Theories on the origin of the Serbs
Serbs are a South Slavic people, living mainly in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The ethnonym Serbs possibly has a different root. There are several theories about the origin of the Serb name, which could be roughly divided into Slavic theory and nonSlavic theories. Among the non-Slavic theories, most widely accepted is the Iranian theory, since the first mention of a tribe called Serboi in history locates them in the northern Caucasus among the Iranian peoples. Languages Serbian Religions Predominantly Serbian Orthodox Christian Related ethnic groups Other Slavic peoples, especially South Slavs See Cognate peoples below (* many Serbs opted for Yugoslav ethnicity) Serbs (Serbian: Срби or Srbi) are a South Slavic people who live mainly in Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, to a lesser extent, in... Distribution of Slavic people by language The Slavic peoples are a linguistic and ethnic branch of Indo-European peoples, living mainly in Europe, where they constitute roughly a third of the population. ... Not to be confused with Republika Srpska. ... This article is about the country in Europe. ... An ethnonym (Gk. ... Language(s) Persian, Kurdish, Pashto, Balouchi, Ossetian and various other Iranian languages. ...
Contents
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1 Earliest historical records of names similar to "Serb" 2 The Slavic theory about the origin of the Serb name 3 The Iranian theory of the origin of the name 'Serb' 4 Alarodian theory 5 Traces and possible migrations of Serbs 6 Relation with Sorbs 7 Possible connection with names of Sarmatians and Sabars o 7.1 Name of Sarmatians o 7.2 Name of Sabar 8 Theory of modern-day Serbs origin 9 Literature 10 References on Ancient and Medieval Serbs 11 External links
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12 See also
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Earliest historical records of names similar to "Serb" Here are a few of the earliest quotations from well known ancient geographers and historians: •
Rig Veda - ancient religious sanskrit text (3000-1500 b.c.)in book VIII., 32., 2.:
"2 Strong God, he slew Anarsani, Srbinda, Pipru, and the fiend, Ahisuva, and loosed the floods." From all the European peoples the Serbs are the only race from the construction of the wording of their name, according to the Austrian sanskritologist Walter Wust who are composed in the Vedic hymns as the characteristic SRBINDA, in which almost letter to letter is identical to the modern form SRBENDA used by Balkan Serbs. The Rig Veda ऋग्वेद (Sanskrit ṛc praise + veda knowledge) is the earliest of the four Hindu religious scriptures known as the Vedas. ... In the Vedic manuscripts, Wust interprets, SRBINDA as its own original to say patented name with a predetermined meaning. Which is in complete harmony to thinking of today’s SRBENDA expression in Serbs, because Srbenda is always the best, the most respected, most brave, the greatest for respecting tradition: in short a man who is used and shown as an example to others. •
Herodotus (11,6) (5th century BC), and Diodor from Sicily (1,30) mention the lake named Serbonis (Σερβυνιδοζ) in lower Egypt. However taking the large distances into the account it is highly unlikely that today's Serbs have anything to do with that particular toponym.
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Strabo (63 - 19 BC): "the river Kanthos/Skamandros is called Sirbis (Sirbika) by the natives." ( Strabonis rerum geographicarum libri septendicini, Basileza 1571 s. 763).
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Tacitus (ca. 50 AD): described the Serboi tribe near the Caucasus, close to the hinterland into the Black Sea. Many consider this theory as a very probable one taking some distant linguistic similarities with today's Caucausus people's such as Ingushi, Chechens etc.
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Pliny (69-75 AD): "beside the Cimerians live Meotics, Valians, Serbs (Serboi), Zingians, Psesians." (Historia naturalis, VI, c. 7 & 19 Leipzig 1975). It coincides with the Tacitus's view on Serbian ancient homeland among the Iranian peoples of the Caucasus.
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Ptolemy (150 AD): "between the Keraunian mountains and the river Pa, live the Orineians, Valians and Serbs." (Geographia V, s. 9). Ptolemy also mention the city in Pannonia named Serbinum (present day Gradiška in Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina). This well known ancient scientist one more time points out to the Caucasus placing Serbs close to Black Sea riviera.
Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: Hērodotos Halikarn�sseus) was a Greek historian from Ionia who lived in the 5th century BC (ca. ... Diodorus Siculus (c. ... The Greek geographer Strabo in a 16th century engraving. ... In Greek mythology, Scamander (Skamandros) was an Oceanid, son of Oceanus and Tethys. ... The Geographika is an extensive work by Strabo, spanning 17 volumes, and can be regarded as an encyclopedia of the geographical knowledge of his time; except for parts of Book 7, it has come down to us complete. ... For other uses, see Tacitus (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Caucasus Mountains. ... For other uses, see Black Sea (disambiguation). ... Ingush may refer to: The Ingush language The Ingush people, an ethnic group of the North Caucasus Category: ... This article covers the Chechen people as an ethnic group, not Chechen meaning citizens of Chechnya. ... Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19th Century portrait. ... The Cimmerians (Greek: , Kimmerioi) were ancient equestrian nomads who, according to Herodotus, originally inhabited the region north of the Caucasus and the Black Sea, in what is now Russia and Ukraine, in the 8th and 7th century BC. Assyrian records, however, first place them in the region of Azerbaijan in... Languages Serbian Religions Predominantly Serbian Orthodox Christian Related ethnic groups Other Slavic peoples, especially South Slavs See Cognate peoples below (* many Serbs opted for Yugoslav ethnicity) [27] Serbs (Serbian: Срби or Srbi) are a South Slavic people who live mainly in Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, to a lesser extent, in... Naturalis Historia, 1669 edition, title page. ... For other uses, see Tacitus (disambiguation). ... This article is about the geographer, mathematician and astronomer Ptolemy. ... Look up Pa, PA, pa in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Languages Serbian Religions Predominantly Serbian Orthodox Christian Related ethnic groups Other Slavic peoples, especially South Slavs See Cognate peoples below (* many Serbs opted for Yugoslav ethnicity) [27] Serbs (Serbian: Срби or Srbi) are a South Slavic people who live mainly in Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, to a lesser extent, in... The Geographia is Ptolemys main work besides the Almagest. ... Position of the Roman province of Pannonia Pannonia is an ancient country bounded north and east by the Danube, conterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. ... Serbinum (also known as Servitium) was an ancient Roman city in the Pannonia province. ... City area Bosanska Gradiška (Cyrillic: Бо�ан�ка Градишка), is a town and municipality in northwestern Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. ... Not to be confused with Serbia. ... For other uses, see Black Sea (disambiguation). ... Aureus of Licinius, celebrating his tenth year of reign and the fifth year of his son Licinius (on the obverse). ... Satellite image of the Carpathians. ...
