The Self-Directed Search

373-

The Self-Directed Search: A Family of Self-Guided Career Interventions Arnold R.

Spokane Lehigh University

John L. Holland Johns Hopkins University The Self-Directed Search (SDS; Holland, 1994) is

a pair of booklets counseling, accompanied by a set of derivative tools for use with the SDS. It is theoretically based, can be selfadministered, self-scored, and self-interpreted and has a substantial base of studies examining its "functional utility" or therapeutic

that simulate

career

effects. The SDS has been revised three times since its development in 1970, resulting in the latest revision or Form R (1994). Form R (1994) was created in two steps. An experimental version of the Assessment Booklet was compiled with 70 new items and administered to 701 individuals. These data were then used to identify good and bad items. In a second step, 2,600 students and adults from 25 states completed the final Form R. Internal consistencies for the revised summary scales range from .90 to .94. Test-retest reliability range from .76 to .89 over a period of 4 to 12 weeks. The Occupations Finder (Holland, 1994) was revised and two manuals created: one a technical manual and one a professional user’s guide. As in other revisions of the SDS, the goal was to make the experience more useful to clients and to counselors.

The SDS and its derivative instruments constitute the first viable selfscoring and self-interpreting inventory developed from Holland’s theory of persons in vocational environments (Holland, 1992). Since its development in 1970, the SDS has been revised and broadened three times (1977, 1985, 1994) to include a coordinated set of forms and closely related products and tools. The SDS is unique among interest inventories and has established a special niche based upon three essential qualities. First, the SDS can be selfadministered, self-scored, and self-interpreted. Indeed, completion of the inventory in every aspect is an exploratory experience. The SDS scoring system requires no electronics, and the scoring process is open to inspection by the respondent, thus becoming an informational intervention in itself.

Portions of this manuscript were excerpted from a paper presented by J. L. Holland American n a symposium on Interest Measurement (W. Bruce Walsh, Chair) at the America New York. 1995, Associat Asso ciation, ion, August Aug ust Psychological at

Published and

copyright @

1995

Assessment ment Resources, Inc. All rights by Psychological Assess

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reserved.

374

Second, the homogeneous and theoretically derived scales reflect the organizing system in Holland’s theory and provide the user a wide array of derivative career tools based upon the same system. Finally, multiple empirical studies of the SDS-its structure, and especially its effects-now

a selfvocational inventory. guiding The main assumption in self-guiding inventories is that, with a minimum of assistance, clients can engage in a systematic exploration of career possibilities and better understand those activities and career options that are appropriate choices considering a client’s characteristics. The publisher’s reports indicate that the SDS is the most widely used interest inventory in existence. The SDS and its theoretical model can provide career assistance to individuals, groups, workshops and classes, and the typology can also be used to organize and interpret client and occupational information in career centers, libraries, and industry settings. This information can be used in evaluation studies, research, labor force projections, and strategic and succession planning. The SDS is used in an increasingly wide array of settings. For example, Levinson (1990) argues that the SDS is an appropriate intervention for school psychologists who want to become more involved in vocational assessment.

exist in the

professional literature,

another unusual

quality

for

The SDS: Form Follows Functions The SDS is a pair of booklets that simulate career counseling. The Assessment Booklet estimates a person’s resemblance to six interest or personality types, and the occupational classification booklet (The Occupations Finder) organizes occupations into the same six categories used in the Assessment Booklet. Consequently, the test-taker can complete the Assessment Booklet and search The Occupations Finder for compatible occupations. All forms of the SDS employ the same two-booklet system. In addition, a third booklet-You and Your Career (Holland, 1994b) provides supplemental information for the respondent on the theory and the interpretation of Holland codes. The SDS contains a daydreams section in which the individual lists occupations under consideration. Called expressed choices, these lists are surprisingly robust estimates of the occupations that respondents eventually enter (see Holland, Fritzsche, & Powell, 1994, p. 4 for a list of these studies on the validity of expressed choice). There are four parts in the SDS that contribute to the calculation of the Summary Code. These sections are: 1. Activities (6 scales of 11 items are endorsed like or dislike), which measures personal involvement and potential (e.g., sketch, draw, 2.

paint). Competencies (6

scales of 11 items endorsed yes or no), which estimates proficiencies and skills (e.g., I can play a musical

instrument). 3.

