no rhythm of the melody. Under player allow the rhythm to lapse;no matter how dainty or impassioned the passage, the ear cannot be offended by the disappearanceof this accent or by it being misplaced. Nor be pronounced, it dare not appear the accent in the may harmony as a blow on the key, but it must fall upon the ear with the same unconscious of rhythmic effect that the waves the ocean produce as they break in regular succession upon
the
shore. Next
This a
is
thingto
the
most
which
a
musical
composition
It is that
which
It is that
in the
Liszt.
Schumann
the emotions.
was
it entirely.It is the soul of the
lacked
no
hearers.
of the
temperament
player.
something which when present makes even when musician a' genius, but which lacking makes brilliant performance merely an intellectual feast
that fails to touch
it,Liszt
is the
subtle
a
lesser
consider
brimful
without artist,
stir the emotions
can
of the
Rubinstein a distinguishes which
music
of
talks to
from
you
in
a
language you understand, it warms your heart and you feel the musician. a kinship with Temperament is not an impulsive outburst of emotion, that is sentimentality or passion,
expressionof emotions
but it is the will. him
artist
An
loses
never
along,but his mind Nor
should
who
one
under
his self-control,
directs their is
the
tryingto
guidanceof emotions
the
carry
course.
learn to
appreciategood of expression. diversity
piano playingbe misled by a mere of variations of the same theme, or Playing a great number does not constitute playingthem with a great range of expression, great music relation fitting character
look
at
different movements
bear
a
compositionand add beauty and
the whole
they proceed.
to
Before
to
unless these
a piecea student should attemptingto appreciate
his
program
compositionto which
to
see
what
is the
whether he is to listen,
nature
of
it is to
the
be
a
dance, an
sonata
; for each
kind
different musical
idea, and
he
overture,
for
stands
a
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
284
or
a
of
composition
will not
stand under-
knows unless he something of the composer of musical composition. Moreover, he must different forms what to know styleof music of each composer study the the
age
to
look
the
for
fulness
same
of
unfair, for example,
be
It would
for.
generation stood
his
in
tone
Bach
a
sonata
Rubinstein had the expressed in one by Rubinstein. advantage of Bach's experienceaugmented by the experience Add to this since Bach's time. of generationsof musicians
that is
composed
pieceswere
great difference in composition
the performer knowledge of music generally, the various marks in each individual piece before him there himself wrote to expression which the composer Besides
of
a
various
these
be inevitable.
must
has
and
which
for
instruments
in the
difference
the
indicate staccato
these
his
acceleration
an
diminution
or
legato
passage, to But best suited his idea. or
of
indicate these
mark
a
or
forte
as
more
or
speed,to piano
signsare
less
regarded as the mechanical side of the music and they do often produce catchy results, but only when the intellect has so grasped the contents that the masterpiecespeaks to us with something of its original the work of the can power performer be called art. An untaught listener should not allow himself to be carried away of a player. Rapid, rippling by the brilliancy intricate passages succeeding each other with tones, difficult, dazzle skill may marvelous for a while, but the ear soon tires of them, and after the performance the retains memory for the sympathies had only a recollection of musical display, touched. been not The touching little love story told in to be
Beethoven's
Sonata
in E
minor
leaves you with a sense " and Schumann's delightin love's completeness, Traumerei will
never
lose its hold
"The
on
of "
people'shearts.
Revolutionaryfitude" by Chopin expressed his
and feelings
those
Warsaw
been
had
of every ransacked
Polish patriotat the
by
the
Russians;and
news a
that trained
APPRECIATION listener hears
285
here
expressed fierce indignation, desperatebut vain struggle,and finally wrathful despair. Now unless you know something of the life of Chopin, or of this period of Polish be suggested by the not history,this picture may music.
if the
But
that
mind
your
struggle,and
player plays this piece in and
agony,
emotions he
has
catch
given
you
shows you have understood, and which what he wrote the 'Chopin did when could
have The
such
cheeringframe
that of
a
manner
of
tones
rage, tone-languagewhich that he music
himself he
or
felt
never
these
pianist'smusic be
should
communicated
the
such
it
mind,
to you. feelings should be eloquent,his playing
produces and
the
in
the
hearer
a
happy,
recollection of his
playing, stimulating
performance, should always be a touch and pianistscan by their marvelous delight. Some wonderful expressionso carry away their audience that the be expressed by mere applause cannot clappingof hands, they rise to their feet and in joyous shouts cheer the player at the close of a soulful, masterly piece. Imagine the effect
long
after
the
were
have praisemust than repaid for required before
Too
often
this more
the audience
the player 1 Does upon all the weary hours of he
able to
was
fails in
not
he
feel
practisethat
produce
the
because appreciation
-effect? it is not
enough informed on music to understand the composition, musician becomes disheartened and and the deserving discouraged. If the audience would but try a little bit to understand just the simplestelements in music a concert to the more would gain doubly its value. It would mean would enjoy a few hearer, his intellect and his emotions applausehe would more pleasanthours, and by his intelligent who had poured out his the great musician reward than soul in- his playingjust as trulyas the bird pours human well
forth his bit of soul in song.
it should nor
master
An
audience should
be
critical,
cian, by misguided applause encourage a poor musichill by its freezingcalm the ardor and geniusof a not
musician.
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
286
It is difficult to tell just what
istics leadingcharacter-
the
are
composer's music from that of another, because each form of music requiresa certain form learn to distinguish can of expression,yet by careful study one between a sonata by Chopin, and one by Schumann, for distinguishone
that
which
must
charm
to
as
will
what such
had
hear
we
it
has
gone
great
men
have
Mozart
and
adds
give
endowed
personalitythat it is great, for great souls,and we are upliftedand enamored with
their music
time
from
because
only
Schumann
Bach, Beethoven,
men
Tis
follow.
does
it
because
it different
makes
and
which
music, and
his
composition just
the
or
expressionin
find
individualism before
in every in every composer as call his personalityand which we
course
something
certain
a
man
is of
There
example.
these
their
every
their music.
invent his theme, as the to choose wont or Haydn was taste and expression case might be, and then with exquisite it out through different related keys, gettingmarvelous work color and variation by means chord formaof his wonderful tions which
he understood
Beethoven he
had
a
composer. him the
way
Beethoven of
technique,and
it
of
back
the
to
inner
did
the
its man;
than
this when
hear
"
aim
not
for
more
than
primitiveuse. with
him
any
He music
it an
intellectual utterance.
an
his music.
Everybody
other
any
effect,to than
else who
made was
speak
of
more
one
knows
;
sonatas
brilliant
composition mattered he
was
spiritrather we
all composers
perhaps the most soulful of of touching the heart, and his the untaught than do those
soul
music
well.
is
easily to
more
so
its
brought
expression
an
affair of And
we
the
feel
Beethoven's
"
Moonlight Sonata ; it is as realistic and yet as dreamy as a moonlit night,the atmosphere of the music as charming,as mysterious,as soothing as that which the composer's music describes.
As
the
tones
fall upon the ear, the fancy is flit through the mind, the tones
aroused, tender memories all around, and swayed by lightbreezes cast fitful shadows the nioon casts her pale light like a benediction over a world at peace and happy.
APPRECIATION The
287
symmetry
who perhaps best of any composer of technical development and
with
result that
combined
soul,
perfection was is an There of styleabout Mozart's Mozart individuality be mistaken. compositionswhich can never Apart from their artistic innate beauty the strengthof his compositionsconsists in their perfectadaptation to the situation which they are designed to describe. Every note fits into the little place intended for it,and blends so harmoniously with the others the
design
in
occurs
any
finish,such
such
work wealth
of
creates
such
a
melody will
so
are
emotions
that
his music.
excels
in his songs;
sweet,
so
when
before
you.
the mood
His
they world
the
written
loves.
in
His
a
most
and great lover of literature,
plainlyexpress
results of his love for
romance.
and
if any
composer
glance
at
heart
almost tense
leaps readily
so
revel pianists
will
never
and style,
his
grow
not
in his
old
and
beauty. Schumann
does
in
opera piano music
intellectual and He
your this
of
name
themselves
fancy has to tell,he merely suggests its terms imaginationto fillin for ourselves. Schumann wearisome, he remains
heart's best
littlemusical bits such the
and
moments pleasurable
adapt
finished
highesttype of excellence "
the
choral, orchestral
is the
Carnival
to
charm
are
"
true
that vocalists and
music
a
spellof beauty over beauty,grace,
some
Schumann's
Boundless
their
tender,so
you know little songs
express
them. interpreting while
its
is
artistic taste
the fall upon your eyes is very much loved, your
and composer, for with anticipation,
to
it casts
of
longings that it is doubtful in this field. You equal him
and
of
in his
truth
surpassed.
refinement
hears
he
are
beauty,such been
never
looseness
or
compositions. There
and
ever
program
Mozart's
such brilliancy,
charm
who
Schumann
indecision
of
melody governed by
one
every
of
skill has
his
that
trace
no
was
as
his
emotional
express all his and leaves our never
becomes
expression,but
he
of imagination. gives free rein to the most dancingflights In Chopin's music we must recognizehis nationality, for it expresses the high strung passionof the Polish nation
which of
has
indomitable courage
with
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
288
struggledthrough
years
include a great many mazurkas, compositions expressingthe national dance music polonaises,
His
sorrow.
and
waltzes
of his country, and is of a his music
these
even
are
Although
sad.
so
national character, it expresses
much
his,
of own
melancholy to a rare degree. Chopin in long compositions,his intense of his element is out effort,so we sensations were too pronounced for sustained find his music expressedin dances and short compositions. for the minor His key and in beauty of preference was expression and harmony he remains the unrivaled master of the tender tones. Chopin's musical genius opened for him the best circles of Polish society,a society at that of intercourse,the time unrivaled in Europe for its ease and its liberal appreciation beauty and grace of its women, of artistic gifts. These impressionsof refinement have left full of the most their impress on his music, his works are refinement and subtle touches of sentiment, they breathe artistic temperament. As a pianist the delicacy of his the excellent touch, the melancholy tints of his tone-coloring, him a purity of his phrasing, made great favorite and a musical idol. His preludesare quite indefinite in form and character,producing an unfinished effect,nevertheless they give us brief glimpsesof wonderful soul pictures, breathing poetry and passion. His nocturnes are, as their titlesexpress, short, dreamy, contemplative melodies that satisfy the which individuality,
emotions
without
Liszt
he
producingany strain
is without
to slightly
when
was
the
doubt
the
thoughtfulconcert
himself
upon
the intellect.
who appeals but composer lover. And small wonder,
in
the essentials of good music discussing said : Three things are necessary to make a great pianist : first, technique;second, technique;and third,technique."And "
this
techniquein back
but
it does
their
form
or
another
is what
constitutes the
of
his compositions. The music reflects the of it,and Liszt's music is cold,polished, brilliant,
greater part man
one
not
touch
the heart.
complexity,they
reveal
the
His
works
astonish
technicalresources
us
by
of the
APPRECIATION
piano better dazzle while
they do
custom
Liszt
willingto display he
of the
warm
it takes
other
any
A you. with the material
in
they can
Liszt
a
soulful
sacrifice
of the soul of art
some
succeeded
concert-goer who
a
always leaves
in
the
hall with
Liszt
with
the
for the sake
creatingan
productionringing in his impression;he has had, as fleeting
a
but composer, skilful technician
player to interpreta to be the melody, be it ever so simple. It seems who with many plan popular concerts to close with number; the effect is taking,for even though Liszt
Schumann
was
not
of
effects
but
Rhapsody/'
a
those
marvelous
produce "
than
289
ears,
it were,
effect.
And
the last notes
forgetstheir
soon a
of
salon
ance acquaint-
has
but
caught no glimpse of soul beneath the outward formalityof a societyacquaintance. in so short a chapter as this is to try to It is impossible give any adequate idea of the ground we have tried to But it is hoped that these few suggestions will help cover. you
to
a
man
littlebetter
understandingof
to
the
piano
generallyabused
no
than
instrument is the
is
more
popular
soulful violin.
beautiful of all musical instruments,its tones voice, and in the hands nearly resemble the human
speaks with an honest human tongue. is rarelywell played,and small wonder, when it
that instrument
pressure
the tones
in violin music
whole
the
wholly upon shiftingof
more
character
nor
And one
most
of
a
yet it stands under-
than in that of any other of the productiondepends
touch, the slightest performer. His lightest fingersof his left hand, or the most delicate
the the
of the bow he
a
It is the
most
master
or
program
VIOLIN.
THE
more
concert
selection.
singlepiano
Next
a
are
recorded
and
affect the
qualityof
produces.
piano and then at the violin and see how the tones of each are produced. The keyboard of a piano consists of white and black keys; each key, as you Let
us
look at the
down
press
this
tone
same
responding the
it, sounds
upon
key
be
may
bright or
a
master
a
tone, but
softened
whole
the
white
instrument
; not
a
novice;
a
of
or
key just below who is playing. Now C, no matter stringsof different pitchstretched the
vary;
or
the
is
key
course, then a
gently,producing does not the pitch of the note black keys is always the two
sharply
struck
it sounds
struck, whether
it is
of
the touch
to
distinct tone, and
one
time
every
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
290
key
look
fret
a
:
four
little bridge form
a
across
or
the violin
at
the
on
neck
of the
So the entire keyboard lies singletone! his ear, and the imagination of the player, and on fingering,depends the accuracy of the pitch of all the
violin to within skill in
indicate
a
musical
scale,as
notes.
The
the interval half steps only. The pianistsounds half step C to D on the white keys, and a step from the white key C to the black key just above it. But
a
from
the violinist may
by unskilled fingeringor
produce quarter steps intervals less than
that
interval
any
discord.
eighth steps
or
since
stringexactly;and no
descends
and
by steps of
and
it,ascends
know
we
our
ears
if he does
than
can
easilybe
this must
produce
the violinist has
On
music
much
is the song
hearing imagined
an
awful
a
production than has discord is proportionatelygreater. the
to
the
far greater range for tone but his liability the pianist, to produce
Thus
of
ear
touch
not
accustomed
are
the semitone, it
smaller
untrained
an
violinist is almost
as
the
other
a
hand, the
part of himself
of the
singer. Every note his viqlin utters is accurately an expressionof his idea of that tone as are as the notes of the vocalist Every tone should be finelyand distinctly produced, there should be no blurringof the rapid if the music is to pleasethe ear. passages But the quality of the tone depends upon the bowing; the art of handling the bow is always spoken of as the as
toueh. m
The
the hands
that the notes
it,call
bow, of
a
a
simple little contrivance, becomes violinist such an implement of music
very
true
of the violin tears
of
joy
or
they seem pathos to the as
from
to
come
out
eyes
as
easilyas
do
APPRECIATION the strains of the human
291
voice.
The
movement slightest
of
of the elastic bow wrist,the lightest pressure the stringsis responded to immediately,and the quality upon of the tone is the result. As the qualityof a pianist's notes depends upon the delicacyof his touch, so does the character of the tones produced on the violin get its color entirelyfrom the
arm
the
manner
the
or
of
The
bowing.
the violin depend upon produced on two the stopping and When the bowing. violinist a things of the fingersof his left hand of the one presses one upon stringsto produce a note he stops the string,and when he that string, his bow draws across producing that sound, he tones
"
is
bowing. From
the
"
of
art
already been said stopping constitutes the
what
it is
"
When
playing.
has
one
has learned
to
foundation
handle
that
readilyseen
his
violin
of
fingersin
such
they will stop at the rightplace to produce the desired pitch he has provided a finger-boardfor his The with which the stringsare violin. stopped accuracy the purity of the tone, and constitutes the rapiditywith the fingersare which placed as the hand passes back and forth over, the stringsexpresses the skill of the performer. a
that
manner
In
other
no
musician
and
flow
is the so
relation
close
his violin.
as
between
is the
If the bow
the
relation is drawn
to stringscorrectlya mellow liquidtone seems the player's under bow, the tones glide smoothly
the
across
instrument
violinist and
the
between
his
instrument
from
harmoniously into each other,there is no scrapingof the conscious change from no bow, no thumping on the strings, one string to the other. Tucked under the player'schin, and
within
the
body of
of his left arm, violin,he listens with
embrace
the
his
ear
all his
close to
the
soul
the
to
bringsthe bow lovingly respondingtone as his rightarm and the violin exists an the master to the strings. Between intimacy not found with other instruments. Can such a relation become with a stately a or grand possible organ from the the flute,the oboe are held away piano? The horn,
player and of them
out
into them, he does
blows
he
with
a
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
292
loving,tender
not
the sounds
coax
touch.
of the violin is the richest of all instrumental for concert and clear and penetrating, are voices, its tones middle C to the C violin whose solo work a range is from The it is most in the treble three above general in use. voice
The
compass These color
of
the
are
to
violin is increased
a
the
overtones,
simple
or
of
tone
by
the
of
use
harmonics.
