Phgk ;: Corgulkrdo fësdio `h Ahugëtdik y Olhobd`rëuldik.
Gkeadtu`hs cua`kghatklhs cua`kghatklhs ]rhsdùa Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: ] 7 C/Y 7 ^A/g 6 W 7 ^]kW 7 ]ksikl ; fkr 7 ;= 8 ]k ; ktg 7 ;,=;9 µ ;= 8 ]k 7 53= gg Be ; Np 7 4,2 A ; fkr ≂ ; ktg ≂ ; Np/ig 6 ; G]k 7 ;= 3 ]k ]rhsdùa kfsolutk: ] kfsolutk kfsolutk 7 ] ktgoscärdik ktgoscärdik + ] rhlktdvk rhlktdvk @oa`h: ] rhlktdvk prhsdùa gkaogätrdik, rhlktdvk o `h trkfkjo. prhsdùa rhlktdvk : 6 8 6 8 ] ktgoscärdik ktgoscärdik 7 ; ktg ≂ ; fkr ≂ ; Np/ig 7 ;= A/g 7 ;= ]k
]rhsdùa ha ua eks: ]o`hgos kughatkr lk prhsdùa ha ua eks kughatka`o o `dsgdauyha`o su volugha. ]µS 7 ith Lhy `h Foylh-Gkrdotth: Foylh-Gkrdotth: prhsdùa y volugha soa davhrskghath d avhrskghath proporidoaklhs. proporidoaklhs. ] ; ; µ S ; ; 7 ] 6 6 µ S 6 6 7 ith
Lhy `h los ekshs d`hklhs: ] µ S 7 a µ V µ P 7 ^ktgW @oa`h: ]: prhsdùa prhsdùa (ktg). volugha (l). S: volugha a: aúghro aúghro `h golhs `hl eks. V: ioastkath `h los ekshs, `h vklor =,=26 ktgµl/˚Nµgol ù 2,9;0 J/˚Nµgol . P: thgphrkturk thgphrkturk ha erk`os Nhlvda (˚N). =˚N 7 -659˚I
Haikrakidùa Gkrça Ikfkllhro
]rhsdùa ha ua lçqud`o: lç qud`o: Yda soldidtkidùa hxthrak: `hpha`h `h lk iolugak `h clud`o quh hsth haidgk `h äl. ] 7 `µeµb Ioa soldidtkidùa hxthrak: hs deukl ha to`os los puatos `hl clud`o. ] 7 C/Y
]rdaidpdo `h ]ksikl: ] ; ; 7 ] 6 6 C ; ; µ Y ; ; 7 C 6 6 µ Y 6 6 7 ith
]ëedak ; `h 4
Phgk ;: Corgulkrdo fësdio `h Ahugëtdik y Olhobd`rëuldik.
Yuphrcdidh
Iku`kl
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: Y 7 ύµ@ 6 /0 7 ύµV 6 7 ^g6W
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: [ 7 S/t 7 ^g /sW 7 ^l/gda 7 l/s 7 g 9 /gda 7 g 9 /bW [ 7 vµY 7 ^g 9 /sW 9
Solugha Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: S 7 Y µ h 7 ^g9W ; ldtro 7 ;=-9 g9 @oa`h: Y: suphrcdidh suphrcdidh `hl iuhrpo (ha g6). h: hspkido hspkido quh oiupk hl iuhrpo (ha g).
Xa eks ao eks ao tdhah ad corgk ad volugha propdo. ]o`hgos rh`uidr hl volugha `h ua eks (hs iogprhsdflh).
Xa lçqud`o lçqud`o ao tdhah corgk, phro sd volugha propdo. Ao po`hgos rh`uidr hl volugha `h ua lçqud`o (daiogprhsdflh). (daiogprhsdflh).
@hasd`k` Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: ϋ 7 g/S 7 ^Ne/g ^Ne/g 9 W @oa`h: ϋ: `hasd`k` `hasd`k` `hl clud`o (ha Ne/g9). g: gksk gksk `hl clud`o (ha Ne). Ne). S: volugha volugha `hl clud`o (ha g9).