Occupations (6 scales of 14 occupational titles

endorsed yes

no). 4. Self-Estimates (two

ratings per type of ability and skill).

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or

375

After completing the assessment scales, the totals for the subsections of the SDS are transferred to a summary page and added to obtain a total score for each of the six types. The highest three total scores indicate the threeletter summary code for use with The Occupations Finder. The SDS takes about 35 to 50 minutes to complete, and the hand scoring by client or counselor generally takes about 5 minutes.

Currently, there are separate forms for middle-school students (SDS Career Explorer; Holland & Powell, 1994) and high-school students, both of which can be completed in one class period, and several forms for adults. There is a form (Form CP) for business and industrial clients who requested a version tailored to their unique needs and concerns. There are also forms in Braille and a form for those who read below the sixth-grade level (Form E). There have been numerous translations of the SDS, and the Spanish, Vietnamese, and French Canadian editions are published in the U.S. Derivative Materials and Tools User experience with the SDS has led to multiple supplementary materials based upon the Holland theory and designed to perform a specific ancillary function.

For

example, an alphabetized occupational classification booklet was developed first to assist test-takers in locating occupational codes in The Occupations Finder as the number of occupations listed increased. Demands for a more comprehensive Occupations Finder led G. D. Gottfredson to develop a conversion formula to derive three-letter Holland codes for all occupations in the U.S. labor force-resulting in the Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes (DHOC; G. D. Gottfredson & Holland 1989; G. D. Gottfredson, Holland, & Ogawa, 1982). Because the DHOC did not allow for unique or eccentric work environments, and because the DHOC was occasionally incomplete regarding a very specific work environment, The Position Classification Inventory (PCI; G. D. Gottfredson & Holland, 1991) was developed to permit a small number of employees or supervisors (8 or 9) to rate their work environment using Holland’s system. The PCI is an 84-item inventory containing six 13-item scales corresponding to each of the six Holland work environment types. Correlations between supervisor and employee’s ratings of the same jobs using the PCI were substantial, ranging from .59 to .79. Alpha coefficients ranged from .70 to .94 for a mixed sample of employees and supervisors across scales. There are, as a result of the PCI, two empiricaltheoretical tools for classifying any occupational environment. Three additional exploration devices include The Educational Opportunities Finder (Rosen, Holmberg, & Holland, 1994), a classification of 750 education and training opportunities, and its more elaborate counterpart, the Dictionary of Educational Opportunities (Rosen, Holmberg, & Holland, 1994), and The Leisure Activities Finder (Holmberg, Rosen, & Holland, 1990), a classification of 760 avocations, hobbies, and sports. Because these devices share the same coding system and theoretical underpinning, clients and counselors should find these tools easy to understand and integrate with other information. Most SDS inventories are


376

also available in different computer versions that administer, score, interpret, and embed a person’s responses in the context of other client information. also be assessed using the Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI; Holland, 1985), the new Strong Interest Inventory (SII; Harmon, Hansen, Borgen, & Hammer, 1994), the Career Assessment Inventory (CAI; Johansson, 1986), the new Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) workbook, a clever and colorful intervention for students (Department of Defense, 1993), the Vocational Exploration and Insight Kit (VEIK; Holland, 1991), and other vocational card sorts. The interchangeability of type scores derived from these various instruments is

The Holland types

can

largely unexplored. The 1994 Edition of Form R The 1994 edition of the SDS Form R is a direct descendant of the first form. The goal of the 1994 edition was, again, to make the SDS more useful for clients and for counselors. This goal entailed multiple editorial and research tasks.

