The Mundanity of Excellence

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♦ The Mundanity of Excellence An Ethnographic Report on Stratification and Olympic Swimmers Daniel F. F. Chambliss (1989)

Olympic sports and competitive swimming in particular provide an unusually clear opportunity for for studyin studyingg the nature nature of excelle excellence. nce. In other fields, fields, it may be less less clear who are are the outstandin outstandingg performers: performers: the best best painter painter or pianis pianist, t, the best best busi busines nesspe sperso rson, n, the finest finest waitress or the best father. father. But in sport (and (and this is one of of its attractions) success success is defined more exactly, exactly, by success in competition. competition. There are medals and ribbons and plaques for first plac place, e, seco second nd,, and and third third;; comp compet etit itio ions ns are are arranged arranged for the head-to-head head-to-head meeting meeting of the best competi competitors tors in the world; world; in swimming swimming and track, times are electronically recorded recorded to the hundre hundredth dth of a second; second; there are statisti statistics cs published published and rankings rankings announced, announced, every month mo nth or eve every ry wee week. k. By the end end of of the Olympic Olympic Games Games every four four years, years, it is completely clear who won won and who lost, who made the finals, finals, who participate participated d in the Games, Games, and who never participated in the sport at all. Within competitive swimming in particular, clear stratification exists not only between between individuals but also between defined levels of the sport as well. At the lowest level, level, we see the country club teams, teams, operating in the summertime as a loosel looselyy run, mildly mildly competiti competitive ve league league,, with volunt volunteer eer,, part-time part-time coache coaches. s. Above that there are teams that represent entire cities and compete with other teams from other cities around the state or region; then a “Junior “Junior Nationals” Nationals” level level of competition competition,, featuring the best younger (under 18 years old) athletes; then the Senior Nationals Nationals level level (any age, the best in in the nation); nation); and finally finally,, we could could speak of world- or Olympic-class competitors. competitors. At each such such level, level, we find, predictab predictably ly,, certain certain

people people competing competing:: one athlete athlete swims in in a summer league, league, never seeing seeing swimmers from another town; one swimmer may consistently consistently qualify for the Junior Junior Nationals, Nationals, but not for Seniors; a third may swim at the Olympics Olympics and never return to Junior Junior Nationals. Nationals. The levels of the sport are remarkably distinct from one another. . . . Becaus Becausee succes successs in swimmi swimming ng is so defina definable ble,, . . . we can can clea clearly rly see, see, by compa comparing ring levels and studying individuals as they move between between and within levels, levels, what exactly exactly produces duces excellence excellence.. In addition, addition, careers careers in swimming are are relative relatively ly short; short; one can can achieve achieve tremendou tremendouss success success in a brief period of time. Rowdy Rowdy Gaines, Gaines, beginning beginning in the sport when 17 years years old, jumped jumped from a country country club league to a world record in the 100 meter freestyle event in only three years. years. This allows the researcher to conduct true longitudinal resear research ch in a few short short year years. s. . . . . . . This report report draws draws on on extend extended ed experiexperience with swimmers swimmers at every every level of ability ability,, over some some half half a dozen dozen years. years. Observation Observation has covered covered the span span of careers, careers, and I have had had the chance to compare not just athletes within a certain level (the view that most coaches have), but between the most discrepant levels as well. Thus Thus these these findi findings ngs avoi avoid d the usual usual . . . probproblem of an observer’s observer’s being familiar familiar mainly with athlet athletes es at one level. level. . . .

The Nature of Excellence By “excellence “excellence”” I mean “consistent “consistent superiority of performance performance..” The excelle excellent nt athlet athletee reguregularly, larly, even routine routinely ly,, performs performs better than than his

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Chapter 1 ♦ Taking a New Look at a Familiar World

or her compe competit titors ors.. Consis Consisten tency cy of superi superior or performances tells us that one athlete is indeed better better than another, another, and that the differen difference ce between them is not merely the product of chance. This definition can apply at at any level of the sport, sport, differenti differentiating ating athletes. athletes. The supesuperiority discus discussed sed here here may may be be that that of one swimmer swimmer over another another,, or of all athletes athletes at one level level (say, (say, the Olympic Olympic class) over another another.. By this definition, we need not judge judge performance against an absolute criterion, but only against other performances. There are acknowledged leaders on every every team, as well as teams teams widely recognized as dominant. To introduce introduce what are sources sources of excelexcellence for Olympic athletes, I should first suggest saving the demonstration for later—what does not produce not produce excellence. (1) Excellenc Excellencee is is not, not, I find, find, the product product of socially deviant deviant personalities. These swimmers don’t don’t appear to be “oddballs,” nor are they loners (“kids who have given up the normal teenage life”). If their achievements achievements result from a personality characteristic, that characteristic is not not obvi obviou ous. s. Perha Perhaps ps it is is true true,, as the the mythology mythology of of sports has it, it, that the best best athathletes are more self-confident (although that is debatable); but such confidence could be an effect effect of of achieveme achievement, nt, not the cause of it. (2) Excell Excellenc encee does does not result not result from quantitative changes in behavior. behavior. Increased training time, per time, per se, does not make one swim fast; nor does increased “psyching “psyching up,” up,” nor does moving the arms faster. faster. Simply doing doing more of the same will not lead to moving up a level in the sport. (3) Excell Excellenc encee does does not result not result from some special special inner inner quality quality of the athlet athlete. e. “Talent “Talent”” is one common name for this quality; sometimes we talk talk of a “gift, “gift,”” or of “natural “natural ability ability..” These terms are generally used to mystify the essentially tially mundane mundane processes processes of achieveme achievement nt in sports, keeping us away from from a realistic analyanalysis of the actual actual factors factors creating creating superlati superlative ve performances, and protecting us from a sense of responsibility for our own outcomes. outcomes.

