The Bee Book

THE

BEE BOOK

THE

BEE BOOK Fergus Chadwick Steve Alton Emma Sarah Tennant Bill Fitzmaurice Judy Earl

Senior Editor Alastair Laing Art Editor Kathryn Wilding US Editors Shannon Beatty, Christine Heilman US Consultant Liz Dory Cover Design Nicola Powling Cover Design Assistant Amy Keast Pre-Production Producer Rebecca Fallowfield Senior Producer Ché Creasey Managing Editor Lisa Dyer Managing Art Editor Marianne Markham Art Director Maxine Pedliham Publishing Director Mary-Clare Jerram Photography William Reavell Illustrations Bryony Fripp First American Edition, 2016 Published in the United States by DK Publishing 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 16 17 18 19 20 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 001–288312–March/2016 Copyright © 2016 Dorling Kindersley Limited DK, a Division of Penguin Random House LLC All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under the copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

RECIPES DISCLAIMER: See page 219. Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-1-4654-4383-0 DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk for sales promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or educational use. For details, contact: DK Publishing Special Markets, 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 [email protected] Color reproduction by Alta Image. Printed in China.

A WORLD OF IDEAS: SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW www.dk.com

Contents 10 An Amazing World of Bees bee evolution • solitary bees • bumblebees the incredible honey bee • bees in crisis

68 Attracting Bees understanding bees' needs • making homes for bees • top bee-friendly plants • planting ideas

112 Caring for Bees how to start beekeeping • inspecting the hive swarm management • hygiene and health

172 Enjoying Bee Bounty harvesting honey • harvesting wax • crafting with wax • recipes for health • recipes for beauty

212 Index and Acknowledgments 220 About the Authors

An Amazing World of Bees

12

AN AMAZING WORLD OF BEES

What Is a Bee?

A honey bee colony in summer can comprise up

Picture a bee. For most people, this will conjure up images of a plump, furry, black-and-yellow flying insect, possibly accompanied by a jar of honey (or a painful sting). Yet this traditional image barely scratches the surface of the staggering variety to be found in the bee world.

to 80,000 individuals

Like most insects, bees actually have five eyes. Three are “simple eyes” that detect changes in light intensity.

Thorax Wings Bees have two pairs of wings made from a very thick layer of the same material as their outer skeleton: chitin. A series of small hooks join together fore and hind wings, allowing them to move as one.

Simple eyes

The thorax is split into three segments, each carries a pair of legs and, on the rear two segments, a pair of wings. Inside the thorax is a powerhouse of muscles making all these limbs work.

Compound eyes Made up of around 150 tiny lenses, these are excellent for detecting patterns on flowers and allow bees to see polarized light, meaning they can navigate using the sun even on cloudy days.

Hairs

Proboscis

Almost all bees have hairy bodies, sometimes with warning coloration to deter predators. Hairs are specially adapted to trap pollen grains, being heavily branched and often carrying a small electrical charge.

The tubelike mouthparts of bees are especially long, enabling them to reach deep into flowers to suck up nectar, all the while getting coated in pollen and so playing their part in pollination.

Stinger Only a tiny fraction of bee species actually sting. The sting is a modification of the egg-laying apparatus, so only female bees are capable of stinging.

Hind legs

Over 90% of all species are solitary bees

Th

In species with pollen baskets, front legs push pollen off the bee’s body on to its hind legs, where an area of dense hairs holds it safe for easy transportation.

x ora

Hea d

Bees were not the first plant pollinators to evolve, but they are arguably best adapted to the job. Their flying skills and ability to recognize flowers allow them to pollinate with great precision over wide distances. Even the fibers covering their bodies make them especially adhesive to pollen.

Like all insects, bees have six legs. Many species’ front legs have small comblike structures, which they use to untangle pollen from their hairy bodies.

Abd o m en

Anatomy of a bee

Front legs

WHAT IS A BEE?

From flying mites to flying mice

13

25,000 known species with many more to be discovered Up to

The sheer diversity of bee species is breathtaking. While the features outlined opposite unite all bees, species can differ hugely in almost every other characteristic. For example, not only is the smallest bee 20 times smaller than the largest, it has different coloring and a completely different lifestyle.

Actual size 11 ⁄ 2 in (40 mm)

Actual size 1/16 in (2 mm) Actual size ⁄ 2 in (15 mm)

1

Perdita minima

Apis mellifera

Bombus dahlbomii

LITTLE BEE LOST?

THE WESTERN HONEY BEE

THE GIANT BUMBLEBEE

Found in the deserts of the southwestern US, where it pollinates equally tiny spurge flowers, the smallest bee doesn’t even have a common name. A solitary species, the female builds nests of sand to protect her young from the extremes of temperature in the desert.

A bee world celebrity, though still a far cry from most people’s idea of what a bee should look like, honey bees are the ultimate social species, forming huge collective colonies. Now found on every continent except Antarctica, thanks to their relationship with humans.

Enigmatic and huge, this fluffy “redhead” is the only bumblebee species native to the southern hemisphere. Once found throughout Patagonia, it is now being pushed to the brink of extinction, largely due to diseases brought in by introduced bee species.

WORKERS FOR THE WORLD (AND MAN) When we think of the benefits bees bring, honey is normally top of the list. Yet it is only produced by a handful of bee species, and, even among these, it is much less valuable than the pollination they provide. Regardless of size, color, and social structure, bees pollinate a huge range of plants vital to humans, and without them many crops would no longer be viable. We have been fortunate to take advantage of 100 million years of evolution that have seen bees become one of the top pollinators on the planet. It is now our duty to help protect them.

Pollination services by bees are valued at over

$170 billion a year

Worker honey bees make 10 million foraging trips to produce 1 lb (450 g) of honey, in the process pollinating a huge range of flowers and food crops.


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How Bees Evolved 55mya

Evolving a bee is not a straightforward process. All the special features that are now taken for granted have only appeared thanks to millions of years of natural selection honing everything from a bee’s antennae to the tip of its abdomen.

Timeline of bee-volution

Allodapines evolve sociality The Allodapini exhibit different forms of social living, from simple communality to complex social structures. Most species in this group share the job of caring for larvae, but only a few, more recently evolved species have clearly defined queen and worker castes.

Exoneura bees One of the primitively social genera in the Allodapini, Exoneura are known as reed bees for their habit of making tiny colonies in the hollow stems of dead reeds.

The world has changed almost beyond recognition since bees first evolved. Groups as mighty as the dinosaurs have risen and fallen; mammals have gone from minor players to the charismatic icons of the animal world; and pollination has been entirely transformed by an increasingly specialized bee population.

Mass extinction Three-quarters of all life died out, including non-bird dinosaurs, probably due to climate change caused by asteroid impact.

100mya

Xyela sawfly The earliest Hymenoptera fossil: bees, wasps, and ants all evolved from a single sawfly ancestor.

60mya

90mya

Bees evolve from wasps

Corbiculates first appear

It is thought bees evolved from a wasp species that fed on pollen-covered insects and began to prefer the pollen.

Bumblebees and honey and sweat bees evolved from this family of bees. All share the anatomical feature of pollen baskets.

130mya First flowers evolve Still a hotly debated topic, most evidence points to flowering plants evolving around this time.

Melittosphex burmensis This fossil insect shares traits common to both bees and wasps, and provides evidence of a wasp ancestor.

270mya KEY mya million years ago kya thousand years ago

Hymenoptera evolve Bees, wasps, ants, and sawflies belong to the insect order Hymenoptera, which first appeared at this time.

Amborella trichopoda This still extant species split early from the evolutionary tree and helps us deduce what the first flowering plant might have looked like.

HOW BEES EVOLVED Apis mellifera

Megalopta genalis

The Western honey bee’s relatives are almost all found in Southeast Asia, leading to the hypothesis that this is where the genus Apis originated.

A species of sweat bee active only at dusk, its larger simple eyes allow it to navigate in low light.

35mya Origin of honey bees Apis fossils date from this time but older ones are probably still hidden in the rocks of Southeast Asia.

20mya

25mya Bombus genus appears The evolution of the now familiar bumblebee marks the birth of one of the most charismatic groups of bees.

250kya

Highly social sweat bees evolve Sweat bees today have an almost worldwide distribution and most are socially complex, with their colonies split into distinct queen and worker castes. There are a few species in this family that have turned nefarious and survive by parasitizing other species: they break into nests, eat the eggs, and replace them with their own young.

Hunter-gatherer humans We humans are relatively recent arrivals, but our impact on bees has been great, if not always positive.

Orchid bees Attraction to individual perfumes makes orchid bees faithful to particular orchid species, rendering pollination much more efficient from the plant’s point of view.

Bombus terrestris The buff-tailed bumblebee is now found across the world thanks to human intervention.

AMAZING SPECIALTIES Over the 100 million years since diverging from wasps, bees have gone from a single species with a confused appetite to around 20,000 species with a host of specialties. All tongue A bee’s tongue length determines what flowers it feeds on, leading to extreme adaptations: Euglossa natesi has a tongue twice its body length.

Cuckoo bees Psythirus bees have abandoned social living and instead sneak into bumblebee nests, depose the queen, and enslave the workers to raise their young.

Eau d’orchid Humans aren’t the only species to use cologne. Orchid bees collect perfume from orchids and use the scent to attract mates.

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Evolution and Pollination It is hard to imagine flowers without bees, yet it was 25 million years after the first flowers evolved that the earliest bees appeared. An explosion in floral diversity followed as coevolution with bees took flowers in exciting new directions. W o n hi t e - t g l o ail be ed t hi b um s tl e ble b

A tale of mutual reliance Pollination is the movement of sex cells between flowering plants of the same species to enable fertilization. These sex cells take the form of pollen, and bees help transfer this pollen when it gets trapped in the hairs on their bodies as they access one flower, and dislodged when they land on another. By carrying out this service, bees allow plants that are rooted in one spot to spread their genes far and wide. In doing so, the plant population remains genetically diverse and is better able to adapt to any stress that might come along. Before bees evolved, this work was carried out mainly by physical processes (like the wind) or by generalist beetle pollinators. It is

e be ble a r s m u e e b ’s Tre lamb on

thought that beetle pollinators may be indirectly responsible for the evolution of bees from wasps, when the bees’ wasp ancestors kept eating beetles covered in pollen and eventually developed a taste for the pollen instead of beetles. The relationship of mutual reliance that grew up between bees and flowers influenced the evolution of both. Bees became better at collecting pollen, evolving hairier bodies and a greater ability to recognize different flower types. Flowers now had to compete for attention, changing shape and color to stand out, and producing more food to encourage the bees to stay loyal. The result was some of the incredible diversity of flower and bee species we see today.

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EVOLUTION AND POLLINATION

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Drug dependency Flowers go out of their way to attract bees. They pattern their petals to get noticed, lavish themselves in scent so they are easy to find, and buy loyalty with the sugar rush of nectar. Yet all of this takes energy to produce, and some plants have evolved a way of saving energy by drugging their nectar to trick bees into finding them more attractive. Caffeine, nicotine,

and a host of other chemicals are found in small quantities in the nectar of certain plants, and the result is very similar to the human response to these substances: the bees are stimulated and think they’re getting a bigger reward than they actually are. This keeps them coming back for hit after hit, while the plant conserves more sugars for itself. Anatomy of pollination The flowers of scorpion senna, a member of the pea family, possess various features that seem to be a result of coevolution with bees.

Nectaries These are found at the back of the flower so that bees must trigger the release of the stamen, and its pollen load, to get to the nectar.

Bee cheats Some larger bees bypass the flower altogether and chew their way into the nectaries from behind.

Cross-section of scorpion senna

Stamens

Petal tunnel

The pollen-carrying stamens are enclosed in the lower petals until a landing bee pushes them apart, which causes the stamen to rise up and release its pollen on the bee.

Together, the five petals of the flower create a tunnel-like structure that channels the bee toward the nectaries and reproductive organs of the plant.

INTER-SPECIES FLIRTING

Vexillium

Front view of scorpion senna

The large upper petal acts as a flag to signal passing bees, with nectar lines like lights on a runway, showing them where to land.

Perhaps the quirkiest way some plant species pollinate is by imitating female bees to seduce the males, in a process called pseudocopulation. With flowers that look and smell like females, the plants engage male bees in some cross-kingdom mating. Covered in pollen, the confused male proceeds to “mate” with the next flower, depositing the pollen obtained in their first tryst.

Ophrys fuciflora The late spiderorchid is a notorious philanderer of bees (despite its name).

Long-horned bee in love.

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Bees of the World Over millions of years of evolution, bees have spread around the world and, in doing so, they have adapted to a huge range of habitats and become spectacularly diverse. Here are a few of the most significant and fascinating bees from across the globe.

BUFF-TAILED BUMBLEBEE (Bombus terrestris) One of the first bumblebees to be domesticated, it is now found well beyond its native range. The species is used primarily in greenhouse pollination across Europe, North Africa, Eastern Asia, and New Zealand.

GOLDEN BELTED BUMBLEBEE (Bombus balteatus) A cold weather specialist found across northern and mountain regions of North America, in the last century it has developed a shorter tongue, allowing it to feed on a wider range of plants.

EUROPE NORTH AMERICA VIOLET CARPENTER BEE (Xylocopa violacea)

GREEN-GOLD SWEAT BEE (Augochlorella aurata)

One of the largest and most striking of European species, this solitary bee seems to be benefiting from climate change and expanding its range northward.

These tiny bees, with a metallic shine, are found throughout North America. Highly social and important pollinators of several major crop species, most sweat bees are also attracted to perspiration.

VULTURE BEES (Trigona hypogea) There are three closely related species of bees that have abandoned plants altogether in favor of carrion, performing a similar role to maggots in breaking down dead bodies. Vulture bees are highly social and store digested flesh as a macabre honey to feed to their young.

AFRICANIZED “KILLER” BEE (Apis mellifera scutella) The most infamous of all bees, these honey bees were bred by humans in an attempt to develop a more productive strain. The result was the creation of highly defensive and persistent colonies. While they do not actively seek out targets to attack, they are tenacious in protecting the hive.

SOUTH AMERICA STINGLESS HONEY BEE (Tetragonisca angustula) The delicate flavor of their honey and lack of a sting make these small yet productive bees an attractive alternative to the honey bee.

BEES OF THE WORLD

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WESTERN HONEY BEE (Apis mellifera) The origins of modern beekeeping are rooted in Europe. It was here, in abbeys and monasteries, that beekeepers found more peaceful means of harvesting honey than by destroying nests: one reason why the Western honey bee is the world’s dominant species.

JAPANESE HONEY BEE (Apis cerana japonica) HIMALAYAN HONEY BEE (Apis dorsata labriosa) Living in one of the most challenging environments on earth, the Himalayan honey bee is the giant of the honey bee world. Not only is it the biggest species, it also builds some of the most impressive cliff-edge nests.

The Japanese honey bee is able to control levels of varroa mite infestation, one of the most pernicious threats to honey bees worldwide, largely because of its propensity to swarm more frequently (see p.145).

WALLACE’S GIANT BEE (Megachile pluto)

ASIA

First recorded by naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace (the codiscoverer of natural selection), this Indonesian bee is the largest by wingspan and is a surprisingly elusive species due to its habit of nesting in active termite mounds.

AFRICA AUSTRALIA OIL COLLECTING BEE (Rediviva emdeorum) Hailing from South Africa, the female of this species uses her unusually long front legs to collect oil from the equally long flower spurs of the Diascia plant.

SUGARBAG BEE (Tetragonula carbonaria) One of Australia’s many stingless species, the sugarbag is named for its honeymaking and is used increasingly as an alternative to the Western honey bee.

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Solitary Bees

Nest mound

The vast majority of bee species are solitary. Despite working alone, solitary bees carry out more pollination globally than any other kind of bee, and they are accomplished architects on a par with many of the social species.

As mining bees construct their tunnels, they displace soil, creating a characteristic “anthill” structure.

Tunnel network

Mining and Digging Bees Some solitary species take refuge underground, where their young are better protected from predators and the elements. These mining and digging bees can often be found in large aggregations, with numerous nests side by side. Although bees in such aggregations rarely help each other out directly, by being present in larger numbers they are at an advantage: they look more frightening and confusing to predators, and, if attacked, each bee has a lower probability of getting eaten.

Nest and life cycle Anthill-like mounds in lawns mark the entrances to mining bee nests, dug by females in the spring to create a safe place for egg-laying. Over the following months, eggs hatch and pupate in the safety of the nest, only emerging after the worst of the winter is over.

An extensive underground tunnel system leads from only a single entrance, reducing predator access.

Orange coloring Females exhibit a lustrous orange “fur” for collecting pollen. Since the males don’t collect pollen, and so have less fur, they are much duller in appearance.

Tawny mining bees (Andrena fulva) can live entirely solitary lives or form large aggregations of individuals, demonstrating how flexible bees’ life histories can be.

Underground safety? While a safe haven for the developing young, underground nests can still be vulnerable to soil disruption or the removal of surface vegetation that helps protect against harsh weather.

The ashy mining bee (Andrena cineraria) is an important pollinator of numerous fruit trees and one of the easiest mining bees to recognize.

Brood cells In each of the brood cells an individual egg is laid and provisioned with a small ball of pollen and nectar to sustain the young once they hatch.

SOLITARY BEES

Carpenter Bees

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SOCIALITY IN SOLITARY BEES

Named for their habit of building nests in dead wood or hollow stems, carpenter bees excavate their tunnels using powerful jaws to chew through the wood. Often confused with bumblebees due to their similar sizes, while carpenters do not show the same level of sociality as bumblebees, they are more sociable than the mining and digging bees. Carpenter daughters and mothers will often nest together and divide some of the labor, with certain females, for example, spending more time foraging while the others guard the group’s nest.

Violet carpenter bee (Xylocopa violacea) One of the largest bee species in Europe, it is named for the violet sheen of the females’ wings on an otherwise allblack bee.

Despite the name, there is huge variation between solitary species in the degree to which they tolerate the company of others. Even without direct contact, living near members of the same species can lower your chances of predation. And if you can put up with your own family, efficiency is improved by sharing jobs. So are these groups less developed than the highly social species like honey bees? Simply put, no. Each environment has different challenges, and even within the same environment there are many ways to carve out a niche. Indeed, the fact that most bee species in the world are non-social is a testament to their success.

Blue carpenter bees (Xylocopa caerulea) are found across southern Asia and display semisocial tendencies, with several females sharing the same nest.

Nectar robbers Many species use their strong jaws to steal nectar from flowers simply by splitting them open, bypassing the pollen entirely.

Tunnel carpentry

Pupa

Pest or guest? Carpenter bees are considered a pest by some homeowners due to the perceived damage their nests can cause to wood, however, tunnels tend to be very close to the surface of the wood and cause little structural damage; arguably a small price to pay for such fantastic houseguests.

Larva

Females chew circular tunnels into the wood to create their nests.

Egg

Cell dividers

Food shape

Nests are divided into separate cells using the wood waste left over from tunnel construction.

The brood food is similar to that of mining bees, but is molded into a spiky mass to minimize contact with the wood surface.

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Mason Bees Bees of the genus Osmia have the common name “mason” because of the mud walls they build to form compartments in their nests. Masons include some of the most charismatic of solitary bees, with one species building beautiful nests incorporating flower petals and another having been recorded nesting in an abandoned snail shell. They also form one of the most important solitary bee groups for use in Shiny paint job Many species in the genus commercial pollination. sport impressive metallic blue or green coloring.

Blue orchard bees (Osmia lignaria) along with many other Osmia, are effective pollinators of fruit trees and have been semi-domesticated to help pollinate orchards. Thus, as one of the few solitary bees available in large numbers, mason bees have become a model for testing the effects of pesticides on solitary bees.

The red mason bee (Osmia bicornis) is notable for its reddish down. Males are smaller and less hairy then females, and often sport a yellow face patch.

Pollen patch Mason bees lack pollen baskets and instead collect pollen on a dense patch of hairs on the underside of their abdomens.

Greedy grub Larvae grow as they consume their food supply, until ready to spin a cocoon and begin the transformation into adulthood.

Due to the larger size of the females, the mother provides male eggs with less food than female eggs.

Most mason bees build their nests in existing tunnels, such as those left behind by other solitary bees and wood-boring beetles, or the hollows of dead branches or reeds, and because of this they tend to take readily to artificial nests. The female mason bee divides her nest tunnel into several chambers and provisions each chamber with a supply of pollen, onto which she lays a single egg.

Plugged in When the nest cavity is full, the mother bee plugs the entrance with an extrathick mud wall to protect her young from predators.

Gender bias

Mud walls separate the nest compartments.

Hollow reeds are a favorite nest site.

SOLITARY BEES

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Why mason bees make great pollinators Several adaptations make the mason bee an incredibly efficient pollinator. A key factor, and, ironically, the reason they were overlooked by commercial growers, is that masons do not produce honey and so are only really interested in pollen. Flower promiscuity

Messy collectors

An individual mason bee will visit a greater number of flowers than a honey bee, which means crosspollination is almost guaranteed.

Mason bees are less conscientious groomers than honey bees and lack the pollen baskets to keep their pollen secure.

Hardy workers Pollen shower Pollen falls readily from the abdomens of mason bees and as a result they are more likely to transfer pollen between flowers and so fertilise them.

Mason bees are good foragers in low temperatures, and this enables them to pollinate crops earlier in the year and work longer days.

NEW POLLINATORS ON THE BLOCK The population crashes suffered by honey bees in recent years have led to a great deal of interest in alternative pollinators for commercial orchards. Mason bees are prime candidates for several reasons: they include species that specialize in fruit crops; they are far more efficient pollinators than honey bees; and, since they are relatively new to domestication, breeders will be better able to preserve their genetic diversity.

1 Bees are still bred from (semi-)wild populations, but by providing a high density of artificial nest boxes in areas of forage, the wild population can be boosted.

2 Nest boxes are designed for the collection of cocoons, when the young are easy to handle and can be refrigerated to stall emergence until needed.

3 Cocoons are transported to where they are most needed, often in the center of an orchard.

4 Emergence can be timed for when crops are in flower to ensure that pollinators abound when there is the greatest need.

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The Bumblebee Life Cycle Large, buzzy, and often boldly striped, bumblebees are easy to spot and, though they make up only one percent of species, have probably done most to define the image of the bee in the popular imagination.

Nest hunting As well as foraging, the queen also seeks out a nest site. Depending on the species, this may be an abandoned rodent’s nest, an empty birdhouse, or a dried tuft of grass.

Primitive colonies Bumblebees are only considered to be primitively eusocial. While there is a division of labor in the nest and the queen is the primary reproductive individual, these roles are maintained much more loosely than in the colonies of honey bees or the similarly eusocial stingless bees. Worker roles are determined largely based on need, and the workers are capable of reproduction. Reproductive activity is inhibited by the queen, and this suppression works well for the first generation, but toward the end of the season workers will start to lay male offspring. Another crucial difference between bumblebees and fully eusocial species is that colonies last for just one season and only newborn queens survive until spring, when the process of founding a colony begins all over again. e Tre

5 Overwintering Newborn queens are the only members of the colony who survive through the winter. They do so by entering a resting state known as “diapause,” similar to hibernation in mammals.

b um b le b e e

B u f f - t a il e d b u m

Winter protection

bl e be e

Hairy northerners The expansion of bumblebee species into colder regions has led to pollencollecting hairs being co-opted for insulation. Species from colder climates tend to have longer, thicker hair than their southern counterparts.

1 Queen emerges At the start of the year, the young queen emerges from winter rest (diapause) and begins to feed, rapidly building up strength in preparation for building a nest and rearing her young.

New queens enter the resting state underground, often taking over empty rodents’ nests, where they are hidden from predators and protected from winter cold.

THE BUMBLEBEE LIFE CYCLE Nest initiation Once a suitable nest site is found, the queen builds a wax honey pot to store excess food. Soon the nest will be expanded to accommodate egg laying.

Thriving colony 2 First brood As

Bumblebees have been widely exploited as pollinators for commercial agriculture. Several crops require what is called “buzz pollination,” a particularly vigorous form of pollination in which the vibration of the bee’s body is needed to dislodge the pollen. Without this type of pollination, tomatoes, for example, are much less productive and must be pollinated by hand. The domestication of bumblebees offers a viable alternative, allowing colonies to be deployed within commercial greenhouses. B u f f- t a

bas ke t

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at the end of the season and must mate before winter. Each queen will mate with multiple male drones and store their sperm for the rest of her life without ever needing to mate again.

Drones on patrol Drones are thought to patrol areas looking for queens. It is believed each species flies at a different height and releases speciestargeted pheromones to attract the right queen.

dw

ll e n

The fruit set of tomatoes can be low in greenhouses where insects have limited access. Without bee vibrations, pollen remains on stamens or is released in very small quantities by the wind.

Bu

4 Mating New queens are produced

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3 Colony develops Female bees emerge from the first batch of eggs and set about relieving the queen of most of her duties, with the obvious exception of egg-laying. The workers care for larvae, forage for food, and look after the queen.

Commercial buzz

ith

the queen builds up her stores, she consumes greater quantities of pollen. Protein in the pollen stimulates the young queen’s ovaries to develop and start producing eggs. The queen sits on her eggs like a bird to keep them above 86°F (30°C).

When sufficient stores have built up to ensure survival, the colony is ready to produce the next generation of queens and drones.

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Flight of the Bumblebee There is a common folk myth that bumblebees technically shouldn’t be able to fly. Clearly, this isn’t true, but the idea has persisted nonetheless, and there’s certainly something about a bumblebee’s tiny wings and voluptuous physique that makes uplift seem highly improbable. Here’s how they take to the air.

Wind tunnel experiments

QUICK THINKERS

One of the major advances in understanding bumblebee flight came by analyzing their movement in wind tunnels. The visualisation of the air currents around a bumblebee showed that they were far from aerodynamic and flew almost through brute strength alone. The colossal force needed to keep them airborne comes from the way the wings twist with each beat to maximize the force generated as the wing pushes down, while minimizing the air resistance when brought back up.

A startling aspect of bumblebee flight is the rate at which the wings move: 200 beats per minute. Key to this speed is the ability of a single nerve pulse from the bee’s brain to cause the wing muscles to contract multiple times. By removing the nervous system as a hold-up, the muscles are free to move much more rapidly.

Flight visualisation Scientists at Oxford University trained bumblebees to fly down a smoke-filled wind tunnel in order to study the airdisturbance patterns.

Spread-eagled stability A bumblebee’s body shape is so ungainly in the air that it must spread its legs out to keep balanced.

Wing lift

Flying jacket

The wings are highly adapted to generate lift over their small surface area and have been used as inspiration in the design of flying robots.

For the flight muscles to function properly, body temperature must be maintained at over 86°F (30°C). Fortunately, their hairy bodies act as an effective thermal flying vest.

Heavy load

Pressure drop

Bumblebees have more than just their own cumbersome form to deal with. They must also transport heavy stomach loads of nectar and full pollen baskets back to the nest.

Bumblebees create vortices of air as they fly. At the center of each vortex, the pressure is lower than in the surrounding environment. This causes more air to be pulled in, creating an eddy to help keep the bee aloft.

FLIGHT OF THE BUMBLEBEE

Muscle action

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Main wing muscles

A bee’s main flight muscles are not actually connected to their wings but work by deforming the thorax and thereby indirectly moving the wings. Freeing the wings from direct interaction with the flight muscles makes space for a whole host of smaller muscles that allow the angle and movement of the wings to be fine-tuned.

attach to the walls of the thorax.

Horizontal muscles

Vertical muscles

stretch as the thorax is flattened and lengthened.

Upward stroke Horizontal muscles

pull down on the upper surface of the thorax.

Vertical muscles

pull on the front and back of the thorax.

Smaller muscles

stretch as the thorax is narrowed and shortened.

directly connect to the wings at the base.

Wing commanders The combination of indirect and small, directly connected wing muscles makes bees some of the most competent fliers in the insect world.

Downward stroke

Wing twists During flight, the wings do more than simply flap up and down. They pivot, twist, and flex to make the most of each wingbeat. This range of possible movement gives the bees enormous flexibility in flight, allowing them to navigate through a varied landscape and alight on flowers with precision, even in high winds.

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3 Toward the bottom of each stroke, the wings are twisted inward to minimize drag as they are pulled up through the air.

4 The wings are brought up to the top of each beat in an arc, helping to maximize the vortices they create and thus generate lift.

5 In areas of low pressure, such as at high altitudes, bumblebees alter the angle the wings are drawn up to, for greater downforce.

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What’s So Special About the Honey Bee? The honey bee’s intimate connection with humans has turned it into something of an insect superstar, sweetening our tables with the surplus of its nectar-foraging industry. No other insect has earned such a welcome place in our lives.

The Apis family Biologically speaking, the term “honey bee” refers to a group of seven different honey-making species of the genus Apis. Six species originate in Southeast Asia, suggesting this is probably where the honey bee first evolved. Species vary greatly in size, with the giant honey bee (Apis dorsata) four times larger than the two smallest species, the black dwarf and red dwarf honey bees (A. andreniformis and A. florea). These two smallest species produce simple, open nests consisting of a single comb, while the others build complex, multi-comb nests in cavities.

1 LB OF HONEY TAKES UP TO 40,000 MILES OF FLYING TO PRODUCE

A WORKER CAN VISIT UP TO 2,000 FLOWERS A DAY

KEY Apis mellifera native range Apis mellifera introduced range Apis cerana native range Apis cerana introduced range

Honey bees are not native to the Americas and were introduced by colonists.

The varied native range of Apis mellifera has led to the evolution of almost 30 subspecies.

Asian honey bees were brought to Papua New Guinea in the 1970s.

Map showing geographical spread of Apis mellifera Global spread Honey bee species were originally separated in the wild by geography or behavior, each occupying their own niche, but human intervention has seen one species come to dominate. The Western honey bee (Apis mellifera) was domesticated in Europe for honey production and crop pollination. As European colonists expanded around the globe, they carried their native species with them, and it is now present on all continents except Antarctica. By contrast, the Asian honey bee (Apis cerana), though similarly domesticated, has remained largely restricted to its native range.

The native range of Apis cerana extends from Japan in the east to Afghanistan in the west.

Map showing geographical spread of Apis cerana

WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT THE HONEY BEE?

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Adapted for domestication Only two of the seven honey bee species—the Western and Asian honey bees—have been truly domesticated by humans. As a result, both have seen a dramatic expansion in their population numbers and range over the centuries, and have been the subject of

much human endeavor to harness and improve upon their natural honey-making and pollinating abilities. Both species share a number of features in the wild that make them almost preadapted for successful domestication and commercial exploitation.

Multi-comb cavity nesting Nests in the wild are built in cavities, such as hollow trees, and consist of multiple sheets of comb set apart at a regular distance, known as “bee space.”

The movable frame hive This nest configuration lent itself to colonies being kept in artificial hives, and the regular sheets of comb enabled the invention of frames that could be removed easily.

Large colonies Both species naturally produce large colonies of up to 60,000 individuals at the height of honey-making, which allows them to lay down considerable stores of honey.

A decent harvest Such large and productive bee colonies offer their human keepers a big return on their investment, with usually plenty of excess honey to be harvested and sold.

Apis mellifera A. m. anatoliaca A. m. mellifera A. m. carnica A. m. ligustica Numerous subspecies Both species have evolved numerous subspecies to overcome various environmental challenges. Each subspecies exhibits different adaptations relating to, for example, vigor, productivity, and temperament.

Selective breeding By selecting useful features from various subspecies, breeders have been able to develop improved strains, like the “Buckfast” bee, bred by Brother Adam at Buckfast Abbey (pictured) and widely recognized as one of the best for honey production.

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AN AMAZING WORLD OF BEES Mating machines

A Most Social Bee Some bee species, most famously the honey bee, live in colonies with a strict division between non-breeding workers and a breeding queen. This system of social living, known as eusociality, is truly fascinating. How do such ostensibly simple organisms decide who gets to reproduce? Why do workers accept non-breeding roles? The answers may lie in the peculiarities of bee genetics.

Male drones exist almost exclusively to mate with queens from other colonies. A queen will mate with multiple drones, ensuring genetic diversity in her colony.

Brood purity Royal breeding The eusocial nature of honey bees means there is only one reproductive female in the entire colony—the queen.

A worker police force destroys any eggs that don’t carry the queen’s scent.

Sexual suppression The reproductive instinct of other females (the workers) in the colony is suppressed using a mixture of chemicals that stop their ovaries developing.

Working life Female workers take care of all non-reproductive jobs, from foraging for food to defense of the realm

The honey bee colony is an example of eusociality in action. The distinctive castes and sheer scale of colonies testify to the power of the eusocial system.

An evolutionary puzzle On the face of it, eusocial living seems to go against the evolutionary imperative: isn’t natural selection all about an individual passing on its own genes by having offspring? Yet worker honey bees have evolved to give up their chance to produce offspring and instead devote all their energies to raising the young of just one female: the queen. Honey bees aren’t the only bee species to do this, which suggests

a clear drive in bees to become eusocial. The answer may lie in the fact that bee sisters are so closely related (as explained opposite), to the extent that they share more genes with each other than they would with their own offspring. As such, by helping to raise their mother’s offspring, they are actually doing more to spread their own genes in the next generation than they would be by having their own offspring.

A MOST SOCIAL BEE

Sibling relatedness Bees, wasps, and ants exhibit a stronger than usual habit of evolving eusociality. The reason for this seems, in part, to be a result of their unusual genetics, whereby males arise from unfertilized eggs with one set of chromosomes and females from fertilized eggs containing twice as many chromosomes (a system called “haplodiploidy”). The result is that sisters are much more closely related to one another than they are to their mother or daughters. They share on average 75 percent of their genes, unlike mammal siblings, which share just 50 percent. Over many generations, this leads to individuals that are adapted to helping their mother produce daughters, and thus a worker caste arises.

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The queen passes on 50% of her genes to her daughters.

The drone father passes on 100% of his genes.

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A C The drone has no father and receives 100% of his genes from the queen.

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Daughters all have their father’s genes in common, making them 50% related on their father’s side (note the E and F chromosomes).

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against the weather and predators. Scouts can search for food and coordinate foraging, while excess food can be safely stored for leaner times. Beyond this, individuals can become specialized to particular tasks, so that these tasks are carried out more efficiently.

Communal dining In desert or forest habitats, a forager might fly great distances with no success. This means death for solitary bees. For social bees, however, teamwork means individuals who fail to find food can still eat.

E F C D

The chance of daughters having the same set of their mother’s genes is 25%. Thus workers share on average 75% of their genes.

Ecological drivers Another feature that seems to unite all eusocial species is that their ancestors evolved in difficult habitats with challenging weather, abundant predators, and patchily distributed food. In such habitats, joining together to form larger groups can be beneficial. A nest can quickly be built to protect

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Safe room A solid nest provides insulation against changeable weather and offers protection from all but the most determined predators.

Security guards Specialist guard bees are able to protect the young and food supplies for the whole colony, because foraging duties are delegated to other workers.

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How We Harnessed the Honey Bee

Ancient evidence The bee symbol features in hieroglyphics, but most of our information comes from scenes of beekeeping in temple artworks, like the one shown here.

The control of fire by early humans to produce smoke perhaps represents the first major advance in beekeeping, making raids on wild nests safer and more efficient. As humans evolved, so too did beekeeping.

Early beekeeping Beekeeping began independently in different parts of the world. Mayans of South America kept Mellipona stingless bees for thousands of years before Europeans arrived. The Asian honey bee was kept in ancient Egypt 4,500 years ago and again in China 1,500 years later. It wasn’t until the Middle Ages that the Western honey bee took off. Much of the equipment we use today was invented at this time, and a modern keeper would recognize medieval beekeeping practices.

Ancient Egyptian beekeepers Honey deposited in the tombs of the pharaohs was found to be still edible when excavated by archaeologists some 3,000 years later, proof of the apparently limitless shelf life of honey.

Floating hives Cylindrical clay hives were moved by boat up and down the Nile to take advantage of the flowers that would bloom after flooding.

Expanding production If a colony did well, it could be expanded by adding what we would now consider a primitive super, known as an “eke.”

Holy order Beekeeping was a mainly monastic occupation, and the “devotional” industry of the bee was taken to symbolize the monastic life.

Medieval skeps Medieval beekeepers would capture wild swarms in skeps made out of clay, hollow logs, or woven sticks. At the end of the season, the bees were killed off with sulfur smoke and the skeps broken open to harvest the honey.

HOW WE HARNESSED THE HONEY BEE

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The Langstroth revolution Modern beehives did not appear until the middle of the 19th century, when an American clergyman, the Reverend Langstroth, developed a hive with movable combs, making the process of beekeeping much more efficient and bee-friendly. The ability to separate live bees and brood from the honey meant that honey extraction could be carried out quickly and cleanly.

The movable frame Langstroth used his knowledge of “bee space” (the gap bees naturally make between combs) to invent hive frames that hung downward and could easily be lifted in and out without aggravating the bees.

Squaring up Square hives could be divided much more easily into separate, stackable chambers for brood rearing and honey production.

Health checks The ability to open a hive without causing damage allowed better monitoring of colony health.

Mass breeding and genetics Modern commercial pollination programs are largely possible thanks to advances in honey bee breeding. From single queens, breeders are now able to produce a large number of daughter colonies very quickly. Tracking the pedigree of these colonies with breeding records and, more recently, genetic analyses, allows for the selection of desirable traits, like temperament and productivity.

Royal factory

Queen rearing By rearing multiple queens from the best hives, beneficial traits can be rapidly propagated and introduced to far more hives in a season than by reproducing whole colonies.

Breeders raise desirable queens en masse by grafting larvae onto special frames with artificial queen cups.

