THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF MUSEUMS ARCHITECTURE
Y. M. MANSSOUR, H. H. M. EL-DALY, EL-DALY, N. K. MORSI ABSTRACT
When the architecture architecture is the art of esi!nin! a s"ace for certain "ur"oses# the architectura$esi!n architectura$esi!n of the %useu% is the a&i$it' to create a s"ecia$ an ins"irin! en(e$o", )hich "ro(iesits (isitors )ith i*erent e+"eriences, accorin! to its cu$tura$ %essa!e. It &eca%e the %ain"$ace for "reser(in! art)ors, in(entions, an hu%an achie(e%ents. he architectura$ esi!nof %useu%s has "asse th rou!h %an' sta!es fro% the onset of the conce"t of creatin! as"ace to "reser(e artifacts, unti$ it &eca%e no) the %ain cu$tura$ an eucationa$ &eacon forco%%unities, )hich %ae it fro% the %ost i%"ortant &ui$in! t'"es. It )as e(e$o"e o(ercenturies unti$ it &eca%e a se"arate &ui$in! )ith s"ecia$ architectura$ characteristics. his"a"er iscusses the e(o$ution of the %useu% architecture fro% fro% the . / ti$$ no), in orer tostu' its e(o$(in! circu%stances, )hich ha %ana!e its esi!n conce"t an the ne) esi!ntechno$o!ies, )hich is a*ectin! its esi!n no)aa's. Keywords:
Museu%, Architecture, 0irtua$ %useu%s. INTRODUCTION
Accorin! Accorin! to the ancient 1ree ci(i$i2ation an %'tho$o!', )hich )as &ase on &e$ie(in! inthe e+istin! of !os, the )or 3Muse4 refers to 3he 1o of ins"iration4 or 3he "rotector of Arts4,an the )or 3Mouseion4 refers to 3he seat of Muse4 567. Durin! the Ro%an era, the )or Muse)as referrin! to 3he "$aces of %eitation an "hi$oso"hica$ iscussions4 587. he )or Museu% )as9rst use in the 6: th centur' in Euro"e for escri&in! Loren2o e; Meici;s )ors in <$orence. ' the6= th centur', it )as use to escri&e the Euro"ean E uro"ean artists )or $ie O$e Wor%. Wor%. In En!$an, the artco$$ection cata$o!ue of >ohn raescant in La%ð )as tit$e Musaeu% raescantianu%, raescantianu%, )hich )as"u&$ishe )as"u&$ishe in 6?:?. he "ro"ert' "ro"ert' co$$ection of raescant raescant )as %o(e to E$ias E$ias Ash%o$e, an then hetransferre hetransferre it to a ne) &ui$in! &ui$in! in O+for Uni(ersit', )hich )as &ui$t es"ecia$$' to host this co$$ectionu"on Ash%o$e re@uest an na%e the Ash%o$ean Museu%. After that, the %useu% )as o"ene to the"u&$ic in 6?B, accorin!$', the Ash%o$ean %useu% )as consiere the 9rst o$ %useu% &ui$t on the%useu% conce"t as no)aa's an a$so the 9rst uni(ersit' %useu% 5B7. he %useu% )as %o(e toanother &ui$in! in the uni(ersit', an the o$ &ui$in! &eca%e a science %useu%. Su&se@uent$', a"arai!% shift has occurre in the conce"t of %useu%, urin! the 6C th an 8 th centur' &ecause of
there(o$utions too "$ace aroun the )or$, in aition to the )or$ )ars. A ne) !eneration of %useu%shas &een e%"hasi2e after this ti%e, &' the architectura$ "ioneers. Accorin!$', the esi!n of a%useu% &ui$in! has &eco%e a !reat cha$$en!e for an' architect, )hich reects the ieo$o!' of thisera, an re%are as a "ro!ress for an' schoo$ of architecture. At this ti%e, %useu%s are the "$acesfor "reser(in! histor', a""reciatin! the artistic icons, an recorin! the hu%an science in(ents. he(isitors of %useu%s no) are fro% e(er' "$ace, i*erent cu$tures, i*erent a!es, an co%in! fori*erent "ur"oses. Accorin! to I/OM, the %useu% is 3ser(ice of societ' an its e(e$o"%ent, o"en to the "u&$ic, )hich ac@uires, conser(es, researches,co%%unicates an e+hi&its the tan!i&$e an intan!i&$e herita!e of hu%anit' an its en(iron%ent forthe "ur"oses of eucation, stu' an enFo'%ent 4 5G7.In this "a"er, the e(o$ution of the %useu% conce"t fro% the ancient ti%es to the 86 St centur')i$$ &e iscusse. hrou!h this stu', the %ain ieo$o!ies for %useu%s in each era )i$$ &ehi!h$i!hte, "assin! throu!h the e%er!ence of %useu% conce"t an the chan!es ha""ene ue to thechan!es of )or$ cu$ture for% hi!h to "u&$ic cu$ture an ho) it cou$ &e a*ecte &' the ne) i!ita$esi!n techno$o!ies. 1. Museum o A!"#e!$ $#me %B. C&.