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So where does excellence—consistent superiority of performance—come from?

I. Excellence Excellence Requires Requires Qualitative Differentiation Excellence in competitive swimming is achieved through qualitative differentiation from other swimmers, swimmers, not through quantitati quantitative ve increases increases in acti activi vity ty.. . . . . . . I should should clarify what is meant meant here by “quantita “quantitative tive”” and “quali “qualitativ tative. e.”” By quantity, quantity, we mean the number number or amount of something. Quantitative improvement entails an increase in the number number of some one one thing thing one does. does. An athlete who practices 2 hours a day and increases that activity to 4 hours a day has made a quantitative change in behavior. behavior. Or, one who swims 5 miles and changes to 7 miles has made a quantitative quantitative change. She does more of the same thing; thing; there is is an increase increase in quanquantity. tity. Or again, again, a freestyl freestylee swimmer swimmer who, while maintaining the same stroke technique, technique, moves his arms at at an increased increased numbe numberr of strokes strokes per minute has made a quantitative change in behavi behavior or.. Quanti Quantitati tative ve impr improv oveme ements nts,, then, then, involve doing more more of the same same thing. thing. By quality quality,, though, though, we mean the characte characterr or natu nature re of the thing thing itse itself. lf. A quali qualitat tativ ivee change involves modifying what is actually being done, done, not simply simply doing more of it. For a swimmer doing the breaststroke, breaststroke, a qualitative qualitative change might be a change from pulling straight back with the arms to sculling them outwards, outwards, to the sides; sides; or from lifting lifting oneself oneself up out of the water water at the turn to staying staying low near the water. water. Other qualitati qualitative ve changes changes might include competing in a regional meet instead instead of local meets; meets; eating eating vegetab vegetables les and complex carbohydrates rather than fats and sugars; entering one’s one’s weaker events instead instead of only one’s one’s stronger events; learning to do a flip turn with with freestyle freestyle,, instead instead of of merely merely turning turning around around and pushing pushing off; or training at nearnearcompet competiti ition on leve levels ls of of intens intensity ity,, rather rather than than casually casually.. Each of these involve involvess doing doing things things differently than before, before, not necessarily necessarily doing doing


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PART 1 ♦ THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY

more. Qualitative improvements improvements involve doing differ different ent kinds kinds of things. things. Now we can consider how qualitative differentiation is manifested: Different levels of the sport are are qualitatively distinct. Olympic champions don’t just do much more of the same things that summersummerleague league country country club swimmers swimmers do. They don’t don’t just swim swim more hours, hours, or move move their arms arms faster faster,, or attend attend more workou workouts. ts. What What makes makes them faster cannot be quantitatively quantitatively compared with lower lower-level -level swimmers, swimmers, because because while while there may be quantitative differences— differences — and and certainly certainly there there are, for instance instance in the number number of hours hours spent spent in in worko workouts uts—th —these ese are not, not, I think, the decisive factors at all. Instead, Instead, they do things things differentl differentlyy. Their strokes are are different, their attitudes are different, their groups groups of of friends friends are different, different, their parents treat the sport differently, differently, the swimmers prepare prepare differen differently tly for their races, races, and they enter different different kinds of meets and events. events. There are numerous numerous discontinuities discontinuities of this sort between, between, say, say, the swimmer swimmer who competes competes in a local City League meet and one who enters the Olympic Trials. Trials. Consider three dimensions of difference: (1) Techniq echnique: ue: The styles styles of strok strokes, es, dives dives and turns are dramatically different at different levels levels.. A “C” “C” (the lowe lowest st rank in Unite United d States Swimming’s ranking system) breaststroke swimmer tends to pull her arms far f ar back beneath her, her, kick the legs legs out very wide without bringing bringing them together together at the finish, finish, lift herself herself high out out of the water water on on the turn, fail to to take a long pull pull underwater after the turn, and touch at the finish with one hand, on her side. By comparison, comparison, an “AAAA “AAAA”” (the highest rank) swimmer, sculls the arms arms out to the side and sweeps back in (never actually pulling backwards), kicks narrowly with the feet feet finishing together together,, stays stays low on on the turns, turns, takes takes a long underwater pull after the turn, and touches at the finish with both hands. Not only are the strokes different, different, they are so different different that the “C” swimmer swimmer may be be amazed amazed to see see how how