SEQUENCING THE HONEY BEE GENOME An organism’s genome is its evolutionary blueprint. By comparing closely related species, we can estimate how they differ on the most fundamental level. By mapping the genes for different traits on to a genome, we can see what happens to the traits when these genes are edited or removed entirely. The presence or absence of a handful of genes might be the difference between two species or two populations. The Western honey bee genome was fully sequenced in 2006 and has already given incredible insights into the bee’s immune system and odor reception, and has even challenged previous wisdom about where the species first evolved. The genome sequence of the Asian honey bee was released in 2015, allowing in-depth comparisons between the two most economically important honey bee species. Watch this space...


A worker bee is genetically identical to the queen. Their vastly different bodies are a result of feeding in early life, with worker larvae fed royal jelly for only a few days.

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A honey bee colony is divided into three distinct castes: workers, drones, and the queen. It is easy to anthropomorphize this system and assume that the queen is dictator of the colony, forcing the workers to satisfy her every whim. In fact, all castes depend on each other.

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The Honey Bee Family

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The Worker As her name implies, the female worker bee has the most jobs of any of the three castes. Over the course of her lifetime, she may perform the role of cleaner, nurse, builder, chef, royal consort, undertaker, guard, and forager. Many of these roles are at least partly determined by the age of the bee, with workers effectively graduating from one role to another.

Mouthparts These lack teeth and are actually spoonshaped to aid in molding wax.

Proboscis Her proboscis is much longer than the other two castes, since she is the only one who needs to extract nectar from flowers.

Weight The worker is only about half the weight of a drone or queen.

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n Ovaries A worker can still, in theory, lay eggs, but the presence of the queen suppresses ovary development.

Stinger The worker has a barbed sting at the tip of her abdomen with which she can defend the colony, but only by making the ultimate sacrifice.

THE HONEY BEE FAMILY

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Wings

The Drone

Drones have much larger wings that fully cover their abdomens, giving them powerful flying abilities.

Mating with queens from other colonies is the primary role of the drone. Thousands will congregate in a mating area, each eager to pass on his genetic material. Successful drones must be faster than their rivals at spotting and intercepting the queen in midair. A drone, therefore, requires fantastic eyesight, excellent flying skills, and single-minded determination. If successful, his reward is a few seconds of mating, after which he falls to the ground dead.

Large eyes The compound eyes are huge, meeting in the middle and taking up much of his head, allowing him to spot a queen from far away even when she’s surrounded by other bees.

Explosive genitals When a drone mates with a queen, it is literally explosive: his genitals burst out of his body, taking much of the abdominal tissue with them, causing his death.

Hive role The only work carried out by a drone in the hive is temperature control. Like workers, the drone can shiver to generate heat or beat his wings to help cool the colony.

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Being considerably larger than worker bees, but not enjoying the same “silver spoon” treatment as queens, drones take longer to emerge than members of the other two castes.

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DRONE GESTATION

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Although the same weight as the queen, the drone is squarer and stockier.

The stinger in honey bees is a modification of the ovipositor (egg-laying apparatus), so drones do not possess a stinger.

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Pheromones The queen produces chemical signals, or pheromones, which mainly inform the colony that she is alive and healthy. Most important is the queen mandibular pheromone (QMP), secreted from a gland near the mandibles.

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QUEEN GESTATION

Fed exclusively on royal jelly, the queen has the shortest gestation, because a colony needs a new queen quickly and the first virgin queen to emerge will kill the others.

Gender choice The queen controls the sex of her eggs: unfertilized eggs produce male drones; fertilized eggs produce either workers or queens.

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Despite being the mother of every bee in the hive and laying up to 2,000 eggs a day, the queen is definitely not in charge of the colony: if her laying slows, she will be deposed. That said, she undoubtedly influences how the colony acts. A round-the-clock entourage keeps her fed and distributes her pheromones throughout the colony, which tells the workers she is in good health. Most importantly, her offspring inherit their characteristics from her, and a bad-tempered queen will produce a bad-tempered colony.

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The Queen Bee

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Wings The wings reach about halfway along her abdomen when laid flat.

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Regal presence The queen is noticeably larger than workers and drones. Although weighing the same as a drone bee, she is much longer and more elegantly built.

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The queen’s abdomen is pointed to allow easy access into the comb cells when depositing eggs.

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Egg-laying engine The abdomen contains all the egg-laying organs. A virgin queen will appear considerably slighter than a mated queen full of sperm and in laying mode.

The queen’s sting has no barb on it, so she can sting repeatedly, but this is reserved for the murder of competitor queens.

THE HONEY BEE FAMILY

37

The reproductive cycle A honey bee colony is best thought of as a “superorganism” of many individuals working together to become greater than the sum of their parts. As such, reproduction can only be said to have occurred when the colony splits and a new colony is founded as a result of swarming. A queen does, of course, mate with a male and lay eggs that will become the army of workers needed to keep a colony functioning, but at the level of a superorganism, this process is more akin to a mammal developing its muscles.

1 Laying begins As the weather warms and the spring forage starts to pour in, the queen will begin to lay again, slowly at first but gathering pace as the season progresses.

5 New queen mates The new queens in the old hive soon emerge and, after a fight to the death for dominance, the victor leaves on her mating flight. Upon her return to the colony, she will pick up where her mother left off.

4 Swarm departs Just before the new queens emerge, the old queen will initiate a swarm. She takes around two-thirds of the worker bees with her and goes to found a new colony.

2 Colony expands If the weather, forage, and queen are all optimal, the colony will expand very quickly and soon fill the available space with eggs, honey, and pollen. In response to this lack of space, the queen will slow down laying.

3 New queens are prepared This change in pace is detected by the workers, who prepare cells to produce new queens in anticipation of swarming. The glut and lack of space that prompt swarm preparations also guarantee that the new queen is left with enough resources to establish herself, with lots of forage available for the new colony to expand quickly.

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Hive of Activity

Forage scout

The industrious efficiency of the honey bee colony is the result of a finely tuned division of labor. The moment a young worker emerges, she is signed up to the colony task force, moving up the ranks with age and experiencing life both inside the hive and in the great outdoors.

Scouts assess flowers in the field for suitability as a forage source, judging on abundance, quality of nectar, and distance from the hive.

Forager

Comings and goings One of the joys of beekeeping is taking a moment on a sunny afternoon simply to watch the bees come and go at the hive entrance. With careful observation, it is possible to get an idea of the strength of the colony before even opening the hive.

Foragers return from the field with nectarfilled stomachs and many will also have brightly colored lumps of pollen on their hind legs.

Fanning bees

Robbers Wasps and honey bees from other colonies will often try to enter a hive to steal the honey, but first they must get past the guards.

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Nurse bees (young) For the first few days on the job, the nurse bees are responsible for feeding exclusively older larvae.

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Nurse bees (older) Experienced nurse bees perform the trickier task of feeding the youngest larvae.

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House bees As nurse bees are replaced by younger bees, they move on to general hive maintenance tasks such as wax production, building, and undertaking.

Homing signal Fanning bees also release a pheromone that helps young foragers locate the hive entrance.

Juvenile bees New workers are only responsible for keeping brood cells clean and warm.

age in days

Dead larvae and bees are promptly thrown out of the front of the hive to prevent the buildup of disease.

Hive bees

Guard duty The colony’s first line of defense and early warning system, guard bees assess traffic coming into the hive and attack any intruders.

WORKERS’ CAREER TRAJECTORY

Undertaker bee

Field bees

A chain of fanning bees, from honey stores to hive entrance, beat their wings to maintain air flow and keep the hive at an optimal temperature and humidity. Warm, humid air is pushed out of the hive and cool, dry air is pulled in.

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Guard bees In preparation for their career as a forager, workers become familiar with the outdoors by taking up guard duty at the hive entrance.

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Foragers Only the oldest bees in the colony carry out foraging duties, in part due to its high-risk nature.

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HIVE OF ACTIVITY

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Bee nursery The brood is the area of a hive where new bees are raised, from an egg through larva and pupa stages. A healthy queen will lay up to 2,000 eggs a day at the height of the season, ensuring a continuous supply of bees of all ages. At this time, therefore, the beekeeper should be able to see brood at all stages of development.

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Queen laying The queen positions her hind legs on either side of the target cell and workers help to guide her abdomen in.

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1 Egg takes about three days from being laid to hatching.

As a colony prepares to produce a new queen, workers construct small cuplike cells.

2 Larva molts about once every 24 hours over the next four days. 3 Molting enables growth by temporarily removing the tough external skeleton of larva.

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4 Larva undergoes growth spurt thanks to progressive feeding by adult nurse bees. 5 Cell is capped and larva within spins a cocoon, marking change into a pupa.

8 Eyes are first to change color, turning to purple before darkening. 9 Rest of body changes color—first abdomen, then legs, wings, and finally antennae. 10 Adult bee emerges, ready for duty.

Queen cell When an egg is laid in the cup, the wax is extended to produce the peanut-shaped queen cell that hangs vertically down the comb.

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6 Features of adult become recognizable. Body segments, legs, and eyes are visible. 7 Pupa barely changes size or shape, but will start to develop color.

Queen cup

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10 Drone cells Male bees (drones) require larger cells than workers to reach their full size. They are normally found toward the bottom of frames.

Life on the Comb

Protective capping

Inside the hive, the comb of hexagonal cells acts as a multipurpose storage unit. Cells are not selected at random: brood tends to be laid in the center, honey cells are filled near the outside, and pollen is stored at the very edge. The resulting heart shape is known as the “brood pattern”.

Cells are covered with a wax cap during pupal stage. New bees must chew through the cap when ready to emerge.

Nursery food Nurse bees start to feed larvae from the moment they hatch out of eggs. All larvae are fed rich royal jelly to begin with, but, with the exception of queens, their food is increasingly diluted with pollen and honey.

Rearing new bees Honey bee young are among the best cared for of any animal species, with each brood individual getting their own bedroom and a plentiful supply of food delivered by nurse bees. The queen spends her time laying eggs into freshly cleaned and polished cells.

Larva in pupal state under cap.

Royal glands Nurse bees have special glands to convert pollen into royal jelly. Food is regurgitated directly on to the larvae, who are left almost swimming in food.

Cocoon spinning

Close quarters The queen’s entourage of court bees stays within antennae and proboscis distance at all times. This allows them to keep constant tabs on her and to ingest her pheromones.

Royal communication For colony order to be maintained, workers must be kept constantly aware that the queen is present, healthy, and laying eggs. This message is passed on in part by the court bees, who trade food laced with queen pheromone with the other workers. See pp.50–51 for more on the role of pheromones.

When larvae reach a critical size, they must undergo pupation to transform into an adult. During this stage, they spin a silk cocoon around themselves for protection.

Lazy drones Drones are able to feed themselves, but often prefer to beg for food from nurse bees. While tolerated in summer, in winter they present unnecessary extra mouths to feed and they are ejected from the hive to die.

A drone’s real job lies outside the hive, sharing the colony’s genes when mating.

Honey-making

Filling the pantry Modern hives tend to work by separating the brood comb from areas where most food is stored, allowing easy access to surplus honey for the beekeeper. There will, however, be significant stores of protein-rich pollen and energy-rich honey kept within easy reach of the brood area.

Honey seal

Workers regurgitate nectar into cells for further evaporation.

When the nectar is fully converted to honey, the worker covers it with a protective wax cap.

Nectar to honey Hive workers receive nectar from foragers and constantly regurgitate it until it evaporates down to the right concentration.

Dancing for your dinner Honey bees have developed a sophisticated method of communicating to each other the location of a food source in a behavior known as “the waggle dance,” which turns the vertical surface of the comb into a dance floor. For more on the waggle dance, see pp.40–41.

Hips don’t lie Adoring crowds Dances are closely followed by other foragers, who interpret its meaning and note the scent of the dancer to help track down the food source.

Pollen packing Pollen is an essential foodstuff for developing bees, either in the form of royal jelly or mixed with honey. The pollen is brought into the hive in a forager’s pollen baskets and tightly packed into cells for hygienic storage.

Pollen color varies from plant to plant.

The vigor and length of the waggle dance indicate the quality and distance of the food source.

Wax works Any gap that appears in the hive is quickly filled with new wax comb to optimize storage space.

Living chains Wax building activity can be easily spotted by the presence of strings of worker bees bridging a gap (and occasionally hanging off the bottom of a frame).

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Heat Control in the Hive Honey bees are often described as honorary mammals, in part due to their ability to maintain brood combs at a constant 95°F (35°C), almost mammal body temperature, a feat achieved without any central control, by individuals constantly adapting to changes in the environment.

HEAT FROM GROUNDED FLIGHT One of the ingenious ways both honey bees and bumblebees generate heat is through the powerhouse of flight muscles in their thorax, which they temporarily unhook from the wings. Flight muscles deform the thorax to move the wings.

Maintaining brood temperature Keeping the temperature constant is most important in the brood area to ensure that the young develop properly. This is easier said than done, since different processes in the hive cause the temperature to change if left unchecked.

Soft wax Honey bees need to raise their body temperature to around 109°F (43°C) to produce wax at the right consistency to build.

Wings attach indirectly and can be unhooked.

With wings unhooked, all the energy produced from vibrating the flight muscles is converted to heat.

Nectar evaporation Hive warmth works to evaporate water from honey stores, aided by fanning bees, until they are at the right concentration to be capped.

Air conditioning In hot conditions, more bees are placed on fanning duty, but if conditions are cold then cooling from evaporation must be compensated for by heater bees.

Humidity levels Heater bees Some cells in the brood area are habitually left empty by the queen so that heater bees can get close to the brood and generate heat to help keep them warm.

In part to prevent disease, fanning bees at the hive entrance keep levels of humidity constant by displacing the warm, humid air in the hive with cool, dry air from outside.

HEAT CONTROL IN THE HIVE

The winter cluster

Insulation Some beekeepers add insulation to the roof of the hive to help the bees maintain temperature.

Honey bees are one of the very few insect types that survive through the winter as a colony. As temperatures start to drop, a reduced cohort of workers will form a tight cluster, centered on the queen, to keep themselves warm enough until spring temperatures allow the colony to expand again.

Emergency fuel If the honey stores are depleted, a beekeeper may need to provide additional food in the form of a block of fondant sugar.

Heat relay As the workers on the outside cool down, they swap with the innermost bees to maintain the overall temperature of the cluster.

The queen The queen takes her place in the warmest part of the cluster, at the center. She will not move from this position all winter.

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Loose core: 91°F (33°C) Insulating mantle: 75°F (24°C) Periphery: 59°F (15°C)

Heat reservoir Warm vibrations Worker bees keep the cluster warm by vibrating their wing muscles, drawing on honey reserves for fuel.

Honey stores also act as an insulator, slowing down temperature fluctuations.

Central spot Pantry adjacent The cluster is often found on the boundary of the honey storage and brood areas, for easy access to fuel.

The cluster is centrally located in the hive where temperatures will naturally be most stable.

Safety in numbers Larger clusters are more likely to survive the winter since heat is lost more slowly from a large body.

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Let’s Dance To keep a colony supplied with stores, honey bee foragers communicate the location of the best food sources to the rest of the hive. With no ability to talk or point at a map, they have developed an unusual method of communication: they dance.

The waggle dance The world outside the hive is bright, colorful, and three-dimensional, with rolling hills, rivers, and a lot of potential food sources of varying quality. Inside the hive, this has to be conveyed in the dark on the two-dimensional surface of the comb, and the dancing bee must translate the information using senses available to bees. The waggle dance enables a forager returning from a successful trip to convey to other foragers the distance, direction, and quality of a food source. Performing on the surface of the comb, the returning hero repeatedly traces a figure-eight loop and, as she forms the straight line between the two loops, she starts enthusiastically to shake—or “waggle”—her abdomen. The direction of the line she waggles describes the angle from the sun the other bees should take to find the same patch of food. The rate and length of the dance correspond to the quality and distance of the food source. Distance translated into performance time; quality translated into level of movement in the abdomen; and the position of the sun always vertically upward on the comb: thus is the world outside brought inside the hive.

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The angle of direction If we imagine the dance taking place on a clock face, 12 o’clock always represents the position of the sun, and the direction of the food source is the angle from 12 of the waggle part of the dance, measuring counterclockwise.

Loop sections Attentive audience Every move made by the dancing bee is observed closely by fellow foragers.

The loops do not convey any information but they do allow the dancer to broadcast her message and produce pheromones to attract the attention of other foragers.

Antennae sensing Speed and length A long, slow dance indicates the food is far away and of poor quality; a short, fast dance indicates a good quality source relatively nearby.

Admirers try to keep within antennae-reach throughout the dance, taking note of everything from how the forager smells to how fast she’s waggling.

LET’S DANCE

Polarized vision Thanks to their ability to see polarized light, bees can even use the sun as a reference point on cloudy days.

Complex calculations The angle between the vertical and the waggle line allows foragers to take the right bearing, relative to the sun, when they leave the hive. The waggle dancer even takes into account the movement of the sun across the sky, adjusting the dance accordingly.

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Sunward flight A straight line vertically up the comb means foragers should fly directly toward the sun; if it is vertically down, they should fly directly away from the sun.

The round dance

Recruitment drive The round dance takes place over just 3 ⁄4 in (2 cm) but has the effect of quickly recruiting foragers.

Scent dispersal The dance gives other bees an opportunity to get the scent for nearby food sources.

For food sources in the immediate vicinity of the hive, bees perform the much simpler round dance, which is probably an evolutionary precursor to the waggle dance. In the round dance a returning forager will run in small circles on the comb. This has the effect of attracting other worker bees who cluster around. The dancing bee still carries the scent of the food source, and this provides enough information for other bees to track it down. The round dance is particularly useful if a food source suddenly becomes available and needs to be taken advantage of quickly, such as exposed honey comb in a nearby hive.

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The Honey Factory

FACTS AND FICTION

Sweet, sticky, and delicious, honey has been harvested by humans for over 8,000 years. Over this time, it has been used in everything from religious ceremonies to treating infections. But what exactly is honey?

Honey machines Flowers are a wonderful food source for bees, but their ephemeral nature does pose a problem: what to eat when there are no flowers? Many species get around this problem by living fast and dying young; a honey bee colony, on the other hand, can exist season after season. The secret to this longevity is their ability to process nectar into honey so that it that will store well. To achieve this, honey bees have developed a suite of adaptations to become honey-producing machines.

Honey stomach Nectar is transported back to the hive in the honey stomach, which acts as a temporary reservoir until it can be stored in comb cells.

Honey is nectar regurgitated by bees. The main ingredients in nectar are several sugars and water, and different honeys gain much of their flavor from the proportions of these sugars. Numerous health benefits have been attributed to honey, from helping with allergies to curing ingrown toenails. As a concentrated sugar solution, honey is inhospitable to lots of microorganisms, so there is some logic to these claims. In reality, however, there is little evidence that honey has special medicinal properties. Though not a cure-all, honey still makes delicious eating. With more than 300 recognized types to try, time is surely better spent tasting honey than rubbing it on parts of the body!

Esophagus Muscles running the length of the esophagus expand and contract to move nectar between mouth and stomach.

Hypopharyngeal glands When a worker becomes a forager, its glands alter to produce a cocktail of enzymes that start the process of turning nectar into honey.

Pollen baskets Pollen is not an ingredient of honey but is similarly stored in the hive for food. Pollen contains proteins, vitamins, and trace elements that are particularly important for larval development.

Vacuum suction Muscles in the mouth open wide to create a vacuum into which the nectar flows.

Regurgitation

Fanning Air in the hive becomes humid from water evaporating out of the nectar. Fanning bees rapidly beat their wings at the hive entrance, wafting humid air out and dry air in.

Upon returning to the colony, the forager regurgitates nectar from the honey stomach back up the esophagus and into the mouth of a house bee.

Proboscis Evaporation

Capping Once the house bee’s stomach is full of concentrated nectar, she regurgitates it into a cell. The nectar will be further dehydrated in the comb and, once it has reached a water content of around 17%, covered with a wax seal to protect it from absorbing more water.

The receiving house bee lowers the water content of the nectar by repeatedly regurgitating it onto the tip of her tongue, creating a droplet with a large surface area for fast evaporation.

The worker’s long tongue allows it to access nectaries hidden deep within the flowers.

Local

Whipped

Produced from a mixture of garden and wild flowers, taste will vary from year to year depending on available forage.

Whipping a honey that granulates quickly, such as clover, helps to keep it smooth and spreadable at room temperature.

Manuka

Meliponine In Brazil, research is underway to harness the honey production of stingless bees. Often less aggressive than honey bees, their honey is milder in flavor and attracts a premium price.

Honey types

DO OTHER BEES MAKE HONEY? Bumblebee colonies usually maintain a few days’ supply of honey in tiny wax cups in the nest. Harvesting this honey is highly wasteful, as it requires destroying the nest, and for only a tiny amount of honey. The stingless bees are much more promising honey producers. Not only do they produce more reserves than bumblebees, they store it at the periphery of their nest, which means it can be harvested without destroying the colony. Stingless bees are not as productive as honey bees, and they do still defend their honey with tiny yet powerful jaws, but the honey they do produce is highly rated for its subtle flavors.

Cut comb Honey as nature intended. Any forage can be made into cut-comb honey, but it is mainly reserved for heavy nectar flows, since the bees need sufficient nectar to produce the wax comb from scratch.

Honeydew Made by bees that harvest the plant sap waste, known as honeydew, that passes through aphids and other sap-sucking insects. Has an incredibly strong, almost sour, flavor.

Blended Cheap supermarket honey is often a blend of various honeys and sugar syrup.

M&Ms Bees don’t always forage where you’d like them to. An unusual blue-green honey found in a French apiary one year was traced to a nearby factory processing waste from the production of M&Ms.

Alleged medicinal properties of honey produced from the manuka tree in New Zealand and Australia have led to almost absurd prices, and counterfeit manuka honey has become a real problem.

None of Your Beeswax Wax cells are the building blocks of the honey bee colony. Neat compartments used to store food, rear young, and protect the hive, their hexagonal shape makes them one of the most iconic structures in nature.

Properties The defining features of beeswax are its malleability at ambient temperatures, waterproof nature, and low melting point— properties that make it an incredibly useful material for bees. They can easily alter the temperature of the hive to make the wax more or less malleable. Wax makes their home waterproof on the outside and allows them to seal off areas where they want absolutely no water, such as in honey cells. Furthermore, beeswax has anti-pathogenic properties that help reduce disease in the hive.

Wax secretion Young worker bees have a series of eight wax glands at the end of their abdomens. From these glands, the bee produces tiny, paper-thin scales of wax, which are kneaded together to create a workable ball of wax putty.

Hexagonal cells are a great example of evolution finding the most efficient solution. The hexagon shape provides the greatest volume of storage using the least amount of wax, and because wax takes a lot of energy to produce, by building in this way honey bees minimize energy expenditure. Hexagons are also incredibly strong, providing excellent resistance to external forces. For this reason, humans have taken inspiration from honeycomb in developing new building materials, for example in the aerospace industry.

Mirror glands Wax-producing glands are visible on workers of the right age as smooth areas on the underside of the last four abdominal sections.

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Leg waxing A specially enlarged segment on the hind leg allows the wax scales to be collected from the abdomen before they fall.

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Functions The wax comb provides a dance floor on which returning foragers can give directions, and a battleground where newly hatched queens fight to the death. It protects the inside of the nest from the outside world. But the main reason for the comb’s unique structure is probably its primary function: storage. The honey bee threw out the rulebook when it decided to build colonies that could last indefinitely. To achieve this, the mavericks needed to find an efficient system for raising a lot of young and to store enough food to last the winter.

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Honeycomb was the answer. Tiny cells allow honey to be sealed and stored as soon as it becomes available. Cells in the brood area allow young to be differentiated and their feeding adjusted accordingly: cells for drones and workers are very different in size, and queen cells, peanut-sized cups that protrude from the honeycomb cell, are barely recognizable as cells. Moreover, this cellular structure means that if disease breaks out, the area can be sealed off to prevent an infection from spreading. As is typical with the honey bee (and almost any social insect), the key to success is a self-organizing structure within the colony that removes the need for central control.

After secretion, wax scales are passed to the mouth, where they are kneaded to the optimum consistency before being deposited on the cell area. Hundreds of wax-building bees later, layers start to become recognizable as the structure is worked into visible cells. Bees use their antennae to create walls of exactly the right thickness, using the least wax for the greatest strength. However, it is the wax and not the bee that makes the hexagons so perfect: cells are initially round and it is only after exposure to heat that the walls shift into straight lines.

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Wax-spinning chain For larger constructions, bees will grasp onto each other to form a living chain from the new comb to the nearest support. Although most beekeepers will have observed this behavior, we have yet to discover exactly what its function might be.

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Chemical Reactions A pheromone is a chemical produced by an animal that elicits a response in members of the same species. In honey bees, pheromones are used to convey messages about almost every aspect of colony life. This secret language is extremely adaptable and arguably the key to honey bee social complexity.

Pheromone control Honey bees make more than 50 different pheromones, enabling a huge range of messages to be conveyed. Some pheromones are short-lived and travel quickly through the colony: useful for urgent messages of alarm, for example. Others, like queen pheromones, travel more slowly, causing gradual and more lasting changes in behavior. Pheromones can elicit different responses according to the age of the bee, prompting workers to change jobs. Brood pheromones, for example, stimulate young nurse bees to produce brood food, but cause older foraging bees to collect more pollen. The benefits of this system are manifold. First, there

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is no need for a central control to coordinate jobs around the hive. Second, lots of jobs require workers’ bodies to change physically, and because responses to pheromones are age-specific, these changes follow a standard sequence as the bee ages. Nurse bees use their hypopharyngeal glands, for example, to produce brood food, but older bees use the same gland to make digestive enzymes for processing nectar. Finally, the system is flexible enough to cope with disruption: if there are too few young bees, for instance, older bees can delay switching roles and revert changes in their physiology to carry out urgent jobs.

PHEROMONE GLAND LOCATIONS A gland is a bodily tissue that secretes a substance. Each pheromone gland in a bee produces a specific pheromone, and they are often positioned to aid delivery. The Nasonov gland, for example, lies at the tip of the abdomen so that its pheromones can easily be wafted into the air. The Koschevnikov glands sit alongside the stinger and release alarm pheromones when the stinger is deployed. The main queen pheromone, QMP, is produced in glands next to the queen’s mandibles and this allows her to feed it directly to her entourage of court bees.

Nasonov gland The orientation pheromone, Nasonov, is released by worker bees at the colony entrance to help guide foragers back to the colony.

Koschevnikov glands Located next to the stinger, these glands release an alarm pheromone when the stinger is deployed, alerting other workers to come to the stinging bee’s aid.

Tergite glands Thought to help workers differentiate virgin queens from those that have mated.

Hypopharyngeal glands Though not a pheromone-producing gland, it is stimulated by brood pheromones so that nurse bees produce brood food.

Mandibular glands In the queen, these glands produce Queen Mandibular Pheromone (QMP). Dufour’s gland This gland coats eggs in a distinctive cocktail of chemicals so that those laid by the queen can be distinguished from those laid by workers.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

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PHEROMONES AND EVOLUTION

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QUEEN MANDIBULAR PHEROMONE (QMP) Arguably the pheromone with the greatest number of applications, QMP affects hive maintenance, swarming, mating, the (non-)development of ovaries in worker bees, and many other elements of colony social behavior. Court bees enthusiastically collect QMP from the queen with their tongues, passing it from bee to bee around the hive, thereby communicating the state of the queen across the whole colony. As the queen ages, her QMP output diminishes, and this is one of the key signals that prompt workers to raise a new queen to replace her.

BROOD PHEROMONES There are several brood pheromones with different functions. One is the broodrecognition pheromone that allows the queen’s eggs to be distinguished from eggs laid by rogue workers, which must be removed for colony health (see p.161). Open-brood pheromones are produced by larvae in uncapped cells and encourage nurse bees to apply a protective cap to their cells when they are ready to pupate. These pheromones also regulate the transition of workers from nursing duties to other jobs in the colony, ensuring that there is an appropriate ratio of nurse bees to brood. In many ways, the brood controls the nurse bees with their pheromones, albeit passively.

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ALARM PHEROMONES When an attack on the colony is perceived, guard bees release alarm pheromones to recruit more guard bees to the nest entrance and put all the workers on high alert. The action of stinging also causes alarm pheromones to be released, encouraging other workers to sting and guiding them to the target. Interestingly, this pheromone smells very similar to ripe bananas: an example of the same chemical having evolved different functions in different organisms (see box, right).

Pheromones are not unique to social insects. They are found across the animal kingdom, from mammals to corals, and even certain plants release alarm pheromones to warn of approaching herbivores. Some pheromone chemicals affect more than one species, often in very different ways. This can give insights into how the pheromones arose: whether they evolved in a common ancestor or whether it is simply a case of natural selection making use of the same molecules in different contexts. Similarly, pheromones with contrasting chemical compositions have been observed to produce near identical behavioral responses in different species. Honey bees and bumblebees both produce recruitment pheromones, for example, but they are chemically completely different and this shows they have independently evolved the same solution to forager recruitment.

RECRUITMENT PHEROMONES These pheromones accompany the waggle dance performed by foragers and encourage other workers to leave the hive and forage, particularly if there is a good nectar source temporarily available or if another hive is exposed and can easily be robbed of its food stores.

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The Swarm: When a Superorganism Gives Birth

Royal decrees The queen releases pheromone messages that diminish in strength as they are passed from worker to worker.

The honey bee colony can be considered a superorganism, with the queen, workers, and drones constituting the parts of a single entity. At the level of a superorganism, reproduction occurs when a new colony is formed, and this happens through swarming.

The swarming process The scale of swarms has inspired awe and fear for centuries. Thousands of bees taking to the air is a breathtaking sight. But what makes a colony swarm, and where do the bees go? 1 Swarm triggers As with all honey bee processes, the decision to swarm is made by multiple individuals responding to a number of local triggers. Queen cups

Faint signals When the colony reaches a critical size, there is no longer sufficient queen pheromone to reach all the workers; this acts as a trigger for swarm preparations.

Colony overcrowding As rates of egg laying and food storage increase, nurse bees are forced to search for empty cells to prepare for egg laying, and as a result workers essentially start to bump into each other.

Queen cells Once an egg has been laid the queen cup is lengthened to create peanut-like queen cells.

In preparation for swarming, workers build the foundations of large brood cells in which to rear new queens.

Farewell feast 2 Signalling the swarm It has recently been discovered that the swarm exodus is coordinated by a small group of “pied piper” bees. These experienced foragers are responsible for finding a safe site nearby where the swarm can congregate. Once found, the pipers return to the hive and rally the workers.

Workers gorge on honey prior to leaving, giving them the energy and stores to set up the new colony.

Buzz runs Departure call The pipers’ rallying call encourages swarming workers to warm up their flight muscles ready for departure.

When the swarm is ready to leave, the pipers perform “buzz-runs” to signal departure.

THE SWARM 3 Swarm on the wing Observing a swarm in flight, it is striking how its movements appear both coherent and random at the same time. There seem to be sudden bursts where lots of bees come closer together before quickly dispersing, giving an almost firework effect. As with flocks of birds and shoals of fish, these movements are an emergent property of lots of independent individuals following the same set of rules: keep a certain distance from those around you; move if you see a predator.

Queen’s progress Around two-thirds of the colony’s workers leave with the old queen in the swarm.

4 Scouts depart Vulnerable to predators and starvation, the swarm must establish a new nest as soon as possible. Scout bees leave immediately to search for possible sites and won’t all choose the same location. The perfect site will be fairly close by, neither too small nor too large, and offering good shelter.

Muster point Before a new nest site is chosen, the swarm will settle in a teardrop cluster with the queen at the center.

Bee scouts As soon as the swarm has clustered at the temporary safe site, scout bees go in search of a suitable new nest location.

5 Selecting a new home The process for deciding on a new nest site is known as “quorum sensing.” Returning scouts use their waggle dance to recruit other scouts, who check out the site they have found. If the other scouts agree, they will return and use their own dances to recruit more scouts to the same site; if they don’t, they will choose another site. When a critical proportion of the scouts are in agreement (usually around 80 per cent), the swarm will move to that site.

Swarm waggle dance Scouts communicate nest sites using the same technique they use to direct foragers to sources of food. The difference is that they dance up the face of the swarm cluster instead of on the comb.

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Bee Predators in the Wild Bees occupy a place in ecosystem food webs quite apart from their role as plant pollinators. Their diverse behavior and wide distribution mean that they are also key prey species for a range of predators across the animal kingdom.

Precision senses Beewolves have incredible eyesight and sense of smell, which they use to identify prey and locate their tiny nest entrances.

Beewolves These large, solitary wasps are impressive bee predators with truly fascinating behavior. The bees they catch are not eaten by the adult, but rather paralyzed and used to feed their larvae in much the same way that many solitary bees provision offspring with pollen balls. Some beewolf species are generalist bee predators, while others specialize in particular species. Honey bee killer The European beewolf is a specialist honey bee predator, laying up to 34 eggs and providing each egg with up to 6 honey bees.

Parasitoid wasps These nightmarish creatures lay their eggs inside bee larvae. When the wasps hatch, they consume their hosts from the inside out, keeping them alive for as long as possible so that the food remains fresh. There is growing concern that breeding solitary bees in high density for commercial pollination is causing an explosion in parasitoid wasp populations.

Super strength Beewolves are very strong and will fly their prey, often equal to them in size, back to the nest.

Tunnel nest The adult female digs a long tunnel with several brood chambers, each provisioned with two or more paralyzed bees.

Attack formation The beewolf catches its prey in a way that allows it to direct its own stinger into the soft underside of the bee, while presenting only its tough abdominal armor in defense.

Puncturing probe The egg-laying apparatus of parasitoid wasps tends to be very long, strong, and flexible, able to puncture its way into nesting chambers.

Mason bee brood Most parasitoid wasp species are relatively specialized for a single bee species or genus. This Monodontomerus obscurus targets mason bees.

BEE PREDATORS IN THE WILD Color camouflage Misumena vatia is a species of crab spider with a two-tone camouflage ability.

Flower crab spiders Arachnophobes may want to stop reading now. Flower crab spiders are masters of ambush and, rather than waste their time chasing prey or building webs, simply hide out on or under flowers and grab any pollinator that lands. While some are able to change color for camouflage purposes, most simply choose a flower to match their own coloring. Flow of pigment On yellow flowers, the spider floods its outer cells with yellow pigment; on white flowers, the pigment drains to reveal its white inner glands.

Disarming behavior

Bee-eaters These beautiful and aptly named birds have flashy plumage and flashy habits too, choosing only to take prey that is on the wing. They also have exceptionally sharp vision and will spot and fly off to catch a meal up to 100 yards (100 meters) away. Although bee-eaters will eat almost any flying insect, bees and wasps generally make up the bulk of their diet. In their element Bee-eaters are rather ungainly and awkward on the ground, which perhaps explains why they prefer to catch their prey in flight.

Bee-eaters disarm their prey by rubbing their stingers on branches to remove the venom.

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Defensive Strategies Whether fighting off predators, looking after their young, or protecting food reserves, bees have developed a range of powerful mechanisms for defending themselves against their enemies, be they rival insects, mammals, or other bees.

The sting A sting in the tail is the most famous defensive tool possessed by bees: an injection of venom that causes pain or death in the recipient. The delivery mechanism is a modified version of the egglaying apparatus on the tip of the abdomen; hence only females can deliver a sting. Bees do not sting readily: venom takes a lot of energy to produce and is reserved for the most serious of threats. Contrary to common belief, in ordinary defensive situations a bee can use its stinger and fly away unscathed.

Anatomy of a sting The venom of a honey bee worker is delivered from a sharp stinger plunged into the recipient by specially placed muscles, and is accompanied by a squirt of alarm pheromones.

Venom sac Venom takes time to be produced and this small reservoir in the abdomen allows it to be stockpiled, ready for deployment.

Venom gland Also known as the acid gland, this is the toxin production center.

Dufour’s gland This enigmatic gland is thought to lubricate the sting.

Cocktail of pain Honey bee venom, known as apitoxin, is a cocktail of proteins that together cause pain, itchiness, and increased blood flow to the sting site so the venom travels faster.

Venom bulb A second reservoir for venom, the bulb is surrounded by muscles that force toxins through the stinger.

Valves Part of the bulb, these control and limit the flow of venom so that none is wasted.

Stinger and sac Barbed defense A honey bee usually only dies after stinging mammals (like us) because the barbs of the stinger only lodge in mammal flesh, and this causes the entire stinger apparatus to pull away.

A honey bee stinger lodged in the skin comes with a full venom sac. Stingers should be scratched out, not pulled, which only squeezes more venom out of the sac.

Stinger sheath Barbed stinger The serrated edge of the stinger makes it difficult to withdraw from mammal skin.

The hard outer sheath enables the stinger to pierce the exoskeleton of insects and skin of mammals.

DEFENSIVE STRATEGIES Wing decoupling

The hot ball

During the ambush, the bees rapidly raise the temperature by unhooking their wing muscles, enabling all their thorax energy to be released as heat.

If Japanese honey bees spot a giant hornet approaching the hive, they release a pheromone that prompts any workers near the entrance to hide. As a result, the hornet gains easy access to the hive, but only so that it can then be ambushed by up to 500 workers. Each bee grabs on to the intruder and rapidly vibrates its wing muscles to create a tiny bee oven with the hornet at the center. Such a rapid increase in temperature drives up carbon dioxide concentrations, reducing the amount of oxygen to breathe and lowering the hornet’s ability to tolerate heat. This swiftly kills the hornet while leaving the fearless guard bees alive and well. Giant predator The Japanese giant hornet is a fearsome predator, capable of annihilating colonies of Western honey bees.

The war of attrition New research on the little-known stingless Tetragonula bees of Australia has revealed the lengths they will go to both to defend their own honey and to steal from other species. Scientists witnessed bees of one Tetragonula species attacking the workers of another by grabbing the defensive bees in their jaws and refusing to let go. Neither defender nor attacker survives these tussles, meaning victory only comes after a war of attrition, which sometimes last several weeks. If the attacking colony is successful they will depose the old queen and her entourage, install their own regime, and take over the honey stores.