he iea of esta&$ishin! a %useu% or e+"ressin! it &acs to the ./ ti%e. he %useu% )as ani%"ortant feature in the ancient schoo$s an $i&raries. Durin! the ru$e of the haraoh Ahenaten6BB:-6B:B ./J a &i! $i&rar' )as &ui$t u"on his re@uest in a$ E$ A%arna re!ion, it )as fu$$ ofanti@ues an "recious co$$ections 5:7. So%e c$one "ieces of o$ "recious "ieces )ith the sa%e%ateria$s )as foun in Larsa in Meso"ota%ia Ira@ no)J, &ac to the secon %i$$enniu% ./, these"ieces ha(e &een use for eucationa$ "ur"oses, other "arts of a&'$onian cit' ha &een isco(ere &'Sir Leonar Woo$$e', these "arts sho) ho) the in!s Ne&uchane22ar an Na&onius )ere carin!a&out co$$ections )hi$e the' )ere ru$in! a&'$onian. Sir Leonar Woo$$e' a$so foun a co$$ection ofo$ "ieces an a ta&$et &ac to the 86 st centur' ./ in a roo% foun in an o$ schoo$ $ocate near hisarea of isco(eries, this ta&$et )as e+"$ainin! the $ife urin! the 86 st centur' ./, an a$so te$$s a stor'a&out Enni!a$i-Nanna, Na&onius; au!hter an a "riestess )ho o"erate this schoo$, )hich"reser(e so%e ite%s in their s%a$$ eucationa$ %useu% 5?7.In Asia, es"ecia$$' /hina, the e%"eror Shan! D'nast' )ho ru$e the 'e$$o) ri(er (a$$e' areao$ /hinaJ urin! the Br %i$$enniu% ./ 6688-6=??J )as intereste in %ain! co$$ections. A$so,i the e%"erors Shih Huan!-i an Near Sian, an their to%&s ha )itnesse on their care ofco$$ectin! "recious an rare "ieces, )hich )ere !uare &' a !rou" of terracotta )arriors an horses,as in
F#'. 1
erracotta )arriors an horses 5=7 (. Museums o Med#e)*+ rom $,e -$, $o $,e 1-$, "e!$ury.
he s"rea of /hristianit' urin! the %eie(a$ ti%es in Euro"e e%"hasi2e ne) chan!es in there$i!ious ieo$o!' an cu$ture of this era, )hich !a(e the chu rch a !reat i%"ortance to "rinces ani"$o%ats. he art co$$ections )ere %ain$' "reser(e in "rinces;s "a$aces or in the church safes./o$$ections ha a !reat i%"ortance for econo%ica$ "ur"oses, as it ha &een use for funin! ar%surin! the )ar. A$so, the c$one "ieces of these co$$ections ha(e &een use for train!, )hich )asinc$uin! so%e treasures of the e%"eror /har$e%a!ne, )ho ru$e the Ro%anian e%"ire -6GJ,an the in! of
F#'. (
he riu%"ha$ uari!a 57.