The Slavic theory about the origin of the Serb name There is a theory that the name Serbs was a designation for all Slavic peoples in history. The earliest possible association of Serbi with Slavs is from Procopius (6th century), who says that Antae and Sclavenes (Slavs) originally had the common name Sporoi, which has been claimed as a corruption of Srbi (Serbs). The Serbs came from the north from what is now the Czech Republic region. Serb may trace back to the Altai root word Ser-dust, sand. [1]
The Iranian theory of the origin of the name 'Serb' The original Serboi were probably Sarmatian (Iranian) tribe, who lived in Eastern Europe (Sarmatia Asiatica), to the north of the Caucasus. The earliest historical records about these Sarmatian Serbs dates from the 1st century, in the works of the historian Tacitus (ca. 50 AD) and geographer Pliny (Plinius) (69-75 AD). Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1254x760, 218 KB) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1254x760, 218 KB) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Sarmatian horseman Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae (the second form is mostly used by the earlier Greek writers, the other by the later Greeks and the Romans) were a people whom Herodotus (4. ... Pre-1989 division between the West (grey) and Eastern Bloc (orange) superimposed on current national boundaries: Russia (dark orange), other countries of the former USSR (medium orange),members of the Warsaw pact (light orange), and other former Communist regimes not aligned with Moscow (lightest orange). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Caucasus Mountains. ... For other uses, see Tacitus (disambiguation). ... Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19th Century portrait. ... In the fourth century, these Sarmatian Serbs, together with Huns and Alans, moved to Central Europe, and were found dwelling near the Elbe, in a region designated as White Serbia, in what is now Saxony (eastern Germany) and western Poland. The Sarmatian Serbs, it is argued, intermarried with the indigenous Slavs of the region, adopted their language, and transferred their name to the Slavs. Since the white colour was designation for the west, name White Serbia actually could mean 'Western Serbia'. For other uses, see Hun (disambiguation). ... The Alans, Alani, Alauni or Halani were an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmatian people, warlike nomadic pastoralists of varied backgrounds, who spoke an Iranian language and to a large extent shared a common culture. ... Central Europe The Alpine Countries and the Visegrád Group (Political map, 2004) Central Europe is the region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. ... This article is about a river in Central Europe. ... White Serbia is the area of modern-day eastern Germany and western Poland inhabited by White Serbs in the early medieval ages. ... Location Time zone CET/CEST (UTC+1/+2) Administration Country NUTS Region DED Capital Dresden Minister-President Georg Milbradt (CDU) Governing parties CDU / SPD Votes in Bundesrat 4 (from 69) Basic statistics Area 18,416 km² (7,110 sq mi) Population 4,252,000 (11/2006) [1] - Density 231 /km... The Slavic peoples are the most numerous ethnic and linguistic body of peoples in Europe. ... White Serbia is the area of modern-day eastern Germany and western Poland inhabited by White Serbs in the early medieval ages. ... Byzantine sources report that part of the Serbs (already a Slavic people by that time) then migrated southward in the seventh century and eventually settled in the lands that now make up southern Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, and Herzegovina. In this region, Serbs mixed with other Slavic tribes (which settled there in the sixth century) and with descendants of indigenous peoples of the Balkans. Byzantine redirects here. ... Not to be confused with Republika Srpska. ... This article is about the country of Bosnia and Herzegovina. ... This article is about the geographic area of Herzegovina. ...
Rival chiefs, or župani, vied for control of the Serbs for five centuries after the migration. Župan Vlastimir formed a Serbian principality under the Byzantines around 850, and the Serbs soon converted to Christianity. The Serbs had two political centers in the eleventh century: Zeta, in the mountains of present-day Montenegro, and Raška, located in modern southwestern Serbia. Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box: Christianity is... Zeta was one of the first Montenegrin states in the Middle Ages. ... RaÅ¡ka (Raschka, Rascia, Rassa) was the central and most successful medieval Serbian state (or župa, area ruled by a župan) that unified neighboring Serbian tribes into the main medieval Serbian state in Balkans. ... Another part of the Serbs did not migrate southwards, but remained in the Elbe region. Descendants of these Serbs are the present day Lusatian Serbs/Sorbs, who still live in the Lusatia (Lužica, Lausitz) region of eastern Germany. This article is about a river in Central Europe. ... The Sorbs are a Slavic minority indigenous to the region known as Lusatia in the current German states of Saxony and Brandenburg (in former GDR territory). ... Lusatia (German Lausitz, Upper Sorbian Å�užica, Lower Sorbian Å�užyca, Polish Å�użyce, Czech Lužice) is a historical region between the Bóbr and Kwisa rivers and the Elbe river in the eastern German states of Saxony and Brandenburg, south-western Poland (Lower Silesian Voivodeship) and the northern... It is possible that the proto-Serbs in Sarmatia were similar to other Sarmatian/Iranian peoples on the northern Caucasus, such as the Alans, and spoke an Indo-European Iranian language similar to present-day Ossetian. At some point in the history of the Serbs, this Old Serb language stood side by side with the Slavic language in White Serbia (mentioned by the Byzantine emperor, Constantine Porphyrogenitus), and likely even in the first 300 years leading up to the formation of the Serb state in the Balkans in the 9th century. Even to this day, the Serbian language has at least a third as many words in its vocabulary than other Slavic languages. This is because of the influence of Old Serb and Illyrian as well as Turkish on the Slavic language spoken by the Serbs today. The Alans, Alani, Alauni or Halani were an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmatian people, warlike nomadic pastoralists of varied backgrounds, who spoke an Iranian language and to a large extent shared a common culture. ... Map of Ossetia Ossetia is a region in the northern Caucasus Mountains, inhabited by the Ossetians. ... The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages) comprise the languages of the Slavic peoples. ... Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos (the Purple-born) (905 November 9, 959) was the son of Byzantine emperor Leo VI and nephew of Alexander III. He earned his nickname as the legitimate (or more accurately legitimized) son of Leo, as opposed to the others who claimed the throne during his lifetime. ... Balkan redirects here. ... Serbian (; ) is one of the standard versions of the Shtokavian dialect, used primarily in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Croatia, and by Serbs in the Serbian diaspora. ... Countries where a West Slavic language is the national language Countries where an East Slavic language is the national language Countries where a South Slavic language is the national language The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages), a group of closely related languages of the Slavic peoples and a subgroup... The Illyrian languages are a group of Indo-
European languages that were spoken in the western part of the Balkans in pre-Roman times. ...