The editorial tasks included clarifying the directions in the assessment and classification booklets, revising the reading list, and updating The Occupations Finder. The directions for The Occupations Finder were also revised to increase the potential for occupational exploration for men and

by directing test-takers to search for all permutations of their Summary Code. Some revisions are obviously helpful; other revisions will require experimental evaluations to fully assess the assumed improvements. women

The Assessment Booklet The main research task

was

to increase scale

validity and reliability by

trying out new or revised items, deleting weak or outdated items, and omitting items with extreme endorsement rates among either males or females. Because there have been nine item analyses of the four forms of the SDS by its authors and by other researchers from 1970 through 1993, it has become increasingly difficult to improve the inventory using item analysis. The 1994 edition was created in two steps. In the first step, an experimental booklet consisting of the items from the 1985 edition and other forms of the SDS, along with 70 new items, was administered to a sample of 701 individuals. Subjects came from seven states. The data from this experimental booklet were used to identify good and bad items. Items that correlated highly with the summary scales they were intended to measure, that improved item scale correlations, and that were endorsed by at least 5% of males and females

were

retained.

In the second step, a sample of 2,600 students and adults from 25 states took the final form of the SDS Form R: 1994 Edition. This sample included 1,600 females and 1,000 males ranging in age from 17 to 65 years, and was collected from high schools, colleges, clinical and counseling

practitioners, employment services, and counseling centers. The

data from

these diverse sources were used to assess the internal consistency, concurrent validity, item endorsement rates, item validity, scale intercorrelations, gender and ethnic group differences, and to provide new scale norms. Percentile ranks are provided for consistency and differentiation, as well as


377

for the

separate sections of the SDS (Activities, Competencies, Occupations, Self-Estimates) and Summary Code distributions. Sixty-seven of 228 items from the 1985 SDS edition were replaced or revised. Internal consistencies for the revised summary scales ranged from .90 to .94 and for the separate sections (e.g., Activities, Competencies, Occupations, Self-Estimates) ranged from .72 to .92, representing a modest increase in reliability. Test-retest reliability for a sample of 45 females and 28 males, ages 14 to 28 years, ranged from .76 to .89 over a period of 4 to 12 weeks. The Classification Booklet The classification booklet or The 1994. These revisions include:

Finder

Occupations

was

also revised in

1. Addition of fast-growing jobs for the 1990s. 2. Deletion of fast-declining jobs for the 1990s. 3. Addition of more jobs 4. Substitution of more 5.

6.

requiring higher GED common job titles for

levels.

occupations. Inclusion of all three-letter Holland codes (notes instructing the reader to explore other permutations are included for codes with fewer than six jobs listed). Reminders throughout the booklet to explore every permutation some

of one’s code.

These revisions to The Occupations Finder resulted in a total of 1,335 occupations, 1,315 of which had an empirical three-letter code taken from the DHOC. The remaining 20 codes were created by three expert raters using a consensus

procedure.

The SDS Technical Manual (Holland, Fritzsche, et al., 1994) summarizes the information and history of all SDS forms, including the 1994 edition. Detailed information on the 1994 revision is contained in the 1994 SDS Technical Manual. Although our review focuses on the use and effects of the inventory with clients, the substantial database testing the Holland model, the characteristics of the types, and the nature of person-environment interactions is unprecedented as background support for a model underlying an interest inventory (Brown & Brooks, in press; Holland, in press; Osipow & Fitzgerald, in press).

Most of the analyses for the 1994 edition replicate findings from earlier versions. For example, repeated revisions to reduce gender differences in type distributions increased the scores of both women and men, but the differences between the two groups remain much the same. Attempts to apply normative corrections to Holland raw scores to alter gender or race differences have impaired concurrent validity to a considerable extent (Swoope & Bunch, 1978). The sex differences found on the SDS appear to be stable and not artifactual. Very convincing arguments have been made for considering such differences as real (Eagly, 1995) and, thus, reaffirming the value of the SDS as one of the only remaining raw score inventories in our field (L. S. Gottfredson, 1983). Table 1 contains the distribution of SDS high-point codes by gender and race in the 1994 validation sample.