Unique strategy Only the Japanese honey bee has evolved the hot ball defense. Attempts to introduce the Western honey bee to Japan met with failure, largely due to its inability to deal with the giant hornet.

Stingless defense Tetragonula bees have evolved powerful jaws to compensate for their lack of stingers.

Two tribes go to war The same species is not always victorious and the winning tribe is frequently determined by its ability to suffer more casualties.

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Honey stores

Military sacrifice Large raiding parties try to break through defenses, and few survive. The bees who take up residence in the colony arrive en masse after much of the fighting is over.

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Bee-pocalypse Now? Bee are in decline across the world. Each year, we hear of more bee deaths caused by new diseases and greater habitat loss. As one of earth’s major pollinator groups, their loss poses a serious threat to the plants that rely on them and in turn everything that relies on those plants, including us. THE ESTIMATED GLOBAL ECONOMIC VALUE OF INSECT POLLINATION IS $295 BILLION

The value of bee pollination The value of bees and other insect pollinators is well established, and the mass availability of commercial bee colonies for pollination has allowed us to expand the range and scale of crop production across the world. Removal of pollinators results in signicantly reduced yields in a number of ways. There are the obvious losses from the few crops that simply cannot form fruits or seeds without insect pollinators. But there are also subtler effects on yields in the far greater numbers of crops that produce a much better harvest for having been pollinated by bees and other insects. In some crops, excluding pollinators leads to less sweet, malformed fruits that have a shorter shelf life.

Statistics of pollinator reliance The figures illustrated here have been compiled from hundreds of research papers and provide a strong indication of how reliant we are on pollinators.

75% OF THE WORLD’S TOP 100 CROP SPECIES RELY ON INSECT POLLINATION

AGRICULTURE RELIANT ON INSECT POLLINATORS HAS INCREASED BY 300% IN THE LAST 50 YEARS

CROP YIELDS ARE ENHANCED BY UP TO 75% THROUGH INSECT POLLINATION

80% OF INSECT CROP POLLINATION IS CARRIED OUT BY HONEY BEES

BEE-POCALYPSE NOW? Japan 25%

Honey bee collapse Although honey bee losses represent only a very small proportion of total pollinator declines, the catastrophic collapse of colonies experienced in some regions in recent years is a cause of great concern, with some beekeepers losing their entire stock of bees almost overnight in an, as yet, poorly understood phenomenon known as Colony Collapse Disorder or CCD.

USA 30–40%

59 Europe up to 53%

HONEY BEE COLONY LOSSES REPORTED IN THE LAST 10 YEARS Numerous causes of CCD have been suggested, from pesticides to phone signals. It seems likely no single factor is responsible and that honey bee declines reflect pressures felt by all pollinators, but the effects have been more immediately noticeable in honey bees due to their close relationship with humans.

Bees in the web of life Bees are considered a keystone group in an ecosystem, so deeply embedded in the web of connections that their removal can cause the entire edifice to collapse. Losing bees and other wild pollinators causes ripples of devastation up and down the food chain, removing a source of food for predators, and causing serious damage to the plants that underpin most food webs and which bees HUMANS help pollinate.

Honey bees in an ecosystem This simplified web of interactions shows the key role that bee species play and the number of different groups they can affect.

KEY Relationships of predation or consumption Pollination or producer roles

BIRDS OF PREY

BEE-EATER OTHER BIRDS

CRAB SPIDER

BEEWOLF

LIVESTOCK HONEY BEE

HONEY

WILD FLOWERS

PARASITOID WASP

CROPS

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Main causes of the decline The relationship between bees and humans is fraught with contradiction. We rely heavily on their pollination services and spend vast resources attempting to breed the perfect strain, yet continue with farming practices

that place bees under ever greater pressure and have led to dramatic population declines. And bees aren’t the only group to lose out, with some of these factors contributing to the loss of biodiversity generally.

MIGRATORY BEEKEEPING Commercial pollination is big business across the world, and nowhere more so than in the United States, where the practice of growing vast swaths of single-crop plantings leaves little room for wild pollinators. This agricultural model is supported by migratory beekeepers who move huge numbers of honey bee colonies great distances around the country, from crop to crop. There is widespread concern that this mass transportation might be contributing to Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD).

KEY Main routes of commercial colony migration Centers of fruit and nut growing

Local competition The sudden influx of commercial pollinators to a region brings risk of disease and competition to local wild pollinator populations.

Trucking Bee colonies are transported thousands of miles each year: the almond crop alone requires 1.62 million hives.

Disease hot spots Bringing together hives from different parts of the country facilitates the spread of disease between states. Migratory beekeepers help pollinate almonds and other crops in California.

Junk food Single-crop plantations fail to supply the varied diet that bees, like humans, require to maintain a healthy immune system.

GENETIC OVERBREEDING Modern queen-breeding techniques have been harnessed in pursuit of the perfect strain of honey bee, but this has led to a loss of genetic diversity in the population overall. Imperfect strains that are cast aside often contain within their DNA the secret to problems breeders haven’t yet thought of: they may be resistant to an emerging disease, for example, or able to work better in the changing climate. The same problem has occurred throughout much of the agricultural sector, where livestock and crops have been so heavily modified in favor of productivity that they have lost the ability to overcome new problems.

The ideal queen Breeders aim to rear queens who are very fertile, laying lots of docile, easy-to-control workers with high productivity levels and a low propensity to swarm. All aspects of queen breeding are controlled: queens are even artificially inseminated with sperm from drones of the best colonies.

BEE-POCALYPSE NOW?

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MEGA-FARMING The practice of farming in vast monocultures has had a doubly negative impact on wildlife, bees included. As traditional, small-scale farms disappear, so too do the diverse species adapted to live in these varied landscapes. And as the world population continues to grow, fed by everincreasing crop yields, expanding human settlements push farther into previously untouched wildernesses.

No escape Bees and other wildlife need to be able to avoid disturbance, and mega-farms leave almost nowhere to hide.

Giants in the landscape Combine harvesters reflect the revolution in agricultural technology that has facilitated farming on a gigantic scale.

PESTICIDE SPRAYING Another hugely controversial change in farming has been the widespread use of pesticides. Early pesticides, most notably DDT, were responsible for appalling damage to wildlife. Since then, pesticides have become more targeted, better regulated, and generally less damaging, but mistakes are still made. Used well, pesticides are an effective way to increase yields. Used badly, they can have devastating consequences both for ecosystem services, like pollination, and for human health.

Collateral damage The indiscriminate nature of some pesticide spraying damages beneficial insects like bees and the natural predators of crop pests.

Chemical threat As pest species evolve resistance to one set of pesticides, different treatments are developed, posing new threats to bees.

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Reversing the Decline: Our Role as Individuals Small actions can make big changes and each of us has a part to play in bee conservation. We can turn our gardens into pollinator paradises. We can volunteer on conservation projects. We can share our passion for bees with those around us.

Planting for bee forage Many backyards are already fairly good for bees, but with a few small adjustments, we can make them even better. Bees prefer simple flowers. Some ornamental plant varieties have had all the nectar and pollen bred out of them. Flowers as they are found in the wild (or nearly so) are much more suitable. This doesn’t mean planting weeds; even flowers that aren’t native to your area can provide excellent forage. Aim to have something in flower all through the year. Bees are active for longer than we might expect and there are periods when bees experience a dearth of forage. Rectify this and you will be rewarded with bees and color throughout the year. Hotel rooms Solitary bees build nests in the holes of bee hotels, and differentsized holes attract different species.

Plant early If your yard is rich in early-season flowers, you are more likely to attract bumblebees to nest.

Bee inspired Visit local gardens to see which plants the bees are visiting and incorporate them into your yard.

Providing habitats A problem in lots of yards is the lack of suitable places for bees to nest. Many solitary bee species like to nest in dead tree branches, so try to keep them if you can. Thick mulch around shrubs not only suppresses weeds, but also prevents bees that nest in the ground from reaching the soil. If possible, leave a few patches of bare earth around the yard and the mining bees will thank you. If you’d rather keep your garden neat, you can still encourage nesting by hanging dedicated bee hotels, which are cheap and easy to make yourself (see pp.80–87). Solitary guests Solitary bees are less well-known than honey and bumblebees, but no less fascinating, and bee hotels offer the chance to observe them up close.

REVERSING THE DECLINE

Joining a conservation campaign Great things happen when lots of individuals come together. Volunteers are always needed in the conservation sector to plant new habitats, and nothing really matches the joy of doing a hard day’s work and being able to come back year after year to see the fruits of your labor. Scientists have begun to really appreciate the benefits that enthusiastic amateurs can bring. From monitoring invasive pests to logging the range of a species, citizen scientists often don’t even need to leave their backyards to contribute toward real advances in our scientific understanding of the world.

Fieldwork Directly help to preserve the habitats of wild bee populations by volunteering in the field.

Be part of something bigger Let politicians know how strongly you feel about protecting bees and their habitats: sign a petition; write a letter; join a campaigning group.

Health checks Keep bees in good health and report any incidence of disease to help protect all bee groups.

Keeping bees Beekeeping is a fascinating and rewarding hobby; a great way to learn more about the lives of bees and share in their industry. We need to recognize, however, that it can put pressure on our wild pollinators through competition for forage, and must be carried out responsibly to minimize the risks of spreading disease. As beekeepers, we are privileged to have an insight into the world of bees. It is vital that we use this insight to do what we can to protect both the bees in our care and those in the wild.

Extra supplies Plant additional forage at the apiary and in your garden to offset competition with wild pollinators.

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Reversing the Decline: Wider Perspectives While individuals can play a vital part, some measures to help save the bees require action on a greater scale, and in ways that are evolving as new science emerges. Could we solve mass honey bee deaths at a microbial level? Is it really possible to aid population recovery by making farms less bee-friendly?

Fighting disease Human movement of domesticated bees around the world has led to wild species being exposed to a whole host of new diseases. One way governments and pollination groups hope to combat this problem is by breeding bees with greater disease resistance. Like most animals, bees are heavily reliant on bacteria and other microbiota for digestive regulation. It is thought that the microbes living in a bee’s gut also help boost immunity and general resilience. Researchers are working to establish what effects pesticide exposure, changes in diet, and bee breeding may have on this tiny ecosystem in the stomach. Overreliance If commercial bee pollinators fail, we may need to rely on hand or even robot pollination.

Bee-specific bacteria Different bee species contain different selections of microbes in their guts, but there is some overlap between honey bees and bumblebees.

Honey guts In the honey bee, all workers have a similar microbiome, but the queen’s is very different, implying she obtains her gut bacteria through a different mechanism.

The future of commercial pollination The frailty of domesticated pollinators, as shown by the collapse of some commercial populations of honey bees, highlights the risks of abandoning wild pollinators. At the very least, wild pollinators provide an insurance policy; at best, they could offer a cheaper and more efficient means of pollination. By underplanting fruit trees with other flowering species and maintaining a diverse agricultural landscape, it is possible to combine productive land use and a healthy wild population. If we continue on our current course, we risk crushing our wild populations completely.


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The land use debate By turning over much of the landscape to settlements and farms, we push bees (and other wildlife) into ever smaller fragments of human-free habitat. The result is small, isolated populations that are more vulnerable to extinction. While bees can, in theory, fly from fragment to fragment, the land in between can have a huge

impact on how easy this is to achieve. A lot of conservation work attempts to make movements between habitat fragments easier by linking the landscape with green corridors and wildlife-friendly land management. Recent research, however, is calling into question the effectiveness of these approaches.

LAND SPARING VERSUS LAND SHARING The concept here is simple. At one end of the scale is land sharing: living alongside nature by making farms as wildlife-friendly as possible—for example, by creating pollinator habitats and interplanting with bee-friendly plants. At the other end is land sparing, where yield is maximized by farming as intensively as possible on farms that are largely inhospitable to most wildlife. The jury is still out as to which land use model offers most help to bee and other wildlife populations.

KEY Farmland Wild habitat

The “spare” model By maximizing crop yields on fewer, larger farms, albeit to the detriment of farm wildlife, more areas of truly wild habitat can be left untouched and with good connectivity for wild populations.

The “share” model This model promotes wildlife-friendly, smallerscale farms, but due to lower crop yields, more wilderness in an equivalent area must be given over to farmland, and what’s left is fragmented.

CONSIDERING “THE CIRCE PRINCIPLE” New research is changing our thinking about how bees move between wild habitat fragments. Previously, it was thought fragments were best connected by good foraging grounds in the intermediate area, while low-forage areas acted as a barrier to bee traffic. However, experiments have found that fragments separated by pine forests with no forage had greater pollinator exchange than those connected by forage-rich farmland; bees were literally making a beeline and not being distracted by alternative forage sources. In areas with isolated fragments of wild habitat, therefore, being separated by non-forage areas may actually aid bee connectivity.

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Reversing the Decline: The Future of Bee Research Scientific research has a huge part to play in saving the bees. Only by truly understanding bee behavior and the threats they face can we hope to protect their populations. And as we discover more about these amazing creatures, we are likely to find unexpected applications for what we learn.

Signal mapping The antenna emits regular signals that are detected on the ground and superimposed on maps for analysis.

Radar tagging The efficiency with which bees navigate the landscape can have a huge impact on their survival. By attaching tiny harmonic radars, researchers can monitor a bee’s flight path to see how it travels and where it chooses to forage. This information has various applications and is currently being used to measure the effects of different pesticides on bee navigation. Harmonic radar has given unprecedented insights into bee movements, but the equipment struggles in an obstructed landscape (it cannot see through vegetation), and better means of monitoring are in development. Tiny hatchlings Larvae are transferred to the laboratory one day after hatching from eggs.

Tricky work Larvae must be floated on their food and will drown if wrongly placed.

Heavy lifters The antenna may look large, but bees have evolved to carry heavy loads of pollen and nectar.

Raising bees in the lab Bees are not just threatened as adults. Pesticides and diseases can often affect the larvae too, possibly even more so due to their concentrated food sources. Honey bee larvae are incredibly difficult to study in situ as the hive environment is in a constant state of flux, and this doesn’t allow factors to be assessed individually when conducting experiments. By removing one-day-old larvae and transferring them to the lab, all aspects of their environment can be controlled and monitored.


Environment sensing Multiple smart sensors will aim to take the role of a bee’s eyes and antennae, allowing decisions to be made in response to the environment.

Not just bees Gyroscopes inspired by the halteres of flies will allow the robots to hover stably and perform aerial acrobatics.

Robobee! The bee is nature’s prototype of a tiny yet powerful, energy-efficient flying machine, and at Harvard University scientists are engaged in an exciting project to robotize the biological systems that make bees such incredible fliers. Applications for these “robobees” might include traffic and weather monitoring, and search and rescue, but could they also replace bees as crop pollinators? Developers are certainly incorporating pollination equipment in the robobee design and, while they recognize it should not be considered a long-term solution, the hope is that robotic pollinators might relieve the pressure on bee populations while conservationists work to reverse the decline in natural pollinators.

Bumblebee-inspired wings The forceful yet flexible flying skills of bumblebees may allow the robots to carry large loads for their size and fly in hostile conditions (see pp.26–7).

THE FATHER OF MODERN BEE SCIENCE Karl von Frisch was one of the first scientists to study bees in a systematic way. He is credited with discovering the way bees smell, see, tell the time, and orient themselves, as well as being the first to decode the round and waggle dances (see pp.42–3). Much of this work was carried out in the 1920s and was initially greeted with skepticism, particularly the idea that bees are able to communicate through dance. Later research would confirm his theories, however, and in 1973 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology, along with two other scientists, for their pioneering work in developing the principles of “ethology,” the study of animal behavior. Much of what we now know about bee behavior can be traced back to Karl von Frisch, and current research vital to bee conservation would not be possible without his legacy.

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Karl von Frisch (1886–1982)

Attracting Bees

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ATTRACTING BEES

Of Flowers and Forage To understand how best to attract bees to your yard, it helps to have some background knowledge of the ways in which bees and flowers interact with each other: how flowers signal their attractiveness to bees; how bees pick up on those signals; and how this mutually beneficial relationship evolved in specific circumstances over the course of millennia.

Rules of attraction We cannot know with certainty how the bees that visit our backyards first evolved, but they probably developed in a woodland landscape interspersed with glades. Those glades would have been created and kept open by the activities of large mammals— bison, wild horses, deer—and the plants that we now associate with open habitats, such as meadows and prairies, would have been found in those glades. Once grazing was exhausted, however, the mammals would have moved on and woodland would have slowly recolonized the open spaces. So rather

than enjoying permanent areas of habitat, bees would have had to cope with a scattered, patchy food resource that came and went from season to season. In such circumstances, it would have been vital for bees to develop an array of tools for locating this patchy food resource and communicating its whereabouts to their nestmates. And from the point of view of the plants, in need of pollination services but trapped in isolated glades, they would have required powerful signaling mechanisms and an irresistible food reward to draw the bees in.

WHAT IS NECTAR? Flying is extremely resource-hungry, and in order to fly and still have sufficient reserves left over for other activities, bees require a very energy-rich food source. Over the course of evolution, flowers have developed the ultimate high-energy reward for bees in the form of nectar, which they offer in exchange for pollination. Nectar is a cocktail of sugars, produced in plants by photosynthesis, carried around in the sap, and concentrated in special glands called nectaries. Generally, it is a mixture of 55 per cent sucrose, 24 per cent glucose, and 21 per cent fructose, though a host of other chemicals, such as amino acids, may be present.

Lines on the petals of meadow cranesbill (Geranium pratense) combine with scent patterns to guide bees to the nectar at the base of the stamens.

OF FLOWERS AND FORAGE

71

Scent signals

Catmint (Nepeta species) advertises its generous nectar resource to bees using tall flower spikes that exude a delicious scent.

A key tool that flowers have at their disposal for attracting pollinators is scent. What we—and bees—perceive as perfume is actually molecules of one or more chemical compounds carried in the air. These molecules “plug in” to specially shaped gaps in sensor cells, triggering a nerve impulse that is perceived as scent. In the case of bees, these sensors are located in their antennae. The greater the number of sensor types present, the wider the variety of scent chemicals that can be detected, and bees possess a whopping 170 different sensor types, compared to just 62 in fruit flies. This armory of different scent receptors in bees has evolved in response to the wide range of perfumes that flowers have developed in their efforts to be noticed. If color is the long-range signaling method used by flowers (of which, more overleaf), scent is the medium- and short-range method. Once a bee has spotted a patch of flowers in flight, it is drawn in closer by scent molecules carried on the air. Having chosen a particular bloom and landed, it is further guided toward the nectaries by scent patterns on the actual surface of the petals, which may be supplemented by visible nectar guides. The chemicals involved in flower scent are varied. A recent study listed a total of 1,719 different chemical compounds, though relatively few plant species were included in the study. What these different compounds all have in common is that they are volatile, evaporating at the kinds of temperatures encountered in the habitats where plants grow, so that they are dispersed on the breeze on a mild day when pollinators like bees prefer to forage. And in order to be successful they should, of course, have a corresponding receptor on an insect’s antennae.

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ATTRACTING BEES

Vision, color, and pattern

Ultraviolet (UV)

nd

300

in g in t o l a

HUMAN VISUAL RANGE

c om

WAVELENGTH IN NANOMETRES

ee

BEE VISUAL RANGE

Good vision is essential, and a bee’s compound eyes are each made up of over 5,000 individual lens units called ommatidia. Their position on either side of the head lets the fields of vision overlap, giving bees a great ability to judge depth and distance— so-called stereoscopic or binocular vision.

Ultraviolet (UV) filter 370

Violet

Areas of pigment reflecting ultraviolet light appear as red under a UV filter.

420

Blue

Indigo 450

Blue

480 500

Green

Green 570

Yellow/Green

590

Yellow Orange

600

Black 640

Red

750

The visual range of bees may at first seem to compare unfavorably with that of humans, but bees’ ability to detect colors at the ultraviolet end of the spectrum opens up a world of color and pattern inaccessible to human eyes.

ne

yb

Flowers employ color and pattern to make themselves detectable from a distance, but often in ways invisible to the human eye. Bees perceive a slightly different spectrum of color than humans do, shifted toward the ultraviolet, and although they cannot see shades of red, they can view a range of colors at the ultraviolet end of the spectrum that are invisible to us. Some apparently plain flowers actually bear, when viewed through the eyes of a bee, a range of patterns designed to guide visitors to the all-important nectar resource.

Ho

“Invisible” pattern Bees see the bright yellow petals as yellowish-green, but they also detect a UV pattern at the centre of the flower.

Under ultraviolet filters, flowers that appear relatively uniform to human eyes are revealed to contain pigments in the ultraviolet range, which bees perceive as directional patterns.


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Electrical fields As bees fly through the air, they build up a small positive electrical charge. Flowers, by contrast, tend to have a slight negative charge. This has one immediate benefit: as a bee lands on a flower, negatively charged pollen will actually jump onto its body due to the electrostatic attraction. Recent research now suggests a bee can

detect the shape of a flower’s electrical field and use this information to help navigate to the source of nectar. What’s more, visiting bees turn the electrical charge of a flower more positive, and it may be these variations in charge are detected by bees to work out which flowers have already been visited and plundered of their nectar.

Field lines Static flight Collisions with tiny dust particles in the air cause flying bees to develop a positive electrical charge.

+

Bees can sense the shape of a flower’s electrical field and use it as one more signpost in the quest for nectar.

-

+ +

-

+ +

+

-

THE STRANGE CASE OF FLOWER CONSTANCY Foraging consumes a lot of energy, and it would make sense for a bee to target sources of nectar from the closest and most productive flowers. Yet a strange behavior called “flower constancy” has also been noted, in which bees continue to visit a particular flower—usually based on color—even though other, more rewarding flowers are available closer to the hive. The behavior makes perfect sense for the plant, since a loyal bee will continue to spread pollen of the right species. But for the bee? One suggestion is that a bee’s memory is just not big enough to retrain once it has memorized the location of a particular forage source.

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ATTRACTING BEES

Navigational tools Bees have a remarkable ability to pick up on the signals that flowers send out, but this would be nothing without an effective navigation system. It has long been known that bees, in common with birds, use the position of the sun as their primary compass for navigating. Even when the sun is hidden by clouds, bees can still locate its position in the sky thanks to their ability to detect patterns of polarized light, which are produced as the light from the sun filters through the atmosphere. What has only recently been discovered is that bees are also able to navigate using a mental map of memorized landmarks, a skill more usually associated with the larger brains of mammals. Though much less detailed than the cognitive maps of mammals, bees are able to use this rudimentary spatial memory to pinpoint and recall the location of forage patches, and navigate back to the hive, independently of the sun’s position. As if that weren’t enough, bees are also believed to be able to sense the earth’s magnetic field. One theory suggests they may be able to “see” lines of magnetic force as a kind of overlay on top of their normal vision.

Mental mapping While the position of the sun is a bee’s main tool for navigating, it is now believed they also have the ability to register and recall a basic mental map of the landscape they inhabit.

FORAGE SOURCE

TREE

HILL BUILDING

Waggle dance Bees communicate the location of a food source by dancing to each other. For more on this, see pp.44–5.

TREE

HIVE

Homeward bound To prove the theory of mental mapping, scientists put a group of bees to sleep, which shifted their internal clocks so that they couldn’t navigate by the sun, and found they still managed to make their way back to the hive when they woke up.

RIVER


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INSECT VERSUS WIND POLLINATION Not all plants are pollinated by bees and other insects. A proportion of the plant kingdom, including many trees and the entire family of grasses, relies instead on the wind to transfer pollen. How do the methods compare? Wind pollination Wind pollination has many advantages. It is “cheap” in terms of resources, since the small, dull flowers are stripped down to basics: just anthers to throw out pollen and feathery stigmas to sift it out of the air. And it is effective, as long as enough pollen is produced to allow for natural wastage. Yet there are some major disadvantages. Casting pollen onto the wind and leaving things to chance can result in pollinating your own sister or cousin, which is generally considered undesirable. Or it can result in no pollination at all, if it is raining or the wind is in the wrong direction. It is much more efficient to have pollen carried directly to another plant by a helpful intermediary.

Polarized patterns Bees detect the movement of polarized light in concentric rings centered on the sun.

FORAGE SOURCE

Insect pollination Compared with wind pollination, insect pollination is far less wasteful, since much smaller quantities of pollen are required. And it is possible, through the deployment of a number of clever mechanisms, to greatly increase the likelihood of cross-fertilization (the transfer of genetic material to another, unrelated individual). There are costs, though: showy flowers, scent, and nectar all take a lot of energy to produce, which is perhaps why insect pollination never entirely replaced wind. And there are risks, too, in becoming over-specialized: a plant that relies on a single species of insect for pollination will be in serious trouble if that insect becomes extinct.

Angle from the sun Bees know the precise direction they need to fly to find a source of forage by its angle from the current position of the sun in the sky.

BUILDING

FORAGE SOURCE

Key landmarks Bees memorize a rough layout of terrain, identifying significant features in the landscape to act like navigational beacons.

Catkins of the hazel tree are a good example of the stripped-down flowers of wind-pollinated plants.

Insect-pollinated plants, such as these carnations, have much more showy flowers to attract insects.

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Bees and Your Backyard Beekeeping used to be regarded as a quintessentially rural pastime: picture a few white-painted hives beneath the apple trees of a classic cottage garden, bees foraging all day on the fencerows and wildflower meadows of a patchwork farming landscape. These days, however, you are actually more likely to be successful as a beekeeper in an urban or suburban setting.

Urban shift Over time, and ever more rapidly, farming has shifted away from the varied and small-scale toward ever bigger farms specializing in a single crop. Fencerows were removed to improve efficiency, and “contaminants” of the crop— the very wildflowers that the bees rely on—were driven out by herbicides. Today, much of our landscape is dominated by vast fields of wind-pollinated crops in the form of cereals or pasture for grazing. In such a world, even the bee’s immense talent for finding forage is pushed to the limit. Beekeeping is an increasingly urban pastime, and the reason for this is simple: our gardens. Between 20 and 25 per cent of the average urban area is made up of private yards or public greenspaces. And these areas are often

packed full of flowers, at a higher species density per unit area than any wild habitat. Compare that with the vast expanses of windpollinated cereals in the open countryside, and it is clear where bees will choose to forage. Even those remaining areas of natural habitat in the country have lost many of their native plant species and may be dominated by large stands of plants, frequently nonnatives, whose flowers appear and disappear en masse. As gardeners, by contrast, we like to have color all year round. When the rest of the landscape is becoming devoid of flowers, our gardens are still in bloom and will generally stay that way through September and into October, providing late forage for bees to lay down winter stores.

As ever more land in the country is given over to intensive farming, bees are increasingly turning to gardens in our cities and towns for forage.

BEES AND YOUR BACKYARD

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The backyard advantage Wildlife gardening experts have identified a number of advantages that our yards possess over wild habitats. In order to encourage bees, we need to build on these advantages. PLANT DIVERSITY

FLOWERING SEASON

On average, there are far more species of plant per unit area in a garden than in any naturally occurring plant community. This is because, as gardeners, we cram diversity into a small space and maintain it through management. The natural processes that might, in the wild, allow a few species to take over and dominate, are held in check by our pruning, cutting, and weeding.

This is perhaps the most important advantage from the point of view of the bee. While the flowering season in wild habitats may be limited, in our own gardens we like to see color for as much of the season as possible, and so we plant for succession, from spring bulbs to the last flowers of fall. This provides bees with the essential continuity of food they need in order to build up the stores of honey.

STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY

GARDENER DIVERSITY

Similarly, we like to see a variety of shape and form in the garden, so we plant trees and shrubs, climbers and creepers, herbs and bedding plants. All of these combine to give a range of plant structures bearing flowers at different heights above the ground.

The final advantage is the cumulative effect of diversity between gardens. It is rare for us to garden in exactly the same way as our neighbors. For a bee, unconstrained by property lines, this means an urban area represents a diverse patchwork of foraging opportunities.

Public urban greenspace

Urban bees and their keepers enjoy a number of advantages: a wide range of plants, flowering for a long period, in a largely pesticide-free environment.

So our urban areas provide a vital source of food for bees and other pollinators in a landscape that is becoming increasingly hostile. Not all urban greenspaces are created equal, however. Our private gardens may, for the most part, be oases of color, but many of our parks largely consist of closely mown lawns. That is not to say that grassy greenspace is without merit. But surely not every corner of every park needs to be trimmed to resemble a golf course? The odd corner left to grow wild or planted for bee

forage would add color and interest without bringing about the collapse of civilization. If you would like to advocate for less tidiness and more nectarrich, bee-friendly plantings in your city’s public greenspaces, the Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation publishes a free resource called “PollinatorFriendly Parks: How to Enhance Parks, Gardens, and other Greenspaces for Native Pollinator Insects,” available to download from www.xerces.org/guidelinespollinator-friendly-parks/. continued

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ATTRACTING BEES

Creating a garden for bees

Heleniums are native to the prairies of North America and provide an excellent source of nectar late in the flowering season.

The area in which we can make the greatest difference is in our own backyards. Nearly everyone has access to some growing space, even if it is only a window box or a handful of tubs on a balcony. By making informed choices about what we grow, and maybe by adding a few extra facilities such as water or nest boxes, we can transform our own growing patch into a haven, not just for bees but for all pollinators. A drop in the ocean? Perhaps. But oceans are made up of drops: add together all those thousands of yards, parks, pots, and hanging baskets that make up around a quarter of any urban area, and together we can build a better world for bees. In the following pages you will find a host of projects for creating bee houses and other nesting habitats; a directory of the most bee- (and garden-) friendly plants; and planting plans to suit gardens of all shapes and sizes. Armed with information about which plants are particularly good for bees, and ideas for how to encourage nesting, we hope you will be able to convert whatever growing space you possess into a haven for bees, and thereby help to maximize the enhanced foraging opportunities that backyards can offer over the wider countryside. But first here are a few general points to consider. GO NATIVE?

The cornflower (Centaurea) is an example of a wild flower that used to be a traditional feature of arable land, but is now more common in gardens.

The argument from ecologists has long been that, clearly, native plants are best for native bees. Recent research in Great Britain by the Royal Horticultural Society, however, suggests that this is not entirely the case. They compared three groups of plants commonly grown in gardens: natives (British native species); near-natives (northern hemisphere species, many of them closely related to British natives); and exotics (mainly southern hemisphere species from plant families not found in the UK). Pollinators, it turned out, favored the second group. It seemed that broadening the palette to include a range of plants that were structurally familiar but perhaps represented a wider range of colors, scents, and flowering times, gave insects more food sources to choose from. Species from the southern hemisphere were a little too outré for their tastes.

BEES AND YOUR BACKYARD

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AVOID BAD BREEDING Gardeners have devoted decades to the selective breeding of flowers in order to increase characteristics such as uniformity, disease resistance, flowering season, and range of colors. This practice has resulted in ornamental plants with desirable qualities for gardeners, but little or nothing to offer foraging bees. In many cases, certain other characteristics have inadvertently been bred out along the way, such as scent, nectar production, and even pollen. One favorite mutation among breeders is the so-called “double” or “flore pleno” flower, where multiple concentric whorls of petals are produced, giving a pompom effect. This makes for dramatic flower structures, but the disadvantage is that the stamens and nectaries become inaccessible to bees, lost within a maze of petals. Hence a display of colorful flowers, attractive though it may be, could be as devoid of food for bees as a field of wheat.

Though selectively bred, this Dianthus cultivar still produces nectar and pollen, and retains an open structure.

Bees are unable to penetrate through the whorls of petals on this Dianthus cultivar.

Thistle flowers comprise long, tubular florets; honey bees cannot forage all species because of their short tongues.

The tubular throat of this iris flower is just about wide enough for two bumblebees to gain access.

Pea-like lupine flowers are favored by bumblebees, who use their burly physique to push through the petals.

Honey bees easily find the pollenbearing stamens and nectaries of this open cranesbill flower.

CONSIDER FLOWER STRUCTURE When planting for pollinators, choose flowers with a simple, open structure. The classic “daisy” flower, with its outer ring of petals and stamens in the center, is perhaps the most familiar type. Remember, though, that there are many other “wild” flower types popular with bees. Tubular flowers, such as those of the foxglove and the distinctive flowers of the pea family, may seem to conceal their nectaries, but they are still designed to be accessed by bees. Increasingly, though, you will find that garden centers are providing guidance in the form of pollinator-friendly labeling. The Great Pollinator Project (greatpollinatorproject.org) has helpful plant suggestions.

A WORD ON TONGUE LENGTH Often, the structure of a flower will have evolved to favor a particular type of pollinator: for instance, wide open flowers are easily accessible to honey bees and shorttongued bumblebees; tubular flowers will be visited by long-tongued bumblebees; while the longest tubes can often only be accessed by certain moths. Sometimes, however, a bee will break the rules, chewing through the base of a flower to reach nectaries that would otherwise be out of reach. This is, of course, cheating, since the bee receives a reward from the flower without carrying out its half of the evolutionary bargain to provide a pollination service.

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Bamboo Bee House

YOU WILL NEED

Cut lengths of bamboo canes provide ready-made nest holes for a range of solitary bees and offer a neat way of providing a closed end to each nest hole. They can also easily be removed and replaced after a few years of use.

• Measuring tape and pencil • Section of 4 in- (110 mm-) diameter PVC drain pipe, or similar • Bamboo canes, all of the same width, up to 1 ⁄2 in (10 mm) diameter (see below) • Hand saw • Electric drill • Heavy-duty string or plastic twine • Metal hook, branch, or wall fixture, for hanging

Measure and mark 8 in (200 mm) from one end of the PVC pipe. Cut the pipe to size using a hand saw.

1

Cut the bamboo into pieces 1 ⁄2 – 5 ⁄8 in (10–15 mm) shorter than the length of the PVC pipe, to allow for an overhang. As you cut the pieces, make one of the cuts close to a “node” (the knuckle-like joints found at intervals along bamboo canes) so that each piece has an open and closed end.

2

Mark two points halfway along the section of pipe at roughly the 10 o’clock and 2 o’clock positions when viewing the pipe from its end. Drill holes at both these points.

3

Cut a piece of string about 12 in (300 mm) long. Tie a large knot in one end of the string and thread the free end through one of the holes, from inside to out. Pull it through and insert the free end into the other hole. Tie another large knot in the free end. The string should now form a loop with knots inside the pipe at either end.

4

Insert the bamboo pieces into the pipe, taking care to avoid damaging the knots. The closed ends of the bamboo should all be flush with the same end of the pipe, forming the back of the bee house. Keep adding bamboo pieces until they are packed in tightly and do not move.

5

HOLE SIZES Different hole sizes will attract different species of solitary bees, but they will not nest in holes over 1/2 in (10 mm). Avoid mixing sizes in the same bee house since pests and diseases can jump between different species that cohabit. Hang the bee house on or close to a sunny wall facing south or southeast, at least 3 ft (1 m) off the ground, with no vegetation obscuring the entrance.

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ATTRACTING BEES

Clay Bee House Mimicking natural holes in bare earth, a clay bee house is robust and long-lasting. Use traditional or air-hardening potter’s clay or heavy, clay-rich garden soil, but avoid polymer modeling clay, which contains potentially harmful chemicals.

YOU WILL NEED • Measuring tape and pencil • Lumber in thicknesses of 3 ⁄4 in (20 mm) and 1 ⁄2 in (10 mm) • Hand saw • Electric screwdriver • 8 x 11 ⁄4 -in (30-mm) and 2 x 3/4 -in (20-mm) wood screws • Plastic shopping bag • Potter’s clay or clay-rich soil • Pen or pencil, for making nest holes • 2 x 11 ⁄4 -in (30-mm) screw eyelets • Heavy-duty string or twine • Strong wall hook or branch, for hanging

Measure and cut the thicker wood into 4 pieces 8 x 4 in (200 x 100 mm) in size. Assemble the pieces into a rectangular frame by screwing them together at each corner, using the 11/4-in (30-mm) screws.

1

Cut the thinner wood into a piece 8 x 5 in (200 x 130 mm). Use the 3 ⁄4-in (20-mm) screws to attach this roof piece to a narrow end of the frame, so that it forms an overhang on one side.

2

Make holes in the clay with a pen or pencil no more than 1/2 in (10 mm) in diameter (see p.81). Make as many holes as can easily be accommodated, taking care not to push all the way through. Peel away the plastic bag.

4 Place the wood frame on the plastic bag and pack the frame with clay until the surface is flush with the edge of the frame.

3

CLAY BEE HOUSE

Screw the eyelets into the roof at equal points toward the back of the frame. Cut a piece of string about 12 in (300 mm) long. Tie a large knot in one end of the string and thread the free end through one of the eyelets.

5

83

Pull the string through and insert the free end into the other eyelet. Tie another large knot in the free end to form a loop for hanging the bee house.

6

Hang the bee house on or close to a sunny wall facing south or southeast, at least 3ft (1m) off the ground, with no vegetation obscuring the entrance.

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ATTRACTING BEES

Wood Block Bee House Perhaps the simplest design, a wooden block drilled full of holes makes a great substitute for the natural habitat of a dead tree dotted with insect holes. Avoid lumber that has been treated with preservative.

Measure and cut the block of wood to size and sand down any splinters. Cut two pieces from the lumber, one 61/4 x 43/4 in (160 x 120 mm) and the other 63/4 x 43/4 in (170 x 120 mm).

1

• Measuring tape and pencil • Block of untreated wood, enough for a piece 6 x 6 x 4 in (150 x 150 x 100 mm) • 1 ⁄2-in (10-mm) thick lumber • G-clamp • Hand saw • Sandpaper • Electric drill and drill bit up to 1/2 in (10 mm) in diameter • 4 x 11 ⁄4 in (30 mm) wood screws • 2 x 11 ⁄4 in (30 mm) screw eyelets • Heavy-duty string or plastic twine • Strong wall hook or branch, for hanging

Clamp the block to a work surface and drill a series of holes into one of the square faces, making sure you do not drill all the way through. The holes should all be the same width (see p.81).