One of the possible routes of the dispersal of the word "Serb". Note the similarities to the Croatian dispersal paths What was the origin of the Sarmatian Serbs? Since the modern Ossetian language derived from ancient Sarmatian, we can search for the origin of Sarmatians if we compare relationships between languages of Iranian stock. The Ossetian language is a member of Eastern Iranian branch of Iranian languages, along with Pashtun, Yaghnobi and languages of the Pamir. The original homeland of the Sarmatians was probably in the region where these eastern Iranian languages are spoken today, somewhere between Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Pakistan. Image File history File links map showing the hipotetic migration of Serbs File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links map showing the hipotetic migration of Serbs File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Ossetic or Ossetian is an Iranian language spoken on the slopes of the Caucasus mountains on the borders of Russia and Georgia. ... Sarmatian Cataphract Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae (the second form is mostly used by the earlier Greek writers, the other by the later Greeks and the Romans) were a people whom Herodotus (4. ... The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family. ... The Pashtuns (also Pushtun, Pakhtun, ethnic Afghan, or Pathan) are an ethno-linguistic group consisting mainly of eastern Iranian stock living primarily in eastern and southern Afghanistan, and the North West Frontier Province, Federally Administered Tribal Areas and Baluchistan provinces of Pakistan. ... Yaghnobi language - one of two living Northeastern Iranian languages, spoken in high valley of the Yaghnob river in Zarafshan area of Tajikistan, considered to be direct descendant of Sogdian by many linguists. ... The Pamir languages are a subgroup of the Iranian languages, spoken in the Pamir Mountains, primarily along the Panj River and its tributaries in the southern Gorno-Badakhshan region of Tajikistan around the administrative center Khorog ( ), and the neighboring Badakhshan province and is in Pamir Area Afghanistan. ... The Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos, in his Book Of Ceremonies, calls the Croats and Serbs "Krevatas and Sarban"[citation needed], who were located between Alania and Tsanaria. Ṣārbān is also the name of a Pashtun tribe in Afghanistan, who are believed to be at least in part - of Scythian descent. Languages Croatian Religions Predominantly Roman Catholic Related ethnic groups Slavs South Slavs Croats (Croatian: Hrvati) are a South Slavic people mostly living in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and nearby countries. ... Languages Serbian Religions Predominantly Serbian Orthodox Christian Related ethnic groups Other Slavic peoples, especially South Slavs See Cognate peoples below (* many Serbs opted for Yugoslav ethnicity) [27] Serbs (Serbian: Срби or Srbi) are a South Slavic people who
live mainly in Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, to a lesser extent, in... ALania can refer to: Yhe feudal state of Alans. ... Tzanaria (alternative spellings: Tsanaria, Canaria, Sanaria, Sanaryia) was a historic district in the early medieval Caucasus, chiefly laying in what is now the northwestern corner of Georgia’s Mtskheta-Mtianeti region. ... Sarbans are a tribal group of Pashtuns in Afghanistan and Pakistan. ... The Pashtuns (also Pushtun, Pakhtun, or ethnic Afghan; in referring to the period of the British Raj or earlier, sometimes Pathan) are an ethnic/religious group of people, living primarily in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India who follow Pashtunwali, their indigenous religion. ... Scythia was an area in Eurasia inhabited in ancient times by an Indo-Aryans known as the Scythians. ... Today it is suggested that the modern Serbs and Croats were Slavs living in modern Poland who assimilated the upper-class of the migrating Sarmatian tribes, who subsequently lent their names (Hrvat/Croat and Srb/Serb).[citation needed] Early in Polish history, the Polish nobility claimed to be direct descendants of the historic Sarmatian people. White Serbia and White Croatia, the original homelands of the Serb and Croat peoples before their migration to the Balkans, were located, respectively, in the territories of modern Poland, Bohemia, and eastern Germany (see Sorbs). This suggests an immediate link between the two Sarmatian-origin theories, but fails to provide a confirmation. Sarmatian horseman Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae (the second form is mostly used by the earlier Greek writers, the other by the later Greeks and the Romans) were a people whom Herodotus (4. ... Sarmatian Cataphract Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae (the second form is mostly used by the earlier Greek writers, the other by the later Greeks and the Romans) were a people whom Herodotus (4. ... White Serbia is the area of modern-day eastern Germany and western Poland inhabited by White Serbs in the early medieval ages. ... White Croatia is the area of modern-day Poland, Bohemia (Czech Republic) and Slovakia from which the White Croats migrated in the 7th century into Dalmatia, Croatia. ... Balkan redirects here. ... Flag of Bohemia Bohemia (Czech: ; German: ) is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western and middle thirds of the Czech Republic. ... The Sorbs are a Slavic minority indigenous to the region known as Lusatia in the current German states of Saxony and Brandenburg (in former GDR territory). ...