Prkfkjo
]othaidk
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: U 7 Cµ` 7 ] µ ΐS 7 7 ^JW 7 Juldo ; Joulh (J) 7 ; A µ g 7 ]k µ g 9
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: ] ot ot 7 U/t 7 ] µ [ 7 ^UW 7 Uktt
Haikrakidùa Gkrça Ikfkllhro
]ëedak 6 `h 4
Phgk ;: Corgulkrdo fësdio `h Ahugëtdik y Olhobd`rëuldik.
Shloid`k` Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: v 7 [/Y 7 ^g/sW
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: Shloid`k`: v 7 h/t 7 ^g/sW Iku`kl: [ 7 vµY 7 ^g 9 /sW
Lhy `h ioatdaud`k`: Hl iku`kl `h ua clud`o quh idriulk por uak tufhrçk ihrrk`k phrgkahih ioastkath. Yd kughatk lk shiidùa `dsgdauyh lk vhloid`k` y vdihvhrsk. [ ; ; 7 [ 6 6 v ; ; µ Y ; ; 7 v 6 6 µ Y 6 6 7 ith
@oa`h: h: hspkido hspkido rhiorrd`o ha g. Y: shiidùa shiidùa ha g6.
Hahreçk Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: H 7 Cµh 7 ^AµgW 7 ^JW 7 Juldo Pkgfdäa ha iklorçk (ikl) o NUµb
Iogpoahaths hahreçk hahreçk `h ua clud`o: Hahreçk pothaidkl: `hfd`k `hfd`k k lk klturk. H p 7 gµeµb Hahreçk idaätdik: `hfd`k `hfd`k k lk vhloid`k`. H i i 7 =,8µgµv 6 Hahreçk bd`rostëtdik: `hfd`k `hfd`k k lk prhsdùa. H b b 7 ]µS
]rdaidpdo `h Fhraoulld: Lk hahreçk totkl `h ua `h ua clud`o ha uak tufhrçk ihrrk`k phrgkahih ith. H totkl totkl 7 H p + H i i + H b b 7 ith H p; + H i; i; + H b; b; 7 H p6 + H i6 i6 + H b6 b6 7 ith 6 gµeµb ; ; + =,8µgµv ; ; + ] ; ;µS ; ; 7 gµeµb 6 6 + 6 + =,8µgµv 6 6 + p 6 6µS 6 6 7 ith
Aorgklghath, ahihsdtkgos hl uso `h uak fogfk, pkrk govhr hl clud`o, por lo l o quh: H F F + H p; + H i; i; + H b; b; 7 H p6 + H i6 i6 + H b6 b6 7 ith
Iohcdidhath `h vdsiosd`k`
Sdsiosd`k` idahgëtdik
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: C r Y 7 ^Aµs/g6 7 ]kµsW v / y ; podsh 7 =,; Aµs/g 6
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs:
Haikrakidùa Gkrça Ikfkllhro
i
7 ^g6/sW
; Yt 7 ;= -0 g 6 /s
]ëedak 9 `h 4
Phgk ;: Corgulkrdo fësdio `h Ahugëtdik y Olhobd`rëuldik.
Vhsdsthaidk olho`daëgdik
Aúghro `h Vhyaol`s Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: @ v 7 ^sda uad`k`, k`dghasdoaklW A V
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: L 7 ^Ne/sµg0W V =,=36 i 0 @ @oa`h: vdsiosd`k` idahgëtdik (ha g6/s). vdsiosd`k` /s). μi: L: loaedtu` loaedtu` `hl tufo (hg g). ϋ: `hasd`k` `hasd`k` `hl kihdth (ha Ne/sµg9). @: `dëghtro `dëghtro `hl tufo (ha g).
@oa`h: ϋ: `hasd`k` `hasd`k` `hl kihdth (ha Ne/sµg9). `dëghtro `h lk tufhrçk (ha g). @: `dëghtro v: vhloid`k` vhloid`k` `hl clud`o (ha g/s). g/s). μ: iohcdidhath iohcdidhath `h vdsiosd`k` (ha Aµs/g6).
Yd AV < 6.9==, 6.9==, hl clud`o idriulk ha räedgha lkgdakr. Yd AV 1 ;=.===, ;=.===, hl clud`o idriulk ha räedgha turfulhato. ]krk vklorhs dathrgh`dos `h AV, hl räedgha ao hstë ilkrkghath `hcdad`o y puh`h shr lkgdakr o turfulhato.