Practitioners will find a comprehensive account of the potential application and interpretation of all SDS forms in the SDS Professional User’s Guide


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(PUG; Holland, Powell, & Fritzsche, 1994). The information about the use of all SDS forms, reported earlier in manuals and guides, is now integrated into a single guide. Although the essential findings from the SDS Technical Manual are summarized in the PUG, its main purpose is application. Figure 1, for example, taken from the PUG, is a diagram of the exploration process that occurs when a respondent completes the SDS. Several supplemental diagnostic indicators can be derived from the SDS scores as in the following descriptions in Table 2.

Congruence Congruence indicates the degree of fit between an individual’s personality and the type of work or educational environment he or she inhabits (for example, an IRC individual in an IRC environment). Congruence has been calculated using first-letter codes, three-letter codes, and six-letter codes, but can also be estimated with the use of one of several mathematical indexes (Brown & Gore, 1994; Camp & Chartrand, 1992). Consistency Consistency is a measure of the internal harmony within an individual’s Summary Code. Consistency is determined using the first two letters of the three-letter code on the hexagon. Types that are adjacent to each other on the perimeter of the hexagon (e.g., Realistic and Investigative) are more common and, therefore, harmonious than types that are opposite each other An on the perimeter of the hexagon (e.g., Enterprising and Investigative). individual with an I-E type would be inconsistent. Enterprising and Investigative interests are not often found together and require very different repertoires of behavior.

Differentiation Differentiation is a measure of the crystallization of interests and provides information about the relative definition of types in an individual’s profile. Differentiation can be defined as the highest minus the lowest score among the six types, or it can be calculated using a mathematical index. As Holland

indicated, &dquo;My purpose clinicians

mean

by

a

was

concept that would capture what profile&dquo; (Holland, 1992, p. 26).

to create a

well-defined

Each of these indexes is calculated in the following sample case of Ruth, and the relationships between the various indexes are summarized in Table 2.

A Sample Case Using the SDS A professional colleague, Ruth, a 43-year-old school guidance counselor with a master’s degree, completed the SDS and used the Leisure Activities Finder in addition to the regular Occupations Finder. Ruth reports being very satisfied in her job, which she has held for 3 years. &dquo;I think it’s perfect. I feel paid fairly. I still have a lot of things to competent in it, and I think I learn, but I look forward to learning them.&dquo; She agreed to complete the SDS am

about the instrument and its potential for use with high-school populations. Ruth had never taken the SDS, but was familiar with the theory and with the SDS as an instrument. Figure 2 contains the Summary Page from Ruth’s SDS. in order to learn

more


381


382


383


384

Ruth’s Summary Code was SIE, and she reports being surprised at how high her I score was. &dquo;I think I have more I competencies than I do I interests.&dquo; Ruth made one minor scoring error resulting in a 1-point discrepancy in her Social high-point code. In order to better interpret the meaning of these scores, we used the norm tables in the SDS Technical Manual to calculate the percentile levels for the Summary Code scores, differentiation, consistency, and congruence. Table 3 contains Ruth’s Summary Codes and their percentile ranks. The SIE code is a fairly common one, occurring in 2.22% of the 1994 validation sample. Her Social score (82%ile) is clearly a high one, though her Investigative score (78%ile) is also high. Ruth’s differentiation score, when calculated by the traditional method (highest score [42] minus lowest score [10] 32), is at the 74th%ile. Using the Iachan Differentiation Index (see SDS Technical Manual), which utilizes the relative differentiation of the first three scores in the code from the fourth, the differentiation score is at the 97%ile-a better reflection of the high level of differentiation we see in Ruth’s code. The formula for the Iachan Differentiation Index is a straightforward one: =

where

X, x2 x3

Ruth’s

Summary

highest score in a profile second highest score = fourth highest score =

=

Table 3 Code Scores and Percentile Ranks

Consistency for Ruth’s code is moderate with the first two letters of her code SI being one removed (one apart, but not opposite or adjacent) from each other around the hexagon-a consistency score in the 38%ile using the consistency norms in the SDS Technical Manual. This consistency score reflects the fact that an SI code may not comfortably fit together and may indicate some internal friction or conflict between aspects of Ruth’s personality (SA or SE would have been more consistent). Finally, if we presume SER using the DHOC (G.