Alarodian theory In his book "Hrvati i Srbi, dva stara različita naroda" Dr. Dominik Mandić disputes the theory that the Serbs are of Iranian origin and claims that they were actually an Alarodian people. He dismisses the Iranian theory because it is based solely on the fact that the area where the Serboi ethnonym is first mentioned (near the Sea of Azov) was home to the Iranian Sarmatians, and this led historians to falsely jump to the conclusion that the Serboi themselves were also Iranian. Mandić notes that Pliny himself does not state that the Serboi are of Iranian stock. If the Serbs were an Indo-Iranian people, Pliny probably would have said so. Furthermore, the non-Slavic substrate in modern Serbian is not Iranian. Dominik Mandić ( December 2, 1889 - August 23, 1973) was a Bosnian Croat historian and politician, a member of the Franciscan Order. ... The Alarodian languages are a proposed language family that encompasses two language families of the Caucasus: Northeast or Dagestan (sometimes called Avar or Lezgian which are also the names of its most major members) and North-central or Vaynakh (which includes Chechen and Ingush), as well as the extinct Hurro_Urartian... Sarmatia Europea in Scythia map 1697 AD Sarmatia Europæa
separated from Sarmatia Asiatica by the Tanais (the River Don), based on Greek literary sources, in a map printed in London, ca 1770 Great steppe in early spring. ... In the Balkans during Roman rule, there was a city called Gordoserbon, which was assumed to derive from "city of the Serbs", gord being the Slavic word for city. However, it seems unlikely the Latin-speaking Romans would use the Slavic word for city to name one of their cities. Mandić proposes that Gordoserbon actually gets its name from the city of Gordium, the capital of Phrygia, which he claims is the ancient homeland of the Serbs. Gordium was situated near the ancient Lydian city of Sardis. Sardis was the capital of Lydia, an ancient empire located in present day Turkey. The Lydians spoke an Anatolian language. Gordium was the capital of ancient Phrygia, modern Yassihüyük. ... In antiquity, Phrygia (Greek: ) was a kingdom in the west central part of the Anatolia. ... A recent view of the ceremonial court of the thermae–gymnasium complex in Sardis, dated to 211—212 AD Sardis, also Sardes (Lydian: Sfard, Greek: ΣάÏ�δεις, Persian: Sparda), modern Sart in the Manisa province of Turkey, was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydia, the seat of a proconsul under... Lydia (Greek ) is a historic region of western Anatolia, congruent with Turkeys modern provinces of Ä°zmir and Manisa. ... The Alarodian languages include two long extinct languages, the Hurrian language and the Urartian language. The Hurrian language is believed to have had a strong influence on some of the Anatolian languages, notably the Hittite language, and it is believed that Hurrians were actually not indigenous there, but were new arrivals who assimilated an earlier people who called themselves the Subar-tu. The language of these Subar-tu, whose name is not recorded, is called Subarian by linguists today, and it is believed that there was a Subarian substratum in the Hurrian language. Sumerian records mention the Subartu. Much later, Persian records mention the Sabarda, and the ancient Greek historian Herodotus mentions the Sabir in the same area, although it is not clear what, if any, connection the Sabir/Sabarda have to the Subar-tu, or if the similar-sounding names are just coincidental. According to Mandić, the Serbs get their name from those ancient Subartu. The Alarodian languages are a proposed language family that encompasses two language families of the Caucasus: Northeast or Dagestan (sometimes called Avar or Lezgian which are also the names of its most major members) and North-central or Vaynakh (which includes Chechen and Ingush), as well as the extinct Hurro_Urartian... Hurrian is a conventional name for the language of the Hurrians (Khurrites), a people who entered northern Mesopotamia around 2300 BC and had mostly vanished by 1000 BC. Hurrian was the language of the Mitanni kingdom in northern Mesopotamia, and was likely spoken at least initially in Hurrian settlements in... Urartian (also called Vannic, in older literature also (Turanian, is Iranian) Chaldean) is the conventional name for the language spoken by the inhabitants of the ancient kingdom of Urartu in the region of Lake Van in modern-day Turkey in the highlands of Armenia. ... The Anatolian languages are a group of extinct Indo-European languages, which were spoken in Asia Minor, the best attested of them being the Hittite language. ... For the history of the kingdom of Mitanni (1500–1300 BC), see Mitanni. ... Subarian is the term used by certain scholars (such as I. J. Gelb & E. A. Speiser) to describe the aboriginal language and inhabitants of Subar-Tu an ancient kingdom in Ararat mentioned in Sumerian records. ... Sumer (or Shumer, Sumeria, Shinar, native ki-en-gir) formed the southern part of Mesopotamia from the time of settlement by the Sumerians until the time of Babylonia. ... Persia redirects here. ... Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: HÄ“rodotos HalikarnÄ�sseus)
was a Greek historian from Ionia who lived in the 5th century BC (ca. ... For other uses, see Mirza Alakbar Sabir. ...