the “AAAA “AAAA”” swimmer looks when swimming. The appearance alone is dramatically different, as is the the speed speed with whic which h they they swim. swim. . . . (2) Discip Discipline: line: The best best swimmers swimmers are more likely to be strict with their training, coming to workouts on time, carefully doing the competitiv competitivee strokes strokes legally (i.e., (i.e., without without violating violating the technical technical rules rules of of the sport), sport), watch what they eat, sleep sleep regular regular hours, hours, do proper warmups before a meet, and the like. Their energy is carefully channeled. channeled. Diver Greg Louganis, who won two Olympic gold medals in 1984, practices only three hours hours each day— not a long time—divided into two or three sessions. sions. But during during each each sessio session, n, he tries tries to do every dive perfectly. perfectly. Louganis is never sloppy in practice, and so is never never sloppy in meets. (3) Attitu Attitude: de: At the higher higher levels levels of comcompetitive swimming, swimming, something like an inversion inversion of attitude attitude take takess place. place. The very very feature featuress of the sport that the “C” swimmer finds unpleasant, unpleasant, the toplevel toplevel swimmer enjoys. enjoys. What others see see as boring—swimming back and forth over a black line for two hours, say—they say—they find peaceful, ful, even even med medit itat ativ ive, e, ofte often n chal challe leng ngin ing, g, or therapeu therapeutic. tic. They enjoy enjoy hard hard practices practices,, look forward to difficult competitions, competitions, try to set difficult goals. Coming into the 5:30 A.M. practices practices at Mission Mission Viejo Viejo,, many many of the swimmers swimmers were were lively lively,, laugh laughing ing,, talkin talking, g, enjo enjoyin yingg themse themselv lves es,, perhaps appreciating the fact that most people would positively positively hate doing doing it. It is incorrect to believe that top athletes suffer great sacrifices to achieve their goals. goals. Often, they don’ don’tt see what they do as sacrificial sacrificial at all. They like it. These qualitative differences are what disting distinguis uish h levels levels of of the sport sport.. They are very very noticeable, noticeable, while the quantitative quantitative differe differences nces between between levels, both in training and in competicompetition, tion, may be surprisi surprisingly ngly small small indeed indeed.. . . . Yet very small quantitative differences in performance may be coupled with huge qualitative differences: differences: In the finals of the men’s men’s 100-meter 100-meter freestyle swimming event at the 1984 Olympics, Rowdy Rowdy Gaines, Gaines, the gold medalis medalist, t, finished finished ahead of second-plac second-placee Mark Stockwell Stockwell by by .44




seco second nds, s, a gap gap of only only 8/ 8/10 10 of 1%. 1%. Betw Betwee een n Gaines and the 8th place finisher (a virtual unknown unknown named Dirk Korthals, Korthals, from West West Germany), Germany), there was only a 2.2% difference difference in time. time. Indeed, Indeed, between between Rowdy Rowdy Gaines, Gaines, the fastest swimmer swimmer in the world that that year, year, and a respectable 10-year-old, the quantitative difference in speed would only be about 30%. Yet here, here, as in many many cases, cases, a rather small small quantitative difference quantitative difference produces an enormous qualitative difference: Gaines was consistently a winner in major international meets, holder of the worl world d record record,, and the the Olymp Olympic ic Gold Gold Medalist in three events. Stratifica Stratification tion in the sport sport is discrete, discrete, not continuous. There are are significan significant, t, qualitativ qualitativee breaks—discontinuities—between levels of the sport. These include differences differences in attitude, discipline, and technique which in turn lead to small but consistent quantitative differences in speed. Entire teams show such such differences differences in attitude, attitude, discipline discipline,, and technique, technique, and conse conse-quently certain teams are easily seen to be “stuck” “stuck” at certain certain levels. levels. Some teams teams alway alwayss do well at the National National Championships, others do well at the Regionals, others at the County County Meet. Meet. And certai certainly nly swimm swimmers ers typical typically ly remain within a certain level level for most most of their careers, maintaining throughout their careers the habits habits with with which they began. began. Within Within levels, levels, competiti competitive ve improveme improvements nts for such swimmers swimmers are typically typically marginal, marginal, reflecting reflecting only differential growth rates (early onset of puberty, puberty, for instance instance)) or the jockeying jockeying for for position within the relatively limited sphere of thei theirr own own leve level. l. . . . . . . Athletes Athletes move up to the the top top ranks ranks through qualitative jumps: noticeable changes in their their techniqu techniques, es, discip disciplin line, e, and attitu attitude, de, accomplished usually through a change in settings settings (e.g., (e.g., joining joining a new team with a new coach, coach, new friends, friends, etc.) who who work at a higher higher level. level. Witho Without ut such such qualita qualitativ tivee jumps jumps,, no major improvements (movements through levels levels)) will will tak takee place place.. . . . This is really several several worlds, each with its own pat patte tern rnss of cond conduc uct. t. . . . If, as I have sugges suggested, ted,