2

Using the screws, attach the two pieces of lumber to adjoining edges of the block to form a roof, making sure the overhang is at the drilled end of the block. Screw the eyelets into the center of each roof piece and form a hanging loop with the string, as in steps 5 and 6 on page 83.

3

YOU WILL NEED

Hang the bee house in a sunny position facing south or southeast, at least 3 ft (1 m) off the ground, with no vegetation obscuring the entrance.

SOD BEE BANK

85

Sod Bee Bank This is an excellent project if you are planning to dig up part of your lawn, perhaps to create an area of pollinator plantings or even a wildflower meadow. Rather than simply disposing of the sod, you can use it to build a bee bank with an exposed face of soil, which will form a perfect nesting habitat for mining and digging bees.

YOU WILL NEED • Lengths of cut sod • Spade • Bee-friendly seed mix and/or bee-friendly plants

Choose a sunny spot, ideally facing south or southeast. Stack the sod grass-side down to form a bank with a south-facing slope of roughly 45 degrees. The rear or north-facing bank can be more gently sloping. The exact dimensions of the bank will depend on the amount of sod to be disposed of.

1

After a few months, the sod will settle down and the majority of the grass will have died off. At this stage, take a spade and clean up the southern slope by slicing straight downward to create a face of bare earth.

2

Sow the top and rear of the bank with a bee-friendly seed mix or plant it with bee-friendly flowers.

3

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ATTRACTING BEES

Pallet Bee Hotel This basic design is good for a wide range of insects, but can be tailored to suit bumblebees and solitary bees. Remove the hay every year or two. Otherwise, most materials should last several years, and it may be best to replace the entire structure every, say, five years. Disturbance should generally be avoided.

Stack the wooden pallets one on top of the other, in their final location. Ideally, the hotel should be in a sheltered location with some sunshine on the front face of the hotel for at least part of the day.

1

YOU WILL NEED • Wooden pallets, a minimum of four • House bricks, the kind with rows of central holes • Dry hay or straw • Broken pots or crockery • Intact clay plant pots with single drainage holes • Offcuts of wood or logs • Electric drill • Bamboo canes, cut into sections with open and closed ends • Hand saw • Broken clay roof tiles • Sod or hard-packed soil • Planks and/or intact roof tiles, for the roof

Fill the spaces with a mix of the items listed above: place the bricks with holes facing outward; stack the broken roof tiles and pots; drill holes up to 1/2 in (10 mm) diameter in the wood and logs; cut bundles of bamboo; position clay plant pots with the drainage holes pointing outward; fill in with straw.

2

Top the bee hotel with a roof of sod, planks, tiles, or logs (or a mix) to provide some protection from the rain.

ATTRACTING BEES

88

Plants for Bees With tens of thousands of plants in cultivation, the choice facing the bee-friendly gardener can seem bewildering. If you bear in mind the two key rules—choose simple, open flower structures and plant for the longest possible flowering season—then the bees will be happy and come flocking. Here are some of the best bee plants to inspire you.

Trees HOW TO USE Plants are arranged by type and ordered by flowering season. The panel of symbols indicates which bees will be attracted to the flowers, whether they are good for honey, and whether they are sources of nectar, pollen, or both.

KEY Attractive to honey bees Attractive to solitary bees Attractive to bumblebees

(S)

Short-tongued bumblebees only Top plant for this type of bee Good for honey Not for honey Source of nectar Source of pollen

V

Flowering season

MALUS DOMESTICA / APPLE

PRUNUS AVIUM / SWEET CHERRY

The domesticated apple has been cultivated for thousands of years, and the tendency to plant apple trees together in orchards means that in fruit-growing regions it can make a significant early-season contribution to bee forage.

A Eurasian ancestor of the huge range of cultivated cherries, the sweet cherry is often planted as an ornamental tree. It produces abundant white flowers in spring for early forage, and small red or black fruits in early summer.

V April–May

V April–May

PLANTS FOR BEES

89

(S) AESCULUS SPP. / HORSE CHESTNUT, BUCKEYE

SORBUS AUCUPARIA / MOUNTAIN ASH

European horse chestnut, A. hippocastanum, has long been grown for its showy, early blossoms. North American native alternatives include Ohio buckeye (A. glabra) and yellow buckeye (A. flava).

Mountain ash is a small tree of cool mountainous regions. The small white flowers are held in dense heads, followed by clusters of scarlet berries. While not the best bee tree, it grows well in moist, acidic soil.

V May–June

V April–June

TILIA CORDATA / LITTLE-LEAF LINDEN Lindens are a genus of large woodland trees. The inconspicuous green flowers make up for lack of color by producing so much nectar that on good days it drips like rain. Not a tree to park beneath!

V June–July

CATALPA BIGNONIOIDES / CATALPA, INDIAN BEAN TREE This exotic-looking tree produces huge panicles of showy white flowers dotted with yellow spots, which act as a visual guide, leading bees in toward the abundant nectar resource.

V July–August

EUCRYPHIA SPP. / ULMO The pure species E. cordifolia hails from the temperate rainforests of Chile, where it produces the prized ulmo honey. E. x nymansensis and its cultivar ‘Nymansay’ are hardy enough to grow in the Pacific Northwest.

V July–August

90

ATTRACTING BEES

Shrubs and climbers

SALIX CAPREA / GOAT WILLOW

BERBERIS DARWINII / BARBERRY

Though wind-pollinated, catkin-bearing trees like willow, hazel (Corylus avellana), and alder (Alnus glutinosa) all produce their pollen just when protein is urgently needed by bees for raising new brood after the winter.

A popular plant due to its indestructible nature, B. darwinii can be used in warmer regions to create informal hedges or borders, where its bright yellow-orange flowers add a welcome splash of color and nectar.

V February–May

V April–May

RIBES SANGUINEUM / FLOWERING CURRANT All currants are good bee plants, including those grown primarily for fruit, but for an ornamental garden, choose the flowering currant, which drips with pendant clusters of red flowers in spring.

V April–May

(S) MAHONIA AQUIFOLIUM / OREGON GRAPE Despite the name, Oregon grape is actually a relative of Berberis. A native of the Pacific Northwest, it is deer-resistant and offers tinted foliage in spring and fall, as well as edible blueblack berries that resemble grapes.

V November–April

CEANOTHUS ARBOREUS / CALIFORNIA LILAC

COTONEASTER SPP.

Not hardy in colder climates, California lilac is worth trying in cool-winter areas against a south-facing wall for the stunning display of sky-blue flowers it bears throughout summer.

The cotoneasters are a group of small shrubs in the rose family. Though visually insignificant, their flowers produce surprisingly large quantities of nectar. C. horizontalis has a flat growth habit, making it ideal for growing up a wall.

V April–October

V May–July

PLANTS FOR BEES

ROSA GLAUCA / REDLEAF ROSE

LEPTOSPERMUM SCOPARIUM / MANUKA

BUDDLEJA SPP. / BUTTERFLY BUSH

Manuka has attained almost mythical status for its medicinal properties. The manuka shrub can adapt to gardens in warm regions, but only in its native New Zealand and Australia does it grow in sufficient quantities for a single-species honey.

Buddleja davidii is an adaptable plant that is considered a noxious weed in parts of the US. In gardens, it is known for its popularity with butterflies, though for bees the orange-ball tree, B. globosa, is even better.

V May–July

V May–October

Most rose cultivars are double-flowered and of no interest to pollinators. There are, though, several wild species and a few cultivars with single, open flowers. Of these, R. glauca is most attractive, its pink flowers contrasting with blue-gray foliage.

V June–July

91

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ATTRACTING BEES

SHRUBS AND CLIMBERS CONTINUED LAVANDULA X INTERMEDIA / LAVANDIN Though justifiably famed as a top plant for bees, in recent trials it was found that not all lavenders were equally popular: L. x intermedia (a hybrid of L. angustifolia and L. latifolia) outperformed all other species by a significant margin.

V June–August

ESCALLONIA RUBRA CULTIVARS Evergreen and tolerant of salt winds, Escallonia makes an ideal hedging plant for coastal areas. The tubular red flowers are fragrant and produced over a long season. There are many different cultivars and all are popular with bees.

V June–September

(S) LONICERA PERICLYMENUM / HONEYSUCKLE The slender, tubular flowers of heavenly-scented honeysuckle are only accessible to the longesttongued bumblebees, but other bees will steal nectar by chewing through the base of the tube.

V June–September

CALLUNA VULGARIS / HEATHER

HEDERA HELIX / ENGLISH IVY

Where a landscape is managed as moorland, heather can dominate vast tracts, and it is here that the lucky beekeeper can obtain a crop of heather honey. But even in the garden, heather can provide a valuable late-season nectar flow.

Ivy gets a lot of bad press, but let's be clear: it is not a parasite. Ivy uses trees for support and will only contribute to the demise of an old or sick tree. It is one of the best sources of late-season nectar, at a time when little else is in flower. Bees love it!

V August–September

V September–October

PLANTS FOR BEES

93

Perennials

HELLEBORUS X HYBRIDUS / HELLEBORE Hellebores are among the earliest plants to flower; the Christmas rose (H. niger) may bloom in midwinter in warm regions. H. x hybridus comes into bloom slightly later, but still at a time when few other sources of pollen are available.

V December–March

PRIMULA VULGARIS / PRIMROSE The English primrose, or Prima Rosa (“first flower”), is perhaps not the first but certainly among the earliest to bloom. In warm regions, the pale yellow flowers can provide color and bee forage even in winter.

(S)

V December–May

(S) RANUNCULUS FICARIA / LESSER CELANDINE A member of the buttercups, lesser celandine is one of the first plants to flower in spring, dotting shady areas with a constellation of bright yellow, almost metallic flowers for early-season forage.

V March–April

BERGENIA CORDIFOLIA / ELEPHANT EARS

PULMONARIA SPP. / LUNGWORT

A good foliage plant as well as a source of early pollen, bergenias derive their common name from the large, round leaves that turn a deep mahogany red in the fall. In spring, clusters of pink flowers are produced on nodding spikes.

A member of the borage family, lungwort is a bristly plant of shade and damp soil, prized for its attractive white-spotted leaves. The nodding, tubular flowers are a good early-season source of nectar for hummingbirds as well as bees.

V March–May

V March–May

94

ATTRACTING BEES

PERENNIALS CONTINUED

TARAXACUM OFFICINALE / DANDELION

ERYSIMUM / PERENNIAL WALLFLOWER

The dandelion is one of the most common wild plants—some might call it a weed—but as a bee plant, it is fantastic, flowering almost year-round and supplying both pollen and nectar. Find space for it in your yard if you can!

In a comparative test of garden plants by the University of Sussex, Erysimum ‘Bowles’s Mauve’ came first for its ability to attract a wide range of bees, syrphid flies, and butterflies. The many other wallflower varieties are similarly popular.

V March–October

V April–June

ROSMARINUS OFFICINALIS / ROSEMARY A classic culinary herb from the dry slopes of the Mediterranean, rosemary is more of a small shrub with its woody stems. The needlelike leaves make it very drought-tolerant, and it has a habit of flowering almost year-round in warmer climates.

V April–June

AQUILEGIA SPP. / COLUMBINE, GRANNY’S BONNET The pink-and-yellow native columbine and the related cultivated varieties, which come in a range of colors, are all prolific self-seeders. Avoid the pompom-flowered cultivars.

V May–June

PAPAVER ORIENTALE / ORIENTAL POPPY Similar to the field poppy but on a much larger scale, with bigger, showier flowers from white to deep plum. Pollen production is scaled up to a similar extent, with huge quantities of dark blue pollen available to visiting bees.

V May–July

PLANTS FOR BEES

95

THYMUS SERPYLLUM / CREEPING THYME

GERANIUM PRATENSE / CRANESBILL

NEPETA X FAASSENII / CATMINT

A classic bee plant and culinary herb, thyme forms low-growing mats of aromatic foliage studded with small lilac flowers. Where it dominates open ground in parts of the Mediterranean, thyme can supply enough nectar for an exclusive honey crop.

True geraniums (not to be confused with the related pelargoniums) are generally good bee plants, flowering profusely and, with their large, open flowers, providing an easily accessible source of both nectar and pollen.

Catmint, along with catnip (N. cataria) and the closely related calamint (Calamintha spp.), is an excellent bee plant that flowers for up to five months. Your bees may have to share it with the local cats, who find it equally alluring.

V May–August

V May–September

V May–September

RUBUS FRUTICOSUS / BLACKBERRY

MENTHA SPP. / GARDEN MINT

PAEONIA SPP. AND CULTIVARS / PEONY

A fantastic wildlife plant, providing nectar and pollen, and delicious fruit in the fall. Though the wild plant can be a weed, by growing a thornless, heavy-cropping garden variety, you will gain all the benefits and none of the issues.

Herbs are generally good for bees, and mint is no exception. Several species have hybridized to give the familiar garden varieties—spearmint, peppermint, apple mint, etc.—but they all bear spikes of tiny flowers and are equally popular.

Peonies are among the showiest of garden plants, with their huge, goblet-shaped flowers and centers packed with stamens. These stamens attract bees with abundant pollen, and you will often see several at a time gathering the bounty.

SALVIA SPP. / SAGE

CENTAUREA SPP. / KNAPWEED

Culinary sage, S. officinalis, is the most widely grown, but there are many other fine ornamental species, such as the stunning S. patens, with its intense blue flowers, or S. nemorosa with spires of densely packed purple blooms.

A number of Centaurea species are good for bees, including C. scabiosa (greater knapweed) and C. cyanus (cornflower). The latter is now rare in the wild but is still a popular garden plant, grown as an annual in disturbed soil.

COREOPSIS LANCEOLATA / SAND COREOPSIS

V May–September

V June–August

V May–October

V June–September

V June–July

One of the classic North American prairie species, coreopsis will thrive in most soils, and the long flowering season can be extended further by dead-heading the plants.

V June–September

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ATTRACTING BEES


AGASTACHE FOENICULUM / ANISE HYSSOP A member of the mint family, in recent trials of garden plants anise hyssop scored highest for overall number of flower visitors, attracting numerous bees, syrphid flies, and butterflies.

V June–October

GAILLARDIA X GRANDIFLORA / BLANKET FLOWER The common name probably refers to the brightly patterned blankets made by Native Americans, and it's a fair comparison, especially if the plant is grown in large drifts.

V June–September

TRIFOLIUM REPENS / WHITE CLOVER Not a plant you would choose to buy for the border, but white clover is often present in lawns and should be nurtured. As a legume, it not only fixes nitrogen and enriches the soil, but also acts as one of the best nectar sources you can grow.

V June–September

VERONICASTRUM VIRGINICUM / CULVER’S ROOT A beautiful plant, and not nearly as widely grown as it should be, producing tall, elegant spikes of tiny white flowers that almost bend under the weight of visiting pollinators.

V June–September

HELENIUM CULTIVARS / SNEEZEWEED A North American prairie plant, sneezeweed flowers late in the season, produces abundant nectar from the central cone of tiny florets, and is as popular with butterflies as it is with bees. There are a number of named varieties, all good.

V June–October

PLANTS FOR BEES

97

LINARIA SPP. / TOADFLAX

ECHINOPS RITRO / GLOBE THISTLE

ERYNGIUM SPP. / SEA HOLLY

Purple toadflax (L. purpurea) is a dainty plant with spikes of snapdragon-like flowers popular with bumblebees. Its wild relative, butter-and-eggs (L. vulgaris), has sulfur-yellow flowers. In both cases, nectar is held in a spur below the flower.

With its dense, spherical flower heads and metallic blue sheen to both stems and leaves, the globe thistle has serious impact in the herbaceous border. Add to that the fact that bees love it and you have an all-around winner.

Sea holly flowers are tiny but abundant, packed into oval heads surrounded by spiny bracts. Several species are common in cultivation, such as E. planum and E. giganteum, and most have a metallic silvery sheen to stems and foliage.

V June–October

V July–August

V July–August

EUPATORIUM SPP. / AGRIMONY E. cannabinum (hemp agrimony) is a shaggy wildflower of damp meadows, but those tousled purple heads are made up of countless tiny daisy flowers. The North American E. maculatum, or Joe-Pye weed, is perhaps more attractive.

V July–September

SCABIOSA COLUMBARIA / PINCUSHION FLOWER S. columbaria gets its common name from its pincushion-like flowers, studded with stamens. The pale lilac heads comprise many tiny flowers, giving abundant nectar for bees and butterflies.

V July–August

DAHLIA BISHOP SERIES

LIATRIS SPICATA / BLAZING STAR

Selective breeding has resulted in a bewildering range of double-flowered pompom and cactus varieties of dahlia, most of which are too complex for bees to navigate. Choose instead the open flowers of varieties such as ‘Bishop of Llandaff’.

The tousled purple spikes of this North American prairie plant are perfect dotted among shorter species in a border. As well as attracting a range of bees, it is popular with butterflies and also provides seeds for birds in the fall.

V July–September

V July–September

98

ATTRACTING BEES


LYSIMACHIA SPP. / LOOSESTRIFE

MONARDA SPP. / BEE BALM, BERGAMOT

ORIGANUM VULGARE / OREGANO

A number of loosestrife species are grown in gardens, including L. clethroides with distinctive leaning spikes of white flowers, and L. punctata with upright spikes of yellow flowers. All species provide both nectar and pollen for the bees.

Known as a classic bee plant, the flowers of the common species M. didyma and M. fistulosa are too long for honey bees and are favored by the long-tongued bumblebees. Short-tongued bees cheat by chewing a hole in the base of the flower.

In the wild, marjoram (O. majorana) can provide significant quantities of nectar for beekeepers lucky enough to live close by. The rest of us can grow its cultivated form, oregano, in the garden and enjoy its culinary properties too.

V July–September

V July–September

V July–September

SEDUM SPECTABILE / STONECROP

STACHYS BYZANTINA / LAMB’S-EAR

ASTER SPP. / ASTER

Stonecrop has long been known as one of the go-to plants for bees. Not all are created equal, though, and some strains are more attractive than others. Before choosing, try to observe plants on a sunny day and see how they perform.

As well as being a good source of nectar, lamb’sear has another benefit: it provides nest material for the wool-carder bee (Anthidium manicatum). The females of this species shave hairs from the leaves and stems to line their brood cells.

Asters tend to be prolific flowerers and, planted en masse, can pull in huge numbers of pollinators. Go for open-flowered varieties of A. novae-angliae and A. novi-belgii, avoiding the double-flowered forms, which are too densely packed for bees.

V July–September

V July–Sept

V July–October

PLANTS FOR BEES

ECHINACEA PURPUREA / CONEFLOWER This stunning flower of the American prairies has become an enduring favorite of gardeners. The combination of the orange nectar-bearing florets of the central cone and the purple strapshaped outer florets is particularly striking.

V July–October

PENSTEMON HETEROPHYLLUS / FOOTHILL PENSTEMON The fat, tubular flowers of penstemons, now available in a range of colors from blues to red and white bicolors, are carried in lavish spikes and continue blooming until the first frost.

V July–October

99

SOLIDAGO / GOLDENROD There are a number of goldenrods in cultivation, from the thuggish S. canadensis to the more delicate S. virgaurea. Cultivars like ‘Fireworks’ make better garden plants, with arching spikes of yellow flowers like a frozen explosion.

V July–October

LYTHRUM SPP. / PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE With its dense purple spikes, L. salicaria is a pretty, well-behaved wildflower of river banks and pond edges in Europe, but in North America it is a noxious weed. American gardeners should try instead the less aggressive L. virgatum.

V August–September

RUDBECKIA FULGIDA / BLACK-EYED SUSAN

ANEMONE HUPEHENSIS / JAPANESE ANEMONE

Native to the prairies of eastern North America, a number of varieties of R. fulgida are grown in gardens, of which var. sullivantii ‘Goldsturm’ is a particularly free-flowering form.

Flowering in fall when little else is available, the tall, stately stems of Japanese anemones can be floppy unless supported, but they are worth the effort for the late forage they provide.

V July–October

V August–October

VERBENA BONARIENSIS V. bonariensis is a popular and useful plant for herbaceous borders. The tall, thin stems are almost invisible, so that the heads of purple flowers seem to float, unsupported. Butterflies appreciate this plant as much as bees do.

V July–November

100

ATTRACTING BEES

Biennials

ECHIUM SPP. / VIPER’S BUGLOSS The European E. vulgare and its Mediterranean cousin E. plantagineum are plants of dry, welldrained soil in sunny situations. With dramatic blue and purple flower spikes, both are popular with a range of bees and other pollinators.

V June–July

VERBASCUM SPP. / MULLEIN The flower spikes of V. thapsus (common mullein) are hard to miss, towering up to 61/2 ft (2 m) high and with an abundant store of pollen. There are smaller species suitable for the garden, such as V. chaixii with its furry purple stamens.

V June–August

ANGELICA ARCHANGELICA / ANGELICA

DIGITALIS PURPUREA / FOXGLOVE

A member of the carrot family, the umbrellashaped heads, or umbels, of angelica are made up of hundreds of tiny individual flowers. Together, they form a landing platform enjoyed by bees and syrphid flies in large numbers.

A bumblebee favorite, the foxglove is a biennial that evolved to spring up in glades and clearings where trees have fallen. In the first year it produces a rosette of broad, hairy leaves; in the second, a towering spike of spotted flowers.

V July–August

V June–September

PLANTS FOR BEES

101

Annuals

PAPAVER RHOEAS / FIELD POPPY The classic flower of disturbed soils and an icon of the trenches of World War I, the common poppy is a wonderful source of dark purple pollen. The color forms known as Shirley poppies are just as prolific.

V May–August

BORAGO OFFICINALIS / BORAGE

PHACELIA TANACETIFOLIA / PHACELIA

NIGELLA DAMASCENA / LOVE-IN-A-MIST

One of the classic bee plants, borage flowers abundantly over a long season, during which it will often be smothered in both honey bees and bumblebees. Pale, runny nectar is produced in abundance, and the leaves taste like cucumber.

In recent years, phacelia has come from nowhere to become the go-to plant for bees. A member of the borage family, P. tanacetifolia is a North American native occasionally grown as a green manure crop or as part of nectar seed mixes.

An old cottage garden favorite, the striking blue flowers of love-in-a-mist are surrounded by a tangle of feathery bracts. The inflated, horned seed pod is also attractive. A native of southern Europe, it does well in dry, disturbed soil.

V April–December

V May–September

COREOPSIS TINCTORIA / GOLDEN TICKSEED

NEMOPHILA SPP. / FIVE-SPOT

V April–October

CYNOGLOSSUM SPP. Popular with early bumblebees and the common carder bee, C. amabile (Chinese forget-me-not) and C. officinale (hound’s-tongue) are members of the borage family. A word of caution: their spiny seeds help them spread far and wide.

V June–August

A member of the daisy family from the prairies of North America, golden or Dyer’s tickseed flowers toward the end of summer and is a useful source of both pollen and nectar.

N. maculata (five-spot) and the less showy N. menziesii (baby blue-eyes) are fantastically easy annuals, tolerant of a wide range of soils and conditions. They do well in cooler areas, and although killed by frost, will self-sow freely.

V June–September

V June–October

102

ATTRACTING BEES

ANNUALS CONTINUED

(S) GYPSOPHILA ELEGANS / BABY’S BREATH

IBERIS AMARA / CANDYTUFT

The common name describes the cloud of small white flowers produced in abundance on slender stems. En masse they represent a significant nectar source. Perennial species are also available, but avoid the double-flowered forms.

A relative of cabbage and mustard, candytuft has small, four-petaled flowers in a flattened head that serves as a landing platform for pollinators. Perennial species such as Iberis umbellata are similar but generally larger.

ESCHSCHOLZIA CALIFORNICA / CALIFORNIA POPPY

HELIANTHUS ANNUUS / SUNFLOWER

V July–August

LOBULARIA MARITIMA / SWEET ALYSSUM Another member of the mustard family, sweet alyssum grows as a perennial in its native Mediterranean sand dunes. In gardens, however, it tends to be treated as an annual and makes a good ground cover in dry soil.

V July–August

There is no mistaking the bright, slap-in-theface orange of the California poppy. It produces little nectar, but its dark purple pollen is abundant. Bright yellow and pale ivory forms are available.

V July–September

V July–August

Everyone is familiar with the towering golden blooms of the sunflower. Being members of the daisy family, those nodding “flowers” are actually made up of hundreds of tiny florets, each one producing its share of nectar.

V August–October

PLANTS FOR BEES

103

Bulbs

(S)

(S) ERANTHIS HYEMALIS / WINTER ACONITE

CROCUS TOMMASINIANUS / CROCUS

GALANTHUS NIVALIS / SNOWDROP

One of the earliest plants to flower, the yellow stars of winter aconite appear first, sometimes pushing through snow, and are followed later by more lobed leaves. Where happy, this member of the buttercup family will naturalize readily.

Crocuses are almost essential for the bee garden, providing the vital early-season pollen that bees need to raise brood. There are many suitable types, but C. tommasinianus is one of the best, flowering in late winter and naturalizing freely.

Another near-essential bulb for the bee garden, the snowdrop is used almost exclusively by honey bees and is one of the few sources of pollen available to them as they start to become active again in late winter.

V February–March

SCILLA SIBERICA / SIBERIAN SQUILL A smaller relative of the bluebell (Hyacinthoides), Siberian squill flowers at the end of winter, its striking blue flowers often poking up through snow. Where it is happy, in the dappled shade of trees or in open grass, it will quickly naturalize.

V February–March

ALLIUM SCHOENOPRASUM / CHIVES Most members of the onion family are popular with bees, and chives are no exception. Like its relatives, it bears round heads of flowers on slender tubular stems. For a similar effect on a larger scale, try A. sphaerocephalon or A. christophii.

V June–August

V February–March

V February–March

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Bee Flowers for Pots Even without a patch of soil, you can still provide food for the bees and attract them to your home by planting beefriendly flowers in pots. The only real constraints are the size of your container and how often you are able to water.

How to plant

1

Drill drainage holes in the bottom of your container, if required. Few plants can tolerate sitting in water.

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Cover the drainage hole(s) with pieces of broken plant pots, to prevent them from clogging up with soil.

3

Three-quarters fill the container with peat-free potting mix or screened garden soil. If you like, add fertilizer pellets and/or waterretention beads at this stage. Arrange the plants in their final positions, fill in the gaps with more potting mix, and water in.

CARE TIPS Keep the soil moist by watering regularly. A good soak once or twice a week is more effective than a light sprinkling every day. Smaller containers, particularly in sunny locations, can dry out very quickly and you may need to water them daily in dry spells. Add water-retaining beads to the potting mix when planting, to cut down on the amount of watering required. Consider an automatic irrigation system if you work long hours or for when you go on vacation. Deadhead spent flowers to keep the displays looking good and to encourage the growth of new flowers. Remove annuals and biennials once flowering has finished. If the main perennials are happy and working well, they can be left in place.

PLANT SELECTION Our designs follow a three-stage plan combining a tall, central “feature” plant, surrounded by a tier of midheight plants, and edged with low-growing and/or trailing species. Create your own designs by mixing and matching selections from all three categories, or choose from just two if your space is limited. Mid-height

Feature

Low and trailing

1 Agastache foeniculum / Anise hyssop

4 Nigella damascena / Love-in-a-mist

7 Thymus spp. / Thyme

2 Digitalis purpurea / Foxglove

5 Lobularia maritima / Sweet alyssum

8 Tropaeolum majus / Nasturtium

3 Solidago spp. / Goldenrod

6 Tagetes patula / French marigold

• Echium vulgare / Viper’s bugloss

• Erysimum ‘Bowles’s Mauve’ / Perennial wallflower

• Verbascum spp. / Mullein

9 Limnanthes douglasii / Poached egg plant

• Iberis amara / Candytuft • Linaria purpurea / Purple toadflax • Sedum spectabile / Ice plant

Feature Tall and showy, these should be placed in the center of the pot.

1 2

3 Mid-height

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Choose plants that contrast with the feature plant without competing.

6 7 8 9

Low and trailing These plants soften the edges of the pot and add further interest.

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Bee Border for Veggies Why should bees have all the forage? It’s perfectly possible to grow your own food and feed the bees at the same time. Indeed, many popular edibles, such as peas and beans, onions, and most fruiting plants, provide excellent forage for pollinators. Why not add a little extra buzz to your kitchen garden with a bee-friendly border packed with tasty herbs?

Planting options

Ready-grown mature plants are the best option if you are looking for instant impact and fast results, especially if you don’t have any space for growing seeds under cover. The price, however, will be fairly high.

CARE TIPS

Growing from seeds is the cheapest option, but you will need to allow time for your plants to reach a useful size. Sow individual seeds in trays or cells and plant the seedlings out when they are big enough to handle. The nasturtiums are annuals and best grown from seed sown in situ.

Plug plants are small plants grown in modules and represent a very costeffective way to obtain multiple plants. They can be purchased by the tray from garden centers or ordered online for delivery.

Plant mint still in its pot to control its spread and prevent it from taking over. Pinch out the growing tips of mint, thyme, rosemary, and marjoram to encourage bushy growth. Cut back mint and chives after flowering to encourage new growth. Prune out frost-damaged growth on the rosemary in spring, then shorten any lank stems and trim to neaten after the first flowering in summer. Pull up the nasturtiums and half-hardy marjoram (if growing as an annual) at the end of the season, but remember to shake out the seeds to ensure repeat flowering the following year.

BEE BORDER FOR VEGGIES

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Fruit cropping Attracting bees to the kitchen garden will improve the chances of pollination and successful fruit-set of fruiting plants, such as apples.

Bean feast Bees (particularly bumblebees) love the flowers of peas and beans, and will help produce bumper crops.

4 1 3

6 5

2

PLANT SELECTION This planting plan is designed for the edges of vegetable patches and raised beds, and can be repeated to form a border of the required length. As well as providing bee forage, you will be attracting pollinators to boost your own crop yields and bringing in beneficial insects such as syrphid flies to help control pests.

1 Origanum majorana / Marjoram

4 Mentha spp. / Mint

3 Rosmarinus spp. / Rosemary

6 Thymus spp. / Thyme

5 Allium 2 Tropaeolum schoenoprasum majus / Nasturtium / Chives

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Cottage Garden for Bees The traditional cottage garden is a design classic and always a treat for bees. From a backbone of shrubs and small trees, the planting uses mostly perennial plants arranged according to height, with the tallest at the back and shortest at the front. But throw in a few exceptions to break things up, such as here with the tall-stemmed allium.

How to plant

3

Taller species may require staking. There are a variety of solutions: wire plant supports can be bought from most garden centers, as can bamboo garden canes. Twiggy branches of hazel or birch are cheaper and look more natural; they will gradually become lost in the planting, while still providing support.

1

Use the larger perennial plants to create the structure of the planting, with the largest species toward the back. Plant in clumps wherever possible; odd numbers of three or five plants to a clump seem to work best. Place a few flat stones or slabs at strategic points in the border as you plant, to act as stepping stones for maintenance later in the year.

2

Fill in between the tall perennials with smaller plants and bulbs, again in clumps or drifts of the same species. Don’t worry if there are some bare areas; later in the season, when everything has grown up, the gaps will disappear. If in doubt, sprinkle annual seeds for a quick burst of color in any spaces that remain, but water and firm in the perennials first.

CARE TIPS Most weeds will be excluded if the planting is sufficiently dense, but remove any obvious specimens. Remove dead flowers through the season to encourage further flowering, though it is worth leaving some species with attractive seedheads, such as the allium, to set seed. This adds visual interest in the fall and winter, and also provides a food source for birds. During the winter take out anything you wish to replace. It is also a chance to dig up and divide plants you like to increase your stock. And don’t forget to save seeds!

1 3 2

5

4

PLANT SELECTION Backbone trees and shrubs 6

1 Ceanothus arboreus / California lilac 7

2 Malus domestica / Apple 3 Buddleja globosa / Orange-ball tree

9

Tall plants 8

4 Veronicastrum virginicum / Culver’s root

10

5 Monarda didyma / Bergamot 6 Aster novae-angliae / New England aster

12 11

7 Allium giganteum / Giant onion

13 15

8 Agastache foeniculum / Anise hyssop 16

Mid-height plants 9 Geranium pratense / Meadow cranesbill

14

10 Lavandula x intermedia / Lavandin 11 Eryngium planum / Sea holly 12 Erysimum ‘Bowles’s Mauve’ / Wallflower 13 Rudbeckia fulgida / Orange coneflower • Helleborus x hybridus / Hellebore (spring-flowering)

17

Low-growing plants

18

14 Eschscholzia californica / California poppy 15 Thymus spp. / Thyme 16 Phacelia tanacetifolia / Phacelia 17 Papaver rhoeas / Field poppy 18 Stachys byzantina / Lamb’s ears • Crocus tommasinianus / Early crocus (spring-flowering)

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Woodland edge Create a miniature woodland edge with relatively small, bee-friendly trees, such as Malus domestica, Prunus avium, and Tilia cordata, underplanted with shade-tolerant perennials and biennials, such as Angelica archangelica, Digitalis purpurea, and Linaria vulgaris.

Wildlife Garden for Bees If you have the space and inclination, why not create a wildlife- and bee-friendly garden? You needn’t stick to native species: a wild feel can be achieved with an informal planting of both natives and non-natives. The plan shown here is an idealized wildlife garden with a bit of everything. Pick out the ideas that work for you and apply them to your space.

Lawn for wildlife Leave an edge of the lawn unmown for most of the year, or allow the entire lawn to grow and mow paths through it. Long grass offers shelter and nesting habitats for insects, including bumblebees. Nectar-rich wildflowers, such as dandelions in spring and clover in summer, will also have an opportunity to bloom. Cut with a string trimmer or shears once or twice a year after the wildflowers have set seed.

Rooms for bees

Compost bins

Encourage a range of solitary bees and bumblebees to nest in your yard by building a bee hotel and bee houses (see pp.80–87).

Bumper crops A wildlife-rich environment provides natural pest control for crops, and insect pollination will help improve yields.

WILDLIFE GARDEN FOR BEES Bee bank Soil from digging a pond and sod left over from creating a wildflower meadow can be used to form a bee bank (see p.85 for instructions). Sow the top with beefriendly annuals or sun-loving herbs like thyme.

Water Bees need to drink, as do a whole range of other garden visitors. Provide a source of drinking water—if you have the space, a pond is the single most effective way of attracting wildlife into your garden. Keep it stocked with aquatic plants: bees will drink from mats of floating vegetation but will avoid open water.

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Native hedge Choose a range of native flowering shrubs to create a dense, intruder-proof hedge that is also a good source of early nectar. The right species will provide fruit for birds later in the year. Plants could include Sambucus canadensis, Viburnum trilobum, and Amelanchier species.

Meadow Choose a wildflower meadow or prairie seed mix containing grasses and sow into weed-free bare soil. Give the meadow a single cut in late summer, after the flowers have set seed. Remove the cuttings to avoid enriching the soil.

Seed-sown flower beds A good pollinator seed mix will contain up to 40 species of beefriendly flowers. Turn the soil in early spring, remove any weeds that come up, and sow the seed mix in mid-spring. After the first frost, pull the dead stems, shake out the seeds, and dig or rake in.

Caring for Bees

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CARING FOR BEES

Get Into Beekeeping The first steps taken on the path to becoming a beekeeper can feel both exciting and daunting. As a beginner, you may decide to join your local beekeeping association and sign up for an introductory course. Yet no matter how many books you read or websites you visit, nothing quite prepares you for the moment when you first open up a hive and come face to face with tens of thousands of buzzing insects.

Taking the plunge There’s more to keeping bees than putting on a suit and veil. A significant amount of work and commitment is required to make a success of it, but in the process you will discover more about the amazing, fascinating honey bee than you could ever imagine. For those who take the plunge, beekeeping can be the start of an absorbing, rewarding, lifelong pastime. The entire body of knowledge you will need to keep bees cannot be contained within one chapter of a single book; even after a lifetime of studying bees, there would still be more to learn. In this chapter, we hope to open a window into the world of the beekeeper and provide you with the confidence and information you need to start keeping bees.

BEEKEEPING PHILOSOPHIES A familiar saying among us apiarists is: “Ask three beekeepers a question and you’ll get three different answers.” There are many different approaches to keeping bees, and everyone has their own opinions about different aspects: what type of hive or frames to use; whether or not to feed the bees; how and when to change the comb; what treatments to use for pests and diseases. What is most important to keep in mind, however, is that the beekeeping community is a welcoming and generous group of people who will be more than willing to share their knowledge and experience.

There are many different roads to follow in beekeeping. Bee farmers keep hives as a commercial enterprise by managing healthy stocks of honey bees to bring the benefit of pollination to crops and to sell products such as honey and wax. Hobbyist beekeepers usually keep hives for the joy of keeping bees, to be part of an ever-growing, friendly community, and to raise awareness of the importance of the honey bee and other pollinators, with the possibility of a honey harvest being a bonus. Many hobbyists enjoy learning the traditional methods of the craft, others prefer a natural approach with minimal interference, and some find themselves somewhere in between.

GET INTO BEEKEEPING

JOIN A LOCAL ASSOCIATION

A local apiary can offer a place to keep a hive and to learn about bees in a supportive environment.

If you’re interested in starting beekeeping, before you do anything, get in touch with your local beekeeping association, who will undoubtedly offer you a warm welcome. You will most likely be invited to the apiary to speak to the beekeepers and, if the weather permits, be able to borrow a bee suit to look inside a hive. Another advantage of connecting with a group of local beekeepers is that they will be able to give you invaluable advice on how best to obtain a first colony of bees, where to buy hives and equipment, and the ideal apiary locations and forage in your area. Your local associations will usually have a website, newsletter, and regular meetings to keep its members informed and up to date on news about bees and best practices. Beekeeping is a very

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sociable hobby and you may discover a busy calendar of events that run throughout the year, from weekend workshops and talks, to honey shows and summer barbecues. Associations normally provide membership or affiliation to a national beekeepers’ organization, which should also provide hive insurance against various liabilities such as bee diseases, theft, or damage. As a member you might also get practical help, including the loan of equipment, such as a honey extractor, and support in taking assessments and exams, should you wish to take your training further.