tones, and itself. Whenever
add
partialupper the
note
a
stringgives forth a musical note it vibrates,not only from it was the place at which touched, but also in fractional tones. or partial producingthus overtones parts of the strings, Violinists know that by touching the stringsvery lightly the overtones be the fingers of the left hand with can tone, and thus produced without sounding the fundamental is added to the ethereal tone, mysterious and intangible, an Such effects are called by the Germans heavier body tones. form These most tones fittingly fairy-like flageoletnotes. the concludingmeasures of the preludeto Lohengrin. The tone of a violin should always be sonorous, it must tender or delicate. By how have life and body no matter violins have carefullyyou will observe that some listeningThis is due to the a large tone, others a small one. difference
the
in
instrument
whose
each
will
old an
the
other
instruments
and
parts have
not
in the
players. A
yet learned
to
blend
new
with
produce a larger but rougher tone than an violin. But by skilful bowing a good violinist can make old violin produce a large tone and he gains in addition much desired mellowness of tone that an old violin gives. It is
a
fact that
well-known
violins grow
Oliver Wendell Holmes tellsus age. of fifty-eight different pieces, each a and
it takes
a
century
more
acquainted. "Moreover, after a long drying process A
from
frot"
i"aster
down
and to pupil,
a
violin is made
stranger
less to make
to
the
other,
them
thoroughly wood is stillgreen, and only does it become tolerably resonant. or
the
violin is handed
that
better with
one
generationto another
in its progress
down
or
the centuries
APPRECIATION voiced
it has
the
fingersstiffened and bequeathed by it whisper his or
more
from
the
which
have
The
hand
flying
It is then who
of
the hands in sweet
cold
some
but
makes
their lord
virtuoso life
to
comes
symphonies
stormy
of
royal
and
leader.
it
once
orchestras And
so
of its present owner it pours forth and mellow all the harmonies tones
kindled
and
faded
arm
should
be
bow
to
in its case,
rushing bow
his touch
hand
lost its power. passionateenthusiast
his
awhile
given finallyinto under
some
till the
masters
love, or cry his inarticulate longings, untold agonies, or wail his monotonous
rides
the
beneath
to
ancient
hidden
despair. Passed perhaps slumbers and
the bow
him
his
scream
of
magic
293
its
on
free and
strings." limber,all
its
ments move-
enough to execute a long sustained difficult the slightest in the quality of unevenness
muscular
without passage the tones; and the wrist
be flexible and
strong so that not be marred the daintiest touches may by a harsh, uncertain touch. Passages in which several notes flow from a single while those in which stroke of the bow requiregreat skill, is made each note by a separate stroke of the bow requirea A good playerknows that by playing motion. free,firm arm close to for
the
vibration
bridge where the stringshave little freedom produces a nasal tone; playinga little farther
the from away harsh. sometimes
bridge adds
the finger-board,
But
as
power the bow
the
to
tone, and
moves
toward
up
it is the
become
less powerful and gain in of a violin are soft, suggestive tones
tones
The
mellowness.
must
the finger-board.Masters produced by playing over of their violins combine the tone understand qualities of bowing with these different positions on manner
who
strings,gaining thus
tone
character, and is the
wide
range
individual tone
of
variety of each
coloringof
the
violinist
result.
Some the
the
a
the
of the effects to
tremolo, which
strokes of the bow.
is
a
look
rapid alternation of
It is used
whether from feelings,
for in violin
fear
or
to
up
express great
sorrow
or
playing are
joy.
and
down
agitationof It is
usually
THE
294
played not
far above
THEORY
OF
the middle
B
MUSIC
passionateand
It is
flat.
played loud on the middle of the first string,but played in a higher becomes dainty and mysteriouswhen to bowed instruments, position. The salto,an effect peculiar the strings; this on is produced by bounding the bow produces a very livelyeffect and is used with good results to of a body as opposed to the usual imitate leaping motions
fierywhen
Again for dramatic purposes the tones are produced by drawing the wood of the bow across weird of bowing produces a the strings.This manner effect in effect. These strange tones heightenthe uncanny such as the Walpurgisnachton the Brocken a witches' scene, of the violin.
singingvoice
in
"
Faust,"
or
to
depictthe
presence
of
evil motive
an
at the
great effect to other person's misfortune, as joy in some portray wicked in the case of the unscrupulous dwarf, the smith mime in the of the different effects Siegfried." Perhaps none story of produced is such an excellent test of good bowing as is the If a sustained staccato is played distinctly, staccato. evenly, but with a light firm touch, the player is said to have One of the most common splendid control of his bow. methods resorted to in playing for effect is the pizzicato; this is done and by pluckingthe stringswith the fingers, the result is a series of short, stiff tones much like those of effects are thus produced ; they a banjo. Very dainty,telling
unguarded
moment.
Wagner
uses
it with
"
be used to add may dance of goblins, but
they
are
never
lightpassage, such as a owing to the lack of depth of expression employed in largeor serious passages except to
mystery
a
they are very sparingly. But where with thoughtfulpurpose chosen and When
a
such effect,
dutches
an
bricjgeas It vibrations and produces a the
to
is
they used
are
produce
is desired in mournful
air of mystery to contrivance called a sordine
to
add
as
violinist wishes
used
a
or
passages,
placed on
muted
This
mute.
tone.
the
very
usually tageously. advan-
subdued, muffled
livelypassage,
a
are
or
he
if he wants uses
a
little
little* damper
checks the strings,
APPRECIATION The
295
violin like the
piano affords excellent opportunity for the display of technical gymnastics,but unless the soul of the player speaks through this intricacy of sound the tones
produced are
disappointingof you
to
come
music
not
but
because
course,
hear
the
music
of its creation.
manner
the heart
touching singer has becomes
lived and
of
And
an
when and
not
acrobatic you
come
so
like the human
the listener
only when
much
performance, to
a
to
concert see
the
voice,capableof the heart of the
loved, the violin in the hands of
a
master
divine.
THE
The
rather
has
been
ORGAN called the
king Large and
of
instruments,and it justly deserves this title. majestic in form, complicated in construction,its very presence inspiresawe. The peculiarpitchand qualityof its tones thrill you through that of all other and through, and its voice predominates over the instruments, and in its full strength it overtones even Its tones are clear,and it produces a largestfull orchestra. other fulness of chords and purity of harmony such as no The full organ is capable of. is overpowering instrument in its grandeur, and gives a totallydifferent effect from the is richer in tone-color but which full orchestra, which lacks of tone expressedby the organ. the vastness The is a gloriousinstrument when it responds to organ that is composed for it, but it is a big mistake music to it the human be quality of tone that can expect from expressed on a violin,piano or flute. The stop called the orchestral flute is a perfectimitation of the tone of a flute, of giving the effect of a but this stop is utterlyincapable flute solo when lipsand directed by the played by human is true of all the touch of the fingers;the same intelligent beautiful oboe solo in Bach's other orchestral stops. The ment Christmas Oratorio, intended to be played on the instruitself*becomes cold and powerlesswhen produced on the peculiar Neither can the organ* qualityof the tone of organ
THEORY
THE
296
looked
upon it. The
for
imitated
is of
imitation
An
organ.
on
produced with
be
instruments
stringed
MUSIC
OF
there, but
course
in
be treated
must
concert-room
be
And
made
the dignityof its individual
differs from
orchestral
more
be
not
must
an
own
instrument.
the church
organ
stops; its solo stops
are
ments. flute,clarinet and other favorite solo instru-
imitate
to
an
as
organ
with
being made
made
it must
resembling a stringedtone, not a substitute be quite satisfactorily of the bow tremolo can the piano, but becomes quite ineffective when
and
The
the
upon
as
The attempted on the organ. organ maintain imitative instrument, it must character
success
players choose
this construction
of
because
for their recitals such
intended originally
concert
many
compositionsas
were
orchestra,claimingthat the organ symphonies,overtures and dance music just for
an
produce these intended. the instrument for which they were as as effectively that the organ production, But this is a mistake,for we know
can
while
clear and
pure
in tone
correct, lacks shading and
and
under the immediate expression such as only instruments control of the player can give. Fugues, sonatas and oratorio music belong to the stately organ. An organ can, however, be used to very good advantage, with in connection an orchestra, by being treated as a and having music especially separate instrument designedfor it, or by being used as an accompaniment to swell the volume
of tone
'to St.
Paul
plays the taking
may
to
or
fillin the weaker
be cited choral
opening the theme,
up orchestra reaches
a
an
as
and
and
fortissimo
parts. The
overture
illustration: here the is then
silent,the
later
it bursts
with
wonderful
in
as
organ orchestra the
effect.
full
While
offers the greatest opportunityfor ennobling organ artistic effects its use is often perverted to express
the modern
a
strugglingfor effect, The modern organ with its increase of facility in the mechanism makes it possibleto of produce reallyravishingeffects without a great amount skill. And this is to be deplored,since it has given rise to much dilettanteism in organ playing. A player draws out sentimental
APPRECIATION
a
stop that
solo
he
fancies, then on a second proceeds to run stops and
accompanying the first keyboard over rhythm, or musical form,
draws
a
chords
few
harmonious
the
on
note
297
without and
by
second the
on
of
pedal.
fingers phrasing,
at
accompaniment
manual
and
The
he
his
attempt
any way
manual
adds
occasional
an
effect
pleases
an
unthinking listener,but it should not be called music, and Or he accompanies such a performance is to be condemned. from the repetitionof the his solo stop by a bass formed same chord, six, eight, or twelve times to each measure. is
There
meaning
no
in
is amateurish
playing
is
means
of
this kind
But
extreme.
the
and
true
its effect of
art
solo
and, like everything else that is
easy,
of- music
kind
The
that
of the old
that
bass
a
while, it requiresskill and effort and thought.
worth
its
ho
by
the
in
supplying either an droning bass, but every the
to
an
harmonic
whole
organic
faculties
and
whole.
manual
to
the
has
as
necessary
The
result
the solo manual
as
Is that
intellectual
the
in composer, called upon organist and listener. artistic enjoyment to all concerned, it is not a combination
are
It affords
sounds
of
and
unthinking
majestic,so
which
irritation
affords to
that dignified,
and intelligence
respect due
the
scholar.
unless to
childish
delight to
The
its construction
and
power to be trifled with.
the critic ; it is not an instrument is to hold of the frequent faults with organists One
beyond
their
time
becomes
piano is
while
a
change
of
it
the
stops is
the rhythm, and playerspoils be maintained. The must rhythm of it music is its soul, its character,and without and monotonous meaningless. The rhythm in a
By doing being made. rhythm in organ music all music
value
the
is so organ it is handled with the
offends
notes
is
organ
planned for it play; the pedals do not merely occasional deep tone or a regular note arranged for them is a part
fill in,
of
Each
composers. distinctive part to
own
suited
is best
by the accent, but the organ is incapable the time and everythingdepends upon rhythm, The both has the of the notes. pianist phrasing
maintained
of
accent,
the
correct
this the
298
OF
THEORY
THE
MUSIC
phrasing to help him express the movement, while the organistmust depend for his rhythm entirelyon his phrasing. By allowing the phrases to overlap the organist of rhythm and spoilshis effects. loses his own sense soon catches the rhythm in piano or violin music is quick One who Rhythm is a for it in the organ. to look to catch it and without born players lack entirely,they seem quality some of the of it should be one this sense, and the appreciation first requirementsof pupils. the
and
accent
No
absolute
rule
can
be laid down
for
the combination
Every organiststudies the compositionbefore him meaning, then attempts by mixtures of stops to produce the tones best suited to his thoughts. The quality of the tones produced on an organ depends greatly on the of the organist,his knowledge of the instrument,and the ear is playing. he acoustic properties of the hall in which obtain a good they can Organists are delightedwhenever ally. combination of stops, and are studying to this end continuA musician sometimes tries for a long time before he discovers "just the right stops" to describe his idea of a certain tone-color or melody. Good music can be best studied and appreciated organ by observing the music of eminent organists. Almost every her in city of any size has now some good very organs churches, and a great deal can be learned by going to hear them. some its of Because good musician play upon enables it to produce such a great variety structure, which of tones and of pitch,the organ is capable of arousing the
of stops. to get its
emotions look he
for
to more
will look
stimulates
their
fullest power; but a trained listener will than vastness of tone and emotional harmonies,
for
some
definite musical
his intellect while
THE The
it
form,
something that
pleaseshis fancy.
OPERA.
of instrugenius of poet, of musical composer, mental performer, of impersonator,who is both actor and and singer, of costumer scene-maker, are all combined to
APPRECIATION and produce an opera, equally important, each performance. It is impossible in idea
of the
elements
in
contained
our
studied
and
299
while is
one
the
quite
work
of to
necessary
chapter
to
give
each
greatest
operas.
for itself.
Each
not
successful
a
adequate
an
essentials of the beauties
is
and
opera to the
power
must
be
If one for by itself and goes opera the purpose of spending an of evening for a certain amount pleasure,such as can be gained with very little intellectual the story of trouble, he is usually content, if he but knows the
drama,
to
let his
senses
which by the music read, and by the spectacleof stirred
action
dramatic
of the
be is
satisfied and
retellingthe
his
emotions
story he
scenery and of costume various characters.
and
has the
Nearly every one will know the story of an opera before else aside from the main witnessing it,but there is so much events, and the climaxes, and ultimate culmination in the text There of a good lyric drama. is no that lack of books profess to tell the stories of the most popular operas, but the plots are usually related in an unconvincingway, and in their originalforms those of us who read them cannot the text from must depend upon our imagination to interpret the music. An
life, of
must
possess emotions, and
opera
universal truths,some form all mankind passions which some
of can
understand, for it is such only that the music portrays. The genius does not deal with the trivial unless beneath it lies to art and beauty. The some principlecommon opera which decades is usually has stood the test of criticism during many from whose one inspirationfor its music has been drawn which is used as its text. the poems or romance Frequently that of the text, in artistic worth surpasses the composer but it is only because by his language has than could the author of the lines, been able to express more the
music
it has awakened poet's, ideas in the mind of the musician, and he has reached new the poet. Quite as often the into fields unknown to out musician has failed to translate intp successful tone language
because, given the idea which
was
the
OF
THEORY
THE
300
MUSIC
rarely beautiful dramatic poem, either because the written lend not that they would such were or spoken words themselves to musical expression,or he has not understood a
the real
purport of the drama.
But
they
are
when
words
both
worthy
music
have
close
study
and of
stood if
one
the test of years would gain all
staged operaticperformance. Music, however, always has a greater claim than that of merely it emotion, and in opera as elsewhere interpretingsome demands serious and rational attention for its own special refuse to place the musicians Some ideas as an art form. the same plane with music which is self-sufficient opera on centered upon its own abstract music, in which its powers are creations without dependence upon any certain emotions that for illustration. have chosen been But, nevertheless, may emotions music has a function in expressing those human lie too deep for verbal utterance, and it is plain that which the recognitionof this function led to the invention of the there
There
opera. music ness
can as
itself the upon,
in
him
is for
no
and
words
but the
shades
are
reach
manner
a
can
have
ever
in which
of
emotional
sensations
which
with definitewonderful convey It does not suggest in done. the
emotions
are
to
be
worked
the before read story, the program, libretto,
or
the
acting and the stage accessories direct the emotional faculties,and then the force of feelingis conveyed with marvelous The by the illustrative music. power composer the orchestra of and human voice has at his through agencies command a language that can carry to the hearer's mind shade of emotion from the merest hint or suggestion every the highest pitch of passion. Because to music is capable of supplementing, of enhancing and making more potent the written a thought, it surely makes high art form of it by the purely opera in spiteof the criticisms piled upon intellectual and The
hence
narrow
popularityof
the
class of musicians.
opera is almost conclusive proof that it is the meaning of music more than any other quality that excites the admiration of the general public. Art is,or
APPRECIATION should
301
be, for the people,and audience
while
not
yet there is always good
always
a
for
reason
inating discrim-
catering
certain extent, to the taste of the larger audience. It is that there is not unfortunate interest as great intelligent to
a
in opera as there is in other forms, such as orchestral and choral music, for the general public, we must confess, does not take as serious a view of a staged performance as taken
their
abilityof appreciationallows. in attendance
audience
for
must
of an manager pleasethose who do not
to, every
has
and
operaticstage that be
he
was
To
to
the
used
as
his
of almost
use
of
taste
the
be catered
studies how to company for any real musical enjoyment,
present conditions
for
excuse
worthless
giving the public what
true, then
for the
long
the
pecuniaryreasons
opera come
As
putting the performances
it demanded.
point to
a
If this
hopeful outlook
operaticstage. understand
the difficultiesattendant upon the presentation would do well to acquainthimself with some
of opera one knowledge of its historyand
earlyhistrionic efforts, for from the old Greek tragediessprang the lyricdrama, and from that,which is their real foundation, developedthe several them today. The historyof opera forms of opera as we know cause is much more easilytraced than that of other musical forms beit is
one
developed. operatichistoryhave
of the latest
Revolutions
completed in
also of the
in
the
course
of
a
few
arisen
opera
secures
years
ago
a
full house, whereas
Wagner's
maturer
works
been
years and its growth and Of equal interest with its
been slow. changes have never development is the knowledge of the demands and of of taste of the public. Today the presentation its
and
but were
a
the
change
Wagner few comparatively a
considered by the
or intelligible unintelligible, only generalpubliceither entirely had devoted years of study to the unraveling to the few who of their mysteries. Reputationsfounded upon stagedmusical productions made and often as suddenlylost;and even have been quickly so matericomposers themselves alter their styleand methods
ally that to
THEORY
THE
302
MUSIC
OF
their earlier works
masterpieces.At
their maturer
resemblance
scarcelyany
bear
the
time
one
framework
of the opera consisted of a series of arias,or airs,connected by a recitative which carried on the story and action while There were the arias sustained the vocal beauties. usually
acts, each
three
character, of which of the five kinds
one
and
in succession
an
was
the hero and
The
five kinds
show
of
which
slow, quiet movement to
of the
had
to
second
end
his power
allowed
third acts
and
of
included
arias
afforded
chance
a
first and
the
difficult air,and a accompanied recitative, and heroine. Occasionallyonly,there were
trios.
each
allowed two of songs ; no character was class could follow airs of the same two
in each
acts, and
second
solo; and
a
generallysix, was
were
airs principal
The
another.
one
no
there
with
ended
of which
scene
there
duet
a
choruses
first those to
the
of
singer
expression,for sentiments
vocal
by
of
pathos usuallymade the text of the song; then another and containingnotes of greater time value of slow movement affording the singer opportunityto display the sustaining of his voice; the third class was adapted to a variety power tender
of
and
sentiment
stood
the aria of
between
dignityand grandeur ; the fourth was which and passion were strong emotion of
last and
fifth class
singer'sexecution. This
the
was
form
was
All songs followed
Century, but in the course by the acquisitionof new piecesand finales. New
ideas
were
used
almost
a
pathos and
air declamatory
of
the
of time the structure
was
during part
forms
carried
from
in
expressed; and the solely to exhibit the
classed under
were
that
in the
way
of
these
five.