Traces and possible migrations of Serbs
Serb lands in the 9th century, mostly according to De Administrando Imperio The Serbs were mentioned as Serboi by Pliny the Younger in his Geographica in the first century AD (69-75) as living on the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. In the 5th century, Herodotus writes in his Persian Wars that Serbs (Serboi, Sirboi) live behind the Caucasus, near the hinterland of the Black Sea. In the fourth century the Carpathians are mentioned as Montes Serrorum (Serb mountains?) by the Roman emperor Licinius. Image File history File links Serb_lands04. ... Image File history File links Serb_lands04. ... De Administrando Imperio is the commonly used Latin title of a scholarly work written in Greek by the 10thcentury Byzantine emperor Constantine VII. Constantine was a scholar-emperor, who sought to revive learning and education in the Byzantine Empire. ... Gayus Plinius Colonoscopy Caecilius Secundus (63 - ca. ... In the Caucasus, the homeland of the Sarmatian Serbs, they left their traces around the river Volga (Araxes in Greek). In modern Georgian, that river is called "Rashki". This name was used by Balkan Serbs as a name for their first state and is found wherever the name Serb is found in clusters indicating settlements. It is often used to designate hydronyms and likely meant 'river' or 'water' in Old Serb. The Serbs possibly migrated in two directions from the Caucasus, northwest and northeast. Those who went northwest became overlords of the Slavs. There they established a mighty empire and became slavicized. Konstantine Porfirogenitus called this "White Serbia". Their descendants are known as Lusatian Serbs today and despite Germanization, a few thousand still remain on the territory of former East Germany. These we can also call 'White Serbs'. White Serbia is the area of modern-day eastern Germany and western Poland inhabited by White Serbs in the early medieval ages. ... For other uses, see Sorbs (disambiguation). ... This article is about the state which existed from 1949 to 1990. ... White Serbs were a Slavic tribe,
which lived in the region around river Elbe (today in eastern Germany and western Poland) in the early medieval ages. ... There is a theory that the other branch of Sarmatian Serbs maybe moved northeast to the southern base of the Urals, and settled there for a time. We can call them 'Volga Serbs'. They possibly moved eastwards, deep into Siberia, leaving traces in the names towns along the coast of the Sea of Japan. They faded out with the onslaught from the Mongols. These we can call 'Siberian Serbs'. It is even possible that Siberia was named after this Old Serb tribe. For other uses, see Mongols (disambiguation). ... The White Serbs were probably completely Slavicized by the 6th century. Their Slavicized descendants are today's Lusatian Sorbs. One branch of these White Serbs have left White Serbia, and according to Porfirogenitus, came to the Balkans (7th century), invited by Heracleus, defeated the Avars and were given Macedonia to inhabit. There they took the already settled Slavs (who began arriving in the 5th and 6th centuries) under their control and mixed with them to form the modern Serb nation. These Slavs, who came before the Serbs, had already assimilated the Illyrians, who were an Indo-European people. Many historians agree that the old Serbs were not Slavs, but a nonSlavic caste that ruled over the Slavs, though the Serbs who entered the Balkans in the 7th century, were mainly Slavs who had adopted the Serbian name.
Relation with Sorbs While Ukrainians and krajischniks (their names coming from Slavic word for "borderland") or Slovaks and Slovenes (obvious variations of "Slavs") need not be related, Serbs and Sorbs may well be. Some have taken this to the extreme, creating theories that link Serbs with Sarmatians, Sirmium, Serbona, Siberia and so on. Such theories do, however, tend to represent something of a fringe view. The Sorbs are a Slavic minority indigenous to the region known as Lusatia in the current German states of Saxony and Brandenburg (in former GDR territory). ... Sarmatia Europea in Scythia map 1697 AD Sarmatia Europæa separated from Sarmatia Asiatica by the Tanais (the River Don), based on Greek literary sources, in a map printed in London, ca 1770 Great steppe in early spring. ... Ruins of Sirmium Julian solidus, ca. ... This article is about Siberia as a whole. ... The obvious similarities in their names leads some to conclude that Serbs and Sorbs are related peoples. Indeed, in the Serbian language Sorbs are called Lužički Srbi (Serbs of Lusatia) some historians call Sorbs White Serbs (if dichotomy exists Serbs are called "Red Serbs"; during The Great Migration Croats had a similar white-red dichotomy). The Sorbs are a Slavic minority indigenous to the region known as Lusatia in the current German states of Saxony and Brandenburg (in former GDR territory). ... Lusatia (German Lausitz, Upper Sorbian Å�užica, Lower Sorbian Å�užyca, Polish Å�użyce, Czech Lužice) is a historical region between the Bóbr and Kwisa rivers and the Elbe river in the eastern
German states of Saxony and Brandenburg, south-western Poland (Lower Silesian Voivodeship) and the northern... White Serbs were a Slavic tribe, which lived in the region around river Elbe (today in eastern Germany and western Poland) in the early medieval ages. ... The German term Völkerwanderung (lit. ... Exactly what the relations are between Serbs and Sorbs is not certain: 1. Some believe that Serbs came to the Balkans from Sorbia.
2. Some believe that Serbs came to the Balkans and Sorbs to Sorbia from a joint ancient fatherland. Where this fatherland might be is also uncertain. 3. Some believe that Serbs and Sorbs were one people at sometime but had separated before they moved to Serbia/Sorbia. 4. If we accept the claim that all Slavs have called themselves Serbs, then Serbs and Sorbs may not have anything more in common than any other two Slavic peoples. Regardless of which is correct, the Serbs and Sorbs of today are very different peoples, with different customs, traditions and religions. Lusatia (German Lausitz, Upper Sorbian Łužica, Lower Sorbian Łužyca, Polish Łużyce, Czech and Serbian Lužice), sometimes called Sorbia comprises a region in the southern parts of Brandenburg and eastern parts of Saxony, Germany. ...
Possible connection with names of Sarmatians and Sabars Some historians suggest the connection between the name of Serbs and names of Sarmatians and Sabars, though these theories are controversial.