GET A BEE MENTOR A local association often offers a mentoring system to new beekeepers in their first year. The importance of having

BEES AND SEASONAL AWARENESS Beekeeping will change the way you think about nature and wildlife. The changing seasons take on a new significance when you observe what’s flowering in parks and gardens and think of it as forage for the bees, and when you attend carefully to the weather forecast each week in order to plan your beekeeping activities.

Beekeepers are generous in sharing their knowledge and experience: more valuable than any book!

Flocks of migrating birds and huge garden spiders dangling in their webs are signs in nature that the honey bee colony will be preparing for winter. Foragers return to the hive with the last of the season’s nectar and pollen; propolis is used to fill in gaps for insulation; the queen lays fewer and fewer eggs; and the male drones are thrown out of the colony, their usefulness at an end. On cold and windy winter days, beekeepers will hope that the hive stands firm. When it snows, they will visit to make sure the hive entrance is kept clear. When snowdrops and crocuses start to appear in early spring, beekeepers eagerly wait to see the first foragers flying back to the hive with pollen baskets clinging to their hind legs. As the weather gets warmer, they will look at the daffodils, the blossoming trees, and the birds building their nests with thoughts of “comb change” on their minds…

Beekeeping is a sociable hobby that brings together people of different backgrounds and skill levels.

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STINGS With care and good-natured bees, stings can usually be avoided, but if you are unsure how your body might react to bee stings, ask your doctor for advice. Reactions can range from mild irritation to anaphylactic shock, which can be life-threatening. You must be prepared for every eventuality.

a bee mentor cannot be underestimated: you will learn a huge amount from their firsthand experience of keeping bees and the years of wisdom they have to impart. When you open up a hive in summer to find twelve or more queen cells on the top, middle, and bottom of the frames, you’ll appreciate having a bee mentor to help you decide whether the bees are planning to swarm or supersede the queen.

TAKE A BEGINNER’S COURSE Enrolling in an introductory course with your local association is a fun and easy way to learn about bees and beekeeping. There is a lot to understand in your first year, and an instructor will guide you through what you need to know in a friendly and supportive environment. At the end of the theory classes, there are usually practical sessions where you will have the opportunity to put into practice all you’ve learned under the supervision of more experienced beekeepers. Often, beginners pair up on a course to cooperate in taking care of a hive in their first year. This can be helpful in splitting start-up costs and sharing the inevitable ups and downs involved in keeping bees. It also means that if you can’t visit the hive one week, your partner should be able to cover for you.

TIME AND COST COMMITMENTS The average time spent keeping bees in spring and summer depends on several factors, including the weather, the size of colonies, and the situation you find when each hive is opened. A regular inspection of a single hive shouldn’t take longer than ten minutes. If you need to carry out a specific procedure, such as an artificial swarm, then you may spend longer, perhaps 30 minutes. And if you need to construct extra equipment, such as frames to fill a super, then you may end up spending half a day or longer. Beekeeping is a seasonal commitment. Going on vacation between March and August may mean returning to find your bees have swarmed. If you are away for two weeks, you will need to prepare: give colonies more space to delay the urge to swarm, and ask another keeper to check on them while you’re away. Beekeeping can be an expensive hobby. The initial outlay for a colony of bees with a hive and all the equipment you’ll need for the first year could be substantial. However, there are ways to reduce the costs in subsequent years by cleaning and reusing hive equipment, and watching for seasonal sales from beekeeping suppliers. If you’re lucky, you might be able to sell enough honey and wax products to cover the yearly outlay.

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BEEKEEPING WEBSITES There are many useful online resources providing guidance on how to keep bees happy and healthy: USDA Bee Research Laboratory http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main. htm?modecode=80-42-05-40 American Beekeeping Federation http://www.abfnet.org Eastern Apicultural Society http://www.easternapiculture.org/links/ beekeeping-organizations.html California State Beekeepers Association http://www.californiastatebeekeepers.com/index.html Backyard Beekeepers Association http://backyardbeekeepers.com/wp/byba-bee-yard Working with a mentor can often help you get to grips with the basics in your first year.

LEGAL RESPONSIBILITIES A colony of honey bees is food-producing livestock for which you have certain legal responsibilities. Some pests and diseases are reportable, which means that they must be reported to your local bee inspector. You’ll need to learn to recognize the signs and symptoms of different bee diseases, and be aware of when to notify an inspector if you have a suspected case (see pp.144–7). You need to know how to administer hive treatments without contaminating honey stores that may be sold as food products. You will also be expected to keep a record of any treatments that are given to the hive. The preparation and selling of honey falls under food regulations of which you need to be aware (see pp.174–7).

A honey harvest is a delicious treat from the bees to share with family and friends.

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Understanding the Hive The modern beehive has developed over centuries from traditional mud or clay hives and straw skeps into wooden, plastic, or polystyrene boxes with movable frames and parts that allow easy access to inspect and care for the colony.

Different hive designs The principal differences between hives are the sizes of the boxes and frames, and it is important to know your hive type so that you can choose the correct size and number of frames required for the brood boxes and supers. Shown here are a few of the most popular designs.

WBC Double-walled hive taking the initials of its inventor, William B. Carr. Offers good weather protection, but outer boxes can impede access to inner boxes.

Polystyrene Cheaper to buy than traditional wooden hives and easier to lift, though generally considered less attractive. Also thought to provide greater insulation for the colony.

B ee

s s h o ul d t h r

ive

in

m os t hi

ve t y p es

Langstroth Single-walled hive of square design, named after its inventor, Reverend Langstroth. Boxes hold 10 or 11 frames using top or bottom bee space. Popular in the US.

National A popular hive in the UK, made up of simple, single-walled square boxes, usually constructed from cedarwood. Boxes and frames vary in size, so check before you buy.

UNDERSTANDING THE HIVE

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Anatomy of a hive BEE SPACE

Whichever hive you choose, it is best to select one type for all colonies. This will allow you to share frames and other parts more easily between hives—for example, when transferring a frame of brood from one colony to another or when uniting colonies. Always make sure that hive parts are not shared between a diseased colony and a healthy one.

Bee space is a 1/4 – 3/8 -in (6–9-mm) gap between frames in the hive, around the walls, and above and below the frames. The gap gives worker bees enough space to pass each other, back-to-back, on opposite sides of the comb. Worker bees will fill up any gaps of more than 3 /8 in (9 mm) with brace comb.

KEY TO HIVE PARTS This quick guide is applicable to most standard hive designs. 1 Outer cover—bee-tight, ventilated area with a galvanized metal top for weatherproofing. 2 Inner cover—includes two holes to fit bee escapes, which are used for clearing bees before honey extraction, or to place above feed such as a container of syrup. 3 Supers—boxes for housing honey stores clear of the brood body, usually holding 10 frames with selfspacing runners or spacers to use with the frames. 4 Queen excluder—placed between the brood body and the super boxes to prevent the queen from laying eggs in the honeycomb. Stainless steel excluders tend to get less firmly stuck down than plastic ones.

1

2

3

4

5 Brood box—deeper than a super box and usually holding 11 frames with dummy board. Where the queen lays her eggs, young are raised, and initial stores of pollen and honey are laid down. 6 Bottom board—usually of an open mesh design that provides ventilation and allows varroa mites, and other hive debris, to fall through. Often comes with varroa monitoring boards.

5

7 Entrance reducer—narrows the size of the hive opening so that it is easier to defend against robbing insects, such as other bees and wasps. Usually placed on the hive from late summer until early or mid-spring, when colonies have built up in strength after winter.

6

8 Stand—optional but recommended so that the hive is raised slightly above ground to protect the colony from pests like ants.

8

7

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Siting a hive Before choosing a site to keep your bees, talk to the neighbors and make sure they are happy to have a hive nearby. Also consider whether there is plenty of local forage and a source of water. Make sure the area is secure from thieves or vandals and has barriers against people walking too close, or intrusion by other animals such as horses and cattle. The site should provide some shade but plenty of sunlight. APIARY Your local beekeeping association may provide apiary space for beginners. This is the ideal location, because you can keep your hive alongside a community of beekeepers who will be able to advise you during the first year.

COMMUNITY GARDEN Community gardens are also good places to keep a hive, provided that the site is secure and everyone is in agreement. The bees will provide a great service in the pollination of crops and flowers. YARD While you could keep a hive carefully secluded in your backyard and hope no one notices, it is more sensible to consult your neighbors first. Talk to them about the benefits of local pollinators and suggest that they are welcome to visit and learn about the bees. Explain that bees may occasionally drink from ponds, drains, and bird baths, or spot laundry when they defecate during a cleansing flight. Find out whether any of your neighbors are allergic to stings. Place hives with the entrance facing away from houses and any areas of human activity. Barriers around the hive, such as a fence or hedge, will encourage bees to fly up and avoid bumping into humans when they leave the hive. Above all, try to keep good-tempered bees and prevent swarming.

Maintenance Whichever hive you choose to buy, it will need regular maintenance, from sterilizing the parts once a year after a comb change to repairing gaps in the wood that might allow drafts or robbers and pests to enter. Remember that a hive is a honey bee colony’s home, and they may move out if they are not happy living there.

NUCLEUS HIVE: A USEFUL PIECE OF EQUIPMENT A nucleus hive (“nuc”) is a smaller, five-framed version of a regular hive. As a beginner, you might start with a nucleus hive if your first colony has been split off as a result of another beekeeper’s swarm management, or collected from a natural swarm. If you start from a nucleus, a healthy colony will rapidly expand and should be transferred to a full-size hive once it has filled the frames in the nuc (see pp.128–9). A nucleus hive is useful to have on hand for swarm management or to transfer colonies too small and weak for a full-size hive, perhaps after overwintering or due to failed queens, disease, or other circumstances. Ideally, a beekeeper would aim to have a nucleus hive ready and waiting for each full-size hive in the apiary, though this can be costly. Often beekeepers improvise if a nuc is lacking by reducing nest size in a full-size hive using dummy boards.

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Tools and Equipment

5

Apart from protective clothing, the two essential tools a beekeeper needs for a basic inspection of the colony are a smoker and a hive tool. As the season progresses, you may need more items for specific tasks, such as a queen cage and marking tools.

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6 3 12

7

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9

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TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

YOUR BASIC KIT

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1 All-in-one bee suit – the best choice for a beginner; as you gain confidence, you may be happy in just a jacket and veil.

14

2 and 3 Gloves – gauntlets offer good protection but must be washed regularly; disposables are more hygienic and allow greater dexterity, but offer less protection.

19 17

13 18 20 21

4 Smoker – used to calm and control the colony during an inspection. 5 and 6 Matches and fuel – paper, wood shavings, pine needles, twigs, and straw all provide suitable fuel for a smoker. 7 to 10 Hygiene equipment – keep a bucket of soda water with a brush and cloth for cleaning tools between hive inspections. 11 Hive tool – used to pry apart frames, lever boxes, and scrape wax and propolis. 12 Mouse guard – pinned to the entrance of the hive in winter to protect against mice.

22

13 Bee brush – can be useful for gently coaxing bees off frames or back into boxes.

23

14 Thumb tacks – to mark queen cells, brood, and honey frames during inspection. 15 Queen cage – for trapping the queen, if you need to mark or move her.

24

16 Escape boards – for clearing bees from supers before harvesting honey. 17 Decapping fork – for honey extraction, but can also be used to check drone cells. 18 Tweezers – useful for inspecting the health of larvae on the comb. 19 to 21 Feeder, sugar syrup and fondant block – to supplement food stores in winter and at times of limited forage. 22 and 23 Super and brood frames – can be bought in kits or preconstructed. 24 Dummy board – used in place of a frame to create space when inspecting.

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Assembling Frames

TYPES OF FRAME

Frames are needed almost constantly during the main bee season. From brood frames for comb change and artificial swarms to super frames for honey production, a beekeeper is almost never without a hammer and nails in their tool box.

Brood frames are longer than supers and are used in the brood box for the bees to build their nest of larvae and stores. Super frames are shorter and used only in super boxes. Super frames can be used without foundation or with starter strips to produce cut comb honey. Depending on the hive type you use, such as Langstroth or National, you will need to buy the correct size of frame. A frame for a National hive is shown here.

Bottom bars

Selfassembly frame pieces Hive tool or utility knife

Wax foundation May need to be trimmed slightly with a utility knife to fit in the frame

Side bars

Frames are also available readyconstructed

Top bar

For splitting, trimming, and tidying up any rough edges

3

⁄4 in (19 mm) frame nails or upholstery tacks You can also use wood glue with the nails for extra strength

Hammer

ASSEMBLING FRAMES

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How to construct a frame

2

Attach the side bars to the top bar by wedging the upper grooves into the corresponding grooves on the top bar, using a hammer if needed.

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1

Remove the wedge from the top bar using a hive tool or knife. Don’t throw it away—you will need it later.

4

Insert a sheet of wax foundation between the bottom bars and slide it down the side bars. Bend the wire loops so the foundation rests on the top bar.

5

Return the wedge to the top bar to trap the wire loops. Using three nails, nail through the wedge and each wire loop at an angle.

6

Position the bottom bars into the lower grooves of the side bars.

Nail the bottom bars to the side bars at either end, and attach the side bars to the top bar with a nail on each side. Tidy up rough edges and splinters.

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Obtaining a Bee Colony One of the first questions a beginner will ask is, “Where do I get my bees from?” There are several options: you might buy from a beekeeping supplier; at an auction; from an apiary neighbor; or from a local association’s swarm collection list. BEEKEEPING ASSOCIATIONS The perfect honey bees will be goodnatured and hard-working, disinclined to swarm often, and less prone to pests and diseases. Such traits are not easy to come by and even less easy for the beginner to recognize. While you may feel impatient to get your own colony, it is a good idea to enroll in a mentoring program first so that you can gain experience of handling bees and learn to recognize desirable traits and temperaments. If you are lucky, you may be able to obtain a colony from a beekeeper in your local association who has produced an artificial swarm they are willing to sell. The advantage of buying from within your association is that you’re more likely to be made aware of the temperament, health, and traits of the colony you’re getting. It is often best to choose gentle bees when starting out. Some think a gentle colony produces less honey, but this is not always the case, and it is easier to learn with good-natured bees.

STAY LOCAL Locally raised colonies are usually best suited to the area and acclimatized to the seasons, often overwintering well and building up strongly in spring. Once you have obtained your bees, try to let the colony breed its own new queens rather than importing and replacing the queen each year.

Associations may put beginners on a “swarm list” so that they have a chance to obtain either a natural swarm collected locally or an artificial swarm produced by other beekeepers, often in return for a donation. A disadvantage in obtaining a colony collected from a natural swarm is that you may be less certain of its health and temper.

WEBSITES AND AUCTIONS You can also look for advertisements in beekeeping magazines or offers on supplier websites. Be sure to check with other beekeepers whether these are considered reputable sources. Look for annual sales and auctions by beekeeping associations and suppliers. These are an opportunity to meet other beekeepers, pick up hives and equipment at often bargain prices, and even buy a colony of bees if you are ready to do so. Make sure the event is reputable by asking neighboring beekeepers which auctions or markets they recommend. Prospective bidders should be shown colonies for sale by an experienced beekeeper, who will examine the brood nests and give his judgment of the temperament, vigor, and health of each colony. Check that the bees have been raised locally, which will make them more suitable for your area. Another consideration is transportation. If you plan to buy a colony and take it with you the same day, make sure you are equipped to put a box of bees in the back of your car and drive it safely to your hive site.

Getting your first queen and bees is exciting, but talk to the beekeeper about the colony’s health and temperament before deciding to buy.

You can get on a swarm list to obtain a colony from a swarm collection, but your ability to choose the traits and temperament of the bees may be limited.

Colonies for sale at a bee auction are kept at a safe distance from the other lots. Bidders will be invited for closer inspection in the company of a beekeeper.

An expert beekeeper from the association organizing the auction will describe the health of each colony, often in the presence of an official bee inspector.

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Starting from a Nuc

INITIAL CARE

Beginners often obtain their first colony in the form of a small “nucleus,” consisting of a queen with several frames of workers and brood. “Nuc” colonies can be purchased or are often donated if a colony has been split or a swarm collected. However it is obtained, a nuc colony must be transferred to a full hive.

Keep hive records from day one of transfer.

1

Build the new hive starting with a stand above the ground and bottom board. Place a queen excluder above the bottom board for the first week to prevent the queen from absconding. Then add the brood box with frames and inner and outer covers.

Feed the new colony sugar syrup in 2:1 dilution, unless there is a strong nectar flow and continuous good weather. Stop feeding when all brood frames have drawn comb on both sides. Inspect weekly to make sure the queen is laying sufficient brood and that the nest is building up strongly, and to check the health and temperament of the bees in their new home. Remove the queen excluder after a week, when the queen has started laying new brood, and place above the brood box.

2

Open up the nucleus and go through the frames to find the queen. When you spot her, cage her on the frame so you know where she is.

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A GENTLE STROLL If you’re concerned about shaking bees out of the nuc box, prop it against the entrance of the hive and the remaining bees should simply walk into the new hive. This should take 30–60 minutes and is gentler than shaking the bees in.

3

Take out the same number of frames from the middle of the brood box as are in the nuc. Transfer the frame with the queen and release her from the cage. Insert the remaining frames, placing them in the same order as they were in the nuc.

4

Gently shake any bees left on the nuc inner cover or in the box on to the frames. Close up any spaces with frames; or you could use dummy boards to provide more insulation for the small colony, moving them outwards as the nest builds up.

5

Smoke the bees and encourage them by hand to go down into the brood box so that none of them get squashed as you position the inner and outer covers to close up the hive.

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Opening Up a Hive Whether carrying out an inspection or a specific procedure, to minimize the stress for the bees, a hive should never be open too long. Planning what you’re going to do and having the right equipment ready is vital.

HIVE PERSONALITIES A colony’s temperament will vary from hive to hive, depending on the queen, with some naturally more feisty than others. As you gain experience, you will recognize what is normal behavior and when a colony’s mood is changing.

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Time it right In general, the ideal time to open up a hive is on a warm, still, sunny day, between 10am and 3pm, when most of the forager bees will be out flying and the household bees will often be too busy working to even notice you are there. Always check the weather forecast before you get started. It is generally better to avoid inspections in cold, windy, or wet weather, since the bees may be bad-tempered and you could do harm to the colony.

If the trees are bowing in the wind, imagine how that wind must feel to a worker bee clinging to the comb as it is lifted from the brood nest. There are times when you may decide to open a hive in cold conditions, such as for winter treatments for varroa or carrying out a spring comb change. You need to be confident that the colony is robust enough to cope, or that the risk of not carrying out a procedure is greater than the risk of chilling the bees.

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Put on protective clothing, which could include a beesuit, veil, gloves, and boots, a good distance away, before you approach the hive. Make sure no bees have gotten into the clothing and the fastenings are secure.

o f a s mo ker

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Get your smoker going. Fill the chamber with fuel such as wood chips, pine needles, or paper. Carefully set the fuel alight with matches or a lighter.

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WHY USE SMOKE? Smoking a colony doesn’t so much calm the bees down as distract them in two different ways. First, it leads them to believe there is a risk of fire and, because honey bees evolved as forest creatures, they will instinctively eat to fill their stomachs with honey in readiness to abandon their home. This feeding makes their abdomens stiffer and less able to bend and sting. Second, the smoke helps disguise the smell of alarm pheromones given off by guard bees when the hive is opened, and as a result no immediate collective defense is raised against the intruder.

3

Shut the lid of the smoker and give it a few puffs to be sure the fuel is smoldering properly. When using the smoker, do not point the nozzle downward into the hive, since this will blow in harmful hot air and smoke ash.

4

Clean tools before inspecting by scrubbing with soda water and drying with a clean cloth, to help prevent the spread of disease and parasites. Gloves should also be kept clean, or replace disposable gloves for each inspection.

5

Apply a couple of puffs outside the entrance and wait a moment for it to take effect. For more docile colonies, this may be all the smoking required.

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7

Remove the outer and inner covers, lifting the parts slowly and placing them upside down on the ground or on a stand next to you. Remember that the hive is the colony’s home and it is important to handle hive parts with care.

6

Stand at the back of the hive on the opposite side from the hive entrance, to avoid blocking the flight path. Do not lean your whole body over the hive, which can make the bees more defensive, but slightly bend at your waist and reach over with your arms. Give yourself enough space to work freely.

8

Remove the supers, if present, and rest them on the pile of hive parts or some other raised surface. This is a hygiene precaution to prevent the super frames from getting dirty or infested with other insects, such as ants.

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9

Carefully stack the hive parts as you remove them. Place the queen excluder with its underside up to avoid squashing any bees, and always check for the presence of the queen: she might be in an unexpected place, and you want to avoid removing her unintentionally.

10

Use your hive tool to pry apart the sections of the hive if you find that they are stuck together with propolis. This is a substance made from tree resin that bees use to fill gaps.

11

Apply a little smoke across the tops of the frames once you get to the brood nest, if you think it is needed. Avoid over-smoking, since this can start to irritate the workers.

OPENING UP A HIVE

12

Make space in the brood box to move frames around freely and easily. Many beekeepers use a dummy board: a frame made entirely of wood that is removed at the start of an inspection to create a gap. The first frame behind the dummy board is also sometimes removed.

13

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Hold the lugs of a frame with both hands and lift it up, being careful not to bump it against the sides of the brood box or roll it against adjacent frames, which could injure or crush bees. Gentle handling means the bees are less likely to react defensively.

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14

To examine the comb tilt the bottom of the frame slightly upward. When you are finished on one side, tilt the frame so that the top bar is vertical and turn it slowly around to check the other side. Don’t flip the frame upside down—this can damage the larvae in the cells.

OPENING UP A HIVE

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16

Encourage the bees back down as you replace each section. Gently nudge them with your fingers or use a soft-bristled bee brush, combined with a little smoke, if required. Clean the brush regularly in soda water.

15

After examining a frame, place it back in the brood box in the exact same position to maintain the nest structure.

USING COVER CLOTHS

17

Extinguish the smoker once you are finished by stuffing the nozzle with leaves. Clean all tools, equipment, and gloves in soda water.

From the moment you open up a hive, the colony begins to lose valuable heat. Worker bees aim to keep the brood nest at an optimal temperature of 90–95°F (32–35°C) for rearing brood. Heat escapes quickly from a hive and as well as making the bees cold, it can make them irritable. Draping a cover cloth over the brood box as you inspect frames helps to reduce heat loss, protects against sunlight (a hive is normally almost completely dark), and provides shelter from wind and rain. With a cover cloth, it should be possible to expose only a few frames at a time. Remove the cloth gently and check for stragglers underneath. Use a different cover cloth for each new hive to minimize the risk of spreading disease, and clean the cloths after each inspection in a washing machine or by leaving them to soak in a bucket of soda water.

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Inspecting the Hive Observing the secret life of the honey bee inside the hive is one of the most exciting aspects of beekeeping. There is more to do in a colony inspection than admire the residents, however, and there are many reasons why a beekeeper regularly opens up the hive.

What to look for season by season Throughout the year, the beekeeper should be continually aware of the colony’s need for stores and of the importance of monitoring for pests and diseases. Always keep in mind that the situation within the hive can change very quickly. Early spring Weekly inspections begin, to check that the brood nest is building up well after winter. Is the queen laying enough eggs for new brood and are the workers bringing home enough stores? Mid-spring to late summer Weekly checks focus largely on the queen and queen cells. Does the queen have enough space to lay eggs? Is the colony planning to swarm? Are the workers trying to replace the queen? Mid- to late summer Have the weather and nectar flow allowed the colony to make enough honey to sustain its activities? Are there honey stores to see the colony through winter? Will you get a honey harvest too? Late summer to fall Preparations for winter begin. Do you need to feed the colony to build its stores for winter? Is there a risk of robbers and pests? Should you treat for disease? Late fall and winter During cold weather, weekly inspections are replaced by checks around the hive once or twice a month.

BEES AT THE DOOR Spend a minute or two observing the hive entrance for bees flying in and out. Workers bringing home pollen are usually a sign that the colony is queen-right, because pollen is needed to feed the brood she is laying.

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Finding the queen At each inspection you should verify that the queen is present. Some queens are very good at hiding, and if you cannot locate her you can still check for signs. For example, if the bees are calm and working methodically, it is likely the queen’s pheromones are maintaining cohesion and order in the colony.

The queen is the largest bee, with a longer abdomen, and is often surrounded by an “entourage” of workers.

1

Eggs in cells are a sign that the queen has been present in the last three days, even if you cannot find her, because it takes three days for honey bee eggs to hatch into larvae.

2

Beginners often mistake drone bees for the queen, because they have fatter abdomens and are slightly larger than workers. Drones are easily distinguished by their huge “bug” eyes.

3

A queen cage is a good way to trap the queen if you need to keep her in one place. Some beekeepers can hold her around the middle with index finger and thumb; never hold her by the leg.

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QUEEN-MARKING COLORS Internationally recognized colors are used to mark the queen and keep a record of her age. A marked queen is also easier to spot. Year ending

4

Mark a new queen on her thorax to identify the year she emerged, using a special bee-marking pen or a kit with numbered disks that can be glued on.

Color

1 or 6

White

2 or 7

Yellow

3 or 8

Red

4 or 9

Green

5 or 0

Blue

Examining the frames As you pick up each frame, you are looking for various signs that will help you assess the health and strength of the colony: the amount and pattern of brood; food stores; the health of larvae and adult bees.

1

Look at the brood cappings: the vast majority should be flat-capped for female worker cells, with only a small proportion domed for male drone cells. Count how many frames have brood and how many are filled with bees to record how rapidly the colony is building up each week.

2

Healthy cappings should be biscuit-colored and evenly patterned across the comb. Sunken or torn cappings could be a sign of disease. Patchy brood with a “pepper shaker” pattern to the cappings could be another sign of disease or could indicate a poorly laying queen.

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A new bee hatching is mesmerizing to watch. The workers are less impressed, trampling over the new bee’s head.

CARING FOR BEES

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3

Stores of honey and pollen should be visible around the edges of a brood frame. If there are insufficient stores, you may need to feed the colony with sugar syrup to avoid any risk of starvation. If you have supers above the brood box, check the frames to see how well the bees are filling up the combs with honey (see pp.148–9).

4

Check for unhealthy larvae, which may be discolored, twisted, or distended. Remove them with tweezers for further assessment (see pp.144–7).

TIDY UP While inspecting, use the hive tool to remove brace comb wax and propolis from the top bars of frames, the queen excluder, dummy board, and inner cover. This helps hive parts fit together and close more securely. You can use brace comb scrapings to make candles and furniture polish.

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Do the bees themselves look healthy or are there abnormalities present? A bee with shriveled wings may be a sign of deformed wing virus (DWV), which in turn could indicate a varroa mite problem.

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INSPECTION CHECKLIST It can be helpful to keep a checklist in a plastic sleeve under the outer cover of a hive as a reminder of what to look for during an inspection. Keep your hive records up to date; they will also help to guide your checks from one week to the next.

6

Varroa mites usually breed and hide away beneath the larvae and capped brood. Spotting a red mite on an adult worker may suggest a more serious infestation.

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Brood box What is the temper of the colony? Is the queen present? Eggs/unsealed larvae/sealed brood spotted? How many frames contain eggs/unsealed larvae/sealed brood? How many frames contain honey and pollen? Are there sufficient honey stores? Does the colony need feeding? Enough space for new brood and stores? Is a super required? Signs of swarm preparations (see pp.150–59) Queen cups or cells spotted? Is there larvae in queen cups or cells? Are queen cells sealed or unsealed? Signs of disease (see pp.144–7) Larvae discolored, distended, or giving off a bad smell? Sealed brood cappings sunken? Bees with shriveled wings? Number of mites counted on varroa monitoring board? Signs of diarrhea (brown streaks)? Could indicate poor colony health, stress, and disease. Signs of failing queen or drone-layer (see pp.160–61) Is there a greater ratio of drone to worker brood than normal? Is there drone brood in the middle of the comb? Should be around edges and on the bottom of frames. Uneven pattern of sealed brood across the frame? Could be sign of failing queen or a queen who is fussy about where she lays. Fewer frames of any brood? Multiple eggs in cells? May indicate a laying worker.

7

Look for queen cups (small wax “cup” structures) and queen cells (longer, resembling peanut shells) that may signal the colony is preparing to swarm or to supersede the queen (see pp.150–51 and 160–61).

Super box (see pp.148–9) How many frames filled with uncapped and capped honey? Honey ready for extraction? Another super needed?

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Managing Pests and Diseases Honey bees can be afflicted by many pests and diseases, and the list covered here is by no means exhaustive. Most are still relatively poorly understood and there is much more to learn about how to treat and manage them. The signs can be difficult for even the experienced beekeeper to spot and correctly diagnose, and if you have any doubts about the health of a colony, it is recommended that you contact your local bee inspector for assistance.

Recognizing healthy brood There are a number of diseases that are sometimes called “brood disease,” because they largely affect the brood rather than the adult bees. Learning to recognize the healthy appearance of brood is a good place to start in the prevention of such diseases. Healthy unsealed larvae are pearly white and shaped like crescent moons, and healthy sealed brood cells are biscuit-colored with flat cappings for workers and dome-shaped cappings for drone brood (see pp.138–43). In general, bee larvae should not appear discolored or misshapen, and brood cappings should not be sunken or perforated, or look “waxy.” Sometimes sealed brood that makes a “pepper shaker” pattern on the comb, with some cells sealed and others not, can indicate either disease or simply a queen who is fussy about where she lays eggs.

Directory of pests and diseases

AMERICAN FOUL BROOD (AFB) Bacterial infection affecting sealed brood. Cappings become sunken and perforated around the edges; sometimes also a “pepper shaker” pattern across brood cappings. Action: Classic “ropiness test” may identify AFB: a matchstick is dipped into a cell to pull stringy slime if disease is present. Notify local bee inspector at once if AFB is suspected to help prevent infection spreading in the local area.

SACBROOD

BEE STRESS Brood diseases like chalkbrood or sacbrood can indicate a stressed colony. Recovery may be aided by reducing external stress factors—for example, by providing feed; providing extra dummy boards around the brood nest for warmth; and ensuring hive hygiene.

Virus usually affecting sealed larvae, which causes the larvae to take on the appearance of dried-out, dark brown scales, known as “Chinese slippers.” Action: As for chalkbrood, no specific treatment but re-queening may help.

MANAGING PESTS AND DISEASES

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SHOOK SWARM An artificial shook swarm could help heavily infested colony by removing queen and adult bees to new hive, provided colony is strong enough to recover (see pp.152–7). Swarming is natural method of control, as Sho swarming queen leaves ok brood behind s along with most varroa mites. Asian honey bee swarms frequently, which may help this species control varroa levels.

MONITORING BOARD Yellow board left under

ventilated mesh floor for one week each month. Mite drop counted after seven days to build up a picture of colony health over several months. More than 30 mites dropped in seven days is considered high.

EUROPEAN FOUL BROOD (EFB) Bacterial infection mainly affecting unsealed brood. Larvae turn yellowishbrown and slimy in appearance, often twisting into spiral shape or lying distended in cells. Dead larvae can then dry up to leave a brownish scale. Action: Notify your local bee inspector immediately if EFB is suspected. Hive may have unpleasant smell.

DRONE CULL

Mites prefer drone brood, which take longer to develop, allowing more time inside cell for mites to mate and breed. Occasional culling of drone brood to see if mites are present helps monitor levels and possibly reduce varroa within hive.

SUGAR DUSTING

Dusting adult bees with icing sugar encourages workers to groom, which is thought to “knock off” mites. Can be given at any time of year as it won’t taint honey. Not effective by itself but may be used as part of integrated pest management. VARROACIDES

Chemical treatments to kill or remove varroa applied at certain times of year, e.g., thymolbased treatments (usually in fall) or oxalic acid (in winter). Do not apply when supers with honey frames are on the hive, because varroacides ci oa r r A a p can taint honey, and pl y in g v avoid overdosing colony. Follow advice of apiary manager, beekeeping association, or bee inspector on timing, frequency, and method of application.

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Parasitic mite adapted to life cycle of the honey bee. Asian honey bee (Apis cerana) was original host; now spread to European honey bee (Apis mellifera), which has not evolved same defenses. Female mite recognizes pheromone emitted by larva just before it is capped, and buries itself under larval food. Mite feeds on larva as it develops, laying eggs that hatch and mate inside cell. Several mites are released when bee emerges. Larvae may develop into weakened, diseased, or deformed adult bees. Action: A number of husbandry techniques can be used to monitor and reduce varroa:

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VARROA DESTRUCTOR

Fungus affecting sealed brood. Can lead to perforated cappings. Larvae die inside cells and have the appearance of driedup chalk mummies. Action: No specific treatment. Could re-queen if affecting large numbers of brood (see pp.160–61) as problem may lie in genetics of queen and her eggs. Colony may recover by itself if disease has limited presence.

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CHALKBROOD

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Tropilaelaps

TROPILAELAPS Reddish-brown parasitic mite with life cycle and behavior similar to varroa. Of four types, only two are thought problematic to honey bees. Smaller than varroa and move faster across comb. Action: Not thought present in North America at this time. Report suspected sightings immediately to bee inspector.

ACARINE Parasitic mite invading airways of honey bees. Mites lay eggs in trachea, which hatch and feed off blood. Mature mites climb out of airways and onto hairs, where they transfer to other bees. Signs include weak, stumbling bees on ground outside entrance, unable to fly. Bees with deformed wings can also be a sign. Levels usually low, if present, but can become serious if there is overcrowding and when bees are confined to hives for long periods (over winter or during prolonged bad weather). Affected bees generally weakened and life spans shortened, risking colony survival. Action: Good husbandry can be helpful: maintain overall health and hygiene, and re-queen from colonies more robust to the disease.

NOSEMA

DEFORMED WING VIRUS (DWV)

Fungus living inside cells lining bee’s gut. Spores released into stomach when cells rupture, later excreted. Signs of dysentery inside and on entrance of hive can indicate nosema. Likely present in most colonies at low levels, but can become serious at times of overcrowding and periods of confinement (over winter or in bad weather). Affected bees weakened and life spans shortened, leaving colony more vulnerable; can contribute to winter mortality of hives. Two known types: Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae. Latter more difficult to detect as tends not to show symptoms; can also cause higher and more rapid hive mortality. Action: Can be spread if bees drown in feeder supplying sugar syrup and expel stomach contents. Remove contaminated syrup and supply fresh batch. Avoid squashing bees during inspection for same reason. Good husbandry essential: be aware of space inside hive; clean hives and equipment; change combs once a year to prevent build up of parasites (see pp.168–71). Re-queening also sometimes recommended from hives more tolerant to infection.

Affected bees show shriveled or deformed wings. Virus may be associated with higher numbers of varroa mites. Action: No specific treatment. Hives with affected workers may benefit from varroa monitoring and management. Looking for signs of DWV can be helpful in monitoring colony’s overall health.

SMALL HIVE BEETLE (SHB) Aethina tumida originated in subSaharan Africa, now spread to US and Australia, and reported sightings in Europe at time of writing. Small black beetle, about 1/4 in (6 mm) long, with clubbed antennae. Female lays eggs in crevices of hive, which hatch into beetle larvae that eat eggs, larvae, pollen, and honey, tunneling through comb and leaving feces in stores. Can severely affect health of the colony. Action: SHB is a reportable pest. Report suspected sightings immediately to bee inspector.

Small hive beetles

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Moth larvae silk trail

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REPORTABLE PESTS AND DISEASES

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In the US, state agricultural agencies require registration and inspection guidelines for beekeepers and hives, as well as notification of varroa infestation and of diseases such as American foul brood and nosema.

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If spotted, remove and destroy larvae with hive tool.

Immediately contact your local bee inspector if you suspect a reportable pest or disease.

WAX MOTH Greater and lesser wax moths chew wax, damaging stored comb, particularly in winter. Greater wax moth larvae prefer brood comb, for cocoons and other debris; lesser wax moth larvae prefer super comb to eat the wax. Infestations cause mess of silk webs inside hive. Larvae leave white trail beneath cappings and may be spotted scurrying into crevices. Action: Good hygiene and strong colonies help discourage infestation. No completely preventive treatment but unused comb should be stored in a cold place, where larvae are less active. Can also freeze empty comb at end of summer for 24 hours at 0°F (–18°C) to kill moth eggs and larvae. Store frames in hive boxes stacked with wire mesh, such as a queen excluder, above and below, with a roof on top. Check stored combs periodically for signs of infestation. Do not use household mothballs or sprays since chemicals harmful to bees can accumulate on equipment and comb.

The USDA Agricultural Research Service is a good resource for honey bee health and beekeepers. For current information on bee diseases and pests, as well as ongoing research into possible colony collapse disorder (CCD) causes, see the agency’s online resources at www.ars.usda.gov/News/docs. htm?docid=15572

PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL TIPS Keep a pair of tweezers handy. Use the tweezers to pull out any misshapen or discolored larvae for closer inspection. Dispose of unhealthy larvae in the nozzle of the smoker. Maintain strict hygiene if signs of disease are present. Do not share combs between hives and always clean hive equipment and clean or change gloves after each inspection. Keep weekly hive records to monitor health inside the hive—for example, observing times of the year when varroa mites rise and fall, or when brood becomes vulnerable to diseases like chalkbrood or sacbrood. Regular record-keeping will help you plan for pest management throughout the year.

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Managing Honey Stores Providing a colony with supers helps to ensure that workers can continue building comb upstairs and the queen does not run out of cells to lay eggs in downstairs. Though it won’t prevent swarming, it may relieve pressure for a time. Adding supers will also help manage the honey stores that the colony must build up to survive over winter, while hopefully ensuring a surplus to harvest for the beekeeper.