Sixteenth
changed concerted
country to another,
one
of
tral harmony, varietyof modulation and orchesadded, and the old model became accompaniment were greatlychanged and for the better,as the opera gained in Then came effort to bring words varietyand animation. an new
and
resources
music
into " closer union
the orchestra more
than
a
developedinto mere
than a
means
support f6r the
was
customary, and of
finally
acting something voices;it helpedto interas
APPRECIATION of the
pret the mood
than
the opera
The
scene.
into
fused opera were in time the music
a
303
piecesof
the
early
complete work of music, and potent in tellingthe story of
more
became
isolated
more
the words.
were
always has forms, though
been, and
Opera
is
of today, a mixture the changes in public taste and musical of of singingand of orchestration have brought a great method variance of the operas of different musical periods. As we have noted, the public has been very fickle in regard to its and dislikes of the musical likes and dramatic phases of What from pleasedand called forth great enthusiasm opera. music-lovers of another day, generationmay rarelybe heard tothough as we have said the outlook for the opera is a good one, for the past few years have seen a revival of some for the time seemingly forgottenoperas, and the manner in which appreciation they have been greeted and the intelligent is proof that a really worthy creation does given them audiences, and as years go on there appeal to our American is every and the of lack In
believe
to
reason
will demand
we
will
operaticmanagers of publicsupport
respect audiences
no
the best
longer for
have
have
oftener,
complain
to
seemed
quite satisfied to leave the opera as it has stood for so long, and this is in the matter of language,for nearly all our grand operas have been presentedin a foreigntongue, justas they there that they centuries ago in England. It was two were attempted for a brief time to introduce the mother tongue sad into Italian opera, and the result was a as only one, English singerscould use it and at least half of the opera one
was
company to a
use
their
all the of
text
in
a
the let
settingand a
always composed of Italians,who own language. This indifference to
foreigntongue,
is after
which
music
story our
alone
exhibit,seems
we
that we
we
are
want, content
to
to
do not know.
tell
us
of
the
The
joy,
continued the
prove
with
and
enjoy
supply the imaginations
languagewe
passages
years
an
that
of it
standing under-
its musical
want
wonderful the
use
made
by
tral orches-
grief,the sub-
emotions
stir the of
words
no
as
makes
audience
an
they anticipatefor
of the drama;
triumph
limity,or
us,
and
the greater part understanding the lines
do, and
can
effort
no
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
304
at
But as before said, sung in a familiar tongue. tual fail to take a greater intellecit is a matter of regret that we that opera as It is the opinion of many a interest.
though
even
general
should
rule
be
given in the language of the country place,but though this might be ideally
the story takes perfectfor trained hearers, it presents great difficultiesin the for ordinary unwise of its realization and is practically way in which
operaticperformances. Though England made sad havoc at its earlier attempt, it is today making some progress in forcing the recognition of vocal expression, of English as a possiblemeans by occasionally employing it in opera at Covent Garden. It was during a revival of learning,when classic tragedies been attention than had were given them receivingmore into existence. for a long time, that the Italian opera came These and tragedieshad been musical throughout in words lines,and in
Century
Sixteenth
Church
music.
other
while
saw
music
obliged to
invent
abandoned
all
were
produced in speech in
been a
caused
choosing their
their invention
lay
vocal solo, such
as
the
had
seed
to
the
melody
interfere with
their
made
kind
We
of musical
stiff and of
a
form
new
known
to
also
conform
poetic flow.
are
their
formal, and yet within
the text. to
as
their music
consider
now
weaving inter-
an
such inflections, by different emotions, was
it, and
from inspiration
was
vocal
of
from
derivingits
a
they
in the choruses
there
created
been
developed
fluent and
which
never
composers,
neglected,so
style. Except
tones.
their melodies
monotonous,
between
highestdevelopment
somewhat
new
Observation
declamation.
closer union
a
its
at
polyphony in melodies, and
of several
guide
then
was
had
forms
bringabout
to
music, the artists of the close of the that there must be a change of their
poetry and
dramatic
they
attempt
an
The to
of music.
The
the ecclesiastical the
declamation,
recitatives them
In this way
so
the
as
were
not
Italian
FANNY*
in
Born all
tours
Austria
in
over
-with 1898
In
she
Festival
Music
the
of
a
greatest
pianists
great
1866.
She
States
soloist
Cologne,
at
in
the
she
musicians and
the
concert
Europe,
for
where
celebrated
triumph
made
meeting
success.
piano
was
has and
unqualified
most
winning*
ZEISLER
United
the
everywhere
some
BLOOMFIELD
world.
being
Lower
Rhine
played
before
in declared
the
one
world, of
the
APPRECIATION
opera it did
305
invented,and, while fallingfar below
was
much
free music
to
of other
musicians
it,and
deaden
threatening to
from
countries
the
find
we
the
impetus to other developthis styleof
further
to
composition. The dry form of recitative, such is now only occasionallyfound; in operas
formalism
give
to
used
as
the
in
early operas,
greater number
fusion of the old aria and
a
its purpose, which was
the formal
of
tive. recita-
of the recitative is to promote the action and emotional events of the drama, anticipating states which in the set music pieces. It acts as a kind of dwelt upon are The
purpose
change from dialogueto song less abrupt It is in itself tiresome, for it is neither speech nor the feelingof speech which music but gives one at any may if prolonged becomes burst into song, and moment deadly makes
transition and
the
monotonous
and
entire
in which
the
scene
loses
Italian
cannot
the lines,is often upon
righteffect
in
and a
interest of
the
audience
in
the
For this reason it appears. of some audience which either to an. American
operas, understand the
the taste
the
language or
is not
wearisome.
Of
of the ability in
desirous
course,
ing of follow-
much
depends
singersto bring about
the
opera, spoken with the Italian language permits,it fillsits purpose
and recitative,
a
comic
vivacityas It makes and without becoming monotonous. effectively element of music, that of pitch, of only one and it lacks use melodic structure and sustained tones. panied However, the accomrecitative has its place in the operaticform, for it often prevents a droppinginto speech and so preserves the instead musical idea throughout,making a real lyricdrama It is artistic sphere into another. of plunging us from one do make use of the of our great opera singers true that some the for great emphasis by contrast, but on spoken word whole it is not considered artistic and is for many a ous dangersuch
experiment, The merging
of the aria and recitativereached its
development with
given to
this form
Wagner,
of musical
and
the
conversation
name or
est high-
arioso
dialogue.
was
The
had
orchestra
OF
THEORY
THE
306
become
such
an
having asserted itself
opera,
as
MUSIC
all important factor of the of independent element an
pushed to the background and the accompanied dialogue,combining song and musical speech, of the the passionsand moods became capable of portraying value, the simple aria
play
as
aria
the
was
could
never
preventedthe monotony
and
of
preached and exemplified of his writingsand his operas, the dramatic idea by means and the most popular Italian and French operas today are benefited by his ideas until opera who those composed by men than a chantingor singingof a has become something more lyricpoem, until every part of it tends toward unifying it The instruments musical drama. as a formerly played but used as supports to a comparativelysmall part, they were the voices, occasionallyfor introducing new themes, but seldom taking upon themselves the duty of tellingin their the tragedy or comedy. Today the orchestra plays own way quiteas important a part as any of the actors, and we depend the mood of the drama. to us largelyupon it to convey With the development of the orchestra, brought about by the also new ideas in the way of singing. arioso,came The problem of the opera singer is often a difficultone be both actor and singer,and yet nearly to solve,for he must all the greatest singersof the world have been opera singers. Because they have been in the majority,and have been in the than the concert public eye more singerthey have set the standard of artisticsinging. The with besides to contend opera singer has so much the
recitative.
It
Wagner
was
who
'
his
singing,aside
musical
from
the mental
for he difficulties,
poetictext
and
element
must
exercise
adapt
his
of
dealingwith
expressionto the
the part of the character. matic Until the drabecame so important a one in the opera only act
were beauty of vocal tone and flexibility tional required for emoexpressionin singing.The real character of the stage
hero
was
not
with a sang would use in
taken
into account, the actor
did not
act
but
oratorical gestures, such as the Italian ordinaryspeech. Later as Italian opera further few
APPRECIATION
developed and there
was
music
the
became
307
greater opportunity for
a
the emotional
dramatic
more
quality,and
and
scenic,
and differentiating
cializing spe-
it
with
larger scope for More is now action. dramatic requiredof the opera singer; he must not only sing well but dramatically. His professional has become work Musical greatlycomplicated. ture strucand instrumentation is more more complex, brilliant, so that often the greatest stress of vocal effort is required of his voice carry the melody over him to make the volume of which full orchestra produces. We sound also ask that he a be a good actor. We him not content to have are only the of histrionism. know The mands principles vaguely publicdehis intellectual and physicaltask, and doubled have we
ask
dramatic highly specialized,
a
The have
operaticstage wonderful
sung
florid
who
ornaments, vocal
gymnastic shown
supposed
to
has
void
feats
who
thanks
long been kept
for the drama
should
be
to
from a
greatest singers make the largerpurpose ; they make The
German
ences, influ-
its
original of dramatic
means
their
special
their ful powertheir thought and attention and skill
elocution,to dramatic of character,as well as to mere effective
utterance.
In order
As
we
thought of any
attain the best results,it is, subordinate that the music be in a sense
that the
of course, necessary to the text in which
than
donnas
all
of
appeal to us because are given to the study of and delineation truthfulness, voice
prima
us
have feeling,and who understandingof the character they
for
never
expression. subservient to
offered
impersonate, but,
Music
purposes.
has
melodies, full of trills and scales and have awed us by their marvelous
entire lack of
an
opera
art
out1
singers.
opera
are
impersonationof
have the
scene
singercan
the dramatic
said, the even
more
idea is expressed. music may often express
the
dramaticallyand convincingly
words, but it does it only because the composer
thought as thought in tones and melodies the same in the poet'slines. The music of an opera, because
has
is found it
speaks
an
suppliesthe As
MUSIC
language, raises the drama
universal
and
OF
THEORY
THE
308
chorus
to
a
higher
power
life.
emotional
singing is
treated
of
place in this requirementsof the large body of any
in another
chapter,we will not dwell here upon the operatic chorus, for all that appliesto singersappliesto the chorus in a drama, and added to these histrionic ability. In fact,every requirementsis that of some study. The separate and intelligent phrase of opera demands music of each grand opera be appreciatedonly after repeated can hearings unless one's ear is acutelytrained and one's intellectual
of
grasp
and
themes
counter-themes
is rare, and that he can nize recog-
trulyand quicklytouched, so various motives as they appear,
his emotions the
relation to the mood
of the characters
of
and scenes
can
feel their
they portray. baldly,but the makes grander
gives the idea, sometimes rather music expands upon and elaborates,until it and greater a loftysentiment,or shows the true baseness and One of an often unworthy thought or emotion. grossness from the performance of a truly great opera comes away self has grown in the feelingthat his intellectual and spiritual The
but
text
space of a few marvelous and
that the
of beautiful human voices hours, for by means has expressed all instruments, the composer
has in a he, the listener, to put it into any means
the artist who
has
way
but he has lacked felt,
language, and
he is
gratefulto
spoken for him.
CHORUS The
vague
AND
CHORAL
MUSIC.
within range of choral music is very wide, including the different kinds of vocal societiesfrom the church
its scope choir to the
characterized
chorus
enormous
of hundreds
of
voices,sucfi as
large May festivals.
our
Not
ing everybody possesses the skill or the technical trainan instrument,but every normal necessary to play upon human sotoe
being possesses time
voicing his
in
his
moods
some
sort
or
under
life or
his
of voice and
finds
joy
certain circumstances
thoughts in Sofcg. And
at
in
possessing
APPRECIATION within himself the
voice
strike
be
the power harsh and a
or
preserve because he
music
he
enjoys
'Tis
said
produce song,
to
unmusical
and
pitch,man
correct
no
the grasps
whether
matter
untrained
ear
and
to
vocal
eagerlyat
it in part anyway,
understands
fore there-
it. nation
a
be denied
cannot
309
be
may
that
known
good music,
its songs; and it like all good art, is the
by
expression of refinement in an individual or a community. Next is one's capacity to produce good music to one's ability And for enjoying good music. there is no better or more certain way to learn to enjoy good singingthan to join some choral societyand feel the effect of the music upon yourself you learn to express knew this and he gave
this advice to
in choirs, and diligently
choose
for this will make
compass,
emotions
your
as
in song. Schumann " his students : Sing
simplestmedium the emotions, and no community is so small boast of some sort of singing society. No with it,neither is a largenumber connected life; all that is needed
willingand
among
the
direction in the
to
common
take
the
of
one
Welsh
are
Their
that it does
not
be
need
expense
of
the
exist in little towns
the
miners.
expressing
leadership.Some
best examples of the splendid and large choirs that
and districts, are
a
for
necessary to its love for music and some
societies in the world
finest choral work
able
is
vocal
musical/'
you
is the readiest and
Song
one
middle
the especially
wonderful
excellent so
are
or
choral
numerous
results in this
confined to their native country, but here of boast of some communities States Welsh
not
United
in the country. Their love for the art is inborn, and their voices are rich in quality,and perfectin pitch; this is due to the trainingthe Welsh peopleobtain "in
the finest choruses
their national achool of music
called the Eisteddfod.
It
were
well if every country did for its peoplewhat a Welsh munity comof this in our next chapter. does ; but more in of choral music, meaning music The earliest form take part, dates bade to the Sixteenth which everybody can
Century, where
it had
its
originin
the
hymns
Luther
com-
write
metrical
is said to
He
for his church.
posed
but
his time
Before
others. it
of
ancient
to
himself
by
for them
of the
the text
put the words
who
he
was
composed
music
had
sometimes
of
of secular songs,
the tunes
to
first to
language
sometimes
adapted
were people,and his verses church melodies, and sometimes
the
and
the
been
have
sacred subjectsin the
on
verses
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
310
hymns
was
praiseand
and
in Latin ; into prayer
popular mouth, associatingit with rhythmical music and to which aided to imprint the words upon the memory
the
first collection of poems soon publishedin 1524, and it was
choral
to
singing was others by many
sacred
music
England
and
to
The
lipsof
their
employed
also
a
great effect upon
a
of
hymns
the
part associated music
or
the words
England to
thus for
with
tunes
certain
we
have
the
any
poem
of
the are
were
metres
same
church moral
music
as
an
within
same
composed
the
influence; For
art.
of
so
for artistic treatment
England*
for the
that
whenever
one
not
In
are
suggests the other, formerly and are often now and
singing
of
has
verses
tunes,
same
English custom the
that
over
heard
in the
the
tunes.