Name of Sarmatians Some suggest that the name "Serb" is derived from the ancient homeland of Serbs, Sarmatia, an ancient country between the Vistula River and the Caspian Sea, occupied by the Sarmatians [Lat. Sarmatae] from the 3d cent. B.C. through to the 2d cent. A.D. The term is vague and is also used to refer to the territory along the Danube and across the Carpathians where the Sarmatians were later driven by the Huns. The Sarmatians, who until c.200 B.C. lived East of the Don River, spoke an Iranian language and were a nomadic pastoral people related to the Scythians (see Scythia), whom they displaced in the Don region. The main divisions were the Rhoxolani, the Iazyges, and the Alans or Alani. They came into conflict with the Romans but later allied themselves with Rome, acting as buffers against the Germans. They were scattered or assimilated with the Germans by the 3d cent. A.D. Sarmatian horseman Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae (the second form is mostly used by the earlier Greek writers, the other by the later Greeks and the Romans) were a people whom Herodotus (4. ... Approximate extent of Scythia and Sarmatia in the 1st century BC (the
orange background shows the spread of Eastern Iranian languages, among them ScythoSarmatian). ... The common Indo-European phonetic mutation possible allowed -m > -mb > -b from Sarmoi > Serboi. The name of Sarmatians may be derived from PIE Root / lemma: ker-6 and ker̂ : 'dark colour; dirt, etc'. ahd. horo, Gen. horawes, mhd. hor, hurwe `ordure, smut' (*kr-u-); ̥ ags. horh, Gen. horwes, ahd. horg `dirty, filthy' (*kr-k-u-o); ̥ ̯ aisl. horr m. ` nasal mucus, snot, smut'; ags. hrot m. ` snot ', ahd. hroz ds., asächs. hrottag `snotty'; ahd. ruoz, rouz, mhd. ruoz, ruost, asächs. hrot `smut'; ags. hrum m. `smut', asächs. hrum, mhd. PN Rum-olt; In linguistics, and particularly in morphology, a lemma or citation form is the canonical form of a lexeme. ... Maybe Sarmoi > Serboi, Srb from lit. sarma `gray, white weasel' [common PIE b > w mutation]. Both root names Hrv (Croat) and Srb (Serb) are interchangeable: s > h, b > v phonetic mutations. Srb (Serb) could be the origin of the latter Hrv (Croat). lit. šir̃vas `gray, greyish-blue' (*kr-uo-s), ̥̂ ̯ šir̃mas ds. (*kr-mo-s), ̥̂ lett. sirms `gray' (compare ai. śyā-má- `black, dark' besides śyā-vá- ds.); lit. šir̃vis `hare'; in addition lit. šarmà f. ` hoarfrost', lett. sarma, serma ds., lit. šarmuõ, šermuõ `ermine' (:ahd. harmo, ven.-illyr. carmō); šarmuonỹs m. `weasel', with ablaut ostlit. širmuonė̃lis ds., lett. sermulis m. `ermine'; The Indo-European root/lemma Root / lemma: ker-6 and ker̂ : 'dark colour; dirt, etc' could be a collective name for Sarmatea 'dark people'. The origin of the name Sarmat could be also an Indo-European interpretation of Sabar (Sabat) common PIE b > mb > m phonetic mutation]. Serbs and Croats would retain their sumptuous Iranian names. Bosnia was populated by an Illyrian tribe called Besoi. Montenegro would be called by Serbs as Crna Gora 'black mountain'. The origin of the name Serb from an Indo-European root seems most probable. Serbian toponyms in their homeland in the Caucasus are often remote to Slavic tongues, but close to Iranian. Both names Serboi (Serb) and Hrvat (Croat) seem to have originated in ancient Iran. Even today, there is a Pashtun tribe in Afghanistan named Sarbans. They could be ancestors of the old Sarmatian Serbs. Most probably, the origin of Serbs and Croats is Indo-European. Although they adopted the language of the Slavs and mixed with them, they preserved their original Iranian names. Franks, a Germanic tribe who had conquered Gaul also lost its ancient language against a numerically superior native population.
Name of Sabar Some suggest that the names of the Turkic Asian tribes Sabar and Kavar (*Havar) - Avar derived from the same root [common shift b > v, also allophones s/ h]. Thus, Sabars and Avars could be also descendants of Iranian Serbs (*Sabar) and Croats (Hrvat). The word Avars can mean: The nomadic people that conquered the Hungarian Steppe in the early Middle Ages, the Eurasian Avars. ... The remnant of Sabar, Avar excellent horsemanship in Turkish language was stamped in the cognate: tr. süvari ' cavalier, cavalry, cavalryman, chevalier, mounted troops, man'. In the mid 5th C., Priskos Rhetor was the first to deal with the Sabar tribe which existed in the Western Siberian region. This supports the theory of the Sabar origin from the Balkhash region which is further supported by Chinese records concerning the related Hua tribes. According to Priscos's account, the Avar-Huns forced the Sabirs out of this land and over the Volga around 461-463CE because "a fog rose from the sea scaring people" and this was followed by countless "vultures descending upon the people". Then in 550, Zakharias Rhetor the church historian mentioned an "Avar" community in the west. Also in the mid 6th century, Menandros wrote about Avars. At the same time Procopius made a distinction in his History of the Wars, Books I and II, between White Huns and European Huns which Simokattes in the early half of the 7thC. defines as the real- and pseudo- avars respectively. Uar, Chinese: ; pinyin: Huá (for Chinese etymology see Huá (滑)), was the self designation used by the dominant ethnicity in a confederation known to the Chinese as the Yanda (åšˆå™ ) and to the west as the Hephthalites. ... The Sabir people inhabited the Caspian depression prior to the arrival of the Avars. ... The word Avars can mean: The nomadic people that conquered the Hungarian Steppe in the early Middle Ages, the Eurasian Avars. ... The Eurasian Avars were a nomadic people of Eurasia who established a state in the Danube River area of Europe in the early 6th century. ... Procopius of Caesarea (in Greek Î Ï�οκόπιος, c. ... The Hephthalites, also known as White Huns, were a nomadic people who lived across northern China, Central Asia, and northern India in the fourth through sixth centuries. ... Theophylact Simocatta (Theophylaktos Simokates, also Simokattes) was an early 7th century Byzantine historiographer, arguably ranking as the last historian of Antiquity. ... Based upon Simokattes's and other information, the Avars who entered Europe are thought to have been a combination of a Uyghur people called Hund[citation needed] and (because of the anthropological evidence as well as etymology on Avar Khagaan names like Bayan meaning "prosperous" in Mongol but meaning female in most western Altaic tongues) a Mongolian people called Var[citation needed] who united around Balk sometime between 410-470CE. For the language spoken by this ethnic group, see Uyghur language. ... It has been determined through the unorganized information in various foreign resources that the Sabar Turkish community had played an important role in the Western Siberia and the northern region of the Caucasus in the 5th-6th centuries BC. This Turkish community were
named as Sabar, Sabir, and Savir in the Byzantine resources and as Savır, Sabr, S(a)bir, Sibir, etc. in the Armenian, Syrian Christian, and Islamic resources. There are allegations, which state that the Sabar people were of Slav or Mongolian or FinnoUgrian origin. Recently, it has been suggested that they were Turks in origin in respect of the names that they hold and the historical and cultural characteristics. As a result of the labial attraction in various languages, the word of Sabar has been observed in various forms. However, it is not very likely that the name of the Sabars come from the names of Sarbans or Serbs, which have Indo-European roots. The word of Sabar can be identified with Turkish language, and it was formulated as the addition of the suffix of +ar to the verb of "sab+ar" (=sap-ar= sapmak/ violate, deviate) (Some other examples are: Khazar, Bulgar, Kabar, etc). It has the meaning of "deviationist, defector, uncontrolled, free" and it is in compliance with the naming procedures among the Turks. Furthermore, the personal names pertaining to Sabar people are also Turkish. Balak, İlig-er, Bo-arık =Buğ-arık, etc.