the work environment of D. Gottfredson & Holland,


a

counselor to be

1989),

we can

S,

or

calculate

385

congruence using the Zener and Schnuelle conversion, which would yield a congruence level at the 73%ile, or we can use the Iachan congruence formula which is calculated using Table 4.

Table 4 Calculation of the Iachan Agreement Index

The Iachan procedure yields a congruence score at the 90th%ile-again, a better estimate of the degree of congruence in the profile and more consistent with the client’s self-expressions regarding her satisfaction with her job. A somewhat different work environment profile for a counselor was generated by a sample of 11 counselors in the PCI manual and is reproduced in Figure 3. Use of the profile from the PCI manual would result in even higher congruence estimates for Ruth. Ruth used the Leisure Activities Finder to explore avocational activities and discovered three that seemed interesting to her-Social Activism, Self-Help Groups, and Adult Education. Indeed, Ruth reports having engaged in each of these activities at one time in her life and had worked in adult education for several years. Ruth did note that many of the activities she was interested in were SR in nature-a reflection of her outdoor interests and, interestingly, consistent with the counselor type. In

short, Ruth has

highly differentiated three-letter

code with a strong She demonstrates many of the skills associated with a

Social component. the Social Holland type, including strong interactive skills with a wide range of individuals and very good counseling skills. She is congruent, though moderately inconsistent in theoretical terms, and her profile is quite consistent with her self-reports regarding her feelings about her job.

The Influence of Self-Guiding Interventions There is now little doubt that self-help interventions are generally associated with positive outcomes (Ogles, Lambert, & Craig, 1991; Scogin, Bynum, Stephens, & Calhoun, 1990), but that such interventions vary in quality (Ellis, 1993) can be oversold and misused (Rosen, 1988, 1993) or even employed exploitively. Clearly the number of careful evaluative studies is disproportionately small considering the extraordinary number (Rosen, 1993) of self-help interventions used today. As Rosen (1993) indicated, the


386


387

psychology use

establishment has failed to promote the benefits and increase the of effective self-help interventions.

As Spokane (1990) argued earlier, the career arena is one enterprise in which self-help has been carefully and systematically applied. This is especially true for the SDS. Meta-analytic data (Oliver & Spokane, 1988; Spokane & Oliver, 1983) confirm that counselor-free career interventions are modestly effective at a cost ($1.21 per client contact hour) less than one tenth that of counselor-involved interventions.

The SDS not only exceeds any reasonable standards for these self-help interventions (Spokane, 1990), in many respects it has set the benchmark. Tinsley’s excellent (1984) paper on test interpretation cautioned that the counselor (presumably also the client) should fully understand the meaning of test scores, encourage client feedback, show the client the profile, keep the client’s goals in mind, and so forth. Similarly, Pope (1992) argued that lack of feedback was the most neglected aspect of assessment and outlined 10 fundamentals of this feedback process,

including framing the feedback,

misuse of feedback, documentation of records, and assessing and understanding client reactions. The SDS ensures many of the essential components that Tinsley (1984) and Pope (1992) discussed. The four key elements that a self-guiding career inventory should include are: (a) provide a cognitive framework for understanding tests scores, (b) provide a direct link to a valid job classification system and educational options, (c) provide referral information, and (d) provide evidence for the effectiveness of the intervention. Studies of the Effects and Outcomes of the SDS the psychometric properties of the SDS are important, the influence of an interest inventory-how it affects a respondent’s thinking, feeling, and action-is an equally important aspect of validity. The nearly two dozen studies of the effects of the SDS reviewed in Holland, Fritzsche, et al. (1994) are unusual in not just the psychometric properties of the SDS, but also its functional or clinical utility. It is worth noting that no negative or deterioration effects have been found in using the SDS, although there is some evidence that the SDS may be more effective as a standalone intervention with certain kinds of clients.