Germany
the
hear
to
Germany have imaginationupon the working
and scholarship
Germans-
spread
soon
Cross
the musicians
hymnody of North strong advantage
The
ting of fit-
sermon.
of these old well-known
of many
out
in
after the
since the Reformation
ever
Paul's
placingof the choral song of the and the people had great religious
it has had
and
lowed fol-
so
populace joined
of the
for
popular that at titude Century, when a largemul-
it became
and
collected at
and
before
psalms
the voice of the multitude
Seventeenth
beginningof the of people was preaching,thousands
idea
This
Germany.
in North
France,
the
of
His
their enunciation.
enforce
the most
the
While posed com-
individual poems, and of singinga certain tune
to
metre,
and
for its metre.
any
poem
In
may
be
England the is usually named for the place where tune it originated, as Windsor York/' or by some or equallyunmeaning term ; but in Germany a tune is usuallynamed from the initial sung "
to
any "
tune
"
APPRECIATION words
which
to
it
belongs,as
311
Luther's
well-known
hymn, "Ein' Feste Burg" (a strong fortress),and consequently, whenever with the words heard, whether or without, it suggests hearer the the entire to subjectof the hymn of which it forms a as they are, a knowledge of the part. Manifold is included choral in the early education tunes of every Lutheran
Calvinist in every entire congregation to
and
the
the standard
then, grounded on they are based upon a and hearer, and arouse The
common
Germany, take
which
thus
Compositions
part. works
of art, for understandingbetween writer
tunes,
are
sympatheticemotions.
cliurch cantatas
large church
are
services with
accompaniment of an orchestra,and they are to the gospel text for the Sunday church
written
festival. Each religious
cantata
written
embellish
to
therefore
for
which
theme
is
a
certain
a
recitatives,vocal comment
text
the
or
day. But
of the music. instrumental
or
the text
on
gospel
appropriateto
the foundation
form
ables en-
or
solos
reflect upon
to
to
the form con-
service,or
are
stands
else represents the A chorus is used to between are
the
the
verses
interspersedto sentiment
tained con-
in the theme. The
imposing form of sacred music is the oratorio. which ranks as the highThis class of musical composition, est form of tonal art, originatedin the Sixteenth Century. most
its existence and
It derives
by
a
its
from
name
meetings held
the
the oratory of his church San of religiousedification. This priest,
priestin
Roman
make
desiring to his
his
religious teachingsmore
friend,Animuccia,
to
compose This was
music
for the purpose
FilippoNevi, engaged effective, to
be
spersed inter-
1556, and the music orginially consisted of short hymns or laudi,the extent afterwards of which was enlarged;by and by the spoken words were replacedby singing,and ultimatelythis mixture among
of cast
and
sermon
by The
modern success
immediate,
and
his discourses.
song
took
the form
composers* of this music after
the
and
death
in
in which
the oratorio is
lecture combination of
Animuccia,
the
was
great
312
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
Palestrina,furnished
Italian master,
And
music.
the
right
it may be well to state the difference in the character in furnished by Palestrina and that furnished of the music
here
times
later
Palestrina's
work
of the
material
Handel
England, lead
the oratorio
to
Handel
with
which
the human
he
had
chief work
assign the
it is in these choruses
And
the chorus.
to
and
voiced.
are
excellence
in
mystery, the idealization
the
of Bach
in the music
angels,while passions of man
Handel.
and
Bach
masters,
speaks with
music
of
The
German
the
by
to
of that
In the mastery of vocal fugue Handel " Messiah rival,his great choruses in the
geniusshines best.
his
without
stands have
"
and 'tis due to their excellence that rivaled, hearts today,live after a century and a half our and are fresh and full of material as repetition, in the days of their as they were interpretation
been
never
live in
they
a
of constant for musical
composer. The chorus
in the oratorios
is used
to
serve
various
poses pur-
"
in Bach's Passion as contemplative, Music;" again didactic,teachinga moral lesson; again it is used merely for dramatic effect to produce a climax, and 3gain it is used for descriptive purposes to helptell the story. The words choir and chorus are used synonymously in this chapter,and they are intended to describe a group of singers ranging in size from a very small number, six or eigMt,to collection numbering hundreds. The size of the an enormous chorus usuallydepends upon the number of singers available of sound and the volume desired by the director. Choirs it is
; sometimes
in
vary
character; there
singingis done by
men
The
v
,
for
male
men
and
choir
male
choirs in which
women's
; or
female voices; and mixed of both
are
all the
composed only of posed popularkind, com-
choirs
choirs,the
most
women.
its
originto the German Mannerprobably brought about by the German's *" which was for sociability as by his love for music. as much Music a
second
owes
male choir is usuallywritten in four tepor
and
first and
second
bass.
The
parts, first and music
written
APPRECIATION
hardly be said to be distinctive in charBut the effect of acteY, and requiresno specialmention. such a choinis usuallyvery pleasing;the depth of tone, the peculiartimbre of the male voice expressed in four different blended when in harmony, give great warmth of registers, for
choir
313
male
a
can
stir the emotions.
color and
And
wearisome, for it lacks the of
voices.
female
the
choir.
of male
form
belong
and which
to
chorus
effects produced that
voices
aim
another
are
at artistic results
substitutes for women's
as
these
by
reach
may
voices.
The
since boys' voices are limitless, remarkably high pitch,in notes
a
penetrating.Brilliant and emotional produced by these choirs;but the judgment of
clear and
are are
should
choirmaster
voices, since it
choose
the correct
kind
of music
fects efthe
for such
be artistic to allow
cannot
intended
music
the
sing
to
clubs
popular form of entertainment,in the melody unites with the cleverness to produce the effect. Still another form of is the boys' choir so extensivelyused in
Episcopalchurches boys'
the addition
very catchiness of
the
male
not
by
becomes
a
of the text the
collegeglee
these do
chorus
a
afforded
contrast
The But
yet such
inexperiencedboys portray the passions of
to
maturity. The
chorus, like
female
parts, the first and
four
And
contralto.
second
and
contrast
becomes
as
and
if he should
voices
are
women's
they
best
as
and
form
Some
a
ideal chorus
soprano,
One
sort
a
so
of
be made
to
constantly female
Some
bass, but this
and
are
tender
bass, and
consist of
a
low
sound
low that the tones
part of a mixed chorus. is the mixed chorus, which and
choir
men's
than
feels
beautiful effects
contralto,tenor
of these parts may
thinner
nature
voices,airy,graceful,sweet
sound
The the
low
unnatural
and
by
before the male
supplythe lackingbass.
contralto is carried down
second harsh
are
even
lack foundation.
like to
very
and the first and soprano like the male chorus, it, too, lacks second
voices
to
seem
male, is usuallydivided into
wearisome
does, since women's voices
the
attained by tones, but
consists of
in which firstand
each
second,
large mixed
a
little
music
more
and
not
But
effect.
and
the
upon of advertisement
a
The
great oratorios number
now
way questionedwhether it
be
to
deal with.
to
Egypt
reference
closelywith rely so much
an
singersand choose to the quality of the volume to produce the of
chorus
of
thousand
one
tion and proves quite an attracthe program unthinking. For, since choruses must necessarily
well
voices looks the
to
in
the number
better to diminish
not
were
Israel
or
hundreds, but it is
the
into
festival music
for
choruses
Messiah
the
like
has
the musicmaster
the finest instrument
up
ume, voices, capable of volwell balanced they form
of
giving eight contrastingsets color and harmony, and where
thus
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
314
on
sion, brought together for the specialoccathey have but a comparativelyshort time for rehearsal. The only real advantage gained from such a large chorus is that it affords study and practiseof music to all who ticipate par-
consist
of
amateurs
in the
and
production.
large amateur
is
old in the United
as
centuries music
this
was
done
with
the
These
of
singing
other country. Two larger forms of choral
as
any
naturallysmall.
was
thousands, such
festivals now, Handel.
form
performance of by professionalchoristers who were churches,theatres and singingschools.
the chorus
and
States
modern
a
the
ago
reason
is
chorus
The
as
undreamed
were
their
of
For dreds hun-
part in large musical
of in the times
choral music
of musical
masters
take
Choirs
nected con-
as
of Bach
and
expressed
in
and oratorios, cantatas matchless compositionswith
choir.
church Messiah time while
which
he
Handel
died, the entire
the
orchestra
Twenty-four years five voices,and an the
then
the
same
numbers
handled their passions never chorus larger than an nary ordia the At last performance of the to conduct, but before which was number of singerswas twenty-three,
consisted
later
a
twenty-eightinstruments.
choir of two
orchestra
oratorio have
of
of two in
hundred hundred
Westminster
increased to
enormous
and and
seventy-
fiftyperformed
Abbey. size.
Since And
APPRECIATION submitted
Bach
when choir
from
formed
be
to
the
to
315
authorities
his
pupils he
own
and
modestly suggested that sixteen would
and
he
What At
at
change since then ! present time, however,
the
the instrumental
in
for
asked
church
a
for
twelve,
pleasehim better, least eighteeninstruments.
a
the
and
vocal
that he be allowed
asked
also
plan
a
modern
a
relation between
parts has been
oratorio
changed.
numbers
now
about
The
the chestra or-
one-fifth
large as the choir. This is due to the fact that the orchestra is treated today independentlyof the chorus, as in In the claysof Handel orchestra in an opera. an and Bach the orchestra was used as a background to fillin and supply for the production, volume thereby adding to the sonorityof as
the tonal
mass.
Sometimes
very
ing stirringeffects are produced by dividinto two choirs, or, as it is commonly
large choir called,a double choir a
of four
One
parts each.
of
the most
beautiful
usages of such a choir is to produce the antiphonal Some in effect,that is, choir answering choir. passages Bach's compositions, of St. Matthew, produce as in the Passion dramatic
effects when
the other
to answer.
We
have of
come
now
choir
one
to
a
good chorus.
a
is used
discussion these
And
to
interrogateand
of the are
elements requisite the
much
same
in
that constitute excellence an thing orchestra,with somequalities added. A higher degree of harmonious and contone certed chorus of singers. Those action is expected from a qualitieswhich make for excellence in chorus production are quality of the tone produced, balance of the different parts, correct intonation,accuracy of attack,precision, unanimity, phrasing,shading,and enunciation. In a chorus the quality the body of the should always be rich and full, of the tone it must be flexible, tone must always be sweet and melodious no
matter
voices should there
The
must
voices
loud
how so
nor
what
the size of the chorus.
blend that the tones
never
should
be
any
never
harshness seem
are or
strained
smooth
and
hollowness but
should
The
fluent,
of sound.
produce
chorus
the
to
voice
his
handling production. And
The
balance
two
should
There
leader.
be in
should
nically tech-
of
the
proportion quality of of those
greatest consideration of the choir
the
preponderance of any one or they lie so easily parts, because voices, produce a rich, charming be
not
contralto
The
parts.
potency
tire en-
of the different parts is absolutelynecessary constitution of It is the fundamental work.
good choral the choir, and deserves to
of tone
the
by
depends upon the good singing on the part
the
coupled with comprising the chorus.
the
to
This
the size of the chorus.
the voices
add
to
the volume
aim
efface self and
singershould
chorus, every
singerof
effect of
harmonious
strive for the
must
since each
And
apparent effort.
without
their tones
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
316
a
of the range often tax the voices color, while the parts of the soprano strained tone; such a contrast and cause a destroys balance. within
As of
the
rule the
a
good by
chorus
voices,and such
tenor
deplored in
correct
chorus should the on.
been
allow
said
about
ideal mixed
can
of
a
matter
No
tune.
half tone that
there
that
see
to
correct
should
the
is the
choral
members
of
no
conductor from
for
excuse
of
a
a
chorus
key and finish than the tone they began be impressed upon each
drop
lower
is
individual singer'smind, for by concerted
Attack
the
soprano;
gated miti-
be
pitch* From singerbeing able to keep the
a
his choristers
is
part of maintained.
to be
the defect
can
is meant
intonation
composition a
the
course
badly balanced.
large one
pitch, one singing out
This
scarcity
soprano, contralto,tenor and bass are It is far better to hear a small, well anced bal-
a
correct
has
the
in which
one
choir than
what
to
is of
weakness
a
Nor good chorus. preponderance of the
equallypowerful. ^By
weak, owing
any
the
is
part is very
tenor
the
the
action and
correct
care
pitch can
on
be
the note. There should striking no attack, no slidingup to the note, the wavering in singershould know justwhat pitchhis voice is to reach, and he shottkj iateck the note firmly and sttfely, with masculine
be
manner
the
APPRECIATION
strength,and uneasiness
timidlyor uncertainly.This is one of the singercan have and it produces a feelingof
not
faults
worst
a
the part of the listener.
on
By precisionwe The
mean
tone.
This
attack
should
voices
leave off
in
accuracy
of every precisethat the entire chorus a
317
and
note
attackingand ending phrase
only be accomplished when every obeys instruction and keeps his eye
is there
who
for
Unanimity of
be
so
singsas one voice, and all the moment. singingat exactlythe same
can
chorus
should
individual
in the
the conductor,
on
a
purpose. is another word
for concerted
action.
The
the
performance depends wholly on the united singing of all the performers. They must attack their notes the same at precisely time; when the contralto part takes up the melody all the contraltos should act as one; there should success
be
undue
no
on precipitation
the
in another.
This
laggingbehind
part of any soon
one
clouds
voice
nor
the music, and
brilliant or
strikingpassages are possibleunder such for the rhythm is destroyed. Unanimity can obtained only by clear,intelligent instructions from the and frequent painstakingrehearsals. no
By phrasing is breath.
The
dividingthe melody
so
phrase. So the phrasingmust mind, the divisions must be such
spoilthe
sense
be ductor con-
into connected
that each
each in
ditions, con-
be sung in a single can group at the end of placesfor takingthe breath come
of notes
groups
meant
a
of the text, and
be done
with
two
things
that the pause will not the breathingof the singer
kept so well regulatedas never to become unnatural. of the greatest difficulties a Correct phrasing is one singer has to cope with, and in a chorus it is plannedand arranged by the conductor. Upon it depends much of the charm of if the the melody. It is fatal to the beauty of a passage breathing is not fitted to the text and to the melody; and of correct if the singerstake breath at any placesregardless the text and the music between phrasing the relationship must
be
is lost.
Some
passages
are
very
to difficult
phrase,and
if
literarymeaning
he will sacrifice the
phrasing of The
to
depends mostly
conductor
drill his
voices
so
from
these
upon singersthai
the loudest able to
pianissimoand be
between
tone-colors
all the
must
shade
may
daintiest aerial
the
the melodious
preserve
effect of the music
The
their combined
to
difficult strain
a
the music.
emotional
shading.
the
impossibleto phrase
finds it
conductor
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
318
extremes.
fortissimo
produce also By watching
carefullyall the crescendos and all the diminuendos produces those ravishingeffects which emotions
hasten
to
all music
quality of
retard
or
lies in the
lightand Everybody knows
artistic use
strain
should
chorus
follow
can a
catch
to
it.
so
The
human
is said.
what
of
clearlyenunciated words
intended
are
selection
vocal
that to
the
be
of
a
audience
heard,
a
chorus
must
ear
All the text
right to expect to hear. Of course can hardly be expected to enunciate
listener has
mixed
be
our
the tones, in the
understood, if the
be
cannot
sense
of
expression. a uninteresling
how
the
color
cause
The
the music.
ductor con-
in
shade
of
if the words
becomes
with
the
and
large
a
clearly
as
and the nature of the music sometimes makes as a small one, it difficult to give due prominence to the words. But in hall
whose
balanced a
acoustic
chorus
that choral music
is
a
too
able to handle
be
the
of
one
his chorus
so
essentials necessary
tageously advanto
good
is offended.
all
large choral performancesthere is a lack of expression, whether in America, England or Germany. There about the many and oratorios,cantatas monotony big
time, energy produce these, cannot Messiah
Bach's
or
instead of
the
that makes
much
these
size not
a
not
festival choruses so
good, and with a welllarge to become unwieldy,
propertiesare
should
conductor
In
of
a
and
forth
Music
an
which
arousing the emotions
choral one
numbers
often
feels the
often
why
is usuallyspent intelligence, as
bring
Passion
listener wonder
lack
and
leave of
to
of the interpretation will
warm
swaying
the soul; the hearers
for instinctiv dissatisfied, bepersonal interpretation one
APPRECIATION hind
it.
each
and
man
depends upon the failure on the conductor's imaginationsof the choristers. Could he get before
woman
singing,to study
are
to
fire the
to
part
This
that
them
of
him
the words
live in the
to
music
tilltheir purport is
the
magnificenceof
which
it is
capable,and
listener would
away
room
the
personal pleasure. With
carry impressionof a them
before
vast
and
singinghas yet
chorus
Solo
clear
so
words, as they repeat them, give the impression originalexpression,then indeed would choral
every
so
they
the
rise to
music
319
such
with
him
from
excellent music
an
unfulfilled
SOLO
SINGING.
singingis perhaps the
to
from,
realize.
difficult form
most
field
a
choose
to
promise
the concert
of music
for often the personality of the singerprejujudge fairly, dices said in the beginning of this the critic,but, as was chapter, a true critic who understands musical technics and expression can distinguishbetween good and bad singing. listeftperhaps oftener to the vocal solo than to Because we have a greater opportunityto judge orchestra we chorus or of its excellence,and yet there is no form of music of which little. There the public knows well-established qualiare so ties know of vocal technics which talk at and we of, least, the knowledge,if not to use of glibly enough, but we seem of a soloist. We knowledge it be, when judging the ability to
are
so
interested in the
are
so
overpowered by the big
by the
sweet
that
have
we
have
our
muscular
we
man
or
who
woman
is
singing,we
voice, or
sonorous
charmed
brilliant execution, tones, or thrilled by some and at once decide give our unstinted applause,
heard
low
finished
a
emotions
feats,or
singer. We
touched, are
won
we
by
like to be pleased,to
wonder
the
at
the
personalcharm
marvelous and
grace vocal
singer,and all we may have known of correct technique we have forgottenor purposelyignored for of
a
time.