Adding supers At the start of spring, a hive normally consists of a bottom board, brood box, inner cover, and outer cover, with possibly an empty super to house a feeder. FIRST SUPER As the weather turns milder and forage increases, the colony will rapidly build up. Each week as you inspect the hive, you should count how many brood frames are being filled up with brood and stores. As a rough guide, when the count reaches two or three frames short of a full complement, this is the time to put on the first super. If the super is composed of frames with drawn comb, it is likely that the colony will fill the super during the following week to 10 days. Adding a super gives the colony more space to build comb and move around stores from the brood box to the supers, if required, which will help to ensure that the queen has enough space to lay her eggs in the brood nest.

SECOND SUPER Be patient and wait for the bees to completely fill up the first super before adding another, allowing the workers to draw comb on both sides of the super frames, fill the cells with nectar, and cap off the honey. Why not add another super

when the first is half full? Honey bees are inclined to work upward and fill empty spaces. Let the workers fill the first super before starting work on another one.

Super frames with wax foundation give the bees a head start drawing out comb, or use frames that are empty or with wax starter strips for cut comb.

FURTHER SUPERS In theory, you can keep adding supers to a hive, and a strong colony in a good season has been known to fill up to five supers. Avoid adding too many supers late in the summer when you should be getting the hive ready for winter.

Taking off honey Ideally, a colony should fill two supers full of honey before you take one away to harvest. WHEN TO HARVEST Even early in summer, with hopefully many more weeks of honey production to look forward to, it is still prudent to leave behind one super of stores for the hive, since the weather might take a turn for the worse and there could be a dearth of nectar. A single super full of honey is usually more than enough to see an average-sized colony through winter, taking account of honey stores built up on the brood frames. Make sure all the honey is ready to take off before removing any frames for processing. This means checking that each frame has comb that is capped on both sides.

Frames for harvesting should be almost entirely capped. Uncapped cells contain unripe honey, which will ferment if taken off the hive too early.

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ROBBERS

An inner cover with Porter bee escapes is an effective clearer board for a National hive. Make sure the springs are face down to the brood nest.

As you clear bees from supers, they become vulnerable to robbers, such as wasps. To prevent this, use duct tape to seal the gap under the outer cover, between supers, and between supers and the brood nest. Also reduce the size of the entrance to the hive.

CLEARING BEES Worker bees must be cleared from the supers before any honey is removed. Ideally, this should happen over a couple of warm, sunny days and when there is a strong nectar flow in your local area, so the bees are flying in and out and will be kept busy after the supers are removed. The most common way to clear bees is by placing a clearer board between brood box and supers. A clearer board is a board with one or two escapes that allow workers to leave the super but not climb back up, such as an inner cover with Porter bee escapes.

A good tip is to wrap supers in clean plastic bags to prevent contamination and to hide the scent of the honey from bees, wasps, and other robbers.

• Remove the supers from the hive and place the clearer board on top of the queen excluder above the brood nest. • Make sure the escapes are clear of propolis, wax, and other debris, and that the metal springs are vertically aligned with a gap of 1/8 in (3 mm). • Return the supers, cover with an inner cover, and block the holes with wood squares or tiles. Replace the outer cover. • Leave the hive for 24 to 48 hours. Do not leave the clearer board for longer than 48 hours, since the worker bees eventually learn how to climb up into the supers through the escapes. • Check each super frame for bees and gently sweep away any last stragglers using a bee brush.

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Swarm Watch Swarming is a natural part of the honey bee life cycle. It is how a colony reproduces itself, as the old queen departs with her flying workers to establish a new nest, leaving behind a young virgin queen to take over the original hive. WHY MANAGE SWARMING?

EARLY SIGNS

In beekeeping circles it is considered irresponsible to let your colony swarm, since this could cause a public nuisance. Another consideration is that swarmed colonies usually produce less honey than colonies that haven’t swarmed. This is due to the break in brood while waiting for the new queen to mate, and because honey removed by the swarm will also need to be replaced.

A honey bee colony usually starts to prepare to swarm not long after the spring build-up, when the brood nest is growing stronger and the colony may need more space, and the weather is becoming consistently warmer. You will notice acorn-shaped cells appearing on the comb. These are called queen cups and can be the first sign of a queen cell. Check inside the queen cup for an egg or larva; if you find one, you should start to think about swarm control.

SWARM TIMELINE Follow these timings to help plan your swarm management. Day 0: Egg is laid in a queen cell. Day 3: Egg hatches into a larva. Day 8/9: Queen cell is sealed. At this point, flying workers will usually swarm with the old queen. Day 15/16: Virgin queen emerges. If you have not carried out swarm control before day 8 or 9, there is a fair chance the old queen will have already swarmed. She is sometimes still found inside the colony, however, after one or more queen cells have been sealed, perhaps delayed by poor weather or other conditions that have made it unsuitable for her to swarm. If so, you have been lucky!

As a beekeeper, if one of your colonies does swarm and can be located, you will be expected to collect it, drawing on more experienced help if required.

MINIMIZING THE RISK There are some measures you can take to try to prevent swarm preparations by the colony, such as adding supers to give the workers more space to put down stores and the queen more room in the brood nest to lay. That said, small colonies with plenty of room inside the hive are still known to swarm. Some beekeepers choose to clip the queen’s wings to stop her from flying away. Instead, the queen will drop to the ground and the swarm will settle around her before trying to go back inside the hive. Clipped queens are sometimes lost, however: trampled underfoot or left vulnerable to predators. You can also try to develop colonies with a strain of honey bee that does not swarm as often, but recognizing and encouraging beneficial traits is not something for the beginner. Finally, you can choose to replace the old queen each year with a younger queen, thereby making the colony less likely to swarm that season, but again this offers no absolute guarantee.

Queen cups do not always indicate that a colony is preparing to swarm: watch to see if the sides start to be drawn out and check if they contain an egg.

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BE PREPARED Spare hive equipment is invaluable in the swarming season. Make sure you have a clean, empty hive with frames, or a nucleus box, beside each of your existing hives, ready to carry out an artificial swarm if needed.

MANAGING NATURE Adding an additional super will help to relieve the overcrowding in a hive that can be a factor in swarming, but will not prevent swarms altogether.

In reality, beekeepers cannot prevent swarming— they can only ever manage the process by carrying out an artificial swarm before a natural one occurs. For this, vigilance is key: it is vital to inspect the hive every seven days, checking for queen cells and other signs that a swarm might be imminent, such as a brood nest bursting at the seams. If you find queen cells, regular inspections should allow you to exercise swarm control in time.

SWARM OR SUPERSEDURE? Queen cells are not always a sign of swarming: they may indicate workers are trying to supersede (replace) the old queen, perhaps because her egg-laying is starting to fail (see also pp.160–61). • A colony tends to make more queen cells— six or more—when it is planning to swarm. • Swarm cells often hang from the bottom of the frame; supersedure cells appear closer to the top or sides. • You may also notice the queen is laying poorly with a slow build-up of brood or mostly drone.

The queen cell in the center has been drawn out into the distinctive “peanut” shape. It will contain a larva but has not been sealed.

This queen cell has been sealed at the base and is a sign either that the colony has already swarmed or that a plot to supersede the queen is well advanced.

If in doubt, you could carry out an artificial swarm anyway. If the new queen fails or the old queen starts to fail (perhaps a sign that the bees were, after all, trying to replace her), then you can unite the colonies (see pp.162–3).

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Carrying Out an Artificial Swarm

BE GENTLE Always handle frames with queen cells carefully: don’t flip them upside down, and try to avoid bumping them or shaking them, since this may damage the larvae inside. You don’t want to kill off the virgin queens before they have had a chance to emerge.

There are several different methods of artificial swarm, and the variation shown here is the simplest. You are likely to need to carry out the procedure each year and often on short notice from the bees, so make sure the method you use is one you understand.

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You have inspected your colony and found queen cells. They are not sealed and a few have larvae inside, as shown here. Stick a thumb tack on the top bar of each frame that has a queen cell.

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Locate the old queen and, when you find her, cage her to keep her on the frame. The colony you are inspecting is now called the “parent colony.”

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Set up a nucleus hive (or new hive body) to one side of the parent colony. Remove the frame holding the old queen from the parent colony and place it inside the nucleus or new hive. Make sure it doesn’t have a queen cell on the frame. This hive or nucleus is now called the artificial swarm.

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Add another frame of sealed brood from the parent colony to the artificial swarm, and a frame or two of stores. None of the frames should have queen cells. Fill up the gap in the artificial swarm with new brood frames and foundation; preferably the foundation will have drawn comb.

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Shake three or so frames of bees from other brood combs in the parent colony over the artificial swarm to nurse the brood and keep it warm. Avoid shaking bees from frames with queen cells, which can damage the larvae.

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Release the queen from her cage and put on the queen excluder, inner cover, and outer cover. Reduce the size of the entrance to make it easier for the bees to defend the swarm colony as it establishes itself. Feed the colony if bad weather is forecast for the week ahead.

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CAST-OFF SWARMS When a virgin queen emerges from her cell, the first thing she is likely to do is kill her rivals for the throne. She does this by stinging the unemerged queens through their cells. Over the next eight days or so, the virgin queen will go on her mating flight and, if successful, should return to begin her egg-laying duties as the new queen of the colony.

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Alternatively, the virgin queen may mate and then fly off with a smaller swarm rather than stay with the parent colony. This is called a cast-off swarm, and there

may be several cast-off swarms before the colony finally settles with a new queen. Cast-off swarms can result in the parent colony dwindling to a much smaller size than is desired by the beekeeper, who will be unlikely to harvest any honey from the colony that season, since it will need to build up the brood nest again. By restricting the number of queen cells in the parent colony likely to produce new queens, you can help to prevent cast-off swarms. It is usual to preserve the two best-looking queen cells: an heir and a spare.

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Fill up the gap in the parent colony with new brood frames. If there are five or more queen cells, you may want to destroy three so that only one or two virgin queens emerge. Choose the longest and largest queen cells to survive.

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After one week inspect the parent colony to check for more queen cells. Take these down, but make sure the existing cells are present and still viable.

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SUPER STORES If the colony has already started to fill supers with stores of honey, leave these on top of the parent colony: it is more likely to need to draw on stores during the wait for a new queen to emerge, mate, and start to lay.

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Now leave the parent colony for at least two weeks to allow a new queen to emerge, go on her mating flight, and start to lay. Opening the colony during this time may confuse a new queen returning from her mating flight and cause her to abandon the colony or get lost.

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Inspect the artificial swarm colony with the old queen as normal during this time. If the artificial swarm is in a nucleus box, it will need to be moved into a full-size hive on the same site once all the combs have been drawn and filled.

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Inspect the parent colony after two weeks. Check that the queen is laying eggs and the colony is building up. Be patient with a new queen, who may need time to get used to her egg-laying duties and could be hindered by external factors like poor weather.

MISSING QUEENS AND FAILED QUEENS If the queen has already flown you might come across queen cells in the hive that are already sealed with no sign of the old queen. This may mean that the colony has already swarmed and the old queen is gone. In this case, take down all but two of the queen cells to reduce the risk of further cast-off swarms, then allow the parent colony two weeks for the new queen to emerge and mate. After a month you may find that the new queen of the parent colony is not laying or is only laying drone bees. There is a chance she did not mate successfully. It is always worth giving her another week to be sure: some queens are slow starters or may be delayed due to bad weather or a shortage of nectar. If you have decided that the queen has failed then you may wish to remove her from the colony, destroy her, and unite the parent colony with the artificial swarm and the old queen

(see pp.162–3). Before you do this, inspect the artificial swarm to check that the old queen is present and laying well. You don’t want to end up with two queenless colonies! If you are unable to find the new queen and the parent colony doesn’t appear to have new eggs and brood, put in a test frame of eggs from the artificial swarm to check that the new queen is not simply hiding. If the new queen is lost, then the workers should use an egg on the test frame to make a new queen cell. This can then be taken down on your next inspection before the colonies are united, or you can keep the queen cell and allow the colony to try to produce a new queen again. Remember: bees don’t read the same books that you do! Deciding whether a colony is trying to swarm, or knowing if an artificial swarm has worked, can be tricky even for experienced beekeepers. Don’t worry: it is all part of learning to keep bees.

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Collecting a Swarm A honey bee swarm is an incredible natural phenomenon. If you are a non-beekeeper, collecting is best left to experienced swarm collectors, contactable via your local association. If you are a new beekeeper, swarm collection is something you must learn to manage, with support from seasoned collectors.

SWARM TEMPER While getting stung is always a risk, a swarm is usually well tempered because the bees consumed honey before flying off. With no nest or stores to guard, swarms also tend to be less defensive than a hived colony. P r u nin g s

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A white sheet is laid on the ground close to the swarm. Any passers-by will be asked to keep a safe distance.

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If the swarm settled in a tree or bush, stray branches and leaves will be pruned to ensure a clear “drop.”

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When ready to catch the swarm, a temporary container is held underneath while the beekeeper cuts the branch to which the swarm is mainly attached. If the catch is clean, the swarm “ball” should remain largely intact and the bees will continue to cluster together. The bees may need to be caught in several stages, however, and some will inevitably take to the air. Suitable containers include a skep basket, a ventilated cardboard box, a nucleus hive, or a specially built swarm box.

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The skep is overturned onto the sheet and propped up slightly on one side to create an opening. The bees are then left to reform the cluster within and on the side of the skep. Provided the queen is present, the bees will settle.

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As the bees settle, the skep is gently shifted to the center of the sheet so it can be more easily wrapped.

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The edges of the sheet are gently pulled over the settled swarm so that the skep can be wrapped for transportation to a new hive site.

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The swarm will be transferred to a nucleus hive or to a spare empty hive for the colony to reestablish itself. The swarm may be returned to its owner, if known, or perhaps given as a first colony for a beginner beekeeper.

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Queen Problems A perfect queen will be a prolific layer and provide hardworking, good-natured workers. She will be steady and her workers less inclined to swarm. These are good traits to nurture in your line of queens. But what happens when it all goes wrong? How do you deal with queen problems?

Drone layer A drone layer is a queen who mostly or only lays male drone brood. This means that she is unable to lay and fertilize eggs to produce female workers. Without a sufficient supply of new workers, the colony is unable to grow and take care of itself, and will eventually fail. A new or younger queen may become a drone layer because she has mated poorly and does not have enough sperm collected in her abdomen to fertilize the eggs needed to make female workers. A newly emerged virgin queen can also become a drone layer if prolonged bad weather prevents her from taking a mating flight. Older queens can gradually become drone layers as the sperm stores are used up over the course of their lifetime. An older queen will show signs of her egg-laying declining through patchy brood patterns on the comb and more drone comb appearing in the middle of frames.

TREATMENT The only way to deal with a drone layer is to cull the queen. This is never an easy task, but culling is necessary for the survival of the whole colony. Usually workers will recognize a drone-laying queen and take steps to replace, or “supersede,” her (see box, opposite). There are times, however, when they fail to do this and will allow the queen to continue as the colony dwindles. This is when the beekeeper needs to step in: • Find and cage the old queen. Culling is always a last resort, but if you have decided it is necessary, do it quickly: remove her head with the hive tool (euphemistically called “pinching”); or place her in a jar of soapy water; or put her in a sandwich bag and freeze her. • Add a frame of eggs and young worker larvae from another, healthy hive to the brood box of the now queenless colony. Note that the old queen must be removed before the frame of eggs is put in: the workers may not try to make a new queen while the old one is present; or the old queen may tear down any queen cells that are built. • Within 15 or 16 days a new queen should emerge with a second chance to mate well and head the colony. • If the workers fail to make a new queen from the frame of eggs, you may consider whether to try again or to unite the queenless colony with another queenright colony (see pp.162–3).

As a beekeeper, your relationship with the queen can become personal, as you get to know her character and become fond of your colony’s monarch. Drone cells are larger than worker cells with a prominent domed cap, and tend mostly to be found around the edges of the comb.

QUEEN PROBLEMS

Too many drone could mean the queen is becoming a drone layer, but most hives produce a fair number during the swarming season. A queen cell in the middle of a frame could be a sign of supersedure, if the queen has been lost or has failed and workers are hurrying to replace her.

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Laying worker

Missing queen

A laying worker is a worker who lays eggs. This is an entirely futile thing to do because the laying worker is a sterile female who is unmated and carries no sperm to fertilize the eggs. Her progeny will be all drones. Signs of a laying worker are more drones and drone cells in the hive, and finding two or more eggs in a cell (the queen is careful to lay only one egg in each cell). Do not jump to conclusions immediately, however, as a newly mated queen is also known to make mistakes. A failing queen may also cause workers to lay eggs. As the queen gets older and her pheromones decrease with her egg-laying ability, so does her control over the colony. The queen substance (a pheromone that helps to keep the colony in order) becomes weaker and can lead to the workers deciding to lay eggs.

A missing queen is often caused by simple beekeeper error: it is surprisingly easy to squash the queen by accident as you move frames around during an inspection. Try not to feel too bad: it happens to every beekeeper! Emergency queen cells built around larvae in the middle of the frames are a good indicator that the queen is likely to be missing.

TREATMENT If your queen is healthy, it is likely any laying worker’s eggs will be eaten by other workers (a process called oophagy). If she is caught in the act, the worker will be dealt with harshly by her sisters. In the case of both a failing queen and a laying worker, the beekeeper should: • Cull the old queen and introduce a frame of viable eggs to make a new queen (see “Drone layer”, opposite). • If several workers are laying, the colony may not have the instinct to make a new queen. In this case a beekeeper should unite the queenless colony with a queen-right colony (see pp.162–3).

TREATMENT There is little to be done except to let the bees move on and fix your error by making a new queen.

SUPERSEDURE If workers identify a problem with the queen, they will build supersedure queen cells to replace her. In such cases, it is difficult to tell whether the workers are planning to swarm or to supersede the queen, and you must rely on other observations, such as how well the queen is laying and whether there is too much drone brood (see also p.151). Sometimes there are no other signs and you may puzzle over why the bees chose to replace an apparently healthy queen. Only the bees know the answer. The supersedure of an older or failing queen usually occurs toward the end of the season. The bees will choose to make a strong new queen to carry them through winter and rebuild the colony in spring. This is not a hard-and-fast rule, however, and supersedure could happen at any time.

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Uniting Colonies Uniting two colonies involves combining the brood nests of two separate hives into one hive led by a single queen. Colonies are united to deal with queen problems or queenless hives, or to bring two weaker colonies together.

Uniting for winter A beginner most commonly needs to unite colonies when one colony shows signs of failing due to queen problems or because the queen is lost (see pp.160–61). Uniting should also be considered at the end of the season when assessing the size and strength of colonies for overwintering. You may decide one colony is weak, with an older

and poorly laying queen who is unlikely to build up a strong brood nest in spring, in which case it may be best to cull the older queen and unite her colony with another small colony headed by a younger queen. The beekeeper, it is hoped, has now created one stronger colony with more bees and stores to overwinter.

Uniting after an artificial swarm You may also choose to unite colonies after an artificial swarm procedure (see pp.152–7). Although an increase in hives has been achieved, this could be at the expense of honey production. It may be better to unite the

colonies into one larger colony again, headed by the best-laying queen. Beekeepers may also unite colonies after an artificial swarm because either the new queen of the parent colony or the old queen in the swarmed colony has failed.

Determining that a hive is queenless You must make sure one hive is queenless before uniting colonies. If two queen-right colonies are united, the queens and their workers are likely to fight. To check if a hive is queenless, add a test frame of eggs to the colony,

return after a week, and if the workers have started to draw out a queen cell, then the colony is likely to be queenless. If no queen cell has been drawn out, check the hive very carefully—there may be a queen hiding inside.

TIME IT RIGHT The best time to unite colonies is at the end of the day when most flying bees will have returned to the hives. This helps prevent the bees of the queenless colony from getting lost.

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1

Open up both hives to the brood boxes, removing the queen excluders. Lay two sheets of newspaper above the brood nest of the queen-right colony.

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Place the queen excluder over the newspaper. The idea is that the two sets of bees chew through the paper and gradually get used to each other’s smell.

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Place the queenless brood box above that of the queen-right colony. Reassemble the hive by putting the queen excluder, supers, inner cover, and outer cover above the queenless colony.

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Score a few tears in the paper with your hive tool, using the queen excluder as a guide, to help the bees start chewing through the paper.

Leave the hive for one week before returning to inspect. You should find that the bees have eaten away most of the newspaper and that the two colonies are now behaving as one harmonious hive, headed by the queen of your choice.

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Preparing for Winter As days turn shorter and cooler with summer’s procession into fall, inside the hive the queen lays fewer eggs and the brood nest shrinks. Drones are thrown out of the colony by their sisters. Foragers fly home with red-jeweled propolis on their legs for fixing up gaps to better insulate the hive. This is the honey bee colony preparing for winter.

HIVE MAINTENANCE

Ensuring strong colonies

Check that your hives are in good condition for the winter, and carry out repairs as required. Make sure the ground is clear beneath the hive for ventilation, if your hive has a ventilated floor. Secure hives with straps if the site is exposed. Cut back overgrown foliage to keep entrances clear of leaves or small branches.

A beekeeper must ensure that each colony will have the best start to the new bee year by going into winter strong, healthy, and with stores to last until spring. IS THE COLONY QUEEN-RIGHT?

Hive straps are available from beekeeping suppliers and help prevent a hive from tipping over in windy weather.

Ideally, a strong queen is required to provide a good-sized brood nest with healthy, young workers to overwinter and survive until spring. Keep an eye on your queen’s laying habits from midto late summer to assess whether she is getting too old to produce enough bees or is likely to become a drone layer. If you’re keeping bees for maximum honey production, it is usual to replace a queen at two years old. However, if you’re doing it for simple enjoyment and you have an older queen who is still laying well and leading a strong colony with a good temperament, there may be no need to replace her. Or you could choose to move her to a nucleus hive where she can be kept for breeding purposes. The timing of this should not be left too late in the summer, to be sure the new queen is mated and well settled into laying for the colony. See pp.160–61 for more information.

TIME IT RIGHT A beekeeper generally prepares a hive for winter after taking off the last honey crop, but timings can vary according to local climate and the flow of nectar. Hives near late-flowering crops, for example, could enjoy a strong nectar flow until mid-fall.

ARE THERE SUFFICIENT STORES? The need for stores to keep the bees alive through the winter months should not be underestimated. An average colony in a single brood box system needs around 40–50 lb (18–22 kg) of honey to survive the winter. A brood frame of fully capped honey can provide about 4 lb (2 kg) of stores. As you take the summer honey harvest, look at how much is stored in the brood nest and decide whether you need to leave a super for overwintering. Consider whether a late nectar flow might boost stores, and keep an eye on the weather in case late summer rains impede foraging.

ARE THE BEES HEALTHY? Speak to neighboring beekeepers about the health of their hives and look carefully for signs of disease inside your own, such as bees with shriveled wings (a sign of deformed wing virus), or an increase of varroa mites that may need treating with varroacides (see p.145).

SHOULD HIVES BE UNITED? You may decide to unite hives if you have a failing queen in one hive, or if one colony is particularly small. Make sure both colonies are healthy before uniting and consider which queen’s traits you want your spring colony to inherit. And don’t leave it too late! See pp.162–3 for more on how to unite two colonies.

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Protecting from pests A number of pests can be bothersome to hives from late summer onward. WASPS Wasps can target hives, particularly weaker colonies, to steal honey as their own nests start to break down. Reduce the size of the entrance to the hive in late summer to make it easier for the bees to defend the colony from robber bees, wasps, and other pests.

Secure a mouse guard to the front of the hive in late summer to early fall to prevent mice from entering and nesting over winter.

Leave a couple of homemade wasp traps around the apiary to discourage them: • Cut the top off a plastic bottle. • Half-fill the bottom with a mixture of water, jam, and a drop of vinegar (attractive to wasps but not to bees). • Insert the top of the bottle upsidedown so that wasps can fly in, but struggle to fly out and drown. If wasps are a particular issue, add entrance reducers to make it easier for the guard bees to defend the hive. This will also help protect against robber bees from neighboring hives. Seal any gaps in the hive wood with duct tape to prevent wasps from finding a way inside.

MICE A warm beehive with stores of honey makes an ideal winter nest for mice and other small rodents. Fit a mouse guard over the hive entrance with thumb tacks, making sure it’s the right way up and that the holes are properly aligned with the hive entrance to allow the bees to fly in and out.

LARGE ANIMALS

Wrapping your hives in chicken wire is a simple way to deter animals such as raccoons, skunks, and opossums from damaging the hive boxes.

Large animals such as raccoons, opossums, and skunks can seriously damage both equipment and bees, depleting hive populations drastically in unprotected apiaries. As a deterrent, create cages around hives by wrapping them with chicken wire and twisting the ends of the wire together.

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Winter Monitoring As temperatures continue to fall, the small winter colony of workers cluster in a football-shaped clump around the queen, vibrating their wing muscles to keep warm. On fine, bright winter days, the workers take cleansing flights to stretch their wings and defecate outside the hive. There are natural losses as workers get too cold at the edges of the cluster or when collecting food from frames.

Winter and early-spring checks Full inspections come to an end in winter as temperatures fall too low to open hives for any length of time. There is still beekeeping to be done, however, and it is advisable to visit the apiary every week or two to make sure the bees are overwintering safely. HEFTING “Hefting” involves slightly lifting a hive from the bottom board to check its weight. If you can barely lift it, then the brood nest and supers, if present, are likely to be full of honey. If the hive lifts easily, the colony may be running low on stores and may need feeding.

CLEARING ENTRANCES Natural winter losses can result in an accumulation of dead bodies blocking the hive entrance, with the undertaker bees unable to carry out their task as

WINTER TUNNEL At your last inspection before winter, make a tunnel through the middle of the brood combs with a hive tool. This helps workers leave the cluster and search for food more easily around the frames, without getting lost and cold.

effectively in winter. Poke a stick inside the entrance to clear out any dead bees, but do remember to wear protection, as it’s not uncommon to encounter an angry guard bee on such occasions.

A rapid feeder can be housed in an empty super beneath the outer cover, with a funnel over a hole in the inner cover that allows the bees to climb up.

EXAMINING THE VARROA BOARD Even though you are no longer inspecting, you can tell a lot about what is happening to the colony by looking at the varroa board. Place the board under the hive for seven days each month, but don’t keep it there all the time or it will impede ventilation. The board will show faint lines of pollen, wax cappings, and other debris that will give you an idea of where the cluster is positioned and how many seams of bees are taking up the frames. Cappings show whether the bees are eating their honey stores and where they are finding them. Don’t forget to count the mite drop: monitoring peaks in varroa will help decide what type of comb change is needed in spring. For example, a shook swarm is best for a colony showing high numbers of varroa mites through winter and early spring (see pp.168–71).

If a colony becomes isolated from its honey stores in the brood box, an emergency block of fondant can be easier for them to access.

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FEEDING THE HIVE In fall and again in spring, you may decide to help your bees build up their honey stores by feeding them with sugar syrup. From mid- or late winter to early spring, you may also need to feed colonies with fondant if they have run low on summer stores. This can happen even if you have left the hive with more than enough stores, especially during mild winters when warmer temperatures encourage the bees to be more active and use up their reserves faster. Sugar syrup Ready-prepared syrup is available to buy from beekeeping suppliers, or you can easily make your own by slowly heating 21 ⁄4 lb of unrefined, white granulated cane sugar with 1 pint of water (1 kg sugar with 600 ml water). Avoid rapid heating and do not let the mixture boil or the syrup may caramelize. Supply the syrup via a commercial feeder, such as a rapid feeder. Avoid using beet sugar, which might cause diarrhea, or brown sugar, which is impure. Don’t feed honey unless you’re feeding back the colony’s own honey. Feeding honey between colonies can spread pathogens and the aroma may also encourage robbing. Change the syrup and clean the feeder once a week. Homemade syrup will start to grow mold after a week. Bees can also drown in the feeder and release the contents of their stomachs, which is thought might facilitate the spread of the gut parasite nosema. A supplement feed of sugar syrup may also be given at other times—for example, if prolonged rain has prevented foragers from collecting enough nectar, or to help colonies build back up after they have been swarmed, united, or requeened. Fondant Fondant is a paste of concentrated sugars, best bought as a block from a commercial supplier. To feed, cut a small hole in the plastic cover and place it above a hole in the inner cover; the bees will crawl up and slowly eat through the fondant as needed. You may find colonies start to eat the fondant before honey stores are used up. On very cold days, it may be that the fondant is easier to get to above the nest than a frame of honey at the other end of the hive. NOTE: Sugar fondant should only be used as an emergency feed and is not suitable for building up stores. It is the sugar-and-water mix of syrup that enables the bees to convert it into honey and to build wax comb. Fondant does not provide water and can only be directly consumed by the bees, not converted and stored as honey. A fondant block under the outer cover in early spring can be a window into the hive, giving a glimpse of the health of workers and how well they are moving.

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Changing Combs Early to mid-spring is the time to replace all the old brood combs and move the bees into a new, clean hive for the year ahead. This can be thought of as “spring cleaning” to manage pests and diseases. Only the brood comb is changed, because this is where the bees live with the brood and where pathogens are most likely to build up.

Bailey method The Bailey method changes combs by placing a sterilized brood box with frames of new foundation on top of the old brood box. Over a period of three or four weeks, the bees gradually move into their new home and draw out the foundation. The Bailey method is considered a gentle way of changing combs, because the colony does not lose its brood and stores all at once. The disadvantage of the Bailey method is that it does not so effectively get rid of pests and diseases, because the brood that hatches downstairs during the procedure will climb upstairs, carrying with it any pathogens from the old brood comb. For this reason, a Bailey is best suited to a fairly strongsized hive with few signs of disease. The Bailey method can take two to three weeks to complete, but possibly longer if the colony is slow or if poor weather delays the process. You can help to encourage the bees to complete the Bailey by using dummy boards to gradually reduce the size of the old brood nest below and increase the size of the new brood nest above.

TIME IT RIGHT Timings will depend on colony strength and weather conditions. You may prefer to wait for the days to be consistently warm because this makes it easier for the bees to draw out wax and forage to rebuild their brood nest.

CHANGING COMBS

1

Place a new brood box, or a sterilized old box, with new frames of foundation above the current brood box. Put an inner cover on top and place a feeder under the outer cover or inside an empty, cleaned super box. Fill the feeder with sugar syrup at 1 pint water to 2 lb sugar (600 ml/1 kg).

2

Leave the bees for a week to draw out comb on the new foundation, then transfer the queen to the new brood box and place a queen excluder between the boxes so she can’t climb down. Over the next few weeks the bees will draw out comb in the new brood box, while the bees below, including any hatched brood, will move upstairs.

COMB CHANGE TIPS

3

When all the new frames are showing drawn comb, take away the old brood box to be cleaned and the old brood frames to be incinerated. Place the new brood box on a clean bottom board. Put on an inner cover and continue to feed, unless there is a strong nectar flow, until the bees have built up a few more frames of brood and stores in the brood nest.

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Don’t forget your hygiene: clean or replace gloves and clean hive tools if changing the comb for more than one colony. Clean up old hive equipment for reuse by scraping off wax with your hive tool and sterilizing the wood with heat from a blowtorch. Be careful not to scorch the wood. Quickly dispose of old comb in a burner to stop bees from robbing honey and spreading disease. Cut out wax from old brood comb, if it is in good condition, to be rendered for wax candles (see pp.178–87). Replace brood comb at least every two or three years. Most beekeepers change comb every year for disease and pest control. Reuse combs in the super after honey extraction for several years, depending on general wear and tear.

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Shook swarm method A shook swarm changes brood comb all at once by shaking the bees directly into the new brood box. This has the advantage of getting rid of almost all pests and disease in the colony in a single procedure. It is also thought to invigorate a colony by reproducing the conditions of a natural swarm, where the bees must quickly rebuild their nest from scratch. Shookswarmed colonies often build up rapidly and produce

1

Shift the old hive to one side and position a new bottom board on the original hive site. Place a queen excluder on the bottom board to stop the queen from leaving her new home, and set the brood box on top.

a good crop of honey. While most strong colonies recover well, there is always a risk that a colony may not recover at all. Shook swarming is an accepted method of treating European foulbrood or EFB (see p.145). If your colony has been confirmed as having EFB, which is a reportable disease, then shook swarming should be carried out under the supervision of your local bee inspector (see p.147).

2

Fill the brood box with new frames filled with wax foundation, then remove the middle four frames to make space to shake the bees. Light your smoker to help manage the bees during the shook swarm. Find and cage the queen in the old hive to keep her safe.

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WEAK COLONIES There is a risk that a weaker colony, perhaps heavily infested with varroa, may not survive a shook swarm. An alternative is to shake the bees into a five-framed nucleus hive to help them stay warm as they rebuild their nest.

4

Shake in any bees still remaining in the old brood box and brush off any stragglers. Replace the middle four frames that were removed. Release the queen from her cage between the new frames of foundation. Insert the dummy board (if using) and place the inner cover on the box.

3

Shake the bees, frame by frame, from the old hive into the new hive. Hold each frame about a third of the way into the gap in the new brood box. Move the frame downward firmly and stop to shake off the bees. Do not jerk or knock the frame against the sides of the hive.

5

Feed with sugar syrup at 1 pint water to 2 lb sugar (600 ml water to 1 kg sugar). The syrup will help your bees recover and give them energy to draw out new comb. Feed until they have drawn comb on all frames. Once the queen has started to lay, in a week or so, remove the queen excluder.

Enjoying Bee Bounty

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Harvesting Honey Extracting honey from frames is a simple, satisfying process that can be hard work. The smell of dripping honey will attract insects from far and wide, so keep windows and doors closed unless you want to be bothered by bees and wasps eager for a free meal.

YOU WILL NEED • Large knife or hive tool • Dishwashing liquid and clean cloths • Decapping fork or large knife • Several clean buckets • Centrifugal extractor (this can be expensive to buy and your beekeeping association may lend or rent them out) • Nylon filter • Glass jars with lids • Labels

Extracting

1

Remove any brace comb at the bottom and sides of the frames using a knife or hive tool. The brace comb will fall apart in the extractor and make a mess. Don’t throw it away, though: cut it up to make gifts of comb honey in small trays.

2

Clean with hot, soapy water and sterilize any work surfaces and equipment to be used for extraction. Wear an apron, tie your hair back, and remove any jewelry.

HARVESTING HONEY

SELLING HONEY Giving honey to family and friends is wonderful. However, if you are selling honey to the public, then you must abide by regulations covering preparation and sale of food. To sell honey in the US, the preparation of bottled honey must meet the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Grades and Standards for Extracted Honey. Grading and color standards and inspection instructions for the sale of honey are available to download from the US Department of Agriculture website (www.ams.usda.gov/grades-standards/ extracted-honey-grades-and-standards).

3

Remove the wax cappings from a super frame using a decapping fork or large knife warmed in boiling water. Hold the frame over a clean, sterilized bucket to collect the cappings and any honey spillages.

HIVE-WARM EXTRACTION Honey that has been kept warm by the bees is much easier to extract, so plan ahead: after removing supers, have your equipment ready to extract the honey as soon as you get the frames home.

4

Position the decapped frame in one of the metal cages in the centrifugal extractor.

5

When you have filled the extractor with several frames, close the lid and, holding the barrel steady, turn the handle slowly at first, then faster, to spin out the honey.

continued

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EVERY LAST DROP During the extraction process, a lot of honey will drip out with the wax cappings or even after the frames have been taken out of the extractor. Try to catch the excess honey in buckets, to be filtered later on and added to your harvest.

6

Remove the spun frames to a clean bucket to allow any excess honey to drip out. Continue until you have decapped and spun all the super frames.

7

Lift the extractor onto a stable, raised surface and place a clean bucket under the spigot. Open the spigot to let the honey flow out.

WET SUPERS Comb damage from extraction can usually be repaired by the bees. The workers will lick out the remaining honey in the cells and rebuild gaps in the comb for the colony to fill again that season or to store for next year.

8

Once all the honey has been extracted, you can return the “wet supers,” as they are now called, back to the hive for the bees to repair and reuse.

HARVESTING HONEY

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Filtering and bottling

9

Honey spun off the comb will contain bits of wax and other debris, which needs to be filtered before bottling. Stretch a nylon filter over a clean bucket.

10

Slowly pour the honey through the nylon filter. You may need to repeat the process a couple of times to filter the honey until it is clean.

11

Clean and sterilize jars and lids before bottling the honey. Wash in warm, soapy water, rinse, and then dry in an oven heated to 250°F (130°C).

SETTLING HONEY After extracting and filtering, you may need to settle the honey for several days to allow air bubbles to rise to the surface. Set the buckets aside in a cool, shady area of your kitchen, covered with nylon. After a few days or so, air bubbles rise to the surface as “froth” and can be skimmed off. The quality and consistency of honey varies from hive to hive and from year to year: you may need to settle the honey a second time, or it might not require much settling at all and be ready to bottle the same day.

12

Transfer the filtered honey to a pitcher, carefully pour it into the sterilized jars, and seal. If you are intending to sell the honey, you should label it “honey,” identify the year it was bottled, and include your name and address.

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Harvesting Beeswax

YOU WILL NEED

Beekeepers tend to accumulate a lot of wax: the cappings from honey extraction; brace comb and scraps after inspections; comb from old frames. It is surprising just how much wax can be recovered and how good the quality can be, even from the darkest comb after heavy brood rearing. Harvesting and cleaning beeswax There are three main options for the initial recovery of wax: using a solar wax extractor, a steamer, or a boiler. All three methods rely on melting the wax out of the comb and allowing it either to float to the surface or to drain out. A solar extractor Probably the easiest and most eco-friendly way of recovering wax. Once loaded with comb, a solar extractor needs no attention until the next evening. Provided the day has been a sunny one, it is then simply a matter of cleaning out the dross, scraping the frames of debris if they’re to be cleaned further and reused, and unmolding a block of wax from the collecting pan.