Although

The first of a series of &dquo;effects&dquo; studies (Zener & Schnuelle, 1976) compared the SDS, the VPI, and a no-treatment control with high-school students and first used a new measure of congruence. Both the VPI and the SDS were effective in comparison to a control condition in generating occupational alternatives. This large scale experiment and other studies suggest that the SDS: &dquo;(a) increases the number of career options an individual is considering, (b) increases satisfaction with a vocational aspiration, and (c) increases self-understanding&dquo; (Holland, Fritzsche, et al., 1994, p. 53). Several studies found, surprisingly, that the effects of the SDS on career outcomes were equivalent to those achieved with a counselor (Krivatsy & Magoon, 1976).

Leong (1982) confirm the results of earlier studies by Power, Holland, Daiger, and Takai (1979) and Takai and Holland (1979) and found that self-guiding interventions were most effective with high identity, low Fretz and


388

indecision clients and that

following intervention, clients generally found one additional option that they would not have otherwise considered. Taskoriented individuals (Investigative and Conventional types) seem to perform better on the SDS than did socially oriented individuals (Social and Enterprising types) (Kivlighan, Hageseth, Tipton, & McGovern, 1981). Most recently, Gati & Blumberg (1991) created two algorithms to score the SDS subscales and summary score, with the finding that career counselors identified more fields than did the algorithm because they employed a lower cutoff score for consideration. Indeed, counselors were very flexible and, generally, overinclusive in identifying relevant fields from the SDS protocol. These effects studies, although a relatively small fraction of the research conducted on Holland’s theory, establish the functional utility of the SDS. A great deal remains to be done in determining which aspects of interest inventories promote exploration and aid in decision-making and encouraging greater use of self-guiding interest inventories. The Present and Future of the SDS The SDS is

inventory with desirable psychometric characteristics that incorporates a person’s history of vocational daydreams, which can be used to increase predictive validity and to form an impression of a client’s goals and background and that encourages the immediate preliminary exploration of more than 1,000 occupations. Because it is selfscored and can be interpreted by many, perhaps most, clients, it encourages active participation in the resolution of career problems and questions. In addition, the effects of the SDS on the test-taker are now documented by 22 experimental studies. The interpretation of the SDS scales is also supported by a substantial literature examining the RIASEC typology. Most recently, the relationship between the &dquo;Big Five&dquo; personality factors and the RIASEC types continues to both clarify the interpretation of the types and contribute to our understanding of the nature of, and overlap between, interests and personality. an

References Brown, D., & Brooks, L. (in press). Career choice and development (4th ed). San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Brown, S. D., & Gore, P. A. (1994). An evaluation of interest congruence indices: Distribution characteristics and measurement properties. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 310-327. Camp, C. C., & Chartrand, J. M. (1992). A comparison and evaluation of interest congruence indices. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 41, 162-182. ASUAB workbook. HQUSMEPCOM/ Department of Defense. (1993). Exploring careers: The MEPCO, Chicago: Author. Eagly, A. H. (1995). The science and politics of comparing women and men. American Psychologist, 50, 145-158. Ellis, A. (1993). The advantages and disadvantages of self-help therapy materials. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 24, 335-339. Fretz, B. R., & Leong, F. T. L. (1982). Career development status as a predictor of career intervention outcomes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 29, 388-393. Gati, I., & Blumberg, D. (1991). Computer versus counselor interpretation of interest inventories: The case of the Self-Directed Search. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 350-366.