Theory of modern-day Serbs origin According to the theory based on the history, anthropology, and genetics, modern-day Serbs are an ethnic mix of three major different "peoples" and "races": • • •
Sarmatians (Serboi - Old Serbs, who mixed with Slavs in Lusatia, and who gave their name to the Slavs). Slavic peoples, including Slavic tribes which settled in the Balkans during the Avar invasion in the 6th century White Serbs (Sorbs of Lusatia), who settled in the Balkans in the 7th century, and who gave their name to the present-day Serbs.
Sarmatia Europea in Scythia map 1697 AD Sarmatia Europæa separated from Sarmatia Asiatica by the Tanais (the River Don), based on Greek literary sources, in a map printed in London, ca 1770 Great steppe in early spring. ... Serbi (Serboi) located near the mouth of the Volga, based on Greek literary sources, in a map printed in London, ca 1770 Serboi is the name of the ancient Sarmatian tribe that could be the possible predecessors of the present-day Slavic Serbs and Sorbs. ... The Slavic peoples are a linguistic and ethnic branch of IndoEuropean peoples, living mainly in Europe, where they constitute about one third of the population. ... White Serbs were a Slavic tribe, which lived in the region around river Elbe (today in eastern Germany and western Poland) in the early medieval ages. ... The Sorbs are a Slavic minority indigenous to the region known as Lusatia in the current German states of Saxony and Brandenburg (in former GDR territory). ...
Literature • • • • • • • • • •
Aleksandar M. Petrović, Kratka arheografija Srba, Novi Sad, 1994. Živko D. Petković, Prve pojave srpskog imena, Beograd, 1996. Lazar Šebek, Stari Srbi, Serbi sveske 2, Izdavač: Krim, Beograd, Ložionička 4. Lazo M. Kostić, O srpskom imenu, Srbinje - Novi Sad, 2000. Sava S. Vujić - Bogdan M. Basarić, Severni Srbi (ne)zaboravljeni narod, Beograd, 1998. Nikola Jeremić, Srpska zemlja Bojka, Zemun, 1993. Relja Novaković, Baltički Sloveni u Beogradu i Srbiji, Beograd, 1985. Relja Novaković, Još o poreklu Srba, Beograd, 1992. Relja Novaković, Srbi, Beograd, 1993. Relja Novaković, Srbi i njihovi pradavni srodnici, Beograd, 2000.
References on Ancient and Medieval Serbs • •
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Ernst Schwartz, Das Vordringen der Slawen nach Western, Südost-Forschungen, Band XV, Mönchen 1956 Ernestus Brotuff, Chronica von den Salz-Bornen und Erbauung der Hall an der Sala... (Weiland J.J. 1554) in zwei Büchern Verfaset und Fleiss beschrieben. Hall in Sachsen 1679 Franz Martin Pelzels Geschichte der Böhmen, von ältesten bis auf die neuesten Zeiten. Aus den besten einheimischen und auswärtigen Geschichtsschreibern, Kroniken und gleichzeitigen Handschriften zusammen getragen, Erster Theil, Vierte fortgesetzte Auflage, Prag 1817 Franz Grabler. Aus dem Geschichtswerk des Laonikos Chalkokondilos. Europa im XV. Jahrhundert von Byzantinern gesehen. Byzantinische Geschichtsschreiber, GrazWien-Köln (1954) Friderici Wideburgii, Origines et antiquitates Marggraviatus Misnici... Halae Salicae 1734 Franc. Xav. El. B. De Pejacsevich, Historia Serviae seu colloquia XIII de Statu Regni et religionis Serviae ab exordio ad finem, sive a saeculo VII ad XV. Auetore F.X. El. B. de Pejacsevich. Colocae MDCCXCVI (1796) Howorth. The Spread of the Slaves, The Journal of the Antropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. IX, London 1880, Part III The Northern Serbs or Sorabiens and the Obodriti Martin Kromer, De origine et rebus gestis Polonorum Iibri XXX (1555) Mauro Orbini, II regno De gli Slavi Hoggi corrottamente detti Schü-voni... In Pesaro MDCI (1601) Monumenta Germaniae Historica... Edidit G.H. Pertz. Tomus I-VI 1826-1844 Nikolaus Volrab, Chronica von den Antiquiteten des Keisrlichen Stiftes/der Römische Burg und Stadt Marseburg... (Budišin 1556) Neuve Chronica Türkischer Nation von Türken selbst beschrieben Frankfurt am Mayn 1590 Pomponii Melae de Chorographia Iibri tres recognovit Caroli;:- Fnck. Lipsiae 1880 P.J. Schafariks, Slawische Alterthümer, II, Leipzig 1844 Heinrich Kunstmann, Über die Herkunft der Polen von Balkan. Die Welt der Slawen, Halbsjahresschrift für Slavistik, Jahrgang XXIX, Heft 2, IV F. VIII, 2. München 1984