. Museums o Re!*#ss*!"e rom $,e 1-$, $o $,e 1/ $, "e!$ury.
he "rinces;s, no&$es;s, an %erchants;s "assion of co$$ectin! c$assica$ anti@ues has increase%ore than &efore the Renaissance "erio 6G-6?:J, an s"rea a$$ o(er the Euro"ean countries.he start )as &' the in! of Hun!ar' Matthias I, )ho "ut the Ro%anian anti@ues that ha(e &eenco$$ecte in S2o%&athe$' cast$e, an the "aintin!s in ua. A$so, i Ma+i%i$ian I of Austria, )ho"reser(e the "aintin!s he ha co$$ecte in his "a$ace in 0ienna. In the 31reen (au$ts4 of the Dresen"a$ace of Au!ustus of Sa+on' sa%"$es for scienti9c %ateria$s an "ieces of art )ere foun insie. Inaition, so%e co$$ections &e$on! to no&$es fro% centra$ Euro"e )ere
foun, inc$uin! so%eco$$ections of the Ho$' Ro%an e%"eror Ruo$f II in ra!ue, others to the Due of a(aria A$&ert 05B7
In
aintin!s for /har$es I of En!$an, "aint &' Anton' 0an 5C7. 0. Museums o $,e +*$e 1/$, "e!$ury.
At the en of the 6=th centur', the ro'a$ an no&$es "assion of co$$ection has &een increase,the' )ere ee"in! these co$$ections in )hat so-ca$$e 3/a&inet of Anti@ues4, )hich ha &eencontaine %an' "aintin!s, anti@ues an so%e "ieces of natura$ histor' 567.After that, a$$ of these "a$aces ha turne into %useu%s, as it ha &een containe (a$ua&$eanti@ues, an treasures. he Lou(er %useu% )as one of those "a$aces, it )as &ui$t in the 68th centur',urin! hi$i" II ru$in! ti%e, an in 6?8, it ha &een turne fro% the Lou(er "a$ace to a %useu% &'Louis I0 to "resent his ro'a$ co$$ection, an %o(e to $i(e in 0ersai$$es "a$ace.Most of <$orence, 0ienna, an the 0atican co$$ections ha(e &een transferre to other %useu%s,no)n no) as the %ost i%"ortant %useu%s aroun the )or$. hese co$$ections )ere "resente to thecu$ti(ate c$ass on$', as a "art of $u+ur', for "ro%otin! s"irits, su&$i%it' the sense of &eaut',a""reciatin! the artistic (a$ue, an e%anci"atin! thou!hts fro% the church o%ination 5B7.
-. Museums o $,e 1$, "e!$ury.
he 6th centur' is consiere the onset of the "u&$ic %useu%s in Euro"e. he hi!h c$ass;s"o)er ha &een i%inishe, an the church o%ination, the "u&$ic interest of arts an cu$ture &eca%ehi!her, es"ecia$$' after the Inustria$ re(o$ution in this
centur', in aition to the ne) e(e$o"%ents inscience, techno$o!', an arts. Museu%s )ere sti$$ for aristocratic c$ass on$', &ut it has &een o"ene afe) a's for "u&$ic to (isit. Ne) %useu%s ha a""eare urin! the "erio in Euro"e, the 0aticanco$$ection )as "resente for "u&$ic in %useu%s $ie the /a"ito$ine Museu% in 6=BG, as in
Miche$an!e$os esi!n for /a"ito$ine Hi$$, no) ho%e to the /a"ito$ine Museu%s 6:? 5667.
After isco(erin! the A%ericas, the re(i(a$ of the trae trac in north)estern Euro"e, an theinustria$ "ro!ress, ne) %useu%s ha &een &ui$t in Euro"e, inc$uin! the ritish %useu% in Lonon6=:C, as in a%aica, ethno!ra"hic,nu%is%atic, an art %ateria$s. S$oane;s co$$ection )as a&out 6, "ieces, )hich %ae it the %aincore of the %useu% 5687. Other co$$ections ha &een ae to the ritish %useu% &' Sir Ro&ert/otton an Ro&ert Har$e' -6st ear$ of O+for- )hich ha &een containe %anuscri"ts %ain$'. F#'. -
he Entrance to the ritish Museu% in Lonon, En!$an 56B7. F#'. 2
he Lou(re a$ace 56G7.
In S"ain, the iea of "u&$ic %useu%s has &een e(o$(e urin! the in!s /har$es the hir anthe Gh ru$in! ti%e, an the ose"h ona"arte Na"o$eon ona"arte;s &rother-)ho )as co$$ectin! anti@ues an art)ors fro% "a$aces an %useu%s to "ut it in rao %useu%, inMari, &ut the %useu% o"ene in the 6Cth centur', urin! the ru$in! ti%e of Kin!
aJ Historic e+ti$es 1a$$er'&J Natura$ Histor'cJ /i(i$ War /it' Uner Sie!e F#'. /
he /har$eston Museu%, "er%anent e+hi&its 56:7.