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there really are qualitative breaks between levels levels of the sport, sport, and if people people really really don don’t ’t “work their their way up” up” in any simple simple additive additive sense, sense, perhaps perhaps our very very conceptio conception n of a single swimming world is inaccurate. I have spoken of the “top” “top” of the sport, sport, and of “levels “levels”” within within the sport. sport. But these these words words suggest suggest that all all swimmers swimmers are, are, so to to speak, speak, climbing climbing a single ladder, aiming towards towards the same goals, sharing the same values, swimming the same same strokes, strokes, all looking upwards towards an Olympic gold meda medal. l. But But they they are aren n’t. ’t. Some Some want want gold gold medals, medals, some want to make the team, team, some want to exercise, exercise, or have fun with friends, or be out in the sunshine and water. water. Some are trying to escape their parents. The images of the “top” and the the “levels “levels”” of swimmin swimmingg which which I have have used until now may simply reflect the dominance nance of of a certai certain n factio faction n of swimme swimmers rs and and coaches coaches in the sport: top is what they regard they regard as the top, top, and their their definiti definitions ons of success success have have the broadest political currency in United States Swimming. Fast swimmers take as given that faster faster is bett better— er—ins instea tead d of, of, say say, that that more more beautiful beautiful is better; better; or that parental parental involve involve-ment is better; better; or that “wellro “wellrounde unded” d” children children (whatever (whatever that may may mean) mean) are better better.. . . . So we should envision not a swimming world, but multiple multiple worlds (see Shibutani, 1962; Blumer, 1969) (and changing worlds is a major step toward excellence), a horizontal rather than vertical differen differentiation tiation of the sport. What I have have called “levels” “levels” are better described as “worlds” or “spheres.” In one such world, parents are loosely loosely in charge, coaches coaches are teenagers teenagers employed employed as lifeguards, practices are held a few times a week, competitions are scheduled perhaps a week in advance, the season lasts for a few weeks in the summertime, summertime, and athletes athletes who are much faster than the others may be discouraged by social pressure even from competing, for they take the fun fun out out of it. The big big even eventt of the seas season on is is the City Champions Championship, hip, when children children from from the metropolitan area will spend two days racing each other in many many events, events, and the rest of the time sitting under huge tents playing cards, readin reading, g, listen listening ing to music, music, and gossipin gossiping. g. In



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another world, coaches are very powerfu powerful, l, parents seen only occasionally (and never on the pool deck), deck), swimmers travel travel thousands thousands of miles to attend attend meets, meets, they swim 6 days a week for years at a time, and the fastest among them them are are object objectss of respec respectt and praise. praise. The big event event of the season season may be the the National National Championships Championships,, where the athletes athletes may spend much time—sittin time—sittingg under huge tents, tents, playing playing cards, reading, reading, listening listening to music and gossiping. gossiping. Each such world has its own distinctive types of powerful powerful people people and dominant dominant athletes, letes, and being prominent prominent in one world is no guarantee guarantee of being prominent prominent in another another.. At lower lower levels levels,, the paren parents ts of swimmer swimmerss are in charge; charge; at the the higher higher leve levels, ls, the coache coaches; s; perhaps in the Masters teams which are made up only of swimmers over 25 years old, old, the swimmers mers themselv themselves. es. Each world, world, too too,, has its disdistinctiv tinctivee goals: goals: going going to the Olymp Olympics, ics, doing doing well at the National Junior Junior Olympics, winning the City Meet, Meet, having a good time time for a few weeks. weeks. In each world world the technique techniquess are at least somewhat distinct (as with the breaststroke, stroke, discussed discussed above), above), and certain demands demands are made made on family family and friends. friends. In all of these ways, ways, and many many more, each so-called so-called “level” of competitive swimming is qualitatively different than others. The differences are not simply quantifiable steps along a one-dimensional path leading leading to the Olympic Games. Goals are varied, participants participants have competing competing commitments, and techniques techniques are jumbled.

II. Why “Talent” “Talent” Does Not Lead to Excellence . . . “Tale “Talent nt”” is perhap perhapss the most most pervas pervasiv ivee lay explanation we have have for athletic success. success. Great athletes, athletes, we seem seem to believe, believe, are born born with a specia speciall gift, gift, almost almost a “thing “thing”” inside inside of them, them, denied denied to the rest rest of us—perhap us—perhapss physical, physical, geneti genetic, c, psycho psychologi logical cal,, or physi physiolo ologica gical. l. Some Some have have “it,” and some don’t. don’t. Some are “natural “natural athletes,” athletes,” and some aren’t. aren’t. While an athlete, athlete, we acknowled acknowledge, ge, may require require many years years of training and dedication to develop and use that