We
go to
a
concert
or
opera
to
see
and
hear
the
the par-
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
320
singer,not alone to hear his song, and we have, it is but when true, a right to expect a pleasingpersonality, should at least attempt to we vocalist's ability a criticizing judge calmly and dispassionately. We are quiteas liable to give like praiseto the man the atmosphere is full of passion,and who by his filling who
ticular
with
without
in tears
sing trills with accuracy, and In us by her mechanical powers. of appealingto an audience methods that
have
the
demanded discriminating,
would
not
be
a
such audiences
do not
That
must
there
doubt, and toward of and
a
natural
expression.
on
us
the
The
human
pleasesour of
were
standard
stating more
no
of
Fortunately,for the
a
calist vo-
world,
decide artistic worth.
be
right way
a
that
of
year of teachingof
method Methods
should
or
sure,
the whole
every
have
varied
do
singingwe sees so
with
with countries,althoughall critics have
results which
woman
either of these
as
moves
more,
no
high one.
know
we
far
so
to be privilege,
like It; but if audiences
we
away who
who rapidity, lightning and stupefies who amazes
can
we
the
to
us
scales with
descend
individual taste
sends
and
audience
an
knowing why; and
our
and
ascend
can
stirs up
temperament
some
natural musical
not
advance a
means
periods
agreedupon
the
be obtained.
voice is
one
of Nature's
grandestgiftswhen
properlyused, and is superiorto the best mechanical musical heart instruments,for it can strike the chords of the human with a directness and intensity ment unqualedby any other instruThe have been conexperiments of organ-builders cerned in and
the
an
its tones
highestpraisegiven an
But of those
.
effort to make
giftedwith
like those of the voice, instrument is to say it sings.
only a few have received at the same time the art of singing, and the very best voice is useless if badlymanaged. Singingthen, besides beinga natural gift,presupposes methods, and it is well known that a good voice can be ruined by unnatural methods, such as have been followed in various schools in an attempt to produce brilliant results quickly. There is no easy or short road to a
voice
APPRECIATION
321
accomplishment that is worth while. If the publichad a larger appreciationof the art of the vocalist,and a greater knowledge of the time and unending practicerequiredand had intelligent understandingof all forms and phases of music, then the discouragements with which because every artist meets of lack of appreciationwould be minimized, and his support any
would
be
more
and
genuine,
the number
of real vocal artists
increased. It is not
purpose but we instruction,
vocal own
United
who
have
States,we evolved
forced
have
her
It is
This
be proud, and country, whose of
and
here, in
earnest, enthusiastic
methods the
of
worth
vocal
invited
sing
an
in opera recognitionof which we have
was a
it
points to
art
as
to
our
teachers
their methods
of
of
training,and
only in
is
The
text
in
American received
in
in Covent
right to greater accomplishments in this
American
art
a
is stillin its first stages
the
music
makes
plainits emotional vitalizes it, while the singerinfuses
of
song
a
most
potent song emotional
it follows that the best the
should
At
is
in which
one
subjectof
singingis
into it
agree
upon the technical will always hold
the
the music
most
written
that which
poem, is devoted
While we song. qualityof a vocalist's performance,
of this kind interpretation
we
correct
nature,
of his temperament.
exactly voices the to
schools
development.
the power The and
many that
the past year that entire musical education was
country,
Garden.
speak of the proud to say
have
natural
singer,whose own
are
recognitionof
other countries. born
to
our
our
of
a
own
opinion as
to
the
interpretation. the
outset
then
we
want
to
know
at
what
vocal
aiming that we may know what to finished singer. Perhaps the first expect of an artistically which is in reality thing of importance is the tone production, the foundation of all good singingas it is of oratory, and know We of the breath, depends upon the management that after a certain from our own experiencein speaking, teachers and
schools
are
such
of breath when
we
state
to
allow rob
us
of
most
as
no
excitement
of
our
physicalor
self-control that the muscles
in broad, loose vibrations,and strongest tones of voice. With every
speech move
lowest
and
and
ligaments stretch
vocal
the
the
and
control that air passage
qualityin
different
to
registers.We
just such mastery
produce
our
higher tone is
them
singer learns
The
produce tones of a like expect the singer to possess
his vocal
over
mental
concerned
between
space
smaller.
narrowed, making the air passage to
accomplished,that
have
us
unnatural
or
in expenditure
of moderation
of cultivation in the matter
amount
in
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
322
instrument
as
the violinist
the mechanical difficultiesof his violin. possesses over Theorists differ in their opinionsas to the number of registers
only of
or
upper
of equalizing
the
voices
Some lower one
are
which so
no
poorly equalizedthat
noticeable
into tone, and
the tone
physicaleffort
a
were
change
easilyand
should
different
tone,
or
us
It must aware
seem
to
in any
there come
way
of
give qualityand force to a note. have said,change imperceptibly
Without
the intensify
softest effects to
the
we
it.
though
as
registerto another in order to vary the force of a and increase or diminish can keep the same register
its force.
hall.
to
sound
never
make
not
necessary
good singerwill,as one
voices,whereas
good singeris that there qualitybetween the two.
produce
to
and naturally,
the mechanism
from
of
from
they pass
as
the clear, of breath comes the proper management free tone. All the breath should seem to be turned
and
pure
will
our
upper they sound like two of the first requirements of a
With
by
lower
answer
to
shall be
A
purpose here to speak which we all recognize,and registers is the first requirementof the singer.
voices,but it will
in human
the volume of sound the artist increasing different gradations of force introducing the in a largetheatre or great advantage,even
If he has his voice under use
and make
of very littk voice
it heard
nearlyas
perfectcontrol he
the intensify
far
as
a
loud
very one.
can
even
softest tone
If
a
poorly
soft effecthe often fails to make twined his heard,and in tryingto swell out a note the result
singerventures
t$|fs
on
a
APPRECIATION is usuallythroaty and
sound, lacking,of so
essential to
breath
control
effort
to
ends
all
course,
good singing.
in
and
louder
a
shoutingor shrieking
a
purityand freedom He
has
the vocal muscles
produce
be
seldom
often
323
are
failed in the matter are
sound.
of the fact that
which
being strained The
audience
of
in
an
should
he as singeris inhaling, should be able to take a full breath easily, quicklyand firmly. Another element .of good singingwhich depends upon the control of breath is that of phrasing or dividing a melody into
aware
connected
of
groups
a
notes, each
is so groups the voice, and it requires
be easilyphrased by
written
as
skill
the part of the singerto so both literaryand musical
on
preserve
to
of which
divide the melody sense.
The
to
as
breathing
adapt itself to the melody and the musical ideas never be interruptedby the singer inhalingbreath, for then the it does in speech as thought becomes quite as unintelligible of words is not observed by the proper the relationship when must
modulation
The
of voice.
vocalist here shows
his
knowledge
designor form and frequentlymust make amends composer'sseeming lack of attention to the necessity
of musical for the
intervals between phrases in order that the song proper be delivered in an intelligent This is but one manner. may than just of the many proofsthat a good singerknows more of
sing;he understands
to
well
those of vocal expression. is no reason There why an audience should as
clear enunciation one
to
the
of compositionas principles
how
on
the
not
demand
although no part of the solo singer,
difficulttask for the singer will deny it is sometimes a the consonants, articulate each vowel, and especially so
theatre,church or hall full of people can hear all the words perfectly.However, it can be done as is proven by time preserve of our some greatest artists who at the same that
a
all the are
artisticmusical
beauty of good tone on
able to
at any
produce a musical pitchwithin
There sound
to
are
lesser
smoothness
the any
the compass
musicians
who
song.
Such
vocalists
of the vowel
sounds
of their voices.
sacrifice clearness
but this is if of vocalization,
of
anything
even
than
worse
other.
In
methods
of
made
one
natural and hence in song nears a will oftener be able to understand
and we
time
at the same
and
which
in
way
feel we
the
perfectmethod
more
the
words
of
a
song losingnothingof its worth
are
a
appliesalso to vocal. by utteringit is emitted, and
said of the method
been
All that has the
enhance
composition.
musical
a
to
two
of the old artificial from some getting away to a large is being overcome singingthis difficulty of using the vocal organs in speech as the manner
extent, and
as
and
harmonized
be
qualitiescan
The
clearlyenunciate,
failure to
a
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
324
in
begun,
is
tone
of attack, that instrumental
music is obtained
tone clear,positive perfectly
A
the
at
it is such
that
tone
a
that the
moment
exact
expands
and
is,
breath
fillsthe
call a hear what we Frequently we largest auditorium. of breathy tone, the result of a poor attack quiteas are some like an the harsh and unpleasantlysudden tones which come ond explosionwhen the enunciation of the word is begun a secor
fraction
a
throat, and of
a
the
rightclosingof
a
tone, tone
leaves
the
Upon this proper ness dependsthe smooth-
be held until the very is begun, and there must not be
one
tone
into the with
should
tone
next
of
before the breath
second
song.
Each
often
a
prevents purityof
so
beginning and
of
other.
That
but good effect,
airs operatic
until the next
in most
that the
slidingof one is frequently used and
pure
a
melodic themes
as
of songs the legatomethod of holdingone is struck is considered better, all know and we or
how
monotonous
how
often it is
the
carried-over tone becomes and sliding, trol employedby amateurs who have not the con-
of the vocal cords and
togetherof tones While
method
second
the
of breath
in the correct artist may
be
necessary to the
holding
way.
born
and the vocal artist, artists it is true are usuallynaturally gifted with beautiful work which gives them perfect vokep,yet it ,is intelligent
qc^mmd ones
o" the technics of
^T'^hkh
wfe have
a
singing, only the fundamental
spoken.
It is
perfectmastery
of the
APPRECIATION voice added
natural
emotional
to
that principles influence not only in
all artistic
in the land
the
lands where
or
force and
a
their songs
but
heard.
are
VALUE
OF
MUSIC
it pay ? relevant
question.
it pay for the father of a familyof boys and his money for their musical education? Does
Does
ful power-
circle of musicians
spiteof scoffers,a perfectlysane,
In
understandingof
artistic singerssuch
narrower
PRACTICAL
THE
Does
makes
325
girlsto
it pay spend the city to spend its dollars for instruction in singing in our Does it pay a country to support public public schools? concert halls,to supply bands for its parks? Does it pay a to provide regimental bands for its armies? government Does
it pay
of the world
nations
the
to
in every
encourage,
promotion of this art ? If the answer be given,and with to each questioncannot then it is time we ceased to good proof in the affirmative, to the support of the musical give talent,time and money education of our of our and women children,and of men the
possibleway,
We
country. and
dollar
Americans few
a
cents
practical peopleand
are
in value
returned
look
for every
for
a
dollar
expended. We were long concerned,and necessarily so, with the material growth of our country, but in a remarkably short
time
known
in
evolved
system of publiceducation
a
place slowly but surelyamong countries.
We
lands, in
manners
a
have
desire for the
mind
peculiarto We at
and
our
own
we
the artisticcreations
of older
the
have
of best
art
experiments of
can
endeavored
solve
to
difficulties
needs.
for ridicule, possible now
other
the people creatingamong of the hitman expressions
does it pay, unafraid to ask the question,
are
the risk of feel
highestand
heart, and
and
methods
is
findinga
profited, by
and
as
is
today American
other land, and
no
such
answer
our
own
we
even
rightto know, question. Yes, it pays; have
a
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
326
THE
decidedly and
emphatically yes;
of
wealth
all the
the
vidual indi-
government will be returned if it is properly used for the promulgationof so elevating,expressive and It was Herbert universal an art as music. Spencer who said during a visit to the United States, "If along with your of the
and
equalprogress of progress there went remain would nothing to be desired."
material there of
a
higher
is well
kind
on
it
and
its way
a
higher kind
The
progress
longer depends
no
and earnestness of a small circle of the enthusiasm upon of people communities artists and a few philanthropists, as have and
awakened
needs
a
than
Our
physicalcomfort.
to
of their funds
share
realize the
need, and
best that lifehas to offer
to
those
other luxuries
clothingand shelter,and
contribute
who
other
to
suppliedby than
citiesand
food
those which
states
voting de-
are
supplythe demands of those create in others a longingfor the to
us.
making this a great and physically,intellectually politically, nation, financially, As
nation
a
we
are
in
concerned
here as perhaps in no other country all spiritually.And ness depends upon the development of the individual. Our busithen is to make our homes, our schools and colleges, our all our institutions such churches, our publicentertainments, will help to develop the individual and make him a good as citizen. Man
them
is
social
animal,he
out hope to developwithhelp from his fellow men, and his right relations with What other art is so prove his right to citizenship.
available and
a
cannot
attractive to all men
as
deny its great socializing power; opportunityfor co-operationthat at will
a
social
as
well
as
people,brings them
am
that of music? it
pne
gives such excellent it presents itself as
once
aesthetic influence. into closer
No
If then it unites
sympathy, surelyit
pays
"
of its greatest one pays all a country expends by aia"wering needs. But perhapsit is the commercially who man practical
asks the question,does music refer him t" wbe"
as
a
professionpay?
for figures iscraetimsia figures, gp far
thewies prove
nothingto
the
rasua
We
can
to convince
t$"t to visible proof.
APPRECIATION In the United
States alone
have
we
teachingmusic.
in
engaged
327
over
68,000
and
men
A
precariouslivingperhaps for some, but that is true of any Over profession. of in the manufacture, our 75,000 countrymen are engaged In Paris the Grand sale and tuning of musical instruments. 700 singers, Opera pays about $500,000 yearly to some In London players and -others needed to produce the opera. alone there are 4,000 men and women earning a livelihood as women
teachers, and
music
figuresto but they
be do
sure
supports
show
all able-bodied the
value
upon
is
whose
men
German
services
imagine what theatre
As
is
an
Germany they are
soldiers would
be
of
mate high estigood music in militaryorganizations.
of
the
worth
the world
if music
as
of music
which
consideration.
These
government evidentlyplaces a
the value
realize
value
10,000 militarymusicians.
Every regiment of troops in the bugle and fife and and part in our militarydrills. To
commercial
a
Britain.
the real worth
its proper
have
than
more
nothing of
prove there
that should
element
11,000 in all Great
were
our
drum
of
would
taken
a
own
country has
its band,
play
important
corps
thing it is well
be without
from
an
it
to
Think
it,of the church
try
to
of the without
powerful influence of music, of the school minus that unifying element, of an army dependingupon the voice only for signalsand for inspiration, barred of all publicgatherings of song and orchestra, of smaller social groups, of children's and plays,without the rhythm and time of song or games Can you imaginesuch a dreadful state of affairs, instrument. would be in? and can you imagine the stage of culture we A savage state surely, without the refining, unifyinginfluence the
of this great art. There is scarcelya
publicor privateinstitution where the services of one musicians are not required. of many or It has its commercial value. It is not a mere playthingfor is a the populace, The field for the musician entertaining large one and it behooves us as a country to give every opportunityfor musical education to our people as have other
THE"
328
thousands for
good
more
as
music
can
all
be in
and
educator
the artist. It
to
afraid to view
is not
which
land
If it pays to fillour homes, music, then we must find a chorus of the
a
meaning
that is best an
be
can
of art
ideal condition
by
eye.
cities with
good
supply the demand
for
a
schools and
our
to
way
with
nor
commercial
with
a
orchestra
an
or
a
band
ing deep understandof all large appreciation
with
a
strive toward such may helpingto educate our peoplein so well
in his
even
art
of every member real musician,one
performers. Not or
of going to solve many to belong to the theoretical of our mind is the practical is
who seemed
problems which have
need
to
great nation
man practical
It is the the
a
will
realize the power such as this,
made
peopleare
and
musicians
of
thousands
need
We
countries.
"MUSIC
OF
THEORY
own
We
art.
and
greater knowledge of appreciationfor the best thingsthe world offers* We
can
widen
balanced
the
see
a
have
we
material
must
common
from
underpaid,and
we
whether
their services
awake
are
they must be awakened Here ready for them. men
who
uses
it to best
have
all know or
the
not
in
our
Americans when
and
ready to pay the professionalman in order interests ,
work
a
not
proof been
showing the hopes of creating but of performer.
thing,as a people, tbe day will come
have
to
have
other
provide decentlyfor himself his worth
to
a
community
a
'
*
,
t
",*
a
in
of composer
of
will
to proportion
In
time
for it,and
to
sort of
some
them, in
to
alive to the worth
are
is
If not, then
country there have
given their talent
When
our
have
own
publicwhat good music means an not only of the appreciation
the
they this is true, but again we peoplewho are paying for
must
we
takes
country that
benefitsreceived,
to the
and
he
advantage. There
professional peopleof
consider
to
the present conditions to meet, and the man realizes the conditions quite as sense
he finds and
great cry are
a
dreamer, but unlike the dreamer
the
as
will have
understandingof all life and help them of life. of all life and all expressions
everyday
well
they
their
oneness
But of
that
way
*
APPRECIATION then
Where
the
we
The
family of
success
good
or
easy
is the smallest
all
bad
the
how
our
is
social
greater than
inculcate
to
a
can
we
for music
and
when
and munity com-
nation then
we
work.
can
it rests the upon its influence for It is then
measure.
of culture should
love
creatinga each
our
through which
unit,and and larger institutions,
that the seeds
the home so
first medium
is the
home
and
decide in part for itself. consider the child as the hope of
must
of
process
artistic production, and
possible,now,
Everywhere If
begin this
to
we
understandingof
desire and how?
are
329
in
be sown, and it is good music in the
family circle. Shall the son or daughter be made to practise for many hours, and money expended upon their lessons and an instrument, is a questionfor parents to consider upon well. When talent is lackingsurely the child might better give his time to good, healthyplay and spare his family and ingly unwillor neighbors the necessityof listening willingly for hours of each day to five-finger exercises and later
his
to waltzes
marches
and
drummed
out
to
his one,
two, three
Such compulsorypractise means one, two, three, four. Rubinstein said sufferingfor both child and adult. When and
far from to
our
"
"
piano disease 'he was not been given right,for piano lessons have universally children regardlessof their natural abilityor lack
that America
afflictedwith
was
of it
We
throughout this work to impress necessary to upon the reader the fact that it is not absolutely become amateur an even performer in order to appreciate good
music.
wish
not
have
to
endeavored
learn, it is true, by doing, and deprecatemusical instruction in the home. We
it,however, be of of
a
poet than
do
a
the
sane,
rational nature.
adult and
the
The
simple songs
we
child is and
do Let
more
lullabys
simple,clear way awaken in his littleheart is who of closer kinshipbetween him and the singer, a feeling Music is a part of the human soul,and usuallythe mother. the very small infant respondsto the rhythm and tune even of the lullaby.It is a language he vaguely understands sung
to
him
in
a
this
spoken word
the
before
in the
while
has any
language cradle,and then
it is
reason
OF
THEORY
THE
330
development
a
of his natural
MUSIC
meaning for him, should
he
familiar with
become be
there should
desire for it
no
break
there
as
for
and
so
in the
often is.
quietedby the mother's song, and then when he into a his babyhood he is plunged at once has outgrown language so foreignto him, and perhapsuntil he enters school music has no further placein his littlelife. This should not be so, for it is during the first few years that it is comparatively and direct the rightdesires in a child, easy to awaken and by giving him simple,but beautifully simple,and pure music in childish songs, rhythms,and dances, you are helping the good in all forms of life. and appreciate him to know We do not discouragetechnical instruction for children, though for the very young child it is deadening. He sings for the joy of it, largelya physicaljoy, but he is a little physicalbeing with spiritand mind only just awakening. Let him feel the rhytten,the swing and melody of the song, let him hear much good music before any attempt is made to infant is
The
its
anythingOff the
him
teach
place in
any art elements
plan of
education,for
his
know
must
one
which
enter
has
of reallygreat appreciation somethingof how it is made, of the into it and of the design or working a
the creator.