]othaidk `h uak fogfk
]är`d`k `h ikrek
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: ] [ ] ot 7 ^UW 7 Uktt
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: L v 6 B r c 7 ^gW @ 6 e
@oa`h: ]: prhsdùa prhsdùa `h lk fogfk (ha ]k). ]k). 9 [: iku`kl iku`kl `hl clud`o (ha g /s). /s). ε: rha`dgdhato rha`dgdhato `h lk fogfk (ha %).
@oa`h: c: iohcdidhath iohcdidhath `h crdiidùa (k`dgdhasdoakl (k`dgdhasdoakl). ). L: loaedtu` loaedtu` `h lk tufhrçk (ha g). @: `dëghtro `dëghtro `h lk tufhrçk (ha g). v: vhloid`k` vhloid`k` `h idriulkidùa `hl lçqud`o (ha g/s). g/s). 6 e: kihlhrkidùa kihlhrkidùa `h lk erkvh`k` (ha g/s ).
Hchitdvd`k` `h uak fogfk Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: [rhkl 7 ^k`dghasdoaklW [thùrdik
Haikrakidùa Gkrça Ikfkllhro
]ëedak 0 `h 4
Phgk ;: Corgulkrdo fësdio `h Ahugëtdik y Olhobd`rëuldik.
Phorhgk `h Fhraoulld
Hchito Shaturd
Ha ua clud`o ao vdsioso ha govdgdhato Ioasdsth ha lk `dsgdauidùa `h prhsdùa quh hstkidoakrdo lk sugk `h lks klturks ehogätrdik, hjhrih ua clud`o kl `dsgdaudr lk shiidùa `h lk tufhrçk pdhzogätrdik y `daëgdik hs ioastkath k lo lkreo `h por lk quh idriulk. uak lçahk `h iorrdhath. 6 ; v ] b ioas tka th e 6 e @oa`h: b: klturk klturk `h lk tufhrçk (ha g). prhsdùa ha lk tufhrçk (ha A/g6). ]: prhsdùa ϋ: `hasd`k` `hasd`k` `hl clud`o (ha Ne/g9). vhloid`k` `hl clud`o (ha g/s). g/s). v: vhloid`k` e: kihlhrkidùa kihlhrkidùa `h lk erkvh`k` (ha g/s6).
Cùrgulk: ] ;
; 6
;
v;6 ] 6 v66 6
6 ] ; ] 6 6 6 Y ; Y 6
v; Y 6
6 ] ; ] 6
6 v6 v;
] ; e
v;6 6 e
Cùrgulk: ] 6 v66 e
6 e
Y6 7 ύµ@6/0 7 ύµV 6
ioas tka th
@6
0 v; Y ; v 6
]othaidk ghiëadik
]othaidk ahugëtdik
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: ] ot ot 7 Gµτ 7 ^UW 7 Uktt
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: ] ot ot 7 ]µ[ 7 ^UW 7 Uktt
@oa`h: G: pkr pkr gotor (ha Aµg). Aµg). τ: vhloid`k` vhloid`k` kaeulkr `hl gotor (ha rk`/s). rk`/s).
@oa`h: ]: prhsdùa prhsdùa `h trkfkjo `hl iogprhsor (ha U). [: iku`kl iku`kl trkaschrd`o (ha g9/s). /s).
Haikrakidùa Gkrça Ikfkllhro
]ëedak 8 `h 4
Phgk ;: Corgulkrdo fësdio `h Ahugëtdik y Olhobd`rëuldik.
]othaidk bd`rëuldik Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: ] ot ot 7 ]µ[ 7 ^UW 7 Uktt @oa`h: ]: prhsdùa prhsdùa `h trkfkjo `h lk fogfk (ha U). [: iku`kl iku`kl trkaschrd`o (ha g9/s). /s).
Vha`dgdhato bd`rëuldio Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: ] [ g 7 ^%W G Yuhlh thahr uaos vklorhs hatrh hl 58% y hl 48%. 48% .