talent, talent, it is always always “in there, there,” only waiting waiting for an opportunity opportunity to come out. out. When When children children perform well, well, they are said said to to “have” “have” talent; talent; if performance declines, they may be said said to have “wasted their talent.” talent.” We believe it is that that talent, talent, conceive conceived d as a substance substance behind behind the surfac surfacee reality reality of perform performanc ance, e, which which finally finally distinguishes the best among our athletes. But talent fails as an explanation for athletic success success,, on conceptual conceptual grounds. grounds. It mystimystifies excelle excellence, nce, subsuming subsuming a complex complex set of discrete actions behind a single undifferentiated concept. To understand these actions and the excelle excellence nce which which they constitu constitute, te, then, we should first debunk this concept of talent and see where where it fails. fails. On at least least three points, points, I believe, “talent” “talent” is inadequate. inadequate. Factors other than talent explain athletic can, with a little little success more precisely. We can, effort, see what these factors are in swimming: swimming: geographical geographical locati location, on, particularly particularly living in in southern California where the sun shines year round and everybody swims; fairly high family income, which allows for the travel travel to meets and payments of of the fees entailed entailed in the sport, sport, not to mention sheer access to swimming pools when when one is young; one’s one’s height, weight, weight, and proportion proportions; s; the luck or choice choice of having having a good coach, who can teach the skills required; required; inherited muscle structure—it certainly helps to be both strong strong and flexible flexible;; parents parents who are interes interested ted in sports. sports. Some swimmer swimmers, s, too too,, enjoy enjoy more the physica physicall pleasures pleasures of of swimming; ming; some some have have better better coor coordin dinati ation; on; some some even have have a higher percen percentage tage of fast-twitch fast-twitch muscle fiber. fiber. Such factors are clearly definable, and their effects can be clearly demonstrated. To subsum subsumee all of them, them, willyni willynilly lly,, under under the rubric of “talent” “talent” obscures obscures rather rather than illumiilluminates nates the sour sources ces of of athlet athletic ic excel excellen lence. ce. . . . The conce concept pt of talent talent hinders hinders a clear clear unders understan tandin dingg of excel excellen lence. ce. By providi providing ng a quic quick k . . . “expl explan anat atio ion n” of athl athlet etic ic succ succes ess, s, it satisfies our casual curiosity while requiring neither an empirical analysis nor a critical questioning of our tacit assumptions assumptions about top top athlete athletes. s. At best, best, it is an easy easy way way of admittin admittingg




that that we don don’t know know the the answe answerr. . . . But the the attemp attemptt at expla explanat nation ion fail fails. s. . . . Through Through the the noti notion on of talen talent, t, we tran transfo sform rm parti particu cula larr actions that a human being does into an object possessed, held in trust for the day when it will be reve reveale aled d for for all to see. see. . . .

III.The Mundanity of Excellence “People don’t know how ordinary success is,” said Mary Mary T. T. Meagher Meagher,, winner of 3 gold medals medals in the Los Angeles Angeles Olympics, when asked what the public least understands about her sport. She then then spoke spoke of starting starting her career career in in a summer summer league league country country club team, team, of working working her way to AAU AAU meets, to faster and faster competitions petitions,, of learning learning new technique techniques, s, practicpracticing new habits, meeting new new challenges challenges (see (see Chamblis Chambliss, s, 1988 1988). ). What What Meagher Meagher said—tha said—thatt success is ordinary—in some sense applies, I believe, believe, to other other fields fields of endeavo endeavorr as well: well: to busines business, s, to politics, politics, to professio professions ns of all kinds, kinds, including academics. academics. In what follows follows I will try to elaborate on this point, point, drawing some examexamples from from the swimming research, research, and some some from other other fields fields,, to indicate indicate the the scope scope of this conception. Excellence is mundane. Superlative performance mance is really a confluen confluence ce of dozens dozens of small skills or activities, each one learned or stumbled upon, upon, which have have been carefully drilled into habit and then are fitted together in a synthesized whole. whole. There is nothing nothing extraordinary or superhuma superhuman n in any one of those actions actions;; only the fact that they are done consistently and correctly correctly,, and all together, together, produce produce excelexcellence. lence. When When a swimmer learns learns a proper proper flip turn in the freestyle freestyle races, races, she will swim the race a bit faster; faster; then a streamline streamlined d push off from the wall, with the arms squeezed together over over the head, head, and a little little faster; faster; then how how to place the hands in the water so no air is cupped in them; then how to lift them over the water; water; then how to lift weights to properly build strength, strength, and how to eat the right right foods, and to wear the best best suits for for racing, and on and on (see Maglischo, Maglischo, 1982; Troup and Reese Reese,, 1983).

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Each of of those tasks seems seems small small in in itself, itself, but each allows the athlete to swim a bit faster. faster. And having learned and consistently practiced all of them them togethe togetherr, and many many more more besid besides, es, the swimmer may compete in the Olympic Games. The winning winning of a gold medal medal is nothing more more than the synthes synthesis is of a countless countless number number of such such little little thing things—e s—eve ven n if some some of them them are done unwittingly or by by others, and thus called called “luck.” So the “little things” things” really really do count. count. We have already seen how a very small (in quantitative terms) difference can produce a noticeable success. Even apparent apparent flukes can lead to to gold medal performances: In the 100-Meter Freestyle event in Los Angeles, Angeles, Rowdy Rowdy Gaines, Gaines, knowing knowing that the starter for the race tended to fire the gun fast, anticipated the start; while not actually jumping the gun, gun, it seems from from video replay replayss of the race that Gaines knew exactly exactly when to go, go, and others were left on the blocks as he took off. But the starter turned his back, and the protests protests filed afterwards by competitors were ignored. Gaines had spent spent years watching watching starters, and had talked with his coach (Richard Quick) before the race about this starter in particular. (Fiel (Field d not notes es;; see Cham Chambli bliss, ss, 19 1988 88,, for for full full description)