Today good where
homes
That
material part of the art
music
there
is
great masterpiecesand
well
performed is
musiciaa*
no
The
not
barred
demand
the lack of talent to
from
for the
play them
has
The brought about our truly wonderful mechanical music. to us as a means of amusement but now in pianolafirst came its perfectform is a means also of education. Because you cannot follows you are sing and camtot play it by no means not
musical.
be withm the home those whose may appreciationof nmsic is deeperand truer than that
love and
of many
a
performer,tmt
de^op *e
to a*
There
home
yes^
dften
there is
opportunityfor appreciation.The valtee of a pianolain
fcasinet be
estimated*
no
MacMtte-made
music
is
^feti^lfia^per cent, better flian ttat often performed
APPRECIATION homes
in
of
even
artists scoff at
the
of
and
inventions
the
peoples the
of
millions
wealth
331
culture. which of
means
greatest composers
Why
then
to
thousands
carry
knowing the interpretedby
should and
musical
ations cre-
the greatest
performers ? it is true
It caters
to
the taste
of him
who
prefersthe it also produces the finest popular songs be performed upon the piano. And music which can more, furtherthe two-steps are well played,which cannot even always the said when be played by boy or girlwho can read a little music, can manipulate the piano keys, and trusts to ear for and
the
rest.
There
to
two-steps, but
people who have sing reasonably well in a glee or
the time
or
that of wearisome
of
child cannot
excel
be taken
from
order
to
gain
a
the
time
and
Half
boy him
her
or
as
studies and
other
knowledge but
how
they
for as
a
and
so
correctlyis
not
read
of dollars spent in for the art of music?
love
small amount
will
of money
vocallyat sightand music
that not
so
kept alive
minds
of
to
give the
will teach
only
the technical
senses
beauty
are
going
influence and
school
a
should
of entertainment.
means
structi in-
making of the pleasureswith them, only
towards
the
bring their them be such pleasuresas will elevate and create a something higher. Music has its placein the home but
these
that home
course
of all kinds
let
of chorus
hear.
It is true
man,
form
hundreds
of and
listen to
to
but gratified
be may of what
some
enough
learning to play an instrument involves scale playing. If it is known that a time a performer why should so much
girl the abilityto
or
at least voice
not
spent in learningto do
money
great, while months
few
are
No
how
matter
desire
just
boisterous the
accompaniment or how loud the chorus there is influence in the gathering wholesome an refining, insensibly mental together for one purpose, in the lendingof voice and instrusong
and
its
skill for the of
one
home
or
mere
enjoyment by
sensuouts
It is
of several homes.
that attracts, and
thea, with
a
a
ment of entertain-
form
wiser head
the children
to
guide them,
will rise to
in the home
music
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
332
higher plane,and
a
the finer
touched; and if there is any selves. real talent or true appreciation they will begin to show thementer into whether It is a means of enjoyment all can there is nothing and if pursued in the right way old or young, of people as music. that will bind so closely a littlegroup Again and again we repeat that it is so universal a language, sensibilities of the child will be
appealsto all,it should be a part of the nature of every Does music in the home and hence its unifyingpower. man, that you are making it possible Does it pay to know pay? all that is and appreciate for your child or children to know it
does it pay to help him or them good and beautiful, have thought and to think thoughts that the greatest minds Does it pay to start have expressed in beautiful melodies? him rightin the world, to bring him into close sympathy not and
true
only with his
world
littlehome
own
opening
the great wide world his mind to the wonders
God's
man's,
an
art, with
The
or
best is
is the
the child. our
the
best
If
and
to
can
all less
rugs.
is not does some were
givinghim
all followed William
we
either not useful well
of
all
creation,whether is his
what
by right.
good for any home, and the ideal home only the best in the way of art is brought to there would
homes
life
but
and
through so universal all its people? By
too
none
where
one
are
you
but
beautiful.
rise
soon
give, that is,if His
Morns'
we
a
rule for furnishing
demand
for
only
discarded all that is
rule would
apply equally tangiblethings than furniture and pictures or
If all in the way
of literature and conversation
that
elevatingand pure, if all in the way of music that beautiful or at least not, however simply,express some true emotion, or displaysome artistictechnical worth* barred from the home the child would always demand the
If he is fed upon wholesome for that which does not nourish.
best.
Educators
have
no
taste
faction to life'ssatislong realized the necessity
of the constant
btt tprtilthe
food he will have
beautyin nature and art, peoplecould be made in some degreeto realize ft ws difficultto make the st^dyof art forms presence
of
APPRECIATION
333
the
part of
public school curriculum. Today, however, there is scarcelya public school, however small the town which of instruction supports it,but that includes in its course music and some drawing. Music has of course always been present wherever few people gathered together,and a schools have always realized its unifyingpower, and songs have always been sung by teacher and pupils. Other lands alive to the influence of music and supported long ago were by public funds singing societies where the best instruction That instruction was was given the people entirelyfree. often faulty,time has proven, but nevertheless it was by such effort and through such experiments that we have evolved Every cityof any size now systems of class instruction. The employs special instructors. training of children's voices and the teaching of technics of music is no longer left musical knowledge and perhaps entirely to a teacher without still have with us those who lacking in appreciatioa We object to the introduction of the study and practiseof art in a
our
schools
the
on
kind particular
which
however, that citizen and
seem
feel his
man
our
shall be
follows
which
carry with it the the publicdemands for its
which
of education
children, the kind for existence
that it does not
ground
of service in the
their school
life.
struggle They do ask,
schools
prepare the child for the life of a to forget that anythingwhich helpsto make with
oneness
all mankind
is the very
thing that
It is true they have some part of all education. of be only a means Art may ground for their argument. anti-social and then surely is an luxury and self-indulgence should
be
a
agent, it has nature
of
acted
some
men
strengthenedthe But
these
for music must
occupy
no
and
overstimulant
an
in that way
for
the
has weakened
emotional instead of
will power.
objectionsare
in the
overcome
tion, publicinstruc-
has its proper place in the outline of studies ; it than it legitimately more should; it must be
wiselydirected and instruction.
as
must
It is not
correlate with allthe other branches of to
make
boys and for music instruction,
musicians
girlsthat the cityexpends its ftmds
for
of
our
is
oratorio singers that the the school chorus are given time and
orchestral playersor
make
to
not
copiesof song-books;it
of
for the thousands
pianos,and
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
334
and
school orchestra
It is here
attention.
in the home
as
powerfulagency
a
in
helping the youth of our land to understand what right livingis; it is not to prepare them to make a livingbut to prepare and help them to live. Institutions of higherlearningwere admit
the
somewhat
of music, but
study practical
collegesinclude it with studies
of the
slow
to
leading sciences,language and today
our
literature. the child
History to
youth means accordingto
justso
or
of greater or less interest but to the maturer student it is
a
his
of picture
facts
many
inclinations,
own
life. The
history
the studies included among have always included it,and now of the child,but colleges musical education,the study of that they also offer a practical
of
art for
an
is seldom
this reason
Its value to greaterappreciation. historyof music is a means lies in its abilityto establish a close relation between the student
and
He
work.
art
is
through sympatheticpower
able to enter
into the life of the artists and
all he is not
so
far removed
from
them,
to
feel that after
for he finds he and
The purpose of the study of they have interests in common. art historythen is to enrich the inner life of the student by making it receptiveto all the influence which music in its
developmentthroughthe Musical courses so
as
is in
a
theory
ages has gainedthe power to exert, has also long been accepted in school
it treats of music way
from
a
scientificstandpoint, and
related to other sciences and has
a
value
as
a
unlike
not mathematics. The trainingof discipline not however, was considered a proper singersand players, part of collegecourses, but with a fuller realization of the part music is to play in the developmentof our country came added courses, includingperformance. Historic and theoretical
mental
studies
how
are
necessary, to listen to music, and
surelyand correctly as
a
but the real criticmust
know
so nothingwill givethis ability knowledgeof the technics of music
APPRECIATION
gained by such trainingas instruction. is raised
Then, too,
giving
musician
be
to
it.
It
It is
making
raise the type of free the people from
to
class of
unbalanced
mind
The
of
and
musical
business
a
ties collegeauthoriwill expect
we
well
a
as
vocal
or
balanced
critic,composer
a
man
or
former. per-
practical thingof music that is going musicians and of music, that is going to a
the
idea that musicians
people and
mentality and will
the
that in time
educated
specialtyis that
whose
of music
and university
means
well
a
given in instrumental
the standard
the consideration
by
are
is
335
grows
that music
as
are
a
of
sort
a
study weakens
of the student power by what it is fed upon, and
the habitual
hearing of good music will go a long ways toward appreciation, is absolutely although an intellectual understanding must sider connecessary to any great appreciation.However, we the
great reach
of
mass
cannot
our
nor churches, colleges,
We
but
other
arts, and
music
without It would
in
publicschools,through
to them
easier than
to appeal to possible and to the coarse resorting
be madness
to
expect
districts of
slum
concert
in the technics
it is
of the
some
interest them
cannot
system of education.
through the
even
bring good music
can
we
our
all through our
them
We
theatre.
people in
all
hall and of
an
any
art,
of the
peoplethrough
gross. to reach a park audience
our
big cities by offering
fugues,or Beethoven's symphonies,when all they have had tip to that time were and voice grind-organs performances of the coarsest popularsongs. But there are simple and beautiful compositionsthat speak to the hearts of scholars tell us that only all humans, and some sociological them
art
true art
have
of Bach's
one
which or
when
reaches
false that may we
to
are
been crushed No
the
one
can
masses
be, we deal with
by
is art worth do make a
an
while.
However
effort to find such
peoplewhose
finer instincts
the life about them.
estimate the influence for
good
derived
from
If they did nothingmore open-airband concerts. public, than to bring-togethera great cosmopolitanaudience and and children forgetfor but one-half make its men, women our
the
hour
and
them
lives about
be worth
the
greater, and
the
while.
recreation for mind But their influence is
most
successful settlement
afford rest and
so
body, they would
and
MUSIC
strife in their lives and
and struggles
and
cares
OF
THEORY
THE
336
greatest and
everywhere make use of music in their efforts of of subordinatingthe lower to the higher self,of refining,
workers
bringingabout
and feelingof responsibility
a
they deal.
whom
peopleswith
of the
closer relationship
greater proof of the universal power language of music than that presentedby an audience is
There
free
pleasurewe enjoyinga common the music seems of people. And with equal charm. one They their
sway
subdue
desire
a
emotions
under
to drink
hum
all ages to appealto each and every it is true, differently rhythm, others attempt to
listen
but
along;
best control listen
in the charm,
of
find all classes and
the
to
a
those
who
have
their
and quietly, ing seemintently
and, allowingtheir whole
beings
strains. But a glanceat such inspiring if it is made up of the working people, audience,especially
to be an
bodies to
at
gatheredtogetherfor the purpose
There
concert.
some
and
no
overrun
by
the
impress the observant man this universallybeloved art
with the
ennoblingeffect of is Many a working man attracted to the wholesome atmosphereof a park by the band music. Many a laborer takes his wife and children along in the evening to one of the neighboring parks,and thus the wife who has been toiling in close rooms all day, and the children who have been playingon dusty streets,get out into the open air where the sky forms a big,wide canopy, and the
must
grass
a
soft carpet for the littleones* tired bodies.
husband, removed
from
And
the the degradinginfluence of his usual
evening companionship,finds himself lifted to something better within him, feels in his joy in the music and the beauties of nature
around
him
realizationof his
appreciation and unconsciously he longs to do life, better. And havingenjoyed these pleasures together, having been stirred at the same time and by the same to a cause for the better of side husband and wife leave the craving life, for what
is better in
a
APPRECIATION
park with family is
happier hearts
and
And
better for it.
337
nobler
ideals and
their little
if these visits to the
parks
can
attractive that
be made
so they will call many peopletogether, and call them togetheroften, the amount of money expended authorities for the such music and for beautifying city by the
be too large for such purposes; cityparks can never the city gains in refinement,the people are happier,there is less vice, and the community becomes a stronger social unit. How quickly and easilya populace can be educated to an appreciationfor good music is evinced by the class of makes which music and the largenumup a popular program ber Not long ago one of the popular conof the audience. cert advertised to consist of two s in a park of a largecitywas
parts: the first various
selections and
the second
part to be
Mater.
Long before the concert began all the there being standingroom vseats in the hall were filled, only. It was that the audience would argued, however, by some thin out at the end of the first half;but this was not true, the audience did show desire of foregoingthe not no only Stabat Mater, but fearing to to the pleasure of listening' the
Stabat
lose their seats
the entire audience remained
patientlythrough Add
to
the
accustomed
this the fact that the
park
seated and
intermission of is down
waited
one
hour.
the crowded
near
that the audience consisted for the greater working district, part of a very varied assemblyof working people of all
nationalities,and
that
requiredto get into the
an
admission
fee of
ten
cents
was
can hall,and no thinkingman say that music does not hold a high placein the hearts of the people. These band concerts in parksare not only affording the people happy hours of recreation but they are educating the peopleto a love for good music, and are therefore one
concert
of the strongestinfluences for the socialbetterment of mankind. effect of music on Collegeshave realized the socializing ceive gleeclubs rebody. And for this reason college the heartyco-operation of the faculty. These college the students together; cement they bind not only
the student
songs
present with
of generations
the
connectinglink join the generationsof the the past. The collegesongs form
they
of the classes and
each
between
class but
of each
members
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
338
a
folk-songsof a nation voice the traditions of the universityand form a strong factor in the fraternal life of a the college college. At a student meeting on the campus of the facultya chance to be songs often give the members boys again,and as they join the fellows in their songs they establish a better feelingof good fellowshipbetween pupil lege There are a great many and instructor. things that a colprofessor dare not do with the students, for it would like the
lower
dignityof
the
sing in
the
mass
but position,
meetings,and
better for it.
the
his
And
at
he and
real live
professorcan
his students
will be all
banquet,when graygraduates who have just but at first, a bit stiffly run
the -alumni
with the boys meet received their degreesthings may haired
a
old
the songs of their Alma Mater, and the ice from is broken, strains flow from the lipsas easily as the wine
let
some
start
one
healthy,joyous,free and easy spiritjoins, the present with the past as young and old get acquainted, No form of music has had a greater effect in unifying the people of the past than have the folk-songs, ballads,as or called in England. The word ballad originally they are its name derived from the old French word bailer/'to of dance, and it meant a song sung to the rhythmic movement the
and goblets,
a
"
a
dancing
composed handed
chorus.
for the
These
people,by
ballads the
or
are folk-songs
people themselves,and
songs were
by oral tradition from one generation to t heir sentiment and incidents, another,retaining style, original and sung with the same relish by all the common people* Because of their simplebeauty,the directness of their melody and text, they have lived 'throughcenturies while the more down
artificialmusic
of the
Ballads sprang flitted from
nobilityhas been lost
from
the heart and
age to age among
the
mom
the
tf $*$ i^"mn'$ sptesh
simple classes of
and
forgotten.
lipsof the people,and the shepherds, the peasants and mankind They m$4e music to o$r, th^rstilteda melody to
APPRECIATION the whir
339
the spinningwheel, and they lightened
of the
labor
and nature seemed to aid these plowman in the field, simple singers in their song, for the folk-songimitates the of the bird, the whisper of the trees, the roar of song
of the
of the stream. the storm, and the murmurs The soul of the through these simple songs and afforded peasant breathed the
him
to pleasurethat the bird seems the in From similarity the ballads
same
lilt
musical
Greece, and
France,
people their
songs
know
we
lay and
how
what
of
England,
close to the hearts of these
comfort
a
been to the lonelyworker
have
find in his
and
a
solace
they
wanderer, and solitary in the home, the village what an unifyingpower they were games, and at festivals and publicgatherings. labor;the work Every one knows how singinglightens must
of
hands
the
sing to
the feet becomes
or
of the
the motions
countries
at
body.