Durin! the A%erican ci(i$ )ar, a$$ the )ar incients ha &een incor"orate &' "ortraits "ainte&' the artist /har$es Wi$son i$$, he ha a si!ni9cant ro$e in the A%erican %useu% %o(e%ent, &'transferrin! "art of his house into a s%a$$ %useu% in 6==, )hich containe %ain$' his art )ors,so%e "ieces of natura$ histor', an a fu$$ recor for his co$$ections. When the %useu% &eca%e fu$$, it)as %o(e to the hi$oso"h' ha$$ he Ine"enence Ha$$ no) in the State &ui$in!, the housesta'e as a %useu% unti$ it ha &een c$ose in 68= for econo%ic reasons. In 66G, a ne) %useu%has &een &ui$t in a$ti%ore &' Re%&rant i$$ /har$es Wi$son i$$;s son )hich )as the 9rst%useu% to &e esi!ne, an &ui$ for e+hi&itin! artifacts after the Ash%o$ean Museu% 5:7.In Inia, the onset of /a$cutta Museu% the sa%e as the /entra$ %useu% of Inonesian /u$ture./a$cutta Museu% co$$ection in 6=G )as %ain$' fro% the Asiatic Societ' of en!a$;s co$$ection, asfor the Inonesian %useu% the ata(ia Societ' of Arts an Science;s co$$ection )as the &ase for it in6== 5B7.he architectura$ st'$e of %useu%s at that ti%e )as $ooin! $ie the "re(ious$' no&$e;s "a$acesan "u&$ic &ui$in!s, as a resu$t of turnin! %ost of these "a$aces into %useu%s, an the o%ination ofthe Neo-/$assic architectura$ st'$e in Euro"e for ha$f a centur', in aition to the o%ination ofRenaissance "erio &ui$in! st'$e. In the 6th centur', %useu% &ui$in! architecture )as as fo$$o)s56?7P Qhe %useu% )as )ith the cross sha"e "$an, )ith a o%e in the center surroune &'e+hi&ition ha$$s co(ere &' (au$ts. Qhe' use so$i e$e(ations in case of usin! to" $i!htin!. he %ain e$e(ation )as fu$$ ofco$u%n, natura$ for%s, )ith &i! entrance. Qhe $i!ht source )as a$)a's fro% the natura$ $i!ht &' to" $i!htin!, so the' use the c$ear stor'$i!hts, an $ar!e nu%&ers an areas of )ino)s in the e$e(ations to !et the %a+i%u%a(anta!e of the natura$ $i!ht.
QE+hi&its )ere %ain$' fro% natura$ histor' "ieces, &oos, anti@ues, %onu%ents, an%anuscri"ts. he traitiona$ )a' of e+hi&ition ha &een use )ith a si%"$e recor for each"iece. 2. Museums o $,e 13$, "e!$ury.
After the
F#'.
he Metro"o$itan Museu% e$e(ation, an the !reat ha$$ 56=7.In South A%erica, ne) nationa$ %useu%s ha &een &ui$t, such as the Ar!entine %useu% ofnatura$ science in uenos Aires in 668, the ra2i$;s nationa$ %useu% in Rio De >aneiro that ha &eeno"ene to the "u&$ic in 66, an the nationa$ %useu% of natura$ histor' in Santia!o, /hi$e 6B.In South Africa, the 2oo$o!ica$ co$$ection of Sir S%ith Anre), )hich ha &een foun in /a"eo)n in 68: )as the %ain co$$ection in the oo$o!ica$ Museu%. In Austra$ia, a ne) %useu% ha&een o"ene in S'ne', )hich ha &een foune in 68=, as in
F#'. 3
he Austra$ian Museu%, S'ne' 567. F#'. 14
he E!'"tian %useu%, /airo, in 6C? 56C7.
/. Museums o $,e (4$, "e!$ury $o 5rese!$.