Gaines was not noticeably faster than several eral of the othe otherr swimme swimmers rs in the the race, race, but but with this one extra tactic, he gained enough enough of an advantage to win the race. And he seemed seemed in almost all of his races to find such an advanadvantage; hence the gold medal. medal. Looking Looking at at such such subtleties, we can say that not only are the little things things imp import ortant ant;; in some some way ways, s, the litt little le things things are the only only things things.. . . . In swimming, or elsewhere elsewhere,, these practices might at first glance seem very minimal indeed: When Mary Mary T. T. Meagher was 13 years old and had qualified for the National Championships, she decided to to try to break the world world record record in the 200-Meter 200-Meter Butterfl Butterflyy race. She made two immediate qualitative changes in her routine routine:: first, she began coming coming on time



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to all all practice practices. s. She recalls recalls now, now, years later, later, being picked up at school by her mother and driving (rather quickly) through the streets of Louisvi Louisville lle,, Kentu Kentucky cky,, trying trying despera desperatel telyy to make make it to the pool pool on time. time. That habit, habit, that discipline, she now says, gave her her the sense that every every minute minute of practic practicee time coun counted ted.. And second second,, she bega began n doing doing all of her turns turns,, durduring those those practices, practices, correctly correctly,, in strict strict accoraccordance dance with with the compe competiti titive ve rules. rules. Most Most swimmers don’t don’t do this; they turn rather casually, ally, and tend to touch touch with one hand instead of two (in (in the butt butterf erfly ly,, Meagh Meagher’ er’ss stroke stroke). ). This, she says, says, accustome accustomed d her to doing things things one step better than those around her— always. Those are the two major major changes she made in her training, as she remembers remembers it. Meagher made two quite mundane changes in her habits, either one one of which anyanyone could could do, do, if he or she she wanted. wanted. Within a year year Meagher had broken the world record in the butt butter erfl flyy. . . . Motivation Motivation is mundane, mundane, too. Swimmers go to practice practice to see their their friends, friends, to exercise, exercise, to feel strong strong afterwards, afterwards, to impress impress the coach, to work towards bettering a time they swam in the last last meet. Sometime Sometimes, s, the older older ones, ones, with a longer longer view of the future, future, will aim towards towards a meet that is still several months away. away. But even given the longer-term longer-term goals, the daily satisfacsatisfactions need need to be there. there. The mundane mundane social social rewards really are crucial (see Chambliss, 1988, 198 8, Chapter Chapter 6). 6). By compa compariso rison, n, the big, big, dramatic motivations—winning an Olympic gold medal, setting a world record— record—seem seem to to be ineffective unless translated into shorter-term tasks. tasks. Viewin Viewingg “Rocky “Rocky”” or “Chario “Chariots ts of Fire” Fire” may inspire inspire one for several days, days, but the excitement excitement stirred stirred by a film wears wears off rather quickly when confronted with the day-to-day reality of climbing climbing out of bed to to go and jump jump in cold cold water. water. If, on the other other hand, hand, that daydayto-day to-day reality reality is itself fun, rewarding, rewarding, challengchallenging; ing; if the wate waterr is nice nice and and frie friend ndss are are supportive, supportive, the longer-term longer-term goals may well be achieved achieved almost almost in spite spite of themselves. themselves. Again, Mary T. T. Meagher: Meagher:

I never looked looked beyond the next year, year, and I never looked looked beyond beyond the next next level. I never thought about the Olympics when I was ten; ten; at that time time I was thinking thinking about about the State Championships. Championships. When I made cuts for Regionals [the next next higher level of competition], I started thinking thinking about about Regionals; Regionals; when I made cuts for National Junior Olympics, I started thinking about National Junior Olympics Olympics . . . I can can’t even even think think about about the [1988] [1988] Olymp Olympics ics right right now now. . . . Thing Thingss can overwhelm you if you think think too far ahead. (Interview notes)