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Hana Skalovä, Topografickä mapa üzemi Obodricü a Veletu-Luticu ve svetle mistnfch Jmen. Vznik a pocätky Slovanü. Pracha 1965 Joan Christopori de Jordan... De originibus Slavicis... Vindobonae MDCCXLV (1745) Joannes Simoni Vandalia a 1598. scripta. Mon. Ren germ, praecipue Cimbricarum et Megapolensium... T. I, Lipsiae 1739 Joannis Bacmeisteri... Animadversiones Genealogico-Chronologico-hi-storico in Mareschalci Thurii Annalium Herulorum et Vandalorum Hbros septem. У збирци: Mon. ined. R.G. praecipue Cimbricarum, et Megapolensium... erui... Ernestus Joachim de Westphalen... Tomus I, Lipisae 1739 Johann Georg Essigs Kurze Einleitung zu der allgemeinen und besonderen Welthistorie, aufs neue übersehen, vermehrt, und bis auf gegenwärtige Zeit fortgesetzte, von M. Johann Christian Walz, Prof. der Historie am Her-zogl. Gimnasio. Zehnte Ausgabe, Stuttgart 1777 Karl Gottlob Anton, Erste Linien eines Versuches über die alten Slawen Ursprung, Sitten, Gebräuche, Meinungen und Kenntnisse. Ausgearbeitet von K.G. Anton, D. Leipzig 1783 Karl Gottlob Anton, Geschichte der Teutschen Nazion, Erster Theil... Geschichte der Germanen, Leipzig 1793 Karl Penka, Origines Ariacae, Linguistisch-ethnologische Untersuchungen zur ältesten Geschichte der arischer Völker und Sprache. Wien und Te-schen 1883 Laskaris Kananos, Die Nordlandreise des Laskaris Kanons (Byz. Geschichtsschreiber) Ludwig Giesebrecht, Wendische Geschichten von der Karolingerzeit, Baltische Studien, Sechsten Jahrgang, Zweites Heft, Stettin 1839 Lubomir E. Havlik, Einige Fragen der Ethnogcnese der Slawen im Lichte der römischen und byzantinischer Historiographie (1. Hälfte des 1. Jahrtausends), Berichte II (1970), Band III, Berlin 1973 Blondi Flavii Foroiuliensis Historiarum de inclinatione Romanorum. Impressarum Venetiis Thomam Alexandrinum anno Salutis MCCCCLXXXiiii (1484) Kalendis Julii. Tu i Abreviatio Pii Pont max. supra decades Blondi ab Inclinatione Imperii usque ad tempora Joannis Vicesimi tertii Pont. max. Chronica von dem Antiquiteten des Stifftes/der Romische Burg und Stadt Marseburg/an der Salach by Türingen/mit viel alten schöne Historien und Geschichten/als sich etwan vor alten Zeiten in Sachsen/Türingen/Meis-sen/und zu Wenden begeben... Gedruckt zu Budisin durch Nicolaum Wolrab MDLVI (1556) Chronicon HoIIandiae de Hollandorum Repub. et Rebus Gestis com-mentarii Hugonis Grolii, Jani Dovsae patris, Jani Dovsae filii, Lugduni Ba-tavorum 1617 Conjectus introduetionis, in notitiam Regni Hungriae Geographicam, Historicam, Politicam et Chronologicam, inde a prima Gentis et Regionis Hungaricae Originibus usque ad aetatem nostram. Breviter et succinte, per successions temporum, produetam Studio et Opera Joannis Tomka Szäszky, Posonii 1759 Caroli Sigoni Histriarum de Occidentali imperio, libri XX... Cum Indice copiosissime rerum et Verborum, Basileae MDLXXIX (1579) Christophori Cellarii Smalkandcnsis Geographia Antiqua... 1687 Chronici Zelandiae libri duo. Auetore Jacobo Eyndio. Domino Haem-stode et Midolburgi. Ex officino moulertiana MDCXXXIV (1634) Codex Pomeraniae diplomaticus. Herausgegeben von D. Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Hasselbach... und D. Johann Gottfried Ludwig Kosegarten, Greifswald 1862
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Chronicon Mundi (Correct Title): Regisrum huius operis libri chroni-corum cum figuris et imaginibus ab initio mundi. Norimbergae MCCCCXCIII (1493) Chronici Carionis a Philippo Melanthone aueti et expositi... (1532). Anno 1581, 1593 [Wittebergae] MOXCIII (1593) Cyriacus M. Spangenberg, Quenfurtische Chronica. Historischer Bericht, von der Aelten und Loblichen Herrschaft Quernfurt in Sachsen... vor und nach der Geburt Christi... In vier Bücher zusammengebracht durch M. Cyr. Spang. MDXC (1590) Dauidis Chytrej Chronicon Saxoniae et vicini orbis aretoi. Pars prima. Ab anno Christi 1500 usque ad 1524 cum indice. Rostochii anno CIDIDXCII (1592) Dissertatio de Lecho et Slavorum origine video meliora, proboque. Acta Societatis Jablonovianae de Slavis Lecho Czechoque. Item de Veris Zichis. Anni CIDIDCCLXXI (1771) C. Desjardins: Physisch-Statistisch und Politischer Atlas von Europa, C. Desjardins, Wien, 1838. Über die Abkunft der Slawen nach Lorenz Surowiecki von Paul Joseph Schaffarik, Doct. der Phil. und der f. k. Mag., Prof. am Gymnasium der Griech. n. un. Gemeinde in Neusatz, und der kön. Ges. der Freunde der Wiss. in Warschau, der Gel. Ges. an der Univ. in Krakau und der Gross-herz. lat. Soc. in Jena corr. Mitgliede. Leipzig, 1843 Kiepert's Handatlas, Dietrich Reimer, Berlin, 1860. A. Stieler: Handatlas, Justus Perthes, Gotha, 1866 Kiepert's Atlas Antiques, Geographisches Institut, Weimar, 1884 Nikodim Milaš: Православна Далмација (OrtodoxDalmatia), Izdavačka knjižarnica Novi Sad, 1901 Кonstantin Jeriček: Историја Срба (History of Serbs), I-II, (photoiphya), Слово љубве, Београд, 1978 Early references to Serboi: Alexander Kazhdan, Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1991), vol.3, pp.1875f. Ivo Vukcevich: Rex Germanorum Populos Sclavorum (An Inquiry into the Origin and Early History of the Serbs/Slavs of Sarmatia, Germania and Illyria), Universiyu Center Press, Santa Barbara, 2001 Aleksandar J. Vukosavljević: Neka zapažanja o 30. glavi De administrando imperio — analiza izvora i osvrt na jedan dio istoriografije, Cape Town, 2004
Alexander Petrovich Kazhdan (born September 3, 1922, Moscow; died May 29, 1997, Washington, D.C.; Russian: ) was the one of the foremost Byzantinists of the late 20th century. ...