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Gottfredson, G. D., & Holland, J. L. (1989). Dictionary of Holland occupational codes (2nd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Gottfredson, G. D., codes. Palo Alto, CA:

Holland, J. L., & Ogawa, D. K. (1982). Dictionary of Holland occupational Consulting Psychologists Press. S. L. (1982). The sex fairness of unnormed interest inventories. Vocational Gottfredson, Guidance Quarterly, 31, 128-132. Harmon, L. W., Hansen, J. C., Borgen, F. H., & Hammer, A. L. (1994). Strong Interest Inventory: Applications and technical guide. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Holland, J. L. (1985). Manual for the Vocational Preference Inventory. Odessa, FL:

Psychological Assessment Holland,

Resources.

J. L. (1991). Vocational

Exploration and Insight Kit. Odessa,

FL:

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Holland, J. L. (1994a). Assessment Resources. Holland,

J. L.

Self-Directed Search Form R:

(1994b). You and your

career.

1994 edition.

Odessa,

FL:

Odessa, FL: Psychological

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Resources.

A theory of vocational personalities and Holland, J. L. (in press). Making vocational choices: work environments (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Holland, J. L., Fritzsche, B. A., & Powell, A. B. (1994). SDS technical manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Holland, J. L., & Powell, A. B. (1994). SDS Career Explorer. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Holland, J. L., Powell, A. B., & Fritzsche, B. A. (1994). SDS professional user’s guide. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Holmberg, K., Rosen, D., & Holland, J. L. (1990). The Leisure Activities Finder. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Kivlighan, D. M., Jr., Hageseth, J. A., Tipton, R. M., & McGovern, T. V. (1981). Effects of matching treatment approaches and personality types in group vocational counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 315-320. Krivatsy, S. E., & Magoon, T. M. (1976). Differential effects of three vocational counseling treatments. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 112-118. Levinson, E. M. (1990). Vocational assessment involvement and use of the Self-Directed Search by school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 27, 217-228. Ogles, B. M., Lambert, M. J., & Craig, D. E. (1991). Comparison of self-help books for coping with loss: Expectations and attributions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 387-393.

Oliver, L. W., & Spokane, A. R. (1988). Career counseling outcome: What contributes to gain? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 447-462. Osipow, S. H., & Fitzgerald, L. (in press). Theories of career development (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Pope, K. S. (1992). Responsibilities in providing psychological test feedback to clients. Psychological Assessment, 4, 268-271. Power, P. G., Holland, J. L., Daiger, D. C., & Takai, R. T. (1979). The relation of student client

characteristics to the influence of the Self-Directed Search. Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance, 12, 98-107.

Rosen, G. M. (1988). Self-help treatment books and the commercialization of psychotherapy. American Psychologist, 42, 46-51. Rosen, G. M. (1993) Self-help of self-hype? Comments on psychology’s failure to advance self care. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 24, 340-345.

Rosen, D., Holmberg, K., & Holland, J. L. (1994). The Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

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Scogin, F., Bynum, J., Stephens, G., & Calhoun, S. (1990). Efficacy of self-administered Meta-analytic review. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 21, 42-47. Spokane, A. R. (1990). Self-guided interest inventories as career interventions: The SelfDirected Search. In C. E. Watkins & V. L. Campbell (Eds.), Testing in counseling practice (pp, 285-316). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Spokane, A. R., & Oliver, L. W. (1983). The outcomes of vocational intervention. In W. B. Walsh & S. H. Osipow (Eds.), Handbook of vocational psychology (Vol. II). Hillsdale, NJ: treatment programs:

Erlbaum.

Swoope, K. F., & Bunch, S. C. (1978, April). Raw score and percentile norm coding of the Holland Vocational Preference Inventory and implications for counseling women. Paper presented at The American Educational Research Association, Toronto, Canada. Takai, R., & Self-Directed

Holland, J. L. (1979). Comparative influence of the Vocational Card Sort, the Search, and the Vocational Exploration and Insight Kit. Vocational Guidance

Quarterly, 27, 312-318. Tinsley, H. E. A. (1984). Test interpretation. Unpublished manuscript, Southern Illinois University. high school Zener, T. B., & Schnuelle, L. (1976). Effects of the Self-Directed Search students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 23, 353-359. on


The Self-Directed Search

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