This statement was echoed by many many of the swimmers swimmers I interviewe interviewed. d. While While many many of them were working towards the Olympic Games, they divided the work along the way into achievable achievable steps steps,, no one of which was was too big. big. They found their challenges in small things: working on a better start this week, polishing up their backstroke technique next week, focusing on better sleep habits, planning how to pace pace their their swim swim.. . . . . . . Many Many top top swimmers swimmers are accustome accustomed d to winning winning races in practice, practice, day after after day. day. Steve Lundquist, Lundquist, who won two gold medals in Los Angeles, sees his success success as resulting resulting from an early decision that he wanted to win every swim, every day day, in every practice. practice. That was the immediate goal he faced at workouts; workouts; just try to win every every swim, swim, every lap, lap, in every every stroke, stroke, no matter what. Lundquist gained a reputation in swimming for being a ferocious workout swimmer, one who competed all the time, even in the warmup. warmup. He became so accustomed to winning that he entered meets knowing that he could beat these people—he had developed the habit, habit, every day, day, of never never losing. losing. The shortshortterm goal goal of winning winning this swim, swim, in this this workworkout, translated translated into into his ability ability to win bigger and bigger bigger races. Competition Competition,, when the day day arrived arrived for a meet, meet, was not a shock shock to him, him, nothing nothing at all out of the ordinary ordinary.. This leads to a third and final point. In the the pursu pursuit it of excel excellen lence, ce, maint maintain aining ing mundanity is the key psychological challenge. In common parlance, parlance, winners don’ don’tt choke. choke. Faced




with what seems to be a tremendous challenge or a strikingly strikingly unusual unusual event, event, such as the Olympic Games, Games, the better better athletes take take it as a normal, manageab manageable le situation situation (“It’s (“It’s just just another swim meet,” meet,” is a phrase sometimes used by top swimmers at a major event such as the Games) and do what is necessary to deal with it. Standar Standard d rituals rituals (such (such as the warmu warmup, p, the psych, psych, the visu visuali alizati zation on of of the race, race, the taki taking ng off of sweats sweats,, and the like) like) are ways ways of of importimporting one’s daily habits into the novel situation, to make it as normal an event as possible. Swimmers Swimmers like like Lundq Lundquist uist,, who train at competition-le competition-level vel intensity, intensity, therefore therefore have an advantage: advantage: arriving at at a meet, meet, they are are already already accustomed accustomed to doing doing turns correctly correctly,, taking legal starts, starts, doing a proper proper warmup, warmup, and being being aggressive aggressive from the outset outset of the competition. competition. If each day of the season is approached with a seriseriousness ousness of purpose, purpose, then the the big meet will not not come as a shock. The athlete athlete will believe believe “I belong here, this is my world”—and world”—and not be paralyzed alyzed by fear or self-consciousn self-consciousness. ess. The task then is to have training closely approximate compet competitio ition n conditi conditions ons.. . . . The mundanity mundanity of excellence excellence is typically typically unrecogniz unrecognized. ed. I think the the reason reason is fairly fairly simple. Usually Usually we see great athletes only after after they have become great—after the years of learning the new methods, gaining the habits of competitiveness competitiveness and consistency, consistency, after becoming comfortable in their their world. They have long long since perfected perfected the myriad of techniques techniques that together constitute constitute excellence. excellence. Ignorant of all of the specific steps that have led to the performance and and to the confidence, confidence, we think that somehow excellence sprang full grown from this person, person, and we say say he or she “has talent” talent” or “is gifted.” Even when when seen close close up, the mundanity of excellence excellence is often not believed: believed: Every week at the Mission Viejo training pool, where the National Champion Nadadores team practice practiced, d, coaches coaches from from around around the world would would be on the deck visiting, watching as the team did did their worko workouts, uts, swimming swimming back and forth for for hours. The visiting coaches coaches

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would would be excited excited at first, first, just to be here; here; then soon—within an hour or so usually—they grew bored, walking back and forth looking looking at the deck, glancing around around at the hills hills around the town, town, reading the bulletin boards, glancing down down at their their watches, watches, wonderin wondering, g, after after the long flight out to California, when something something dramatic was going to happen. happen. “They all have to come to to Mecca, and see what we do, do,” coach Mark Schubert said. “They think we have some big secret.” secret.” (Field notes)

But of course course there there is no secre secret; t; there there is only the doing doing of all those little little things, each one done correctly correctly,, time and again, again, until excellence excellence in every detail becomes a firmly ingrained habit, an ordinary ordinary part of one’s one’s everyday everyday life.

Conclusions The foregoing analysis suggests that we have overlooked a fundamental fact about Olympic class athletes; and the argument may apply far more widely widely than swimming, swimming, or sports. sports. I suggest that it applies to success success in business, politics, and academic academics, s, in dentistry dentistry,, bookkeepi bookkeeping, ng, food food service service,, speech speechmak making, ing, electric electrical al engi engi-neering, selling insurance (when the clients are upset, you climb in the car and go out there to talk with them), and perhaps even even in the arts. Consider again the major points: (1) Excellence is a qualitative phenomenon. Doing more does does not equal doing better better.. High performers focus focus on qualitative, qualitative, not quantitative, tive, improve improvement ments; s; it is qualitativ qualitativee improveimprovements which produce significant changes in level of achievement; achievement; different levels of achievement really are distinct, distinct, and in fact reflect vastly different habits, values, and goals. (2) Talent is a useless concept. Varying conceptio conceptions ns of of natural natural ability ability (“talent, (“talent,” e.g.) tend to mystify mystify excelle excellence, nce, treating treating it as the inhere inherent nt posse possessi ssion on of a few; they mask mask the the concrete actions that create outstanding performanc formance; e; they they avoid avoid the the work work of of empiric empirical al