half And
the present time, where
stages of
savage not only knows but that he employs music
a
play where the lips tripthrough savage is stillin the
man
reveals to civilization,
the
aesthetic
or
tive primi-
by
signs that many the utility of music in dailylife
as
a
us
useful art
than
more
an
as
one.
negro boatmen sing a song keepingtime with the strokes. One The
as
they ply their paddles, or
more
of the
rowers
The music song, and then all join in the chorus. stimulates their sluggishnatures and helpsthem to overcome
begin the
their inborn laziness. is
stream
easilyand
regular accents, increased
under
cheerful frame boateien
negro
and
the
In this way
long distance
up a rapid quicklycovered,the strokes fall with a
strengthbehind each stroke effect of the melody. In stimulating the
as
forth all the Way
The used Much
a
of mind, unconscious of their labor, these arrive at their destination only half as finally
they wotild have been had they covered the of every dfort they had distance in sik"ce, mindful tired
is
tiegroes
alongto propelth@ir craft. southern potations before our on
different songs
to
accompany
is said and sung abort the
theif work
the
same
put war
in the fields.
of a planta|j|"teresqtieness
tion
every
of
The
vibratingmelodious
notes
the cotton
stirred the emotions
of the
scene.
among
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
340
listener
darkies
hearer, but
not
to the workers. the song meant easy it is to be carried along by a hands, feet and head involuntarily
guessed what how
knows
Everybody
the
rhythmic melody, your Without keep time to the music. any effort on your part the as long body becomes active and it will keep up this activity as
the music
lasts.
of
some
of
originof
the
Just what unknown, but
darkies' song
the southern
is,is
close resemblance to those
of them bear many tribes. the African
Without
a
doubt
singing
accompanied the slaves' work, and the song whose words the and whose rhythm marked probablydescribed the actions, to be a symbolicsong, and at each particular actions,came
harvestingit was generationto the somewhat idlyno
repeatedand other. doubt
The
handed
so
text
down
from
one
mind, occupiedthe singer's
because it
was
so
well known, while
rhythmic swing of the music stimulated his sluggishlimbs and kept them going much to activity more easilythan they would have moved had they depended for their generative the
Nor
it necessary that every worker sing. being created to be heard by all
the will of their owner. power upon to the successful results of these songs
Just so enough melody was the effect was there,and so when
was
of the
singerstired, others who had been silent took up the song, and by the freshness of their voices infused new vigor into the tiring limbs. Sometimes hired by plantation singerswere owners furnish instrumental music at a harvesting to sing or time. The noted for the rhythm of their are now even negroes music; they have a perfect ear for accent, and all their melodies are clearly marked by a well defined rhythm* And this characteristic so essential to good music condones for of the shortcomingswhich their melodies many display. may Among the tribes of Africa the drum plays a very importantpart; drums are used to call the men to arms, to a dance, or
to
sound
trained to know
an
some
alarm, and
these sounds
every
negro
that he makes
no
is
so
well
mistake
in
APPRECIATION them. distinguishing drum and
we
so
beat with
all their
make
can
only do
the savage tribes use the signal,but they believe its din terrorizes the enemy, find that when they march to battle the drummers
a
as
Not
341
might
biggest
the
and
'tis a
noise.
of
case
It is
seeingwhich
well-known
a
side
fact
in
the present day that the drum-beats military circles of even of a marching army not only stimulate the body to activity and help overcome fatiguebut that they infuse courage into and so, armed the hearts of the soldiers, with courage and ready self-reliance, they approach the enemy and the battle is alhalf
which
made
"
Small
won.
the
his foe
to
following the
wonder
bigger noise flight.For
noisier
then
that the savage army succeeded in " frightening
often the
drum-beats
warriors
had
who
their head
at
the greater stimulus,and with this gained by artificial courage, the best
under
advanced
impetus
thus
been
naturally powerful
inspired
ness and by the fierceproved to be the fiercest fighters, of their onslaught drove their enemy to flight.The usefulness of musical instruments among savages as signals in battle has always been recognized. By the use of certain signalsthe army is told the positionof their chief duringa battle,or whether to scatter and shoot from ambuscade, or to in a body upon the enemy. advance The Swiss herdsman his Alpine horn as much for uses told that herdsmen and we as he does for pleasure, are signaling soldiers
'Tis pipesto call the cattle home. upon fact that animals readily obey signalsof
play known
Circus the to
the
claim that the music
men
trainingof
certain tunes tune
as
a
their animals.
movement
The
very
animals
music.
great factor in
learn to
the music
else do it very
either refuse to form perpoorly,losingthe rhythm of the
the animals
seeming spiritless. value of music in the practical and
So in camps
The
a
well-
perform and learn easily, but they depend wholly upon guide and a stimulus. This is shown by the
fact that without at all or
forms
a
and
important a part
does
in cheeringthe soldiers
army
music on
cannot
play
be
in
the line of
estimated. over-
drilling, march,
that
one
may of the
hands
c
than
bugle
the various
of
meaning
b
a
lies in the the army say the destiny of bugle,the fife and the drum-players. almost
recruit has to learn is
of the first thingsthe young
One the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
342
calls.
The
calls
are
the
of signalsis more and the number of army discipline of the alphabet. The bugle sounds twice the number
drill, guard-mount, inspection,attack, advance, retreat, as the spoken word and its language is as intelligible fatigue, incisive. of the captain,and even more On musical to
which
instrument
depended
are
use
to
may
Under
the tired soldier.
any other of the country
the
so inspiration
sary neces-
stimulatingeffect of
a
face
a
or
he
when
cold, and
with
comes
face
of the
physicaland mental
the march
and
familiar song the soldier marches of of his aching limbs,his hunger and thirst,
unmindful
heat, or
drum
be the custom furnish the
to
upon
livelyrhythmic march on
the fife and
line of march
the
to
been
made
does
arrive at the
new
he is not as enemy, strain as he would have
the
without
music.
And
a
camp,
or
conscious
been
good drum
had and
fife corps will go far towards strengthening the effectiveness of a company. The soldiers who are marching to music,
played with animation in perfecttime and tune, march with cheerful a sprightlier step,keep in line better,are in a more frame of mind, and make better fighters than those who are music Take marching to poorly played music. your away and
it is safe to
soldier
by had
can
say
recall
the fife and
been forced
some
drum.
the
army would go to pieces.Every criticaltime when the day was saved A company of Scottish Highlanders
fightwithout the usual accompaniment of their native music. In a battle, when everythingseemed to be going over to the enemy because the Scotch auxiliaries seemed and ineffective, their chieftain appealedto dispirited the commander to have the pipersplay. And the effect was like magic, for as soon as the familiar strains of the bagpipes struck the ears of the fighters their strengthcame back to than, and, chteerhfwith vim, they foughta gallant fightand to
APPRECIATION Nor
can
during
time
war
strain
the
of
much
too
cheer
to
credit to the songs
the soldiers
cheered
No
on.
composed
one
hear
can
"Marching Through Georgia"without
inspirationof its rhythm.
the words
give
we
343
the soldiers and
Not
only its tune
ing catchbut its
enlivened the camp.
The
which the Civil War called forth were of songs inestimable value during those hard years of struggle and the line of march on in camp, suffering. Whether the or the songs emotions.
soldiers
became
them
safety-valvefor pent-up For they found expressionfor their longings for home, their hope for success in battle,and from they gathered cheer to carry them on to deeds of heroism.
The
solace which
sang in them
night bravery by at
and
conveyed, and
these songs
just
was
the
furnished the valuable
as
comfort
and
just as
was
a
the
necessary
heart-sick soldiers
militarydiscipline sympathy their words to
to
the
the drum as were corps or the buglers. army the hearts of the soldiers closer together and violent
sometimes and
the real
Music to
passionsto thoughtsof
of
success
home
the
They brought turned and
of
their try coun-
for which
theywere fighting. shipers was undoubtedly earlyemployed in aiding worhad approach their deityor deities. Before man cause
any definite religionhe lifted up mind and voice in adoration Ever since the earliest times man of the powers above him. has aimed has either invoked to the aid of his god or
evil potency
counteract
sacred
songs
crude, shows ancient
and
of
by
means
instrumental
music,
influence plainlythe spiritual
Hebrews
knew
the power of praise, or
well
The
of music.
of
historyof
no
matter
how
of
music.
The
music, and
the
Bible alludes to their songs row. triumph,or of sorMusic lends Itself so elastically to emotional expression that it has always been an important factor in religious services.
nee"J ;btrtto point to the church' services of all denominations at th$ present day to be Broughtface to face of muste in /efigibus worship. Strip with tfte imppitaito" do niusic of the mass serried 0$ tftal or the Cat"ollc Church We
is
There
church,
Protestant
a
or
deny
singingtheir well-known hymns of its spirituality. Sunday service would lose much
the
and
in
choir
with the church away the congregationthe
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
344
joy
mystery,
a
a
of
certain indefiniteness about the spoken word lacks wholly.
charm, which
the language of music
a
largelythrough our emotions, and into the of us to put our interpretation own allows each one individual ; it speaks to melody, and therefore music is more feel,though he may not each listener in a language he can In this respect in words* his feelings be able to express of the most is analogous to religion.Some keenly music touches
Music
sensitive defined man
religiousnatures ideas
Infinite, they see
and
nor
do
truly a their
hear
in nature
divination
for feelings
so
a
with
an
which
in
are
a
have
and
concerning God
of divinity
feel the
to.
those
are
natures
same
they try
pictureor not
schisms
or
yet these
;
us
his
no
love
well-
for
perfectharmony with the higher power in all they
yet they cannot emotions
express
their
feelings deep, so
real,so of the real truth in life that they accept Their
idea and
sculpturedmarble It may
music.
never
must
stand
are
so
A try to analyzethem. represent a definite idea, for
a
definite idea with
but it usuallyexpresses
A few only a mood, suggest sadness, melancholy,darkness, may tenderness,a simpleconfidingfaith,daintiness, humilityand but when supplication; major chords are sounded the ear fearlessness, quicklycatches tones that express strength, joyThe vivacity, major tones may express brilliancy. ousness, of hope, of courage, not the a prayer, but it will be a prayer prayer of a crushed, wailingspirit, Although the music of the church in early times was its value in the very simple, yet Gregory the Great knew church service and collected and elaborated the diligently
the composer, chords minor
music
then extant
and
gave to the Catholic Church the music which it has used for centuries* We know that in the Sixteenth the oratorio was the outcome Century of the combination of music and the spoken text And Martin Luther, the
great reformer, so
realized the value of music
in
religious
APPRECIATION services that he their
language. Up
own
in
been
had
music
the
gave
Latin, and
we
to this
if
we
text
with
proof of people had
the
hymns
and
for
By
in
hymns
the power of been stirred,
church
to them. unintelligible
was
the words
time all the texts
needed
satisfiedwith
and spiritualized whose
people hymns
rightthere,for
it
have
345
song
ices serv-
of his
means
Luther
gained for his religious precepts a remarkably effective agent, for by choosinga text to suit his melody or by composing a melody to conform with his text he touched hymns
the hearts
if he had
than the
of his hearers
old
had
to
relyupon Latin
with
hymns
more
readilyand more convincingly the spoken word, or had used Tis
texts.
said that the infidels
music; this statement, if true, proves not only the of their hope and a seemingjoylessness in living, meagerness
have
no
but also goes to prove that music is the languageof religion. reaches the masses Music more quicklythan does the
spoken word. and
oration "
audience
An
will listen to
a
Country 'tis of Thee/' and the whole than ready to take join in, and is more the band
as
of
but let the band applaud appreciatively,
My
soon
Fourth
strike up
audience
up the finished the introduction.
has
July
longs to melody as And they'll
sing with all their might even though they may not know all that this is often the words a disgraceto the Americans ('tis true, but it is a fact) and though they may be compelledto hum along or repeat stanzas. It is the strains of the wedding march that
much
more
makes
the
knows
how
multitude Sousa
are
useless,and ones
can
or
start
people who a
the
sad, mournful
tears,
to
march
there
words of the minister significant body wedding service so impressive. Everythan
waste
how
the
all the
argue of time.
music
can
measures
move
of
a a
whole tuneful
whistlers a-whistling,and that
These
music same
is
impractical, people are the
and recreations are impracbelieve that all games tical, for they take a busy man's time and bring him in no
who
never go gain in dollars and cents. Such men ball game; they can't spare the time,or else think it is They don't know what it feels like to shut up
visible
to
a
ish* fooltheir
desk
2:30
at
and
To
shout, to good view of
go rise to
their business but it must business
For
Now a
joy
conducive
are
good
so
ought
a
can
himself.
excess.
game, but he find time for an
for
that he
be carried to
not
to
and
good
it
is
arouses
they
arouse
in them
a
and
The
his business
so
rejuvenate from
care
longevity.
men
and
of
women
healthy,wholesome
joy
as
And
pleasurableemotions.
they take the form
a
get
and healthy, stimulating can't neglecthis A man
to manage
better
far
walks, make
games,
to
just as effective in its way
your
whether recreations,
our
onlookers
and occasional game cheer and a freedom
health and
music
emotional game;
good
boys again.
forget themselves like play again.
so
is
good ball game
a
the
looks
world
be
park and
their feet with
the
that
joyousnessof
to the ball
over
difficult play, to
a
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
346
music, ever whenin life.
from business long actuallycannot get away enough to indulge in any form of recreation,and for such it is very fortunate if they have within them the power men
Some
men
of
appreciating good music.
or
any
a
who
man
and rest in both
then
certs, enjoy park conin the theatre or concert hall,the pianola the concert other instrument they have in their own homes. Many
soothed
can
his office finds great pleasure half-hour's playing, and his mind and body are home
comes a
They
by
from
the music.
ing Perhaps while playmg,or listen-
of his
he too has familyplaying, his business,he too has been a boy again,or of happy memories. caught again the inspiration to
some
The and
the
member
gotten forhas
beneficial effect of music insane
cannot
upon the sick,the vicious be denied, and its practical value in
is acknowledged by physicians, heads of institutions therapeutics for incorrigibles and criminals and by physicians in .chargeof asylums for the insane* Maiatyexperimentshave been tried in,this field, and their results have bten watched with interest and recorded ; but music as a healing power has as a
yet produced
so
littledata that it cannot
be
regardedas
science* thbugh-it is believed by weJWcnown doctors ttrat its in treatpg diseases warrants systematic
APPRECIATION
Just how the
music
is not
body
works
upon
347
the disorders of the mind
perhaps the beneficial results
known;
or
duced in-
are
by a mental condition which the music producesin the motion patient; or it may be due to the influence of vibration, acting directlyupon
the
combination
both
the
of
centers, and it may be due to of these influences. Science alone
nerve
will be able to decide this.
is harmony, and harmony is concord or order, since all forms of disease whether mental or physical are Music
and a
condition
is such
of
disorder,it may
that it harmonizes We
bodilyorgans.
know
be that the effect of music
orders the deranged mind or that musical sounds,not necessarily or
produce joy or excitement and can soothe and It is then reasonable to excalm peoplewhen they are well pect music could become a potent factor in arousing or soothing or body. a disordered state of mind melodies, can
Music
regarded as an aid to medicine in cases troubles,and might play an importantpart in
nervous
is
breakdowns There
nerves.
caused
is
by questionas
no
it has
delirious cases;
depressionand
been known
to to
of venting pre-
overworked
its sedative power
induce
in
freshing healthyre-
a
opiateshave proved useless ; it has caused invalid to forgethis pain;it has called color to the an many cheek, lively sparkleto the eye, and strengthto the voice and the body when other stimulants have been ineffective. Music sleepwhen
the
for it often calls system directly, forth quickerresponse than do a change of scene a dose or to reach
seems
nervous
of medicine.