Since the &e!innin! of the 8th centur', a ne) !eneration of %useu%s ha e%er!e. Man'factors a*ecte the esta&$ish%ent of %useu%s at that ti%e, starte &' the Wor$ Wars I, as a resu$t,ne) %useu%s ha &een esta&$ishe, es"ecia$$' in 1er%an' to !$orif' the )ar %en, the i%"ortantcharacters of the countr', an of course the Na2is 9!ures.After the hree Russian re(o$utions, ne) %useu%s ha &een esta&$ishe to !$orif' thesere(o$utions, such as he Winter a$ace at etro!ra St. eters&ur!J, see 9!ure 6.6:J, )hich containsso%e co$$ection re$ate to the re(o$utions. A i*erent t'"e of %useu%s ha &een e%"hasi2e na%e3he Me%oria$ Museu%s4, )hich "reser(e the "ersona$ stu* of the fa%ous characters in this "erio,fro% these %useu%s )as he /entra$ Museu% in 6C8G. F#'. 11
he Winter a$ace, St. eters&ur!, Russia 587.After the Secon Wor$ War, %an' ruins resu$te fro% the )ar, es"ecia$$' in Euro"e. Most ofthe Euro"ean countries use this ruins urin! its reconstruction, an this ruin ha "$ace in the%useu%s to &e "reser(e after the )ar 5:7. he %useu%s &efore this "erio )ere su*erin! fro% theo%ination of "o$itics an !o(ern%ent %en, as in the /hinese %useu%s, an Eastern Euro"e, &ut afterthe )ar e(er'thin! ha &een chan!e, e%ocrac' ha &een e+tene a$$ o(er the )or$, conse@uent$'#%useu%s &eca%e an ine"enent societ' 5:7.he rise of ne) architecture "ioneers an schoo$s, )ith ne) (isions for the architecture of thiscentur', $ie Le /or&usier, Mies 0an Der Rohe,
Le /or&usier an
in 6C:=, o'o,esi!ne Le /or&usier, as in
F#'. 1(
he Museu% of un$i%ite 1ro)th in 6CBC 5867. F#'. 1
he 1u!!enhei% Museu%, Manhattan, Ne) Yor /it' 5887.
As a resu$t of the scienti9c an techno$o!ica$ "ro!ress, ne) t'"es of %useu%s ha a""eare,Lonon Science %useu% in 6:=, )hich %o(e to another &ui$in! in 6C6C, an the DeutschesMuseu% in 6C8:, in Munich 5B7, as in
Lonon;s science %useu% 58B7. F#'. 1-
the Deutsches Museu% 58G7.
At this ti%e, %useu%s ha(e &eco%e (er' co%%on, an it;s (isitor fro% i*erent countries,cu$tures, a!es, )hich !i(e %useu%s a !reat cu$tura$, eucationa$, touristic, an entertain%ent statue.Museu%s t'"o$o!' &eca%e (arie, science an techno$o!', anthro"o$o!' an ethno$o!', archaeo$o!',arts, an natura$ histor'.
he i*erences &et)een %useu% (isitors an their %oti(ations, ne) functiona$ s"aces ha &eeni%"ose, in aition to the %ain s"aces of the %useu%, )hich i*er accorin! to the %useu%to"o$o!', conse@uent$'# the functiona$ "ro!ra% of %useu%s chan!e an ha(e to inc$ue ne)functiona$ s"aces such asP Qreser(ation an restoration roo%sP $a&s, an )orsho"s.
QEucationa$ an cu$tura$ s"acesP $i&rar', $ecture ha$$s, sho)roo%s, an conference ha$$. QEntertain%ent s"acesP restaurants, cafeterias, an stores for !ifts an sou(enirs.Accorin! to the chan!es ha""ene to societ' urin! the 6Cth an 8th centur', an econo%ica$"ro&$e% ha a""eare )ith the Russian state of %useu%, after the co$$a"se of the So(iet Union,%useu%s ha its o)n &u!et, sooner it &eca%e (er' har for the !o(ern%ent to sa(e %one' fore(e$o"in! %useu%s, so the' &e!an to %ae the %useu%s fun itse$f after the "u&$ic onations hafa$$en 5B7. As a resu$t of that, these ne) s"aces such as restaurants, sho"s, an cafeterias &eca%e the%ain funin! source for %useu%s not Fust for entertainin! (isitors, an the inco%e fro% suchacti(ities )i$$ &e use for en$ar!in! the %useu% co$$ections &' &u'in! ne) ori!ina$ ite%s, or for&ui$in! ne) %useu%s. . Museums o $,e (1s$ "e!$ury.