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analysis and logical explanations (clear definitions, tions, separable separable independe independent nt and dependent dependent variables, and at least least an attempt attempt at establishestablishing the the tempor temporal al priorit priorityy of the cause cause); ); and finally, finally, such conceptions conceptions perpetuate the sense of innate innate psychologi psychological cal differen differences ces between between high performers and other people. (3) Excellence is mundane. Excellence is accomplis accomplished hed through through the doing doing of actions, actions, ordinary ordinary in themselve themselves, s, performed performed consisconsistentl tentlyy and and care careful fully ly,, habi habitua tuali lize zed, d, comcompounded pounded together together,, added up over over time. While While these actions are “qualitatively “qualitatively different” from those of performers performers at at other other levels, levels, these differences are are neither unmanageable unmanageable nor, nor, taken one step step at at a time, time, terribly terribly difficult difficult.. Mary T. T. Meagher came to practice on time; some writers always work for three hours each morning, before beginning anything else; a businessperbusinessperson may go ahead and make that tough phone call; a job applicant applicant writes one more more letter; letter; a runner runner decides, decides, against against the odds, odds, to enter enter the race; a county commissi commissioner oner submits submits a petition to run for Congress; Congress; a teenager asks for a date; date; an actor actor attends attends one more auditi audition. on. Every time a decision comes up, up, the qualitatively tively “corre “correct” ct” choice choice will be made made.. The action, action, in itself, itself, is nothing nothing special special;; the care care and consistency with which it is made is. Howard Becker has presented a similar argument about the ordinariness of apparently unusual people in his book Outsiders (1961). But where he speaks of deviance, I would speak of excellen excellence. ce. Becker Becker says, says, and I concur: concur: We ought not to view it as something special, as depraved or in some magical way better than other other kinds kinds of of behavior behavior.. We ought ought to to

see it simply as a kind of behavior behavior some disapprov approvee of and others others value, value, studyi studying ng the the processes by which either or both perspectives are built up and maintained. Perhaps the the best surety against either extreme is close contact with the people people we study. study. (Becker (Becker,, p. 176)

After three years years of field work with worldworldclass swimmers swimmers,, having having the kind kind of close concontact that Becker Becker recommends, recommends, I wrote a draft of some some boo book k chap chapter ters, s, full full of stories stories abo about ut swimmers, swimmers, and I showed showed it to a friend. friend. “You “You need to jazz it up,” up,” he said. “You “You need to make these people people more interesting. The analysis is nice, but except except for the fact that these are good swimmers, swimmers, there isn’t isn’t much else else exciting exciting to say about them as individuals.” He was right, of course. course. What What these these athlet athletes es do do was rather interestin interesting, g, but the people people themselves themselves were were only fast fast swimmers, swimmers, who did the the particular particular things one does to swim fast. fast. It is all very mundane. When my my friend said that they weren’t weren’t exciting, exciting, my best answer answer could only be, simply simply put: That’s the point.

REFERENCES Blum Blumer er,, Herbe erbert rt.. 19 1969 69.. Symbolic Interactionism . Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Chambliss, Chambliss, Daniel Daniel F. 1988 1988.. Champions: The Making of Olympic Swimmers. Swimmers. New York: Morrow. Maglischo Maglischo,, Ernest Ernest W. 1982 1982.. Swimming Faster. Palo Alto: Alto: Mayfield Mayfield.. Shibuta Shibutani, ni, T. “Refe “Referen rence ce Group Groupss and and Soci Social al Contr Control, ol,” in Rose, Rose, Arnold Arnold M. 196 1962. 2. Human Behavior and Social Process. Boston: Houghton Houghton Mifflin, Mifflin, pp. 128–147. 128–147. Troup roup,, John John and and Reese, Reese, Rand Randyy. 198 1983. 3. A Scientific Approach Approach to the Sport of Swimming. Gainesville, FL: Scientific Scientific Sports. Sports.




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THINKING ABOUT THE READING Why does Chambliss feel that “talent” “talent” is a useless concept in explaining success among world-class swimmers? swimmers? Where, Where, instead, does he think that athletic excellence excellence comes comes from? Why do you suppose we have such a strong tendency to focus on “talent” or “natural ability” ability” in explaining explaining superior superior performanc performances? es? If it’s it’s true, as Chambliss Chambliss suggests suggests,, that factors such as geographical location, high family income and interest, interest, and the luck of having a good coach can all all play an important role in creating world-class swimmers, then there are probably many potentially successful successful athletes who don’t have have the opportunity to to excel excel in certain certain sports because of their social circumstances. circumstances. Relatively few inner-city inner-city kids grow up to succeed in “wealthy” sports like swimming, tennis, tennis, and golf. golf. On the other other hand, the inner inner city produces produces many many of the world’ world’ss best basketbal basketball, l, football, football, and track stars. stars. What What sorts of social social circumstance circumstancess encourage encourage success in these these sports? sports? Can you identify identify other other areas areas of life (other (other than sports, sports, that is) where achievement achievement might similarly be affected by the kinds of social circumstances described in this article?


The Mundanity of Excellence

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