A water heater/boiler

A solar extractor

A steamer Steam from a water reservoir is fed into a sealed box containing the frames to be recovered. As heat builds up in the box, the melted wax pours out into a container, along with condensing water, and solidifies as it cools. A steamer is specially useful during the colder winter months. A water heater/boiler Essentially a large pot in which soft water and comb can be heated together to melt the wax, which then floats to the surface. Larger boilers take whole frames; smaller ones need the comb to be cut out. Pack the frames/comb in an old sack, a muslin bag, or even old pantyhose, and heat the water. The wax will filter through and float to the surface, the old comb being held back in the fabric. Left to cool, a block of wax solidifies on the surface.

• Muslin or other filtering material • Scissors (to cut fabric to size) • Thick rubber band • Clean, empty food can (soup size) with both ends removed • Unfiltered wax • 2 double boilers; or 2 water baths, consisting of stainless steel jugs, trivets, and saucepans large enough to hold the jugs; or a mix of both

1 Filtering wax Whichever method you use to recover your wax, the resulting block of solid wax will contain some debris, mostly embedded in a layer at the bottom. A simple way of removing debris from wax is to pour the remelted wax through a filter. Muslin, disposable dishcloths, and even a piece of diaper liner all work well as filtering material. Choose a filter with a tight weave to ensure that no debris can get through.

1

Melt the wax in a double boiler. Alternatively, melt in a “water bath”: place the wax in a stainless-steel jug set on a trivet in a pan of simmering water.

2

Secure the filtering material over one end of the food can using a thick rubber band. Set up a second double boiler or water bath with another steel jug, ready to receive the filtered wax.

3

Once the wax is molten, hold the can over the second jug and carefully pour the wax through the filtering material into the jug.

HARVESTING BEESWAX

Filtering cappings Often used in cosmetics, since it is generally the palest, cappings wax is worth processing separately. Solar extractors or boilers are both very good for recovering cappings wax. If dealing with a small quantity, however, you may prefer to process it in the kitchen. There are two options for filtering: Melt the cappings in a pan with soft water. Allow to cool and solidify.

1 2

Use a stainless-steel steamer in an electric oven warmed to 160°F (70°C). Pour soft water into the base of the steamer and place the cappings on filtering material in the upper section. The wax will drip through onto the soft water and solidify once cool.

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DOS AND DON’TS OF WORKING WITH BEESWAX Safety first: The most important consideration when working with beeswax is to plan well. Think about your working area and make sure it is as clear as possible and free of tripping hazards. Wax is flammable with a flash point of 399°F (204°C). In the hope that you will never need to use it, always have a fire blanket on hand. Never use a naked flame and never leave melting wax unattended. Never melt wax over direct heat: always use a double boiler or water bath. The melting point of wax is 144–147°F (62–64°C), but it becomes discolored above 185°F (85°C). Aim for a working temperature close to the melting point— say, 151–163°F (66–73°C). Beeswax should never be melted with tap water because its alkalinity will react with the wax, giving it a dull appearance. Soft water, such as distilled water or rainwater, will not have the same effect.

YOU WILL NEED

2

3

• Wax cappings, washed of residual honey, drained, and dried • Soft water then either: • Saucepan or: • Stainless-steel food steamer • Muslin or other filtering material • Electric oven

1

2

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Making Candles Candle-making is an incredibly satisfying aspect of the beekeeper’s craft and can be carried out at any time of the year. Well-made beeswax candles burn cleanly, without dripping, and with a beautiful glow. No other type of wax compares. See p.179 for general tips on working with beeswax.

Rolled candles Rolled candles can be made with very little equipment using purchased or homemade foundation wax sheets. They look beautiful just as they are, or they can be transformed into something special by using different colors and adding simple decoration. Just as beehives come in different sizes, so does foundation. It also comes in different colors. All of it can be used to great effect for candles.

YOU WILL NEED

OF WAX AND WICKS Whatever type of candle you decide to make, clean wax and the right wick are essential to success. Dirty wax could look unsightly and the candle may splutter and smoke. A wick that’s too thick will result in a candle that drips and smokes. A wick that’s too thin will cause the wick to drown in a puddle of molten wax. Wick is thicker for beeswax candles than would be required in the equivalentsized paraffin wax candle. To avoid any confusion, it is best to purchase wick from a beekeeping supplier who will ensure that it is appropriately labeled for the thickness of a beeswax candle. Wick size for a tapered candle is determined by the thickness of the candle at its midpoint. Waxing the tip of the wick will make lighting candles problem-free. A good way to do this is to work with a lit candle alongside and dip the end of each wick in the well of molten wax made by the flame.

• Sheets of unwired wax foundation, plain or in different colors (if necessary, carefully warmed with a hair dryer or hot-water bottle until pliable) • Wicks, consistent with the thickness of the final candle (see box) • Decorative pins (optional) • Straight edge • Craft knife

1

For a spiral candle, cut a sheet of foundation in half on the diagonal and lay it on a flat surface. Place the wick along the shortest side and carefully roll the edge of the foundation over so that it secures around the wick.

2

Using your spread fingers and applying pressure evenly, continue rolling, keeping what will become the base of the candle level.

MAKING CANDLES

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3

Pressure alone is usually enough to secure the open end of the sheet in place once the candle is rolled, but you can use a decorative pin to secure it if you like.

DECORATIVE IDEAS Rolling candles is ideal if you like to experiment and create. Here are some decorative ideas you might wish to try: For a cylindrical candle, leave the foundation sheet whole and roll the wick along the short side for a short, thick candle or the long side for a tall, slim one. For a fatter candle, continue rolling with a second sheet of foundation. Create a two-tone spiral candle by using two different colors of foundation cut on the diagonal, one slightly higher than the other, and rolled together. Using two contrasting colors rolled together, cut shapes out of the last layer of wax, revealing the color beneath. Wax cut-outs, in contrasting colors and various shapes, can be applied to the surface of the candle. Apply glitter; this is especially effective along the edge of a tall spiral candle.

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Molded candles YOU WILL NEED

If you have only a small quantity of wax or do not have the time to make dipped candles, using molds will give you very attractive, solid beeswax candles in every shape imaginable. Available molds range from novelty elves to the Statue of Liberty to a full chess set. As little as 13/4 oz (50 g) of beeswax is enough for a 10-in (25-cm) table candle.

• Water bath equipment or double boiler (see Filtering wax, p.178) • Filtered beeswax • Wick, consistent with the thickness of the final candle (see box, p.180) • Silicone mold • Rubber bands • Cardboard collar (optional; place beneath the rubber bands to help minimize pinch marks) • Wicking needle • Matchsticks or toothpicks

1

Melt the wax in a pot in a water bath, or in a double boiler (see p.178). Wax the tip of the wick by dipping the end of it in the molten wax.

2

Use rubber bands to hold the mold securely closed. The bands shouldn’t be so tight that you can see pinch marks on the finished candle.

3

Push the wick through the hole in the base of the mold with a wicking needle. Rest the end of the wick in the groove, if the mold has one.

4

Gently pull the wick taut. Keep the wick in place by pushing a needle through the center. Rest the needle on matchsticks to avoid leaving marks.

MOLD TYPES Molds come in a range of materials: metal, glass, plastic, and flexible molds in latex and silicone. Whichever type of mold you use, always ensure that it is properly supported. Latex molds are very flexible and need to be well supported. Silicone molds consistently produce the best candles. Often with a groove in the base to accommodate the wick, this makes the wider ones very stable, but support is still required for slimmer molds. A glass tumbler or a hole cut in the lid of a plastic container will work very well to support latex and taller/ unstable silicone molds.

5

Pour molten wax into the mold. As the wax cools, it contracts, leaving a cavity that must be topped off. Once cool, unmold and trim the wick.

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Dipped candles

YOU WILL NEED

Dipped candles require more thought, careful setting up of a “dipping station,” a large stock of wax because the dipping tube will need to be refilled regularly, a steady hand—and patience! The finished candle is simple and elegant and well worth the effort.

• Water bath equipment or double boiler, for melting the wax (see Filtering wax, p.178) • Filtered beeswax • Wicks, cut into lengths twice as long as the desired candle size plus 2–3 in (5–8 cm) extra, so that they can be hung up • Deep saucepan • Metal dipping tube, deeper than the saucepan • Somewhere to hang the candles

DIPPING TIPS How long do you dip the candle for? This depends on the temperature of the wax and of the surrounding environment. Draw the candle out faster than the molten wax is pouring back down and the excess wax will be left behind, causing a ripple in the candle. And don’t leave the candle in the dipping tube so long that it begins to melt and becomes thinner rather than fatter, particularly at the base. How long do you wait between dips? This also depends. If the candle is too cold, the next layer of wax may not adhere well and the candle can look patchy because of air trapped between layers. If there is insufficient time between successive dips, earlier layers of wax may become unstable and begin to slump and ripple.

1

2

3

4

Set up a “dipping station” and heat enough water in the deep pan to come halfway up the dipping tube. Fill the tube with molten wax.

Holding the wick in the middle and without letting the two ends tangle, dip the two sides in the tube of wax. Draw it out and let the excess wax drain away.

Rectify drips and bumps when the candle is still fairly thin by rolling it between glass sheets while the wax is still pliable. This can improve the smoothness of the candle, but be careful: if the wax is too warm, it can lift away and the candle will be ruined.

When cool, hold the wick tightly and pull the end to straighten any kinks. Dip and pull the wick again, repeating until you have a straight wick.

Continue dipping the candles, drawing them out with a steady movement and hanging them up to cool, until the desired width is reached.

For the straightest profile, a steady hand is required when drawing the candles out of the wax.

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Simple Wax Sculpting One of the properties of beeswax is that it is pliable when warm, which makes it ideal for molding and sculpting by hand. This exercise is designed as a simple starting point in working with molten wax.

YOU WILL NEED • Water bath equipment or double boiler, for melting the wax (see Filtering wax, p.178) • Pale filtered beeswax • Selection of attractively shaped leaves • Bowl • String • Small craft knife

Wax-coated leaves

2

1

Use the leaves to decorate candles, string into garlands, or hang individually.

Dip the leaves in your palest molten wax, repeating once or twice. Leave to cool.

Wax leaves

1

Dip the leaves in cold water and then in molten wax. Leave to cool until set but still pliable and then peel a “leaf” from each side.

2

Most will peel off easily, but have a small craft knife handy in case they stick together. These wax leaves are pliable when warm and look great when used to decorate beeswax candles.

MAKING POLISH

Making Polish With few ingredients and simple techniques, making polish is far easier than most people imagine. The natural aroma is hard to beat, but if you want to add scent, lavender essential oil works well, particularly with a creamed polish.

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YOU WILL NEED • Water bath equipment or double boiler, (see Filtering wax, p.178) • 4 oz (115 g) filtered beeswax • 11/4 cups (300 ml) solvent, such as turpentine • Clean, empty jars or polish tins

Paste furniture polish A paste polish is simply a mixture of beeswax and solvent. This recipe is flexible; the less solvent added, the stiffer the mixture. The traditional, and arguably the best, solvent to use is pure turpentine, but mineral spirits can be substituted.

VARIATIONS Carnauba wax Carnauba wax derives from a South American palm tree, and a small addition produces polish with a high gloss and hard finish. Simply double the quantities above and melt 1 oz (30 g) carnauba wax with the beeswax. Creamed polish To make creamed beeswax furniture polish, you will need the following ingredients:

1

Melt the filtered wax in a water bath or double boiler and then remove from heat.

2

Pour solvent into the wax and stir thoroughly. Residual heat should keep the wax liquid. If not, reheat until it liquefies completely.

• 2 oz (60 g) pure soap flakes • 11/4 cups (300 ml) warm water: use clean rainwater or distilled water • 4 oz (115 g) beeswax • 21/2 cups (600 ml) turpentine

3

Pour the mixture into prepared containers and leave to cool and set completely before sealing.

Dissolve the soap in the warm water in one pan. Put the shaved wax into the turpentine in another pan and warm gently until the wax is melted and the ingredients are well mixed. Pour the soapy water into the turpentine/wax mixture. Aim to have the ingredients at about the same temperature. As you stir the mixture with a wooden stick or whisk, it will form an emulsion as it cools. Pour into jars when well mixed.

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Treasures of the Hive

WHAT IS APITHERAPY?

The transformation of a flower’s nectar into golden honey led ancient people to believe honey was one of nature’s treasures. Honey and beeswax are highly prized by the beauty industry for use in creams and lotions, while propolis is made into traditional preparations, such as tinctures.

Honey The use of honey as a natural sweetener dates back to ancient Egypt, where it was also given as an offering to the gods, and could function as currency. The beauty world has long recognized the benefits of honey, which can be applied as a face mask, used in bathing to nourish and soften the body, and added to tonics to hydrate and smooth hair. Research continues into the antiseptic and antimicrobial properties of honey for therapeutic benefits.

Apitherapy is the practice of using hive products for healing. These include honey, beeswax, propolis, pollen, and royal jelly, which can be used in therapies to enhance well-being. Natural remedies, such as a spoonful of honey for a sore throat or pollen supplements for hay fever, continue to be popular. However, such remedies are not an alternative to conventional medicine and should only be used to complement a healthy lifestyle. Always consult your doctor before using and if symptoms persist, especially if you are pregnant.

Source of energy Honey is a good source of carbohydrate energy, consisting of simple sugars with trace vitamins and minerals. It can vary in color, consistency, fragrance, and flavor, depending on the type of nectar collected by the honey bee.

TREASURES OF THE HIVE

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Propolis

Tooth treatment Propolis can be collected by scraping it off the top bars of frames. Some beekeepers apply it directly to their gums to treat toothaches.

Beeswax Beeswax first gained widespread use in candlemaking during the Middle Ages, and it has also traditionally provided sealing wax for letters. Beeswax still has many practical uses today, from furniture polish to a coating to preserve cheese. In cosmetics, beeswax is highly valued as a natural emulsifier for creams, balms, and lotions. It has deeply nourishing emollient properties that help to smooth and soften skin.

A STINGING BLOW TO VIRUSES? Venoms target specific pathways in the body to cause maximum effect with minimum venom. By modifying melittin, the main component in honey bee venom, scientists have tailored it to damage only viruses, leaving healthy cells intact. The result is a potential treatment for a range of viruses, such as HIV and hepatitis B and C. Similar research is underway into treatments for cancer and neurological disorders.

A sticky, resinous substance collected from trees, propolis is used in the hive to seal small cracks, strengthen brood comb, and embalm the dead bodies of large intruders that cannot be removed, to prevent mold and bacteria from growing. Propolis is believed to have antibacterial and antifungal properties, and has long been used in traditional treatments for toothaches, sores, and ulcers. Clinical trials into the potential health benefits of propolis are ongoing.

Molding medium Beeswax remains a popular medium in art and crafts, from making wax models to creating decoratively carved molds.

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190

INGREDIENTS MAKES 1 DRINK

1-in (2.5-cm) piece of fresh ginger root 3 cloves 1

⁄2 tsp turmeric powder (or 1 tsp freshly grated turmeric root) 4 tbsp cider vinegar 1 tbsp honey

Lemon slices (optional)

RECIPES FOR HEALTH

Cold Soother A combination of honey and cider vinegar is an old traditional remedy for colds and sore throats, and with the addition of spices it makes a very palatable hot drink.

HOW TO MAKE

1

Peel and grate the ginger; the easiest way to peel ginger is with the edge of a teaspoon. Place the ginger in a small pan with all the other ingredients, except the honey. Add ¼ cup (60 ml) water, bring to a boil, and simmer gently for 10 minutes.

2

Remove the pan from the heat and stir in the honey until dissolved. Strain into a mug and drink while still warm, adding a lemon slice, if you like, for vitamin C. Enjoy it three or four times a day to help relieve a cold.

VARIATION: FEVER REMEDY If you are also running a temperature, try harnessing the natural power of lemon balm to help lower the fever. Make a smooth purée by blending together 3 ⁄4 oz (20 g) fresh lemon balm leaves, ¼ cup (100 g) honey, and the juice of half a lemon in a blender or food processor. Simply add to your hot drink in place of the plain honey, with or without the spices. The purée will last for a week or two, if kept refrigerated, and also works well as a sweetener for other herbal infusions or summer cocktails.

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192

INGREDIENTS MAKES 40–50 DROPS

2-in (5-cm) piece of fresh ginger root 4–5 cloves 1

⁄2 cup (120 g) honey

Honey and Ginger Cough Drops These old-fashioned hard candies feature ingredients that have been used to alleviate coughs and soothe sore throats for centuries.

1 cup (200 g) sugar For the molds: 2 cups (250 g) corn starch 2 cups (250 g) powdered sugar Special equipment: Candy thermometer

HOW TO MAKE

1

Peel and grate the ginger. Place the ginger in a small pan with the cloves and add 1 cup (200 ml) water. Bring to a boil and then simmer for 5 minutes. Set aside and allow to cool.

2

Prepare the molds by sifting together the corn starch and powdered sugar. Spread this mixture evenly across a cookie sheet or shallow plastic dish, then press a small rounded object (a 1 ⁄2-tsp measuring spoon works well) into the mixture at regular intervals to produce the molds. Make 40 to 50 indentations and use more than one tray if necessary.

3

Strain the ginger and clove infusion. Press the ginger down into the strainer with a spoon to extract as much juice as possible. Place 1 ⁄2 cup (100 ml) of the strained liquid in a large, heavy-based pan, then add the honey and sugar. It is important to use a large pan because the mixture expands and rises up the pan as it heats up.

4

Bring the mixture slowly to a boil, stirring until the sugar and honey are dissolved. Boil vigorously, stirring occasionally with a wooden spoon, until the mixture reaches 300°F (150°C). Remove the pan from the heat and, using a spoon or ladle, drop a small amount of mixture into each indentation on the tray. If the mixture becomes too stiff, heat gently for another minute.

5

Allow the drops to cool and then remove them from the corn starch and sugar mix by shaking them through a strainer. The cough drops will keep in an airtight container for up to one month.

As well as being antibacterial, the viscosity, or “thickness,” of honey has a soothing effect.

RECIPES FOR HEALTH

INGREDIENTS MAKES 2 SMALL JARS

2–3 cloves of garlic 2 1

⁄3 cup (150 ml) olive oil

⁄2 oz (15 g) beeswax, broken into small pieces 3–4 drops eucalyptus oil (optional)

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Garlic Chest Rub A traditional and pungent remedy to help alleviate the symptoms of chesty colds and coughs. Wear an old T-shirt when using the rub, since it can stain clothing.

HOW TO MAKE

1

Peel and finely chop the garlic. Place in a small pan with the oil and warm very gently for 30 minutes. Do not allow to boil. Leave to cool, strain through a fine mesh strainer, and discard the garlic.

2

Place the beeswax and infused oil in a heatproof glass bowl set over a pan of simmering water. Heat, stirring occasionally, until the beeswax is melted.

3

Remove from heat and allow the mixture to cool slightly before stirring in the eucalyptus oil (if using). Pour into sterilized jars and allow to cool before sealing. Store in the refrigerator for up to two weeks.

INGREDIENTS MAKES 1 SMALL JAR

scant 1 oz (25 g) beeswax 1


Vapor Rub Ravensara, myrtle, and frankincense vapors in a base of beeswax and olive oil can help to clear stuffy heads and unblock noses. Simply rub the balm on your upper chest.

8 drops ravensara oil 7 drops myrtle oil 5 drops frankincense oil

HOW TO MAKE

1 2

Slowly melt the beeswax into the olive oil in a heatproof glass bowl set over a pan of simmering water.

Remove from the heat and quickly stir in the essential oils before the mixture sets. Pour into a small sterilized glass jar and leave to cool for a few hours before sealing. Use within three months. You can also add a couple of teaspoons of the vapour rub to a bowl of hot water for use as a steam inhalation.

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INGREDIENTS MAKES APPROX. 3 ⁄4 oz (20 g) 1

2 ⁄2 tbsp (20 g) corn starch 20 drops (1 ml) propolis tincture 5 drops lavender oil 5 drops tea tree oil Special equipment: Bottle with fine mist atomizer

INGREDIENTS MAKES 2 SMALL JARS


⁄2 cup (125 ml) grapeseed oil

2 tbsp jojoba oil 1

⁄2 tsp tea tree oil

1

⁄2 tsp lemon oil

Propolis Powder A cleansing, lightly scented talc-free powder such as this is ideal for use before and after sports or strenuous activity to protect against chafing.

HOW TO MAKE

1

Sift the corn starch evenly onto a wide, flat plate. Mix the propolis tincture and essential oils together and decant into a clean bottle with a fine mist atomizer.

2

Spray this mix onto the corn starch, taking care to spray evenly and not to saturate the powder, which may cause lumps. Allow the powder to dry. Store in an old, clean body powder dispenser or clean flour shaker. Use within six months.

Ointment for Pimples The anti-inflammatory properties of beeswax and grapeseed oil combine with the astringency of lemon and tea tree oils to make a non-greasy ointment for acne.

HOW TO MAKE

1

Melt the beeswax, grapeseed oil, and jojoba oil in a heatproof bowl set over a pan of simmering water. Remove from heat and allow to cool slightly before stirring in the tea tree and lemon oils.

2

Pour into small sterilized jars and allow to cool completely before sealing. Use by gently rubbing a small amount into the skin as required. Avoid mouth and eyes. Keeps for six months.

VARIATIONS: INSECT REPELLENT AND FOOT OINTMENTS Replace the tea tree and lemon oils with 1 tsp citronella oil to repel mosquitoes, or 1 tsp peppermint oil to relieve tired feet.

Bees make propolis from tree resin and utilize its disinfectant properties to slow the spread of bacteria in the hive.

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INGREDIENTS MAKES ABOUT 12 PLASTERS 1

3 ⁄2 oz (100 g) Scotch Bonnet or other hot chili peppers, finely chopped

Mustard Plasters Combining anti-inflammatory beeswax with mustard powder and chili oil for warmth, these traditional poultices provide relief for aching muscles and painful joints.

1 cup (200 ml) olive oil 23 ⁄4 oz (80 g) beeswax 2 tbsp yellow mustard powder Special equipment: Muslin 2-in (5-cm) cotton pads Adhesive wound dressing or surgical tape

HOW TO MAKE

1

Place the chopped chili peppers in a small pan and cover with the oil. Heat very gently for 30 minutes and then leave to infuse for several hours. Strain through a fine mesh strainer lined with muslin.

2

Pour ¼ cup (100 ml) of the chili oil into a heatproof bowl (use the rest of the oil to make the muscle rub, described below). Add the beeswax and heat over a pan of simmering water until the wax melts, then remove from heat and stir in the mustard powder.

3

Using tongs, dip the cotton pads into the mixture, one at a time, until saturated. Place the pads on parchment paper and allow to set. Store the pads in the refrigerator in a sealed container, with parchment paper between them. Use within 12 months.

HOW TO USE Press one or more of the pads on the affected area and hold in place with adhesive wound dressing or surgical tape. Keep the area warm and leave for up to 45 minutes, then remove and wash any residue from the skin. Remove immediately if there is any discomfort or reddening of the skin. VARIATION: CHILI PEPPER MUSCLE RUB In a heatproof bowl, combine 1 ⁄4 cup (50 ml) chili oil with 1 ⁄2 cup (100 ml) grapeseed oil and 1 ⁄2 oz (15 g) beeswax (more for a firmer consistency), and heat over a pan of simmering water until the wax has melted. Cool slightly, then stir in 1–2 tbsp cayenne pepper and 1 ⁄2 tsp eucalyptus oil. Stand the bowl in cold water and stir continuously until it resembles thick cream. To use, massage into aching muscles for 2–3 minutes, as often as necessary. Avoid face and eyes, wipe away any excess, and wash hands thoroughly after use. It will keep for up to six months.

If you cannot get Scotch Bonnet chili peppers, look for habanero or bird’s-eye, which are similarly fiery.

RECIPES FOR HEALTH

INGREDIENTS MAKES 1 SMALL JAR


⁄2 cup (120 ml) Moroccan argan oil 3 tsp honey 7 drops myrrh oil 5 drops frankincense oil

197

Healing Foot Balm This foot balm is an ancient blend of the oils of myrrh, frankincense, and argan, with beeswax and honey to soothe and moisturize dry, cracked heels.

HOW TO MAKE

1

Place the beeswax and argan oil in a heatproof bowl and heat over a pan of simmering water until the wax has melted. Add the honey and stir until dissolved. Remove from heat and quickly stir in the essential oils before the mixture sets.

2

Pour into a small sterilized jar and leave to cool for a few hours. To use, massage liberally onto your feet with circular movements. For extra moisturizing, wrap your feet in plastic wrap and put on a pair of thick socks to sleep in overnight. Use within three months.

INGREDIENTS MAKES 2 SMALL JARS 1

⁄4 oz (10 g) dried arnica flowers

Salve for Bruises Arnica has been used to treat bruises for centuries and is a member of the sunflower family. This traditional remedy is known as a “magic cream” for bruises.

1 cup (200 ml) almond or olive oil 1

⁄2 oz (15 g) beeswax

HOW TO MAKE

1

Place the arnica flowers in a screw-top jar and cover with the almond or olive oil. Leave in a warm place—a sunny windowsill is ideal—for two to three weeks. Strain the mixture through a fine mesh strainer, squeezing to extract as much oil as possible.

2

Measure ²/3 cup (150 ml) of the infused oil and combine with the beeswax in a heatproof bowl set over a pan of simmering water. Heat gently until the beeswax has melted. Pour the mixture into sterilized jars and leave to set. Use by rubbing gently into bruised skin. Use sheets of wax foundation if you don’t have any of your own filtered beeswax.

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INGREDIENTS MAKES 14 fl oz (400 ml) 1

⁄8 oz (5 g) calendula petals 1

⁄2 cup (100 ml) olive oil 1

⁄4 oz (10 g) beeswax, chopped or broken into small pieces 3

⁄4 oz (18 g) emulsifying wax 1 cup (250 ml) chamomile tea, made with 2 tea bags 1 tbsp honey Special equipment:

Immersion blender (optional)

RECIPES FOR HEALTH

Soothing Sunburn Lotion Honey has been used to treat burns for hundreds of years. Combined with soothing calendula and chamomile, it makes a cooling lotion for minor sunburn and burns.

HOW TO MAKE

1

Place the calendula petals in a small saucepan and cover with the oil. Heat gently (do not allow to boil) for about 30 minutes. Leave the mixture to cool for at least an hour.

2

Strain the infused oil through a fine mesh strainer, squeezing the petals to extract as much oil as possible. Measure out 1 ⁄3 cup (80 ml) of the infused oil, topping off with a little more olive oil if required.

3

Place the oil and all the other ingredients in a heatproof bowl set over a pan of gently simmering water. Heat until the emulsifying wax starts to melt and then begin to whisk vigorously. Keep whisking, increasing the heat if necessary, until all ingredients have melted and combined.

4

Remove from heat and continue to whisk for 2–3 minutes, taking it gently so that not too much air is incorporated. Leave to cool, stirring occasionally. As the mixture cools and starts to thicken, pour into sterilized pots. To use, rub lotion lightly on affected skin as required. Do not use on broken skin. For anything other than minor burns, and if symptoms persist, consult your doctor. Store in the refrigerator for up to 14 days.

VARIATION: ALOE VERA If you have an aloe vera plant, split and scrape the gel from 2 or 3 leaves and add to the mixture for an additional cooling effect.

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INGREDIENTS MAKES 2 SMALL JARS 1 1


⁄4 cup (40 ml) olive oil 1 tsp honey

5 drops peppermint oil

RECIPES FOR HEALTH

Honey and Mint Lip Balm A moisturizing lip balm enriched with nourishing honey and soothing peppermint in a beeswax-and-olive-oil base for softening dry, chapped lips.

HOW TO MAKE

1

Combine the beeswax and olive oil in a heatproof bowl, place it over a pan of simmering water, and heat gently until the beeswax melts. Stir in the honey once the wax has melted.

2

Remove from heat and add the peppermint oil. Spoon into small, sterilized jars and leave to cool. To use, simply apply with fingertips to dry lips as needed. Use within three months.

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INGREDIENTS MAKES 1 APPLICATION

2 tsp roughly or finely ground oats, according to preference 4–5 tsp honey

Honey and Oat Exfoliating Scrub A simple facial scrub made from kitchen-cupboard staples, the oat-and-honey mixture gently exfoliates while essential oils promote a radiant complexion.

1 drop grapefruit oil 1 drop geranium oil

HOW TO MAKE

1 2

Place the oats and honey in a small bowl and mix to a loose paste. You can vary the amount of honey to achieve the right consistency.

Add a drop each of the essential oils and mix to combine. To apply, scoop the paste onto your fingertips and gently roll it over your face in outward circular movements. Leave for 2–3 minutes and then remove with a moist, warm cotton washcloth.

INGREDIENTS MAKES 1 APPLICATION

2 tsp white kaolin clay 4–5 tsp honey 1 drop peppermint oil 1 drop lavender oil

Honey and Clay Facial Mask The purifying properties of honey and kaolin clay combine with refining peppermint and lavender oils to make an effective deep-cleansing facial mask.

HOW TO MAKE

1 2

Place the clay and honey in a small bowl and mix to a smooth paste. Add a drop each of the essential oils and stir to combine.

To apply, smooth a light layer over your face, particularly concentrating on the “T-zone” around the forehead, nose, and chin. Avoid contact with your eyes. Leave for 5 minutes, then remove with a moist, warm cotton washcloth.

Soothing and with antibacterial properties, honey also has a gently exfoliating effect to draw out impurities.

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INGREDIENTS MAKES 1 BOTTLE

1 cup (250 ml) distilled or spring water

Facial Toner Moisturizing and antioxidant honey helps to reduce signs of aging and leaves skin feeling soothed. A refreshing treat for the face.

2 tea bags of green tea 3 tbsp (50 ml) cider vinegar 1 tsp honey 5 drops lavender oil

HOW TO MAKE

1 2

Boil the water and pour it over the tea bags. Stir and leave to steep for 10 minutes, then remove the bags.

Add the honey while the infusion is still warm and stir until dissolved. Add the remaining ingredients, then pour through a coffee filter into a sterilized bottle.

3

To use, after cleansing gently wipe your face with a cotton pad soaked in the toner. Or use in a bottle with a fine mist atomizer for a cool, refreshing spray. Always avoid the eyes. The toner is best made fresh on a weekly basis.

INGREDIENTS MAKES 1 SMALL JAR 1 1


⁄4 cup (40 ml) olive oil 21 ⁄2 tbsp (40 ml) distilled water 4 drops Roman chamomile oil 3 drops geranium oil 3 drops lavender oil

Special equipment: Electric mixer (optional)

Protecting Hand Cream A simple blend of beeswax, olive oil, and distilled water creates a hand cream that protects and comforts as you work—perfect for gardeners and busy beekeepers.

HOW TO MAKE

1 2

Slowly melt the beeswax in olive oil in a heatproof bowl set over a pan of gently simmering water.

Once the beeswax has melted, remove the bowl from the heat and add the distilled water a drop at a time, using a whisk or electric mixer to blend after each addition.

3

Add the essential oils and quickly stir before the mixture sets. Then spoon into a sterilized jar and leave to cool. Rub a small amount thoroughly into your hands before outdoor work. Wash your hands afterward and reapply. Use within one month.

RECIPES FOR BEAUTY




205

Radiance Day Cream Inspired by the cold cream created by the physician Galen in Ancient Greece, this face cream is cool and firm yet melts on touching to smooth over the skin.

1

2 ⁄2 tbsp (40 ml) distilled water 4 drops myrtle oil 3 drops lavender oil 3 drops geranium oil Special equipment: Electric mixer (optional)

HOW TO MAKE

1 2

Slowly melt the beeswax in the olive oil in a heatproof bowl set over a pan of gently simmering water.


3

Add the essential oils and quickly stir before the mixture sets. Spoon into a sterilized jar, leave to cool, and use within one month. Not suitable as a sunscreen: if going out into strong sunshine, let the cream soak into skin before applying your normal sun protection.




21 ⁄2 tbsp (40 ml) distilled water 6 drops frankincense oil 4 drops rose oil Special equipment: Electric mixer (optional)

Renewal Night Cream This decadent face cream, enriched with the luxurious oils of frankincense and rose, hydrates and softens skin as you sleep.

HOW TO MAKE

1 2

Slowly melt the beeswax in olive oil in a heatproof bowl set over a pan of gently simmering water.


3

Add the essential oils and quickly stir before the mixture sets. Spoon into a sterilized jar and leave to cool. Frankincense oil is distilled from Boswellia tree resin and has long been used to rejuvenate skin.

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INGREDIENTS MAKES 1 LARGE BOTTLE 3

⁄4 cup (200 ml) light olive oil 1 cup (250 ml) baby wash 31 ⁄2 oz (100 g) honey 1 tsp lavender or other essential oil 1 egg white (optional)

RECIPES FOR BEAUTY

Bubble Bath Relax in a warm, scented bubble bath while the honey works its magic to help your skin absorb and retain moisture. Though not essential, frothy egg white added to the basic mixture will produce bigger and longer-lasting bubbles.

HOW TO MAKE

1 2 3

Mix together the olive oil and baby wash in a large bowl. Add the honey and stir until dissolved, then mix in your choice of essential oils. Lightly whisk the egg white (if using) until frothy, and then strain before adding to the other ingredients.

Pour into a sterilized bottle. Shake before use (the mixture will separate but looks pretty!) and then pour 1–2 cupfuls under the running faucet. Use within six months, or three weeks if egg white is included.

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INGREDIENTS MAKES 21 ⁄4 lb (1 kg)

Oils and fats: 11 ⁄2 cups (330 g) coconut oil 11 ⁄2 cups (330 g) corn oil 11 ⁄4 cups (250 g) olive oil 13 ⁄4 oz (50 g) shea butter

Honey and Lavender Soap Made by the traditional cold process method, this nourishing soap is kind to skin with the moisturizing benefits of honey. Note that the quantities cannot be altered without also recalculating the ingredients for the lye solution.

11 ⁄2 oz (40 g) beeswax Lye solution: 11 ⁄2 cups (380 g) distilled water 5 oz (140 g) lye Additives: 1

2 ⁄2 tbsp (50 g) honey 3–4 tsp lavender oil, plus fresh flowers (optional) Special equipment: Plastic gloves Safety goggles 4-pint (2-liter) wooden or plastic mold: plastic food containers make good molds and need no lining; wooden molds should be lined with parchment paper or plastic wrap Cooking thermometer Plastic or disposable cup (for weighing lye) Immersion blender (optional) Towels/blankets

HOW TO MAKE

1 2

Gently heat together the oils and fats in a stainless-steel pan until the beeswax has melted. Do not overheat.

In a well-ventilated area and wearing gloves and goggles, put the water in a pitcher and add the lye (not the other way around); stir to dissolve. Take care: lye gives off toxic fumes and will burn; if it gets on your skin, wash with plenty of water and splash with vinegar.

3

Allow both mixtures to cool until they reach 140°F (60°C) or just above; stirring will speed up the process. If the fats start to solidify, reheat gently. If the lye solution gets too cold, warm it by standing the pitcher in a bowl of hot water. Still wearing gloves and goggles, carefully add the lye solution to the oil mixture.

4

Stir the mixture until “trace” is reached: this is the point where it has thickened enough so that if dropped from the spoon, a trail can just be seen on the surface. Trace can be almost immediate or can take 30 minutes or more. An immersion blender will speed up the process.

5

Meanwhile, gently warm the honey, and as soon as trace is reached, add it to the soap mixture, along with the lavender oil; if using fresh flowers, add 2–3 tbsp before the honey and oil. Mix very well and work quickly—additives can cause the mixture to set.

6

Quickly pour the mixture into the prepared mold. Place a piece of plastic wrap on top of the soap and wrap it in towels. Leave on a level surface to set for 24 hours. The soap will continue to heat as a chemical reaction takes place. Take care when cleaning equipment and wear gloves: the soap mixture will still be caustic. It may be easier to leave the pan overnight and scrape out the hardened soap residue before washing.

7

Remove the soap from the mold, still wearing gloves, and cut into bars. Place on racks and leave in an airy place, lightly covered with paper towels, to “cure” for at least four weeks before use.

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INGREDIENTS MAKES 1 APPLICATION 3

⁄4 cup (200 ml) distilled water 1 tsp honey

Honey Hair Rinse Used weekly, this rinse helps nourish and protect the hair. Honey acts as a humectant, retaining moisture and boosting shine, while cider vinegar removes unwanted buildup and helps minimize frizz.

2 tsp cider vinegar For dark hair: 3–4 sprigs of rosemary For fair hair: 3–4 sprigs of fresh chamomile or 1 chamomile tea bag For itchy or flaky scalp: 1 green tea bag

INGREDIENTS MAKES 5 x 1-oz (30-g) BARS 1

2 ⁄2 oz (75 g) beeswax 13 ⁄4 oz (50 g) cocoa butter 1

⁄3 cup (75 ml) sweet almond or almond oil Special equipment:

Molds: silicone soap or muffin molds are ideal (if using rigid plastic or glass containers, smear the insides with a little dish soap to help release the bars)

HOW TO MAKE

1 2 3

Take a rolling pin and use it to bruise the sprigs of rosemary or fresh chamomile, releasing the oils and aromas. Place the bruised rosemary, chamomile, or tea bags in a pitcher or bowl. Bring the water to a boil and pour into the pitcher or bowl.

Add the honey and stir until dissolved. Leave until cool and then add the cider vinegar. To use, after washing hair, pour over and massage through hair, then rinse. Best made just before use, but will store in a sealed container in a cool place for up to two weeks.

Moisturizing Body Bar One of the easiest beeswax recipes, this makes a lightly chocolate-scented bar to soften dry skin on feet and elbows. Or use in place of body lotion after a bath or shower for smooth, velvety skin.