It is
a
well-known
refreshingstimulant
and
scientificfact that music it braces restorative;
a
acts
as
a
depressed
system and produces a healthful effect. Professor TarchanofFs apparatus for measuring the .effectof musical
nervous
vibrations in the body has shown that tired muscles regain their strength under the effect of bright, livelymusic, while sad music
music
tends to weaken
upon
the
muscles
them
further. stfll
Js similar to
The
effect of
its effect upon
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
348
the softest strains,the blood heart, where often, with even and the respiration pressure rises,the heart action quickens the body directly it acts upon Whether by its increases. it acts indirectly whether the nerve by action on centers or producing a cheery, healthy condition of the mind, science
disputethe effect condition
through
of
person, mind, does
the
relation
correct
body
not
of music
to
no
age
will
one
the
upon
physical
directly,or
acts
nearly so
matter
remains
now
and
music
whether
so
It
act.
day
condition
of the mental
a
fact that it does the
in this
but investigate;
still to
has
much
as
the
for science to discover
disorders of the mind
be obtained. that the best results may individual theorists affirm "that every
and
in order
Some
constitutional
has
a
respondsto music harmonious
key-note,which
itself, just as an edifice trembles to sounds in its own ticular parbe key. Hence, health of body and of soul may promoted by properly adapted music, for if the individuars key-note can be discovered,music that is in harmony with and his organism may be found to suit his case produce
to
All individuals differ: food
healthful results." for
one
person
may
not
agree
with
that is nutritious
another; medicine
trouble disorder,may not relieve that same in all persons, and so with music, not all music affects all and the individuality of the patientas well people similarly, his malady must be studied and the music must be wisely as selected and skilfully appliedin order to reader it useful as The Egyptianswere the firstnation to a therapeutic agent ascribe healingqualities to music; and the Persians were said
which
to
some
cures
various
cure
diseases
by the sound
of
a
corresponding
the lute.
stringupon Physicians managing wholesome cases
can
In many
effect of music
insane on
their
asylums all and patients,
men
become aad
to
the
innumerable
be cited to prove its wonderful for good* power instances violent cases have been soothed and calmed
by music; melancholy patientshave and
attest
interested in their
women
have
been
cheered
to
smile
taciturn,stolid surroundings;
been moved
to
speech and
to
tears, a
APPRECIATION healthful
very have
been
sign with
such
patients.Insane patientswho benefited by music usuallyrespond to
and
roused
its
repeatedstimulus and left the hospitalcured. the inmates
among
349
of
after musical The
results of
certain
a
treatment
asylum
musical
show
have
many
treatment
that about
one-
third of the
improved by
the
to
patientsrecover, and one-third are treatment, while the remainingthird seem
benefit at natural
It is believed
all.
love
before
for music
that it
a
can
patientmust be made
sympathies. effect of The wholesome, regenerative accord
with
the
of
derive
to
music
no
have
his
rouse
when
a
made
the
patientsis fully ist. acknowledged and appreciatedby Dr. Drapes, an Irish alienHe Nothing cheers these patientsor helps them says, ports forgettheir troubles in an equal degree to music. It trans-
to
temperament
"
the regionfor the time being,removes cloud of depression, excitement, grief,tranquilizes assuages ill effect. The and rarely,if ever, produces the slightest of the insane is, and positionof music in the treatment ought to be, a high one, and its importancecan hardly be exaggerated." them
In
to another
1891
in London
later in New
and
York
musical
formed for the purpose guildscalled St. Cecilia Guilds were music to inmates of asylums and infirmaries. of furnishing The music to be appliedunder the supervisionof the was physicians.Many good results are recorded of the services of these guilds, but owing to a lack of financial support both
guilds failed
to
maintain
music
has
vicious children
and
That all who were
deal with
studied
more
children of mankind
a
themselves.
influence softeningand refining
criminals has been observed by young be that if music these people, and it may
carefullyin its relationto
all unfortunate
that its mission here is far
it to be. have yet known It has been the aim of this chapterto cite than
over
more
tical prac-
we
of music, to uses practical pastime for idle moments,
prove nor
that music
is its
some
is not
of the
merely
a
language the language
excited
dreamers
of
of and
poor. and
mother's
the
have
to
come
Parents
story. understand
as
it
well
be
ask
moral is love
to
the is
quotation,
practical
to
him,
spiritual
and
life.
it
is
it
rose,
is
the
is
the
It that
akin
their
to
what cannot
which
his
to
good
value
music.
helps
of him
standard. the
of
It
song
have
a
helps
to
is market
make
to
music, would
child," in
help
a
the
value, life
worth
to
as
man
perfume it
it
art,
tual, intellec-
the
bird,
to
almost
makes
what
good
in
higher
a
his
them
might
Each
is
and
friendship
realize
to
the
One
value
the
parents
beautiful
and
practical
toward
of
pleasure
music.
or
scholar.
music
to
its
tion inspira-
interpret
to
a
creates
nation,
to
children is
what
painting
poetry,
ennobles
happier,
enjoy
to
what is
what
ask
owe
and
whether
it
an
if
meaning
be
and
technicalities,
to
deeper
would
music
good
in
delight
happier,
a
and
a
them
help
day
in
betterment
the
better,
to
time
less
devote
toward
in
invalid,
the
reflective
the
unifying
tend
children
guide
would
a
understood
were
of
the
young,
child
the
solace
to
toward
happier,
of
the
element
mind
is
and
peasant tend
sleep
to
cares
it
joy,
and
peace
lulls
the
forget
that
would
teachers
and
is
all
and
refining
disordered
the
old
by
enjoyed
it
home,
man
music
If
race.
life
to
common
socializing,
a
soothes
people
its
making
the
as
ignorant
things
all
And
in
of
atmosphere to
acts
busy
the
and
loved
It
and
arms
makes
an
in
passion
one
language,
common
a
world,
the
community
it
is
Music
rich
whose
men
"
music. nations
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
350
is
is
what
beyond
while.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SELECTED
Anweisung Albrechtsberger, J. G. of Methods Harmony, Figured "
zur
Base
Composition. and Composition.
2 vols.
Alibrandi, Gio.
di Musica
Manuale
"
all'uso
degli insegnanti
alunni.
ed
Manual A Baker, Theodore Oscar sequel to Professor Interludes ; Banister, H. C.
of
Counterpoint forming Paul's Manual of Harmony.
"
"
the
1891
years
Lectures
and
delivered
between
1897.
Musical
on
lectures
seven
Analysis.
Music. The
of
lating modulating; a series of papers on moduto the pianoforte. The Harmonizing of Melodies. Relation of Psychology to Music. E. F. Bartholomew, Basevi, Abramo Studj Sull 'Armonia. Der Contrapunkt. Bellermann, Hemrich Treatise A Modern Instrumentation on Berlioz, Hector art
"
"
"
"
and
Orchestration. T,
Bertenshaw,
H.
"
Elements
Rhythm, "Counterpoint,
of
Music,
Analysis and
Harmony Muskal Form,
exercises. H.
M,
"
Trait^ "fHarmoafe,
3 vols.
and
with
a
Blaserna, Pietro
OF
THEORY
THE
352
Theory
The
"
of
MUSIC in its Relation
Sound
to
.Music.
Harmony Made Practical. Boise,O. B. Everybody'sGuide to Music. Booth, Josiah An elementary treatise on Musical Bosanquet, R. H. M. Intervals and Temperament. Counterpoint. Bridge,J. F. Double Counterpoint and Canon. Musical Gestures,a practical guide to the Study of the "
"
"
"
of Music,
Rudiments
Broadhouse, John Broekhoven, J. A. Pupil. Broomfield,W. R.
Musical
"
A
"
System
The
"
Acoustics. of
Harmony
for Teacher
and
of Ancient and Modern principles
Music.
Brown,
P,
J.
Intervals,Chords
"
and
Ear
Training for
pianofortestudents, A companion to the Thoroughbass Primer. Burrowes, J. F. A Grammar of Music. Busby, Thomas dans La Musique Simplifiee throne sa et Busset, F. C. dans son enseignement. Musikalische Forrnenlehre. Bussler,Ludwig Manuale di Armenia, Casamorata, L. F. A Treatise on Harmony. Catel,C. S. Challoner, Robert History of the Science and Art of young
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Music. The Theory of Music. Chev"",fimile A Treatise on Counterpoint and Fugue. Cherubini,L. de Compositiondes ficoles Choron, Alexandre Principes "
"
"
d'ltalie. A Manual Clarke,Hamilton of Orchestration, Clarke,H. A. Strict and Free. Counterpoint, Harmony on the Inductive Method. The Elements of Vocal Harmony, La Musique, Colomb, Casimir The Orchestra and How Corder,F. to Write for It. The Theory and Practise of Musical Form, Cornell,J* R "
"
"
"
"
SELECTED
Crotch, William
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Elements
"
of
the rules of
tuning. Crowest, F. J.
Musical
"
of musical
form
and
353
Musical
Composition, comprehending thoroughbass and the theory of
Groundwork
;
being a
first manual
history.
to Observe Curwen, John Harmony, with exercises in analysis. Musical Theory. 5 books. The 12 parts. Commonplaces of Music. Staff Notation; a practicalintroduction on The the Tonic of teachingMusic. Sol-fa Method
How
"
Sol-fa.
Tonic
Dannreuther, E.
Davenport,E.
Ornamentation.
Musical
"
Elements
"
David, Ernest, and
of
Harmony
Mathis
Lussy,
"
and
2
parts.
Counterpoint.
Histoire
de
la
tion Nota-
Musicale. A Treatise Day, Alfred Lehre vom Dehn, S. W. Fugue. Music Dibdin, Charles "
"
Harmony. Contrapunkt
on
dem
Canon
und
der
Epitomized; a school-book; in which the whole science of music is completelyexplained, from the simplestrudiments to the most ciples complex prinof Harmony. and Basses Melodies, for students of Dunstan, Ralph Harmony. Dyckerhoff, Wilhelm Compositions-Schule. 2 vols. The Ethics of Music. Eastman, Edith V. The Elson, L, C. Theory of Music, as appliedto the teaching and practiseof voice and instruments. Elements of Harmony. Emery, S. A. et "ementaire M"hode et abregee d'Harmonie F"is, F. J. d'Accompagnement to understand Music explained to the word; or how Music and enjoy its performance. Trait"" complet de la theorie et de la pratiquede 1'Har-y/ "
"
"
"
"
"
"
monie. Trait6 du
contrepointet de la fugue.
Fuchs, Carl sein
des musikalischcn
Zukunft
Die
"
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
354
Vortrages und
Ursprung.
The Music of Nature. Gardiner, William Traitd general dlnstrumentation, expose Gevaert, F. A. de cet art dans leur applimethodique des principes "
"
"
cation
Forchestre.
a
Gladstone,F. E. Gleich, Ferdinand rung. Glyn, M. H.
Handbuch
"
der
modernen
Instrument!-
Rhythmic Conceptionof Music. The Deeper Sources of the Beauty and
The
"
Harmony.
Five-Part
"
Goddard, Joseph
"
expressionof Music. Philosophy of Music*
The
'
Goldbeck,
Robert
The
"
and
Art
parts, followed by The
Science of Music
Musical
Science Primer
in three in
fifty-
lessons.
three
'CompleteMusical Analysis. a Language, or The Meaning of Musical
Goodrich, A. J.
"
Music
as
Sounds.
Goss,
Sir
Gow, G.
John C.
Musical
Grimm,
F.
An
"
essay
on
The
Composition. A Simple Method
C. W.
Hadow, W*
Harmony
Structure of Music, Notation and Harmony, The
"
on
Graham, G.
Introduction to
An
"
H.
"
an
oughbass. Thor-
book elementarytext-
Theory and of Modern
Practise of
Harmony.
Sonata Form.
"
Art of the Musician; a of music, intelligent appreciation
Hanchett, H. G.
and
The
"
Hanslick, Eduard
The
"
guide to the
Beautiful in Music.
Dissertation on Musical Taste. Hastings,Thomas Haupt, August Theory of Counterpoint,Fugue, and Double Counterpoint;translated by H. Clarence Eddy. Die Lehre von der Harmonik. Hauptmann, Moritz The Nature of Harmony and Metre* A General Historyof the Science and Hawkins, Sir John "
"
"
"
Practise of Music.
SELECTED
Helmholtz,
H.
L.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F.
On
"
355
Sensations
the
of
Tone
as
a
basis for the Theory of Music. physiological is Good What Music? Henderson, W. J. suggestionsto persons desiringto cultivate a taste in musical art. How to write an Herbert,J. B. Accompaniment. Higgs, James Fugue. Treatise on Harmony, Hiles, Henry "
"
"
"
Holden, John
An
"
Essay
towards
Rational
a
System
of
Music.
Horsley,C. E. Horsley, William
A
"
Text-Book An
"
of
Harmony.
Introduction
to
the
Study
of practical
Harmony and Modulation. Notation. Hullah, John "
Rudiments
Jadassohn, S. Fugue. A
of Musical
A
"
Manual
of Musical
Manual
of
Johnson, W.
L
Form.
Musical
The
decorative
The Klauser, J. tonal system. "
Pitch
the ancient
and
the Measurement
of
Greeks.
dlnstrumentation.
"
Kling, H*
and
terpoint. simple,double, tripleand quadruple coun-
"
"
Canon
Harmony.
Intervals among Cours Kastner, G.
Kitson, C. H.
on
in Instrumentation.
of instruction
course
of
a
instruction
of
course
Manual
as
Grammar.
and Counterpoint principle.
Art of
septonate and
the
its
application
centralization of
the
Populate Instrumentations-lehre.
"
E.
Krehbiel, H.
How
"
to
Listen to Music, hints and
gestions sug-
to untaught lovers of the art.
.Esthetics of Pianoforte Playing. Music and Musicians* Lavignac,Albert der Musikalischen Komposition. 4 Lehrbuch Lobe, J. C
Kullak,Adolph"
"
The
"
"
books.
Logier,J. B. and
"
System of the Science of Music, Harmony,
Practical
Composition.
356
THEORY
THE
Lowe, C. E. Lussy, Mathis
Rhythme Expression. Le
"
Musical
Macfarren, G. The
in Harmonics.
Lessons
"
A.
Six
"
Harmony. with progressiveexercises.
on
Harmony
Elements
"
Musical.
Lectures of
Rudiments
McLaughlin, J. M.
MUSIC
OF
Notation
and
of Music.
Le Principeessential de THarmonie. Marchand, Alexandre Marx, A. B. Theory and Practise of Musical Composition. "
"
The
W.
Mathews,
S. B.
Primer
How
"
Musical
of
Typical Forms Metcalf, E.
D.
Italian of Antonio
to understand
Forms;
of Modern
Treatise
"
of Music.
School
Universal
on
a
music.
2 vols.
systematicview
of
the
Music,
Melody, translated from
the
Reicha.
of Ancient Greek Music. The Modes Monro, D. B. Text-Book of Harmony. Oakey, George A Treatise on Ouseley,F. A. Gore Counterpoint,Canon and Fugue. A Treatise on Harmony. A Treatise on Musical Form and General Composition. "
"
"
The Elements of Musical Composition. Palmer, H. R. The Natural and Universal Principles Parkinson, W. W. of Harmony and Modulation. The Art of Music. Parry,C. H. H. Musical Forms. Pauer, Ernst "
"
"
"
The
Elements
of the Beautiful in Music.
A Manual of Harmony. Paul, Oscar Harmonie-Lehre. Piel,P. The Philosophyof Music. Pole,William Prout, Ebenezer strict and free. Counterpoint; Harmony; its theoryand practise. "
"
"
"
Instrumentation.
Raymond, G. L. Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and Music, togetherwith Music as a representative Art. A treatise on The Science of Music. Reeves, D. M. G. S. "
"
SELECTED
BIBLIOGRAPHY
What is Music? Rice, I. L. of Harmony; Manual Richter, E. F.
357
"
practical guide
a
"
to
its
study. Reissmann, August
Allgemeine Musiklehre. der Musikalischen Komposition.3
Lehrbuch
Riemann, Hugo Neue
Handbuch
"
Schule
Musikalische
vols.
der Harmonielehre.
der Melodik.
Logik. Syntaxis.
Musikalische E. A, Robbinrs,
"
American
Method
of
Harmony. Manual Ruelle, C. E. d'Harmonique. Old Saunders, Gordon Examples in Strict Counterpoint, "
"
"
and
New.
Principesde la Musique et Methode de transposition. Extemporization. Sawyer, F. J. order of Fundamental The correct monies, HarSechter,Simon
Savard, Augustin "
"
"
Stainer,John Composition. hundred one Harmony; including "
Treatise
A
on
and
Harmony
exercises. the
Classification of
chords.
Statham, H. H, Stone, W. The
H*
Form
"
Sound
"
and
and
Design in
Music.
Music.
ScientificBasis of Music.
Tappert, Wilhelm
"
Tartini,Giuseppe "
The
"
Studien.
Melodien.
Wandernde
Taylor,John
Musikalische Traite des
Agr"nens
Student's Text-Book
de la
Musique.
of The
Science of
Music. Sound
Taylor,Sedley "
The
and Music.
Science of Music
; or
the
harmony. ThSbaut, A, F. Purityin Music. First Steps in Vernham, J* E,
basis of musical physical
"
"
Melodies*
the
Harmonization
of
358
Vernon,
M. the
to
Vining,
natural
H.
S.
C.
of
Contributions
K.
temperament
creation. Music.
of
Wherefores
and
Whys
Musical
of
Laws
the
dissonance
"
Wead,
of
Analogy
"
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
Musical
of
History
the
to
"
Scales.
Weber,
Godfrey
Weber,
H.
for
Text-Book
A
2
Composition.
Musical
of
Theory
"
of
Study
the
vols.
Harmony.
"
Weitzmann,
C.
of
Manual
Weitzmann's
Bowman's
F. "
Musical
Theory. Rudolph
Westphal,
der
Theorie
Allgemeine
"
Musikalischer
Rhythmik. System
Antiken
der
Wohlfahrt,
Rhythmik.
Heinrich
Guide
Composition.
Musical
to
"
Woodbury,
I.
B.
The
of
elements
Musical
Composition
"
Thoroughbass.
and
Woolhouse,
W.
S.
B.
Essay
"
and
Wiierst,
the
Richard
Musical
on
of
temperament
the
Elementartheorie
Die
monics, Har-
Intervals, scale.
musical der
Musik
und
"
Lehre
Wylde, Zahm, Ziehn,
den
von
The
Henry J.
Accorden. of
evolution
the
Beautiful
in
"
A.
Sound
Music.
and
"
Bernhard
Harmonie-und
Modulations-lehre.
"
Zoeller,
Carli
Zundel,
John
The
Art
of
Modulation.
"
Treatise "
on
Harmony
and
Modulation.
Sound.
die