Cuhrzk hjhrid`k por hl vëstkeo Idlda`ro `h sdgplh hchito Cuhrzk thùrdik: C thùrdik thùrdik 7 ]rhsdùa µ Yuphrcdidh 6 C thùrdik thùrdik 7 ]µY h h 7 ] µ (ύµ@ h h /0) @oa`h: suphrcdidh `hl ägfolo (ha g6). Y h h: suphrcdidh @ h `dëghtro `hl ägfolo (ha g). h: `dëghtro
Cuhrzk hchitdvk: C h h 7 ε µ (C thùrdik H) thùrdik ’ H) C h h 7 ε µ (] µ Y ’ H ’ H ) 7 ε µ (] µ (ύµ @ @6 /0) ’ H) H) Yh gd`h ha A. @oa`h: H: rhsdsthaidk quh opoah hl rhsorth kl `hsplkzkgdhato `hl ägfolo (ha A). ε: rha`dgdhato rha`dgdhato `hl idlda`ro (ha %).
Idlda`ro `h `oflh hchito
Cuhrzk hchitdvk `h kvkaih: C hk hk 7 ε µ C thùrdik thùrdik 6 C hk hk 7 ε µ ] µ (ύµ@ h h /0) Yh gd`h ha A.
Cuhrzk hchitdvk `h rhtroihso: Y r r 7 Yuphrcdidh `h rhtroihso Y r r 7 Y v v 7 Y h h ’ Y 6 6 ύµV ’ ύµr ’ ύµr 7 6 @v v 6 /0 7 ύµ@ h h /0 ’ ύµ ’ ύµ @ Y r r 7 ύ µ (@ h h 6 ’ @ @ v v6 )/0 6 Yh gd`h ha g . @oa`h: @ h `dëghtro `hl ägfolo (ha g). h: `dëghtro @ v `dëghtro `hl vëstkeo (ha g). v: `dëghtro ]or tkato, C hr hr 7 ε µ ] µ Y r r 6 C hr @ v v 6 )/0 W hr 7 ε µ ] µ ^ ύ (@ h h ’ @ Yh gd`h ha A.
Haikrakidùa Gkrça Ikfkllhro
]ëedak 3 `h 4
Phgk ;: Corgulkrdo fësdio `h Ahugëtdik y Olhobd`rëuldik.
Ioasugo `h clud`o Idlda`ro `h sdgplh hchito Solugha totkl 7 ikrrhrk `h kvkaih: S 7 Yh µ h S 7 (ύµ@ h h6 /0) µ h Yh gd`h ha g9.
Idlda`ro `h `oflh hchito
Solugha totkl ha hl kvkaih: 6 S k k 7 Y h h µ h 7 (ύµ@ h h /0) µ h Yh gd`h ha g9.
Solugha totkl ha hl rhtroihso: S r r 7 Y r r µ Y v v) µ h 7 ^ύµ(@ h h6 @ v v6 h 7 (Y h h ’ Y ’ @ )/0W µ h 9 Yh gd`h ha g .
@oa`h: Y h suphrcdidh `hl ägfolo (ha g6). h: suphrcdidh h: hspkido hspkido rhiorrd`o por hl vëstkeo (ha g).
@oa`h: @ h `dëghtro `hl ägfolo (ha g). h: `dëghtro @ v `dëghtro `hl vëstkeo (ha g). v: `dëghtro Y h suphrcdidh `hl ägfolo (ha g6). h: suphrcdidh Y v suphrcdidh `hl vëstkeo (ha g6). v: suphrcdidh h: hspkido hspkido rhiorrd`o por hl vëstkeo (ha g). Hl volugha totkl `h kdrh iogprdgd`o hgplhk`o shrë: S t t 7 S k k + S r r 6 St 7 (ύµ@h /0) µ h + ^ύ µ (@ h6 ’ @v6)/0W µ h 7 7 ^ύµ@h6/0 + ύµ@6/0 ’ ύµ@v6/0W µ h 7 7 ^6(ύµ@h6/0) ’ ύµ@v6/0W µ h 7 7 ^ύ µ (6µ@h6/0) ’ @v6/0W µ h S t t 7 ^ύ µ (6µ@ h h 6 ’ @ @ v v 6 )/0W µ h Yh gd`h ha g9.
Solugha `h kdrh ha Ioa`didoahs Aorgklhs Idriudtos olhobd`rëuldios: olhobd`rëuldios:
Idriudtos ahugëtdios: ahugëtdios:
S IA
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: ] kf s S P ] ktg ] r S P ] ktg
] ktg
Haikrakidùa Gkrça Ikfkllhro
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: 9 [ 7 aµS P P 7 ^g /sW 7 ^g 9 W
@oa`h: aúghro `h idilos. a: aúghro
]ëedak 5 `h 4
Phgk ;: Corgulkrdo fësdio `h Ahugëtdik y Olhobd`rëuldik.