HOW TO MAKE

1

Combine all the ingredients in a heatproof bowl and place over a pan of gently simmering water until melted. Remove from heat and pour into molds.

2

Allow to cool completely. The bars can usually be popped easily out of silicone molds, but glass and rigid plastic molds may be more troublesome. In this instance, the easiest way to remove the bars is to plunge the molds into a sink of very cold water; the bars will usually float free. Best stored wrapped in plastic wrap. They will keep for at least 12 months.

RECIPES FOR BEAUTY



⁄4 oz (20 g) cocoa butter 1

⁄2 cup (90 ml) olive oil 3 tsp honey

10 drops geranium oil

211

Honey and Beeswax Body Butter Pamper your skin by preparing your own luxurious homemade body butter. Beeswax and olive oil soften and lock in moisture, while honey and cocoa butter hydrate and replenish to leave skin feeling younger and healthier.

10 drops sweet orange oil HOW TO MAKE

1

Slowly melt the beeswax and cocoa butter into the olive oil in a heatproof bowl set over a pan of gently simmering water. Stir in the honey until that has also dissolved.

2

Remove from heat and quickly stir in the essential oils before the mixture sets. Pour into a sterilized jar and leave to cool for 2–3 hours before sealing.

3

Apply the body butter after a warm bath or shower. Towel-dry your skin before massaging on the butter, particularly focusing on drier areas such as elbows and feet. Use within three months.

Store your filtered beeswax in small blocks that can be used for a variety of recipes.

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INDEX

Index A acarine 146 African bees 19 Africanized “killer” bee (Apis mellifera scutella) 18 agriculture bee-unfriendly practices 60, 61 commercial pollination programs 22, 23, 25, 33, 54, 58, 60, 64 global economic value of pollination 13, 58 land use debate 65 mega-farming 61, 76 monocultures 60, 61 pesticides 22, 61, 66 agrimony (Eupatorium spp.) 97 agrochemicals see pesticides alarm pheromones 51, 56, 132 allergic reactions 120 Allium giganteum 109 Allium schoenoprasum 103, 106, 107 Allodapini bees 14 Amborella trichopoda 14 American foul brood (AFB) 144 anaphylactic shock 116 anatomy 12, 34, 35, 46 ancient Egyptians 32 angelica (Angelica archangelica) 100 anise hyssop (Agastache foeniculum) 96, 105, 109 antennae 49, 66 scent receptors 71 Apis koschevnikovi 28 Apis nigrocincta 28 apitherapy 188 apitoxin 56 apple (Malus domestica) 88, 109 art, bees in 32 artificial swarms 116, 126, 151, 152–7, 162 ashy mining bee (Andrena cineraria) 20 Asian bees 19 Asian honey bee (Apis cerana) 28, 29, 32, 33, 145 asters (Aster spp.) 98, 109 auctions, buying colonies at 126, 127 Australian bees 19

B baby’s breath (Gypsophila elegans) 102 bacteria, gut 64 bacterial infections see foul brood

Bailey method 168–9 bamboo bee house 80–81 barberry (Berberis darwinii) 90 beauty industry 188, 189 bee balm (Monarda spp.) 98 bee brush 123 bee farmers 114 bee houses 62 bamboo 80–81 clay 82–3 pallet bee hotel 86–7 sod bee bank 85, 111 wood block 84 bee space 29, 33, 119 bee-eaters 55 beekeeping associations 115, 117, 120, 126 beekeeping/beekeepers 63 becoming a beekeeper 114–17 bee farmers 114 competition with wild pollinators 63 history of beekeeping 32–3 hobbyist beekeepers 114 inspecting the hive 138–43 introductory courses 116 legal responsibilities 117 mentoring programs 115–16, 126 migratory 60 obtaining a bee colony 126–7 opening up a hive 130–37 philosophies 114 seasonal awareness 115 starting from a nucleus colony 128–9 time and cost commitments 116 tools and equipment 122–3 urban beekeeping 76 websites 117 see also breeding bees; combs, changing; harvesting; hives; hygiene; swarms; uniting colonies bees anatomy of 12, 46 evolution of 14–15, 16, 70 species and subspecies 13, 18–19, 28 beesuits 123 beeswax 48–9 candle making 180–85 cosmetic uses 189 filtering 178–9 flammability 179 harvesting 178–9 melting point 179 polish 187 properties 48 safety issues 179 wax sculpting 186

beeswax recipes Garlic Chest Rub 193 Healing Foot Balm 197 Honey and Beeswax Body Butter 211 Honey and Mint Lip Balm 200–01 Moisturizing Body Bar 210 Mustard Plasters 195 Ointment for Pimples 194 Protecting Hand Cream 204 Radiance Day Cream 205 Renewal Night Cream 205 Salve for Bruises 197 Soothing Sunburn Lotion 198–9 Vapor Rub 193 beewolves 54 biodiversity reduction 65 bird pests 55, 165 black dwarf honey bee (Apis andreniformis) 28 blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) 95 blanket flower (Gaillardia x grandiflora) 96 blazing star (Liatris spicata) 97 blended honey 47 blue carpenter bee (Xylocopa caerulea) 21 blue orchard bee (Osmia lignaria) 22 body temperature 26, 42 Bombus genus see bumblebees borage (Borago officinalis) 101 bottom board, hive 119 brace comb 119, 142, 174 brain 26, 74 breeding bees 23 advances in 33 genetic overbreeding 60 brood box 52, 135 inspecting 143 moving bees to new brood box 168–71 brood cells see cells brood comb see comb brood disease 144 brood frames 123, 124 brood pattern 40, 160 brood pheromones 50, 51 brood purity 30

INDEX

brood-recognition pheromone 50, 51 buckeye (Aesculus spp.) 89 Buckfast bee 29 buff-tailed bumblebee (Bombus terrestris) 15, 18, 24 bumblebees 18 domestication 25 evolution 14, 15 flight 26–7 honey 47 life cycle 24–5 pheromones 51 sociality 24 tongue length 24, 79 butterfly bush (Buddleja spp.) 91 buying bees 126–7 buzz pollination 25 buzz runs 52

C California lilac (Ceanothus arboreus) 90, 109 California poppy (Eschscholzia californica) 102, 109 candle making 180–85 decorative ideas 181 dipped candles 184–5 molded candles 182–3 rolled candles 180 wicks 180 candytuft (Iberis amara) 102, 105 cappings 40, 46, 51, 140, 143, 166 drone brood 140, 144 filtering 179 removal 175 unhealthy 140, 144 worker brood 140, 144 carnauba wax 187 carpenter bees 21 cast-off swarms 155 catmint (Nepeta spp.) 71, 95 celandine, lesser (Ranunculus ficaria) 93 cells 40, 48–9 brood cells 40, 41, 52, 168, 169 capping 40, 41 drone cells 39, 49, 140, 160, 161 healthy 144 hexagonal shape 40, 48 honey cells 40, 41 queen cells 39, 49, 52, 143, 150, 151, 152, 155, 157, 161, 162 worker cells 49, 140 centrifugal extractor 174, 175, 176

chalkbrood 144, 145 “Chinese slippers” 144 chives (Allium schoenoprasum) 103, 106, 107 chromosomes 31 Circe principle 65 clay bee house 82–3 clearer boards 149 cliff-edge nests 19 cocoons 22, 23, 39, 40 colonies bad-tempered colonies 36 castes 34–6 founding a new colony 37 inspecting 138–43 locally raised 126 mass transportation of 60 nucleus (“nuc”) colonies 128–9 obtaining a bee colony 126–7 overcrowding 52 parent colonies 152, 155, 156, 157 queen-right colonies 138, 161, 162, 164 size 29 stressed colonies 144 superorganism 37, 52 temperaments 130 transporting 60 uniting 161, 162–3, 164 Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) 59, 60 columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris) 94 comb brace comb 119, 142, 174 comb damage from extraction 176 examining 136–7 functions 49 harvesting honey from 174–7 honeycomb structure 48, 49 “pepper shaker pattern” 140, 144, 160 pollen storage 40, 41 see also cells comb cells 42 hexagonal shape 42 combs, changing 168–71 Bailey method 168–9 disposal of old comb 169 frequency of 169 hygiene 169 shook swarm method 170–71 communication see dance; pheromones community gardens 120 compound eyes 35, 72 coneflower (Echinacea purpurea) 99 conservation 62, 63, 65, 66 container bee plants 104–5 cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) 78

213

Cotoneaster spp. 90 cottage garden for bees 108–9 court bees 40, 50, 51 cover cloths 137 cranesbill (Geranium pratense) 95 Crocus tommasinianus 103, 109 cross-fertilization 23, 75 cuckoo bees 15 culver’s root (Veronicastrum virginicum) 96, 109 cut comb honey 47 Cynoglossum spp. 101

D dahlias 97 dance 44–5, 67 recruitment dance 45 round dance 45 waggle dance 41, 44–5, 51, 53 dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) 94 DDT 61 decapping fork 123 declining bee populations 58–67 causes of 60–61 reversing 62–7 see also threats to bees defensive strategies 56–7 deformed wing virus (DWV) 142, 146, 164 Dianthus 79 diapause 24 diarrhea 143, 146 digging bees 20, 85 diseases 144–7, 164, 168 acarine 146 American foul brood (AFB) 144 brood disease 144 chalkbrood 144, 145 deformed wing virus (DWV) 142, 146, 164 disease resistance 64 European foul brood (EFB) 145, 170 hot spots (US) 60 management 147

214

INDEX

nosema 146, 167 reportable 117, 144, 145, 146, 147, 170 sacbrood 144 signs of 140, 142, 143, 144 tropilaelaps 146 varroa mite infestation 19, 143, 145, 164, 166, 171 see also Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) drone brood 143 culling 145 drone cells 39, 49, 140, 160, 161 drone-laying queens 160, 164 drones 25, 35, 36, 139 anatomy 35 bumblebees 25 distinguishing from queens 139 ejection 40, 164 gestation 35 mating 30, 35, 40 roles 35 Dufour’s gland 50, 56 dummy boards 121, 123, 135, 142, 144, 168 dysentery 143, 146

E Eastern honey bee see Asian honey bee ecosystem, honey bees in the 59 eggs 25, 139 laid by workers 50, 51, 143, 161 laying 25, 36, 37, 39, 40, 52, 144 multiple eggs in cells 143, 161 see also larvae ekes 32 electrical charge 73 elephant ears (Bergenia cordifolia) 93 entrance reducers 119, 154, 165 Escallonia rubra cultivars 92 esophagus 46 ethology 67

Eucryphia spp. 89 Euglossa natesi 15 European bees 18–19 European beewolf 54 European foul brood (EFB) 145, 170 European honey bee see Western honey bee eusociality 15, 24, 30–31 evaporative cooling 42 evolution of bees 14–15, 16, 70 Exoneura bees 14 eyes 39 compound eyes 12 simple eyes 12 see also vision

F fanning bees 38, 42, 46 feeding the hive 142, 167 fondant 43, 166, 167 honey 167 new colonies 128 sugar syrup 142, 167 five-spot (Nemophila spp.) 101 flight bumblebees 26–7 mating flight 25, 35, 37, 155, 156 muscle action 27 wing beats per minute 26 wing twists 27 flight path, monitoring 66 flower constancy 73 flower crab spiders 55 flowering currant (Ribes sanguineum) 90 flowers 70–73 bee-friendly 62, 78–9, 104–11 bees–flowers mutual reliance 16–17 color 71, 72 electrical fields 73 flower structure, optimal 79 nectar see nectar number visited daily 28 plant directory 88–103 pollinator seed mix 111 pollinator-friendly labeling 79 scent 71 selective breeding 79 ultraviolet (UV) patterns 72 wind-pollinated plants 75 see also individual entries fondant block 43, 123, 166, 167 food chains 59 foragers 31, 38, 164

energy consumption 73 flower constancy 73 “pied piper” bees 52 recruitment 45, 51 round dance 45 waggle dance 41, 44–5, 51, 53 fossils 14 foul brood American foul brood (AFB) 144 European foul brood (EFB) 145, 170 foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) 100, 105 frames assembly 124–5 brood frames 123, 124 examining 140 super frames see super frames French marigold (Tagetes patula) 105 Frisch, Karl von 67 fungal infections chalkbrood 144, 145 nosema 146, 147, 167

G garden bumblebee (Bombus hortorum) 24 gardens advantages over wild habitats 76–7 bee border for a veggie patch 106–7 community gardens 120 container bee plants 104–5 cottage garden for bees 108–9 hives in 120 native plants 78 nesting habitats 62 planting for bee forage 62, 78–9, 104–11 public parks 77 wildlife garden for bees 110–11 see also bee houses; flowers genetic diversity 23, 30, 60 genetic overbreeding 60

INDEX

genetics 30–31 genome, honey bee 33 gestation 34, 35 queens 36 giant bumblebee (Bombus dahlbomii) 13 giant honey bee (Apis dorsata) 28 giant hornet 19 globe thistle (Echinops ritro) 97 gloves 123, 132 golden belted bumblebee (Bombus balteatus) 18 golden tickseed (Coreopsis tinctoria) 101 goldenrod (Solidago) 99, 105 good-natured bees 120, 126 granny’s bonnet (Aquilegia vulgaris) 94 green-gold sweat bee (Augochlorella aurata) 18 guard bees 31, 38, 57, 166 alarm pheromones 51, 132 gut bacteria 64 gut parasite 146, 167

H habitat fragmentation 65 hairs 12 haplodiploidy 31 harvesting beeswax 178–9 honey 148, 164, 174–7 late harvest 164 hatching 141 health and healing apitherapy 188 honey, medicinal properties 46, 91 propolis 189, 195 see also beeswax recipes; honey recipes heater bees 42 heather (Calluna vulgaris) 92 hefting 166 hellebore 93, 109 Himalayan honey bee (Apis dorsata labriosa) 19 hive records 147 hive straps 164 hive tool 123 hives 38–9, 118–21 feeding 142, 166, 167 hygiene 147 inspecting the hive 138–43 Langstroth hives 118 locating 120 maintenance 120, 164 managing honey stores 148–9

movable frame hives 29, 33 National hives 118, 124 nucleus hive 121, 153, 156, 164 opening up a hive 130–37 overwintering 164–7 parts of a hive 119, 148 personalities 130 pests 165 polystyrene 118 robbers 149 thermoregulation 35, 38, 42–3, 137 WBC design 118 honey 13, 46–7, 188 bee consumption of 42, 43 blended 47 bumblebees 47 carbohydrate energy 188 castes 30, 34 cut comb honey 47 energy input 13, 28 filtering and bottling 177 harvesting 148, 164, 174–7 honeydew 47 local 47 managing honey stores 148–9 manuka honey 47, 91 medicinal properties 46, 91, 188 meliponine 47 selling 175, 177 settling 177 shelf life 32 stingless bees 47 unripe 148 uses 188 whipped 47 honey bee 28–9 anatomy 34, 46 body temperature 42 colony 34–9 Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) 59, 60 desired traits 126 domestication 29, 32–3 evolution 14–15 genome 33 geographical range 28 species and subspecies 28, 29 honey recipes Bubble Bath 206–7 Cold Soother 190–91 Facial Toner 204 Fever Remedy 191 Healing Foot Balm 197 Honey and Beeswax Body Butter 211

215

Honey and Clay Facial Mask 202 Honey and Ginger Cough Drops 192 Honey Hair Rinse 210 Honey and Lavender Soap 208 Honey and Mint Lip Balm 200–01 Honey and Oat Exfoliating Scrub 202 honey stomach 46 honeycomb see comb honeydew 47 honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum) 92 hornets 19, 57 horse chestnut (Aesculus spp.) 89 hot ball defense 19, 57 house bees 38 humidity in the hive 42 hygiene changing combs 169 equipment 123, 137 hives 147 opening up a hive 132, 137 Hymenoptera 14 hypopharyngeal glands 46, 50

I ice plant (Sedum spectabile) 98, 105 Indian bean tree (Catalpa bignonioides) 89 inner covers 119, 142, 149 inspecting the hive 138–43 checklist 143 examining the frames 140 locating the queen 139 new colonies 128 season-by-season 138 winter monitoring 166–7 iris 79 ivy (Hedera helix) 92

J Japanese anemone (Anemone hupehensis) 99 Japanese giant hornet 57 Japanese honey bee (Apis cerana japonica) 19, 57

K “killer” bee see Africanized “killer” bee knapweed (Centaurea spp.) 95 Koschevnikov glands 50

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INDEX

L lamb’s ears (Stachys byzantina) 98, 109 land sharing 65 land sparing 65 land use debate 65 Langstroth, Reverend 33 Langstroth hive 118 larvae 22, 66 diseases 144–5 feeding 40 healthy 144 molting 39 open-brood pheromones 51 parasitoid wasp predators 54 pupal state 40 unhealthy 142, 143, 144 Lavandula x intermedia 92, 109 lawns and long grass 110 leaves, wax/wax-coated 186 legs front 12 hind 12 life cycle of the bumblebee 24–5 linden, little-leaf (Tilia cordata) 89 location of hives 120 loosestrife (Lysimachia spp.) 98 love-in-a-mist (Nigella damascena) 101, 105 lungwort (Pulmonaria spp.) 93 lupines 79

M magnetic field, Earth’s 74 mandibular glands 50 manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) 91 manuka honey 47, 91 marjoram (Origanum majorana) 106, 107 marking bees 140 mason bees 22–3, 54

mating and reproduction 37 bumblebees 25 mating flight 25, 35, 37, 155, 156 reproductive cycle 37 see also eggs Mayans 32 meadow cranesbill (Geranium pratense) 70, 79, 109 meadows 76, 111 medieval beekeeping 32 Megalopta genalis 15 meliponine bees 47 memory 73 spatial 74, 75 mental mapping 74, 75 mentoring programs 115–16, 126 mice 165 mining bees 20, 85 mint (Mentha spp.) 95, 106, 107 mites and parasites acarine 146 tropilaelaps 146 varroa 19, 143, 145, 164, 166, 171 molting 39 monastic beekeeping 29, 32 monocultures 60, 61 mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia) 89 mouseguards 123, 165 mouthparts 34 movable frame hives 29, 33 mullein (Verbascum spp.) 100, 105 muscles 27, 42

N Nasonov gland 50 nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus) 105, 106, 107 National hives 118, 124 natural remedies 188 natural selection 30 navigation 66, 74–5 nectar constituents of 17, 46, 70 conversion to honey 41, 46 evaporation 42, 46 nectar robbers 17, 21, 79 nectaries 17 neighbors, consulting 120 nests 31 artificial nest boxes 23 bumblebees 18, 24 carpenter bees 21 choosing new nest site 53

cliff-edge nests 19 garden habitats 62 honey bees 28 mason bees 22 mining bees 20 multi-comb cavity nesting 29 stingless bees 18 underground 20 see also bee houses; hives North American bees 18 nosema 146, 167 nucleus hive 121, 153, 156, 164 nucleus (“nuc”) colonies 128–9 nurse bees 38, 39, 40, 50, 51, 52

O oil collecting bee (Rediviva emdeorum) 19 oophagy 161 open-brood pheromones 51 opening up a hive 130–37 combs, examining 136–7 heat loss 137 smoking a colony 131–2, 134 timing 131 weather conditions 131 opossums 165 orange coneflower (Rudbeckia fulgida) 99, 109 orange-ball tree (Buddleja globosa) 109 orchid bees 15 oregano (Origanum vulgare) 98 Oregon grape (Mahonia aquifolium) 90 Osmia genus see mason bees outer cover, hive 43, 119 ovaries 30, 34 overwintering 24, 43, 164–7 feeding the hive 166 honey stores 164 monitoring the hive 166–7 natural winter losses 166 pests, dealing with 165 uniting colonies 162 ovipositor 35

P pallet bee hotel 86–7 paralysis 54 parasitoid wasps 54 Penstemon heterophyllus 99 peony (Paeonia spp.) 95 “pepper shaker” brood pattern 140, 144, 160

INDEX

Perdita minima 13 personalities hives 130 queens 160 pesticides 22, 61, 66 pests birds 55, 165 management 147 mice 165 small hive beetle (SHB) 146 wasps 165 wax moth 147 winter pests 165 see also diseases; predators phacelia (Phacelia tanacetifolia) 101, 109 pheromones 25, 38, 50–51, 52, 57 age-specific responses to 50 alarm pheromones 51, 56, 132 brood pheromones 50, 51 glands 50 open-brood pheromones 51 queen pheromones 36, 40, 50, 51, 52, 139, 161 recruitment pheromones 51 “pied piper” bees 52 plants for bees 88–103 annuals 101–2 biennials 100 bulbs 103 perennials 93–9 shrubs and climbers 90–92 trees 88–9 poached egg plant (Limnanthes douglasii) 105 polarized light, detecting 45, 75 polish 187 creamed polish 187 paste polish 187 pollen 16, 22, 41 color 41 larval food 40, 46 storage 40, 41 pollen baskets 23, 34, 41, 46 pollination buzz pollination 25 commercial programs 22, 23, 25, 33, 54, 58, 60, 64 evolution of 16–17 global economic value of 13, 58 insect and wind pollination compared 75 pollination traffic 65 pollinator reliance 58 wild pollinators 64 polystyrene hives 118

poppy, California (Eschscholzia californica) 102, 109 poppy, field (Papaver rhoeas) 101, 109 poppy, oriental (Papaver orientale) 94 Porter bee escapes 123, 149 predators 19, 54–7 bee-eaters 55 beewolves 54 defensive strategies 56–7 flower crab spiders 55 parasitoid wasps 54 primrose (Primula vulgaris) 93 proboscis/tongue 12, 15, 34, 46, 79 propolis 134, 164, 189 medicinal properties 189, 195 Propolis Powder (recipe) 194 protective clothing 123, 131 pseudocopulation 17 psythirus bees 15 public greenspaces 77 pupae 39, 40 purple loosestrife (Lythrum spp.) 99

Q QMP (queen mandibular pheromone) 36, 50, 51, 161 queen cage 123, 139, 152 queen cells 39, 49, 52, 143, 150, 151, 152, 155, 157, 161, 162 queen cups 39, 52, 143, 150 queen excluder 119, 128, 142, 163 queen-right colonies 138, 161, 162, 164 queens 36 anatomy 36 artificial insemination 60 breeding 33, 60 bumblebees 24, 25 clipped queens 150 culling 157, 160, 161, 162 drone layers 143, 160, 164 egg laying 25, 36, 37, 39, 40, 144 entourage 40, 139 failing queens 143, 151, 157, 161, 162 fight for dominance 36, 37, 155, 162 gestation 36 gut bacteria 64 locating in the hive 139, 157 marking 140 mating flight 25, 35, 37, 155, 156 missing queens 161 old queens 150, 151, 152, 157, 160 optimal traits 160 overwintering 24, 43, 166

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pheromones 36, 40, 50, 51, 52, 139, 161 problems 160–61 supersedure 151, 160, 161, 164 swarming 37, 53, 145, 150 virgin queens 36, 150, 152, 155, 160 quorum sensing 53

R raccoons 165 radar tagging 66 recipes see beeswax recipes; honey recipes recruitment dance 45 recruitment pheromones 51 red dwarf honey bee (Apis florea) 28 red mason bee (Osmia bicornis) 22 reed bees 14 regurgitation 46 reproduction see mating and reproduction reproductive cycle 37 robbers 38, 149 nectar robbers 17, 21, 79 wasps 38 wax moths 147 robobees 67 Rosa glauca 91 rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) 94, 106, 107 round dance 45 royal jelly 34, 36, 40, 41, 188

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INDEX

S sacbrood 144 sage (Salvia spp.) 95 sale of honey 175 regulations 175, 177 sand coreopsis (Coreopsis lanceolata) 95 scabious, small (Scabiosa columbaria) 97 scent receptors 71 scientific research 66–7 scout bees 31, 38, 53 sea holly (Eryngium spp.) 97, 109 selective breeding 29 sexual suppression 30 shook swarm 145, 166, 170–71 Siberian squill (Scilla siberica) 103 sibling relatedness 30, 31 skeps 32 skunks 165 small hive beetle (SHB) 146 smokers/smoking a colony 32, 123, 131–2, 134, 137 reasons for 32 smokers 123 sneezeweed (Helenium cultivars) 96 snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis) 103 sociality 14 see also eusociality sod bee bank 85, 111 solar wax extractor 178, 179 solitary bees 12, 13, 20–21, 22, 62 South American bees 18 species and subspecies 13, 18–19, 28, 29 stamens 17 steamers 178 stingers 12, 34, 35, 36, 56

stingless bees 19, 32, 47, 57 honey 47 Tetragonisca angustula 18 stings 51, 56 reactions to 56, 116, 120 stressed colonies 144 sweet cherry (Prunus avium) 88 sugar dusting 145 sugar syrup 123, 128, 167, 171 sugarbag bee (Tetragonula carbonaria) 19 sunflower (Helianthus annuus) 102 super boxes 119, 143 super frames 123, 124 adding 148, 150, 151 clearing bees from 149 extracting honey from 148, 175, 176 “wet supers” 176 superorganism 37, 52 supersedure 151, 160, 161, 164 swarms 37, 51, 52–3, 116, 150–59 artificial swarms 116, 126, 151, 152–7, 162 buzz runs 52 cast-off swarms 155 collection 158–9 coordination 52 management 150–51 preventing swarm preparations 150 shook swarm 145, 166, 170–71 signs of swarm preparation 143, 150 timeline 150 timing 52 triggers 37, 52 sweat bees 14, 15, 18 sweet alyssum (Lobularia maritima) 102, 105 symbol of the bee 32

T tawny mining bee (Andrena fulva) 20 Tergite glands 50 Tetragonula bees 18, 19, 57 thermoregulation in the hive 35, 38, 42–3, 137 thistle 79, 97 thorax 12, 27 thorax heat 42, 57 threats to bees bee-unfriendly agricultural practices 60, 61 Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) 59, 60 genetic overbreeding 60 see also diseases; mites and parasites; predators

thumb tacks 123 thyme (Thymus spp.) 95, 105, 106, 107, 109 toadflax (Linaria spp.) 97 tongue see proboscis/tongue tools and equipment 122–3 tree bumblebee 16 trees, bee-friendly 88–9, 110 tropilaelaps 146 tweezers 123, 147

U undertaker bees 38, 166 uniting colonies 161, 162–3, 164 after artificial swarm 162 checking if a hive is queenless 162 for winter 162 urban beekeeping 76

V vacuum suction 46 varroa boards 166 varroa mite infestation 19, 143, 145, 164, 166, 171 varroacides 145 venom 56 antiviral properties of 189 Verbena bonariensis 99 violet carpenter bee (Xylocopa violacea) 21 viper’s bugloss (Echium spp.) 100, 105 viral infections deformed wing virus (DWV) 142, 146, 164 sacbrood 144 vision binocular 72 color 72 polarized light, detecting 45, 75 see also eyes vulture bee (Trigona hypogea) 18

W waggle dance 41, 44–5, 51, 53, 74 Wallace’s giant bee (Megachile pluto) 19 wallflower (Erysimum spp.) 94, 105, 109 war of attrition 57 wasp traps 165 wasps 14, 149, 165 beewolves 54 eusociality 31 parasitoid wasps 54

INDEX

water, drinking 111 water heaters/boilers 178, 179 wax see beeswax wax building 41, 42, 49 wax cappings see cappings wax cells see cells wax comb see comb wax moth 147 WBC hives 118 websites 117 weight 34, 35, 37 Western honey bee (Apis mellifera) 13, 15, 19, 28, 29, 33, 145 A.m. anatoliaca 29 A.m. carnica 29 A.m. ligustica 29 A.m. mellifera 29 genome 33 white clover (Trifolium repens) 96 white-tailed bumblebee 16 wildlife garden for bees 110–11 wind pollination 75, 76 wings 12 deformed wing virus (DWV) 142, 146, 164 queens 36 wing beats per minute 26 winter aconite (Eranthis hyemalis) 103 wood block bee house 84 worker bees 34, 36, 37, 40, 139 anatomy 34 bumblebees 24, 25 gestation 34 gut bacteria 64 larvae 34 laying workers 50, 51, 143, 161 nectar regurgitation 41 non-reproductive roles 30, 34, 38, 43 overwintering 166 swarming 52 wax secretion 48 worker cells 49, 140

XYZ year, beekeeping 115

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The publisher would like to thank Bill, Judy, and Emma for allowing us to photograph their beekeeping activities; Francesca and Steve for hand modeling; Collette and Sam for design assistance; Paul for his photography in delirium; Kenneth and Sheena for the trip to the bee auction; and the following organizations for their invaluable help in the making of this book: Ealing and District Beekeepers Association ealingbees.wordpress.com Harrow Beekeepers Association www.harrowbeekeepers.co.uk Paynes Southdown Bee Farms Ltd www.paynesbeefarm.co.uk Sussex Prairie Garden www.sussexprairies.co.uk West Sussex Beekeepers Association www.westsussexbeekeepers.org.uk

PICTURE CREDITS The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind permission to reproduce their photographs: (Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-center; f-far; l-left; r-right; t-top) 13 Dorling Kindersley: RHS Wisley (br). 16 Dorling Kindersley: Paul Dykes (tr). 20 Dorling Kindersley: Paul Dykes (bl). 21 Dorling Kindersley: Paul Dykes (cl). 22 Dorling Kindersley: Fergus Chadwick (tr). 24 Dorling Kindersley: Paul Dykes (bl). 76–7 Dorling Kindersley: RHS Hampton Court Flower Show (ct). 78 Dorling Kindersley: RHS Wisley (tl);

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Paul Dykes (bl). 79 Dorling Kindersley: Ball Colegrave (tl); Paul Dykes (cr, bl). 80–87 Dorling Kindersley: Sussex Prairie Garden (all images). 89 Dorling Kindersley: Neil Fletcher (tl). 90 Dorling Kindersley: Merrist Wood Agricultural College, Worplesdon (br). 92 Dorling Kindersley: Downderry Nursery (tr); National Trust (Erdigg) (br). 93 Alamy: Dave Marsden (cr); Neil Fletcher (bl). 94 Dorling Kindersley: RHS Chelsea Flower Show 2014 (cr). 95 Dorling Kindersley: Lucy Claxton (bc); RHS Wisley (cr). 96 Dorling Kindersley: Hampton Court Flower Show 2014 (br). 97 Dorling Kindersley: RHS Wisley (tr). 99 Dorling Kindersley: RHS Wisley (tl); RHS Malvern Flower Show 2014 (tc). 101 Dorling Kindersley: Lucy Claxton (cr). 102 Dorling Kindersley: Lucy Claxton (c). 103 Dorling Kindersley: Ken Akers, Great Saling (tc). 144–6 Crown Copyright: All images courtesy The Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), except 145 tc, bc, tr, br. 178 Dorling Kindersley: Bill Fitzmaurice (tl). All other images © Dorling Kindersley For further information see: www.dkimages.com RECIPES DISCLAIMER: If you are undergoing a course of medical treatment, do not take any of the natural remedies described in this book without seeking professional advice. Before trying any of the remedies and beauty treatments, the reader should sample a small quantity first to establish whether there is an adverse or allergic reaction. Do not attempt selftreatment for serious or long-term issues, during pregnancy, or for children, without consulting a qualified doctor. Pregnant women should avoid using treatments that contain essential oils. Neither the authors nor the publisher can be held responsible for any adverse reactions to the instructions, recommendations and recipes contained herein. Use of any hive product, herb, or derivative is entirely at the reader’s own risk.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

About the Authors FERGUS CHADWICK on the natural history of the bee

STEVE ALTON on attracting bees to your garden

Fergus Chadwick grew up in rural County Durham in the UK, and from an early age his interest in nature was apparent. Spending most of his childhood chasing insects, he took up beekeeping at the age of 13, under the mentorship of local beekeeper John Simon. From that moment on, he was hooked on bees. He went on to study Biological Sciences at Somerville College, the University of Oxford, where his work on the relationship between bees and neonicotinoid pesticides (carried out at the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology) formed the basis of his dissertation. His current research focuses broadly on bee behavior under the influence of pesticides. He is a passionate advocate of science communication and access to education.

Steve Alton is an ecologist, botanist, and beekeeper’s assistant who looks after Ashdown Forest, an area of heathland in the county of Sussex in the UK, best known as the home of Winnie the Pooh. Before that he worked for 13 years at the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, collecting seeds for the Millennium Seed Bank, and was Deputy Editor for BeeCraft, the journal of the British Beekeepers’ Association. He is a past winner of the Society of Authors’ Educational Writer of the Year Award and, with his wife, Karin, also runs a company providing bee-friendly wildflower seed mixes.

Fergus’s acknowledgments I would like to express deepest gratitude to my family and friends who supported me while writing this and patiently read draft after draft. Thank you also to the following individuals for their technical advice and support during either my research or writing: Josephine Altham, Tom Curtis, Charles Godfray, Matt Heard, Tonya Lander, David Notton, Chris O’Toole, John Simon, Timir Weston, Tristram Wyatt and the Biology Tutors at Somerville College. Finally, thank you to my editor, Alastair Laing, and the team at Dorling Kindersley who did such a wonderful job of putting the book together.

Steve’s acknowledgments I’d like to thank my wife Karin, honey bee researcher at the University of Sussex, for her support and technical input throughout the writing of this book, and beyond.

EMMA SARAH TENNANT on beekeeping, honey extraction, and hive products for health and beauty Emma Sarah Tennant found her way to the bees seven years ago after reading a magazine article about taking up beekeeping as a hobby. She contacted her local Ealing & District Beekeepers Association and enrolled on their nineweek introductory course followed by practical training, before obtaining her first colony and later sharing several colonies with hive partner Emily Scott. They now keep hives at Ealing’s training apiary, where they regularly open them up for beginners and provide practical sessions. Emma writes the blog Miss Apis Mellifera all about beekeeping life. She is also a qualified aromatherapist, having trained at Neal’s Yard Remedies in London’s Covent Garden.

Emma’s acknowledgments I would like to thank my first-year mentors by the side of the hive: Ian Allkins, Andy Pedley, Pat Turner, John Chapple, and Alan Gibbs, and also the many mentors that followed from Ealing beekeepers whom I have failed to mention here. I am forever thankful for the wisdom and generosity of these experienced

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

BILL FITZMAURICE on crafting with wax beekeepers who taught me how to keep bees. They warmly welcomed me, and many other new beekeepers, into the craft, and I hope their kind knowledge is reflected in my chapter on practical beekeeping. In this book, I’d like to thank especially John Chapple for his tip about the winter tunnel on page 166, and David Rowe for his assistance at the Ealing apiary photoshoot. I was very lucky to find a wonderful hive partner, Emily Scott. Together we’ve shared the ups and downs of keeping bees at Ealing apiary, preferably with tea and cake. We name our queens, of course, after essential oils. My favorite was Myrtle who, being good-natured and hardworking, produced the perfect bees. I would also like to thank my fiancé John Maund who never stopped encouraging me to write down all my stories about the bees. I’ve enjoyed writing my contribution to this book under the patient guidance of an excellent editor, Alastair Laing, and seeing the pages brought to life by the lovely designs of Kathryn Wilding and beautiful photography of Bill Reavell. I hope the book will be enjoyed by people who are simply curious about bees and beekeeping, or by beginner beekeepers about to take their first steps. And to the beginner I would say: please remember that the bees don’t read the same books as us! You’ll also soon realize that every beekeeper has their own opinion on how to keep bees! But don’t worry too much, because you will learn from your mistakes, celebrate your successes, and enjoy every moment with your bees.

Bill has maintained 20 or so honey bee colonies in the London suburbs of Harrow and Ealing for the last 18 years. He is an advocate of maximizing the harvest from his bees, both honey and wax, and retrieves as much wax as possible from cappings, old frames, culled drone brood, and brace comb. A regular exhibitor at his local honey show and at the UK National Honey Show where, in recent years, Bill has run very popular Candle Making Workshops. These provide hands-on practice in making a range of candles, including dipped candles, which he considers the best and most satisfying to make.

Bill’s acknowledgments I’ve been fortunate to have had the help and support of many inspiring beekeepers over the years. I shared all my early highs and lows in beekeeping with Andy Nisbet, sadly now deceased, whose help, generosity, and sense of humor I will never forget. Though she may not realize it, Jo Telfer’s training and enthusiasm has inspired many new recruits into beekeeping and certainly fostered my early interest in working with wax. My thanks also go to Martin Buckle, wax worker, skep maker, and honey judge, whose kind, constructive feedback has provided such huge encouragement to me and many other hesitant exhibitors over the years. And, finally, a mention for the three people whose commitment and support turned our idea of whole day Wax Workshops into a reality: Doreen TyldenPattenson, Moira Spiers, and Judy Earl.

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JUDY EARL on hive products for health and beauty Judy Earl is an urban beekeeper who has kept hives in northwest London for over 10 years. She has always loved spending hours cooking and making things, and having a ready supply of honey and wax has given her new opportunities to avoid housework. Judy is a regular exhibitor at her local honey show and at the UK National Honey Show, where she was the first holder of the Jill Foster Memorial Trophy for the display class of hive products. Standing down as Chair of Harrow Beekeepers Association in 2014 has given Judy more time to spend talking about and demonstrating hive products. In 2014, Judy gave a talk at the London Honey Show, and in 2015 she ran a workshop on Hive Products at the National Honey Show.

Judy’s acknowledgments When I started beekeeping I thought it would just be a fun hobby, but it’s proved to be so much more. It’s given me more than I ever anticipated: friendship and a sense of belonging to a wide and diverse community of beekeepers from all over the world. For this, and for all their help and support, I would like to thank everyone at Harrow Beekeepers. I would also like to thank James Wong whose books and programs inspired me to start experimenting with honey and beeswax recipes. And last – but far from least – I would like to thank Phil and James who have helped, supported, and been experimented on!

The Bee Book

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