Durin! the 86st centur', %an' %useu%s too their "$ace a$$ o(er the )or$# &ecause of the"arai!% shift occurre in the i!ita$ esi!n techno$o!', )hich is the resu$t of the interference&et)een science &ranches, the esi!n ieo$o!' for the %useu% architecture has &een e(e$o"era"i$'. his shift o*ere the architects ne) so$utions for their "ro&$e%s &et)een esi!nin! ani%a!inar' for%, an the &ui$in! functiona$ nees, accorin!$' the 9e$ of architecture esi!n &eca%e%ore a(ance, as the' %o(e to use this techno$o!' in the esi!n sta!es. his ne) techno$o!'inc$ue ne) )a's of "resentin! artifacts, $i!htin! techni@ues, %onitorin!, contro$$in!, an (irtua$(isits for the %useu%s. he ne) esi!n techno$o!ies "resente in fe) t'"es containin! o"ti%i2e,"ara%etric an a$!orith%ic esi!n, as in ean Nou(e$, an other, as in
o)ars a conce"tua$ fra%e)or - co%"arison of urin!-&ase %oe$ )ith O+%an;sc$assi9cation 58:7
F#'. 1/
1u!!enhei% i$&ao Museu%, S"ain, &'
Den(er Museu% of Moern Art, USA, &' Danie$ Li&esin 58=7. F#'. 13
/$assica$ Museu% on Saai'at Is$an %useu%, Ne) Lou(re Du&ai &' >ean Nou(e$ 587. F#'. (4
1ran E!'"tian Museu%, E!'"t, esi!ne &' Hene!han en!;s co%"an' 58C7.
he ne) %i$$enniu% techno$o!' in %useu%s is the (irtua$ %useu%s, )hich &eca%e "refera&$efor )ho% cannot (isit %useu%s, an %ore co%%on. his ne) ser(ice )i$$ e9nite$' a*ect thearchitectura$ esi!n of the u"co%in! %useu% s"aces, not on$' for the rea$ (isitors, &ut a$so for the(irtua$ (isitors. he contro$ of %o(e%ent insie the %useu% &eca%e easier to &e so$(e after the ne)so$utions "resente &' the i!ita$ techno$o!ies, &ut the (irtua$ %o(e%ent, it is sti$$ in su ch a nee forother )a's to &e e(e$o"e 5B7.
CONCLUSION
his "a"er )as %ain$' iscussin! the e%er!ence of %useu%s, it is eri(e fro% the )or Muse,)hich %eans 3he "rotector of arts4, unti$ it &eca%e the %ain s"ace for "reser(in! the hu%anachie(e%ent.A &rief histor' of the %useu%s e(o$ution startin! fro% the ancient ti%es ./J as a "art ofschoo$s an $i&raries. hen, the %useu%s of the Meie(a$ ti%es in Euro"e, )hich )as a "art of theno&$e;s "a$aces or a "art of the church "ossessions. After that, the increase of the no&$e;s "assion ofc$assica$ co$$ections urin! the Renaissance "erio. ' the ti%e, so%e "a$aces )ere transferre into%useu%s in the $ate 6=th centur'. In the 6th centur', it )as the &e!innin! of the "u&$ic %useu%s, anthe stu' of the architecture of %useu%s, )hich )as $ooin! $ie "a$aces at the 9rst an turne to theNeo-c$assica$ architecture.In the 6Cth centur', it )as the start of s"reain! the %useu% cu$ture a$$ o(er the )or$. Durin!the 8th centur', ne) factors, inc$uin! the Wor$ Wars, re(o$utions, architecture "ioneers hae%"hasi2e ne) t'"es of %useu%s an so%e chan!es in the %useu%s cu$tura$ an eucationa$ ro$e.Due to the "arai!% shift of i!ita$ esi!n techno$o!' in the 86st centur', )hich a*ecte thearchitect;s "ers"ecti(e of the u"co%in! %useu% esi!ns, an the ne) techno$o!' of (isitin!%useu%s (irtua$$'.
REFERENCES
567 On$ine Et'%o$o!' Dictionar',))).et'%on$ine.co%Tine+."h" ter%V%usea$$o)einfra%eV.587 H.H, ./, 3 he Ne) Enc'c$o"eia, Macro"aeia 4, /hica!o, 6CB, (o$u%e68, ?:?-?:CJ.5B7 Le)iss.1, 3he Histor' of Museu%s 4, Enc'c$o"eia ritannica.5G7 I/OM, Internationa$ /ounci$ of Museu%s, 86st 1enera$ conference in 0ienna, Austria, 8=.