Solugha `h kdrh k prhsdùa ktgoscärdik Ioa`didoahs aorgklhs: P 7 6=˚I 7 649˚N ] 7 ;.=;9 gfkr ≂ ; ktg Br 7 38% (bugh`k` rhlktdvk)
Cùrgulk y uad`k`hs: S IA IA 7 S P P µ (; + ] rhlktdvk rhlktdvk ) Yh gd`h ha g9.
Hlhghatos `h los idriudtos Ahugëtdios h Bd`rëuldios
Ehahrk`orhs
Ioa`uitorhs
Kl trkasportkr ua clud`o por uak tufhrçk, ästh pdhr`h prhsdùa (lk `haogdak`k pär`d`k `h Iogprhsorhs: Iogprhsorhs: rh`uiha hl volugha `hl kdrh, ikrek) ikrek) quh `hpha`h `h: Lk loaedtu` `hl tufo: + kughatka`o su prhsdùa, pkrk su posthrdor + loaedtu` + pär`d`k. Hl `dëghtro: + klgkihakgdhato ha ua `hpùsdto. + `dëghtro - pär`d`k. Los hlhghatos dathrgh`dos: io`os, ths. (+ ] Fogfks: Fogfks: dgpulska hl lçqud`o, kughatka`o lk prhsdùa iuka`o haiuhatrka haiuhatrka rhsdsthaidk. fkjk). Lk prhsdùa y hl iku`kl: + ] - phr`d`k + [ + pär`d`k.
Haikrakidùa Gkrça Ikfkllhro
]ëedak 2 `h 4
Phgk ;: Corgulkrdo fësdio `h Ahugëtdik y Olhobd`rëuldik.
Sëlvulks Yoa los hlhghatos quh gh phrgdtha ioatrol `hl clud`o ha ua idriudto ahugëtdio bd`rëuldio. Kl `hcdadrlks `hfhgos aogfrkr: aogfrkr: ]osdidoahs: uak, ]osdidoahs: uak, `os o trhs. Sçks: `os, Sçks: `os, trhs, iuktro o idaio. Hstk`o dadidkl: dadidkl: aorgklghath kfdhrtk ihrrk`k. Pdpo: goaohstkflh Pdpo: goaohstkflh o fdhstkflh. Kiidoakgdhato: Kiidoakgdhato: ghiëadio, ahugëtdio hläitrdio. Vhtorao: ghiëadio, Vhtorao: ghiëadio, ahugëtdio o hläitrdio.
Idlda`ros hl o
o
o
Idlda`ros sdgplh hchito: hchito: soa goaohstkflhs. Hl rhtorao `hl idlda`ro lo provoik lk iogprhsdùa por hxthasdùa `h ua rhsorth. Idlda`ros `h `oflh hchito: hchito: soa fdhstkflhs. Pkato lk skld`k iogo hl rhtorao sh rhkldzk ioa clud`o. Ktha`dha`o k su corgk ioastruitdvk, po`hgos haioatrkr idlda`ros: thlhsiùpdios, `h `oflh vëstkeo, sda vëstkeo,...
Hlhghatos `h gh`d`k
Hlhghatos kuxdldkrhs
]hrgdtha ua ghjor cuaidoakgdhato `hl idriudto. Los hlhghatos gës bkfdtuklhs quh po`hgos haioatrkr soa: Cdltros: pkrk Cdltros: pkrk hldgdakr dgpurhzks. Hl hlhghato `h gh`d`k fësdio hs hl Lufrdik`orhs: Lufrdik`orhs: pkrk haerksh hlhghatos gkaùghtro, gkaùghtro, quh gh gd`h lk prhsdùa (rhlktdvk o ghiëadios. gkaogätrdik) ha iuklqudhr puato `hl idriudto. Vheulk`orhs `h prhsdùa: prhsdùa: pkrk hsioehr lk prhsdùa gës k`hiuk`k pkrk auhstro idriudto. Vheulk`orhs `h prhsdùa: prhsdùa: pkrk hsioehr lk prhsdùa gës k`hiuk`k pkrk auhstro idriudto.
Haikrakidùa Gkrça Ikfkllhro
]ëedak 4 `h 4
